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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:52:56 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:52:56 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18273-0.txt b/18273-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4992f0e --- /dev/null +++ b/18273-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6718 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao, +by Fay-Cooper Cole + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao + The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition + + +Author: Fay-Cooper Cole + + + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [eBook #18273] +Most recently updated: May 30, 2006 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, +MINDANAO*** + + +E-text prepared by Carl D. DuBois + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 18273-h.htm or 18273-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273/18273-h/18273-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273/18273-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + The Table of Contents and the List of Illustrations were added + by the transcriber. The text refers to 76 photographic "PLATES," + but the source copy contained only the first. Two of the + illustrations were labeled "FIG. 26;" I have labeled them + FIG. 26A and FIG. 26B. + + + + + +Field Museum of Natural History. +Publication 170. +Anthropological Series Vol. XII, No. 2. + +THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, MINDANAO + +by + +FAY-COOPER COLE +Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology + +The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition + +George A. Dorsey +Curator, Department of Anthropology + + + + + + + +[Frontispiece:] TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT + + + +Chicago, U. S. A. +September, 1913 + + + + +CONTENTS + + I. THE BAGOBO. + II. BILA-AN. +III. KULAMAN. + IV. TAGAKAOLO. + V. ATA. + VI. MANDAYA. + CONCLUSION + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + Plate 1. TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT + + FIG. 1. SHELL BRACELET. + FIG. 2. NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID WITH FERN AND ORCHID CUTICLE. + FIG. 3. BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN. + FIG. 4. TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS. + FIG. 5. EAR STRETCHERS. + FIG. 6. WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS. + FIG. 7. LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS. + FIG. 8. THE "STOVE." + FIG. 9. BAMBOO PLATE RACK. + FIG. 10A. RICE MORTAR. + FIG. 10B. PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND. + FIG. 10C. CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT GRAIN FROM + FALLING OUT. + FIG. 10D. WOODEN PESTLE. + FIG. 11. COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH WOODEN HANDLES. + FIG. 12. TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE RECEPTACLE IN WHICH OFFERINGS + ARE MADE. + FIG. 13. RICE WINNOWER. + FIG. 14. INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES. + FIG. 15. SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND HUNTING. + FIG. 16. CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING CASE. + FIG, 17. BOWS AND ARROWS. + FIG. 18. BLOW GUNS AND DARTS. + FIG. 19. BAMBOO FISH TRAP. + FIG. 20. (LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH SPEAR. + FIG. 21. (RIGHT) FISH LURE. + FIG. 22. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 23. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 24. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 25. COCOANUT SCRAPER. + FIG. 26A. STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + FIG. 26B. STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + FIG. 27. HEMP MACHINE. + FIG. 28. SUGAR CANE PRESS. + FIG. 29. RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO CLAPPER ATTACHED TO TOP. + FIG. 30. CARRYING FRAME. + FIG. 31A. FRONT OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + FIG. 32B. BACK OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + FIG. 33. TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR. + FIG. 34. REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS AND SHELL DISKS. + FIG. 35. COOKING POT AND COVER. + FIG. 36. WOMEN'S COMBS. + FIG. 37. A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS. B. MEN'S EAR PLUGS. + FIG. 38. BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM LAKE BULUAN REGION. + FIG. 39. BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON USE. + FIG. 40. PITCH STICK USED IN THE CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS. + FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER. + FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP. + FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH. + FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET. + FIG. 47. MEN'S HATS. + FIG. 48. WOMAN'S COMB. + FIG. 49. EAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS. + FIG. 50. GOURD RICE HOLDER. + FIG. 51. BIRD SNARE. + FIG. 52. WOODEN SHIELDS. + FIG. 53. SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS. + FIG. 54A. TO 54H. DESIGNS REPRESENTING THE HUMAN FORM. + FIG. 55A. TO 55H. CROCODILE DESIGNS. + FIG. 56. CROCODILE DESIGN. + FIG. 57. DESIGN USED IN WEAVING. + FIG. 58. INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO LIME HOLDER. + FIG. 59. CLOTHES HANGER. + FIG. 60. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + FIG. 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + FIG. 62. TOBACCO POUCHES. + + + + +PREFACE. + +The material presented in this paper was obtained, for the most part, +during a stay of seven months among the tribes of Davao District in +Southern Mindanao of the Philippine Islands. Previous to this I had +spent a like period studying the Bukidnon, of the North-Central part of +the Island, and while thus engaged, had penetrated to within about fifty +miles of the Gulf of Davao. In order to trace migrations, relationships, +and trade routes, it was determined to continue the work from the Gulf +coast toward the interior. In pursuance of this plan I went to Davao in +July, nineteen hundred and ten. + +All information to be secured from publications, settlers, or natives +was to the effect that there were at least fourteen distinct tribes to +be met with in the Gulf region. The preliminary reconnaissance of the +field made it plain that the earlier classifications were greatly at +fault. Several divisions recognized as tribes were found to be only +dialect groups, while others differing in no essential respects from one +another secured names from the districts in which they resided. It was +also found that in recent years there had been a considerable movement +of the hill people toward the coast, and that in some places they had +penetrated and established themselves in the territory formerly held by +other tribes. + +The capture of slaves, intermarriage, and trade between the groups have +been powerful influences in obliterating tribal lines, thus adding +further confusion to the classification of the people. + +The field offered so much of interest that I determined to make detailed +studies of the various tribes encountered. The work progressed +satisfactorily for seven months, when a severe illness caused me to +leave the tropics for a time, at least. As a result the work with the +Gulf tribes is still far from complete. The tribes living on or near the +upper waters of the Agusan river and north of Compostela were not +visited, and, hence, will not be mentioned here, while certain other +divisions received only scant attention. No attempt is here made to +treat of the Christianized or Mohammedanized people, who inhabit a +considerable part of the coast and the Samal Islands, further than to +indicate their influence on the wild tribes. Both have settled in Davao +District in historic times, and have taken many native converts into +their villages. From these settlements new ideas, types of garments, and +industries have spread toward the interior, while the extensive slave +trade carried on by the Moro has had a marked effect on all the tribes +with whom they have come in contact. + +In the preparation of this paper I have, so far as possible, drawn on +the knowledge of others to fill in the gaps in my own notes. In spite of +this the information on certain groups is still so scanty that this can +be, at best, only a sketch. It is offered at this time in the hope that +it may serve as a help to other anthropologists who may plan to visit +this most interesting field. + +I wish here to extend my thanks to the various civil and military +authorities who gave me valuable assistance; also to Captain James +Burchfield, H. S. Wilson, James Irwin, Otto Hanson, William Gohn, Henry +Hubbell, and Juan de la Cruz, planters, whose wide knowledge of, and +acquaintance with the interior tribes made possible my work in many +localities. + +It is a pleasure and a duty to acknowledge the assistance rendered by my +wife, who accompanied me throughout my Philippine work. Her presence +made it possible to secure the complete confidence of the hill people, +and thus to gain an insight into their home life which otherwise would +have been impossible. A large part of the material here presented, +particularly that relating to the women, was gathered by her and many of +the photographs are from her camera. + +The dialects spoken by the tribes of central and southern Mindanao are +to be dealt with in a separate publication, so that at this time I shall +merely give a brief description of the characters appearing in the +native names used in this paper. The consonants are pronounced as in +English, except _r_ which is as in Spanish. _c_ is used as _ch_ in +_church_, _ñ_, which occurs frequently, is a palatal nasal. There is no +clear articulation and the stop is not present, but the back of the +tongue is well up on the soft palate. + +The vowels are used as follows: +_macron-a_ like _a_ in _father_ +_macron-e_ like _a_ in _fate_ +_macron-i_ like _i_ in _ravine_ +_macron-o_ like _o_ in _note_ +_macron-u_ like _u_ in _flute_ +_a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, short of the above. + +[Transcribers' note: The macron-over-vowel orthographic symbols have +regretfully been irreproducible in this document.] + +_E_ is a sound between the obscure vowel _e_, as _e_ in _sun_, and the +_ur_ in _burrow_. + +The dipthongs[sic] are _ai_ like _ai_ in _aisle_, _au_ like _ou_ in +_mouse_, or final Spanish _ao_ as in _carabao_, _ei_ like _ei_ in +_eight_, _oi_ as in _boy_, also _Eu_, _eu_, etc. + +FAY-COOPER COLE, +Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology. +CHICAGO, September, 1913. + + + +I. THE BAGOBO. + +SYNONYMS: + +(a) GUIANGA, GUANGA, GULANGA + +(b) OBO + +(c) TIGDAPAYA + +(d) ETO + +HABITAT. + +The west coast of Davao Gulf between Daliao and Digos is dotted with +small villages, the inhabitants of which are largely Bagobo who have +been converted to the Christian faith and have been induced to give up +their mountain homes and settle in towns. Back of this coast line rise +densely timbered mountain peaks, lateral spurs from which often +terminate in abrupt cliffs overlooking the sea. From other peaks +extensive grass covered plains slope gently down nearly to the water's +edge. Deep river canons cut between these mountains and across the +plains, giving evidence of active erosion for a long period of time. If +these mountain chains and river courses are followed back it is found +that they all radiate from one stupendous mass, the center of which is +Mt. Apo, the highest mountain in the Philippines and reputed to be an +active volcano. Near to its summit is a deep fissure from which, on +clear mornings, columns of smoke or steam can be seen ascending, while +the first rays of the rising sun turn into gold, or sheets of white, the +fields of sulphur which surround the cone. + +Along the lower eastern and southern slopes of this mountain and its +tributary peaks live the wilder branch of this tribe, whose traditions, +religious observances, and daily life are closely related to the +manifestations of latent energy in the old volcano. + +NUMBER. + +The exact number who fall under this classification is not known, +Governor Bolton, who was intimately acquainted with the wild tribes of +the District, estimated their number at sixty-five hundred, but this +count did not include the sub-division here given as Obo. One +enumeration, made by a Jesuit missionary, places the population at +fifteen thousand, while the Government report of 1900 gives them +eighteen thousand four hundred. The latter estimates are certainly +excessive. It is probable that they were determined by compiling the +population of villages reported to exist in the interior. + +The wilder members of this tribe are, to a certain extent, migratory, +moving their villages from one location to another according to the +demands of their mode of agriculture. Their rice fields are made in +mountain-side clearings, and as the ever present cogon grass[1] begins +to invade the open land they substitute sweet potatoes or hemp. In time +even these lusty plants give way to the rank grass, and the people find +it easier to make new clearings in the forest than to combat the pest +with the primitive tools at their command. This results in some new +fields each year, and when these are at too great a distance from the +dwellings the old settlements are abandoned and new ones formed at more +convenient locations. + +[1] _Imperata koenigii_. + +It is probable that the total number belonging to this tribe does not +exceed ten thousand persons. + +INFLUENCE OF NEIGHBORS:--HISTORY. + +The influence of the neighboring tribes and of the white man on the +Bagobo has been considerable. The desire for women, slaves, and loot, as +well as the eagerness of individual warriors for distinction, has caused +many hostile raids to be made against neighboring tribes. Similar +motives have led others to attack them and thus there has been, through +a long period, a certain exchange of blood, customs, and artifacts. +Peaceful exchange of commodities has also been carried on for many years +along the borders of their territory. With the advent of the Moro along +the sea coast a brisk trade was opened up and new industries introduced. +There seems to have been little, if any, intermarriage between these +people, but their relations were sufficiently close for the Moro to +exert a marked influence on the religious and civil life of the wilder +tribe, and to cause them to incorporate into their language many new +words and terms. + +The friendly relations with the Moro seem to have been broken off upon +the arrival and settlement of the Spaniards in Davao. The newcomers were +then at war with the followers of Mohammed and soon succeeded in +enlisting the Bagobo rulers in their cause. A Chinese plate decorated +with the picture of a large blue fish was offered for each Moro head the +tribesmen presented to the Spanish commander. The desire for these +trophies was sufficient soon to start a brisk trade in heads, to judge +from the number of these plates still to be seen among the prized +objects of the petty rulers. + +After the overthrow of Moro power on the coast, Jesuit missionaries +began their labors among the Bagobo, and later established their +followers in several villages. In 1886 Father Gisbert reported eight +hundred converts living in five coast towns. Following the conflict +between Spain and the United States, and during the subsequent +insurrection, these villages were left without protection or guidance. +As a result, large numbers of the inhabitants retired to the hills where +they were again merged with their wilder brothers. Naturally, they +carried with them new ideas as well as material objects. With the +re-establishment of order under American rule many returned to the +deserted villages while others were induced by Governor Bolton to form +compact settlements midway between the coast and the mountain +fastnesses. The influence of the Government has become stronger each +year, and following the human sacrifice at Talun in 1907, that powerful +village and several of the neighboring settlements were compelled to +move down near to the sea where they could be more easily controlled. + +Schools have been opened in some localities and these, together with the +activities of Catholic and Protestant missionaries, are causing a rapid +change in the life and beliefs of the tribe. + +The presence of American hemp planters, with the consequent demand for +laborers, is also proving an immense factor in wiping out old tribal +lines and in introducing new ideas. + +Beyond a few letters written by the missionaries[2] we find scant +reference to this tribe in history, but their own traditions and +genealogies are well known even by the younger generation. + +[2] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands. + +According to the tribal historians the human race sprang from a man, +Toglai, and his wife, Toglibon, who lived on Mt. Apo.[3] "They were +there from the beginning, at a point near to the present settlement of +Cibolan. Many fruits grew on the mountains and the forests abounded in +game so that it was easy for them to secure food. There were born to +them children, who, when they grew up, married. One day Toglai and +Toglibon told their oldest boy and girl that they should go far away +across the ocean, for there was a good place for them. So the two +departed and were seen no more until their descendants, the white +people, came back to Davao. The other children remained with their +parents and were happy and prosperous until Toglai and Toglibon died and +went to the sky, where they became spirits. Soon after their death the +country suffered a great drought. This finally became so severe that the +water in the rivers dried up and there was no more food in the land. At +last the children were forced to leave their home and seek out new +habitations in other parts. They traveled in pairs, in different +directions, until they came to favorable locations where they settled +down. From them have sprung all the tribes known to the Bagobo. One pair +was too weak to make the journey from the drought-cursed land, and staid +at Cibolan. One day the man crawled out into the ruined fields to see if +he could not find some one thing alive, and when he arrived there he +saw, to his amazement, a single stalk of sugar cane growing lustily. He +cut it with his knife, and water began to come out until there was +enough for the couple to drink. The flow did not cease until the rains +came again to refresh the land. From these two the tribe has again grown +until it numbers its members in the thousands. The people have remained +true to their belief in the spirits, and each year has found them +stronger in numbers, and richer in houses, land, and slaves." + +[3] See fuller account by author, in _Philippine Journal of Science_. +June 1911, Vol. VI, No. 3, pp. 128-9. + +The genealogy of the Bagobo rulers is traced back through ten +generations. The first ruler of whom there is record was Salingolop, +during whose reign, it seems, the Spaniards first came to the +Philippines. According to the tale[4] "Salingolop was a man of great and +prodigious force, and as tall as the Lauan, which is the tallest tree in +these forests. He had three sons called Bato, Sipongos, and Calisquisan, +and a daughter named Panugutan. When the Spaniards arrived at Manila, +and found that there existed a man so tall and powerful, they sent a +battalion of soldiers. They disembarked on the shore of Bimigao near +Daron, and ascended the mountain where Salingolop lived. He was not +found, because at the time he was on the other side of the mountain +hunting wild boars, and the soldiers returned to the shore, taking +Panugutan as a hostage. Salingolop, having found out what had happened +descended the mountain alone to fight the soldiers which were there. +These fired on him, but in vain, because the balls could make no +impression. On seeing this, they dropped their rifles and with bars of +iron they struck him on the legs, trying to overthrow him. As he fell on +the side towards the sea, the noise of the waves, it is said, reached to +the Cape of San Augustin. They cut off his head and, as he lay dead, +they cut off his legs that he might not arise again. The Spaniards +returned to Manila, taking with them Panugutan; she married in Manila a +Spaniard, by whom she had two children, who later returned to these +parts and were well received, being considered not only as friends but +as brothers of the Bagobo." + +[4] Recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J. + +Salingolop was succeeded by his son Bato who, in turn, was followed by +Boas, Basian, Lumbay, Banga, Maliadi, and Taopan. Until we come to this +last mentioned ruler we learn little more of importance, but at the +beginning of his rule, we learn that the Bagobo had become a powerful +people. Under his leadership they made frequent forays into neighboring +districts and returned with many slaves and rich loot. The _datu_[5] was +noted as a brave warrior, but in addition to this he was a wise and just +ruler, greatly beloved by all his people. When he died more than one +thousand of his subjects attended the funeral which lasted ten days. On +the last day the house was decked, inside and out, with red and yellow +flowers; many valuable gifts were placed beside the corpse, and the +place was then abandoned. + +[5] The Moro name for chief or ruler. The Bagobo name is _lagaimoda_ or +_matanem_, but the Moro term is in general use. + +He was succeeded by his son Pangilan, whose administration, like that of +his father, was firm and just. Upon his death he bequeathed the +leadership of a united people to his son Manib. The new _datu_ did not +prove to be a great warrior and his decisions in matters of dispute were +not always just, so that bad blood arose between the people of Cibolan +and Talun. He was unable to quell the disturbances, and finally open +warfare broke out, petty chiefs of other districts throwing off his +control and ruling as _datu_. This was the condition which confronted +the present ruler, Tongkaling, when he found himself ruler of Cibolan. + +The claims of leadership over all the Bagobo had never been +relinquished, but the actual power of the _datu_ outside his own +district amounted to little. Tongkaling soon established his right to +the name of a great warrior, and his people so prospered under his rule +that upon the advent of the Americans he was much the most powerful +among the several chiefs. Under the administration of Governor Bolton, +Tongkaling was officially recognized as head of the Bagobo, and with +this added prestige, he has finally succeeded in gaining recognition +from all the chiefs except those about Santa Cruz, but his actual +control over them is still very slight. He has been a consistent friend +of the Americans, but has jealously guarded his people against outside +influences, so that they are much less affected than those of other +districts. For this reason we shall, in this paper, use Cibolan as a +type settlement, but where radical differences occur in other districts +they will be noted. + +PHYSICAL TYPE.[6] + +[6] This subject will be treated fully in a separate publication. + +An idea of the general appearance of the Bagobo can best be obtained by +a study of the accompanying photographs. Plates II-VIII. + +Measurements were made on thirty-three men and fifteen women. The +maximum height of the males was found to be 164.8 cm.; minimum 149.8 +cm.; with an average of 158.6 cm. For the women the maximum was 152.8 +cm.; minimum 141 cm.; average 147.3 cm. + +The cephalic indices of the same individuals showed 84.5 as the maximum, +74.3 minimum, and 78.8 the average for the males. The maximum for the +females was 83.1, minimum 76.2, average 80.7. The average length-height +index, taken from the tragus to the vertex, of the same persons, was +69.8--maximum 75.6, minimum 65.1 for the men; and for the women +73.1--maximum 76.6, minimum 70.2-. + +The face is long, moderately broad, and the zygomatic arches are seldom +prominent. The forehead is high and full with supra-orbital ridge +slightly developed. The crown and back of the head are rather strongly +arched. The people are seldom prognathous, yet individuals are met with +who are markedly so (Plate V). + +The lips are full and bowed; the chin is round and well formed. The root +of the nose is depressed; the ridge broad and generally inclined to be +concave, although straight noses are not uncommon. The nasal wings are +moderately broad and arched or swelled. The eye slits are oblique and +moderately open, showing dark or brown-black eyes. The hair is +brown-black and generally slightly wavy or loosely curled, while in some +cases it is found curled in locks. Women comb their hair straight back +and plaster it with cocoanut oil, but even this does not prevent stray +locks from creeping out. Both face and body hairs are scanty and are +generally removed, yet occasionally a man is seen who has cultivated a +few hairs into a fair semblance of a beard. + +The Bagobo, while well nourished, are inclined to be of slight build, +with very narrow waists. In color they are a light reddish brown with a +slight olive tinge which is more pronounced in the women than in the +men. + +In a brief summary, we can say that they are a short, slightly built, +metsati-cephalic people, with wavy hair, long faces, and broad, full +noses and lips. Individuals are met with who exhibit many of the +physical characteristics of the Negrito;[7] while still others, both in +color and facial lines, are comparable to the Chinese. + +[7] Pygmy blacks of the Philippines. + +DRESS--PERSONAL ADORNMENT. + +No wild tribe in the Islands gives more attention to dress than does the +Bagobo. By an intricate process hemp is colored and woven into excellent +garments, which, in turn, are decorated with embroidery, applique, or +designs in shell disks and beads. The men wear their hair long and after +twisting it around the head hold it in place with kerchiefs, the edges +of which are decorated with beads and tassels. + +A close fitting undershirt is often worn, and above this is an +elaborately beaded or embroidered coat which generally opens in front. +The hemp cloth trousers scarcely reach to the knee, and the bottom of +each leg is decorated with a beaded or embroidered band. Two belts are +worn, one to hold the trousers, the other to support the fighting or +working knives which each man carries. In lieu of pockets he has on his +back an elaborately beaded hemp cloth bag bordered with tassels and +bells of native casting. Highly prized shell bracelets, worn as cuffs by +some men, are made of a large, conical sea-shell (Fig. 1) the base and +interior spirals of which have been cut away. Necklaces made of rattan +strips decorated or overlaid with alternating layers of fern and orchid +cuticle (Fig. 2) are frequently seen, while many strands of beads and +carved seeds surround the necks of both men and women. Both sexes also +wear, above the calf of the leg, plaited or beaded leglets to some of +which magical properties are ascribed. + +FIG. 1. SHELL BRACELET. + +FIG. 2. NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID WITH FERN AND ORCHID CUTICLE. + +The woman wears a jacket which is close fitting about the neck and +reaches to the skirt, so that no portion of the upper part of the body +is exposed. The cloth now used in this garment is generally secured in +trade, and in recent years decoration in applique has begun to succeed +the excellent embroidery seen on older garments. Frequently the two +types of decoration are seen on the same jacket, and to these are added +complicated designs in shell or metal disks, or beads. The narrow tube +skirt is of hemp cloth and is made like a sack with both ends open. At +the waist it is held in place by means of a cloth or beaded belt. + +In addition to the many strands of beads which encircle the neck and +fall over the chest, a broad bead band is often worn over one shoulder, +passing under the opposite arm near the waist. Scarfs of colored cloth +are also worn in this manner when the ladies are on dress parade. +Leglets and brass anklets, made like tubes so as to enclose metal balls +(Fig. 3) or with bells and rattles attached, are commonly worn. The +women are fond of loading their arms with ornaments of shell or brass +(Fig. 4) and one forearm is covered with separate rings of incised brass +wire which increase in size from the centre towards the ends, forming an +ornament in the shape of an hour-glass. Their hair is generally cut so +as to leave a narrow band in front; this is brushed back, but often +falls forward on the face or in front of the ears. Back of this the hair +is kept well oiled and is combed straight to the back of the head, where +it is tied in a knot. Into this knot is pushed a wooden comb decorated +with incised lines filled with lime, or inlaid with beads. On festive +occasions more elaborate combs, with plumes or other decorations +attached, are worn. Aside from these ornaments the head is uncovered. + +FIG. 3. BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN. + +FIG. 4. TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS. + +Men and women are seen who have their eyebrows shaved to thin lines. +This is a matter of individual taste and is done only for beauty. + +Neither sex makes use of tattooing, nor do they mutilate the lips or +nose, but what they lack in these respects they make up for in ear +ornaments. + +When a child is very young a small hole is pierced in the ear lobes, and +into this opening a piece of twisted banana or hemp leaf is placed. +(Fig. 5a). This leaf acts as a spring, continually enlarging the opening +until the ear plugs can be inserted. Another method, sometimes employed, +is to fill the opening with small round sticks (Fig. 5b), adding more +from time to time, until the desired result is obtained. The plugs worn +by the women are of wood, the fronts of which are inlaid with silver or +brass in artistic designs, and are connected by strands of beads passing +under the chin (Fig. 6). Large wooden ornaments are also worn by the +men, but more prized are large ivory ear plugs made like enormous collar +buttons (Plates II-IV). These are very rare, since the ivory for their +manufacture must be secured from Borneo, and by the time it has passed +through the hands of many traders it has assumed a value which limits +the possession of articles made from it to a few wealthy men. A further +method of ear adornment, frequently seen among the women, consists of +beads sewed into a number of holes which have been pierced through the +helices of the ears. + +FIG. 5. EAR STRETCHERS. + +FIG. 6. WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS. + +Both men and women file and blacken the teeth. When a boy or girl has +reached the age of puberty, it is time that this beautifying should be +done. There is, however, no prohibition to having it performed earlier +if desired. The candidate places his head against the operator and grips +a stick of wood between his teeth while each tooth is filed so as to +leave only the stump, or is cut or broken to a point (Plate XIIa and b). +When this has been successfully accomplished, what is left of the teeth +is blackened. + +The color is obtained in two ways. The more common method is to place a +piece of metal on one end of a bamboo[8] tube, the other extremity of +which rests on glowing coals. The smoke from the charring bamboo is +conducted through the tube to the cold metal on which it leaves a +deposit or "sweat." This deposit is rubbed on the teeth, at intervals, +for several days until they become a shiny black. A second method is to +use a powder known as _tapEl_ which is secured from the _lamod_ tree. +The writer did not see this tree but, from the description given of it, +believes it to be the tamarindus. This powder is put on leaves and is +chewed. During the period of treatment the patient is under certain +restrictions. He may neither drink water, cook or eat anything sour, nor +may he attend a funeral. Should he do so his teeth will have a poor +color or be "sick." When the teeth have been properly beautified the +young man or woman is considered ready to enter society. + +[8] A variety known as _balakayo_ is used for this purpose. + +Boys run about quite nude until they are three or four years of age. +Until about the same age the girls' sole garment is a little pubic +shield, cut from a coconut shell and decorated with incised lines filled +with lime (Fig. 7). Not infrequently bells are attached to the sides of +this "garment." When children do begin to wear clothing their dress +differs in no respects from that of their elders. + +FIG. 7. LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS. + +SKETCH OF FUNDAMENTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. + +Although we shall treat religion more fully in a later paragraph, it is +desirable that we now gain an idea of those beliefs which enter +intimately into every activity of the daily life of this people. + +The Bagobo believes in a mighty company of superior beings who exercise +great control over the lives of men. Above all is Eugpamolak Manobo, +also called Manama, who was the first cause and creator of all. Serving +him is a vast number of spirits not malevolently inclined but capable of +exacting punishment unless proper offerings and other tokens of respect +are accorded them. Below them is a horde of low, mean spirits who +delight to annoy mankind with mischievous pranks, or even to bring +sickness and disaster to them. To this class generally belong the +spirits who inhabit mountains, cliffs, rooks, trees, rivers, and +springs. Standing between these two types are the shades of the dead +who, after they have departed from this life, continue to exercise +considerable influence, for good or bad, over the living. + +We have still to mention a powerful class of supernatural beings who, in +strength and importance, are removed only a little from the Creator. +These are the patron spirits. + +Guarding the warriors are two powerful beings, Mandarangan and his wife, +Darago, who are popularly supposed to make their home in the crater of +the volcano. They bring success in battle and give to the victors loot +and slaves. In return for these favors they demand, at certain times, +the sacrifice of a slave. Dissentions[sic], disasters, and death will be +sure to visit the people should they fail to make the offering. Each +year in the month of December the people are reminded of their +obligation by the appearance in the sky of a constellation known as +_Balatik_,[9] and soon thereafter a human sacrifice doubtless takes +place in some one or more of the Bagobo settlements. + +[9] Orion. + +A man to come under the protection of these two deities must first have +taken at least two human lives. He is then entitled to wear a peculiar +chocolate-colored kerchief with white patterns in it. When he has killed +four he may wear blood-red trousers, and when his score has reached six +he may don a full blood-red suit and carry a sack of the same color. +Such a man is known as _magani_ and his clothing marks him as a person +of distinction and power in his village. He is one of the leaders in a +war party; he is chosen by the _datu_ to inflict the death penalty when +it has been decreed; and he is one of the assistants in the yearly +sacrifice. It is not necessary that those he kills, in order to gain the +right to wear a red suit, be warriors. On the contrary he may kill women +and children from ambush and still receive credit for the achievement, +provided his victims are from a hostile village. He may count those of +his townspeople whom he has killed in fair fight, and the murder of an +unfaithful wife and her admirer is credited to him as a meritorious +deed. + +The workers in iron and brass, the weavers of hemp cloth, and the +mediums or shamans--known as _mabalian_--are under the protection of +special deities for whom they make ceremonies at certain times of the +year. + +The _mabalian_ just mentioned are people--generally women past middle +life--who, through sufficient knowledge of the spirits and their desires, +are able to converse with them, and to make ceremonies and offerings +which will attract their attention, secure their good will, or appease +their wrath. They may have a crude knowledge of medicine plants, and, in +some cases, act as exorcists. The ceremonies which art performed at the +critical periods of life are conducted by these _mabalian_, and they +also direct the offerings associated with planting and harvesting. They +are generally the ones who erect the little shrines seen along the +trails or in the forests, and it is they who put offerings in the +"spirit boxes" in the houses. Although they, better than all others, +know how to read the signs and warnings sent by the spirits, yet, all of +the people know the meaning of certain omens sent through the medium of +birds and the like. The call of the _limokon_[10] is recognized as an +encouragement or a warning and its message will be heeded without fail. +In brief, every natural phenomenon and every living thing is caused by +or is subject to the will of unseen beings, who in turn can be +influenced by the acts of individuals. As a result everything of +importance is undertaken with reference to these superior powers. + +[10] A dove (_Calcophops indica_). Similar beliefs held by the Tagalog +were mentioned by Juan de Plasencia in 1589. See BLAIR and ROBERTSON, +Vol. VII, p. 189. + +DWELLINGS--HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS. + +The houses found in the coast villages line well marked streets and +differ in few respects from those built by the Christianized natives +throughout the Islands. Even in the more isolated districts the effect +of this outside influence is marked. However, we can state with +confidence that village life is a new idea to the Bagobo. He has, from +time immemorial, built his home near to his fields, and there he and his +family reside, except during festivals or when extreme danger threatens. +At such times all go to the house of the local ruler and there unite in +the festivities or the common defense. + +The smaller dwellings have but one room, the floor of which is raised +several feet above the ground and supported by many piles. A part of the +latter extend five of[sic] six feet above the floor and form supports +for the side and cross-beams. From the center of the room lighter poles +project eight or ten feet above the cross-beams and form the main +supports for the ridge timber. From beams at the end and sides of the +room similar pieces run to this central ridge; below this they are +joined together, at intervals, by means of horizontal poles and +cross-beams. To this framework are lashed strips of _palma brava_, +supports for a covering of closely laid _runo_, on which rests the final +topping of flattened bamboo. The ridge pole is always at a sufficient +height above the floor to give the roof a steep peak, and is of such +length that, at the top, the side roof overhangs the ends. The roof +generally rises in two pitches and always extends past the sides of the +room. + +In house building, the roof, which is made first, is raised to the +desired height, thus serving as a shelter for the workers until the +structure is complete (Plate XIII). Resting on the cross-beams, just +below the rafters, a number of loose boards are laid to form a sort of +attic or storage room where all unused articles, and odds and ends are +allowed to accumulate. + +The sides of the room, which are of flattened bamboo, are about six feet +in height, and extend only to within a foot of the roof. In the walls +small peep holes are cut so that the inhabitants can look outside +without being seen (Plate XIV). + +The flooring, which is generally made of strips of _palma brava_, is in +two levels, forming a narrow elevated platform at one end of the room on +which a part of the family sleep. + +The furniture of this house is very scanty. Near to the door is the +"stove" (Fig. 8)--a bed of ashes in which three stones are sunk to form a +support for the pots and jars and nearby stand a few native jars and +sections of bamboo filled with water. On a hanger above the fire may be +found articles of food, seeds, and the like, which need protection from +flies and insects. Against the wall is a bamboo rack (Fig. 9), filled +with Chinese plates, or half cocoanut shells which serve as dishes. Near +to the stove is a rice mortar standing on its own wooden pedestal which +reaches to the ground (Fig. 10). + +FIG. 8. THE "STOVE." + +FIG. 9. BAMBOO PLATE RACK. + +FIG. 10A. RICE MORTAR. + +FIG. 10B. PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND. + +FIG. 10C. CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT GRAIN FROM + FALLING OUT. + +FIG. 10D. WOODEN PESTLE. + +A child's cradle, made of a blanket suspended hammock-like between the +wall and a beam support, will probably be found. A few boxes and jars, +usually of Chinese make, and always a copper gong or two are regular +furnishings, while to these can be added a miscellany of clothing, +looms, spears, shields, meat blocks, spoons (Fig. 11), and the like. +Akin to furniture, since they are found in every house, are little +basket-like receptacles made by splitting one end of a bamboo pole into +several vertical strips and then weaving in other shorter horizontal +strips (Fig. 12). These are attached to walls and supporting poles, and +in them offerings are made to the various spirits. + +FIG. 11. COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH WOODEN HANDLES. + +FIG. 12. TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE RECEPTACLE IN WHICH OFFERINGS ARE MADE +TO THE SPIRITS. + +This is our picture of a typical home. It is not a cheery place by day, +for the lack of windows, as well as a fog of smoke from the open stove, +makes it dark and gloomy. Nevertheless, since the house offers a cool +retreat from the blazing sun, and the smoke-laden air is free from flies +and mosquitoes, it is a popular resort for all members of the family +during the hottest part of the day. The little light, which filters in +through the many cracks in the floors and walls, is sufficient to allow +the women to spin, dye, weave, and decorate their clothing, or to engage +in other activities. After dark the resinous nuts of the _bitaog_ tree, +or leaf covered resin torches are burned, and by their uncertain light +the women and men carry on their labors until far into the night. +Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of a notched log, bamboo +pole, or by a ladder of the same material. As a protection against +strong winds many props are placed against the sides of the house, and +when large trees are available the dwellings are further secured by +being anchored to them with rattan lines. + +In each settlement or district will be found one large house built on +the same general plan as the smaller dwellings, but capable of housing +several hundred people (Plate XV). This is the home of the local _datu_ +or ruler. All great ceremonies are held here, and it is the place to +which all hasten when danger threatens. It is the social center of the +community, and all who desire go there at any time and remain as long as +they wish, accepting meanwhile the food and hospitality of the ruler. + +A brief description of the house of Datu Tongkaling will give a good +idea of this type of structure. Except for size--the dimensions being 44 +x 20 ft.--the exterior does not differ greatly from the houses already +described. A long, partially covered porch leading to the doorway is +provided with benches which are always occupied by men and boys, +loitering or engaged in the absorbing task of lousing one another. At +the far end of the room is the elevated platform, but this one is much +wider than is customary, and is intended as the sleeping place for the +warriors, or illustrious guests. As the writer and his wife were +considered, by the _datu_, as belonging to the latter class, they were +favored with this vantage spot, from which they could view and be viewed +by the whole household. Along the sides of the room are elevated +box-like enclosures in which the _datu_ and some of his wives and +daughters sleep and keep their belongings. At night the balance of the +family, including men, women, children, and dogs, occupy the floor. +Midway between the side walls and near to the elevated platform are two +decorated bamboo poles, which are raised in honor of the patron spirits +of the warriors; while in other parts of the room are baskets, hanging +altars, and other devices in which are placed offerings intended for the +spirits. In addition to the customary furnishings are hundreds of +objects testifying to the wealth of the _datu_. Clothes, boxes, dozens +of huge copper gongs, drums, ancient Chinese jars and plates, spears and +shields, beaded clothing, baskets, and last but not least--in the +estimation of the _datu_--a huge enameled advertisement of an American +brewery. + +In the western part of the Bagobo district is a village known as +Bansalan. Recently its people have been induced to leave the old +settlement and build in a new location, midway between the mountains and +the sea. Here the writer found a very different type of house (Plate +XVIa). Small trees formed the uprights to which cross-beams were tied to +make the roof supports, and on these rested a final covering of _nipa_ +palm. A few feet above the ground other supports were lashed and on them +strips of _palma brava_ were laid as flooring. In the few cases where +the houses were fitted with sides, strips of _nipa_ palm fastened +together with rattan were used. There seemed to be no uniform type of +dwelling, each house differing from its neighbor in number of rooms, +floor levels, or in other respects. Only one feature, the elevated +sleeping platform at one end of the house, was always found. A few miles +further inland, in the old settlement, the houses are of the type +already described in detail. The people have been practically forced to +their new location by governmental action. The new careless type of +structures seen in Bansalan probably represents, to them, temporary +structures in which they expect to remain only until a change of +governors will furnish an excuse for returning to the old location. + +OTHER BUILDINGS. + +Near to each farm house or settlement will be seen one or more +granaries, in which rice is stored (Plate XIV). Four poles form the +support for a rectangular base from which the sides of the structure +slope out at an angle of about 25 degrees from the perpendicular until +they meet the roof. The sides and roof are of bamboo beaten flat, the +latter covered with a topping of straw. + +In the hemp fields is an occasional shed where the fiber is sometimes +stripped, but more often these buildings, thus hidden from the public +gaze, house the forges on which the smiths fashion knives and spears, or +cast the bells and betel nut boxes so dear to the heart of each Bagobo. + +Aside from the shrines or altars, which we shall describe later, the +Bagobo erects no other buildings. He sometimes encloses a rice or +cornfield with a fence, but this requires no special skill in building, +since it consists of two parallel lines of uprights, between which +bamboo tubes are laid to the desired height (Plate XVIb). + +FOOD AND ITS PREPARATION. + +It is impossible, without including about everything edible in a +vegetable line to be found in the district, to give a full list of +foods; hence no such attempt will be made. Chief of all is the rice, +many varieties of which are grown in the mountain-side clearings.[11] + +[11] Back of the coast there are no irrigated fields to be found in the +Davao District. + +Next in importance is the _camote_, or sweet potato, and then follow in +the order of their importance: corn, banana, sago and cocoanut. + +Fish, eels, crabs, grasshoppers, monkeys,[12] deer, pigs, and chickens +form a part of the food supply; in fact, the people seem to draw the +line at nothing but crows, snakes, mice, rats, goats, horses, dogs, and +cats. Despite the assertion of a number of worthy informants that the +last three are on the prohibited list, it is the opinion of the writer +that it is the scarcity of the supply rather than any feeling of +prejudice which causes them to be included. + +[12] Some people refuse to eat monkey meat. + +Salt and pepper are used as condiments. The former is secured in trade +with the coast natives and Chinese, while the latter is produced by +mashing the fruit of a small wild pepper, locally known as _katombal_. + +Rice, after being allowed to dry, is stored without being separated from +the straw. When a supply is needed a bundle is laid on a piece of hide +and is beaten with a wooden pestle, wielded by a woman or a slave. This +separates the grain, which is gathered up and placed in a wooden mortar, +where it is again beaten with the pestle until the outer husk has been +loosened. To remove the chaff the rice is taken from the mortar, placed +on a flat winnowing tray (Fig. 13), and tossed and caught, until the +wind has carried away the lighter husks, thus leaving the grain free. +This is placed in a pot, a small quantity of water is added, and the +vessel is placed over the fire. Here it is allowed to remain only until +it begins to boil, when it is placed on the ashes, near enough to the +fire to keep it hot. From time to time the woman turns the jar until the +contents is cooked through, wren each grain stands out free from its +fellows.[13] + +[13] This is the usual way of preparing rice throughout the archipelago. + +FIG. 13. RICE WINNOWER. + +Other vegetable foods are eaten raw, or are cooked with water and salt, +with perhaps the addition of a little meat broth or a sour[sic]. + +[Transcriber's note: "sour" should read "soup."] + +Small birds and fish are cooked without other treatment than a hasty +cleaning; but the flesh of larger fowls, deer, and pig is generally cut +into small cubes and cooked with condiments in a jar or small Chinese +caldron. Birds are sometimes prepared by placing them on a spit, +covering them with green banana leaves, and suspending them above the +fire until roasted. This primitive paper bag cooking yields a most +excellent dish. + +Grasshoppers are relished, and are secured in the following manner: A +clear grass spot is selected and several deep holes are dug in one end. +Back of them, and leading toward them, is a high tight fence made in a +V. By beating the grass with boughs as they walk toward the trap, the +people drive the grasshoppers before them until they are finally forced +into the pit, from which they are collected by the bushel. + +I was told that meat was sometimes salted, dried, and stored away for +future use. The climate seems to be absolutely opposed to such +foresight, and the one time that I saw the process being used, the odors +were such that I beat a hasty retreat and chose to accept, without +proof, the verdict of the natives, that venison thus prepared was +excellent. + +Of almost as much importance as food is the use of the betel or areca +nut,[14] which is chewed almost constantly by young and old of both +sexes. The nut is divided into quarters and a piece of _buyo_ leaf[15] +is wrapped about each bit. To this is added a little lime and a pinch of +tobacco, and it is ready for the mouth. The resultant deep red saliva is +distributed indiscriminately on the floor, walls, and furniture where it +leaves a permanent stain. To hold the materials necessary for this +practice brass betel nut boxes, secured from the Moro or of their own +manufacture, as well as plaited grass boxes and pouches are constantly +carried (Plates XVIIa and XLI). The brass boxes generally have three +compartments; the first for nuts, the second for leaves and tobacco, and +the third for lime. Lime is also carried in small bamboo tubes (Fig. +14), in the decoration of which a great deal of time is consumed. The +open end is fitted with a rattan sifter so that the powder is +distributed evenly on the nut and leaf. + +[14] _Catechu L_. + +[15] _Piper betel L_. + +FIG. 14. INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES. + +Aged persons and those whose teeth have been so mutilated that they +cannot chew, make use of an outfit which includes a small mortar and +pestle (Plate XVIIb). Cutting open green betel nuts, the chewer wraps +the pieces in leaves and, after adding a liberal supply of lime, mashes +them in the mortar until all are reduced to a soft mass. + +Lime is secured by placing snail shells in a fire, from which they are +taken while hot and dropped into cold water. They can then be crushed +into powder with the fingers. + +Although the Bagobo raises a considerable quantity of tobacco he seldom, +if ever, smokes it unless the leaf is furnished him, already prepared, +by an outsider. Sometimes a small ball made of the green leaves is +placed between the teeth and upper lip, where it remains until all the +flavor has been extracted. + +The outfits for betel nut and tobacco, aside from the brass boxes which +fasten at the side, are generally carried in the sacks worn on the backs +of the men or in the elaborate shoulder bags worn by the women. However, +a small waterproof box is frequently seen attached to a man's belt, and +in this he carries his betel nut, tobacco, and fire-making outfit. + +The usual method of making fire is by the use of flint and steel, but +when this is not at hand a flame can be quickly obtained by rubbing two +pieces of bamboo rapidly together until the friction produces a spark. + +HUNTING AND FISHING. + +Since only a few domesticated animals and fowls are found in a +settlement, the greater part of the meat supply is secured by hunting +and fishing. + +Deer and wild pig are taken by means of spears. The hunter either lies +in wait near the runways of the game, or the animals are driven toward +the spot where the huntsmen are concealed. For this purpose the ordinary +lance (Figs. 15a, b and c) is often used, but a more effective weapon is +the spear known as _kalawat_ (Fig. 15d). In this the metal head fits +loosely into a long shaft to which it is attached by a rope. As soon as +the weapon enters the body of the animal the head pulls out of the +shaft, and this trails behind until it becomes entangled in the +undergrowth, thus putting the game at the mercy of the hunter. Dead +falls and pits are put in the runways, and a frightened animal is +sometimes impaled on concealed sharpened bamboo sticks. Less frequently, +large animals are secured by means of rope loops which hang from trees +past which the game is accustomed to pass. Until recent years the +_balatik_, a trap which when sprung throws an arrow with great force +against the animal which releases it, was much used but so many domestic +animals have been killed by it that this sort of trap is now in +disfavor. + +FIG. 15. SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND HUNTING. + +Wild chickens are captured by means of snares (Fig. 16). A tame rooster +is fastened in the jungle and around him is placed a snare, consisting +of running knots attached to a central band. The crowing of this fowl +soon attracts the wild birds which, coming in to fight, are almost sure +to become entangled in one of the nooses. Slip loops, attached to a bent +twig and released by disturbing the bait, are also employed in the +capture of wild fowl. + +FIG. 16. CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING CASE. + +Birds of all sizes are secured by use of bows and arrows, blow guns, or +nets. Wooden decoys (Plate XVIII) are tied to the branches of trees in +which the hunters are concealed. The bows used are of _palma brava_, in +each end of which notches are cut to hold the rattan bow strings (Fig. +17). The arrow shafts are of light reeds and are fitted with one or two +bamboo points. These weapons are effective only for close range, and +even then the Bagobo are far from being expert marksmen. Boys use a reed +blow gun through which they shoot light darts tufted with cotton (Fig. +18). The missile is not poisoned and is of little use at a distance of +more than twenty feet. + +FIG. 17. BOWS AND ARROWS. + +FIG. 18. BLOW GUNS AND DARTS. + +By far the most effective means of securing birds is to stretch a net +between trees or poles where the birds are accustomed to fly. Wooden +decoys are attached to the net in order to attract the game which, once +enmeshed, is easily caught. + +Various devices are employed in the capture of fresh water fish,[16] but +the most common is a torpedo-shaped trap of bamboo (Fig. 19). Stone +conduits lead the water from streams into the open ends of these traps, +thus carrying in fish and shrimps. The funnel-shaped opening has the +sharpened ends set close together so that it is quite impossible for the +prisoners to escape, although the water readily passes between the +bamboo strips. + +[16] Along the coast the methods of the Christianized natives are used +in salt water fishing. + +FIG. 19. BAMBOO FISH TRAP. + +A hook and line is employed, especially for eels; while in clear pools +fish are secured by means of a four-pointed spear which is thrust or +thrown (Fig. 20). Perhaps the most interesting device used is a lure, +known as _boro_ (Fig. 21). A live minnow is fastened at the end of the +rod near to a rattan noose. A cord running from the noose to the end of +the stick allows the fisherman to draw up the noose as he desires. The +struggles of the captive fish soon attract others, and when one enters +the loop the line is drawn taut, securely binding the intruder. Several +fish can be taken from a single pool by this method. A berry (_anamirta +coccithis L_.) is used in the capture of fish. It is crushed to a +powder, is wrapped with vines and leaves, and is thrown into pools. The +fish become stupified[sic] and float to the surface where they are +easily captured. After being cooked they are eaten without any ill +effects. + +FIG. 20. (LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH SPEAR. + +FIG. 21. (RIGHT) FISH LURE. + +OCCUPATIONS. + +Mention has already been made of some of the daily occupations of the +people. We have found the women caring for the home and preparing the +rice and other foods which are served in the house. At no time did the +writer see a man, other than a slave, take any part in such household +duties; but when on the trail each would do his share in preparing the +meals. In the village we found the women and children carrying the water +and wood and, at rare intervals, doing laundry work. Instead of soaping +and rubbing soiled clothing, they soak the garments in water, then place +them on stones and beat them with wooden paddles or clubs. The articles +are alternately soaked and beaten until at least a part of the dirt has +been removed. It is also the privilege of any woman to engage in the +manufacture of basketry, or to act as a potter. + +In the manufacture of baskets the woman makes use chiefly of bamboo and +rattan, though other materials, such as _pandanus_ are sometimes brought +into service. Three weaves or their variants are employed. The first is +the common diagonal or twilled weave, in which each element of the weft +passes over two or more of the warp elements. In this way most of the +rice winnowers, transportation baskets, knife sheaths, and the like are +made. In the second weave (Fig. 22), the foundation of the basket is +made up of parallel horizontal rods, or strips of bamboo. These are +laced together by warp strips which pass alternately under one and over +one of the foundation rods, crossing each other at an angle, one above +the other below the rod. The trinket baskets carried by the women, the +larger waterproof receptacles known as _binota_, and the covers for wild +chicken snares are in this technic. A variant of this weave is found in +the rattan carrying frames and in some fish traps (Fig. 23). Here the +warp strips cross one another at an angle, at each meeting place +enclosing the horizontal foundation strips. Unlike the second weave +described, the warp strips do not pass alternately above and below the +horizontal foundation, but retain the same relation to it throughout the +entire length of each strip. A coiled weave (Fig. 24) is used in the +manufacture of tobacco boxes (Plate XIX) and in the rims of women's +baskets. In this type the foundation consists of a series of horizontal +rattan strips or rods which are sewed together in the following manner. +A narrow strip _A_ passes over two of these parallel rods _2_ and _3_ in +a left handed spiral. At the top of the loop the strip passes under a +similar strip _B_ which binds rod _2_ to the one above. Passing downward +inside the basket, the strip _A_ goes beneath the strip _C_ which binds +rods _3_ and _4_ together. These are drawn tightly while damp, thus +forcing the foundation rods so closely together as to make the basket +practically water-tight. Pitch from the _tabon-tabon_ nuts may also be +rubbed over the outside surface, thus making the receptacle impervious +to water. + +FIG. 22. + +FIG. 23. + +FIG. 24. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + +In the great majority of baskets the surface is divided into three +parallel zones or decorative bands. These are produced by making a +slight variation in the weave, by the use of blackened strips of bamboo +and rattan, or by substituting in their place the black cuticle of a +fern. + +As a rule the women of this tribe are not good potters and take little +pride in their work. In some districts the art has been entirely lost, +and the people depend on the coast natives for their cooking utensils. +At the village of Bansalan the women were found still to be proficient +in their work. After the dampened clay had been carefully kneaded in +order to remove lumps and gravel, the bottom of the jar was moulded with +the fingers and placed on a dish which was turned on a bit of cloth or a +board and answered the purpose of a potter's wheel. As the dish was +turned with the right hand the operator shaped the clay with the fingers +of the left adding fresh strips of material from time to time until the +desired size was obtained. The final shaping was done with a wooden +paddle and the jar was allowed to dry, after which it was smoothed off +with a stone. When ready for firing it was placed in the midst of a pile +of rubbish, over which green leaves were placed to cause a slow fire. + +Other dishes are made by splitting a cocoanut in half and removing the +"meat." This is readily accomplished by the use of a scraper fitted with +a rough iron blade (Fig. 25), over which the concave side or the half +nut is drawn. The cocoanut meat is used for food and oil. + +FIG. 25. COCOANUT SCRAPER. + +A little later we shall describe the active part woman takes in the +planting and care of the fields, but now we shall take up in some detail +the industry in which she stands pre-eminent, the preparation and +weaving of hemp. + +The hemp ordinarily stripped by the men is considered too fine to be +used in the manufacture of clothing, so a smaller stripping device is +employed by the woman (Plate XX). On this she cleans the outer layers of +the hemp stalk, from which a stronger and coarser thread can be +obtained. The fiber is tied in a continuous thread and is wound onto a +reel. The warp threads are measured on sharpened sticks driven into a +hemp or banana stalk, and are then transferred to a rectangular frame +(Plate XXI). The operator, with the final pattern in mind, overties or +wraps with waxed threads, such portions of the warp as she desires to +remain white in the completed garment. So carefully does she wrap these +sections, that, when the thread is removed from the frame and placed in +the liquid dye, no portion of the coloring matter penetrates to the +portions thus protected. If a red color is desired the root of the +_sikarig_[17] palm is scraped and the scrapings placed in bark vats +filled with cold water. The thread is first washed in, and is later +boiled with the dye for a half hour, after which it is placed in a +basket to drain and dry. The process is repeated daily for about two +weeks, or until the thread assumes a brick red color. If a purple hue is +desired a little lime is added to the dye. Black is obtained by a +slightly different method. The leaves, root, and bark of the _pinarrEm_ +tree are crushed in water. This yields a black liquor which is poured +into a jar containing the thread and the whole is placed over a slow +fire where it remains until the liquid is near the boiling point. When +this is reached the thread is removed and placed in a gourd, the open +end of which fits over the jar so as to catch the steam coming from the +dye. After a time the thread is removed and dried, and the process is +repeated until at last a permanent black is obtained. After the coloring +is complete the thread is again placed on the rectangular frame, the +over-tying is removed and the warp is ready for the loom (Plate XXII.) +In the loom (Plate XXIII) the threads encircle a bamboo pole attached to +the wall, and are held tense by a strap which passes around the waist of +the operator. The weft threads are forced up against the fabric by means +of the comber board and are beaten in with a baton. The warp threads are +held in their relative positions, first by the comber board, second by +loops which pass under the lower threads and over a small stick or lease +rod, and lastly by passing over and under, or around, other lease rods. +These are rolled away as the work progresses. + +[17] _Morinda Bracteata Roxb_. + +[18] Woof threads are generally of one color. A somewhat similar process +used in Java is described by SIR THOS. RAFFLES in The History of Java, +Vol. I, p. 189. + +[Transcriber's note: Although footnote 2 appears on the same page as the +above paragraph, it is not clear to what particular part of that +paragraph it refers.] + +After the cloth is removed from the loom it is polished. A long pole of +_palma brava_ is fitted into a notch in the roof. The operator seats +herself on the floor with a smooth board before her, or in her lap, and +on it places the dampened cloth. A shell is fitted over the lower end of +the pole, which is bent and made bowlike, until the shell rests on the +cloth. It is then ironed rapidly to and fro until the fabric has +received a high polish (Plate XXIV). + +The woman's duties do not end with the manufacture of cloth, for all the +garments worn by the members of the tribe are the result of her +handiwork. She sews the strips of hemp cloth into skirts, men's +trousers, carrying bags, and sometimes into jackets. The women devote +hours of labor to these jackets, covering arms, necks, and waist bands +with colored embroidery or designs in applique, while on the better +garments they place elaborate designs in beads or shell disks. + +After the evening meal is over the women of the household gather around +the flickering lights, and until far into the night work on these +garments, bead necklaces, or other ornaments. + +Only a few of the weavers attempt to make the peculiar chocolate-colored +head covering worn by the _magani_. For these kerchiefs the woman weaves +a square cotton cloth of the desired size, and at one corner attaches a +small brass hook. Joined to the hook, by means of a chain, is a loop +which fits over the toes of the operator, thus enabling her to keep the +fabric taut while her hands are left free for work. Small sections of +this cloth are raised and are wrapped with waxed thread, so that when +the fabric is dyed these portions will not receive the coloring matter +(Plate XXV). Later the overtying is removed, leaving small white rings +or squares on a chocolate-colored background. These cloths are meant +primarily for the warriors, but expert weavers, who are under the +protection of a certain powerful spirit, are also permitted to wear an +upper garment of this material. + +A considerable part of the man's time is consumed in preparation for, or +actual participation in, hunting or warfare, but in addition to this he +does a goodly portion of the work in the fields, and is the house +builder. When a man is about to erect a dwelling he notifies his friends +to come and aid him. This they will do without pay, but when in need of +similar services they will expect and will receive similar help. All +sorts of house-furnishings, such as spoons, meat blocks, or rice mortars +are made by the man, and not infrequently, he assists in the making or +waterproofing of baskets. A few of the old men of Cibolan still engage +in the manufacture of small shell disks with which valuable suits are +decorated, but the greater part of those now in use have been inherited, +or are purchased from neighboring peoples. The men carve beads out of +"Job's tears"[19] and make them into necklaces. For this purpose a +peculiarly carved and decorated stick is employed (Plate XXVI). This is +placed in the palm of the left hand so that the thumb and forefinger can +hold the seed which fits into a depression in the top. A knife in the +right hand of the artist is worked over the seed thus cutting a line +into which dirt is rubbed. Women's combs are made by shaping a half +circle out of light wood and then cutting teeth into it with a saw-like +blade of tin or iron. + +[19] _Coix lachryma Johi L_. + +Among the men, as with the women, certain industries are monopolized by +a few individuals. In this community no men stand higher in the +estimation of their fellows than do the smiths and the casters of +copper. The writer spent many hours watching I-o, the brass and copper +worker of Cibolan, while he shaped bells, bracelets, and betel boxes at +his forge on the outskirts of the village (Plate XXVII). Feathered +plungers, which worked up and down in two bamboo cylinders, forced air +through a small clay-tipped tube into a charcoal fire. This served as a +bellows, while a small cup made of straw ashes formed an excellent +crucible. The first day I watched I-o, he was making bells. Taking a +ball of wax the size of a bucket shot, he put it on the end of a stick +(Fig. 26a), and over this moulded the form of a bell in damp ashes +obtained from rice straw (b). When several bells were thus fashioned +they were dipped in melted wax and were turned on a leaf until smooth, +after which an opening was cut through the wax at the bottom of each +form (c). Strips of wax were rolled out and laid in shallow grooves +which had been cut in the sides of the bells and were pressed in, at +intervals, with a small bamboo knife (d). The top stick was then +withdrawn, leaving an opening down to the wax ball inside. Into this +hole a thin strip of wax was inserted and was doubled back on itself so +as to form a hanger (e). For three days the forms were allowed to harden +and were covered with several coats of damp straw ashes. Finally they +were laid in a bed of the same material with a thin strip of wax leading +from each bell to a central core (f). [FIG. 26] The whole, with the +exception of the top of the central wax strip, was covered with a thick +coating of damp ashes, and when this had hardened pieces of copper, +secured from broken gongs, were placed in the crucible, melted and +poured into the open end of the clay form. The molten metal took the +place of the wax as it was dissolved and flowed to all parts where it +had been. After being dropped in water the form was broken open, +revealing six nearly perfect little bells which were ready for use as +soon as the ashes were removed from them. The same method was used for +all other casting. Clay forms were made as desired, were covered with +wax, and the final coating of ashes applied before the casting. The +workers in copper and brass are under the care and guidance of a spirit, +Tolus ka towangan, for whom they make a yearly ceremony, _Gomek +towangan_. + +FIG. 26. STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + +FIG. 26. STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + +[Transcriber's note: Two different figures on different pages are both +labeled FIG. 26.] + +Of even greater importance are the smiths who are also under the care of +a powerful spirit for whom the _Gomek-gomanan_ ceremony is celebrated +each year, just prior to the planting time. Their forges are hidden away +in the hemp fields, and I was repeatedly informed that no woman might +see the smith at work. Whether or no such a rule is rigidly enforced at +all times I cannot say, but at no time did I see a woman about the forge +while the fire was burning, and although I was allowed to see and +photograph the process, my wife was at all times prevented from doing +so. The forge differs in no material respects from that used by the +brass casters, except that hollowed out logs replace the bamboo tubes, +and that a metal anvil and iron hammers are used. After an iron knife or +spear head has been roughly shaped, the smith splits the edge to a +slight depth and inserts a band of steel. The iron is pounded down on +the harder metal and the whole is brought to a white heat in the +charcoal fire. Removing it to the anvil the smith gives the blade one or +two light blows and returns it to the fire. This is repeated many times +before he begins to add the heavy strokes which finally weld the iron +and steel together. The blade having been given its final shape is again +heated and is held above a tube of water until the glowing metal begins +to turn a yellowish green, when it is plunged into the cold water. This +process, repeated many times, gives a fair temper to the whole weapon. +Charcoal for the fire is secured by burning logs and chilling them +suddenly with cold water. + +Brass wire, secured in trade, is made into bracelets in the following +manner. In order to soften it and make it more easily worked the roll of +wire is heated until it begins to turn grey, when it is allowed to cool +and is scraped, so as to restore the yellow color. One end is laid on an +anvil made of an iron strip on a wooden block (Plate XXVII), and is cut +into various designs by means of metal dies. A wooden cone is used as a +form, about which the wire is placed in order to shape and measure it. + +Hemp[20] grows wild in the Davao District and the Bagobo have, for +generations, used it in the manufacture of their clothing. In recent +years the demand for fiber has shown the people an easy way to secure +the trade articles which they desire and, as a result, rather extensive +plantings are found even in the more remote districts. The women strip a +large part of the fiber in local use, but all that prepared for trade is +produced by the men. When the ever-present cogon grass begins to invade +a clearing, the young hemp is planted. In about eighteen months it has +grown to a height of some sixteen feet and is ready to be cut. The man +goes to the fields, cuts down some stalks and, having removed the +leaves, splits off the outer fiber layers from the cellular matter of +the interior, using a bone knife for this purpose. When he has +accumulated a sufficient number of strips he carries them to the hemp +machine (Fig. 27). This consists of a knife which rests on a wooden +block. The handle turns on a pivot and the end is drawn upwards by means +of a bent twig, or sapling, which acts as a spring. This spring is +lowered and the knife blade raised by means of a foot treadle; a strip +of hemp is laid on the block; the foot pressure is removed, and the +knife descends. Taking a firm hold of one end of the strip, the operator +draws it toward him under the blade, thus removing the pulp and leaving +the free hemp threads. These are hung in the sun until dry, when they +are tied in bundles ready to be carried to the coast. The work is hard +and, unless necessity forces him to greater effort, a man seldom engages +in it for more than three or four days in a month. He thinks his duty +ceases with this expenditure of energy and, unless he is fortunate +enough to possess animals or slaves, is quite content to allow his wife, +or wives, to carry the product to the coast trader. + +[20] _Musa textilis_. + +FIG. 27. HEMP MACHINE. + +During ceremonies and at festivals a fermented drink made of sugar cane +is served, and in anticipation of its pleasurable effects the Bagobo is +willing to expend a considerable amount of effort. The juice of the cane +is extracted by means of a press made of two logs arranged in parallel +horizontal positions, so that the end of a wooden lever can slip under +one and rest in a groove cut in the other (Fig. 28). The cane is placed +in the groove and the operator bears his weight on the lever, thus +squeezing out the juice. After being boiled with the bark of certain +trees and lime juice, the liquor is sealed in jars or bamboo tubes and +is stored away until needed. + +FIG. 28. SUGAR CANE PRESS. + +The sago palm is found in parts of the Bagobo territory, and in times of +need, the people make temporary camps near to the sago districts, where +they prepare the flour. This is done in the same manner as is fully +described on page 140. + +The most important thing in the life of the Bagobo is the care of the +rice, for on this crop he depends for the greater part of his food +supply, and by its condition he can ascertain with what favor he is +looked upon by the spirits. So closely is the cultivation of this cereal +coupled with the religious beliefs that it is necessary, in this +relation, to describe the ceremonies connected with it. + +We have previously stated that the incursion of the cogon grass into the +fields makes necessary some new clearings each year. In the month of +December a constellation known as _Balatik_ appears in the sky. This has +a double significance; first, it is the reminder for the yearly +sacrifice; and secondly, it notifies all workers that the tools, which +are to be used in making new clearings, shall be placed in readiness. +All those who expect to prepare new fields for themselves, or are to +assist others in such work, gather at the forge of the local smith and +there take part in a ceremony held in honor of his patron spirit. They +carry with them offerings of rice and chickens which they cook in bamboo +tubes, for food taken from a pot is not acceptable to this spirit. When +all is ready the food is placed on a rice winnower, near to the forge, +and on it the men lay their weapons and working knives (Plate XXIX). +Standing before the offering the smith, in a droning voice, calls on the +spirit, beseeching him to come and eat of the food, to accept the +weapons and tools, and having done so to be watchful over the workers +during the clearing time, so that they may not be injured in the work or +be molested by enemies. The prayer finished, the smith eats a little of +the food, and all the men follow his example, but no woman may so much +as touch this offering. Meanwhile other food which can be eaten by all +has been prepared. After the meal the weapons and tools which are to be +used during the clearing time are removed, but, as they now belong to +the spirit, they can never be disposed of without first recompensing +him. During this day there is a strict prohibition against music and +dancing. For three days the men abstain from work and the forge stands +idle. When the fire is again lighted the first knife made is the +property of the spirit. + +With the ending of the period of taboo the workers go to the fields and, +in the center of each, place a _tambara_[21] fitted with a white dish +containing betel nut. This is an offering to Eugpamolak Manobo, who is +besought to drive from the field any _tigbanawa_ or _tagamaling_[22] who +may live there, to keep the workers in good health, to allow an abundant +crop, and, finally, to make the owner rich and happy. The weeds, brush, +and trees, after being cut and allowed to dry are fired, while the logs +remaining after this initial burning are piled together and again set on +fire, and the field is ready for the planting. No soil is broken and not +a seed goes into the ground until the spirits again designate the time, +by placing the constellation _Marara_ in the sky. This appears early in +April, and is followed by a period of great activity in the fields. If, +for any reason, the owner of the land cannot plant at this time, he has +two or more opportunities given him when the constellations _Mamari_ and +_Bwaya_ appear, the latter toward the end of June. + +[21] See p. 66, Fig. 12. + +[22] Evil spirits which are classed with the _buso_. See p. 107. + +When the workers go to the field on the day set for the planting they +enter at one corner and proceed directly across it to the far left hand +corner where they erect a small house or place a _tambara_ which is +known as _pEmEg'ge_. As soon as it is complete, the _mabalian_ begin to +call on the spirits. Manama[23] is called first and after him other +spirits, according to their rank and power. They are informed that the +planting is about to begin and that the people are showing them this +mark of respect so that they will not allow anything to interfere with +the crop. This done, they go to the center of the field and place a +second _tambara_, called _parobanian_, for the spirit Taragomi, who owns +all food. Leaves pleasing to him and presents of food or bracelets are +placed in it, as well as in his _tambara_ found in the house.[24] The +owner of the field takes the _malayag_, a large variety of rice, and +plants it around the _parobanian_,[25] and as the last grain is planted +the _mabalian_ again starts her prayer, this time beginning with +Taragomi. She asks for good crops, and protection for the field from all +animals, blight and drought. Finally, she begs Eugpamolak Manobo to +control the sun and winds so that they will always be favorable to the +growing grain. Having thus done all in their power to secure the +cooperation of the superior beings the men take their rice planters and +real work begins.[26] The planter (Fig. 29) consists of a long shaft at +one end of which is a metal blade while at the other is a bamboo clapper +decorated with feathers. When this instrument is struck on the ground it +digs a shallow hole an inch or more in depth, the clapper meanwhile +keeping up an incessant noise. It is said by some that the rattle is +intended to please the guardian spirit of the fields, but this does not +seem to be the prevalent idea. The women follow the men, dropping seeds +into the holes and pushing the soil over them with their feet. + +[23] Eugpamolak Manobo. + +[24] At Cibolan only brass objects are placed in this _tambara_. + +[25] At Digos the _mabalian_ does the planting and harvesting about the +_tambara_, and the rice grown there is reserved as seed, for the next +season. + +[26] FATHER GISBERT relates that it is the custom to sacrifice a slave +at this time, but this is denied by the _datu_ consulted by the writer. +See letters of FATHER GISBERT in BLAIR and ROBERTSON, The Philippine +Islands, Vol. XLIII; pp. 233-4. + +FIG. 29. RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO CLAPPER ATTACHED TO TOP. + +At nightfall of the day in which the planting has been completed a +_mabalian_ cooks fish and rice, which she carries to the _parobanian_. +Early next morning the family goes to the field and eats this offering +which "belongs to Taragomi, so should be eaten at his house." From this +time until harvest the fields must be guarded against birds and animals, +but no further offerings take place unless unusual conditions should +satisfy the owner that the spirits are demanding more gifts. When +harvest time comes the owner and a few of his friends will go to the +field and pull a few of the fresh stalks, which they place in the +_pEmEg'ge_ and _parobanian_, meanwhile addressing the spirits, and the +cutting of the rice begins. This is done by women who, for this purpose, +employ a small knife called _gElat_ (Plate XXIXd). The last grain to be +cut is that about the _parobanian_. The _mabalian_ cooks a little of the +new rice in the house and places a part of it in the various _tambara_ +and shrines; then, having placed a number of rice stalks on the floor, +she offers them one by one to the spirits. Not until she has finished +can any of the prepared food be eaten. The balance of the crop lies in +the sun until dry, when it is tied in bundles and placed in the granary. + +When all the harvesting is finished the people will make a festival +known as _Gatokbia-an_, or _pakakaro_. Ordinarily each family will have +its own celebration, but at times all the inhabitants of a village will +join in one great celebration. The period of toil and doubt is past, the +food supply is assured, and the people gather to give thanks. No New +England Thanksgiving dinner is prepared with greater thought, or less +regard for expense, than that which is made ready at this time. The +finest of the rice, cocoanuts[sic], eggs, chickens, fish, shrimps, and +many other edibles are prepared and placed in certain dishes which are +dedicated to the spirits and are used only at this time. These plates +are arranged in a row in the center of the room and the _mabalian_ +gather around them. Taking a wand of sandal wood in her hand one of the +number waves it over the offerings, while she chants long prayers. +Beginning with the most powerful, she addresses the spirits one by one, +thanking them for the care they have given to the growing grain and to +the laborers, and for the bounteous harvest. Frequently individuals will +interrupt the proceedings to place near to the _mabalian_ a fine knife +or some other prized object which they desire to have presented to the +spirits as evidence of their gratitude. At first, it is a little hard to +understand this lavishness, but it transpires that the former owners +still have possession of these objects, and that the spirits offer no +objections to their use, so long as their ownership is not disputed, +truly a case of eating the pie but still having it. + +The knives and other implements which have been used in the fields are +laid on a large basket filled with rice, "in order that they may eat, +and, therefore, have no cause to injure their owners." Another large +dish of rice is set aside as a special offering. In some cases this is +taken out to the fields, where it is eaten by the wife, or wives of the +host; but in Cibolan it is kept in the house until the next morning, +when it is eaten by all the members of the family. The ceremonial eating +of this rice causes the supply to last longer and assures abundant rains +for the succeeding crop. Part of the food from the dishes is placed in +the _tambara_ and shrines, and then all the guests are permitted to +feast and make merry. Unlike most Bagobo ceremonies this one lacks the +music of the _agongs_,[27] for only bamboo guitars, flutes, and the +_bolang-bolang_ are permitted at this time. The last named instrument is +made by placing a board on a rice mortar; the women gather around it +with their wooden pestles and beat a rythmical[sic] tattoo. This +concludes the festival proper, but many guests will remain for two or +three days to enjoy the hospitality of their host. + +[27] Copper gongs. + +On the third morning after the festival the family and some friends will +celebrate _BagkEs_ "the tying together." The dishes in which food was +offered are tied together and are carried to the rice field where, with +great solemnity, the little dish in the _parobanian_ is removed and +placed among the others, while the people tell it that the other plates +have come to take it away, but that it will be returned to its home the +following year. The family goes back to the village in silence and after +tying all the dishes together place them in the rice granary. + +In the Bagobo settlement at Digos, the women hold still another festival +following the cutting of the rice. This is known as _Gomeng ka +taragomi_, or _bitinbagaybe_. In the main it resembles the ceremony of +similar name, which the women of Malilla hold on the second day of +_GinEm_ (See page 111). A bamboo pole decked with leaves and green fruit +of the _areca_ palm is placed in the center of a room and is surrounded +with cooked food. After this has been offered to the spirits, it is +eaten by the guests who then indulge in dancing about the decorated +pole. This generally lasts eight days, but in one instance the +festivities continued for sixteen days and nights. The explanation given +is that "the women wish to show Taragomi and the _Nitos_ (anitos) how +happy they are because of the good harvest, for when they see this they +will be pleased and will help again next year." + +TRANSPORTATION AND TRADE. + +The Bagobo makes no use of boats or rafts, for until recent times he has +lived at a considerable distance from the sea; and the rivers, which +flow in deep cañons, may be changed in a day from tiny streams to +rushing torrents in which no craft could keep afloat. Left to his own +devices, he pays little attention to trails, but cuts his way through +the underbrush directly to his destination. The government has forced +him to clear and maintain several fairly good roads between the larger +settlements and the coast, and these are now the highways over which he +transports his hemp and other trade articles. Quite a number of carabao +and horses are to be found in the territory, where they are used as pack +and riding animals. Both men and women are excellent riders and take +great pride in the decoration of their mounts. The saddle used is carved +from wood, in exact duplication of those used by the Spaniards. The +copper bits are also copies, but are of native casting. Strings of bells +surround the neck of a prized animal, and it is further beautified by an +artificial forelock. Rattan whips, wound with braid, and decorated with +beads, are also a part of his trappings. According to Bagobo tradition, +they have had horses from the most remote times, and Professor +BLUMENTRITT is inclined to believe that they possessed these animals +prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. In support of this contention, he +points to the fact that, unlike most Philippine tribes, they use the +Malayan name.[28] + +[28] The terms used are, _bait koda_--stallion, and _mamat koda_--mare. + +[Transcriber's note: The uncontracted forms of these phrases are _bayi +ta koda'_ and _mama ta koda'_. Because _bayi_ means "female" and _mama_ +means "male," the definitions of "stallion" and "mare" appear to have +been interchanged in error.] + +Heavy loads of field products are transported on animals, or are carried +in cylindrical bark or rattan boxes or carrying frames (Fig. 30). Such a +receptacle is supported on the back by means of a band which passes +around the forehead, or by other bands which slip over the shoulders. +Both sexes carry loads in this way, although it must be confessed that +consideration for the members of the gentler sex has not reached such a +stage that they are relieved of any great part of such labor. When +gathering grain and forest products, or when searching for snails, the +woman attaches a small basket to her belt so that it hangs at a +convenient height against her thigh. We have previously noticed the +decorated bags and baskets which serve as pockets, and also contain the +betel nut outfits. + +FIG. 30. CARRYING FRAME. + +A small child is supported at the mother's hip by means of a broad sash, +which passes over the right shoulder and under the left arm. When it is +able to walk the scarf is discarded, and it sits astride the mother's +hip, where it is held in place by her left arm. Older children and the +men devote considerable time to the newcomers, but at a very early age +the youngsters begin to run about as wild and carefree as only little +savages can. + +The Bagobo is a keen trader and many small articles of all kinds reach, +and pass from him through trade; and to make this barter possible he +intentionally produces an excess of certain things. Chief of these is +hemp, which he now carries to the coast traders, and for which he +receives trade cloth, iron pots, copper gongs, bells, and the beads +which he prizes so highly. In exchange for the betel boxes, bells, and +knife guards, which come from his forge, he receives shell disks, +certain articles of dress, cooking pots, and various other household +articles as well as salt and some animals. The knives made by him are in +great demand and often travel far inland. While among the Bukidnon of +the North-Central part of the Island the writer secured one blade and +guard of undoubted Bagobo workmanship. In early days, Chinese and Moro +traders brought gongs, jars, plates, and other crockery, as well as many +other articles now among the prized heirlooms of wealthy men or +occupying an important place in the ceremonial life of the tribe. +Through these same channels came the Borneo ivory of which the ear plugs +are made, while other objects from more distant regions were +occasionally brought in. Two examples of this trade are now in the +collections of the Field Museum of Natural History. One is a jacket made +from Javanese cloth; the second a belt buckle which apparently +originated in Perak. + +Local feuds, as well as the desire of individuals to be known as +_magani_, have always made it unsafe for small numbers of traders to +venture to any great distance from home, and this has been a great +hindrance to trade. However, large parties, even from other tribes, +sometimes go to a village for purposes of trade, having previously +notified the inhabitants of their intentions. While in Malilla the +writer met with a party of thirty Bila-an traders who lived three days' +march to the east. The influence of capture, intermarriage, and looting, +in carrying the artifacts of one tribe into the territory of another has +previously been mentioned. + +WARFARE. + +The offensive weapons used by the Bagobo are spears, knives (Fig. 15 and +Plate XXXII), and at times bows and arrows (Fig. 17). For defense they +carry shields, either round or oblong (Figs. 31-32), and cover the body +with so many strips of hemp cloth that a knife thrust is warded off. +Turning his body sideways to the enemy, the warrior crouches behind his +shield, keeping up a continuous capering, rushing forward or dancing +backward, seeking for an opening but seldom coming to close quarters. +Arrows and spears are glanced off with the shield. An attack is usually +initiated by the throwing of spears, then, if the enemy is at a +disadvantage or confused, the warriors rush in to close combat. For this +purpose they rely entirely on their knives, and as fencers they are +unexcelled. They are but indifferent shots with the bow and arrow, and +that weapon is but little used in actual combat. It has been frequently +stated that these arrows are poisoned but I was unable to discover a +single specimen so prepared. When hard-pressed, or when a camp must be +made in dangerous territory, sharpened bamboo sticks--_sogiang_--are stuck +into the ground with their points directed toward the enemy. These must +be carefully gathered up by the pursuers, who otherwise run the risk of +having the knife-like blades driven into their feet. Old warriors state +that in former years they not only covered the upper part of the body +with hemp cloth but wound over this long decorated strips called +_gindua_; they also tell of coats of mail made of carabao horn or +rattan. None of these outfits exist in the territory today, but it is +not at all improbable that they were formerly in use, for the long +decorated bands are still found among the Bukidnon of the North, with +whom some trade is carried on; and a few coats of mail are to be seen +among the neighboring Moro. + +FIG. 31A AND B. FRONT AND BACK OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + +FIG. 32A AND B. A.--FRONT OF A DECORATED SHIELD. B.--BACK OF SHIELD A. + +Hostile raids against the neighboring Bila-an, Tagakaolo, and Ata seem +to have been common from the most ancient times. After the arrival of +the Spaniards there were many minor conflicts with the Moro, and the +tribal history takes note of several serious feuds between Bagobo +villages. Single warriors, usually those desiring to become _magani_, +sometimes enter hostile territory and there lie in wait for an +opportunity to spear a passing foe. The fact that these attacks are +frequently from ambush, or that whole families are slain while asleep on +the floors of their houses, does not seem to detract in the least from +the honor due for the deed. Generally, parties of sixty or more, under +the direction of a _magani_, are made up to avenge the death of their +townspeople, to secure loot and slaves, or to win glory and distinction. +An ambush is formed near to a hostile village and just at dawn an attack +is made on the early risers who are scattered and unprepared. The +invaders are usually satisfied with a few victims and then make their +escape. Women and children are either killed or are carried away as +slaves. It is customary for all the warriors to make at least one cut in +the bodies, and to eat a portion of the livers of enemies who have shown +great bravery, for in this way it is thought they gain in that quality. +This seems to be the only occasion when human flesh is tasted, despite +the fact that the members of this tribe have been frequently referred to +as cannibals. + +The warriors of Cibolan and Malilla formerly carried heads of enemies to +their towns and made use of them during the _GinEm_ ceremony, while at +Bansalan and Digos a lock of hair, cut from the head of the slain, +answered the same purpose. Individual raiders sometimes carry home a +head or a hand as evidence of a successful fight, and at such times +festivals may be held to celebrate the event. However, the trophy soon +loses its value and is hung or buried at a distance from the village. +Head-hunting for the sake of the trophy itself, does not exist here. + +Peace can be effected by means of a blood compact known as _dayandi_. +Each principal cuts his own wrist until the blood flows freely; this he +catches in his free hand and offers to the other participant to drink. +Sometimes the blood of both is caught and mixed in a dish from which +they drink, meanwhile addressing the _tigyama_,[29] saying, "We are now +like brothers, like children of the same parents, and now we cannot +fight any more. We ask you to be the witnesses." + +[29] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 12 pages later in this document.] + +SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. + +There seems to be no trace of clan or totemic grouping among the Bagobo. +Blood relationship is traced as far as the second cousin and is a bar to +marriage. The suggestion that a man might marry his mother-in-law was +received with horror, but whether this was due to local mother-in-law +stories or to an idea of relationship could not be ascertained. However, +a man may marry the sister of his wife. + +Each district has its head man, or petty _datu_ who is supposed to be +subject to the _datu_ of Cibolan. This seems actually to have been the +case until a few years ago, when some of the local rulers withdrew their +allegiance. The office is hereditary and usually passes from the father +to his eldest son. Should the _datu_ be without an heir, or the son be +considered inefficient, the under chiefs and wise old men may choose a +leader from among their number. + +In his own district the power of the _datu_ is very great, but even he +is obliged to respect the laws and customs handed down by the ancestors. +He is supreme judge in all matters, though he may, if he desires, call +in the old men to help him decide difficult cases. The usual method of +punishment is by means of a fine. Should the culprit be unwilling or +unable to pay he is placed in servitude until such a time as the debt is +considered canceled, but should he refuse to serve he is killed without +further ado. The _datu_ appoints a man for this purpose, and he usually +gets his victim by stealth, either by waylaying him in the road or by +driving a spear through him as he lies asleep on the floor of his house. +When a fine is levied the _datu_ retains a portion as pay for his +services; if the more drastic punishment follows it serves to emphasize +his power and is more valuable to him than the payment. When his house +needs repairing, his hemp requires stripping, or his fields need +attention, his followers give him assistance. In return for these +services he helps support a number of fighting men who can always be +called upon for the defence of the people. His house is considered the +property of all to the extent that anyone goes there at any time and +stays as long as he pleases, partaking meanwhile of the _datu's_ food. +In times of danger, or during festivals, all the people assemble there +and assist, in the defense or the merry-making. + +Datu Tongkaling is the most industrious man in the tribe. He does not +hesitate to work in the rice fields, to aid in the house-building or to +take his turn at the forge, neither will he tolerate any loafing on the +part of his followers. While in most instances he mingles freely with +his people he never eats with them. His wives, children, and guests eat +from a long row of dishes set on the floor, but the _datu_ takes his +food alone at a considerable distance from the others. + +The balance of the people can be roughly divided between freeman and +slaves, but slavery here is of such a mild type, and the members of that +class become so quickly merged into the tribe that the lines cannot be +closely drawn. Women and children secured in raids become the slaves of +their captors, and may be bought and sold, or pass by inheritance, like +other property. It is considered proper for a man to live with his slave +without marrying her, but should she become pregnant she is usually +given her freedom at once; if not then, she is certain to be upon the +death of her master, while her offspring are free and legitimate heirs. +Children born to a slave couple remain in their class, as do those born +to a slave mother and a man not her master. These slaves are treated +with kindness and consideration and seldom try to make their escape. In +fact it is often difficult to pick out the members of this class from +the other members of the family. + +The chief aim in life of the man is to have the right to wear the +blood-red clothing and to be known as _magani_. As stated earlier in the +paper, this term is applied to a man who has killed two or more persons. +He is then entitled to wear the peculiar chocolate-colored head covering +(Plate XXV). When his score has reached four he can don blood-red +trousers, and when he has six lives to his credit he is permitted to +wear the complete blood-red suit and to carry a bag of the same +color.[30] From that time on his clothing does not change with the +number of his victims, but his influence increases with each life put to +his credit. It is said that formerly, at Digos and Bansalan, a man who +had killed twenty or more was known as _gemawan_, and was distinguished +by a black hemp suit. This claim to the black clothing is no longer +respected, and such garments are worn by any who desire them. The man +who has never killed a person is called _matalo_, a rather slighting +term signifying one who has no desire to fight but remains at home with +the women. A man who kills an unfaithful wife and her admirer may count +the two on his score. He may also count those of his townspeople whom he +has killed in fair fight, but unprovoked murder will be punished by the +death of the offender. The candidate for _magani_ honors may go to an +unfriendly town, or to a neighboring tribe, and kill without fear of +censure from his own people. + +[30] This is the rule at Cibolan. At Malilla and Digos, the kerchief may +be worn when one life has been taken, the trousers for two, the coat for +three, and finally the sack for four. + +[Transcriber's note: _matalo_ in the paragraph above means "coward."] + +The _magani_ is one of the leaders in a war party; he is chosen to +inflict the death penalty when it is decreed, and it is men of this +class that assist in the human sacrifices. He is under the special +protection of Mandarangan and Darago, and all petitions to these +powerful spirits must be made through him. His clothing is considered +the property of these spirits, and when such specimens were secured for +the collection, the wearer would invariably place the garment beside +some prized article, such as a knife or spear, then taking a green betel +nut would rub the garment and object, meanwhile beseeching the spirits +to leave the one and enter the other. Later the nut was placed in the +_tambara_ belonging to those spirits. A father may not bequeath to his +son the right to the red clothing; and such articles, together with his +weapons, should be buried with him. Should one not entitled to these +garments dare to make use of them, the spirits would straightway cause +his body to swell or turn yellow, and he would die. + +In a previous paragraph we mentioned the unorganized priesthood, the +members of which are known as _mabalian_. Men are not barred from this +profession, but the greater number of its members are old, or +middle-aged, women.[31] A woman may live the greater part of her life +without an idea of becoming a member of this order, and then suddenly be +warned in dreams, by visions, or by other _mabalian_ that she has been +chosen by the spirits. The one thus elected becomes a pupil of a +qualified _mabalian_ and for several months will be drilled in the +duties of that office. She will be taught the medicines to be used at +certain times,[32] the duties of a midwife, the correct method of +building shrines and conducting ceremonies, and finally, she will learn +the prayers with which the spirits should be addressed. It seems to be +the belief that, at times during the ceremonies, the _mabalian_ may be +possessed by a spirit and that she then speaks not as a mortal but as +the spirit itself. She also knows how to weave and dye the turban worn +by the _magani_, and because of this accomplishment is considered to be +under the protection of Baitpandi,[33] and is permitted to wear garments +made of red cloth, the same as the _magani_. + +[31] There are five _mabalian_ in Cibolan, all of whom are women past +middle life. + +[32] A medicine is used with the idea that it assists in driving away +evil influences. + +[33] The patron spirit of the weavers. + +The workers in the various crafts are under the guidance and protection +of special spirits, but there is no bar against other members of the +tribe entering those professions. + +Apparently then, Bagobo society is divided into several classes or +divisions, but with the exception of a few individuals in the slave +class, there is a possibility or an opportunity for each member of the +tribe to enter any class open to his or her sex. Even a slave woman may +become the wife of a _datu_, and her son may assume the leadership of +the tribe. + +LAWS. PROPERTY AND INHERITANCE. + +The laws of the people are those imposed by custom and religion, and are +equally binding on all classes. Public opinion is sufficient to prevent +most crimes; the fear of offending the spirits is a further deterrent; +while the final bar is the drastic punishment meted out by the _datu_. +Theft is punished by the levying of a fine if the culprit is able to +pay, or by a term of servitude if he has no property. If a husband finds +that his wife has been unfaithful, he should kill both her and her +admirer, but the spear with which he avenges his wrongs should be left +in the body of one of the victims, as a sign that the murder was +provoked by the fault. When this is done the husband cannot be held +accountable either to the _datu_ or to the dead person's relatives. If, +however, he withdraws the weapon, the brothers or other male relatives +of the deceased have a right and a duty to avenge the deaths. A man who +has killed his wife and her lover is allowed to count both on his score +towards becoming a _magani_--a further incentive for him to avenge his +wrongs. Cases are known where the husband accepted payment for his +wife's affections, but it was considered a sign of weakness, or +cowardice, and the man lost caste. Unprovoked murder of one from the +same or a friendly village is punished by death. + +A man having illicit relations with a slave woman, not his own, is +subjected to a heavy fine or a term of servitude. Incest should be +punished by the death of the culprits for should such a crime go +unpunished the spirits would cause the sea to rise and cover the land. +Datu Tongkaling claims that on two occasions, since he became ruler, he +has put such offenders to death. In the first case he had the couple +bound and thrown into the sea, while in the second instance, they were +tied to trees in the forest and sacrificed in the presence of all the +people of the village. + +Prohibitions exist against the wearing of the clothing which +distinguishes warriors and priestesses, and there are rules governing +the conduct of individuals while near shrines or during ceremonies, but +punishment for the breaking of these rules is meted out by the spirits +rather than by the _datu_. + +Each settlement is recognized as having property rights to all adjacent +lands. Within these recognized limits, its members may take up as much +land as they need, provided it is not already in use, but when a field +is, for any reason, abandoned it again becomes the property of the +community. Individual ownership extends to houses, furnishings, and all +articles of clothing, as well as to weapons, traps, animals, and slaves. +Although bought with a price the wife is still very independent and has +undisputed rights to her baskets, cooking utensils, looms, and to the +finery with which she adorns her person. + +Since all the people assist in the support of the _datu_ they consider +his home to be, to a certain extent, their own and make use of it and +its furnishings without question. + +Probably at no place in the world has borrowing gone to greater extremes +than here. When attempting to purchase clothing, or articles in daily +use, the writer frequently found that not a single garment worn by an +individual was his own; and it was usually necessary to consult several +persons in order to secure a complete outfit. + +Upon the death of a man, his property is taken in charge by his first +wife, or by the old men, and is divided equally among his wives and +children, with perhaps a little extra added to the share of the first +mate. The belongings of a free-born woman go to her children, or, in +case she is barren, are given to her relatives. In cases where both the +parents are dead, the children pass into the care of the father's +family. + +Despite the fact that property is owned by individuals, a large part of +the labor, especially in house-building and in the fields, is done in +common. When a man desires to clear or plant a field or to build a +house, he summons his friends to aid him and they respond with no idea +of payment other than their food and drink, and the return of like +services when they are in similar need. + +BIRTH. + +For about six months before and after the birth of a child the mother is +relieved from hard labor; she is not allowed to taste of any thing sour, +neither may she eat dried fish or flesh, lest her child be thin and +weak. The father is under no restrictions other than that he is expected +to remain near to his home for a few days following the birth of a +child. Other action on his part would be considered by the spirits as an +admission that he does not care for the child, and they would cause the +umbilical cord to decay so that the child would die. The mother is +delivered in the regular dwelling, where she is attended by two or more +midwives or _mabalian_.[34] She is placed with her back against an +inclined board, while in her hands she holds a rope which is attached to +the roof. With the initial pains, one of the midwives massages the +abdomen, while another prepares a drink made from leaves, roots, and +bark, and gives it to the expectant woman. The preparation of this +concoction was taught by friendly spirits, and it is supposed to insure +an easy delivery. Still another _mabalian_ spreads a mat in the middle +of the room, and on it places valuable cloths, weapons, and gongs, which +she offers to the spirits; praying that they will make the birth easy +and give good health to the infant. The articles offered at this time +can be used by their former owners but as they are now the property of +the spirits they must not be sold or traded. The writer was very anxious +to secure an excellent weapon which had been thus offered. The user +finally agreed to part with it but first he placed it beside another of +equal value, and taking a piece of betel nut he rubbed each weapon with +it a number of times, then dipping his fingers in the water he touched +both the old and the new blades, all the time asking the spirit to +accept and enter the new weapon. The child is removed by the _mabalian_ +who, in cutting the umbilical cord, makes use of the kind of knife used +by the members of the child's sex, otherwise the wound would never heal. +The child is placed on a piece of soft betel bark, "for its bones are +soft and our hands are hard and are apt to break the soft bones," then +water is poured over it and its body is rubbed with _pogonok_.[35] The +afterbirth is placed in a bamboo tube, is covered with ashes and a leaf, +and the whole is hung against the side of the dwelling where it remains +until it falls of its own accord or the house is destroyed. In Cibolan +the midwife applies a mixture of clay and herbs called _karamir_ to the +eyes of all who have witnessed the birth "so that they will not become +blind." Having done this she gives the child its name, usually that of a +relative, and her duties are over. As payment she will receive a large +and a small knife, a plate, some cloth, and a needle.[36] + +[34] In Cibolan the midwife is called _taratEk-Ekn_, and need not be a +_mabalian_. + +[35] A medicine made of bark and rattan. + +[36] The payment given at the birth of a boy is somewhat greater than +that for a girl. + +In Malilla the naming does not take place until three clays after the +birth, and the eyes are not always anointed, although the old people +agree that it is an ancient custom and "a good thing to do." At that +time the mat containing the gifts is spread on the floor and the +offerings are again called to the attention of the spirits, who are +urged to look to the welfare of the child. Should the infant be ailing, +or cry a great deal, it is a sign that the spirits are displeased with +the name given to it and another will be substituted; however, this does +not seem to be done with an idea of fooling the spirits, as is the case +with some other tribes. The child is nursed until two or three years of +age, or until another takes its place. There is no superstition +concerning twins, but triplets are at once put to death by filling their +mouths with ashes, otherwise "the parents would die, for they are like +dogs." + +When questioned concerning abortion, Datu Tongkaling asserted that he +considered it "very bad," and that he would prohibit any _mabalian_ who +assisted in such a practice from continuing her profession, but he said +that despite his orders secret medicines which produce that result are +sometimes administered. Such a practice is not common, however, as +children are greatly desired and no worse slur can be applied to a woman +than to speak of her as barren. + +So far as could be learned there is no ceremony or celebration of any +kind when a child reaches the age of puberty but soon thereafter its +teeth will be filed and blackened. In some villages the boys are +circumcised, but the practice is not compulsory, neither is it general +throughout the territory. + +MARRIAGE. + +Marriage among the Bagobo takes place much later than is common among +most Philippine tribes, the couple often being eighteen or twenty years +of age. As a rule the parents of the boy select the girl and negotiate +the match. Going to the house of the girl they casually broach the +subject and if her parents are favorable, a day is set to discuss the +details. This meeting is attended by the friends and relatives of both +families, and two head-men or _datu_ must also be present to represent +the contracting parties. The price the girl should bring varies +according to the wealth of the interested parties and the +accomplishments of the bride. Whatever the sum paid, the father of the +girl must make a return present equal to one-half the value of the +marriage gift "so that he does not sell his daughter like a slave." +Usually marriage does not take place until a year or more after this +settlement, and during the interval the boy must serve his father-in-law +to be. When the time for the final ceremony arrives the relatives and +friends assemble and for two or three days they feast and make merry. A +_mabalian_ spreads a mat on the floor, places on it many valuable +articles and then offers all to the spirits, in order that they may be +pleased to give the couple a long and prosperous life together. Finally, +she puts a dish of rice on the mat and, after offering it to the +spirits, places it between the boy and the girl as they sit on the +floor. The girl takes a handful of the rice and feeds it to the boy who, +in turn, feeds her, and the ceremony is complete. The couple may then go +to their new home, but for several years the girl's family will exact a +certain amount of service from the groom. + +A slight variation of the usual order occurred recently at the marriage +of one of Datu Tongkaling's sons. At that time all the details were +arranged by the _datu_, who, accompanied by his son and a number of +relatives, went to the girl's house and proposed the union. After the +girl had brought wine, betel nut, and food, and had placed them before +the visitors, she was directed by her mother to make a carrying bag for +her lover. Had she objected to the union and refused to make this gift, +her decision would probably have been accepted as final and all +negotiations abandoned. However, it is not customary for the young +people to refuse to carry out the wishes of their elders. As the girl +offered no objections, the party fell to discussing the price the groom +should pay, and finally, after several hours of bargaining, decided that +he should furnish her father with one _agong_,[37] one horse, and a +double betel box.[38] Five days later, when he paid this sum, he +received a return gift of one _agong_ and ten skirts from the bride's +mother. About one-half the value of the groom's gift was distributed +among the girl's relatives, who were at the same time admonished that, +in case a separation should occur, they would be expected to return an +equal amount. In the presence of about a hundred friends, the pair drank +wine from the same dish, then submitted to having a little hair cut from +their heads, and were pronounced man and wife. Before they retired for +the night the _mabalian_ combed their hair, then, having directed the +groom to precede his bride to their sleeping place, she secured a child +and placed it on the mat between the pair. This, she explained, was an +old custom, and was done so that the girl might not be ashamed, for she +was not the first to sleep there. Having finished this duty, she +returned to the center of the room and placed a number of plates and a +knife on the _tambara_, where they were allowed to remain for four days +as offerings to the _anito_, Manama, Toglai and the _tigyama_.[39] At +the end of that period the plates were attached to the outside walls of +the house, and the knife returned to its former owner. This completed +the duties of the _mabalian_ who returned home carrying an _agong_, the +payment for her services. + +[37] Large copper gong. + +[38] Much more is often given. One girl in Cibolan brought six horses, +five agongs, and several spears and knives. + +[39] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 5 pages after this.] + +A man may have as many wives as he desires and can afford, but he may +not take a second mate until a child has been born to the first union, +or the wife has been proved beyond doubt to be barren. The groom renders +no services to the father of the second wife, but instead of this pays a +double price for the girl, for he not only pays her parents but is +forced also to give a like sum to his first wife, who, in turn, presents +it to her father. Should a third wife be added to the family a sum equal +to her cost is divided among the earlier wives. The first wife is +generally the lady of the house and does not particularly object to +having other girls added to the family, provided they are willing to +obey her. Datu Tongkaling has had four wives, three of whom are still +living. + +If a couple cannot agree, a separation can be arranged by applying to +the local head-man, who, after listening to their troubles, decides +which one is at fault, and whether or no the marriage gifts must be +returned. When a couple parts, plates, bowls, and jars are sometimes +broken as a sign that they will never live together again and the +spirits are thus called to witness. A divorced woman may remarry, but +unless the sum originally paid for her has been returned, the new groom +must pay such an amount to the first husband. + +SICKNESS AND DEATH. + +In case of illness a _mabalian_ administers some simple remedy without +any call on the spirits. If, however, the sickness does not yield +readily to this treatment, it is evident that the trouble is caused by +some spirit who can only be appeased by a gift, Betel nuts, leaves, +food, clothing, and some article in daily use by the patient are placed +in a dish of palm bark and on top of all is laid a roughly carved figure +of a man. This offering is passed over the body of the patient while the +_mabalian_ addresses the spirits as follows. "Now, you can have the man +on this dish, for we have changed him for the sick man. Pardon anything +this man may have done, and let him be well again." Immediately after +this the dish is carried away and hidden so that the sick person may +never see it again, for should he do so the illness would return. + +According to Father GISBERT a doll is carved from a piece of wood and +the spirit is addressed: "O God, Thou who has created men and trees, and +all things, do not deprive us of life, and receive in exchange this bit +of wood which has our face." + +In obstinate cases the invalid may be removed from his own house to +another, in order that he may be under the care of the good spirits +residing there. The _mabalian_ appplies[sic] certain medicines and then +decrees a period of taboo, during which no outsiders may enter the +house. Those within at the time the medicine was given may go out if +they desire, but must return there to sleep. Should it become evident +that the patient will die he is taken back to his own place, otherwise +his family would be called upon to reimburse the owner of the house in +which the death occurs, for bringing evil or unfriendly spirits into +their dwelling. + +Governor Bolton describes a somewhat different procedure among the +members of the Guianga branch of this tribe. Having learned that Datu +Angalan was ill he went to see him, but found his house deserted. The +_datu_ was finally located in a small hut about a hundred yards away +from his own dwelling, with no attendants. The governor writes, "When I +went in the tribesmen entered. I soon found that I had broken a charm +which prevented anyone seeing him for a certain time; that he had been +placed in the hut for that reason, and to insure his not dying in the +large house. It is likely that they had a human sacrifice at that +time."[40] + +[40] Extract from letters of Gov. Bolton, in files of the Governor at +Davao. + +Following a death the body is covered with good clothing and is placed +in the middle of the house. Wailers sit by the corpse, fanning it to +keep away flies, or making an occasional offering of food; while the +friends gather to talk of the virtues of the deceased, to console the +family, and to partake of the food and drink which has been provided for +the gathering. The body is kept over one night, and in the case of great +personages, for three days, or until the coffin--a large log split in +halves and hollowed out--is prepared. When this is ready the body is +placed in it, together with some prized articles of the deceased. After +the top has been fitted to the lower portion, they are lashed together +and the cracks are filled with lime.[41] The body is buried beneath the +house, and the grave is protected by a bamboo fence, within which is +placed food, small offerings, or perhaps a shield and spear. In some +instances the coffin is allowed to remain in the house, which is then +abandoned. It is said that when Datu Taopan died his funeral lasted ten +days, and on the last day the house was decked, inside and out, with +flowers and valuable gifts, and was then deserted. + +[41] When the deceased has been a person of note the coffin is sometimes +decorated or colored. The coffin of a _magani_ should be red, yellow, +and black; while that of a _mabalian_ should be yellow, black, and +brown. + +Following the burial the family lives in the house where the death +occurred until a human sacrifice has been made. During this period they +live very quietly, eat poor food, wear old clothing, and abstain from +all amusements. If their wealth permits, they may shorten the period of +mourning by making a special sacrifice, but in most cases the bereaved +will wait until the yearly sacrifice when they will purchase a share in +the victim and thus remove the taboo. Following the offering, the old +house is abandoned and is allowed to fall to pieces for "the man has +gone and his house must go also." The procedure is the same for women, +and for children who have survived infancy. + +BELIEFS CONCERNING THE SOUL, SPIRITS, ORACLES, AND MAGIC. + +There is some variance, in different parts of the Bagobo area, in the +beliefs concerning the spirits or souls of a man. In Cibolan each man +and woman is supposed to have eight spirits or _gimokod_, which dwell in +the head, the right and left hands and feet, and other parts not +specified. At death these _gimokod_ part, four from the right side of +the body, going up to a place called _palakalangit_, and four descending +to a region known as _karonaronawan_.These places differ in no respects +from the present home of the Bagobo, except that in the region above it +is always day, and all useful plants grow in abundance. In these places +the _gimokod_ are met by the spirits, Toglai and Tigyama, and by them +are assigned to their future homes. If a man has been a _datu_ on earth, +his spirits have like rank in the other life, but go to the same place +as those of common people. The _gimokod_ of evil men are punished by +being crowded into poor houses. These spirits may return to their old +home for short periods, and talk with the _gimokod_ of the living +through dreams, but they never return to dwell again on earth. + +In the districts to the west of Cibolan the general belief is that there +are but two _gimokod_, one inhabiting the right side of the body, the +other the left. That of the right side is good, while all evil deeds and +inclinations come from the one dwelling on the left. It is a common +thing when a child is ill to attach a chain bracelet to its right arm +and to bid the good spirit not to depart, but to remain and restore the +child to health. In Malilla it is believed that after death the spirit +of the right side goes to a good place, while the one on the left +remains to wander about on earth as a _buso_,[42] but this latter belief +does not seem to be shared by the people of other districts. + +[42] See p. 107. + +Aside from the _gimokod_ the Bagobo believe that there exists a great +company of powerful spirits who make their homes in the sky above, in +the space beneath the world, or in the sea, in streams, cliffs, +mountains, or trees. The following is the list related by Datu +Tongkaling, a number of _mabalian_, and others supposed to have special +knowledge concerning these superior beings. + +I. Eugpamolak Manobo, also called Manama and Kalayagan. The first and +greatest of the spirits, and the creator of all that is. His home is in +the sky from whence he can observe the doings of men. Gifts for him +should be white, and should be placed above and in the center of +offerings intended for other spirits. He may be addressed by the +_mabalian_, the _datu_, and wise old men. + +II. Tolus ka balakat, "dweller in the _balakat_[43]." A male spirit who +loves the blood, but not the flesh of human beings, and one of the three +for whom the yearly sacrifice is made. Only the _magani_ may offer +petitions to him. He is not recognized by the people of Digos and +vicinity. + +[43] A hanger in which offerings are placed. + +III and IV. Mandarangan and his wife Darago. This couple look after the +fortunes of the warriors, and in return demand the yearly sacrifice of a +slave. They are supposed to dwell in the great fissure of Mt. Apo, from +which clouds of sulphur fumes are constantly rising. The intentions of +this pair are evil, and only the utmost care on the part of the _magani_ +can prevent them from causing quarrels and dissentions[sic] among the +people, or even actually devouring some of them. + +V. Taragomi. A male spirit who owns all food. He is the guardian of the +crops and it is for him that the shrine known as _parobanian_ is erected +in the center of the rice field. + +VI. Tolus ka towangan. The patron of the workers in brass and copper. + +VII. Tolus ka gomanan. Patron of the smiths. + +VIII. Baitpandi. A female spirit who taught the women to weave, and who +now presides over the looms and the weavers. + +IX. and X. Toglai, also called Si Niladan and Maniladan, and his wife +Toglibon. The first man and woman to live on the earth. They gave to the +people their language and customs. After their death they became +spirits, and are now responsible for all marriages and births. By some +people Toglai is believed to be one of the judges over the shades of the +dead, while in Bansalan he is identified with Eugpamolak Manobo. + +XI. Tigyama. A class of spirits, one of whom looks after each family. +When children marry, the _tigyama_ of the two families unite to form one +who thereafter guards the couple. While usually well disposed they are +capable of killing those who fail to show them respect, or who violate +the rules governing family life. + +XII. Diwata. A class of numerous spirits who serve Eugpamolak Manobo. + +XIII. Anito. A name applied to a great body of spirits, some of whom are +said formerly to have been people. They know all medicines and cures for +illness, and it is from them that the _mabalian_ secures her knowledge +and her power. They also assist the _tigyama_ in caring for the +families. + +XIV. Buso. Mean, evil spirits who eat dead people and have some power to +injure the living. A young Bagobo described his idea of a _buso_ as +follows: "He has a long body, long feet and neck, curly hair, and black +face, flat nose, and one big red or yellow eye. He has big feet and +fingers, but small arms, and his two big teeth are long and pointed. +Like a dog he goes about eating anything, even dead persons." As already +noted, the people of Malilla are inclined to identify the _gimokod_ of +the left side with this evil class. + +XV. Tagamaling. Evil spirits who dwell in big trees. + +XVI. Tigbanua. Ill disposed beings inhabiting rocks and cliffs in the +mountains. These last two classes are frequently confused with the +_buso_. + +In addition to these, the old men of Malilla gave the following: + +1. Tagareso. Low spirits who cause people to become angry and to do +little evil deeds. In some cases they cause insanity. + +2. Sarinago. Spirits who steal rice. It is best to appease them, +otherwise the supply of rice will vanish rapidly. + +3. Tagasoro. Beings who cause sudden anger which results in quarrels and +death. They are the ones who furnish other spirits with human flesh. + +4 and 5. Balinonok and his wife Balinsogo. This couple love blood and +for this reason cause men and women to fight or to run amuck. + +6. Siring. Mischievous spirits who inhabit caves, cliffs, and dangerous +places. They have long nails and can be distinguished by that +characteristic. They sometimes impersonate members of the family and +thus succeed in stealing women and children, whom they carry to their +mountain homes. The captives are not eaten but are fed on snakes and +worms, and should they try to escape the _siring_ will scratch them with +their long nails. + +Other spirits were named and described by individuals, but as they are +not generally accepted by the people of the tribe they are not mentioned +here. + +The stars, thunder and lightning, and similar phenomena are generally +considered as "lights or signs" belonging to the spirits, yet one +frequently hears hazy tales such as that "the constellation Marara is a +one-legged and one-armed man who sometimes causes cloudy weather at +planting time so that people may not see his deformities," or we are +told that "the sun was placed in the sky by the creator, and on it lives +an evil spirit who sometimes kills people. The sun is moved about by the +wind;" again, "the sun and moon were once married and all the stars are +their children." + +Despite repeated assertions by previous writers that the Bagobo are +fire-worshippers no evidence was obtained during our visit to support +the statement. The older people insisted that it was not a spirit and +that no offerings were ever made to it. One _mabalian_ stated that fire +was injurious to a woman in her periods and hence it was best for her +not to cook at such times; she was also of the opinion that fire was of +two kinds, good and bad, and hence might belong to both good and bad +spirits. + +A common method used by the spirits to communicate with mortals is +through the call of the _limokon_[44] All the people know the meaning of +its calls and all respect its warnings. If a man is starting to buy or +trade for an article and this bird gives its warning the sale is +stopped. Should the _limokon_ call when a person is on the trail he at +ones doubles his fist and thrusts it in the direction from which the +warning comes. If it becomes necessary to point backwards, it is a +signal to return, or should the arm point directly in front it is +certain that danger is there, and it is best to turn back and avoid it. +When it is not clear from whence the note came, the traveler looks +toward the right side. If he sees there strong, sturdy trees, he knows +that all is well, but if they are cut or weaklings, he should use great +care to avoid impending danger. When questioned as to why one should +look only to the right, an old man quickly replied: "The right side +belongs to you; the left side is bad and belongs to someone else." + +[44] See p. 63, note. [Transcriber's note: footnote above beginning, "A +dove."] + +Sneezing is a bad omen, and should a person sneeze when about to +undertake a journey, he knows that it is a warning of danger, and will +delay until another time. + +Certain charms, or actions, are of value either in warding off evil +spirits, in causing trouble or death to an enemy, or in gaining an +advantage over another in trading and in games. One type of charm is a +narrow cloth belt in which "medicines" are tied. These medicines may be +peculiarly shaped stones, bits of fungus growth, a tooth, shell, or +similar object. Such belts are known as _pamadan_, or _lambos_, and are +worn soldier-fashion over one shoulder. They are supposed to protect +their owners in battle or to make it easy for them to get the best of +other parties in a trade, A little dust gathered from the footprint of +an enemy and placed in one of these belts will immediately cause the foe +to become ill. + +It is a simple matter to cause a person to become insane. All that is +needed is to secure a piece of his hair, or clothing, place it in a dish +of water and stir in one direction for several hours. + +Father GISBERT relates the following method of detecting theft: + +"There are not, as a rule, many thefts among the Bagobo, for they +believe that a thief can be discovered easily by means of their famous +_bongat_. That consists of two small joints of bamboo, which contain +certain mysterious powders. He who has been robbed and wishes to +determine the robber takes a hen's egg, makes a hole in it, puts a pinch +of the above said powder in it, and leaves it in the fire. If he wishes +the robber to die he has nothing else to do than to break the egg; but +since the thief may sometimes be a relative or a beloved person, the egg +is not usually broken, so that there may be or may be able to be a +remedy. For under all circumstances, when this operation is performed, +if the robber lives, wherever he may be, he himself must inform on +himself by crying out, 'I am the thief; I am the thief,' as he is +compelled to do (they say) by the sharp pain which he feels all through +his body. When he is discovered, he may be cured by putting powder from +the other joint into the water and bathing his body with it. This +practice is very common here among the heathens and Moros. A Bagobo, +named Anas, who was converted, gave me the _bongat_ with which he had +frightened many people when a heathen." + +In Bansalan crab shells are hung over the doors of houses, for these +shells are distasteful to the _buso_ who will thus be kept at a +distance. + +I was frequently told of persons who could foretell the future by means +of palmistry, but was never able to see a palmist at work, or to verify +the information. + +MUSIC, DANCES AND CEREMONIES. + +The music for the dances is generally furnished by one or more persons +beating on several _agongs_ of different sizes and notes, which are +suspended in regular order from the house rafters (Plate XXXa). The +player stands in front of the line and begins to beat the instruments +with a padded stick. Oftentimes he is accompanied by a man who strikes a +wooden drum with the palm of one hand and a stick held in the other. The +music grows faster, emphasizing certain beats, until it becomes a +compelling rhythm that starts the feet of the onlookers, and suddenly a +man or woman begins to dance. At first she keeps time to the music by +raising on her toes and heels, bending the knees and twisting the body +from side to side, but soon she becomes more animated, the feet are +raised high above the floor and brought down with a sort of shuffle +which reminds one of the sound made by the feet of a clog dancer. Still +swaying her body, she begins to circle, contra-clockwise, around the +gongs, and soon she is joined by others until all the dancing space is +filled. The scene is most picturesque, for these dances usually occur at +night, in rooms illuminated only by the flickering light of torches. The +rich clothing of the participants loses nothing of its beauty in this +dim light, while the bells and rattles with which each dancer surrounds +arms, legs and ankles, add to the din and weirdness of the occasion. +Before the dance has progressed far the musicians begin to keep time +with their feet and frequently dance away from their instruments, +circle, and then return to continue the music. + +With slight variation, this is the dance used on all occasions. At +certain ceremonies small gongs, or the _bolang bolang_,[45] replace the +_agongs_, and at times also a single dancer will accompany himself on +the _kodlon_--a long wooden guitar with rattan strings (Plate XXXb). + +[45] An instrument made by placing a small board on a rice mortar. This +is pounded or beaten with short sticks, or with the wooden pestles. + +In this description we have named a large share of the musical +instruments used by the Bagobo. The women frequently play on a sort of +guitar made of a section of bamboo from the outside of which narrow +strings are cut. These are raised and made taut with small wooden +bridges and are then picked with a stick or the fingers (Fig. 33). +Bamboo Jew's-harps and mouth flutes are played by the men, but the nose +flute, so common in most parts of the Philippines, was not seen in use +here. + +FIG. 33. TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR. + +The ceremonies and dances are so closely associated with every day +affairs that in the description of the life of the people up to this +point we have left only a few still to be discussed. These are, in the +main, very similar throughout the Bagobo belt, but to avoid confusion +the description here given of the two greatest events of the year--the +_GinEm_ ceremony and the human sacrifice--deals with Cibolan, unless +expressly stated to the contrary. + +The greatest of all Bagobo ceremonies--the _GinEm_--may be given by the +_datu_ within three or four months after the appearance of the +constellation _Balatik_, when the moon is new or full. Its object is to +thank the spirits for success in war or domestic affairs, to ward off +sickness and other dangers, to drive away the _buso_, and finally to so +gratify the spirits that they will be pleased to increase the wealth of +all the people. Datu Tongkaling expressed a belief that this ceremony is +in a way related to the rice harvest, "for it is always made when there +is plenty of rice in the granaries." It appears to the writer, however, +that this ceremony probably originated in connection with warfare. + +According to the tales of the old men, it was formerly the custom to go +on a raid before this ceremony was to take place, and successful +warriors would bring home with them the skulls of their victims which +they tied to the _patan'nan_.[46] It seems also to have been closely +associated with the yearly sacrifice, for it was never made until after +the appearance of the constellation _Balatik_, and without doubt a +sacrifice frequently did take place during the first day of the +ceremony, at the time the decorated poles were raised. However, such an +offering at this time did not relieve the _datu_ from the obligation of +making the regular sacrifice. + +[46] Ceremonial poles dedicated to Mandarangan and Darago. In Digos and +Bansalan the skulls were not taken but hair cut from the heads of +enemies was placed in the swinging altar _balakat_, and were left there +until the conclusion of the ceremony. + +Datu Ansig of Talun informed me that, unless the death of some great +person made a special sacrifice necessary, there was only one such +offering made during the year, and that at the time the decorated poles +were placed in the dwelling. + +The time for the festival having been agreed upon, messengers are sent +to other _datu_ and head-men, inviting them and their people to attend. +Sufficient food is prepared for the guests and when all is ready the +_mabalian_ takes one chicken from among those to be used for food and +frees it as an offering to the _gimokod_. It is bidden to wander about +in the forest, and no one will molest the fowl, for should he do so he +is certain to become ill.[47] The _mabalian_ has previously placed +festoons of leaves and vines at various points in the house and now she +spreads a mat on the floor. A jar of _balaba_, wine, stands at each +corner, while at one end is an _agong_, and a plate containing betel +nut, leaf, and two varieties of rattan; at the other end are several +_tambara_. When all is thus prepared the people place offerings of +beautiful clothing, knives, and other costly gifts on the mat. Two +_mabalian_, a man and a woman call upon the spirits,[48] urging them to +look with favor on the offering made by the people, to grant them a good +year with health and plentiful harvests, to let their journeys be +without mishap, and to keep them all under their constant care. The +_tambara_ are fastened in various parts of the house, and the gifts are +hung on or laid beside them. Later these offerings may be removed by +their former owners who now regard them as being loaned to them by the +spirits. + +[47] This offering is not made at Bansalan, neither has the _mabalian_ +any part in the ceremonies of the first day. + +[48] Those called at this time are Toglai, Toglibon, _tigyma_, and +Kalayagan--Eugpamolak Manobo. + +[Transcriber's note: The word _tigyma_ in the above footnote should be +spelled _tigyama_.] + +Following the offering the _magani_ go to a bamboo thicket and cut two +large poles, one nine sections long, the other eight. With each stroke +of the knife the men give their battle cry, then when the poles are +felled, all seize hold and carry them to the house of the _datu_. Here +they are decorated, first by being cut down for short distances, thus +leaving the lower part attached so that the shavings make a sort of +fringe, and then by attaching strips of palm or bamboo leaves and cloth +or palm leaf streamers. When complete these poles are known as +_patan'nan_ and are then the property of the spirits Mandanagan and +Darago. The longer one is for the male spirit, while the one of eight +sections is for his wife. Under no circumstances may anyone not a +_magani_ touch these poles. They are carried into the house and are +fastened near to the elevated platform at the end of the room where the +_datu_ or leading _magani_ stands ready to sacrifice a chicken. He +allows some of the blood from the offering to drip onto the poles, at +the same time begging the spirits not to let the people fight or quarrel +during the _GinEm_, "for blood is now being offered." In at least two +recent offerings the _datu_ urged the spirits to be content with this +offering of a fowl, since it was impossible for them to kill a man. At +this time, it is said, the skulls of enemies should be attached to the +_patan'nan_. As the leader finishes his offering, the men and boys +gather about the poles and yell lustily, then sit quietly down and amuse +themselves by chewing betel nut until the chicken, just killed, and the +other food has been prepared for eating. Old dishes are placed in the +center of the floor and in them food is offered for all the spirits, but +in the exact center of all is a large plate of white food for the +supreme being. A second large dish of food is placed in a _tambara_ at +the corner of the room as an offering to the warrior deities "so that +they will not eat anyone during the fiesta." Again the spirits are +besought to give them a good year, with abundant crops, health, and +success in war. Going to the _patan'nan_ each _magani_, beginning with +the _datu_ or his son, takes hold of the poles, and in a loud voice, +begins to confess all his warlike deeds. He relates how and when he +killed his victims, the number of sacrifices he has participated in, the +towns he has sacked and the slaves he has captured. In short, he tells +of all the manly deeds he has performed in order to gain the right to +wear his red suit and be known as _magani_. When all have confessed, the +men and boys eat the chicken which was sacrificed before the poles, and +from then until near midnight, all the people may dance to the music of +the _agongs_ or may indulge in feasting and drinking. From the middle of +the night until daybreak they chant songs or poems, many words of which +are now obsolete so that they are not fully understood.[49] + +[49] Mr. Gohn informs me that at midnight during the last _GinEm_ made +by Datu Ali in Santa Cruz, a gun was fired, and the _datu_ said that a +sacrifice should have taken place at that time. + +The festival may last one or more days. The last held in Cibolan (1909) +extended through two days and nights. At that time no offerings were +made to the spirits on the second day, but the people feasted and drank +while the _datu_ gathered a little apart and held a council. + +In Malilla the second day of this ceremony is called _EgbikbEgaybe_ and +is given over almost entirely to the women. Two _tambara_ are erected in +the house, and young betel nut buds and women's skirts are hung on them. +The women and some men form a line and dance in a circle around the +offerings, keeping time to music furnished by beating small gongs, or by +pounding on a board resting on a rice mortar.[50] Before each dance the +_mabalian_ informs a spirit that this dance is for him and it is +customary to add a gift of some kind to those already on the _tambara_. +Sixteen spirits are thus honored. Throughout the day there is much +feasting and drinking, and at some time before sunset the women are +baptized. Having filled an old agong with water, the _mabalian_ dips +certain leaves into it and sprinkles the heads of the women present +eight times, meanwhile bidding the spirits to grant to them a good mind +and habit. + +[50] See p. 110, note. [Transcriber's note: back 3 pages, the footnote +beginning, "An instrument made by placing...."] + +Mr. Gohn, a planter of Santa Cruz who has witnessed a number of these +ceremonies, says that with the Bagobo of that place it was customary for +the _datu_ to baptize the women prior to the day of _GinEm_. On the +second day, a _mabalian_ provided a long palm leaf, and a number of +betel nut buds which, she said, represented streams, rivers, tribes, and +individuals. Taking up a bud she swung the palm leaf above it, chanting +meanwhile, and, as she finished, handed it to the _datu_ who opened it +and read the signs sent by the spirits. At the conclusion of this act, +all the women went to the river to bathe. + +In the writings of the early missionary fathers stationed among the +Bagobo are found many references to human sacrifices. Since American +occupation several articles have appeared describing this custom, and +following the sacrifice held in Talun in 1907, this practice became the +subject of official communication between the Governor of the District +and his superiors. While these descriptions agree, in the main, there +are so many minor variations that it seems best to first relate the +account given to the writer by Datu Tongkaling and ten of his _magani_, +after which we shall take up some of the earlier accounts, and the +official correspondence of 1907. + +Datu Tongkaling is a _magani_. He claims to have killed more than thirty +of his enemies in fair fight and to have assisted in, or to have +witnessed, an even greater number of sacrifices. Prior to his elevation +to the office of _datu_ he had aided in several of the yearly offerings. +At the time he became _datu_ he entertained all his people for seven +days and on the morning of the last day, in the presence of his +subjects, he alone sacrificed a decrepit Bila-an slave for whom he had +paid three _agongs_. Hence, probably, no man in the tribe is better +fitted to describe this event than he. + +According to him, a sacrifice should be held each year following the +appearance in the sky of a constellation of seven stars known as +_Balatik_ ("pig trap").[51] The stars are placed there by the spirits +for two purposes:--first, to inform the people that it is time to prepare +for the clearing of new fields; second, to remind them that they should +offer a slave to Mandarangan, Darago, and Balakat as payment for the +good year they have enjoyed, and to secure their good will for the +coming season. A great epidemic or continued calamaties[sic] might also +be signs that the spirits were in need of another offering, and this +could take place at any time. Upon the death of an adult it becomes the +duty of the family to make a sacrifice, but, unless the deceased is of +very great importance, they may wait until the yearly sacrifice[52] when +they can purchase a share in it. The one other occasion for which this +offering is obligatory is the installation of a new _datu_ in office. +For the yearly event the ruler should provide a decrepit slave, and then +invite all those who have had death or trouble in the family and who +wish a part in the sacrifice to help bear the expense of the ceremony. +Guests gather from near and far and for two or three days, feast, dance, +and make merry in the house of the _datu_. On the morning of the last +day they accompany their leader to a great tree in the forest and there +witness or take part in the sacrifice. The victim is tied with his back +to the tree, his arms stretched high above his head. Meanwhile a little +table or altar is constructed near by, and on it the principals place +their offerings of betel nut, clothes, or weapons, and on top of all is +a dish of white food for Eugpamolak Manobo. When all is ready one of the +_magani_ begins a prayer, begging the spirits to look and see that the +people are following the old custom, to give them success in battle, and +to protect their homes from sickness and enemies. The prayer being +completed, the _datu_ places his spear below and just in front of the +right armpit; then all those who have purchased a share in the victim +take hold of the weapon, and at a signal given by the _datu_, thrust it +through the body. As soon as it is withdrawn, the _magani_ who has +offered the greatest price for the privilege attempts to cut the body in +two with one blow of his fighting knife. If he fails in the attempt, +another tries, and so on until someone succeeds. The two portions are +then released from the tree and cast into a shallow grave near by. +Before the body is covered with earth any person who wishes may cut off +a portion of the flesh or hair and carry it to the grave of some +relative whom he may have reason to believe is being troubled by evil +spirits. In such a case the evil spirit will be content to eat of the +slave, and cease disturbing the other body. Returning to the house of +the _datu_, the people continue the dancing and merry-making throughout +another night. + +[51] This is the constellation Orion which appears early in December. + +[52] We have already seen that this offering sometimes occurs during the +_GinEm_ ceremony. + +The following accounts are extracts from the official correspondence +forwarded by the Governor of Davao to the Governor of the Moro Province: + +"I have the honor to submit herewith a full report of an investigation +made by myself and the Senior Inspector of Constabulary of Davao, +regarding a human sacrifice made by the Bagobos at Talun near Digos on +Dec. 9th, 1907. + +"We left Davao on the morning of the 27th of December and arrived at +Digos in the afternoon of the same day. An order was immediately sent +out to the Bagobos of Talun to come down to Digos to meet us. + +"On the morning of the 30th, the entire population of Talun--men, women +and children, to the number of almost one hundred and fifty--arrived at +Digos. They were informed that it was reported that a human sacrifice +had been made at their town and that the authorities desired to know if +this was so. + +"Datto[sic] Ansig replied that it was true that a sacrifice had been +held as stated and that both he and his people were ready to tell all +about it as to the best of their belief they had committed no crime, but +only followed out a religious custom practiced by themselves and their +ancestors from time immemorial. + +"From the statements made by Ansig and his followers, it appears as +follows: + +"That the Bagobos have several gods, 'Bacalad,' God of the spirits, +Agpanmole[sic] Monobo[sic], God of good and his wife the goddess Dewata; +Mandarangan, the God of evil (corresponding perhaps to our devil) and to +whom sacrifice is made to appease his wrath which is shown by +misfortune, years of drought, or evil befalling the tribe or its +members, also it is at times necessary to offer him human sacrifice so +that he will allow the spirits of the deceased to rest, etc. They say +that in case a Bagobo of rank or influence dies, and his widow be unable +to secure another husband, it is necessary for her to offer sacrifice to +appease the spirit of her departed husband in order that she may secure +another. In order that these sacrifices be not made too often, it is +customary for the old men of the town to gather together once each year +during a time when a collection of seven stars, three at right angle to +the other four, are seen in the heavens at seven o'clock in the evening, +which is said to occur once each year during the first part of the month +of December. + +"This collection of stars is called by the Bagobos 'Balatic,' and is the +sign of the sacrifice, that is, if a sacrifice is to occur, it must take +place during the time that the stars are in this position. + +"The old men meet and decide if enough misfortune has overtaken the +tribe or village during the period since the last sacrifice to render +necessary another tribute to the god of evil. It is not necessary to +offer a sacrifice for each evil, but when the misfortunes amount to a +considerable, a sacrifice is held to cover the entire lot. + +"In this case it appears that two widows, Addy and Obby, went to +Datto[sic] Ansig and requested that he arrange a sacrifice to appease +the spirits of their departed husbands which were bothering them. Ansig +called a meeting of the old men at which were present besides himself +Bagobos Oling, Pandaya, and Ansig, and these four decided that as they +had not had a sacrifice since the great drought (about three years ago) +and that since that time many evils had befallen them, it would be well +to offer a sacrifice. These four men sent out to find a slave for +sacrifice, the finder becoming the chief of the sacrifice. + +"Ongon, a henchman of Datto Ansig, purchased from Bagobo Ido, a Bilan +slave boy named Sacum about eight years old and who was deaf and +cross-eyed, and had other defects of vision, making him of little or no +value as a laborer. Ido originally received this slave from Duon, a +Bilan, as a wedding present when he married Duon's daughter about a year +ago. + +"Ongon agreed to pay Ido five agongs for the boy and took him to the +house of Ansig where arrangements were made for the sacrifice by calling +on all who for any reason had need to appease the evil spirits to come +and take part. Three days after the slave was brought to the house of +Ansig, the people met at Talun near the river Inolia, a short distance +from Ansig's house, this being the regular place of sacrifice. + +"Leaving the house of Ansig the boy Sacum was seated upon the ground +near the place of sacrifice. He was naked but no other preparation was +made with regard to the person. Upon a platform or bench of bamboo about +two feet high and a foot or two square was placed a small basket or +receptacle made of the bark of the bunga tree; in this each person +present and taking part in the sacrifice placed a piece of betel-nut, +over this the men placed their head handkerchiefs and the women strips +of the bark of the palma tree. Upon this the men laid their bolos, and +spears were then stuck in the ground in a circle around the platform. +Next Datto Ansig as chief of the sacrifice made an oration which was +about as follows: 'Oh, Mandarangan, chief of evil spirits and all the +other spirits, come to our feast and accept our sacrifice. Let this +sacrifice appease your wrath and take from us our misfortunes, granting +us better times.' + +"After this, the boy Sacum was brought forward by Ongon, placed against +a small tree about six feet high, his hands tied above his head, and his +body tied to the tree with bejuco strips at the waist and knees. Ansig +then placed a spear at the child's right side at a point below the right +arm and above the margin of the ribs. This lance was grasped by the +widows Addy and Obby, who at a signal from Ansig forced it through the +child's body, it coming out at the other side. It was immediately +withdrawn and the body cut in two at the waist by bolos in the hands of +Moesta Barraro and Ola, after which the body was cut down and chopped +into bits by the people present, each of whom was allowed to take a +small portion as a momento[sic] of the occasion, the remainder of the +body being buried in a hole prepared for it. + +"It is said the child was deaf and almost blind and that it did not +realize what was to happen to it until the moment it was tied up when it +began to cry; further, that death was almost instantaneous, the only cry +being one uttered when the spear first entered the child's body. + +"Datto Ansig, a man about sixty years of age, says that in his life he +has attended or officiated at fifty human sacrifices, more or less, both +among the Bagobos and the Bilanes, and that human sacrifice is also +practiced among the Tagacolos, although he has never been present at one +held by that tribe. + +"The Bagobos do not sacrifice any but old and decrepit or useless slaves +captured from other tribes, but the Bilanes sacrifice even their own +people. + +"Being asked if it was customary to eat any portion of the body +sacrificed, Ansig replied that it was not customary nor did he know of +any case where such had occurred. + +"The last sacrifice before this was held at Talun during the year of the +drought (about 1905) when a Bilan slave, an old man who was paralyzed in +one arm, was sacrificed by Datto Oling, his master. + +"Asked if the sacrifice of an animal would not do as well as that of a +human being, they said, 'No, better to have no sacrifice at all.' + +"They appeared utterly unconscious of having committed any crime, told +their story with frankness, said it was a matter not talked about among +their own people but that if we wanted to know the facts they would give +them to the authorities. They claimed the offering of human sacrifices +by their tribe to be an old custom and, as far as they knew the only way +to appease the wrath of the evil spirits, but said if they were ordered +to give the custom up they would do so even if the devil got them all." + +Then follows the statement of an eye-witness to the ceremony: + +"My name is Modesta Barrera; I live in the town of Santa Cruz, my father +being a Visayan, my mother a Bagobo. I cannot read or write, and I think +that I am about twenty-three years old, although I am not certain on +that point. + +"On the 8th instant myself, Baon, Otoy, and Oton left Santa Cruz early +in the morning to go to Talun, a day's march from Santa Cruz, for the +purpose of trading with the natives of Talun, and also to collect some +debts which they owed Baon. We remained that night at Saculampula, near +Talun, where Ungon and Ido, two Bagobos, live with their families. There +we found two children the only persons at the house who informed us that +we should go to the house of Ambing, at Talun, where we could sell our +merchandise. On the morning of the 9th we got up about 7 or 8 o'clock +and started for Ambing's house. When within about an hour's walk of the +house, we found a great many people congregated together. We were told +that a human sacrifice had just taken place and on approaching to +discover what had happened, we saw a little boy about eight or nine +years old, the upper half of whose body was suspended by the wrists to a +tree, the lower half lying on the ground. The child had been thus tied +up while alive and had been cut into two parts at the waist; this was +about the position of the body when we saw it. + +"Immediately about twenty persons began to chop the body into small +pieces; and Ansig, the datto of Talun, came over to us and gave Baon two +pieces of the victim's hair attached to the scalp, which is a sign of +the sacrifice. The victim was a slave owned and sacrificed by Datto +Ansig. The first bolo cut which severs the body at the waist and which +in this case we were told was done by Ansig is always performed by the +person making the sacrifice. The people present were guests of Ansig and +were not responsible for the killing, though it is the custom for the +more favored ones to assist in chopping the victim into small pieces +after death." + +In the letters written by Father GISBERT in 1886, are many references to +the religious practices of the Bagobo, from which the following are +extracts: + +"The feast which they hold before the sowing is a criminal and repugnant +trago-comedy. The tragical part is the first thing that is done. When +they have assembled in the middle of the woods * * * they tightly bind +the slave whom they are going to sacrifice. All armed with sharp knives, +leap and jump about their victim striking him, one after the other, or +several at one time, amid infernal cries and shouts, until the body of +the victim sacrificed has been cut to bits. From the place of the +sacrifice they then go to the house of their chief or the master of the +feast, holding branches in their hands which they place in a large +bamboo, which is not only the chief adornment but the altar of the house +in which they meet * * * The principal part is reserved for the old man +or master of the feast, he standing near the bamboo which I have +mentioned above, holding the vessel of wine in his hand, and, talking +with his comrades, addresses the great demon called _Darago_, whose +feast they are celebrating, in the following words: 'Darago, we are +making you this feast, with great good will and gladness, offering you +the blood of the sacrifice which we have made and this wine which we +drink so that you may be our friend, accompany us, and be propitious in +our wars.' * * * * * * * * * * * + +"When they marry, if the lovers think that it will be of any use they +make a human sacrifice so that they may have a good marriage, so that +the weather may be good, so that they may have no storm, sickness, etc., +all things which they attribute to the devil. In the same way also when +they learn that there is any contagious disease, or fear death, several +of them assemble and make a human sacrifice, asking the devil to let +them live, since they generously offer him that victim. They also +believe that the disease can be conjured. But the time that it is +necessary to make a sacrifice, according to the law of the Bagobos, is +at the death of anyone of the family, before they can remove the +_lalaoan_ or mourning * * * At the point and on the day assigned, all +the sacrificers assemble, or possibly one member of each of the families +who are in mourning, at times fifty or more. The value of the slave +sacrificed is paid among them all, and he who pays most has the right to +sacrifice first."[**] + +[**] In BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII. pp. 244-51, will be found a +very interesting letter from FATHER GISBERT, in which he describes the +sacrifice of a Bagabo[sic] half-blood who had fallen in debt. + +The official files in the Governor's office at Davao contain an account, +written by Gov. Bolton, of the sacrifice at Cataloonan, July 1, 1904. +This was held to secure the return to health of Chief Obo, who later +died. + +[Transcriber's note: The two paragraphs immediately above both comprise +a single footnote.] + +By the side of the trail, or in the forests, little shrines or platforms +about 3 ft. high and a foot square at the top, are frequently seen. +These are known as _buis_ and are erected for the _buso_, in order to +avert their displeasure and to keep them at a distance from the +dwellings. When the family has been subjected to petty annoyances, or +when for any other reason, the _mabalian_ thinks an offering should be +made, she orders the family to provide her with betel nut, a piece of +iron, and bits of broken dishes, or castoff clothing. These are placed +on the platform and the _buso_ are exhorted to come and accept them. +Good offerings are never made to this class of spirits, for "they do not +expect to be treated like the more powerful." A shrub known as +_dalingding_ is planted by the side of the shrine so that its location +may be known even after the platform has fallen, and all passersby will +make some small offering, hoping thus to keep these evil beings in good +humor. + +Rain can be stopped by placing an offering of a leg ring, or prepared +betel nut beside the trail and presenting them to the _Gimokod_, at the +same time asking them to stop the downpour. + +DECORATIVE ART. + +To a stranger entering a Bagobo house, in the absence of its owners, it +appears that the people have little artistic development. He sees no +paintings, no drawings, and few, if any, attempts to beautify the house +with carvings. The pots sitting by the fire, show no decoration nor do +the other household utensils exhibit embellishment of any kind. A closer +study of the field baskets, however, shows a slight attempt to produce +ornamentation by changing the weave of the central band from that at the +top and bottom, or by adding a few rude lines in pitch. The moment the +people enter, however, all is changed. The clothing they wear is covered +with intricate patterns, some realistic, others highly conventionalized +(Plate XXXI). Wonderful designs in beads or shell disks appear on coats, +jackets, and carrying bags, while at neck, waist, shoulder, and at the +bottom of sleeves and trousers are other figures in fine embroidery or +applique. Strands of beads and seeds exhibiting a great variety of +designs surround the necks of both men and women, while rings, armlets, +leglets, and anklets of beads, plaited material or metal, are common. +Combs are covered with pitch and inlaid with beads, or patterns are +incised in the wood and filled with lime. Ear plugs exhibit beautiful +delicate patterns inlaid with brass or silver. + +A glance at the weapons carried by the man shows that his knife has been +ornamented with caps of brass (Plate XXXII), the metal guard has cut or +cast patterns in its surface, while sheath and carrying belt are covered +with thin brass plates, painted lines, or a beaded cloth (Plate XXXIII) +with bells attached. Fronts and backs of shields are covered with +incised designs, while the metal ferrule next to the spear head seldom +lacks in conventionalized figures. So the list might be extended to +cover the women's knives and their pocket and carrying baskets, as well +as the betel boxes and lime holders used by both sexes. In short, there +seems to be no end to the list of personal ornaments and equipment which +may be improved by carvings, arrangements of beads or metal castings and +inlays. Even the horses are decorated with artificial forelocks of hair +and beads. Strings of bells surround their necks, while saddles and +whips display the aesthetic taste of their owners. + +A part of this decoration is apparently realistic and will readily be +identified by any member of the tribe; another part is suggestive and +with a widely known meaning, but by far the greater number of designs +have no generally accepted signification. The writer spent many hours +securing the names of the designs on textiles, ornaments, or on lime +boxes, only to receive the reply "done to make pretty," or to find that +no two of five or a dozen informants could agree on many patterns, while +frequently it was found that some obliging individual had volunteered +names at one time which he could not remember on the day following. It +is possible that a long residence with the people and diligent inquiry +along this line might yield more definite results, but for the present +the writer must content himself by showing some typical examples of the +decorative art, and adding a few notes to the same. + +The great majority of baskets lack in decoration, other than that which +can be obtained by a slight change in the weave. In these a central band +can be distinguished from those at top and bottom, although the same +material is used and there is only a minor variation in the technique. + +Small carrying receptacles, or trinket baskets, frequently have designs +produced by plaiting the rattan or bamboo of natural color with that +which has been blackened (Plate XXXIVa). No uniform meaning or pattern +name seems to be attached to the designs shown in this specimen, but an +incised design on the wooden rim was readily identified as a crocodile. + +The small baskets in the coiled weave sometimes have the fronts entirely +covered with beads which are woven into the basket in parallel lines. +The tobacco box shown in Plate XXXV has been covered with cloth and +pitch, in which an artistic design made from the yellow cuticle of an +orchid has been inlaid. Plate XXXVb shows the wooden tops of three +tobacco boxes. Nos. 1 and 2 are carved and inlaid with beads and buttons +in designs which "look pretty," but number 3 depicts a hunting scene in +which two men and a dog are hunting the alligator. Several beads are +missing so that it requires quite a stretch of the imagination to secure +the impression the native artist meant to impart. + +The prized trinket baskets of the women generally have the fronts +covered with cloth, to which hundreds of colored beads are sewed, in +elaborate designs (Plate XXXVI). + +The patterns brought out in the weaving are as beautiful and intricate +as they are confusing. Five typical specimens of cloth used in women's +skirts are shown in Plate XXXVII. In them can be found several +apparently different designs to some of which names were assigned, but +as there was no agreement among my informers I refrain from giving them +here. The pattern marked X in (c) was generally identified as +"alligator," yet the weavers were by no means agreed. + +The strip of cloth (Plate XXXVIII) was intended for the center breadth +in a woman's skirt and shows the typical designs employed in the best +garments. + +The extensive use of beads is shown in Plates XXXIX-XL. Carrying bags, +clothing, combs, necklaces, armlets, belts and sheath covers are +partially covered with or made up of colored beads, always in designs, +yet very few of these patterns have generally accepted meanings or +names. The same holds true of the designs in shell disks, which, on the +finer garments, take the place of beads. A few exceptions to this are +found in which realistic patterns appear in (Plate XXXIb and Fig. 34). + +FIG. 34. REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS AND SHELL DISKS. + +Like the bead work, the embroidery and applique found on many garments +are added "to make pretty." Some of this work is quite fine, but in +general that of recent years is either inferior to that found on old +garments or is borrowed from, or made by, the Bila-an women. Some +garments, with designs produced by oversewing before dyeing, are seen +here, but they are recent importations from the Kulaman or Tagakaolo +tribes. + +Necklaces and leglets are made of rattan and are decorated with burned +lines or by being overlaid with platted strips of orchid and fern +cuticle (Fig. 2). + +A few rare specimens, such as personal ornaments or basket rims, have +sewed in designs in which the sewing has been done with fern cuticle +(Plate XXXIVb). + +Incised patterns appear on nearly all the bamboo lime and tobacco +holders, but here individual fancy plays such an important part that a +hundred specimens might be examined without finding duplicate patterns. +Fig. 14. shows nine of these tubes covered with cut-in designs, yet only +one figure, that marked X in _b_ could be identified. This was said to +be the familiar crocodile. + +Coming to the work in brass and copper we encounter an entirely new type +of design. In some cases straight inlaid or overlaid strips and twisted +wires are used to ornament the specimen; while in the raised and cut-in +lines on the bells we find simple patterns. In the main, however, the +ornamentation on this class of material consists of complicated scrolls +(Plate XLI), designs suggesting flower or tree patterns, or +conventionalized figures. One only needs to compare these objects with +similar specimens from Borneo and the Malayan Islands of the South, to +find the source of this type of ornamentation.[53] In fact the imitation +of Moro wares is practiced today. In Plate XLIa and b are shown two +betel nut boxes--No. 1 the work of the Samal Moro, No. 2 the imitation of +the inlaid work on the top of the first specimen. This last was made in +my presence, and with the expressed intention of duplicating the Moro +box. However, in this case, as in all others, the Bagobo caster did not +attempt to exactly reproduce the work of another, but simply borrowed a +broad idea, and thus he often creates new forms. + +[53] See LING ROTH, Oriental Silver Work. + +Not once did the writer receive a name for any pattern or design shown +in metal work. A careful study of the method of work, of the articles +produced, and of the folk-lore and religious observances connected with +the work in brass and copper brings one to the conclusion that this +class of work is of comparatively recent introduction and that the +instructors in the art were the Samal Moro. + +Mention has already been made of the designs incised on combs and other +objects which are afterwards filled with lime. Just here it is +interesting to note that, so far as is known, the southern end of +Mindanao and adjacent small islands, are the only parts of the +Philippines in which this decoration, so typical of Melanesia, is to be +found. + +Realistic carvings were seen used in only two capacities. The first in +certain ceremonies, where extremely crude wooden figures were offered to +the spirits in exchange for the sick person (see p. 103), and the +second, the wooden decoys used in hunting doves (See Plate XVIII). + +Summing up our present information we can say: first, that the Bagobo +makes use of certain realistic designs which in some cases have become +conventionalized but still retain their former significance; second, +that the greater part of decoration in beads, shell disks, embroidery or +applique, as well as the incised designs in lime boxes and the like, +have no meaning to the people of the present day, and are added only to +make the objects more beautiful in the eyes of the owners. In this work +there are no set patterns and each artist gives full reign to the fancy +in producing these figures. Third, that the ideas for the patterns +inlaid, incised, and cast in brass or copper, are furnished by the +examples of this work coming from the Malays to the south, but that even +in these the artist has taken great liberties in the execution of the +design. Fourth, that one type of decoration, i. e., the incised figures +filled with lime, suggests the possible influence of Melanesia on the +artistic ideas of this people. + +MYTHOLOGY. + +During my stay with this tribe I heard parts of many folk-tales, some +chanted, others told with gravity, and still others which caused the +greatest levity. My limited knowledge of the dialect and pressure of +other work caused me to delay the recording of these tales until I +should begin a systematic study of the language. Owing to unforeseen +circumstances, that time never came, and it is now possible to give only +the slightest idea of a very rich body of tales.[54] + +[54] Since this was written MISS BENEDICT has published an excellent +collection of Bagobo Myths (_Journal of American Folklore_, 1913, XXVI. +pp. 13-63.) + +In the main these stories are an attempt to account for the present +order of things. In the tale which we quoted in part, at the beginning +of the paper, we are told of an all-powerful being who created the earth +and all that is. Other spirits and many animals inhabited the sky and +earth which the creator had made. Of the latter only one, the monkey, is +named. He and his kind, we are told, once inhabited and owned all the +world, but were dispossessed by two human beings, Toglai and Toglibon, +from whom all the people of the world are descended. After their death a +great drought caused the people to disperse and seek out new homes in +other parts. They journeyed in pairs and because of the objects which +they carried with them, they are now known by certain names. One couple, +for instance, carried with them a small basket called _bira-an_, and for +this reason their children are known as Bira-an (Bila-an). From the time +of the dispersion until the arrival of the Spaniards we learn that +certain mythical heroes performed wonderful feats, in some cases being +closely identified with the spirits themselves, in others making use of +magic, the knowledge of which seems to have been common in those times. + +The two following tales are typical of those commonly heard in a Bagobo +gathering. The first was told by Urbano Eli, a Bagobo of Malilla. + +"After the people were created a man named LumabEt was born. He could +talk when he was one day old and the people said he was sent by Manama. +He lived ninety seasons and when still a young man he had a hunting dog +which he took to hunt on the mountain. The dog started up a white deer +and LumabEt and his companions followed until they had gone about the +world nine times when they finally caught it. At the time they caught +the deer LumabEt's hair was grey and he was an old man. All the time he +was gone he had only one banana and one camote with him for food. When +night came he planted the skin of the banana and in the morning he had +ripe bananas to eat, and the camotes came the same way. When he had +caught the deer LumabEt called the people to see him and he told them to +kill his father. They obeyed him and then LumabEt took off his headband +and waved it in the air over the dead man, and he at once was alive +again. He did this eight times and at the eighth time his father was +small like a little boy, for every time the people cut him in two the +knife took off a little flesh. So all the people thought LumabEt was +like a god. + +"One year after he killed the deer he told all the people to come into +his house, but they said they could not, for the house was small and the +people many. But LumabEt said there was plenty of room, so all entered +his house and were not crowded. The next morning the _diwata_, +_tigyama_, and other spirits came and talked with him. After that he +told the people that all who believed that he was powerful could go with +him, but all who did not go would be turned into animals and _buso_. +Then LumabEt started away and those who stayed back became animals and +_buso_. + +"He went to the place Binaton, across the ocean, the place where the +earth and sky meet. When he got there he saw that the sky kept going up +and down the same as a man opening and closing his jaws. LumabEt said to +the sky 'You must go up,' but the sky replied 'No.' At last LumabEt +promised the sky that if he let the others go he might catch the last +one who tried to pass; so the sky opened and the people went through; +but when near to the last the sky shut down and caught the bolo of next +to the last man. The last one he caught and ate. + +"That day LumabEt's son Tagalion was hunting and caught many animals +which he hung up. Then he said he must go to his father's place; so he +leaned an arrow against a _baliti_ tree and sat on it. It began to grow +down and carried him down to his father's place, but when he arrived +there were no people there. He saw a gun, made out of gold, and some +white bees in the house. The bees said 'You must not cry; we can take +you to the sky,' So he rode on the gun, and the bees took him to the sky +and he arrived there in three days. + +"One of the men was looking down on the land below, and all of the +spirits made fun of him and said they would take out his intestines so +that he would be like one of them and never die. The man refused to let +them, and he wanted to go back home because he was afraid; so Manama +said to let him go. + +"The spirits took leaves of the _karan_ grass and tied to his legs, and +made a chain of the grass and let him down to the earth. When he reached +the earth he was no longer a man but was an owl." + +(2) The second tale, which was recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J., is as +follows: + +"In one of the torrents which has its origin at the foot of Apo, there +were two eels which, having acquired extraordinary magnitude, had no +room in so little water, on account of which they determined to +separate, each one taking a different direction in search of the sea or +the great lakes. One arrived, happily, at the sea by the Padada river, +and from it came eels in the sea. The other descending a torrent, +swimming and confining himself as well as he might, enclosed in these +narrow places, said to himself 'I haven't the slightest idea of what the +sea is, but it appears to me that when I see before me an extraordinary +clearness on a limpid surface, that must be the sea, and with one spring +I will jump into it.' So saying, he arrived at a point where the torrent +formed a cascade. He noticed that it cut off the horizon and to his view +it appeared of an extraordinary clearness; he thought he could swim +there without limit, and at his pleasure, and that this, in fine, must +be the sea. He darted into it, but the unhappy one was dashed against +the rocks, and too fatigued to swim through the rough waters, he lost +his life. His body lay there inert and formed undulations which are now +the folds which the earth forms to the left of Mt. Apo." + +OTHER BRANCHES OF THE TRIBE. + +To the south and southwest of Mt. Apo, and west of Digos, are seven +settlements, the inhabitants of which are known as Obo or Tigdapaya. On +the south they meet the Bila-an, and, like this latter people, extend +over the watershed into the valley of the Cotabato river. On the +northwest they come in contact with the Ata. They have intermarried with +both of these tribes, have adopted many of their customs, and in some +cases their manner of dress. However, they consider themselves, and are +considered by the Bagobo, as a part of that tribe, and recognize +Tongkaling as their chief. Bagobo customs and blood predominate, +although intermarriage with the Negrito was evident in nearly every +individual of this division seen by the writer. + +Immediately wrest of Daliao are three villages whose people are known as +Eto or Ata. Aside from a slightly greater percentage of individuals +showing negroid features, these people do not differ in any respect from +the Bagobo. It does not seem that they should be classed with the people +later referred to as Ata. To the north, their lands join the territory +held by the Guianga. + +The habitat of the division called Guianga begins a few miles back of +the Gulf and extends west to the watershed. An east and west line drawn +through the village of Taloma marks their southern boundary, while to +the north they approach the Lasan river. They are found in a number of +scattered settlements which owe allegiance and are subject to five petty +_datu_. Tongkaling is not recognized as having any authority in the +district, and there seems to be no remembrance of a time when any of the +Bagobo rulers held authority over the Guianga. Physically and culturally +they do not seem to be far removed from the Bagobo, while their language +is so closely related that individuals of the two divisions, meeting for +the first time can carry on a conversation. There is, however, +considerable variation between the dialects, both in intonation and +vocabulary. + +Further study may result in raising this branch to the dignity of a +tribe, but the information at hand does not justify us in considering +them other than a dialect group of the Bagobo. + + + +II. BILA-AN. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) TAGALAGAD--"dwellers in the back country" is the name generally +applied to this tribe by the coast natives. + +(b) TAGKOGON--"dwellers in the cogon"--The group living on the grass +plains west of Malalag. + +(c) BULUAN, BULUANES--The members of this tribe dwelling near to Lake +Buluan. This group is sometimes identified with the Tagabili or Tagabulu +who also reside in that region. + +(d) BIRA-AN, BARA-AN--Synonym for BILA-AN, often used by the neighboring +Bagobo. + +(e) VILANES, BILANES. + +(f) BALUD or TUMANAO--name sometimes applied by early writers to the +Bila-an who live on the Sarangani Islands. + +This tribe is found in the mountains on the west side of Davao Gulf +beginning at an east and west line drawn through Bulatakay and extending +south to Sarangani Point, and they also appear in small numbers in the +Sarangani Islands which lie just south of the mainland. At Bulatakay +they are a day's march back from the coast and to reach them it is +necessary to pass for several hours through a rolling belt of forest +land, then as the mountains are approached, gently sloping cogon plains +about ten miles in width are crossed. West of Malalag they are still far +from the sea with a belt of hill Tagakaolo between them and the coast +people. In this region they have spread out in considerable numbers on +to the grass plains, and for this reason are locally known as Tagkogon +"dwellers in the cogon." On the gulf side of the divide, south of +Malalag, they are found in small groups far back in the mountains, while +between them and the sea are Tagakaolo, Kulaman and Moro. Along the +watershed between the districts of Davao and Cotabato they possess all +the territory and even extend in some numbers into the lowlands toward +Lake Buluan. They are distinctly a mountain people, having never reached +the sea, except near Sarangani Point, until after the advent of the +American. Since then a few hundred have been induced to move to the +coast plantations, and the town of Labau has been established on the +Padada river about six miles back of the coast. According to Mr. H. S. +Wilson, tribal ward headman for the Bila-an, this tribe numbers about +ten thousand persons, of which number fifteen hundred reside on the +Sarangani Islands. + +The material here presented was gathered from the people of Labau, the +Malalag cogon, and those living near the headwaters of the Ma-al and +Padada rivers. + +Formerly a neutral, uninhabited belt extended between them and the coast +people, and at stated intervals they went to recognized trading points +in this territory to exchange their agricultural and forest products for +salt, fish, and other articles of barter. Beyond this trading and an +occasional fight, they had few dealings with the coast people and seem +never to have encountered the Spaniard. + +They are almost unknown to history, for aside from two or three short +accounts,[55] based mostly on hearsay, we find no mention of them. The +coast natives who knew them by name only had many stories concerning +their life and prowess, and one still hears that "the Bila-an are of +small stature but agile like monkeys. One may wander for days through +their territory without encountering a person and then when in a bad +place suddenly see the little people in hundreds swarming down the sides +of impassable cliffs. They are always in such numbers that, while they +use only the bow and arrow, they are almost sure to exterminate the +intruders." As a matter of fact, the Bila-an compare in stature with the +coast natives and differ little from them in color, although a few +individuals of decidedly lighter cast are met with. + +[55] BLAIR and ROBERTSON The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, pp. 239, +282-283. Census of the Philippine Islands, 1905. + +Observations were made on thirty-eight men, but no women could be +induced to submit to being measured. The maximum height of the men was +found to be 163.6 cm.; minimum 142.3 cm.; with an average of 154.7 cm. +The cephalic indices showed 87.8 cm. as the maximum; 74 cm. the minimum; +and 80.4 cm. the average. The greatest length-height index was 78.6 cm.; +the minimum 62.4 cm. and the average 69.7 cm. From these measurements it +appears that the Bila-an are somewhat shorter than the Bagobo; are more +short headed, the majority being brachycephalic; while the height from +tragus to vertex is about the same in both groups, and both have the +crown and back of the head strongly arched. The face[56] is absolutely +shorter and relatively broader than in the Bagobo. The forehead is +usually high and full, but in about one-third of the individuals +measured it was moderately retreating, while in the same proportion the +supra-orbital ridges were quite strongly marked. In other features, as +well as in hair form, eyes, body form and color, this people conform to +the description given of the Bagobo (Plates XLII-XLVIII). + +[56] Measured from the chin to the hair of the forehead. The greater +part of this tribe live far back in the rugged mountains which form the +watershed between the Cotabato valley and the Gulf of Davao. Travel +through that district is entirely on foot, and is principally along the +water courses, so that in going from place to place a person is +continually crossing the stream. From time to time dim trails, scarcely +worthy of that name, lead from the river's bank almost perpendicularly +up the mountain-side or to the summits of high hills, where will be +found one or two frail houses (Plate XLIX). The dwellings are never in +large groups, and more frequently each house is by itself. From one +habitation it is possible to look across the hills and see many others +at no great distance, to reach which would necessitate a descent of +several hundred feet and an equal climb up to each. + +There is considerable variation in the architecture of the dwellings but +the following description of the home of Datu Dialum, on the headwaters +of the Ma-al river, will give the general plan of all. + +Small hardwood poles about twenty feet in length formed the uprights to +which the side and crossbeams were lashed, while in the center of each +end beam smaller sticks were tied to form the king posts. From the ridge +pole small timbers extended to the side beams, thus forming the +framework on which the final topping of flattened bamboo was laid. This +roof was of one pitch and at the sides overhung the walls by about a +foot. Twelve feet above the ground other poles were lashed to the +uprights and on these rested the cross timbers of the floor, which in +turn were covered with broad strips of bark. The side walls extended +between the floor and the beams, but in no place did they extend up to +the roof. Entrance to the dwelling was gained by a notched log. + +Once inside the house the arrangement impressed one as being similar to +those of the Bagobo. Just above the door, and again in the far end of +the room, poles were laid across the beams to form the floors of lofts +which, in this case, were used as sleeping rooms. + +In front of the door, at the opposite side of the room, was a bed of +ashes in which three stones were sunk to form the stove, and above this +was suspended a rack which contained cooking pots, drying wood, ears of +corn, and the like. Close to the stove were a few earthen pots (Fig. 35) +and many short bamboo tubes filled with water, while against the wall +hung rattan frames filled with half cocoanut-shell dishes, spoons, and +two or three old Chinese plates. Near the center of the room stood a +rice mortar made by hollowing out a section of log. At the far end of +the room was a raised sleeping platform, such as is found in all Bagobo +houses, and extending from this to the center and on each side of the +room were narrow stalls where the women were engaged in weaving, and in +which they slept and kept their most valued possessions. + +FIG. 35. COOKING POT AND COVER. + +In the description of the house we have mentioned most of the +furnishings. In addition it is customary to find a few well made mats of +_pandanus_ or _buri_ palm leaf. These are spread on the floor when the +owners wish to retire and for the rest of the time are rolled up and +laid along the walls. Carved forked sticks which serve as torch-holders +stand in various parts of the room, while somewhere near the stove is a +miscellany of wooden meat blocks, bamboo fans and fly swatters, gourds +filled with millet, salt, or mashed peppers, and shovel-shaped or round +rice winnowers, which also serve as common eating dishes for the family +and guests. Well made baskets stand by the walls or hang from pegs along +with articles of clothing, while spears, shields, and other weapons are +fastened to side walls or roof. + +Small clearings are found at no great distance from these dwellings and +in them the people raise rice, corn, millet, camotes, sugar-cane, and a +few banana and hemp plants (Plate L). As is the case with all the wild +tribes in this district, the Bila-an make new clearings as soon as the +cogon grass begins to invade their fields, and this in time causes them +to move their homes from one locality to another. + +The domestic animals consist of a few chickens, dogs, an occasional cat +and pig, and in the lower cogon lands, a few families possess horses. +Some fish are secured from the river, while deer, wild pig, jungle fowl, +and other game are taken with traps or secured by hunting. + +There seems never to have been a time when this tribe was organized +under a single leader as was the case with the Bagobo. Each district is +so isolated from the others and the population so scattering that any +such development has been barred, and hence the people of each river +valley or highland plain have their local ruler. The power of this ruler +is real only so far as his personal influence can make it so. He +receives no pay for his services, but his position makes it possible for +him to secure the help of his fellows when he is in need of workers or +warriors. In return he conducts negotiations with other groups and +administers justice in accordance with the customs handed down from +bygone ages. Upon his death he is succeeded by his eldest son, unless +the old men of the group should consider him incompetent, in which case +they will determine upon the successor. + +Warriors who have killed one or more persons[57] are known as _lEbE_ +(Plate XLII), and are permitted to wear plain red suits decorated with +embroidery. Their duties and privileges are much the same as those of +the Bagobo _magani_. + +[57] Said to be four among the Tagkogon. + +A class known as _almo-os_ is composed mostly of middle-aged women who +are in close communication with the spirits and who, like the _mabalian_ +of the Bagobo, conduct ceremonies to aid in the cure of the sick, to +secure good crops, or to thank the higher beings for their help and +watchfulness. Unlike the _mabalian_, these women are seldom midwives, +such duties being performed by a group called _fandita_.[58] Finally, we +learn that slaves are sometimes taken from neighboring tribes or even +from unfriendly settlements of their own people, to which class may be +added offenders against the laws of the group. Slavery, however, is not +very prevalent, for men are not greatly desired unless needed for a +sacrifice, while young girls and women soon become regular members of +their master's family. + +[58] Probably a corruption of the Moro term _pandi'a_. + +As has just been indicated a man may have as many wives as he can secure +by purchase or capture, provided they are not blood relations, but a new +wife cannot be added to the family until the one preceding has borne a +child. + +Difficulties are generally settled between the parties concerned, but if +they carry their case to the ruler they must abide by his decision. A +thief is usually compelled to return the stolen property, but in at +least one case the culprit was sacrificed.[59] + +[59] See p. 145. + +Murder can be avenged by a murder so long as the trouble remains a +family affair, but if the case goes to the ruler it is probable that he +will levy a fine on the culprit. Unfaithfulness in a wife can be +punished by the death of one or both offenders if the husband exacts the +punishment, otherwise a fine is imposed. + +The type of clothing worn by this tribe is practically identical with +that of the Bagobo, while the cloth from which it is made is procured by +a like process. However, in the ornamentation of these garments there is +wide variation. Beads are not used to any great extent, but in their +place are intricate embroidered designs which excel, both in beauty and +technique the work of any other wild tribe in the Islands, while on the +more elaborate costumes hundreds of shell disks are used in artistic +designs. The woman's skirt is of hemp and is made in exactly the same +manner as those of the Bagobo, but the general pattern is different, and +it seldom contains the broad decorative center panel (Plate LX). + +Some of the men cut their hair so that it falls in bangs along the +center line of the forehead and behind reaches to the nape of the neck, +but the majority of them, and all the women, allow the back hair to grow +long and tie it in a knot at the back of the head. Ordinarily the men +dispense with head covering, or at most twist a bit of cloth into a +turban, but for special occasions they wear palm leaf hats covered with +many parallel bands of rattan and crowned with notched chicken feathers +(Plate LI). Rarely is a women seen with any kind of head protection or +hair ornament other than a small comb which is peculiar to this tribe +(Fig. 36). This comb is made of bamboo or rattan splints drawn together +at the center but flaring at top and bottom until it forms an ornament +in the shape of an hour glass. The ear plugs worn by the men are of wood +and are undecorated, but those of the women have the fronts overlaid +with incised brass plates (Fig. 37). In other respects the dress of the +women differs little from that of the Bagobo. They have the same +necklaces, arm and finger rings, leglets, and anklets, although in less +quantity. They also carry trinket baskets, but these are larger than +those used by the women of the other tribe and are lacking in bead and +bell pendants. However, they are tastily decorated with designs in +colored bamboo or fern cuticle. We have already noted that the use of +plain red garments is limited to warriors, but cloth of that hue which +contains narrow black stripes may be used by all. Quite a number of +garments are seen in which white pattens appear in a red background +(Plate LVIIIc). In this tribe the use of such suits is not restricted, +but with the neighboring Kulaman they can be worn by warriors[60] only. + +FIG. 36. WOMEN'S COMBS. + +FIG. 37. A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS. B. MEN'S EAR PLUGS. + +[60] See p. 155 for a description of this process. [Transcriber's note: +20 pages further from this one.] + +Before we proceed further with the description of the life of the +people, it will be well for us to inquire into their religious beliefs, +for, as is the case with all their neighbors, their faith in unseen +beings influences their daily life to a very great extent. The two +following tales deal with the Bila-an genesis. + +"In the beginning was _MElu_--a being of such great size as to be beyond +comparison with any known thing; who was white, having gold teeth, and +who sat upon the clouds, and occupied all space above. + +"He was very cleanly and was constantly rubbing himself with his hands +in order that he might keep his skin quite white. The scurf or dead skin +which he thus removed, he placed to one side where it accumulated at +last to such a heap that it annoyed him. To be rid of this annoyance he +made the earth, and being pleased with his work, he decided to make two +beings like himself only much smaller in size. This he did from remnants +of the material from which he made the earth. + +"Now, while MElu was making the first two men, and when he had the first +one finished, all excepting the nose; and the second one finished all +excepting the nose and one other part, Tau Tana (Funtana) or Tau Dalom +Tana appeared and demanded of MElu that he be allowed to make the nose. +Then began a great argument in which Tau Dalom Tana gained his point and +did make the noses and placed them on the faces of the first two people +upside down. So great had been the argument over this making and placing +of noses that MElu forgot to finish that part of the second person and +went away to his place above the clouds, and Tau Dalom Tana went away to +his place below the earth. Then came a great rain and the two people on +the earth were about to perish on account of the water which ran off +their heads into their noses. MElu seeing what was happening came to +them and changed their noses, and then told them that they should save +all the hair which came from their heads, and all the scurf which came +from their bodies to the end that when he came again he might make more +people. As time passed there came to be a great many people, and they +lived in a village having plenty to eat and no labor but the gathering +of such fruits as they desired. + +"One day when the rest of the people were about the village and the near +country, a man and woman who had been left behind fell to gazing, one +upon the person of the other, and after a little while they went away +apart from the rest and were gone many days, and when they returned the +woman carried a child in her arms, and the people wondered and were +afraid. When MElu came again soon, knowing what had taken place, he was +very angry and he went away abandoning them, and a great drought came, +when for two seasons no rain fell and everything withered up and died. +At last the people went away, two by two, one man and one woman +together, and MElu never again came to visit his people on earth."[61] + +[61] Recorded by Mr. H. S. Wilson. + +The writer did not hear the foregoing tale, but the following, with more +or less variation, was told to him by several Bila-an: + +"In the beginning four beings, MElu and Fiuweigh-males, and Dwata and +Saweigh (or sEwE or sEweigh)-females, lived on a small earth or island +as large as a hat and called _salnaon_. There were no trees or grass on +this island, but they had one bird called Baswit. They sent this bird +across the waters to secure some earth, the fruit of the rattan and of +trees. When it returned MElu took the earth and beat it the same as a +woman beats pots until he had made the land, then he planted the seeds +in it and they grew. When he had watched it for a time he said: 'Of what +use is land without people'; so the others said, 'Let us make wax into +people.' They did so, but when they put the wax near to the fire it +melted, so they saw they could not make man that way. Next it was +decided that they should use dirt, and MElu and Fiuweigh began to make +man. All. went well until they were ready to make the nose. Fiuweigh who +was making this part put the nose on upside down and when MElu told him +that the people would drown if he left it that way he became very angry +and refused to change it. When he turned his back, MElu seized the nose +quickly and turned it as it now is, and you can see where, in his haste, +he pressed his fingers (at the root). + +"The people they made were Adnato and Andawi, male and female. These two +had children, Tapi (or Mastafi) and Lakarol. (Informants disagreed here, +part insisting that MEsa, Lakbang, and Mangarang were part of the first +people made.) Their descendants were Sinudal (female), Moay (male), +Limbay (female), Madinda (female), Sinnamoway (male), Kamansa (male), +Gilay (female), Gomayau (male), Salau (male), Slayen (female), BaEn +(female), Kanfal (female), Latara (male)." + +[Transcriber's note: These identifications of male and female (in +parentheses above and below) are all signaled in the text using +non-ASCII symbols; the symbols for male or female were footnoted.] + +The last was the father of Alimama, the chief informant of this tale. +Inok, dato of Labau, is also of this line, tracing his descent from +Lakbang. + +It is said that MElu and Saweigh now live below, Dwata and Fiuweigh in +the sky. + +A variation of this story credits MElu and Dwata with being the creators +of Fiuweigh and SEweigh. They were the ancestors of men, for they took +earth and made it into the form of people and then whipped it until it +moved. The first people they made were Otis (male) and Lakbang (female). +Two of their children were Mastafi (male) and Lakarol (or Landol) +(female). From these two came all the Bila-an. "These two lived in a +small distant place and their one animal was Baswit--a bird. They sent +him on a long journey and when he returned he brought a piece of earth +and the fruit of a _pandag_ tree. Lakarol planted the fruit in the piece +of earth and when it grew the leaves fell down and finally made the +earth." + +From these tales and later questioning we learn the MElu, or MElE, is +the most powerful of all the natural spirits and that his help is sought +in times of calamity and at very important occasions. + +Duwata (Duata, Dwata, Adwata, Diwata) is generally considered to be the +wife of MElu and of equal strength with him. She is sometimes identified +with a female spirit called Kalalokan. + +Fiuweigh and SEweigh are now powerful spirits; but there is some dispute +as to whether they have always been so, or once were human. + +Lamot ta Mangayo, also called Mandalangan, is the patron spirit of the +warriors and is in all respects almost identical with Mandarangan of the +Bagobo. + +The _busau_ are a class of spirits, often ill-disposed toward men, who +live in various parts of the mountains. Bakay, one of the _busau_, is +said to be the owner of the deer and pig and is held in considerable +esteem by the people of the Padada region, but he is not recognized by +the Tagkogon branch of the tribe. Another spirit, Bawi, who owns the +rice, is in great favor with the Padada people, but is unknown to the +latter group. Flau is the spirit of an unborn child whose mother died in +pregnancy. Its cry is often heard at night, and at times it attacks and +injures people. + +These natural spirits are very powerful, and since they sometimes +interest themselves in the doings of mortals it behooves all to keep +their good will. Below them is another class of spirits, less powerful, +but far more concerned in the affairs of men, and for this reason more +to be feared should they become displeased. This class is made up of the +spirits of the dead. A man's spirit, _almogol_, does not live in his +body, but always accompanies him during life. If at any time it wanders +the man becomes ill, and if it fails to return its owner dies. After +separating from the body the _almogol_ goes to Kilot, a good place below +the earth where there is no work or punishment. There it spends most of +its time, but upon occasion returns to its former haunts where it aids +or injures the living. + +The _almo-os_, already mentioned,[62] have considerable influence with +all the spirits, but they are particularly close to the _almogol_. When +a person is ill he is placed in a little house known as _lawig_ (Plate +LII), beside which a fire is kindled. Nearby are two decorated bamboo +sticks, behind which the spirit of the sick man stands while he watches +the proceeding. The _almo-os_ takes a chicken in his hands and, while +five or six assistants dance, he chants, appealing to the spirit to see +the good things that are being prepared, and to be pleased to return to +the sick man. Occasionally, the music stops and one of the dancers cries +"_almogol_, here is food for you; you must not go away." After a time +the fowl is killed, is cooked over the fire, and is fed to the invalid, +while the "doctor" continues his song of entreaty. If the call pleases +the spirit it will pass between the bamboo sticks and go to the sick +person in the _lawig_, but if it is not convinced that it should remain +it departs, and the patient dies. The sick person is kept in the spirit +house for a day and is then returned to his home. + +[62] See page 133. + +Little structures known as _bolon_ are erected for other spirits who may +be trying to injure the _almogol_ or attempting to persuade it to leave +its owner. + +Certain ceremonies and offerings occur after a death, at the birth of a +child, at planting and harvest times, and when the warriors are about to +start on a raid; all of which will be spoken of in a later paragraph. +When approaching a place known to be owned by certain spirits, it is +thought wise to make a small offering. On the trail to Ma-al is a large +rock which marks the divide between the mountains and the open cogon +lands. As the writer's party approached this stone one of the men +removed some of his leg bands and placed them beside the rock, at the +same time praying the _busau_ to "take the present and do not let any of +our party fall sick or be injured on the journey." It is also customary +for a man who wishes to buy anything or to make a trade, first to make +an offering of betel-nut to the spirit of some rich man, and to ask his +help in the venture. + +Some new clearings are cut in the jungle each year, after the +constellation _Balatik_ has risen out of the sea. The spirits place this +sign in the heavens to notify all that the land should be cleared, but +it does not call for a sacrifice as in the case of the people we have +previously described. At that time the men cut the trees and underbrush, +and after allowing them to dry, fire them. They also make the holes into +which the women drop seed rice. + +When the land is ready for planting, a little house called _botabwE_ is +built in the center of the field, and beside it is placed a platform or +table, _sina-al_, on which is an offering of food. Early in the morning, +while the others sleep, the owner and his wife carry the seed rice to +the field and place it on the _botabwE_. After a time they eat some of +the food which has previously been offered and then begin to plant, +beginning close to the spirit house. Soon they are joined by other +workers who aid them in the planting. These assistants do not receive +payment for their services other than food while working and like help +when in need. At this time a bamboo pole, with one end split and spread +open like a cup,[63] is placed in front of the elevated platform of the +family dwelling and the guardian spirit of the fields is promised that +after the harvest he will receive the new seed rice. While the rice is +growing the men attend to the fences and the women keep down weeds or +frighten birds and other intruders away. When the crops have matured all +the people of a neighborhood will meet at the home of the chief, and +there celebrate a ceremony known as _Pandoman_. Two bundles of rice are +laid on a mat in the center of the room, and beside them a spear is +thrust into the floor. These are offerings to the great spirits MElu and +Dwata who are besought to give health to the workers while they are +gathering crops. As soon as this offering is made, the men begin to +build the rice granaries; meanwhile the women silently guard the mat and +gifts, for until the new storehouses are completed there must be no +dancing or merry-making. When all is ready for the harvest, the wife of +the owner goes alone to the field, and having cut a few heads of grain, +she carries them back to the house. One portion is placed in the _sabak_ +another on a little platform, _gramso_, near to the house, as an +offering to MElu and Dwata; and the balance is cooked and eaten by the +family. The following morning all the women go to the fields to gather +the harvest. When the last bundle has been carried to the house a +celebration begins, agongs and _EdEl_[64] furnish the music for the +dancers, and for a day and a night all feast and make merry; then the +workers return to their homes carrying small gifts of cooked food or new +rice. + +[63] This pole which is here known as _sabak_ is the same as the +_tambara_ of the Bagobo. See p. 66 and Fig. 12. + +[64] See p. 110 note. [Transcriber's note: 30 pages earlier.] + +Aside from clearing the land and helping somewhat with the rice crops, +the men seldom concern themselves with work in the fields but leave the +cultivation of corn, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and the like to the women. + +A large part of the food of the tribe is furnished by the fruits and +herbs of the jungle and here again the women are the chief providers. +Although in the sago industry both sexes have well defined duties. + +Along the edge of the cogon lands are many large _buri_ palms,[65] from +which a starch commercially known as sago is secured. The men cut down a +tree close to its roots and remove the hard outer bark, thus exposing +the soft fibrous interior (Plate LIII); then a section of bamboo is bent +so as to resemble an adze[sic], and with this the men loosen or break up +the soft interior portion of the trunk. This is removed to a near-by +stream, and is placed in a bark vat into which water is led by means of +bamboo tubes. Here a woman works it with her hands until the starch +grains are separated from the fibrous matter. As the water drains slowly +out the fine starch is carried with it into a coarse cloth sieve, which +retains all the larger matter but allows the starch to be carried into +another bark vat below. Fresh water passes slowly through this lower +vat, removing the bitter sap from the flour, which is deposited on the +bottom of the vat. From time to time this is scraped up and placed in +baskets where it is kept until needed. The flour, while rather +tasteless, is nutritious and in years of drought is the chief source of +food supply. + +[65] _Corypha umbraculifera_. + +Preparation of the meals, care of the children, basket and mat making, +weaving and decoration of clothing, take up most of the time of the +women when they are not engaged in the cultivation of the fields or in +search of forest products. + +The hardest work in the fields falls to the men; they also strip the +hemp needed in weaving, while a few of them are skilled workers in brass +and copper and turn out bells and other ornaments not at all inferior to +those of the coast natives. Their methods of casting as well as their +manufactures are identical with those of the Bagobo from whom they +probably learned the art. So far as could be learned no iron work is +done by members of this tribe, and the few spears and knives possessed +by the warriors seem to be trade articles. + +The old men claim that until recent years the bow and arrow was their +sole offensive weapon. It is certain that today they have a greater +variety of arrows and are more skillful in the use of this type of +weapon than are any of their neighbors. None of the weapons found on the +gulf side of the divide appeared to be poisoned, but a number secured by +Major Porter from the Lake Buluan region seem to have been so treated +(Fig. 38). Different types of arrows have been developed for different +purposes; one for fighting, another for deer and pig, another for +monkeys, and still others for fish and birds (Fig. 39). Birds are killed +also by means of reed blow guns, identical in type with those shown on +page 73, Fig. 18. As a rule such weapons are used by boys. Pitch sticks +(Fig. 40), chicken snares, and fish traps are in common use, but bird +nets and wooden decoys seem to be unknown. + +FIG. 38. BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM LAKE BULUAN REGION. + +FIG. 39. BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON USE. + +FIG. 40. PITCH STICK USED IN THE CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS. + +When on a raid warriors carry beautifully carved shields, bows and +arrows, spears, and fighting knives (Plates LIV-LV). They are in bad +repute with the coast natives, but are really far less warlike and +troublesome than any of their neighbors. Their isolated dwellings serve +as protection against invaders, but at the same time make it difficult +to gather large bodies of men for raiding purposes. It is only when +urged on by an invasion of their country, by a desire for revenge for +real or fancied wrongs, or when a victim is needed for a sacrifice that +great raids are planned. Before a war party is to start against an enemy +the leader takes eight pieces of betel nut and some leg bands and +placing them on his shield, bids his followers lay their weapons upon +them. Addressing the guardian spirit of the warriors, he speaks as +follows: "Now listen Lamot ta Mangayo, let the person who killed my +brother come to meet us even though his head does ache, for now we offer +to you. Give us good fortune in the fight." Upon returning from the fray +they place eight whole betel nuts, together with leaves, on a plate, and +having set it outside the house, one of the warriors calls to MElu +saying: "If the brother of the man we have killed in payment for my +brother calls on you for aid, you must not give heed, for here we make a +present to you." + +There are no restrictions placed upon a pregnant woman, who, as a rule, +continues her regular duties until near the time of delivery.[66] When +the first pains begin an old man or woman offers four pieces of betel +nut to MElu, and to the spirit of the child's grandfather, if deceased. +The midwife prepares a drink which is supposed to aid in the delivery, +and after the birth she cuts the umbilical cord with a bamboo knife. She +also assists about the house for a time, and for these services receives +two or three Chinese plates, some small knives, rings for the right arm, +and some needles. The father is not under any restrictions at this time, +but for a day of two he will gather young _patina_ palms and from them +prepare food for his wife. + +[66] A woman does not work during her periods, and any food prepared by +her at that time would be refused by all who knew her condition. + +From birth until marriage the career of the child is without special +event. He is a welcome addition to the family, but no ceremonies attend +either his naming, or his arrival at the age of puberty. + +As a rule, a youth does not take a wife until he is near twenty years of +age, and then his mate is generally of his own choosing. Having decided +upon a suitable girl he informs his parents and the friends he may wish +to accompany him when he goes to her home to press his suit. Arrived at +the house, the father of the suitor expresses his belief that his son +wishes to reside there since he now asks the daughter for his wife. In +reply he is told that the family is poor, having neither agongs, +animals, or other things of value. The suitor at once makes an offering +of some of these desired articles, but whatever the gift may be, a +return present equal to half its value must be made.[67] Should the +girl's parents reject the gift all negotiations would be called off and +the guests return home, but as a rule, both families are well aware of +and favorable to the expected wedding sometime before the visit of the +groom's parents. After the exchange of gifts, food is furnished first to +the guests and later to the couple, who in the presence of all the +friends, feed each other with rice and are henceforth considered as +husband and wife. Until after the birth of a child the couple live with +the girl's family and the groom serves his father-in-law. After the +birth of an heir the couple establish a home of their own and to it the +husband may bring other wives if he desires. He pays a price for these +new wives, but does not give any services to their families. The first +mate is considered superior to the others, and in case her husband dies, +she acts as administrator of his property; however, the children of a +second wife share equally with those by the first marriage. + +[67] Note the similarity to the Bagobo custom. Page 101. + +The evening following a death, the friends gather and throughout the +night sing of the virtues of the deceased and of their own sorrow. The +body is placed on a mat in the center of the house and for three days is +watched over by the relatives, who, during this time, abstain from +music, dancing, shouting, or loud talking. The women cease from weaving +and the men refrain from all labor. A breaking of this taboo would +result in the certain death of the offender, for the spirit of the dead +man is still near at hand and is sure to wreak his vengeance on those +who show him disrespect. Finally, the body is wrapped in mats and is +buried at some little distance from the house. All the people return to +the dwelling, where the headman makes a cup out of leaves, and having +placed in it a narrow belt or string, together with betel leaves, sets +it adrift on a near-by stream, while all the men shout.[68] This removes +the ban, so that all the people can resume their regular occupations. + +[68] See pp. 157 and 161. [Transcriber's note: This is page 144.] + +If the deceased has been a person of great importance, the death should +be followed eight days later by a human sacrifice. This rite, while less +common than with the Bagobo, is by no means infrequent, and may be +occasioned by several causes beside that of death. For instance, if a +person has been ill for a long time and his relatives have become +convinced that an enemy has used magic to bring about the misfortune, +they may seize and sacrifice him, even though he be a member of their +own community. A case is known where a thief was put to death in this +manner. As there is considerable variation in the accounts of this +important ceremony the writer has thought it wise to give the +descriptions of two eye-witnesses. + +The first informant was an eighteen year old Bila-an boy of Labau named +Lantingari. His account is as follows: + +"Sololin of Ma-al, the wife of Karan, a Bila-an living near Digos, died +and her husband, in company with Umook, Gamban, and Bunod, Bagobos of +Digos, and the people of Labau, decided that a sacrifice was necessary +both because of the death and in order that the size, wealth, and fame +of the tribe might be increased. About this time Dianon, a Bila-an of +Latian (now deceased), caught a man named Saligon stealing camotes, +sugar-cane, and corn from the land.[69] He bound and tied the man, and +after a conference with Karan, Dianon agreed to turn over his prisoner +for the sacrifice if paid five agongs and one gun. + +[69] The woman Sololin had planted this sugar-cane and is reported to +have eaten some of it just prior to her death. The cane stolen was from +the patch, but the informant could not say whether or not this had +anything to do with later developments. + +"The sacrifice took place on a stream called Matinao near Labau during +the new moon. Two poles were sunk into the ground seven feet apart, and +a cross-piece attached about six feet above the ground. The culprit was +tied with hands crossed, one on each side of the horizontal pole so that +his arms were high above his head, and his feet were fastened to a +stake. + +"The men gathered close around the poles, but the women and children +stood at a distance. Karan took his stand just back and to the right of +the victim, and Umook stood in front on the left side. Both unsheathed +their knives and then they called upon the spirits Dwata, MElu and Lamot +ta Mangayo to look and see that they were killing the man because of his +great fault; if this were not true they surely would not kill him.[70] +At this point Saligon, the victim, told the men that he was not afraid +to die, that if they killed him, their fault would be great, but that if +they would release him, he would return at once to his home in Bilawan +and would not cause them any trouble because of what they had proposed +to do. When he stopped talking, Karan struck him from in front just +below the ribs with his fighting knife, and Umook struck him from in +back. The other men present who were willing to pay for the privilege +then struck at the body with their knives. The body was then cut down +and buried in a shallow grave already prepared for it. No parts were +carried away, although in some cases the women take the long hairs of +the victim and sew them in the designs on the men's trousers in place of +black thread."[71] + +[70] The informant here added that if the man had not been guilty, Karan +and Umook would surely have been punished with sickness; but since they +were not ill, it is certain that he was bad, and that Dwata had taken +his body up and would not punish his murderers. + +[71] The informant further volunteered, that the Bila-an make a +sacrifice every two years, and that several years ago his uncle named KE +was the victim. At that time he was too young to remember the details. + +Datu Baklay who now lives near the Padada river, but was formerly a +resident of the Malalag cogon plains, claims that the ceremony is not a +yearly event, as is the case with the Bagobo, neither does it follow +each death; but if the deceased has been a person of great importance or +a member of the ruler's family it should take place in eight days, +regardless of the phase of the moon or the position of the stars. He +further insists that neither _Balatik_ nor any other constellation +governs the time of an offering, nor does such a ceremony insure better +crops or success in war. He describes the sacrifice following the death +of Datu Kalayan, his father, as follows: + +"A Bila-an slave was purchased for one agong and preparations made for a +sacrifice. A small house without floor or sides was built in the forest +some distance from the town, and in this were two upright poles which +supported a crossbeam at a height of about seven feet. Near them and +inside the house a shallow grave was dug and then the victim was brought +in. He was tied to the horizontal pole, hands crossed one on each side +of the beam. The men filled the house, leaving a free place only near +the victim, and the women and children crowded close around in the yard. +After addressing the spirits, Lamot ta Mangayo, MElu, and Dwata, I +placed my spear to the man's side, and then all the male relatives took +hold of the shaft and at my signal forced the weapon through the body. +Other men then cut at the body with their knives, finally releasing it +from the pole. While it lay on the ground the women and boys were +allowed to enter the house and throw spears at it, after which it was +buried." + +Baloey, a Kagan living at Padada, claims to have seen a Bila-an +sacrifice at Ma-al, about ten years ago, while Bagobo Datu Ansig of +Talun, and Tongkaling of Cibolan claim to have witnessed several of +these events. As their accounts agree in most particulars with the two +just recorded, it seems probable that we have here a fairly accurate +account of a rite which no white man has seen or can hope to see. + +In studying the decorative art of this people a person encounters the +same difficulties as with the Bagobo. Nearly all garments are covered +with elaborate patterns (Plates LVI-LX), to some of which all the people +will give the same names and explanations; but by far the greater +portion of the designs have only pattern names which are unexplained. +Many designs are readily identified as men and alligators. In Fig. 41 +the forms marked a are identified as men and women, while the +conventionalized crocodile is shown in the same plates by the figures +marked b. Fig. 42 is perhaps the most interesting since it shows in one +garment the process of conventionalization. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, are +realistic representations of the human form; in 5 and 6 the heads are +lacking but the figures are easily recognized, while the balance have +lost all resemblance to the original, except for the uplifted arms and +spread legs, However, the great majority of decorative patterns on +clothing are without meaning to the mass of the people, and this is true +also of the designs on baskets, in mats, the incised designs often seen +on pottery jars, and of the carvings which frequently cover hangers, +tobacco tubes, and the like. + +FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + +FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + +The language of this tribe, while quite uniform among its divisions, +varies considerably from that of any of their coast neighbors. There is +at once noticeable a more common use of obscure vowel and consonant +sounds, such as b, f, E, a, and k, in the beginning, end or even in the +body of the word; while the letter f, seldom found in Philippine +dialects, is here very common; and finally, there is wide variation in +vocabulary. + +There are certain ill-defined tales to the effect that this tribe once +lived about Lake Buluan, and one writer[72] has attempted to show that +the tribal name is derived from that early home. Today they are still in +considerable numbers in that region, and this together with the fact +that they are now, and have been since the advent of the white man, +primarily an interior mountain people, helps to give credence to the +belief that they have spread to their present homes from the lake +district. Their language is a further proof that they have long been +separated from the people of the Davao Gulf region, for it differs more +from all the other dialects studied than did any of these vary among +themselves. Despite the foregoing statement, this brief sketch has shown +that in material culture, religion, and even physical type this tribe +does not differ radically from the Bagobo. + +[72] BLUMENTRITT, _Smithsonian Report_ for 1899. + + + +III. KULAMAN. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) CULAMANES. + +(b) MANOBO. + +According to Governor Bolton this tribe numbers about thirty-five +hundred individuals and occupies a considerable portion of the coast, +and adjacent mountains, from the Padada river on the north to Sarangani +Bay on the south. On the east side of Davao Gulf its members are found +along the beach and in the mountains, from Sigaboy to Cape San Agustin, +and also in a few scattered villages on the southeastern Pacific Coast. + +By their neighbors they are known as Kulaman or Manobo. The former +designation is translated as "bad man," but it is probable that they +received the name from the town of Kulaman, where they formerly resided. +They are equally well known as Manobo--a word meaning "man." Earlier +writers, misled by these two names, have generally treated this people +as forming two distinct groups, but this is quite incorrect, both names +being applied to a part or to the whole of the tribe. It has also been +customary to describe them as a part of the great Manobo tribe which +inhabits a large portion of Central and Northeastern Mindanao. The +writer is of the opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to +justify such a classification and that for the present we must consider +them as distinct from the Manobo of the northern district as are the +other tribes of Davao Gulf. + +According to their own tales, the Kulaman once held all the coast from +the Padada River to Sarangani Bay, but did not extend far back from the +sea, since in the mountains lived the Tagakaolo and Bila-an with whom +they were constantly at war. When the Moro appeared on their coasts and +offered help against the hill tribes in return for land, they were +gladly received and were given several village sites near to the mouths +of various rivers. Aside from a few minor quarrels, the Kulaman have +always lived on friendly terms with these later comers, and not a few of +the tribe have been converted to Mohammedism. + +Influenced by their new allies they organized under several petty rulers +who were subservient to the datu at Kulaman, and with this superior +organization they were able to carry on such successful warfare against +the hill tribes that the Tagakaolo were, for a time, partially under +their rule. + +When the Spaniards arrived and undertook to subdue the Moro, the Kulaman +cast their lot with their Mohammedan allies, and even after the power of +the Moro was broken, they remained irreconcilable and frequently raided +the settlements under the care of the Spanish priests. + +The recent history of the tribe, as told by Datu Bongkalasan of Padada, +as is follows: "About a hundred years ago when Gogo became _datu_, he +left Kulaman and settled at Piapi, not far from Padada, and planted the +cocoanut trees which can still be seen there. He was a man with a very +small head, but his arms were as large as a man's legs. He lived until +very old, and during his lifetime never did any work but was always a +great warrior. Under him the tribe became strong and all the other +_datu_ feared him. When he died his son Kolatau my uncle, succeeded him. +Like his father, he was a great warrior and all the neighboring tribes +paid him slaves and other tribute. His two sons died during his +lifetime; so upon his death the leadership fell to me, Bongkalasan." + +By the time Bongkalasan became ruler, the influence of the Spaniards was +strong enough to break the power of any coast _datu_, and after a +hostile demonstration by the new ruler his town was destroyed and his +following scattered. A part of the people took to the hills while others +migrated to the east side of the Gulf and settled near Sigaboy. It is +not believed that any members of this tribe were in that vicinity prior +to this time. A further migration took place shortly after the arrival +of the Americans, when a brother of Bongkalasan took a number of the +Kulaman over to Sigaboy. A certain amount of communication is kept up +between the people on both sides of the Gulf and the dialects are still +so similar that it is certain the separation has not been for any great +period of time. + +Upon the establishment of American rule a number of hemp planters +settled along the coast and soon their inducements to laborers began to +scatter the people, until today members of this tribe can be found as +far north as Santa Cruz. The power and influence of the _datu_ has waned +until he now has a following of less than two hundred people. Only that +portion of the tribe which retired to the hills still maintains any +semblance of their old prowess and even those groups are growing smaller +year by year. + +At the height of their power the men of the tribe were noted as +boat-builders[73] and fishermen. Fighting also took up a considerable +portion of their time, for added to their desire for loot and slaves was +a demand for victims imposed by the warrior deity. The women cultivated +little patches of corn, camotes, and some cocoanuts, and at certain +seasons all the members of the tribe went to the forest to gather sago, +but aside from this the sea furnished most of their food supply. +According to their own stories they did not cultivate rice until recent +years, and Datu Bongkalasan insists that none of the people planted rice +when he was a boy. It is his belief that all the ceremonies connected +with the rice culture were learned from the Tagakaolo and Bila-an. + +[73] This art is now practically lost and their boats are secured from +the Moro. + +From the Spanish writers[74] we hear little but evil of this people. +They are spoken of as warlike, superstitious, treacherous, and vengeful +as head-hunters "who expose the heads of their enemies on poles," and as +slavers. From Father GISBERT[75] we learn that in 1886, about twelve +hundred members of the tribe were converted to Christianity; but during +the period following the departure of the Spaniards most of them +deserted the faith and returned to the old life. Since American +occupation they have been among the most troublesome people of Southern +Mindanao, and only as late as 1911 were responsible for the death of a +number of planters and the destruction of the plantations in the +neighborhood of Nuin. They are rapidly breaking up as a tribe, and are +intermarrying with the coast natives and hill tribes, from both of whom +they are adopting artifacts and ideas. Already they have so altered +their dwellings that we cannot refer to a typical Kulaman home; their +house-hold utensils[76] are those of their neighbors, and this is true +also of most of the clothing, although one special type will be +mentioned later on. + +[74] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. LV, p. 556. + +[75] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 242. + +[76] Long narrow hemp cloth pillows (fig. 43) and round waterproof boxes +with infitting, tray-like tops (fig. 44) are found in nearly every +house. The use of these two articles is not confined to this people, but +is typical of them. The same type of box is found among the Manobo of +the Agusan river valley. + +FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER. + +FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP. + +As a result of their slave raids, and the adoption of captive women and +their offspring into the family, we find great variation in the members +of the tribe (Plates LXI-LXII). + +Measurements on twenty-seven men gave the following results: + +Height:--Maximum 169.0 cm.; minimum 146.0 cm.; average 158.3 cm. + +Cephalic Index:--Maximum 86.4; minimum 71.7; average 78.1. + +Length-Height. Index:--Maximum 76.5; minimum 61.9; average 68.4. + +If these figures are compared with those of the Bagobo it will be seen +that there is little difference in the averages; however, this +similarity is less real than the figures indicate, for with the Kulaman +there are more individuals at both extremes. For example: the cephalic +indices of eight out of the twenty-seven were 80 or above, while six +were less than 75; again, in the length-height indices six were above 70 +and an equal number less than 65. In other respects there is such +variation that it is hard to generalize. It is noticeable that there is +a greater tendency toward prognathism than we have heretofore met with; +the forehead, while high, is moderately retreating and the supra-orbital +ridges prominent in most individuals; the hair is brown-black and is +inclined to curl in locks. The wide variation of type within the tribe +is to be expected when we know that its members have been constantly +recruited from the neighboring tribes. It is even possible that a +considerable number of slave women from distant islands may have been +added to the group by purchase from the Moro.[77] + +[77] According to early writers, the Moro of the Gulf carried on a +lucrative slave trade with this and other tribes. As the Moro raids were +made by water and often reached as far as the Northeastern coast of this +island and south to the Celebes it is quite possible that these remote +districts have helped in the upbuilding of the tribe under discussion. + +The religious beliefs have many points in common with those of the +neighboring tribes, but there are some which require special notice. + +Two powerful beings, TimanEm and his wife Diwata[78] are above all other +spirits. + +[78] The Padada people say the term _diwata_ is a name which may be +applied to the _timanEm_, of whom there are two, a male and a female. + +Mandalangan, also called Siling or Manobo Siring, is much like the +Bagobo divinity of similar name. He is fond of war and bloodshed and +when there has been a great slaughter he feasts on the flesh and drinks +of the blood of the slain. Only warriors can address him and make the +offerings of red food which he demands. Once a year, usually after the +rice harvest and when the moon is full, a raid must be made and victims +slain so that this spirit can feast.[79] If the Warriors fail to render +him this service Mandalangan will cause their bodies to swell up and +many will die, while sickness will visit all other members of the +tribe.[80] + +[79] Data Bongkalasan says it was formerly the custom to make a foray at +each full moon. + +[80] This was the reason given for the raid on the coast plantations in +1911. + +The many spirits who inhabit rocks and large trees are generally +favorable to man and are collectively known as _magintalonan_. + +Tama owns the deer and wild pigs, and no one hunts or traps in the +forest until he has made an offering of betel nut to this spirit. When +game is secured its tail and ears are strung on rattan and are hung in a +tree, in exchange for the live animal. + +The _maniokan_, generally evil spirits, resemble snakes, and like them +live in the ground. People are frequently made lame by simply stepping +over their homes. + +Each man and woman has a spirit, _kalaloa_,[81] dwelling in his body +during lifetime. At death this spirit goes into the sky, unless it +deserves punishment, in which case it is hurried to Kilot, a region +below. In either place these spirits keep close watch over the living +and bring success or disaster according to their will. They have come to +be looked upon as the guardians of the fields, and suitable offerings +are made to them at planting and harvest time. + +[81] The Kulaman of Santa Cruz insist that each person has two +_kalaloa_, one on the right side and one on the left. At death the one +on the right side goes to a good place in the sky, where there is no +work and "thoughts come easy." The _kalaloa_ of the left side goes into +the ground to a poor place called Kilot. It is probable that the +neighboring Bagobo have influenced the beliefs of this group. + +A few old men, _makating_, are thought to be able to address the spirits +with greater probability of success than the others; but they do not +stand in the same relation to the spirit world as do the _mabalian_ of +the Bagobo. The nearest approach to that class is a group of women known +as _lokEs_[82], who act as midwives and make use of roots and herbs in +curing sickness. + +[82] In Santa Cruz known as _bagbabolan_ or _mananagámen_. + +The people are warned of disaster or impending danger by various signs. +A snake crossing the trail is an imperative order for the traveler to +turn back; the call of the _limokon_[83] is likewise a warning, while +should one of the principals to any agreement sneeze during the +negotiations the project would be delayed or abandoned. + +[83] See p. 63 note. + +There is only slight development of beliefs and ceremonies in connection +with the cultivation of field crops, due probably to the recent adoption +of agriculture by the members of this tribe. A field is seldom planted +to rice for more than one season, after which the land is used for corn, +camotes, and the like, until the invasion of _cogon_ grass makes further +cultivation impossible. + +As a result new land must be broken for each planting. When the +constellation _layag_ "a sail" and _balangay_ "a boat" appear in the +month of December, the people go to the desired plot, cut down the +trees, and when these are dry, fire them. + +Before the planting can be begun the seed rice must be carried to the +center of the field where a bamboo pole, _talabinian_, and a stalk of +sugar-cane have previously been placed, as an offering to the _kalaloa_ +who guard the land. Again at harvest time an offering of food is taken +to this spot and the spirits of the dead are besought as follows: "Do +not take our rice, but let it last for a long time, for now we give a +part to you." A meal and dance follow the offering and then all who +desire may aid in cutting the new rice. + +No offerings are associated with the planting or harvesting of other +field crops, but the gathering of sago flour is attended by gifts to the +spirits of the dead and prayers for the health of the workers. The +method of obtaining and preparing the flour is the same as that already +described. Offerings are made before and after a hunt, and a man never +goes to fish without first placing a leg ring and some betel nut on the +sand close to the water, meanwhile saying, "You TimanEm must give us +some food; and you shall have your part." Upon his return he places a +small fish beside the first offering and is then free to take his catch +to the village. + +In addition to the pursuits already outlined, we find that some of the +men are expert workers in iron (Fig. 45), copper, and brass, while the +women are weavers. Their weaving does not differ from that previously +described, but a peculiar type of decoration has been developed by this +tribe, and from them has spread somewhat to their neighbors. Waxed +threads are used to work designs into cloth so that when the fabric is +placed in dye the liquid will not reach the portions thus covered. +Later, when the threads are removed, white patterns appear on the red +background (See Plate LXIII). + +FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH. + +Slaves are kept, but their duties are so similar to those of the +freeborn that it is impossible for the casual observer to pick out the +members of this class. + +Until recent years a large part of the man's time was taken up in +preparation for or active participation in the inter-tribal fights. +There are several incentives for these raids. First is the desire for +loot and slaves; then comes the ambition of the young men to be +recognized as successful warriors; and finally, and most compelling is +the demand of the spirit Mandalangan for victims. + +A man who has killed five or more persons is entitled to wear a red suit +covered with peculiar white designs (See Plate LXIII), and is henceforth +known as _mabolot_. When his score has reached twenty-five he receives +the still more honorable title of _maisEg_ and is then allowed to dress +entirely in black and to deck his hair with red flowers.[84] + +[84] The flowers used are _Celosia cristata L., Graptophyllum hortense +nees_; _Coleus atropurpeus Benth_. + +A raid is made only when the moon is full. A dish of red rice is +decorated with red flowers and is placed in the center of the room. +Around it the warriors stick their spears and then one of the oldest of +the company takes up a handful of the food and offers it to the spirit, +saying: "Mandalangan come and eat, for we are ready to fight; go with us +and help us." As he finishes his prayer each warrior takes a portion of +the rice and throws it out of doors, for "they are not yet worthy to eat +what Mandalangan has left." Returning to the room they all eat of white +rice and are ready for the raid. In addition to their spears they should +carry shields and fighting knives, and in recent years quite a number +have come into possession of firearms. + +Although the warriors are bold in their attack and do not hesitate to +assault strong villages, they have no scruples against seizing or +killing members of small parties or the inhabitants of isolated +dwellings.[85] It is necessary that the raiders secure at least one +victim, otherwise another foray must be made at once. The body of the +slain is opened, the liver is extracted and is eaten by the warriors who +thus "become like Mandalangan."[86] The head, forearms, and lower part +of the legs are carried back to the village where they are cut to pieces +by the women and children. The men take no part in this mutilation of +the body, but as soon as the fragments are buried they begin to dance, +meanwhile holding their unsheathed knives high above their heads. After +a time the head-man blows loudly on a decorated bamboo trumpet (Fig. +46), while all the men unite in shouting "to announce their victory." At +last they have fulfilled all the commands of Mandalangan and without +fear they enter the house and partake of the red food which has been +offered to him. + +[85] Should water fall by accident on a warrior who is on a raid, it is +considered a bad omen and the plans may be changed or delayed. In one +instance the owner of a place marked for attack fastened dishes of water +so that the marauders unwittingly knocked them over on themselves, and, +as a result, the place was left unharmed. + +[86] At times the skull is opened and the brain eaten. + +FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET. + +The events just preceding and following the birth of a child are very +similar to those of the Bagobo, except that there are no restrictions of +any kind placed on the father and mother, neither are there any +ceremonies connected with the birth or naming of a child unless unusual +events have convinced the people that the spirits are in some way +displeased.[87] + +[87] Triplets are killed, as with the Bagobo. + +The afterbirth is placed in the care of an old woman who carries it +directly to a sturdy molave[88] tree and there attaches it to the +branches "so that the child may become strong like the tree." While on +this mission the bearer looks neither to the right nor to the left, nor +does she hesitate, for such actions on her part might influence the +disposition of the child or cause it to have physical deformities.[89] +No special attention is given to youths when they reach the age of +puberty, although it is customary to file and blacken their teeth at +about that period. + +[88] Vitex littoralis Decne. + +[89] Similar beliefs are held by the Tinguian of Northern Luzon. + +Marriage is attended by gifts and ceremonies, such as we have previously +described. We find the groom paying a price for his bride, but receiving +a return gift from her parents; the couple feed one another with rice +and are thereby legally married; and finally we learn that a child is +kept with them until they have had intercourse. It is customary for the +youth to serve his father-in-law-to-be for two or three years preceding +the wedding, after which he is released from such service. + +As is the case with the neighboring tribes, polygamy is practiced, the +only bar to marriage being blood relationship. Upon the death of the +head of the family one-half of his property goes to his wife and half to +the children. If there are two or more wives, the first wife still +retains half, while all the children share equally in the balance of the +estate, thus leaving the second and succeeding wives without a portion. + +Sickness may be caused by evil spirits, or it may be due to a desire on +the part of the _kalaloa_ to leave its present abode. In either case the +man becomes ill and it behooves him to take immediate steps to placate +the evil spirits or to convince his _kalaloa_ to remain with him. This +last can best be accomplished by bathing the sick person with water +which has been heated in a good _agong_. A fine dish would do equally +well, but should the hot water cause it to break the spirit would depart +at once. In extreme cases the _lokEs_ will gather certain roots and brew +them into a drink which she gives to the sick person. At each tree or +shrub visited in her search for medicines she leaves an offering of +betel nuts and leg rings, and when the drink has been prepared she makes +a further gift, meanwhile begging TimanEm to aid her in effecting a +cure. If all efforts fail and the spirit leaves, the corpse is placed in +the center of the house, where it is kept from two to nine days +according to the wealth and prominence of the deceased. During this time +no one should sleep in the dwelling, for the spirit might be resentful +and turn the face of the sleeper black. + +Usually, the body is buried in the ground at a distance from the house. +The coffin is made out of a split log, in which weapons, jars, and the +like are placed for the use of the spirit. If the dead man has been a +warrior he is dressed in the clothing distinctive of his rank, and his +grave is covered with red flowers. At times the coffins are shaped to +resemble small boats and are then placed on high poles near to the +beach. + +For a month following a funeral the relatives refrain from all +merrymaking. At the expiration of this period all go to a near-by river +and with their knives, cut to pieces a braided cord, which has been made +since the burial, and as they destroy it they shout "This is a man we +are killing. This is a man we are killing." Finally, the pieces are +thrown into the river and the period of taboo is past. + + + +IV. TAGAKAOLO. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) TAGAKAOLA. + +(b) SAKA--"head of the river." + +(c) KAGAN, KALAGAN, CALAGANES, CALAGARS. + +(d) LAOC. According to the account of PASTELL,[90] this name is given to +a small, degraded division of the Tagakaolo who live in the mountains of +Haguimitan on San Augustin peninsula. + +[90] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 259. + +The present habitat and general condition of this tribe is nearly the +same as that of the Kulaman. + +Prior to Spanish times they held the hill region back of the coast, +between Malalag and Lais. On the Gulf side they were barred from the sea +by the Kulaman and Moro, while in the mountains they encountered the +powerful Bila-an tribe. + +About fifty years ago that part of the tribe living furthest to the +north united under the leadership of a brave warrior named Paugok, and +made war on the Bagobo. They were successful in this conflict and drove +their enemies from the rich valleys of the Padada and Bulatakay rivers, +where they established themselves. This brought them in close contact +with the Kulaman and Moro of the coast, with whom they lived on friendly +terms. The influence of the latter group was so great that the newcomers +not only adopted their style of dress, but also substituted cotton for +hemp in the manufacture of their garments. Today the members of this +tribe can still be recognized by their close fitting suits of red and +yellow striped cloth, from which they have received the name of +Kagan.[91] They have also been constant borrowers, from all their +neighbors, of ideas for house-building and utensils. They have +intermarried to some extent with the Kulaman, and in times past Bila-an +and Bagobo slave women have been added to the tribe. + +[91] The general name applied to red cotton trade cloth. + +Today practically all the members of the Kagan division are found living +on the American plantations along the Padada and Bulatakay rivers. They +are on friendly terms with their Tagakaolo kinsmen, and are still so +like them in language, social customs, and religious beliefs, that one +description will suffice for both. + +At some unrecorded date a considerable, portion of the tribe migrated to +the east side of Davao Gulf, and settled near Cape San Agustin, where, +it is said, they now number more than two thousand. + +The name Tagakaolo signifies "those who dwell at the head of the river," +and is applied to all the hill people living between the coast and the +country of the Bila-an. They have always been broken up into small +groups, often at war with one another, yet they appear to be quite +uniform in type, language, and religious beliefs. In recent years many +of them have been induced to come down to the coast plantations, but the +great majority still remain in the mountains. They are of a turbulent, +warlike disposition, and have been a constant source of trouble to the +Spanish and American authorities.[92] At the time of the writer's visit +they had joined with the Kulaman in raiding the coast settlements, and, +as a result, were being vigorously pursued by the American troops; for +this reason it was only possible to gain information from those +remaining on the plantations. + +[92] Members of this tribe were responsible for the murder of Governor +Bolton. + +The total number of persons making up the tribe is estimated at six +thousand, but this is at best a mere guess. + +There is scarcely any variation in physical type between the Kagan +branch and the Tagakaolo proper, while for the whole tribe there is less +variation between its members than in any group so far discussed. + +The following results were obtained by measurements on twenty-seven men: + +Maximum height 166.6 cm.; minimum 151.3 cm.; average 157.4 cm. + +Cephalic indices--Maximum 89.7; minimum 76.3; average 81.5. + +Length-height indices--Maximum 79.0; minimum 63.1, average 70.0. + +These tables show that aside from being more short-headed, this tribe +differs little from the Bagobo, Bila-an, and Kulaman. Like the Kulaman, +they have high foreheads, often full and vaulted but quite as frequently +retreating from well-marked supra-orbital ridges. They are slightly more +prognathous than the Kulaman, and in the majority of cases the hair is +curled in locks. The teeth are usually mutilated and blackened, while +shaving of the eyebrows and tattooing of the left forearm and breast are +quite common. + +The historians of the tribe tell us that all the Tagakaolo are descended +from Lakbang, MEngEdan, and his wife Bodek. In the beginning these three +persons lived on a small island in the sea. Two children, Linkanan and +Lampagan, were born to them and they in turn were parents of two +birds--the _kalau_ and _sabitan_. These birds flew away to other places +and returned with bits of soil which their parents patted and moulded +with their hands until they had formed the earth. Other children were +born and from them have come all the people who now inhabit the land. + +Two powerful spirits, _Diwata_ and _TimanEm_, watched the formation of +the world, and when it was completed the latter spirit planted trees +upon it. He still takes considerable interest in the affairs of men and +each year sends the spirits Layag and Bangay,[93] as stars, to tell the +people when to prepare their land for the planting of crops. + +[93] See page 154. + +Other spirits, less friendly, have existed from the first time. Of these +one named Siling causes much trouble by confusing travelers through the +forest. Spirits of unborn children--_mantianak_[94]--wander through the +forest crying "ina-a-a" (mother), and often attack human beings. The +only way persons thus assailed can hope to escape is by running to a +stream and throwing water on the abdomens of their pursuers. + +[94] Frequently called _busau_. + +The powerful spirit Tama owns the deer and wild pig, and is usually kind +to hunters who offer him proper gifts. Should they fail in this duty he +may cause them to become lost or injured. Mandalangan (Mandangan) is +known as a powerful spirit who loves war and bloodshed, but he is so +closely interwoven in the minds of the people with TimanEm that it is +doubtful if he should be classed as a separate spirit. + +In addition to these beings are the _kawE_, or shades of the dead, the +chiefs of whom are the people who created the earth. During life the +_kawE_ live in the body, but after death they go to the sky where they +remain the greater part of the time. They do return to earth at certain +seasons, to aid or injure the living, and it is usually one of their +number who keeps guard over the rice-fields. Certain persons known as +_balian_ can talk to these spirits and from them have learned the +ceremonies which the people should perform at certain seasons, and at +the critical periods of life. In the main these ceremonies are so +similar to those just described that it is useless to repeat. The +proceedings at a birth, marriage, or death are practically identical +with the Kulaman, as are also those at planting and harvest time. A +slight variation was noticed after the rice planting at Padada, when all +the workers placed their planting sticks on an offering of rice and then +poured water over them "so as to cause an abundance of rain." Another +difference is noticed following the death of a warrior. His knife lies +in its sheath beside the body for seven days and during that time can +only be drawn if it is to be used in sacrificing a slave. If such an +offering is made it is carried out in much the same way as the Bagobo +sacrifice, except that the bereaved father, son, or brother cuts the +body in halves. + +If it is impossible to offer a slave, a palm leaf cup is filled with +water and is carried to the forest. Here the relatives dance and then +dip the knife and some sticks in the water for "this is the same as +dipping them in blood." Later they are carried back and hung up in the +house of mourning. + +According to the long established custom, warriors must go to fight once +each year, when the moon is bright. Spears, fighting knives, bows and +arrows, sharpened bamboo sticks, and shields have long been used, and to +these several guns have been added in recent years. + +The attack is from ambush and the victims are generally cut to pieces, +although women and children are sometimes taken captive. Tufts of hair +taken from the slain are attached to the shields of the warriors, and an +arm is carried back to the home town "so that the women and children can +cut it to pieces and become brave." + +The foregoing account shows that the Kagan and Tagakaolo living on the +hemp plantations differ very little from their neighbors, whom we have +previously described. It may be that an investigation, carried on in +peaceful times, far back in the mountains, will show that more radical +differences exist in the great body of the tribe. + + + +V. ATA. + +The people classed under this name are the least known of any of the +wild inhabitants of Mindanao. They probably receive their name from the +word _atas_ which signifies "those up above" or "the dwellers in the +uplands." It does not appear that they form a single tribe, or that they +are even of uniform type. + +The writer did no intensive work with them, and the following notes make +no pretense of being first-hand knowledge. I have drawn on all possible +sources for this scanty information, but am mostly indebted to the +letters and reports of the late Governor Bolton, who, without doubt, +knew more of this people than any other white man. + +I am thus compelled to make my descriptions vague; indeed, my one excuse +for dealing with the Ata is to bring together such information as we +possess in the hope that it may be of value to some other worker who may +later take up the task of studying this little known people. + +According to Governor Bolton, the Ata inhabit the regions west and +northwest of Mt. Apo, the headwaters of the Davao river--north and west +of the Guianga--as well as the headwaters of the Lasan, Tuganay, and +Libagawan rivers. In all these regions they extend over the watershed, +converging toward the center of the island at the headwaters of the +Pulangi river. + +It should be noted at the outset that the Eto or Ata, living between the +Guianga and Bagobo, should not be included in this division. + +In the region about Mt. Apo they are closely allied to the Obo and +Tigdapaya,[95] while in the region adjoining the Guianga they have +intermarried with that people and have adopted many of their customs as +well as dress. On the headwaters of the Lasan river we are told that +they are known as Dugbatang or Dugbatung; that they are a timid +degenerate branch having no fixed habitations and very little clothing; +they are small, with crispy hair, and often decorate their bodies with +tattooed designs. About twenty miles up the Tuganay river Governor +Bolton encountered a similar group of Ata whom he describes as being +very wild. From the headwaters of this river he crossed over near to the +source of the river Libagawan where he discovered a hitherto unknown +people--the Tugauanum. These he believed were mixed Malay and Negrito, +with crispy or curly hair and sharp features. + +[95] See p. 128. + +While in the central part of Mindanao, on the headwaters of the Pulangi +river, the writer saw about fifty people known as Tugauanum who came +over the mountains to trade. They were certainly of mixed ancestry, +showing a distinct infusion of Negrito blood, and in other respects +conforming to the description of Governor Bolton. Among articles of +barter carried by them were the typical knives and hemp cloth of the +west side of the Davao gulf region, showing that they are at least in +the line of trade with the tribes we have already studied. + +According to their own stories, the original home of the tribe was along +the river Mapula which flows into the Tuganay near its source. Governor +Bolton tells of hearing, while in this section, of a people called +Dedaanum "who were small and black and had curly hair," but who had all +been killed by the Tugauanum. He was also informed that a numerous tribe +of very small black people called Tugniah lived on the headwaters of the +river Omiern, which flows north of the Libagawan. They were said to live +in trees, to plant nothing, and to subsist on sago flour. "Their bolos +are like sabers and they use lances, bows, and arrows." + +The Governor classes the Tugauanum as Ata "since they speak the same +language" but he adds "they are probably the same race as the +Libabaoan." This latter people are elsewhere in his notes referred to as +Guibabauon or Dibabaoan. They live along the headwaters of the Tagum +river and are, he believes, a mixture of Ata and Mandaya.[96] + +[96] The writer believes that the Libabaoan are probably the same as the +Divavaoan who are classed as a branch of the Mandaya. See p. 165. + +From one source we learn that the Ata are small, in many respects +resembling the Negrito; that they are timid and are either nomads or +build their houses high in the branches of trees. Another writer tells +us that they are a superior type, with aquiline noses, thick beards, and +are tall. "They are very brave and hold their own with the Moro." We are +also told that they cultivate the soil and build good houses. + +The estimates concerning their numbers are equally conflicting. Governor +Bolton gives the population as six thousand; the report of the +Philippine Commission for 1900 credits them with eight thousand, while +Father Gisbert believed that they aggregated "not less than twenty +thousand souls." + +The divergent reports are due to the fact that up to the year 1886 only +one village of this people had been visited,[97] and since that time +only a few hasty trips have been made into their territory. + +[97] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 242-3. + +From our present information it seems probable that the Ata are +descendants of an early invading people who intermarried first with the +early Negrito inhabitants, and later with other tribes with which they +came in contact. They have been free borrowers from their neighbors in +all respects, and hence we find them occupying all the steps from the +nomad condition of the pygmy blacks to the highly specialized life of +the Guianga. + +The following account of their beliefs was extracted from letters +written by Governor Bolton. He fails to designate the section from which +the information was gathered, but its similarity to Bagobo and Guianga +makes it probable that the account comes from the Ata dwelling near +those people. Considerable variation will doubtless be found in other +districts. + +"The greatest of all the spirits is Manama[98] who made the first men +from blades of grass, weaving them together until they resembled a human +form. In this manner he made eight persons--male and female--who later +became the ancestors of the Ata and all the neighboring tribes. Long +after this the water covered the whole earth and all the Ata were +drowned except two men and a woman. The waters carried them far away and +they would have perished had not a large eagle come to their aid. This +bird offered to carry them to their homes on its back. One man refused, +but the other two accepted its help and returned to Mapula. + +[98] See page 106. + +"The other deities are Mandarangan, Malalayug, god of agriculture; +Mabalian, the spirit who presides over childbirth; Tarasyub and +Taratuan, the guardian spirits of the brass and iron workers; +Boypandi--the spirit who guards over the weavers." + +While in the Ata country the Governor observed certain customs of the +people. As his party approached the palisaded house of Madundun they +stopped for twenty minutes to perform a ceremony called _anting-anting_. +"An old man waved his shield and a cloth, meanwhile repeating mysterious +words. Then each man was given a chew of betel-nut and was well rubbed +with a charm." "At Tuli a swarm of bees passed over the house just as +the party was ready to start. This was taken as a sign that some of the +party would be killed by the arrows of the enemy, hence they refused to +go." "Likewise, if the dove _limokan_ calls on the left side of the +trail the party will refuse to proceed, unless another _limokan_ answers +the call from the right side of the path." + + + +VI. MANDAYA. + +("Inhabitants of the Uplands"). + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) MANSAKA ("Inhabitants of the mountain clearings"). This name is +applied to those Mandaya who formerly dwelt far back in the mountains. +Many of this division have recently emigrated to the coast and are now +found at the north and east part of Davao Gulf. + +(b) PAGSUPAN. The appellation by which the members of this tribe, living +near the Tagum and Hijo rivers, are known. + +(c) MANGWANGA or MANGRANGAN ("Dwellers in the forests"). A name by which +are designated those Mandaya who live in the heavily forested mountains +skirting the coast. + +(d) MANAGOSAN or MAGOSAN. The members of the tribe living on the +headwaters of the Agusan river bear this name. + +(e) DIVAVAOAN. A division which inhabits a small district to the south +and west of Compostela. Very little is known of this people, but from +the information now at hand it seems that they should be classed as a +branch of the Mandaya. + +HABITAT. + +This tribe occupies both slopes of the mountain range which borders the +Pacific ocean, from about 9 degrees of North latitude south nearly to +Cape San Agustin. Its members are also found in considerable numbers +from the head of the Agusan drainage nearly to the town of Compostela, +and several settlements of this people are to be found along the Hijo +and Tagum rivers, while in recent years a number have established +themselves on the eastern side of Davao Gulf. + +Generally speaking, this whole region is extremely mountainous and at +the same time heavily wooded. It is only when the Agusan, Hijo, and +Tagum rivers are approached that the country becomes more open. On the +Pacific coast there are few harbors, for the mountains extend down +almost to the water's edge forming high sheer cliffs. Aside from the +three rivers mentioned the water courses are, for the greater part, +small and unnavigable and a short distance back from the coast appear as +tiny rivulets at the bottom of deep cañons. + +There is no organization of the tribe as a whole, since each district +has its local ruler who is subject to no other authority. These +divisions I are seldom on good terms, and are frequently in open warfare +with one another or with neighboring tribes. + +Despite this lack of unity and the great area they inhabit, their +dialects are mutually intelligible, and in other respects they are so +similar that I believe we are justified in regarding them as one group +linguistically, physically, and culturally. + +DESCRIPTION. + +Measurements made on fifteen men and five women gave the following +results: + +Height--Men: Maximum 161.3 cm., minimum 145.1 cm., average 153.9 cm. + +Women: Maximum 152.3 cm., minimum 144.1 cm., average 146.8 cm. + +Cephalic index--Men: Maximum 89.1, minimum 76.3, average 84.6. + +Women: Maximum 84.8, minimum 75.2, average 81.3. + +Length-height index--Men: maximum 78.7, minimum 64.5, average 74.2. + +Women: Maximum 81.8, minimum 75.0, average 77.4. + +From these figures it appears that there is considerable variation +between individuals, but a closer study of the charts shows that the +majority of those measured come closer to the averages than do the +members of any other group here mentioned (Plates LXIV-LXIX). + +Both sexes wear the hair long and comb it to a knot at the back of the +head. The women generally bang the hair over the forehead, while the men +allow a lock to fall in front of each ear. The hair is brown-black and +generally slightly wavy, although four individuals with straight hair +were seen. + +The forehead is high, and in about half the persons observed somewhat +retreating; however, full, vaulted foreheads are by no means uncommon. +The distance from the vertex to the tragus is uniformly great. + +The cheek bones are quite prominent, while the whole face tapers from +above so as to be somewhat angular. In twenty per cent of the men the +root of the nose seemed to be continuous with the supra-orbital ridge, +which, in such cases, was strongly marked. In general the root of the +nose is broad, low, and depressed, and there is a tendency for the ridge +to be somewhat concave. The lips are thick and bowed, but there is +little or no prognathism. + +The skin of the body is not tattooed or mutilated in any other way, but +the eyebrows are often shaved to a thin line, and the teeth are filed +and blackened. Filing was formerly done with small stones but imported +files are now used for this purpose. The coloring is effected by chewing +the roots of the _anmon_ vine and applying to the teeth the "sweat" +caught on a steel blade, held above burning bark of the _magawan_ tree. +This practice seems to have no significance other than that of +beautifying the person and saving the youth from the ridicule of his +fellows. To keep the teeth black, tobacco treated with lemon juice which +has stood on rusty iron is chewed frequently. + +Despite constant statements to the effect that the members of this tribe +are light-colored and the assertion of one writer[99] that at least one +division is white, observations made with the V. Luschan color table on +more than fifty individuals showed that while certain persons are +somewhat lighter than their fellows, as was also the case in other +tribes, there is not an appreciable difference in color between this +tribe and the others of the Gulf region. + +[99] LANDOR, The Gems of the East. It should be noted that the district +from which the white tribe was reported is now fairly well known and +there seems to be no reason to believe that the people residing there +differ materially in color from the other natives of the island. + +CLOTHING. + +The ordinary man of the tribe wears a loosely fitting shirt and wide +trousers made of white or blue cotton cloth. (Plate LXIX-LXX). These +garments are frequently decorated with embroidered designs and are +finished at the shoulders and knees with a cotton fringe. The trousers +are supported at the waist by means of a belt, and below reach nearly to +the ankles.[100] An incised silver disk is attached to the front of the +jacket, while ornaments of beads, seeds, and alligators' teeth encircle +the neck. + +[100] Along the coast this type of garment is now seldom seen, for the +men are adopting the close-fitting dress of the Moro. + +When on the trail the man covers his head with a little palm bark hat +(Fig. 47). This is sometimes conical, but more frequently is narrow and +turned up at the front and back. Painted designs, betel wings, and +chicken feathers make the hat a striking decoration which compensates +for its lack of utility. + +FIG. 47. MEN'S HATS. + +A class of warriors known as _bagam_[101] dress in red and wear turbans +of the same hue, while women mediums, _ballyan_,[102] may also make use +of red cloth. + +[101] See p. 180. [Transcriber's note: This is page 167.] + +[102] See p. 174. + +Other women wear blue cotton jackets, in the fronts and back of which +are many artistic embroidered designs. Their hemp cloth skirts, like +those of the Bagobo, are made tube-like and are held at the waist by +means of belts. They are very careless about the hang of these garments +and one side may be above the calf of the leg while the other drags on +the ground (Plate LXVII). No head coverings are worn, but quite +elaborate combs (Fig. 48) are thrust into the knots of hair at the back +of the head. Wooden ear plugs (Fig. 49) ornamented with incised silver +plates and with bead and silver pendants fit into openings in the lobes +of the ears. Like the men they wear necklaces of beads, sweet smelling +herbs, and seeds. Many of the latter are considered to have medicinal +value and are eaten to cure pains in the stomach. One or more silver +disks are worn on the chest or over the breasts, while anklets, such as +are used by the women of the other tribes, are frequently seen. Both +sexes are fond of bracelets of brass, shell, or vines, as well as of +finger rings of tortoise shell and silver (Plate LXXI). + +FIG. 48. WOMAN'S COMB. + +FIG. 49. FAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS. + +None of the garments contain pockets, and in order to make up for this +deficiency the men carry bags (Plate LXX) suspended on their backs by +means of bands which pass over the shoulders. In these they carry their +betel-nut outfits, tobacco, and the like. Small covered waterproof +baskets (Plate LXVIII) serve the same purpose for the women and are +carried at the back or at the side. + +HISTORY. + +Probably no wild tribe in Mindanao has received so much mention in +histories, reports, and books of travel as have the Mandaya, but these +references have been, in the main, so vague and often so misleading that +they are of little value for our purposes. Quite in contrast with this +mass of material are the excellent reports of the late Governor Bolton, +and Mr. Melbourne A. Maxey,[103] who for a number of years has been +closely associated with the members of the tribe residing in the +vicinity of Cateel. In the preparation of this paper frequent use has +been made of the notes gathered by these two gentlemen. + +[103] Published in the Mindanao Herald. + +When the first white men visited the tribe they found that the +neighboring Moro were making frequent raids on their villages and were +carrying away women and children whom they sold to the Bagobo and other +tribes of the Gulf.[104] At the same time it was learned that they, in +turn, were slave holders and were eager to purchase captives from the +Mohammedan raiders. The great distances traveled by the Moro in their +raids make it possible that slaves from distant islands may thus have +been introduced into the tribe. Later we shall see that it was difficult +for a slave or a descendant of a slave to become a freeman, yet it was +by no means impossible, and it is likely that a considerable part of the +tribe are descendants of people brought to the district through purchase +and capture. Another possible source of outside blood is suggested by +well verified stories of castaways on the east coast of Mindanao and +adjacent islands.[105] While working with the Mandaya in the region of +Mayo bay the writer was frequently told that three times, in the memory +of the present inhabitants, strange boats filled with strange people had +been driven to their coasts by storms. The informants insisted that +these newcomers were not put to death but that such of them as survived +were taken into the tribe. These stories are given strong substantiation +by the fact that only a few months prior to my visit a boat load of +people from the Carolines was driven to the shores of Mayo bay and that +their boat, as well as one survivor, was then at the village of Mali. +(Plate LXXII). I am indebted to Mr. Henry Hubbel for the following +explicit account of these castaways: "One native banca of castaways +arrived at Lucatan, N. E. corner of Mayo Bay, Mindanao, on January 2nd, +1909. The banca left the Island of Uluthi for the Island of Yap, two +days' journey, on December 10th, 1908. They were blown out of their +course and never sighted land until January 2nd, twenty-two days after +setting sail. There were nine persons aboard, six men, two boys, and one +woman, all natives of Yap except one man who was a Visayan from Capiz, +Panay, P. I., who settled on the Island of Yap in 1889. These people +were nineteen days without food or water except what water could be +caught during rain storms. The Visayan, Victor Valenamo, died soon after +his arrival, as a result of starvation. The natives recovered at once +and all traces of their starvation disappeared within two weeks. The men +were powerfully built, nearly six feet high. Their bodies were all +covered with tattoo work. The woman was decorated even more than the +men. Fever soon took hold of these castaways and in a year's time all +died except one small boy who seems to have become acclimated and will +become identified with the natives in Mati. I took care of these people +until they died. + +[104] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, p. 203. + +[105] FOREMAN. The Philippine Islands, pp. 257-9. JAGOR. Travels in the +Philippines, Ch. XX. + +"The clothing worn by the men and woman was nothing but the 'lavalava,' +a scarf of sea-grass fiber about 18 inches wide and five feet long. This +was worn around the loins. + +"The banca, which was of very curious construction, was taken to +Zamboanga last year by General Pershing, to be placed in Moro Province +Museum." + +After the advent of the Spaniards into their territory a considerable +number of this people were converted to the Christian faith and were +induced to settle in villages. There they met and intermarried with +Visayan and other emigrants who had followed the Spaniards to the South. +During the time of the Spanish rule these settlements were partially +destroyed by Moro raiders, and following the Spanish-American war these +attacks became so frequent that many of the inhabitants deserted their +homes and returning to their mountain kinsmen again took up the old +life. The effect of this return is especially noticeable in the vicinity +of Caraga where as late as 1885 there were 596 Mandaya converts. + +Several attempts were also made to colonize the Mandaya near the mouths +of the Tagum and Hijo rivers, but the restlessness of the natives or the +hostility of the Moro was always sufficient to cause the early break up +of the new settlements. + +The last great influence on this tribe has come through American +planters who have prevailed upon the more venturesome members to come +down to the coast plantations and there adopt the life of the +Christianized natives. Many of these adventurers have returned to their +mountain homes, carrying with them new ideas and artifacts and, in some +cases, wives from other tribes. With all these influences at work there +has been considerable modification of the life in many districts, +particularly along the Pacific coast. This description will attempt to +give the old life of the tribe as it still exists in the more isolated +districts, or as it was related by older people of the coast +settlements. + +MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION. + +In order to enter into a full understanding of the social, economic, and +aesthetic life we must have some knowledge of the mythology and +religious beliefs, for these pervade every activity. + +Several stories accounting for natural phenomena and the origin of the +tribe were heard. One of these relates that the sun and moon were +married and lived happily together until many children had been born to +them. At last they quarreled and the moon ran away from her husband who +has since been pursuing her through the heavens. After the separation of +their parents the children died, and the moon gathering up their bodies +cut them into small pieces and threw them into space. Those fragments +which fell into water became fish, those which fell on land were +converted into snakes and animals, while "those which fell upward" +remained in the sky as stars. + +A somewhat different version of this tale agrees that the quarrel and +subsequent chase occurred, but denies that the children died and were +cut up. It states that it is true that the offspring were animals, but +they were so from the time of their birth. One of these children is a +giant crab named _tambanokaua_ who lives in the sea. When he moves about +he causes the tides and high waves; when he opens his eyes lightning +appears. For some unknown reason this animal frequently seeks to devour +his mother, the moon, and when he nearly succeeds an eclipse occurs. At +such a time the people shout, beat on gongs, and in other ways try to +frighten the monster so that he can not accomplish his purpose.[106] The +phases of the moon are caused by her putting on or taking off her +garments. When the moon is full she is thought to be entirely naked. + +[106] The writer found almost identical beliefs and practices among the +Batak and Tagbanua of Palawan. + +According to this tale the stars had quite a different origin than that +just related, "In the beginning of things there was only one great star, +who was like a man in appearance. He sought to usurp the place of of the +sun and the result was a conflict in which the latter was victorious. He +cut his rival into small bits and scattered him over the whole sky as a +woman sows rice." + +The earth was once entirely flat but was pressed up into mountains by a +mythical woman, Agusanan. It has always rested on the back of a great +eel whose movements cause earthquakes. Sometimes crabs or other small +animals annoy him until, in his rage, he attempts to reach them, then +the earth is shaken so violently that whole mountains are thrown into +the sea. + +A great lake exists in the sky and it is the spray from its waves which +fall to the earth as rain. When angered the spirits sometimes break the +banks of this lake and allow torrents of water to fall on the earth +below. + +According to Mr. Maxey, the Mandaya of Cateel believe that many +generations ago a great flood occurred which caused the death of all the +inhabitants of the world except one pregnant woman. She prayed that her +child might be a boy. Her prayer was answered and she gave birth to a +son whose name was Uacatan. He, when he had grown up, took his mother +for his wife and from this union have sprung all the Mandaya. + +Quite a different account is current among the people of Mayo. From them +we learn that formerly the _limokon_,[107] although a bird, could talk +like a man. At one time it laid two eggs, one at the mouth and one at +the source of the Mayo river. These hatched and from the one at the +headwaters of the river came a woman named Mag,[108] while a man named +BEgenday[109] emerged from the one near the sea. For many years the man +dwelt alone on the bank of the river, but one day, being lonely and +dissatisfied with his location, he started to cross the stream. While he +was in deep water a long hair was swept against his legs and held him so +tightly that he narrowly escaped drowning. When he succeeded in reaching +the shore he examined the hair and at once determined to find its owner. +After wandering many days he met the woman and induced her to be his +wife. From this union came all the Mandaya. + +[107] See p. 63 note. + +[108] Also known as Manway. + +[109] Also known as Samay. + +A variant of this tale says that both eggs were laid up stream and that +one hatched a woman, the other a snake. The snake went down the current +until it arrived at the place where the sea and the river meet. There it +blew up and a man emerged from its carcass. The balance of the tale is +as just related. This close relationship of the _limokon_ to the Mandaya +is given as the reason why its calls are given such heed. A traveler on +the trail hearing the cooing of this bird at once doubles his fist and +points it in the direction from whence the sound came. If this causes +the hand to point to the right side it is a sign that success will +attend the journey.[110] If, however, it points to the left, in front, +or in back, the Mandaya knows that the omen bird is warning him of +danger or failure, and he delays or gives up his mission. The writer was +once watching some Mandaya as they were clearing a piece of land, +preparatory to the planting. They had labored about two hours when the +call of the _limokon_ was heard to the left of the owner. Without +hesitation the men gathered up their tools and left the plot, explaining +that it was useless for them to plant there for the _limokon_ had warned +them that rats would eat any crop they might try to grow in that spot. + +[110] Maxey states exactly the opposite, for the Mandaya of Cateel, _i. +e._, the right side is bad, the left good. + +The people do not make offerings to this bird, neither do they regard it +as a spirit, but rather as a messenger from the spirit world. The old +men were certain that anyone who molested one of these birds would die. + +Another bird known as _wak-wak_ "which looks like a crow but is larger +and only calls at night" foretells ill-fortune. Sneezing is also a bad +omen, particularly if it occurs at the beginning of an undertaking. +Certain words, accompanied by small offerings, may be sufficient to +overcome the dangers foretold by these warnings. It is also possible to +thwart the designs of ill-disposed spirits or human enemies by wearing a +sash or charm which contains bits of fungus growth, peculiarly shaped +stones, or the root of a plant called _gam_. These charms not only ward +off ill-fortune and sickness, but give positive aid in battle and keep +the dogs on the trail of the game.[111] + +[111] The use of these magic sashes, known as _anting-anting_, is +widespread throughout the southern Philippines both with the pagan and +Mohammedan tribes. + +There is in each community one or more persons, generally women, who are +known as _ballyan_. These priestesses, or mediums, are versed in all the +ceremonies and dances which the ancestors have found effectual in +overcoming evil influences, and in retaining the favor of the spirits. +They, better than all others, understand the omens, and often through +them the higher beings make known their desires. So far as could be +learned the _ballyan_ is not at any time possessed, but when in a trance +sees and converses with the most powerful spirits as well as with the +shades of the departed. This power to communicate with supernatural +beings and to control the forces of nature, is not voluntarily sought by +the future _ballyan_, but comes to the candidate either through one +already occupying such a position or by her being unexpectedly seized +with a fainting or trembling fit, in which condition she finds that she +is able to communicate with the inhabitants of the spirit world. Having +been thus chosen she at once becomes the pupil of some experienced +_ballyan_ from whom she learns all the secrets of the profession and the +details of ceremonies to be made. + +At the time of planting or reaping, at a birth or death, when a great +celebration is held, or when the spirits are to be invoked for the cure +of the sick, one or more of these women take charge of the ceremonies +and for the time being are the religious heads of the community. At such +a time the _ballyan_ wears a blood-red waist,[112] but on other +occasions her dress is the same as that of the other women, and her life +does not differ from their's in any respect. + +[112] PEDRO ROSELL, writing in 1885, says that the _ballyan_ then +dressed entirely in red. BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 217. + +When about to converse with the spirits the _ballyan_ places an offering +before her and begins to chant and wail. A distant stare comes into her +eyes, her body begins to twitch convulsively until she is shivering and +trembling as if seized with the ague. In this condition she receives the +messages of the spirits and under their direction conducts the ceremony. + +Rosell gives the following description of the possession of a +_ballyan_.[113] Nothing of this nature was seen by the writer. + +[113] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 218. + +"They erect a sort of small altar on which they place the _manaugs_ or +images of the said gods which are made of the special wood of the +_bayog_ tree, which they destine exclusively for this use. When the +unfortunate hog which is to serve as a sacrifice is placed above the +said altar, the chief _bailana_ approaches with _balarao_ or dagger in +hand which she brandishes and drives into the poor animal, which will +surely be grunting in spite of the gods and the religious solemnity, as +it is fearful of what is going to happen to it; and leaves the victim +weltering in its blood. Then immediately all the _bailanas_ drink of the +blood in order to attract the prophetic spirit to themselves and to give +their auguries or the supposed inspirations of their gods. Scarcely have +they drunk the blood, when they become as though possessed by an +infernal spirit which agitates them and makes them tremble as does the +body of a person with the ague or like one who shivers with the cold." + +SPIRITS. + +The following spirits are known to the _ballyan_ of the Mayo district: + +I. DIWATA. A good spirit who is besought for aid against the +machinations of evil beings. The people of Mayo claim that they do not +now, nor have they at any time made images of their gods, but in the +vicinity of Cateel Maxey has seen wooden images called _manaog_, which +were said to represent Diwata on earth. According to his account "the +_ballyan_ dances for three consecutive nights before the _manaog_, +invoking his aid and also holding conversation with the spirits. This is +invariably done while the others are asleep." He further states that +with the aid of Diwata the _ballyan_ is able to foretell the future by +the reading of palms. "If she should fail to read the future the first +time, she dances for one night before the _manaog_ and the following day +is able to read it clearly, the Diwata having revealed the hidden +meaning to her during the night conference."[114] + +[114] In the Mayo district palmistry is practiced by several old people +who make no claim of having the aid of the spirits. Bagani Paglambayon +read the palms of the writer and one of his assistants, but all his +predictions were of an exceedingly general nature and on the safe side. + +Spanish writers make frequent mention of these idols,[115] and in his +reports[116] Governor Bolton describes the image of a crocodile seen by +him in the Mandaya country "which was carved of wood and painted black, +was five feet long, and life-like. The people said it was the likeness +of their god." Lieutenant J. R. Youngblood, when near the headwaters of +the Agusan River, saw in front of a chief's house "a rude wooden image +of a man which seemed to be treated with some religious awe and +respect." Mr. Robert F. Black, a missionary residing in Davao, writes +that "the Mandaya have in their homes wooden dolls which may be idols." + +[115] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XII, 269, XLIII, p. 217, etc. + +[116] Filed in the office of the Governor of Davao. + +From this testimony it appears that in a part of the Mandaya territory +the spirit Diwata, at least, is represented by images. + +2. Asuang. This name is applied to a class of malevolent spirits who +inhabit certain trees, cliffs and streams. They delight to trouble or +injure the living, and sickness is usually caused by them. For this +reason, when a person falls ill, a _ballyan_ offers a live chicken to +these spirits bidding them "to take and kill this chicken in place of +this man, so that he need not die." If the patient recovers it is +understood that the _asuang_ have agreed to the exchange and the bird is +released in the jungle. + +There are many spirits who are known as _asuang_ but the five most +powerful are here given according to their rank, (a) Tagbanua, (b) +Tagamaling, (c) Sigbinan, (d) Lumaman, (e) Bigwa. The first two are of +equal importance and are only a little less powerful than Diwata. They +sometimes inhabit caves but generally reside in the _bud-bud_ (baliti) +trees. The ground beneath these trees is generally free from undergrowth +and thus it is known that "a spirit who keeps his yard clean resides +there." In clearing ground for a new field it sometimes becomes +necessary to cut down one of these trees, but before it is disturbed an +offering of betel-nut, food, and a white chicken is carried to the plot. +The throat of the fowl is cut and its blood is allowed to fall in the +roots of the tree. Meanwhile one of the older men calls the attention of +the spirits to the offerings and begs that they be accepted in payment +for the dwelling which they are about to destroy. This food is never +eaten, as is customary with offerings made to other spirits. After a +lapse of two or three days it is thought that the occupant of the tree +has had time to move and the plot is cleared. + +In former times it was the custom for a victorious war party to place +the corpses of their dead, together with their weapons, at the roots of +a _baliti_ tree. The reason for this custom seems now to be lost. + +3. Busau. Among the Mandaya at the north end of Davao Gulf this spirit +is also known as Tuglinsau, Tagbusau, or Mandangum. He looks after the +welfare of the _bagani_, or warriors, and is in many respects similar to +Mandarangan of the Bagobo.[117] He is described as a gigantic man who +always shows his teeth and is otherwise of ferocious aspect. A warrior +seeing him is at once filled with a desire to kill. By making occasional +offerings of pigs and rice it is usually possible to keep him from doing +injury to a settlement, but at times these gifts fail of their purpose +and many people are slain by those who serve him. + +[117] p. 106. + +4. OMAYAN, OR KALALOA NANG OMAY, is the spirit of the rice. He resides +in the rice fields, and there offerings are made to him before the time +of planting and reaping. + +5. MUNTIANAK is the spirit of a child whose mother died while pregnant, +and who for this reason was born in the ground. It wanders through the +forest frightening people but seldom assailing them.[118] + +[118] The belief in a similar spirit known as Mantianak is widespread +throughout the southern Philippines. + +6. Magbabaya. Some informants stated that this is the name given to the +first man and woman, who emerged from the _limokon_ eggs. They are now +true spirits who exercise considerable influence over worldly affairs. +Other informants, including two _ballyan_ denied any knowledge of such +spirits, while still others said _magbabaya_ is a single spirit who was +made known to them at the time of the _Tungud_ movement.[119] Among the +Bukidnon who inhabit the central portion of the island the _magbabaya_ +are the most powerful of all spirits. + +[119] p. 179. + +7. Kalaloa. Each person has one spirit which is known by this name. If +this _kalaloa_ leaves the body it decays, but the spirit goes to +Dagkotanan--"a good place, probably in the sky." Such a spirit can return +to its former haunts for a time and may aid or injure the living, but it +never returns to dwell in any other form. + +In addition to those just mentioned Governor Bolton gives the following +list of spirits known to the Mandaya of the Tagum river valley. None of +these were accepted by the people of Mayo district. According to rank +they are Mangkokiman, Mongungyahn, Mibucha Andepit, Mibuohn, and Ebu--who +made all people from the hairs of his head. + +For the neighboring Mangwanga he gives, Likedanum as the creator and +chief spirit, Dagpudanum and Macguliput as gods of agriculture, and +Manamoan--a female spirit who works the soil and presides over +childbirth. All of these are unknown to the Mandaya of the Pacific +coast. + +While in the Salug river valley Governor Bolton witnessed a most +interesting ceremony which, so far as the writer is aware, is quite +unknown to the balance of the tribe. His quotation follows: "One +religious dance contained a sleight of hand performance, considered by +the people as a miracle, but the chiefs were evidently initiated. A man +dressed himself as a woman, and with the gongs and drums beaten rapidly +he danced, whirling round and round upon a mat until weak and dizzy, so +that he had to lean on a post. For a time he appeared to be in a trance. +After resting a few minutes he stalked majestically around the edge of +the mat, exaggerating the lifting and placing of his feet and putting on +an arrogant manner. After walking a minute or two he picked up a red +handkerchief, doubled it in his hand so that the middle of the kerchief +projected in a bunch above his thumb and forefinger; then he thrust this +into the flame of an _almaciga_ torch. The music started anew and he +resumed his frantic dance until the flame reached his hand when he +slapped it out with his left hand, and stopped dancing; then catching +the kerchief by two corners he shook it out showing it untouched by +fire. The daughter of Bankiaoan next went into a trance lying down and +singing the message of Tagbusau and other gods to the assemblage. The +singing was done in a small inclosed room, the singer slipping in and +out without my seeing her." + +The letters of Pedro Rosell written at Caraga in 1885 contain many +references to the duties of the _ballyan_. In one account he records the +following song which he says is sung by the priestesses when they invoke +their gods Mansilatan and Badla.[120] + +[120] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 217-21, and Vol. XII, p. 270. + +"Miminsad, miminsad si Mansilatan + +Opod si Badla nga magadayao nang dumia + +Bailan, managunsayao, + +Bailan, managunliguit." + +This means: + +"Mansilatan has come down, has come down. + +Later (will come) Badla, who will preserve the earth. + +Bailanas, dance; bailanas, turn ye round about." + +This Rosell takes as "a confirmation of the most transcendental +questions of our true religion," for in Mansilatan he finds the +principal god and father of Balda, "who descended from the heavens where +he dwells, in order to create the world. Afterwards his only son Badla +came down also to preserve and protect the world--that is men and +things--against the power and trickery of the evil spirits Pudaugnon and +Malimbung." The writer made persistent inquiry among the Mandaya to the +south of Caraga, but could not find a trace of a belief in any one of +the four spirits named; neither are these spirits mentioned in the notes +of Governor Bolton, nor in the excellent description of the people about +Cateel, furnished by such a careful observer as Mr. Maxey. It seems that +this account, together with the song and its translation, must have been +gathered from other than Mandayan sources. Long before 1885 the town of +Caraga had become one of the strongholds of the church on the east coast +of Mindanao, and Christianized settlers from all the southern islands +had come to the vicinity.[121] It is probable that Rosell's information +was secured from Christianized or Moro emigrants, and the first spirits +named refer to Badhala--Bathala, or Batala--"the all powerful," and Dian +Mansalanta--"the patron of lovers and generation."[122] + +[121] They are often referred to as _Caragas_ in the early writings. + +[122] Further information regarding these spirits will be found in the +Relations of Loarca, 1582 (BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. V, p. 171), and the +Relation of Juan de Plasencia, 1589 (_ibid_, Vol. VII, pp. 189-96, Vol. +XII, p. 265). It is worthy of note that the Bagobo spirit Toglat, who is +one of the pair responsible for marriages and births, is sometimes +addressed as Maniladan. + +THE TUNGUD MOVEMENT + +In 1908 a religious movement known as _tungud_ started among the +Manobo[123] at the source of the Rio Libaganon. Soon it had spread over +practically the whole southeastern portion of Mindanao, and finally +reached the Mandaya of the Pacific Coast. According to Mr. J. M. Garvan, +of the Philippine Bureau of Science, the movement was instigated by a +Manobo named Mapakla. This man was taken ill, probably with cholera, and +was left for dead by his kinsmen. Three days later he appeared among the +terrified people and explained, that a powerful spirit named Magbabaya +had entered his body and cured him. He further stated that the world was +about to be destroyed and that only those persons who gave heed to his +instructions would survive. These instructions bade all to cease +planting and to kill their animals for, he said, "if they survive to the +end they will eat you." A religious house or shrine was to be built in +every settlement, and was to be looked after by divinely appointed +ministers. Those persons who were at first inclined to be skeptical as +to the truth of the message, were soon convinced by seeing the Magbabaya +enter the bodies of the ministers, causing them to perform new, frantic +dances, interrupted only by trembling fits during which their eyes +protruded and gave them the semblance of dead men. + +[123] Not the Kulaman. + +By the time the _tungud_ had reached the Mayo district it had lost most +of its striking features, but was still powerful enough to cause many of +the Mandaya to kill their animals and hold religious dances. The coast +Moro, who at that time were restless, took advantage of the movement to +further a plan to drive American planters and Christianized natives from +the district. The leading Mandaya were invited to the house of the Moro +_pandita_[124] "to see the spirit Diwata." During several nights the son +of the _pandita_ impersonated the spirit and appeared in the darkened +room. Over his chest and forehead he had stretched thin gauze and +beneath this had placed many fire-flies, which to the imaginative people +made him appear superhuman. His entrance into the room was attended by a +vigorous shaking of the house, caused by a younger brother stationed +below. A weird dance followed and then the spirit advised the people to +rise and wipe out the whole Christianized population. The Mandaya had +become so impressed by the nightly appearance of Diwata that it is more +than probable they would have joined the Moro in their project had not +an American planter at Mayo learned of the plot. He imprisoned the +leaders, thus ending a scheme which, if successful, would have given new +attributes to at least one of the spirits. + +[124] The religious head of the settlement. + +SOCIAL ORGANIZATION + +The before-mentioned _ballyan_ direct the religious observances of the +tribe. Their mysterious powers give them great influence among their +fellows but, nevertheless, they are subservient to the local ruler. + +The tribe is divided into many small groups, each of which is governed +by a _bagani_. To reach this coveted position a man must have +distinguished himself as a warrior and have killed at least ten persons +with his own hand.[125] The victims need not be killed in warfare and +may be of any sex or age so long as they come from a hostile village. +When the required number of lives has been taken, the aspirant appeals +to the neighboring _bagani_ for the right to be numbered in their select +company. They will assemble to partake of a feast prepared by the +candidate and then solemnly discuss the merits of his case. The petition +may be disregarded entirely, or it may be decided that the exploits +related are sufficient only to allow the warrior to be known as a half +_bagani_. In this case he may wear trousers of red cloth, but if he is +granted the full title he is permitted to don a blood-red suit and to +wear a turban of the same hue. This distinction is eagerly sought by the +more vigorous men of the tribe and, as a result, many lives are taken +each year. + +[125] At Mayo it was said that it is necessary to kill only six, but the +two _bagani_ living there had each killed more than twice that number. +Among the Mansaka the number required is often as high as thirty. + +A short time ago a candidate entered the district of Bungalung on the +east coast of Davao and killed thirty-two persons. In that same section +are now living five _bagani_ who have gained this title by similar +exploits.[126] Whole communities become involved in feuds as a result of +these individual raids, for it is the duty of a murdered man's family to +seek revenge for his death. It is not necessary that they kill the +offender, as any member of his family or settlement will suffice. In +some districts the unmarried relatives of a murdered person are not +allowed to wed until the death is avenged. + +[126] These are Maclingtong at Pandisan; Pankard at Tagauanan; +Kasicknan, Lewanan, and Malangit, in the mountains between Taguanan and +Piso. + +Instances are known where the old men have conferred the title of +_bagani_ upon the son of some deceased warrior. In such a case the +recipient of the honor starts at once to fulfil the requirements of +election, for otherwise he brings disgrace to himself and family. In his +own settlement the oldest of the _bagani_ becomes supreme ruler, and if +powerful enough he may extend his influence to a considerable distance. +In a few cases on the East coast the holders of the title have so +instilled fear of themselves into the neighboring districts that they +have been able to levy blackmail, even on the Christianized natives. War +parties are led by these wearers of the red garments, and they also +enforce the laws handed down from their forefathers. + +The day a warrior is elevated to this order he is in a large measure cut +away from his fellows. He no longer associates with them as equals but +eats his meals alone, unless it happens that other _bagani_ are present. + +Below the _bagani_ in rank come the warriors, a class which includes +practically all the able-bodied free men; and still below them are the +slaves. Slavery was an ancient institution with this people when the +Spaniards first visited their country, and it has continued to flourish +up to the present, in all districts a little removed from the influence +of the white man. The great majority of slaves are secured by capture, +but until recent years the Moro of the coast have carried on a lucrative +slave trade with this tribe. Girls and women become members of their +master's household, but their children are treated as slaves. Captive +boys and men aid their masters in the chase and in the fields, and in +most cases it would be hard indeed for a stranger to pick servant from +master. Sometimes the people of a neighboring village ransom one of +their fellows and in such a case the freed slave may return to his old +home or he may become a free member of the community in which he has +been serving. + +DWELLINGS + +The insecurity of life resulting from the conditions described has +caused the people to build their homes high in the branches of trees, +often so situated on the edge of cliffs that they can be approached only +from one direction (Plates LXXIII-LXXIV). + +Two sorts of dwellings are commonly seen. Of these, the rudest rest on +the limbs of trees, and conform in size and shape to the nature of the +supporting branches. Some few houses of this kind have horizontal sides +and sloping roofs, but more frequently a roof which slopes directly from +a central ridge pole to the edges of the platform does away with the +necessity of side walls. + +The second and more common type of house is shown in Plate LXXIV. Here +the top of the tree has been cut off some fifteen or twenty feet above +the ground leaving a stump to serve as a part of the foundation. Many +smaller poles help support the floor and then extend upward to form the +wall and roof stays. The upper flooring of beaten bark rests on +cross-beams which have been lashed to the uprights. Above it are +occasional horizontal poles, forming a skeleton to which the walls of +_nipa_ palm are fastened. In some houses two or three of the foundation +poles extend above the floor to such a height that they are used as the +supports for the ridge pole. In others true king posts rest on the +beams, which in turn are supported by the corner poles. From the ridge a +number of smaller rods extend to or project out over the side walls, and +on them rests the roofing of _nipa_ palm. A space of several inches +often intervenes between the roof and the side walls. The whole +structure is so firmly lashed together with rattan that it is capable of +withstanding severe storms, despite the fact that it gives and creaks +with every wind. During violent storms the house is further secured by +anchoring it with rattan lines to nearby trees. + +Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of bamboo or rattan ladders. +These are drawn up at night, and with all means of access thus removed +the inhabitants need have little fear of a surprise attack. If enemies +do attempt to dislodge them the defenders have the advantage of their +elevated position in the use of their weapons. + +Generally, each house contains only one room which varies in size +according to the number of inhabitants. Frequently two or three families +are found living in one house, for it is the custom for the suitors, and +often for the husbands of the married daughters, to live with the girls' +people. + +Near the door, or in one comer of the room, is a small box of earth in +which several stones are imbedded. This constitutes the hearth, about +which is found a miscellany of pots, jars, and other kitchen vessels. +The smoke finds its way out through a small opening at each end of the +roof, or through the narrow space under the eaves. There is no +recognized arrangement of the room. Utensils[127] are scattered +promiscuously about and when the inhabitants are ready to sleep they +occupy such parts of the floor as are free or can be most easily +cleared. + +[127] These consist of baskets, rice mortars, and winnowers, weaving +outfits, bark dye vats, as well as traps and weapons, nearly all of +which are so similar to those already described for the Bagobo that they +do not call for special notice here. + +The people of a community build their houses within a short distance of +one another, yet seldom so close together as to form a village. However, +village life is not entirely unknown, for in the vicinity of Cateel +Governor Bolton found six houses, partially surrounded by palisades, +perched on the top of a conical hill. + +Lieutenant Youngblood gives the following description of the people and +dwellings seen by him near the upper waters of the Agusan river: + +"The people seemed to be living in an atmosphere of fear as far as +intercourse with the world outside their crater-like valley was +concerned. They believed it was death to look upon the sea, of which +they had heard disjointed tales, but which none of them had ever seen. +They feared the coast people with a mortal fear, justified perhaps by +the experiences of occasional meetings in times gone by. They fear each +other to a certain extent, especially men who live further north of the +headwaters of the Agusan. This ever-present state of fear gives coloring +to their whole life. They take to the brush at the least unwonted sound. +They make their clearings on the steep mountainsides and in these build +two or three of their houses in strategic positions. In the very +construction of their dwellings the idea of security in case of attack +is predominant. + +"The houses in this section are generally built in clearings on the +sawn-off trunk of some giant tree and placed from the ground some forty +or fifty feet. Numerous posts help support the structure, entrance to +which is gained by a notched pole firmly set in the ground and held in +place by tightly wound bejuca. Oftentimes this stair pole is bowed +outwards slightly, which gives it a peculiar appearance and requires a +considerable amount of skill in climbing. The front and only door to +these houses consists of a section of the floor composed of hewn plank, +hinged at one end. One end of this is raised by a bejuca rope during the +day, while at night it is let down forming a solid floor throughout the +house. + +"The roof is of shingles made from mountain cane; the floor and sides of +hand-hewn logs and planks; the roof is at no place more than seven feet +from the floor and is blackened on the inside from smoke. The largest +house visited in this locality was that of Chief Leuanan, and this was +some twenty feet square. These houses consist of one room and are +inhabited by two or more families." + +AGRICULTURE + +About the settlements are the fields in which rice, corn, camotes, +sugar-cane, and a small amount of tobacco, cotton and hemp are raised. +However, the crops are usually so small that even with the addition of +game and forest products there is, each year, a period closely bordering +on starvation. New clearings are frequently made near to the old, for +the primitive tools[128] with which the people work are ill-fitted to +combat the incursion into the open land of the rank cogon grass. Only +the exhaustion of suitable timber land for a new clearing, the +prevalence of an epidemic, or the near approach of a powerful enemy will +cause the people to move their homes from one district to another. + +[128] These consist of a mall axe, working knife, and planting stick. + +We have already referred to the important part the _limokon_ plays in +the selection and clearing of a new plot of ground,[129] and to the +offerings made to the spirits when it becomes necessary to cut down +certain trees.[130] The crops, aside from the rice, are planted and +harvested without further reference to the spirit world, but the +cultivation and care of this cereal can only be carried on according to +certain fixed conditions. + +[129] See pages 173 and 177. + +[130] Near Cateel the wishes of the spirits are learned by means of +cords. A number of strings are tied together in the center and the knot +is buried. The loose ends are then joined and if it happens that the two +ends of a cord have been tied together it is taken as a sign that the +spirits give their consent to the proposed clearing. + +About November first, when a group of seven stars called _poyo poyo_ +appears in the west, it is a signal for all who expect to clear new land +to begin their labors. By December first this constellation rises +straight above and it is then time to plant. This is further confirmed +by the appearance of a star known as _sabak_. If any have delayed their +planting until the middle of December they are given a last warning when +the stars forming _Bayatik_[131] appear. + +[131] This is the same as _balatik_, page 62. + +As soon as the land has been cleared a pole is placed in the center of +the field and is surrounded by a fence. This is known as _tagbinian_ and +seems to be erected in honor of the spirit Omayan, although by some it +is insisted that it is intended for his residence. The seed rice is +deposited inside the enclosure[132] and the men begin to prepare the +soil about it. This they do by thrusting sharpened sticks into the +ground, thus making holes an inch or two in depth. Taking rice from the +_tagbinian_ the women follow, dropping seeds into the holes. + +[132] Maxey relates that at planting and harvest tune the Mandaya of +Cateel carry offerings to the _baliti_ trees and there offer it to +Diwata, in supplication or thanks for an abundant crop. + +When the harvest time is near at hand the men repair the old granaries +or build new and then, when all is ready for the crop, an old man or +woman goes alone, in the middle of the night, to the fields and there +cuts a few stalks of the rice. Should this be neglected the crop is sure +to be small and will vanish quickly. This grain is not used as an +offering, nor are any gifts made to the spirits until the crop has been +harvested and the people are ready to eat of the new rice. At that time +a little of the recently harvested grain is placed on a dish, together +with other food and betel-nut, and is carried to the granary, where it +is presented to the spirit "in order that the granary may always be +full." When the grain is needed for use it is removed from the straw by +pounding it with wooden pestles, it is then placed in a wooden mortar +and is again pounded until the husks are loosened. This accomplished, +the grain is freed from chaff by tossing it in a winnower. If a greater +amount has been cleared than is needed it is stored in gourds or +water-proof baskets (Fig. 50). A month or two after the harvest a great +celebration is held, the principal features of which are a feast and +dance but no offerings are then made to the spirits. + +FIG. 50. GOURD RICE HOLDER. + +The small crop of sugar-cane is made into an alcoholic drink, which is +sometimes indulged in at meal time but is generally reserved for festive +occasions. The juice is boiled with a plant called _palba_, similar to +ginger, and is stored away in bamboo tubes until it has reached a +suitable stage of fermentation. Another drink is made by boiling +strained honey with the _palba_ and allowing it to ferment. + +HUNTING AND FISHING + +A considerable portion of the food supply is secured by hunting and +fishing. Small birds are captured by placing a sticky substance on bare +limbs of fruit-bearing trees, or by fastening gummed sticks in places +frequented by birds. When a victim alights on this it is held securely +until captured by the hunter. Fig. 51 shows another method of securing +such small game. A cord with a noose at one end is attached to a bent +limb. In the center of this cord is tied a short stick which acts as a +trigger. This trigger is placed with the top end pressing against an +arched twig _a_, while the other end draws _b_ against the sides of the +arch. Other sticks rest on _b_ and on them is a covering of leaves on +which is placed bait and the open noose. The weight of a bird or small +animal on the cross-piece is sufficient to release the trigger and then +the bent limb draws the noose taut. + +FIG. 51. BIRD SNARE. + +The series of slip nooses attached to a central cord which surrounds a +tame decoy is also found in use here, and boys frequently secure birds +by means of blow-guns. The latter do not differ from those already +described on p. 73, but with this tribe they are regarded only as a +boy's plaything. + +Deer and pig are sometimes hunted by large parties with the aid of dogs. +In such cases an attempt is made to drive the animals past concealed +hunters, or to dispatch them with spears when brought to bay by the +dogs. The more successful method, however, is by means of traps several +types of which were seen by the writer. The first and most common is a +dead fall consisting of a heavy log so arranged in the runway of the +game that a passing animal will cause it to fall. Next in favor with the +hunters is the _bayatik_. One end of a sapling is tied horizontally to a +tree and is then bent back like a spring. It is held in place by means +of a trigger which is released when an animal disturbs a vine stretched +across the runway. Against the free end of the spring a long bamboo +spear or arrow is placed in such a manner that it is thrown with great +force against the animal which has released the trigger. This trap is +frequently used in warfare to protect the retreat of a war party, or to +surprise an enemy. + +Sharpened bamboo sticks, two or three feet long, planted at points where +animals are accustomed to jump or run down steep inclines, are +wonderfully efficient in securing game. Sticks and leaves cover pits in +which sharpened poles are planted and into these unsuspecting animals or +members of a hostile party often fall. All these last named devices are +exceedingly dangerous and it is unadvisable for a traveler in the jungle +to try to penetrate a strange region unless accompanied by a native who +knows the position of the traps and pits. + +Fish are secured by means of bamboo traps through which a part of the +water of a stream is diverted. These traps do not differ in any respect +from those shown in Fig. 19. Along the coast metal fishhooks and dip and +throw nets are in common use, but these are at present largely obtained +from the Moro. The easiest and hence the most popular method of securing +fish is to mash together the poisonous roots of the _tobli_ tree and the +fruit of the _oliskEb_. The pulp is then sunk into still pools of water +and in a short time, the stupified[sic] fish begin to float to the +surface, where they are quickly seized by the fishermen. + +WARFARE + +Mention has already been made of the use of pits and traps in warfare. +In addition to these it is customary for a returning war party to +conceal in the trail many _saoñag_, small stiletto-shaped bamboo sticks, +which pierce the feet of those in pursuit. A night camp is effectively +protected in the same manner against barefooted enemies. + +The arms used are spears, fighting knives with wide bellied blades, +daggers, narrow shields with which weapons are defected (Fig. 52), and +in some sections bows and arrows. The fighting knives and daggers +(Plates LXXV-LXXVI) deserve more than casual notice. The heavy bellied +blades of the knives are highly tempered, and not infrequently are bored +through and inlaid with silver, in which instances they are known as +_binuta_,--blind (Plate LXXVa). The sheaths, with their sharply upturned +ends, are made of light wood on which are carved decorations, attached +or inlaid bands of silver, or stained designs. The handles of the +weapons are also decorated with incised silver bands. + +FIG. 52. WOODEN SHIELDS. + +Much as the fighting knives are prized, the dagger, _bayadau_ or +_badau_, is in even greater favor. It is worn on the front left-hand +part of the body in ready reach of the right hand, and is never removed +unless the owner is in the company of trusted relatives. A light thread, +easily broken, holds the dagger in its sheath and the slightest +disturbance is enough to cause the owner to draw his weapon. + +The older warriors claim that it formerly was their custom to protect +themselves with strips of hemp cloth, _limbotung_, which they wound many +times around their bodies in order to ward off knife thrusts, but this +method of protection seems to have fallen into disuse.[133] + +[133] This type of protective armor is still used by the Bukidnon of +Central Mindanao. + +Individual warriors lie in ambush for their foes, but when a great raid +is planned the party is under the command of a _bagani_. These attacks +are arranged to take place during the full moon and the warriors usually +assault a settlement which they think can be taken by surprise, and +hence unprepared. It is very seldom that these people fight in the open, +and invaders do not attempt a combat unless they feel sure of the +outcome. If they find a house well protected they may attempt to fire it +by attaching a torch to an arrow and shooting it into the grass roof, +the occupants being slaughtered as they rush out. If one of the enemy +puts up an especially good fight his body is opened and the warriors eat +a portion of his heart and liver, thinking thus to gain in valor. + +Mr. Maxey mentions the use of poisoned weapons in the neighborhood of +Cateel, but the Mandaya of the south seem to be entirely ignorant of +this custom, Maxey's account of the preparation of the poison is as +follows: + +"The poison is, according to the writer's informant, prepared as +follows: A long bamboo is cut and carried to a tree called +_camandag_.[134] The bamboo must be long enough to reach to the limit of +the shadow cast by the tree to the trunk of the same, as the tree is so +poisonous that it even affects those who stand beneath it. The bamboo +has a sharp point which is stuck into the tree and receives the milk +which exudes from the cut. After several days the bamboo is removed and +the contents emptied into another bamboo which serves for a sheath or +quiver for the arrows, these being placed in it point down. The +slightest scratch will cause death. A peculiar thing about the tree from +which the poison is extracted, is that the person extracting must not +only not get under the tree, but must approach it from the windward, as +the effects of even the odor are unpleasant and dangerous." + +[134] _Croton tiglium L_. + +INDUSTRIES + +In the description of the tribe up to this point we have touched upon +those pursuits which engross the greater part of the time. In addition +to these, it falls to the lot of the women to manufacture and decorate +all the clothing worn by members of the tribe. Some cotton is grown and +is used in the manufacture of jackets, but the bulk of the garments are +of hemp. In the description of the Decorative Art we shall deal with the +decoration of the hemp cloth skirts worn by the women. Here it is only +necessary for us to observe that this cloth is produced and colored by +exactly the same process as is employed by the Bagobo women.[135] + +[135] See p. 79. + +A very little brass casting is done by the Mandaya of one district, but +it is evidently a crude copy of Moro work. By far the greater part of +the brass betel boxes, and ornaments of that metal, as well as spear +heads, are purchased from the coast Mohammedans. + +Iron working is an ancient art with this people and the beauty and +temper of their knives and daggers is not excelled by the output of any +other Philippine tribe. In the manufacture of these weapons they employ +the same methods as their neighbors to the south and west. + +No wild tribe in the archipelago has made so much use of silver in the +production of ornaments as has the Mandaya. Thin silver plates are +rolled into small tubes and are attached to the woman's ear plugs (Fig. +49), finger rings of the same metal are produced in great numbers, but +the finest work appears in the large silver ornaments worn on the +breasts by both sexes (Fig. 53). Silver coins are beaten into thin +disks, in the center of which a hole is cut. About this opening appear +beautiful intricate designs, some engraved, others stamped with metal +dies. + +FIG. 53. SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS. + +All work in metal is limited to a few skilled men, but many lesser +industries, such as shaping tortoise shell rings and shell bracelets, +carving of spoons, and making baskets, are carried on by other members +of the tribe during their leisure hours. + +BIRTH + +In each district there are one or two mid wives, known as _managamon_. +They are women past middle life who are versed in the medicines and +rites which should be employed at the time of birth. They are not +considered as _ballyan_, yet they talk to the spirits upon certain +occasions. + +When a pregnant woman is about to be delivered the midwife crushes the +bark of the _dap-dap_ tree and makes a medicine called _tagaumo_, which +she gives to the patient. It is claimed that this causes the muscles to +relax so that they allow an easy delivery. The umbilical cord is cut +with a bamboo knife and as soon as the child has been bathed it is given +to the mother. The afterbirth is placed in a specially prepared basket +and is either hung against the side of the house or in a nearby tree. +For a few days the midwife assists about the house and then, if all is +well with the child, she takes her payment of rice, chicken, and fish, +and returns to her home. Should the child be ailing she will return, and +having placed rice and betel-nut on banana leaves she carries these to +the top of the house and there offers them to the _asuang_,[136] +meanwhile asking those spirits to accept the offering and to cease +troubling the child. No ceremony takes place at the time of naming or at +the age of puberty, but at the latter period the teeth are filed and +blackened so that the young person may be more beautiful and, therefore, +able to contract a suitable marriage. + +[136] See p. 176. [Transcriber's note: This is page 192.] + +MARRIAGE + +Frequently parents arrange matches for their children while they are +still very young, but in the majority of cases the matter is left until +after the age of puberty when the wishes of the young people are taken +into consideration. The youth or his father having chosen a suitable +girl takes or sends a spear, knife, or other acceptable present to her +father. If this offering is accepted it indicates approval of the match, +and soon thereafter a feast is prepared to which friends of both +families are invited. At this feast the price to be paid for the girl +and the time of marriage are agreed upon, and at least partial payment +is made. As is the case with the neighboring tribes, a part of the value +of this gift is returned. Following the agreement the boy enters the +service of his fiancee's father and for a year or more lives as a member +of the family. Even after the marriage a considerable amount of service +is expected from him at the time of planting, harvesting, or building. + +The marriage ceremony proper follows a feast, and consists of the young +couple feeding each other with rice and drinking from a common cup. + +Should anything occur to prevent the marriage, after the payment for the +girl has been made, the gifts must be returned or service equal to their +value must be rendered. + +Unfaithfulness on the part of the woman seems to be the one cause for a +separation and this is uncommon, for unless her admirer purchases her +for a sum equal to the amount her husband spent in obtaining her, the +divorced woman remains as a slave in the home of her former husband. + +Polygamy is permitted and is quite common, but a man may not take a +second wife until a child has been born to the first. In addition to his +wives a man may have as many concubines as he can afford to purchase. + +It is said to be a grave offense for a man to embrace a married woman, +or even to touch the breasts, elbows, or heels of any woman he does not +intend to marry. An unmarried woman who permits such familiarities is +considered as good as married. Despite this assertion, the writer knows +of several cases where young people openly lived together without being +considered married, and later the parents arranged marriages between +these girls and other suitors. + +According to several informants, incest is punished by the sacrifice of +the guilty parties. They are tied to a tree with their hands drawn +backward around the trunks and are then speared to death. This seems to +be the one and only occasion when human sacrifice is practiced by +members of this tribe. + +SICKNESS AND DEATH. + +When a person is seriously ill a _ballyan_ is summoned and she, after +securing prepared rice, betel-nuts, and a live chicken, enters into +communication with the spirits. First she converses with the dead father +or other deceased relative of the sick person and requests his aid in +effecting a cure, next she presents food to Diwata and implores his aid, +and finally calls upon the _asuang_ to whom she offers the live fowl on +the condition that they will cease trying to injure the patient. Having +thus done all in her power to influence the spirits she may administer +some simple remedy, after which she begins to dance contra-clockwise, +around a bamboo pole on which leaves and betel-nut have been hung.[137] + +[137] This ceremony usually takes place in the house, but if the man was +taken ill in the forest or in his field it may be conducted there. + +If this treatment proves to be of no avail and the patient dies his body +is placed in the center of the house and for two days and nights is +guarded by relatives and friends. During the time that the body remains +in the dwelling the family is required to fast and all the people of the +settlement are prohibited from playing on agongs, from singing or +indulging in other signs of merriment. Finally, the body is wrapped in a +mat and is buried in the forest.[138] + +[138] Maxey gives the following account of burial near Cateel: "The dead +person is dressed in his best clothes, wrapped in a piece of _abaca_ +cloth, and placed in a coffin of bamboo poles, or one hewn from a solid +log, if the person was one of means, and buried. If of the poorer class +he is merely wrapped in a piece of matting-, and either buried or +covered over with stones, sticks, and the like. If of high rank, the +body is not buried, but after preparation is taken into the forest and +placed in a small hut under a _balete_ tree. Food, spears, bolos, hats, +shields, and some articles of furniture are placed on the graves to +placate the spirits who might otherwise bring harm to the surviving +members of the clan or family. There is no fixed period of mourning, but +the members of the family must wear black for some time after the death. +The sick are never abandoned prior to death, but slaves nearing death +are sometimes killed to stop their sufferings. The owner, however, must +first consult with others of the clan." + +Returning from the burial all the people partake of a feast and then set +fire to the dwelling "because we do not like the _asuang_ which killed +the man in that house." During the ensuing nine days the spouse of the +dead dresses in black and for a month following, or until they can +purchase a slave, the whole family is barred from merry-making. Two +reasons for the purchase of this slave were advanced by members of the +tribe. One was that the family could be happy if they were still rich +enough to purchase a slave. The second, that they thus replaced the dead +man with another, "for the slaves are like members of our own family." + +DECORATIVE ART. + +The decorative art of the Mandaya is similar in many respects to that of +the Bagobo and Bila-an, yet in part it differs greatly from both. As is +true with the other tribes, the weavers make use of many figures which +they do not associate with any living forms, but which, nevertheless, +strongly suggest that they may have been derived from realistic designs. +In addition to such patterns they frequently employ figures which are +intentional copies of human or animal forms. Of these the most common +are those representing a man and a crocodile; these sometimes appear +together, sometimes alone. The requirements of the space to be filled, +as well as readiness of the worker to alter any part in order to give a +more pleasing effect to the design have resulted in many distorted and +conventionalized figures which can only be explained by the artist. The +accompanying drawings are taken from articles collected by the writer +and now in the Field Museum of Natural History. + +Patterns _A_ to _H_ in Fig. 54 appear in hemp cloth skirts. These show +the steps in the conventionalization of the human figure,[139] as +explained by the weavers. In the first four the forms are so realistic +that they need no explanation, but _E_ is more complicated. Here two +greatly conventionalized figures have been used, one erect, the other +with head down. The size of the head has been increased while the body +is represented by a small diamond-shaped pattern with outstretched arms +attached. The legs and feet of both figures help to form a pattern +similar to a head, except that it lacks the "hair" shown in the end +designs. _F_ resembles the preceding quite closely. In it the central +head-like pattern does not appear and the legs and feet of one figure +help to form the head of the other. This design has been doubled, thus +necessitating some alteration of the figures at the points of union. In +_G_ and _H_ nearly all the realistic elements have vanished, yet certain +resemblance to _D_ and _E_ can be discerned. + +[139] One weaver insisted that this figure represents a frog, because of +its webbed feet, but none of the others agreed with her. + +FIG. 54A TO H. DESIGNS REPRESENTING THE HUMAN FORM. + +We have already learned that the crocodile is held in great regard and +in some sections there is evidence of its more or less sacred character. +Its importance in the minds of the people is well shown by the frequency +with which it appears in their decorative designs. Fig. 55_A_ shows one +of these animals which has just eaten a man. Both figures are so +realistic that the intention of the weaver is apparent. In _B_, _D_, +_E_, and _F_, the animal is still realistic, but the man disappears, and +in his place is a formless object or straight lines which are identified +as "something eaten." + +FIG. 55A TO H. CROCODILE DESIGNS. + +The pattern _G_ is given as the next step in the conventionalization. +Here the legs, feet, and "something eaten" have assumed undue +proportions, while nearly every trace of likeness has vanished. This +figure is multiplied five times to obtain the highly conventionalized +form shown in _H_. + +By referring to _G_ it is possible to see how the complicated designs in +_I_ and _J_ have been derived, although they bear little resemblance to +the original crocodile form. + +Fig. 56 was identified as a crocodile but was not regarded as a step in +the conventionalization shown. Many other figures such as 57 appear so +closely related to the designs just described that it seems certain they +must have had a common origin, yet this was denied by all the weavers, +who insisted that such decorations were added only to make the garments +pretty. + +FIG. 56. CROCODILE DESIGN. + +FIG. 57. DESIGN USED IN WEAVING. + +Going from weaving to designs cut in wood, something of the same state +of affairs is encountered. Pattern _a_ on the bamboo comb (Fig. 48) is +identified as the crocodile, yet the very similar figures shown on a +bamboo lime holder (Fig. 58) and on a wooden clothes-hanger (Fig. 59) +are not so recognized. + +FIG. 58. INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO LIME HOLDER. + +FIG. 59. CLOTHES HANGER. + +Figs. 60 and 61 show characteristic designs which are embroidered on +jackets or carrying bags. All these are added with the one idea of +beautifying the garment, without any thought of copying some living +form. This is true also of the incised zigzag lines, scrolls, and +meander patterns seen on the silver breast disks (Fig. 53), and those +stained on palm bark hats (Fig. 47). + +FIGS. 60 AND 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + +Tobacco pouches (Fig. 62) are often completely covered with bright +colored geometrical designs embroidered in trade yarn. This work, which +is quite unlike the other decoration used by this people, was probably +introduced along with trade yarn and analine[sic] dyes. + +FIG. 62. TOBACCO POUCHES. + + + +CONCLUSION + +From the material now at our disposal certain general conclusions can be +drawn. + +A comparison of the physical measurements indicates that no group is of +pure race. There are significant variations between members of different +tribes, but these occur also between individuals of the same village. +The average person in each group is short-headed, yet long-headed +individuals are found in every tribe and variations just as great as +this appear in the other measurements and observations. + +We have previously noted the evidences of an aboriginal pygmy +population, that has been partially absorbed by intermarriage with the +later comers.[140] In all the groups, except the Bila-an, the percentage +of individuals showing evidences of Negrito blood increases as we go +from the coasts toward the interior, until in such divisions as the Obo +and Tigdapaya of the Bagobo, and the Tugauanum of the Ata, practically +all the people show traces of this admixture. + +[140] Negrito are reported from the Samal Islands in the Gulf of Davao. + +In addition to the types already described there are found in each tribe +individuals who in all but color might readily pass as white men. These +persons freely intermarry with the rest of the population, and it is no +uncommon thing to find in one family children of this sort as well as +those showing Negrito characteristics or those conforming to the average +type.[141] + +[141] This will be discussed in a forthcoming publication on Physical +Types. That paper will present a full series of measurements accompanied +by photographs, including the Bukidnon of North Central Mindanao in +which tribe this type is more frequently seen than in Davao District. + +The facts indicate that the tribes now found in Davao District did not +reach the coasts of Mindanao at the same time, but rather that they +represent several periods of migration, of which the Kulaman is the +last. This tribe, which only a few generations ago seems to have been +made up of seafarers, has not yet entirely adapted itself to a settled +existence and it is only within the lifetime of the present generation +that its members have taken seriously to agriculture. + +It appears that the Bila-an once inhabited the district about Lake +Buluan, but the pressure of the Moro has forced most of them from that +region toward the mountains to the south and east. They have taken +possession of both sides of this mountain range, except for the lower +eastern slopes where they have encountered the Tagakaolo. + +The other tribes probably landed on the southern or southeastern coast +of the Island, from whence they have gradually moved to their present +habitats. + +Intermarriage between the tribes, Moro raids, warfare with the +accompanying capture of slaves, and the possible influence of boat-loads +of castaways, all have to be considered in dealing with the types found +in Davao District. We have already seen that the physical measurements +indicate a complex racial history. + +After giving full credit to all these influences, however, it does not +appear to the writer that such radical differences exist between the +tribes as will justify us in assigning to them different ancestry or +places of origin. The summarized description of the Bagobo given on page +56 would, with only, slight modification, apply to all the other tribes, +with the exception of certain groups of the Ata in which the Negrito +element is very pronounced. In brief, the various influences that have +been at work on one group have influenced all the others, since their +arrival on the island of Mindanao. + +This conclusion is further justified by the language in which a large +per cent of the words in daily use are common to all the groups. Even +the Bila-an dialect, which differs more from all the others than do any +of those from one another, has so many words in common with the coast +tongues and is so similar in structure that one of my native boys, who +never before had seen a Bila-an, was able freely to carry on a +conversation within a few days after his arrival in one of their most +isolated settlements. + +Similar as are the people and their dialects, the cultural agreements +are even more noticeable. Taking the Bagobo as a starting point, we find +a highly developed culture which, with a few minor changes, holds good +for the tribes immediately surrounding. These in turn differ little from +their neighbors, although from time to time some new forms appear. The +Cibolan type of dwelling, with its raised platform at one end and +box-like enclosures along the side walls, is met with until the Mandaya +territory is approached, while, with little variation, the house +furnishings and utensils in daily use are the same throughout the +District. The same complicated method of overtying, dyeing, and weaving +of hemp employed in the manufacture of women's skirts is in use from +Cateel in the north to Sarangani Bay in the south, while in the +manufacture of weapons the iron worker in Cibolan differs not at all +from his fellow-craftsman among the Mandaya. Here we are confronted by +the objection that, so far as is known, no iron work is done by the +Bila-an and Ata, but this is a condition which is encountered throughout +the archipelago. In the interior of Luzon are found isolated villages, +the inhabitants of which are expert workers in iron and steel, while +their neighbors seem to be ignorant of the process.[142] The writer +holds to the opinion that iron working is an ancient art throughout the +Philippine archipelago and that its use for various reasons, such as +lack of material, has died out in certain sections. Brass workers are +found among most of the tribes, but, as was observed earlier in this +paper, there is sufficient evidence that the industry is of recent +introduction, and the amount and excellence of the work done by the +brass casters is governed by the nearness or remoteness of Moro +settlements. + +[142] The process used in Northern Luzon is very similar to that +employed in Southern Mindanao. + +Except for the cotton garments recently adopted by the Kagan branch of +the Tagakaolo, and the suits worn by the Mandaya men, the clothing seen +throughout the District is very similar. A few ornaments, such as the +silver rings and breast disks of the Mandaya, have only a limited +distribution, but for the most part the decorations worn by the +different tribes differ only in the number of beads, bells, and shell +disks used in their manufacture. + +In the ornamentation of their garments certain groups have specialized +until the bead work of the Bagobo excels all such work found in the +Philippines. The same can be said of the intricate and beautifully +embroidered designs seen in the garments of the Bila-an or the oversewed +fabrics of the Kulaman, while the crudely embroidered patterns of the +Mandaya are wonderfully effective. Yet, despite apparent +dissimilarities, there is such a likeness in many forms of +ornamentation, as well as in the technique of the methods of production, +that there seems to be ample proof of free borrowing, or of a common +origin. + +On the non-material side the similarities between the groups are even +more marked. In each tribe the warriors gain distinction among their +fellows, the protection of certain spirits, and the privilege of wearing +red garments, by killing a certain number of persons. Except among the +Kulaman, mediums much like the _mabalian_ of the Bagobo make known the +wishes of the superior beings and direct the ceremonies. The people are +instructed when to plant by the spirits who place certain constellations +in the skies. These are the same for all the groups, although often +known by different names. The _limokon_ warns or encourages the +traveler, while certain acts of the individual, such as sneezing, are +looked upon as warnings from unseen beings. Many of these beings having +like attributes, although often bearing different names, are known to +each group. The idea of one or more spirits dwelling in different parts +of a man's body is widespread, while the belief that the right side of +the body is under the care of good influences and the left subject to +the bad, is well nigh universal in the District. + +In conclusion note should be made of oft repeated assertions to the +effect that a part of the people of Davao District are white, and that +they are also cannibals and headhunters. The first can be dismissed with +the statement that so far as the writer has been able to observe or to +learn from trustworthy sources, there is no justification for such a +story. It can be just as positively stated that neither the Mandaya nor +any other tribe here described practice cannabalism[sic]. Warriors do +eat a part of the livers and hearts of men who have shown great valor, +the eaters thus securing some of the good qualities of the victims. The +Kulaman warriors always taste of the liver of the slain "in order to +become like Mandalangan," but they expressed the greatest disgust when +it was suggested that the balance of the body might make good food. + +While it is true that the Kulaman take the heads, and some times the +arms,[143] of slain foes, and that the same custom is some times +followed by individual warriors of the other tribes, head-hunting for +the sake of the trophy is not practiced here, as is the case in Northern +Luzon. The skull or other portions of the body are kept only long enough +to prove the murder, or until they can be mutilated by the women and +children, "who thus become brave." + +[143] This is also the custom of the Bukidnon. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, +MINDANAO*** + + +******* This file should be named 18273-0.txt or 18273-0.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao</p> +<p> The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition</p> +<p>Author: Fay-Cooper Cole</p> +<p>Release Date: April 28, 2006 [eBook #18273]<br> +Most recently updated May 30, 2006</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO +DISTRICT, MINDANAO***</p> +<br><br><center><h3>E-text prepared by Carl D. DuBois</h3></center><br><br> +<table border=0 bgcolor="ccccff" cellpadding=10> + <tr> + <td align="center"> + Transcriber's note: + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="justify"> + The Table of Contents and the List of Illustrations were added + by the trascriber. The text refers to 76 photographic "PLATES," + but the source copy contained only the first. Two of the + illustrations were labeled "FIG. 26;" I have labeled them + FIG. 26A and FIG. 26B. + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<br> +<br> +<a name="P1"></a><br> +<center> +<img src="images/PLATE01.JPG" alt="[Frontispiece:] TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO +DISTRICT"><br> +[Frontispiece:] TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT" + +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> + +<h3>FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.<br> +PUBLICATION 170.<br> +ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES +VOL. XII, No. 2.</h3> +<br> +<br> + +<h1>THE WILD TRIBES<br> +OF DAVAO DISTRICT,<br> +MINDANAO</h1> + +<br> +<br> +<h4>by</h4> +<h2>FAY-COOPER COLE</h2> +<h3><i>Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology</i></h3> +<br> +<br> + +<h3>The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition</h3> + +<h3>GEORGE A. DORSEY<br> +Curator, Department of Anthropology</h3> + +<h4>CHICAGO, U. S. A.<br> +September, 1913</h4> +</center> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="narrow"> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> + +<center> +<h3>Contents</h3> +<table> + <tr><td align="right">I. </td><td><a href="#I">THE BAGOBO.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">II. </td><td><a href="#II">BILA-AN.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">III. </td><td><a href="#III">KULAMAN.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">IV. </td><td><a href="#IV">TAGAKAOLO.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">V. </td><td><a href="#V">ATA.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">VI. </td><td><a href="#VI">MANDAYA.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td align="right"> </td><td><a href="#VII">CONCLUSION</a></td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<br> +<br> + +<center> +<h3>Illustrations</h3> +<table> + <tr><td valign="top">Plate 1. </td><td><a href="#P1">TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top"> </td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 1. </td><td><a href="#1">SHELL BRACELET.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 2. </td><td><a href="#2">NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID WITH FERN<br>AND ORCHID CUTICLE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 3. </td><td><a href="#3">BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 4. </td><td><a href="#4">TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 5. </td><td><a href="#5">EAR STRETCHERS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 6. </td><td><a href="#6">WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 7. </td><td><a href="#7">LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 8. </td><td><a href="#8">THE "STOVE."</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 9. </td><td><a href="#9">BAMBOO PLATE RACK.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 10A. </td><td><a href="#10A">RICE MORTAR.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 10B. </td><td><a href="#10B">PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 10C. </td><td><a href="#10C">CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT<br>GRAIN FROM FALLING OUT.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 10D. </td><td><a href="#10D">WOODEN PESTLE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 11. </td><td><a href="#11">COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH WOODEN HANDLES.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 12. </td><td><a href="#12">TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE RECEPTACLE IN WHICH<br>OFFERINGS ARE MADE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 13. </td><td><a href="#13">RICE WINNOWER.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 14. </td><td><a href="#14">INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 15. </td><td><a href="#15">SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND HUNTING.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 16. </td><td><a href="#16">CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING CASE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 17. </td><td><a href="#17">BOWS AND ARROWS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 18. </td><td><a href="#18">BLOW GUNS AND DARTS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 19. </td><td><a href="#19">BAMBOO FISH TRAP.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 20. </td><td><a href="#20">(LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH SPEAR.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 21. </td><td><a href="#21">(RIGHT) FISH LURE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 22. </td><td><a href="#22">TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 23. </td><td><a href="#23">TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 24. </td><td><a href="#24">TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 25. </td><td><a href="#25">COCOANUT SCRAPER.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 26A. </td><td><a href="#26A">STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 26B. </td><td><a href="#26B">STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 27. </td><td><a href="#27">HEMP MACHINE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 28. </td><td><a href="#28">SUGAR CANE PRESS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 29. </td><td><a href="#29">RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO CLAPPER<br>ATTACHED TO TOP.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 30. </td><td><a href="#30">CARRYING FRAME.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 31A. </td><td><a href="#31A">FRONT OF AN OBLONG SHIELD.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 32B. </td><td><a href="#32B">BACK OF AN OBLONG SHIELD.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 33. </td><td><a href="#33">TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 34. </td><td><a href="#34">REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS AND SHELL DISKS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 35. </td><td><a href="#35">COOKING POT AND COVER.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 36. </td><td><a href="#36">WOMEN'S COMBS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 37. </td><td><a href="#37">A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS.<br>B. MEN'S EAR PLUGS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 38. </td><td><a href="#38">BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM LAKE<br>BULÚAN REGION.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 39. </td><td><a href="#39">BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON USE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 40. </td><td><a href="#40">PITCH STICK USED IN THE CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 41. </td><td><a href="#41">DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 42. </td><td><a href="#42">DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 43. </td><td><a href="#43">PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 44. </td><td><a href="#44">WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 45. </td><td><a href="#45">MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 46. </td><td><a href="#46">TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 47. </td><td><a href="#47">MEN'S HATS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 48. </td><td><a href="#48">WOMAN'S COMB.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 49. </td><td><a href="#49">EAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 50. </td><td><a href="#50">GOURD RICE HOLDER.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 51. </td><td><a href="#51">BIRD SNARE.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 52. </td><td><a href="#52">WOODEN SHIELDS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 53. </td><td><a href="#53">SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 54A<br> to 54H. </td><td valign="top"><a href="#54">DESIGNS REPRESENTING THE HUMAN FORM.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 55A<br> to 55H. </td><td valign="top"><a href="#55">CROCODILE DESIGNS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 56. </td><td><a href="#56">CROCODILE DESIGN.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 57. </td><td><a href="#57">DESIGN USED IN WEAVING.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 58. </td><td><a href="#58">INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO LIME HOLDER.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 59. </td><td><a href="#59">CLOTHES HANGER.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 60. </td><td><a href="#60">EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic]<br>AND CARRYING BAGS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 61. </td><td><a href="#61">EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic]<br>AND CARRYING BAGS.</a></td></tr> + <tr><td valign="top">FIG. 62. </td><td><a href="#62">TOBACCO POUCHES.</a></td></tr> +</table> +</center> + +<p> </p> + +<hr class="narrow"> + +<p> </p> + +<center> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> +</center> + +<p>The material presented in this paper was obtained, for the most part, +during a stay of seven months among the tribes of Davao District in +Southern Mindanao of the Philippine Islands. Previous to this I had +spent a like period studying the Bukidnon, of the North-Central part of +the Island, and while thus engaged, had penetrated to within about fifty +miles of the Gulf of Davao. In order to trace migrations, relationships, +and trade routes, it was determined to continue the work from the Gulf +coast toward the interior. In pursuance of this plan I went to Davao in +July, nineteen hundred and ten.</p> + +<p>All information to be secured from publications, settlers, or natives +was to the effect that there were at least fourteen distinct tribes to +be met with in the Gulf region. The preliminary reconnaissance of the +field made it plain that the earlier classifications were greatly at +fault. Several divisions recognized as tribes were found to be only +dialect groups, while others differing in no essential respects from one +another secured names from the districts in which they resided. It was +also found that in recent years there had been a considerable movement +of the hill people toward the coast, and that in some places they had +penetrated and established themselves in the territory formerly held by +other tribes.</p> + +<p>The capture of slaves, intermarriage, and trade between the groups +have been powerful influences in obliterating tribal lines, thus adding +further confusion to the classification of the people.</p> + +<p>The field offered so much of interest that I determined to make +detailed studies of the various tribes encountered. The work progressed +satisfactorily for seven months, when a severe illness caused me to +leave the tropics for a time, at least. As a result the work with the +Gulf tribes is still far from complete. The tribes living on or near the +upper waters of the Agusan river and north of Compostela were not +visited, and, hence, will not be mentioned here, while certain other +divisions received only scant attention. No attempt is here made to +treat of the Christianized or Mohammedanized people, who inhabit a +considerable part of the coast and the Samal Islands, further than to +indicate their influence on the wild tribes. Both have settled in Davao +District in historic times, and have taken many native converts into +their villages. From these settlements new ideas, types of garments, and +industries have spread toward the interior, while the extensive slave +trade carried on by the Moro has had a marked effect on all the tribes +with whom they have come in contact.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of this paper I have, so far as possible, drawn on +the knowledge of others to fill in the gaps in my own notes. In spite of +this the information on certain groups is still so scanty that this can +be, at best, only a sketch. It is offered at this time in the hope that +it may serve as a help to other anthropologists who may plan to visit +this most interesting field.</p> + +<p>I wish here to extend my thanks to the various civil and military +authorities who gave me valuable assistance; also to Captain James +Burchfield, H. S. Wilson, James Irwin, Otto Hanson, William Gohn, Henry +Hubbell, and Juan de la Cruz, planters, whose wide knowledge of, and +acquaintance with the interior tribes made possible my work in many +localities.</p> + +<p>It is a pleasure and a duty to acknowledge the assistance rendered by +my wife, who accompanied me throughout my Philippine work. Her presence +made it possible to secure the complete confidence of the hill people, +and thus to gain an insight into their home life which otherwise would +have been impossible. A large part of the material here presented, +particularly that relating to the women, was gathered by her and many of +the photographs are from her camera.</p> + +<p>The dialects spoken by the tribes of central and southern Mindanao +are to be dealt with in a separate publication, so that at this time I +shall merely give a brief description of the characters appearing in the +native names used in this paper. The consonants are pronounced as in +English, except <i>r</i> which is as in Spanish. <i>c</i> is used as +<i>ch</i> in <i>church</i>, <i>ñ</i>, which occurs frequently, is a +palatal nasal. There is no clear articulation and the stop is not +present, but the back of the tongue is well up on the soft palate.</p> + +<p>The vowels are used as follows:<br> +<i>macron-a</i> like <i>a</i> in <i>father</i><br> +<i>macron-e</i> like <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i><br> +<i>macron-i</i> like <i>i</i> in <i>ravine</i><br> +<i>macron-o</i> like <i>o</i> in <i>note</i><br> +<i>macron-u</i> like <i>u</i> in <i>flute</i><br> +<i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>, short of the above.</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: The macron-over-vowel orthographic symbols have +regretfully not been reproducible in this document.]</p> + +<p><i>E</i> is a sound between the obscure vowel <i>e</i>, as <i>e</i> +in <i>sun</i>, and the <i>ur</i> in <i>burrow</i>.</p> + +<p>The dipthongs[sic] are <i>ai</i> like <i>ai</i> in <i>aisle</i>, +<i>au</i> like <i>ou</i> in <i>mouse</i>, or final Spanish <i>ao</i> as +in <i>carabao</i>, <i>ei</i> like <i>ei</i> in <i>eight</i>, <i>oi</i> +as in <i>boy</i>, also <i>Eu</i>, <i>eu</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>FAY-COOPER COLE,<br> +Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology.<br> +CHICAGO, September, 1913.</p> + +<a name="I"></a> +<p> </p> +<center><h2>I. THE BAGOBO.</h2></center> + +<h4>SYNONYMS:</h4> +<p> (a) GUIANGA, GUANGA, GULANGA<br> + (b) OBO<br> + (c) TIGDAPAYA<br> + (d) ETO</p> + +<center><h3>HABITAT.</h3></center> + +<p>The west coast of Davao Gulf between Daliao and Digos is dotted with +small villages, the inhabitants of which are largely Bagobo who have +been converted to the Christian faith and have been induced to give up +their mountain homes and settle in towns. Back of this coast line rise +densely timbered mountain peaks, lateral spurs from which often +terminate in abrupt cliffs overlooking the sea. From other peaks +extensive grass covered plains slope gently down nearly to the water's +edge. Deep river canons cut between these mountains and across the +plains, giving evidence of active erosion for a long period of time. If +these mountain chains and river courses are followed back it is found +that they all radiate from one stupendous mass, the center of which is +Mt. Apo, the highest mountain in the Philippines and reputed to be an +active volcano. Near to its summit is a deep fissure from which, on +clear mornings, columns of smoke or steam can be seen ascending, while +the first rays of the rising sun turn into gold, or sheets of white, the +fields of sulphur which surround the cone.</p> + +<p>Along the lower eastern and southern slopes of this mountain and its +tributary peaks live the wilder branch of this tribe, whose traditions, +religious observances, and daily life are closely related to the +manifestations of latent energy in the old volcano.</p> + +<center><h3>NUMBER.</h3></center> + +<p>The exact number who fall under this classification is not known, +Governor Bolton, who was intimately acquainted with the wild tribes of +the District, estimated their number at sixty-five hundred, but this +count did not include the sub-division here given as Obo. One +enumeration, made by a Jesuit missionary, places the population at +fifteen thousand, while the Government report of 1900 gives them +eighteen thousand four hundred. The latter estimates are certainly +excessive. It is probable that they were determined by compiling the +population of villages reported to exist in the interior.</p> + +<p>The wilder members of this tribe are, to a certain extent, migratory, +moving their villages from one location to another according to the +demands of their mode of agriculture. Their rice fields are made in +mountain-side clearings, and as the ever present cogon grass[1] begins +to invade the open land they substitute sweet potatoes or hemp. In time +even these lusty plants give way to the rank grass, and the people find +it easier to make new clearings in the forest than to combat the pest +with the primitive tools at their command. This results in some new +fields each year, and when these are at too great a distance from the +dwellings the old settlements are abandoned and new ones formed at more +convenient locations.</p> + +<p>[1] <i>Imperata koenigii</i>.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the total number belonging to this tribe does not +exceed ten thousand persons.</p> + +<center><h3>INFLUENCE OF NEIGHBORS:—HISTORY.</h3></center> + +<p>The influence of the neighboring tribes and of the white man on the +Bagobo has been considerable. The desire for women, slaves, and loot, as +well as the eagerness of individual warriors for distinction, has caused +many hostile raids to be made against neighboring tribes. Similar +motives have led others to attack them and thus there has been, through +a long period, a certain exchange of blood, customs, and artifacts. +Peaceful exchange of commodities has also been carried on for many years +along the borders of their territory. With the advent of the Moro along +the sea coast a brisk trade was opened up and new industries introduced. +There seems to have been little, if any, intermarriage between these +people, but their relations were sufficiently close for the Moro to +exert a marked influence on the religious and civil life of the wilder +tribe, and to cause them to incorporate into their language many new +words and terms.</p> + +<p>The friendly relations with the Moro seem to have been broken off +upon the arrival and settlement of the Spaniards in Davao. The newcomers +were then at war with the followers of Mohammed and soon succeeded in +enlisting the Bagobo rulers in their cause. A Chinese plate decorated +with the picture of a large blue fish was offered for each Moro head the +tribesmen presented to the Spanish commander. The desire for these +trophies was sufficient soon to start a brisk trade in heads, to judge +from the number of these plates still to be seen among the prized +objects of the petty rulers.</p> + +<p>After the overthrow of Moro power on the coast, Jesuit missionaries +began their labors among the Bagobo, and later established their +followers in several villages. In 1886 Father Gisbert reported eight +hundred converts living in five coast towns. Following the conflict +between Spain and the United States, and during the subsequent +insurrection, these villages were left without protection or guidance. +As a result, large numbers of the inhabitants retired to the hills where +they were again merged with their wilder brothers. Naturally, they +carried with them new ideas as well as material objects. With the +re-establishment of order under American rule many returned to the +deserted villages while others were induced by Governor Bolton to form +compact settlements midway between the coast and the mountain +fastnesses. The influence of the Government has become stronger each +year, and following the human sacrifice at Talun in 1907, that powerful +village and several of the neighboring settlements were compelled to +move down near to the sea where they could be more easily +controlled.</p> + +<p>Schools have been opened in some localities and these, together with +the activities of Catholic and Protestant missionaries, are causing a +rapid change in the life and beliefs of the tribe.</p> + +<p>The presence of American hemp planters, with the consequent demand +for laborers, is also proving an immense factor in wiping out old tribal +lines and in introducing new ideas.</p> + +<p>Beyond a few letters written by the missionaries[2] we find scant +reference to this tribe in history, but their own traditions and +genealogies are well known even by the younger generation.</p> + +<p>[2] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands.</p> + +<p>According to the tribal historians the human race sprang from a man, +Toglái, and his wife, Toglibon, who lived on Mt. Apo.[3] "They were +there from the beginning, at a point near to the present settlement of +Cibolan. Many fruits grew on the mountains and the forests abounded in +game so that it was easy for them to secure food. There were born to +them children, who, when they grew up, married. One day Toglái and +Toglibon told their oldest boy and girl that they should go far away +across the ocean, for there was a good place for them. So the two +departed and were seen no more until their descendants, the white +people, came back to Davao. The other children remained with their +parents and were happy and prosperous until Toglái and Toglibon died and +went to the sky, where they became spirits. Soon after their death the +country suffered a great drought. This finally became so severe that the +water in the rivers dried up and there was no more food in the land. At +last the children were forced to leave their home and seek out new +habitations in other parts. They traveled in pairs, in different +directions, until they came to favorable locations where they settled +down. From them have sprung all the tribes known to the Bagobo. One pair +was too weak to make the journey from the drought-cursed land, and staid +at Cibolan. One day the man crawled out into the ruined fields to see if +he could not find some one thing alive, and when he arrived there he +saw, to his amazement, a single stalk of sugar cane growing lustily. He +cut it with his knife, and water began to come out until there was +enough for the couple to drink. The flow did not cease until the rains +came again to refresh the land. From these two the tribe has again grown +until it numbers its members in the thousands. The people have remained +true to their belief in the spirits, and each year has found them +stronger in numbers, and richer in houses, land, and slaves."</p> + +<p>[3] See fuller account by author, in <i>Philippine Journal of +Science</i>. June 1911, Vol. VI, No. 3, pp. 128-9.</p> + +<p>The genealogy of the Bagobo rulers is traced back through ten +generations. The first ruler of whom there is record was Salingolop, +during whose reign, it seems, the Spaniards first came to the +Philippines. According to the tale[4] "Salingolop was a man of great and +prodigious force, and as tall as the Lauan, which is the tallest tree in +these forests. He had three sons called Bato, Sipongos, and Calisquisan, +and a daughter named Panugutan. When the Spaniards arrived at Manila, +and found that there existed a man so tall and powerful, they sent a +battalion of soldiers. They disembarked on the shore of Bimigao near +Daron, and ascended the mountain where Salingolop lived. He was not +found, because at the time he was on the other side of the mountain +hunting wild boars, and the soldiers returned to the shore, taking +Panugutan as a hostage. Salingolop, having found out what had happened +descended the mountain alone to fight the soldiers which were there. +These fired on him, but in vain, because the balls could make no +impression. On seeing this, they dropped their rifles and with bars of +iron they struck him on the legs, trying to overthrow him. As he fell on +the side towards the sea, the noise of the waves, it is said, reached to +the Cape of San Augustin. They cut off his head and, as he lay dead, +they cut off his legs that he might not arise again. The Spaniards +returned to Manila, taking with them Panugutan; she married in Manila a +Spaniard, by whom she had two children, who later returned to these +parts and were well received, being considered not only as friends but +as brothers of the Bagobo."</p> + +<p>[4] Recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J.</p> + +<p>Salingolop was succeeded by his son Bato who, in turn, was followed +by Boas, Basian, Lumbay, Banga, Maliadi, and Taopan. Until we come to +this last mentioned ruler we learn little more of importance, but at the +beginning of his rule, we learn that the Bagobo had become a powerful +people. Under his leadership they made frequent forays into neighboring +districts and returned with many slaves and rich loot. The +<i>datu</i>[5] was noted as a brave warrior, but in addition to this he +was a wise and just ruler, greatly beloved by all his people. When he +died more than one thousand of his subjects attended the funeral which +lasted ten days. On the last day the house was decked, inside and out, +with red and yellow flowers; many valuable gifts were placed beside the +corpse, and the place was then abandoned.</p> + +<p>[5] The Moro name for chief or ruler. The Bagobo name is +<i>lagaimóda</i> or <i>matanem</i>, but the Moro term is in general +use.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded by his son Pangilan, whose administration, like that +of his father, was firm and just. Upon his death he bequeathed the +leadership of a united people to his son Manib. The new <i>datu</i> did +not prove to be a great warrior and his decisions in matters of dispute +were not always just, so that bad blood arose between the people of +Cibolan and Talun. He was unable to quell the disturbances, and finally +open warfare broke out, petty chiefs of other districts throwing off his +control and ruling as <i>datu</i>. This was the condition which +confronted the present ruler, Tongkaling, when he found himself ruler of +Cibolan.</p> + +<p>The claims of leadership over all the Bagobo had never been +relinquished, but the actual power of the <i>datu</i> outside his own +district amounted to little. Tongkaling soon established his right to +the name of a great warrior, and his people so prospered under his rule +that upon the advent of the Americans he was much the most powerful +among the several chiefs. Under the administration of Governor Bolton, +Tongkaling was officially recognized as head of the Bagobo, and with +this added prestige, he has finally succeeded in gaining recognition +from all the chiefs except those about Santa Cruz, but his actual +control over them is still very slight. He has been a consistent friend +of the Americans, but has jealously guarded his people against outside +influences, so that they are much less affected than those of other +districts. For this reason we shall, in this paper, use Cibolan as a +type settlement, but where radical differences occur in other districts +they will be noted.</p> + +<center><h3>PHYSICAL TYPE.[6]</h3></center> + +<p>[6] This subject will be treated fully in a separate publication.</p> + +<p>An idea of the general appearance of the Bagobo can best be obtained +by a study of the accompanying photographs. Plates II-VIII.</p> + +<p>Measurements were made on thirty-three men and fifteen women. The +maximum height of the males was found to be 164.8 cm.; minimum 149.8 +cm.; with an average of 158.6 cm. For the women the maximum was 152.8 +cm.; minimum 141 cm.; average 147.3 cm.</p> + +<p>The cephalic indices of the same individuals showed 84.5 as the +maximum, 74.3 minimum, and 78.8 the average for the males. The maximum +for the females was 83.1, minimum 76.2, average 80.7. The average +length-height index, taken from the tragus to the vertex, of the same +persons, was 69.8—maximum 75.6, minimum 65.1 for the men; and for +the women 73.1—maximum 76.6, minimum 70.2.</p> + +<p>The face is long, moderately broad, and the zygomatic arches are +seldom prominent. The forehead is high and full with supra-orbital ridge +slightly developed. The crown and back of the head are rather strongly +arched. The people are seldom prognathous, yet individuals are met with +who are markedly so (Plate V).</p> + +<p>The lips are full and bowed; the chin is round and well formed. The +root of the nose is depressed; the ridge broad and generally inclined to +be concave, although straight noses are not uncommon. The nasal wings +are moderately broad and arched or swelled. The eye slits are oblique +and moderately open, showing dark or brown-black eyes. The hair is +brown-black and generally slightly wavy or loosely curled, while in some +cases it is found curled in locks. Women comb their hair straight back +and plaster it with cocoanut oil, but even this does not prevent stray +locks from creeping out. Both face and body hairs are scanty and are +generally removed, yet occasionally a man is seen who has cultivated a +few hairs into a fair semblance of a beard.</p> + +<p>The Bagobo, while well nourished, are inclined to be of slight build, +with very narrow waists. In color they are a light reddish brown with a +slight olive tinge which is more pronounced in the women than in the +men.</p> + +<p>In a brief summary, we can say that they are a short, slightly built, +metsati-cephalic people, with wavy hair, long faces, and broad, full +noses and lips. Individuals are met with who exhibit many of the +physical characteristics of the Negrito;[7] while still others, both in +color and facial lines, are comparable to the Chinese.</p> + +<p>[7] Pygmy blacks of the Philippines.</p> + +<center><h3>DRESS—PERSONAL ADORNMENT.</h3></center> + +<p>No wild tribe in the Islands gives more attention to dress than does +the Bagobo. By an intricate process hemp is colored and woven into +excellent garments, which, in turn, are decorated with embroidery, +applique, or designs in shell disks and beads. The men wear their hair +long and after twisting it around the head hold it in place with +kerchiefs, the edges of which are decorated with beads and tassels.</p> + +<p>A close fitting undershirt is often worn, and above this is an +elaborately beaded or embroidered coat which generally opens in front. +The hemp cloth trousers scarcely reach to the knee, and the bottom of +each leg is decorated with a beaded or embroidered band. Two belts are +worn, one to hold the trousers, the other to support the fighting or +working knives which each man carries. In lieu of pockets he has on his +back an elaborately beaded hemp cloth bag bordered with tassels and +bells of native casting. Highly prized shell bracelets, worn as cuffs by +some men, are made of a large, conical sea-shell (Fig. 1) the base and +interior spirals of which have been cut away. Necklaces made of rattan +strips decorated or overlaid with alternating layers of fern and orchid +cuticle (Fig. 2) are frequently seen, while many strands of beads and +carved seeds surround the necks of both men and women. Both sexes also +wear, above the calf of the leg, plaited or beaded leglets to some of +which magical properties are ascribed.</p> + +<a name="1"></a> +<img src="images/FIG001.JPG" alt="FIG. 1. SHELL BRACELET."> + +<a name="2"></a> +<img src="images/FIG002.JPG" alt="FIG. 2. NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID +WITH FERN AND ORCHID CUTICLE."> + +<p>The woman wears a jacket which is close fitting about the neck and +reaches to the skirt, so that no portion of the upper part of the body +is exposed. The cloth now used in this garment is generally secured in +trade, and in recent years decoration in applique has begun to succeed +the excellent embroidery seen on older garments. Frequently the two +types of decoration are seen on the same jacket, and to these are added +complicated designs in shell or metal disks, or beads. The narrow tube +skirt is of hemp cloth and is made like a sack with both ends open. At +the waist it is held in place by means of a cloth or beaded belt.</p> + +<p>In addition to the many strands of beads which encircle the neck and +fall over the chest, a broad bead band is often worn over one shoulder, +passing under the opposite arm near the waist. Scarfs of colored cloth +are also worn in this manner when the ladies are on dress parade. +Leglets and brass anklets, made like tubes so as to enclose metal balls +(Fig. 3) or with bells and rattles attached, are commonly worn. The +women are fond of loading their arms with ornaments of shell or brass +(Fig. 4) and one forearm is covered with separate rings of incised brass +wire which increase in size from the centre towards the ends, forming an +ornament in the shape of an hour-glass. Their hair is generally cut so +as to leave a narrow band in front; this is brushed back, but often +falls forward on the face or in front of the ears. Back of this the hair +is kept well oiled and is combed straight to the back of the head, where +it is tied in a knot. Into this knot is pushed a wooden comb decorated +with incised lines filled with lime, or inlaid with beads. On festive +occasions more elaborate combs, with plumes or other decorations +attached, are worn. Aside from these ornaments the head is +uncovered.</p> + +<a name="3"></a> +<img src="images/FIG003.JPG" alt="FIG. 3. BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN."> +<br> +<a name="4"></a> +<img src="images/FIG004.JPG" alt="FIG. 4. TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS."> + +<p>Men and women are seen who have their eyebrows shaved to thin lines. +This is a matter of individual taste and is done only for beauty.</p> + +<p>Neither sex makes use of tattooing, nor do they mutilate the lips or +nose, but what they lack in these respects they make up for in ear +ornaments.</p> + +<p>When a child is very young a small hole is pierced in the ear lobes, +and into this opening a piece of twisted banana or hemp leaf is placed. +(Fig. 5a). This leaf acts as a spring, continually enlarging the opening +until the ear plugs can be inserted. Another method, sometimes employed, +is to fill the opening with small round sticks (Fig. 5b), adding more +from time to time, until the desired result is obtained. The plugs worn +by the women are of wood, the fronts of which are inlaid with silver or +brass in artistic designs, and are connected by strands of beads passing +under the chin (Fig. 6). Large wooden ornaments are also worn by the +men, but more prized are large ivory ear plugs made like enormous collar +buttons (Plates II-IV). These are very rare, since the ivory for their +manufacture must be secured from Borneo, and by the time it has passed +through the hands of many traders it has assumed a value which limits +the possession of articles made from it to a few wealthy men. A further +method of ear adornment, frequently seen among the women, consists of +beads sewed into a number of holes which have been pierced through the +helices of the ears.</p> + +<a name="5"></a> +<img src="images/FIG005.JPG" alt="FIG. 5. EAR STRETCHERS."> +<br> +<a name="6"></a> +<img src="images/FIG006.JPG" alt="FIG. 6. WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS."> + +<p>Both men and women file and blacken the teeth. When a boy or girl has +reached the age of puberty, it is time that this beautifying should be +done. There is, however, no prohibition to having it performed earlier +if desired. The candidate places his head against the operator and grips +a stick of wood between his teeth while each tooth is filed so as to +leave only the stump, or is cut or broken to a point (Plate XIIa and b). +When this has been successfully accomplished, what is left of the teeth +is blackened.</p> + +<p>The color is obtained in two ways. The more common method is to place +a piece of metal on one end of a bamboo[8] tube, the other extremity of +which rests on glowing coals. The smoke from the charring bamboo is +conducted through the tube to the cold metal on which it leaves a +deposit or "sweat." This deposit is rubbed on the teeth, at intervals, +for several days until they become a shiny black. A second method is to +use a powder known as <i>tapEl</i> which is secured from the +<i>lamod</i> tree. The writer did not see this tree but, from the +description given of it, believes it to be the tamarindus. This powder +is put on leaves and is chewed. During the period of treatment the +patient is under certain restrictions. He may neither drink water, cook +or eat anything sour, nor may he attend a funeral. Should he do so his +teeth will have a poor color or be "sick." When the teeth have been +properly beautified the young man or woman is considered ready to enter +society.</p> + +<p>[8] A variety known as <i>balakáyo</i> is used for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Boys run about quite nude until they are three or four years of age. +Until about the same age the girls' sole garment is a little pubic +shield, cut from a coconut shell and decorated with incised lines filled +with lime (Fig. 7). Not infrequently bells are attached to the sides of +this "garment." When children do begin to wear clothing their dress +differs in no respects from that of their elders.</p> + +<a name="7"></a> +<img src="images/FIG007.JPG" alt="FIG. 7. LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS."> + +<center><h3>SKETCH OF FUNDAMENTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEFS.</h3></center> + +<p>Although we shall treat religion more fully in a later paragraph, it +is desirable that we now gain an idea of those beliefs which enter +intimately into every activity of the daily life of this people.</p> + +<p>The Bagobo believes in a mighty company of superior beings who +exercise great control over the lives of men. Above all is Eugpamolak +Manobo, also called Manama, who was the first cause and creator of all. +Serving him is a vast number of spirits not malevolently inclined but +capable of exacting punishment unless proper offerings and other tokens +of respect are accorded them. Below them is a horde of low, mean spirits +who delight to annoy mankind with mischievous pranks, or even to bring +sickness and disaster to them. To this class generally belong the +spirits who inhabit mountains, cliffs, rooks, trees, rivers, and +springs. Standing between these two types are the shades of the dead +who, after they have departed from this life, continue to exercise +considerable influence, for good or bad, over the living.</p> + +<p>We have still to mention a powerful class of supernatural beings who, +in strength and importance, are removed only a little from the Creator. +These are the patron spirits.</p> + +<p>Guarding the warriors are two powerful beings, Mandarangan and his +wife, Darago, who are popularly supposed to make their home in the +crater of the volcano. They bring success in battle and give to the +victors loot and slaves. In return for these favors they demand, at +certain times, the sacrifice of a slave. Dissentions[sic], disasters, +and death will be sure to visit the people should they fail to make the +offering. Each year in the month of December the people are reminded of +their obligation by the appearance in the sky of a constellation known +as <i>Balatik</i>,[9] and soon thereafter a human sacrifice doubtless +takes place in some one or more of the Bagobo settlements.</p> + +<p>[9] Orion.</p> + +<p>A man to come under the protection of these two deities must first +have taken at least two human lives. He is then entitled to wear a +peculiar chocolate-colored kerchief with white patterns in it. When he +has killed four he may wear blood-red trousers, and when his score has +reached six he may don a full blood-red suit and carry a sack of the +same color. Such a man is known as <i>magani</i> and his clothing marks +him as a person of distinction and power in his village. He is one of +the leaders in a war party; he is chosen by the <i>datu</i> to inflict +the death penalty when it has been decreed; and he is one of the +assistants in the yearly sacrifice. It is not necessary that those he +kills, in order to gain the right to wear a red suit, be warriors. On +the contrary he may kill women and children from ambush and still +receive credit for the achievement, provided his victims are from a +hostile village. He may count those of his townspeople whom he has +killed in fair fight, and the murder of an unfaithful wife and her +admirer is credited to him as a meritorious deed.</p> + +<p>The workers in iron and brass, the weavers of hemp cloth, and the +mediums or shamans—known as <i>mabalian</i>—are under the +protection of special deities for whom they make ceremonies at certain +times of the year.</p> + +<p>The <i>mabalian</i> just mentioned are people—generally women +past middle life—who, through sufficient knowledge of the spirits +and their desires, are able to converse with them, and to make +ceremonies and offerings which will attract their attention, secure +their good will, or appease their wrath. They may have a crude knowledge +of medicine plants, and, in some cases, act as exorcists. The ceremonies +which art performed at the critical periods of life are conducted by +these <i>mabalian</i>, and they also direct the offerings associated +with planting and harvesting. They are generally the ones who erect the +little shrines seen along the trails or in the forests, and it is they +who put offerings in the "spirit boxes" in the houses. Although they, +better than all others, know how to read the signs and warnings sent by +the spirits, yet, all of the people know the meaning of certain omens +sent through the medium of birds and the like. The call of the +<i>limokon</i>[10] is recognized as an encouragement or a warning and +its message will be heeded without fail. In brief, every natural +phenomenon and every living thing is caused by or is subject to the will +of unseen beings, who in turn can be influenced by the acts of +individuals. As a result everything of importance is undertaken with +reference to these superior powers.</p> + +<p>[10] A dove (<i>Calcophops indica</i>). Similar beliefs held by the +Tagalog were mentioned by Juan de Plasencia in 1589. See BLAIR and +ROBERTSON, Vol. VII, p. 189.</p> + +<center><h3>DWELLINGS—HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS.</h3></center> + +<p>The houses found in the coast villages line well marked streets and +differ in few respects from those built by the Christianized natives +throughout the Islands. Even in the more isolated districts the effect +of this outside influence is marked. However, we can state with +confidence that village life is a new idea to the Bagobo. He has, from +time immemorial, built his home near to his fields, and there he and his +family reside, except during festivals or when extreme danger threatens. +At such times all go to the house of the local ruler and there unite in +the festivities or the common defense.</p> + +<p>The smaller dwellings have but one room, the floor of which is raised +several feet above the ground and supported by many piles. A part of the +latter extend five of[sic] six feet above the floor and form supports +for the side and cross-beams. From the center of the room lighter poles +project eight or ten feet above the cross-beams and form the main +supports for the ridge timber. From beams at the end and sides of the +room similar pieces run to this central ridge; below this they are +joined together, at intervals, by means of horizontal poles and +cross-beams. To this framework are lashed strips of <i>palma brava</i>, +supports for a covering of closely laid <i>runo</i>, on which rests the +final topping of flattened bamboo. The ridge pole is always at a +sufficient height above the floor to give the roof a steep peak, and is +of such length that, at the top, the side roof overhangs the ends. The +roof generally rises in two pitches and always extends past the sides of +the room.</p> + +<p>In house building, the roof, which is made first, is raised to the +desired height, thus serving as a shelter for the workers until the +structure is complete (Plate XIII). Resting on the cross-beams, just +below the rafters, a number of loose boards are laid to form a sort of +attic or storage room where all unused articles, and odds and ends are +allowed to accumulate.</p> + +<p>The sides of the room, which are of flattened bamboo, are about six +feet in height, and extend only to within a foot of the roof. In the +walls small peep holes are cut so that the inhabitants can look outside +without being seen (Plate XIV).</p> + +<p>The flooring, which is generally made of strips of <i>palma +brava</i>, is in two levels, forming a narrow elevated platform at one +end of the room on which a part of the family sleep.</p> + +<p>The furniture of this house is very scanty. Near to the door is the +"stove" (Fig. 8)—a bed of ashes in which three stones are sunk to +form a support for the pots and jars and nearby stand a few native jars +and sections of bamboo filled with water. On a hanger above the fire may +be found articles of food, seeds, and the like, which need protection +from flies and insects. Against the wall is a bamboo rack (Fig. 9), +filled with Chinese plates, or half cocoanut shells which serve as +dishes. Near to the stove is a rice mortar standing on its own wooden +pedestal which reaches to the ground (Fig. 10).</p> + +<a name="8"></a> +<img src="images/FIG008.JPG" alt="FIG. 8. THE "STOVE.""> + +<a name="9"></a> +<img src="images/FIG009.JPG" alt="FIG. 9. BAMBOO PLATE RACK."> +<br> +<a name="10A"></a> +<a name="10B"></a> +<a name="10C"></a> +<a name="10D"></a> +<img src="images/FIG010.JPG" alt="FIG. 10. RICE MORTAR."> + +<p>FIG. 10A. RICE MORTAR.<br> +FIG. 10B. PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND.<br> +FIG. 10C. CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT GRAIN FROM +FALLING OUT.<br> +FIG. 10D. WOODEN PESTLE.</p> + +<p>A child's cradle, made of a blanket suspended hammock-like between +the wall and a beam support, will probably be found. A few boxes and +jars, usually of Chinese make, and always a copper gong or two are +regular furnishings, while to these can be added a miscellany of +clothing, looms, spears, shields, meat blocks, spoons (Fig. 11), and the +like. Akin to furniture, since they are found in every house, are little +basket-like receptacles made by splitting one end of a bamboo pole into +several vertical strips and then weaving in other shorter horizontal +strips (Fig. 12). These are attached to walls and supporting poles, and +in them offerings are made to the various spirits.</p> + +<a name="11"></a> +<img src="images/FIG011.JPG" alt="FIG. 11. COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH +WOODEN HANDLES."> + +<a name="12"></a> +<img src="images/FIG012.JPG" alt="FIG. 12. TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE +RECEPTACLE IN WHICH OFFERINGS ARE MADE TO THE SPIRITS."> + +<p>This is our picture of a typical home. It is not a cheery place by +day, for the lack of windows, as well as a fog of smoke from the open +stove, makes it dark and gloomy. Nevertheless, since the house offers a +cool retreat from the blazing sun, and the smoke-laden air is free from +flies and mosquitoes, it is a popular resort for all members of the +family during the hottest part of the day. The little light, which +filters in through the many cracks in the floors and walls, is +sufficient to allow the women to spin, dye, weave, and decorate their +clothing, or to engage in other activities. After dark the resinous nuts +of the <i>bitáog</i> tree, or leaf covered resin torches are burned, and +by their uncertain light the women and men carry on their labors until +far into the night. Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of a +notched log, bamboo pole, or by a ladder of the same material. As a +protection against strong winds many props are placed against the sides +of the house, and when large trees are available the dwellings are +further secured by being anchored to them with rattan lines.</p> + +<p>In each settlement or district will be found one large house built on +the same general plan as the smaller dwellings, but capable of housing +several hundred people (Plate XV). This is the home of the local +<i>datu</i> or ruler. All great ceremonies are held here, and it is the +place to which all hasten when danger threatens. It is the social center +of the community, and all who desire go there at any time and remain as +long as they wish, accepting meanwhile the food and hospitality of the +ruler.</p> + +<p>A brief description of the house of Datu Tongkaling will give a good +idea of this type of structure. Except for size—the dimensions +being 44 x 20 ft.—the exterior does not differ greatly from the +houses already described. A long, partially covered porch leading to the +doorway is provided with benches which are always occupied by men and +boys, loitering or engaged in the absorbing task of lousing one another. +At the far end of the room is the elevated platform, but this one is +much wider than is customary, and is intended as the sleeping place for +the warriors, or illustrious guests. As the writer and his wife were +considered, by the <i>datu</i>, as belonging to the latter class, they +were favored with this vantage spot, from which they could view and be +viewed by the whole household. Along the sides of the room are elevated +box-like enclosures in which the <i>datu</i> and some of his wives and +daughters sleep and keep their belongings. At night the balance of the +family, including men, women, children, and dogs, occupy the floor. +Midway between the side walls and near to the elevated platform are two +decorated bamboo poles, which are raised in honor of the patron spirits +of the warriors; while in other parts of the room are baskets, hanging +altars, and other devices in which are placed offerings intended for the +spirits. In addition to the customary furnishings are hundreds of +objects testifying to the wealth of the <i>datu</i>. Clothes, boxes, +dozens of huge copper gongs, drums, ancient Chinese jars and plates, +spears and shields, beaded clothing, baskets, and last but not +least—in the estimation of the <i>datu</i>—a huge enameled +advertisement of an American brewery.</p> + +<p>In the western part of the Bagobo district is a village known as +Bansalan. Recently its people have been induced to leave the old +settlement and build in a new location, midway between the mountains and +the sea. Here the writer found a very different type of house (Plate +XVIa). Small trees formed the uprights to which cross-beams were tied to +make the roof supports, and on these rested a final covering of +<i>nipa</i> palm. A few feet above the ground other supports were lashed +and on them strips of <i>palma brava</i> were laid as flooring. In the +few cases where the houses were fitted with sides, strips of <i>nipa</i> +palm fastened together with rattan were used. There seemed to be no +uniform type of dwelling, each house differing from its neighbor in +number of rooms, floor levels, or in other respects. Only one feature, +the elevated sleeping platform at one end of the house, was always +found. A few miles further inland, in the old settlement, the houses are +of the type already described in detail. The people have been +practically forced to their new location by governmental action. The new +careless type of structures seen in Bansalan probably represents, to +them, temporary structures in which they expect to remain only until a +change of governors will furnish an excuse for returning to the old +location.</p> + +<center><h3>OTHER BUILDINGS.</h3></center> + +<p>Near to each farm house or settlement will be seen one or more +granaries, in which rice is stored (Plate XIV). Four poles form the +support for a rectangular base from which the sides of the structure +slope out at an angle of about 25 degrees from the perpendicular until +they meet the roof. The sides and roof are of bamboo beaten flat, the +latter covered with a topping of straw.</p> + +<p>In the hemp fields is an occasional shed where the fiber is sometimes +stripped, but more often these buildings, thus hidden from the public +gaze, house the forges on which the smiths fashion knives and spears, or +cast the bells and betel nut boxes so dear to the heart of each +Bagobo.</p> + +<p>Aside from the shrines or altars, which we shall describe later, the +Bagobo erects no other buildings. He sometimes encloses a rice or +cornfield with a fence, but this requires no special skill in building, +since it consists of two parallel lines of uprights, between which +bamboo tubes are laid to the desired height (Plate XVIb).</p> + +<center><h3>FOOD AND ITS PREPARATION.</h3></center> + +<p>It is impossible, without including about everything edible in a +vegetable line to be found in the district, to give a full list of +foods; hence no such attempt will be made. Chief of all is the rice, +many varieties of which are grown in the mountain-side +clearings.[11]</p> + +<p>[11] Back of the coast there are no irrigated fields to be found in +the Davao District.</p> + +<p>Next in importance is the <i>camote</i>, or sweet potato, and then +follow in the order of their importance: corn, banana, sago and +cocoanut.</p> + +<p>Fish, eels, crabs, grasshoppers, monkeys,[12] deer, pigs, and +chickens form a part of the food supply; in fact, the people seem to +draw the line at nothing but crows, snakes, mice, rats, goats, horses, +dogs, and cats. Despite the assertion of a number of worthy informants +that the last three are on the prohibited list, it is the opinion of the +writer that it is the scarcity of the supply rather than any feeling of +prejudice which causes them to be included.</p> + +<p>[12] Some people refuse to eat monkey meat.</p> + +<p>Salt and pepper are used as condiments. The former is secured in +trade with the coast natives and Chinese, while the latter is produced +by mashing the fruit of a small wild pepper, locally known as +<i>katombal</i>.</p> + +<p>Rice, after being allowed to dry, is stored without being separated +from the straw. When a supply is needed a bundle is laid on a piece of +hide and is beaten with a wooden pestle, wielded by a woman or a slave. +This separates the grain, which is gathered up and placed in a wooden +mortar, where it is again beaten with the pestle until the outer husk +has been loosened. To remove the chaff the rice is taken from the +mortar, placed on a flat winnowing tray (Fig. 13), and tossed and +caught, until the wind has carried away the lighter husks, thus leaving +the grain free. This is placed in a pot, a small quantity of water is +added, and the vessel is placed over the fire. Here it is allowed to +remain only until it begins to boil, when it is placed on the ashes, +near enough to the fire to keep it hot. From time to time the woman +turns the jar until the contents is cooked through, wren each grain +stands out free from its fellows.[13]</p> + +<p>[13] This is the usual way of preparing rice throughout the +archipelago.</p> + +<a name="13"></a> +<img src="images/FIG013.JPG" alt="FIG. 13. RICE WINNOWER."> + +<p>Other vegetable foods are eaten raw, or are cooked with water and +salt, with perhaps the addition of a little meat broth or a +sour[sic].</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: "sour" should read "soup."]</p> + +<p>Small birds and fish are cooked without other treatment than a hasty +cleaning; but the flesh of larger fowls, deer, and pig is generally cut +into small cubes and cooked with condiments in a jar or small Chinese +caldron. Birds are sometimes prepared by placing them on a spit, +covering them with green banana leaves, and suspending them above the +fire until roasted. This primitive paper bag cooking yields a most +excellent dish.</p> + +<p>Grasshoppers are relished, and are secured in the following manner: A +clear grass spot is selected and several deep holes are dug in one end. +Back of them, and leading toward them, is a high tight fence made in a +V. By beating the grass with boughs as they walk toward the trap, the +people drive the grasshoppers before them until they are finally forced +into the pit, from which they are collected by the bushel.</p> + +<p>I was told that meat was sometimes salted, dried, and stored away for +future use. The climate seems to be absolutely opposed to such +foresight, and the one time that I saw the process being used, the odors +were such that I beat a hasty retreat and chose to accept, without +proof, the verdict of the natives, that venison thus prepared was +excellent.</p> + +<p>Of almost as much importance as food is the use of the betel or areca +nut,[14] which is chewed almost constantly by young and old of both +sexes. The nut is divided into quarters and a piece of <i>buyo</i> +leaf[15] is wrapped about each bit. To this is added a little lime and a +pinch of tobacco, and it is ready for the mouth. The resultant deep red +saliva is distributed indiscriminately on the floor, walls, and +furniture where it leaves a permanent stain. To hold the materials +necessary for this practice brass betel nut boxes, secured from the Moro +or of their own manufacture, as well as plaited grass boxes and pouches +are constantly carried (Plates XVIIa and XLI). The brass boxes generally +have three compartments; the first for nuts, the second for leaves and +tobacco, and the third for lime. Lime is also carried in small bamboo +tubes (Fig. 14), in the decoration of which a great deal of time is +consumed. The open end is fitted with a rattan sifter so that the powder +is distributed evenly on the nut and leaf.</p> + +<p>[14] <i>Catechu L</i>.</p> + +<p>[15] <i>Piper betel L</i>.</p> + +<a name="14"></a> +<img src="images/FIG014.JPG" alt="FIG. 14. INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES."> + +<p>Aged persons and those whose teeth have been so mutilated that they +cannot chew, make use of an outfit which includes a small mortar and +pestle (Plate XVIIb). Cutting open green betel nuts, the chewer wraps +the pieces in leaves and, after adding a liberal supply of lime, mashes +them in the mortar until all are reduced to a soft mass.</p> + +<p>Lime is secured by placing snail shells in a fire, from which they +are taken while hot and dropped into cold water. They can then be +crushed into powder with the fingers.</p> + +<p>Although the Bagobo raises a considerable quantity of tobacco he +seldom, if ever, smokes it unless the leaf is furnished him, already +prepared, by an outsider. Sometimes a small ball made of the green +leaves is placed between the teeth and upper lip, where it remains until +all the flavor has been extracted.</p> + +<p>The outfits for betel nut and tobacco, aside from the brass boxes +which fasten at the side, are generally carried in the sacks worn on the +backs of the men or in the elaborate shoulder bags worn by the women. +However, a small waterproof box is frequently seen attached to a man's +belt, and in this he carries his betel nut, tobacco, and fire-making +outfit.</p> + +<p>The usual method of making fire is by the use of flint and steel, but +when this is not at hand a flame can be quickly obtained by rubbing two +pieces of bamboo rapidly together until the friction produces a +spark.</p> + +<center><h3>HUNTING AND FISHING.</h3></center> + +<p>Since only a few domesticated animals and fowls are found in a +settlement, the greater part of the meat supply is secured by hunting +and fishing.</p> + +<p>Deer and wild pig are taken by means of spears. The hunter either +lies in wait near the runways of the game, or the animals are driven +toward the spot where the huntsmen are concealed. For this purpose the +ordinary lance (Figs. 15a, b and c) is often used, but a more effective +weapon is the spear known as <i>kaláwat</i> (Fig. 15d). In this the +metal head fits loosely into a long shaft to which it is attached by a +rope. As soon as the weapon enters the body of the animal the head pulls +out of the shaft, and this trails behind until it becomes entangled in +the undergrowth, thus putting the game at the mercy of the hunter. Dead +falls and pits are put in the runways, and a frightened animal is +sometimes impaled on concealed sharpened bamboo sticks. Less frequently, +large animals are secured by means of rope loops which hang from trees +past which the game is accustomed to pass. Until recent years the +<i>balatik</i>, a trap which when sprung throws an arrow with great +force against the animal which releases it, was much used but so many +domestic animals have been killed by it that this sort of trap is now in +disfavor.</p> + +<a name="15"></a> +<img src="images/FIG015.JPG" alt="FIG. 15. SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND +HUNTING."> + +<p>Wild chickens are captured by means of snares (Fig. 16). A tame +rooster is fastened in the jungle and around him is placed a snare, +consisting of running knots attached to a central band. The crowing of +this fowl soon attracts the wild birds which, coming in to fight, are +almost sure to become entangled in one of the nooses. Slip loops, +attached to a bent twig and released by disturbing the bait, are also +employed in the capture of wild fowl.</p> + +<a name="16"></a> +<img src="images/FIG016.JPG" alt="FIG. 16. CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING +CASE."> + +<p>Birds of all sizes are secured by use of bows and arrows, blow guns, +or nets. Wooden decoys (Plate XVIII) are tied to the branches of trees +in which the hunters are concealed. The bows used are of <i>palma +brava</i>, in each end of which notches are cut to hold the rattan bow +strings (Fig. 17). The arrow shafts are of light reeds and are fitted +with one or two bamboo points. These weapons are effective only for +close range, and even then the Bagobo are far from being expert +marksmen. Boys use a reed blow gun through which they shoot light darts +tufted with cotton (Fig. 18). The missile is not poisoned and is of +little use at a distance of more than twenty feet.</p> + +<a name="17"></a> +<img src="images/FIG017.JPG" alt="FIG. 17. BOWS AND ARROWS."> + +<a name="18"></a> +<img src="images/FIG018.JPG" alt="FIG. 18. BLOW GUNS AND DARTS."> + +<p>By far the most effective means of securing birds is to stretch a net +between trees or poles where the birds are accustomed to fly. Wooden +decoys are attached to the net in order to attract the game which, once +enmeshed, is easily caught.</p> + +<p>Various devices are employed in the capture of fresh water fish,[16] +but the most common is a torpedo-shaped trap of bamboo (Fig. 19). Stone +conduits lead the water from streams into the open ends of these traps, +thus carrying in fish and shrimps. The funnel-shaped opening has the +sharpened ends set close together so that it is quite impossible for the +prisoners to escape, although the water readily passes between the +bamboo strips.</p> + +<p>[16] Along the coast the methods of the Christianized natives are +used in salt water fishing.</p> + +<a name="19"></a> +<img src="images/FIG019.JPG" alt="FIG. 19. BAMBOO FISH TRAP."> + +<p>A hook and line is employed, especially for eels; while in clear +pools fish are secured by means of a four-pointed spear which is thrust +or thrown (Fig. 20). Perhaps the most interesting device used is a lure, +known as <i>boro</i> (Fig. 21). A live minnow is fastened at the end of +the rod near to a rattan noose. A cord running from the noose to the end +of the stick allows the fisherman to draw up the noose as he desires. +The struggles of the captive fish soon attract others, and when one +enters the loop the line is drawn taut, securely binding the intruder. +Several fish can be taken from a single pool by this method. A berry +(<i>anamirta coccithis L</i>.) is used in the capture of fish. It is +crushed to a powder, is wrapped with vines and leaves, and is thrown +into pools. The fish become stupified[sic] and float to the surface +where they are easily captured. After being cooked they are eaten +without any ill effects.</p> + +<a name="20"></a> +<img src="images/FIG020.JPG" alt="FIG. 20. (LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH +SPEAR."> + +<a name="21"></a> +<img src="images/FIG021.JPG" alt="FIG. 21. (RIGHT) FISH LURE."> + +<center><h3>OCCUPATIONS.</h3></center> + +<p>Mention has already been made of some of the daily occupations of the +people. We have found the women caring for the home and preparing the +rice and other foods which are served in the house. At no time did the +writer see a man, other than a slave, take any part in such household +duties; but when on the trail each would do his share in preparing the +meals. In the village we found the women and children carrying the water +and wood and, at rare intervals, doing laundry work. Instead of soaping +and rubbing soiled clothing, they soak the garments in water, then place +them on stones and beat them with wooden paddles or clubs. The articles +are alternately soaked and beaten until at least a part of the dirt has +been removed. It is also the privilege of any woman to engage in the +manufacture of basketry, or to act as a potter.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of baskets the woman makes use chiefly of bamboo +and rattan, though other materials, such as <i>pandanus</i> are +sometimes brought into service. Three weaves or their variants are +employed. The first is the common diagonal or twilled weave, in which +each element of the weft passes over two or more of the warp elements. +In this way most of the rice winnowers, transportation baskets, knife +sheaths, and the like are made. In the second weave (Fig. 22), the +foundation of the basket is made up of parallel horizontal rods, or +strips of bamboo. These are laced together by warp strips which pass +alternately under one and over one of the foundation rods, crossing each +other at an angle, one above the other below the rod. The trinket +baskets carried by the women, the larger waterproof receptacles known as +<i>binota</i>, and the covers for wild chicken snares are in this +technic. A variant of this weave is found in the rattan carrying frames +and in some fish traps (Fig. 23). Here the warp strips cross one another +at an angle, at each meeting place enclosing the horizontal foundation +strips. Unlike the second weave described, the warp strips do not pass +alternately above and below the horizontal foundation, but retain the +same relation to it throughout the entire length of each strip. A coiled +weave (Fig. 24) is used in the manufacture of tobacco boxes (Plate XIX) +and in the rims of women's baskets. In this type the foundation consists +of a series of horizontal rattan strips or rods which are sewed together +in the following manner. A narrow strip <i>A</i> passes over two of +these parallel rods <i>2</i> and <i>3</i> in a left handed spiral. At +the top of the loop the strip passes under a similar strip <i>B</i> +which binds rod <i>2</i> to the one above. Passing downward inside the +basket, the strip <i>A</i> goes beneath the strip <i>C</i> which binds +rods <i>3</i> and <i>4</i> together. These are drawn tightly while damp, +thus forcing the foundation rods so closely together as to make the +basket practically water-tight. Pitch from the <i>tabon-tabon</i> nuts +may also be rubbed over the outside surface, thus making the receptacle +impervious to water.</p> + +<a name="22"></a> +<img src="images/FIG022.JPG" alt="FIG. 22."> + +<a name="23"></a> +<img src="images/FIG023.JPG" alt="FIG. 23."> + +<a name="24"></a> +<img src="images/FIG024.JPG" alt="FIG. 24. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN +BASKETRY."> + +<p>In the great majority of baskets the surface is divided into three +parallel zones or decorative bands. These are produced by making a +slight variation in the weave, by the use of blackened strips of bamboo +and rattan, or by substituting in their place the black cuticle of a +fern.</p> + +<p>As a rule the women of this tribe are not good potters and take +little pride in their work. In some districts the art has been entirely +lost, and the people depend on the coast natives for their cooking +utensils. At the village of Bansalan the women were found still to be +proficient in their work. After the dampened clay had been carefully +kneaded in order to remove lumps and gravel, the bottom of the jar was +moulded with the fingers and placed on a dish which was turned on a bit +of cloth or a board and answered the purpose of a potter's wheel. As the +dish was turned with the right hand the operator shaped the clay with +the fingers of the left adding fresh strips of material from time to +time until the desired size was obtained. The final shaping was done +with a wooden paddle and the jar was allowed to dry, after which it was +smoothed off with a stone. When ready for firing it was placed in the +midst of a pile of rubbish, over which green leaves were placed to cause +a slow fire.</p> + +<p>Other dishes are made by splitting a cocoanut in half and removing +the "meat." This is readily accomplished by the use of a scraper fitted +with a rough iron blade (Fig. 25), over which the concave side or the +half nut is drawn. The cocoanut meat is used for food and oil.</p> + +<a name="25"></a> +<img src="images/FIG025.JPG" alt="FIG. 25. COCOANUT SCRAPER."> + +<p>A little later we shall describe the active part woman takes in the +planting and care of the fields, but now we shall take up in some detail +the industry in which she stands pre-eminent, the preparation and +weaving of hemp.</p> + +<p>The hemp ordinarily stripped by the men is considered too fine to be +used in the manufacture of clothing, so a smaller stripping device is +employed by the woman (Plate XX). On this she cleans the outer layers of +the hemp stalk, from which a stronger and coarser thread can be +obtained. The fiber is tied in a continuous thread and is wound onto a +reel. The warp threads are measured on sharpened sticks driven into a +hemp or banana stalk, and are then transferred to a rectangular frame +(Plate XXI). The operator, with the final pattern in mind, overties or +wraps with waxed threads, such portions of the warp as she desires to +remain white in the completed garment. So carefully does she wrap these +sections, that, when the thread is removed from the frame and placed in +the liquid dye, no portion of the coloring matter penetrates to the +portions thus protected. If a red color is desired the root of the +<i>sikarig</i>[17] palm is scraped and the scrapings placed in bark vats +filled with cold water. The thread is first washed in, and is later +boiled with the dye for a half hour, after which it is placed in a +basket to drain and dry. The process is repeated daily for about two +weeks, or until the thread assumes a brick red color. If a purple hue is +desired a little lime is added to the dye. Black is obtained by a +slightly different method. The leaves, root, and bark of the +<i>pinarrEm</i> tree are crushed in water. This yields a black liquor +which is poured into a jar containing the thread and the whole is placed +over a slow fire where it remains until the liquid is near the boiling +point. When this is reached the thread is removed and placed in a gourd, +the open end of which fits over the jar so as to catch the steam coming +from the dye. After a time the thread is removed and dried, and the +process is repeated until at last a permanent black is obtained. After +the coloring is complete the thread is again placed on the rectangular +frame, the over-tying is removed and the warp is ready for the loom +(Plate XXII.) In the loom (Plate XXIII) the threads encircle a bamboo +pole attached to the wall, and are held tense by a strap which passes +around the waist of the operator. The weft threads are forced up against +the fabric by means of the comber board and are beaten in with a baton. +The warp threads are held in their relative positions, first by the +comber board, second by loops which pass under the lower threads and +over a small stick or lease rod, and lastly by passing over and under, +or around, other lease rods. These are rolled away as the work +progresses.</p> + +<p>[17] <i>Morinda Bracteata Roxb</i>.</p> + +<p>[18] Woof threads are generally of one color. A somewhat similar +process used in Java is described by SIR THOS. RAFFLES in The History of +Java, Vol. I, p. 189.</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: Although footnote 18 appears on the same page as +the above paragraph, it is not clear to what particular part of that +paragraph it refers.]</p> + +<p>After the cloth is removed from the loom it is polished. A long pole +of <i>palma brava</i> is fitted into a notch in the roof. The operator +seats herself on the floor with a smooth board before her, or in her +lap, and on it places the dampened cloth. A shell is fitted over the +lower end of the pole, which is bent and made bowlike, until the shell +rests on the cloth. It is then ironed rapidly to and fro until the +fabric has received a high polish (Plate XXIV).</p> + +<p>The woman's duties do not end with the manufacture of cloth, for all +the garments worn by the members of the tribe are the result of her +handiwork. She sews the strips of hemp cloth into skirts, men's +trousers, carrying bags, and sometimes into jackets. The women devote +hours of labor to these jackets, covering arms, necks, and waist bands +with colored embroidery or designs in applique, while on the better +garments they place elaborate designs in beads or shell disks.</p> + +<p>After the evening meal is over the women of the household gather +around the flickering lights, and until far into the night work on these +garments, bead necklaces, or other ornaments.</p> + +<p>Only a few of the weavers attempt to make the peculiar +chocolate-colored head covering worn by the <i>magani</i>. For these +kerchiefs the woman weaves a square cotton cloth of the desired size, +and at one corner attaches a small brass hook. Joined to the hook, by +means of a chain, is a loop which fits over the toes of the operator, +thus enabling her to keep the fabric taut while her hands are left free +for work. Small sections of this cloth are raised and are wrapped with +waxed thread, so that when the fabric is dyed these portions will not +receive the coloring matter (Plate XXV). Later the overtying is removed, +leaving small white rings or squares on a chocolate-colored background. +These cloths are meant primarily for the warriors, but expert weavers, +who are under the protection of a certain powerful spirit, are also +permitted to wear an upper garment of this material.</p> + +<p>A considerable part of the man's time is consumed in preparation for, +or actual participation in, hunting or warfare, but in addition to this +he does a goodly portion of the work in the fields, and is the house +builder. When a man is about to erect a dwelling he notifies his friends +to come and aid him. This they will do without pay, but when in need of +similar services they will expect and will receive similar help. All +sorts of house-furnishings, such as spoons, meat blocks, or rice mortars +are made by the man, and not infrequently, he assists in the making or +waterproofing of baskets. A few of the old men of Cibolan still engage +in the manufacture of small shell disks with which valuable suits are +decorated, but the greater part of those now in use have been inherited, +or are purchased from neighboring peoples. The men carve beads out of +"Job's tears"[19] and make them into necklaces. For this purpose a +peculiarly carved and decorated stick is employed (Plate XXVI). This is +placed in the palm of the left hand so that the thumb and forefinger can +hold the seed which fits into a depression in the top. A knife in the +right hand of the artist is worked over the seed thus cutting a line +into which dirt is rubbed. Women's combs are made by shaping a half +circle out of light wood and then cutting teeth into it with a saw-like +blade of tin or iron.</p> + +<p>[19] <i>Coix lachryma Johi L</i>.</p> + +<p>Among the men, as with the women, certain industries are monopolized +by a few individuals. In this community no men stand higher in the +estimation of their fellows than do the smiths and the casters of +copper. The writer spent many hours watching I-o, the brass and copper +worker of Cibolan, while he shaped bells, bracelets, and betel boxes at +his forge on the outskirts of the village (Plate XXVII). Feathered +plungers, which worked up and down in two bamboo cylinders, forced air +through a small clay-tipped tube into a charcoal fire. This served as a +bellows, while a small cup made of straw ashes formed an excellent +crucible. The first day I watched I-o, he was making bells. Taking a +ball of wax the size of a bucket shot, he put it on the end of a stick +(Fig. 26a), and over this moulded the form of a bell in damp ashes +obtained from rice straw (b). When several bells were thus fashioned +they were dipped in melted wax and were turned on a leaf until smooth, +after which an opening was cut through the wax at the bottom of each +form (c). Strips of wax were rolled out and laid in shallow grooves +which had been cut in the sides of the bells and were pressed in, at +intervals, with a small bamboo knife (d). The top stick was then +withdrawn, leaving an opening down to the wax ball inside. Into this +hole a thin strip of wax was inserted and was doubled back on itself so +as to form a hanger (e). For three days the forms were allowed to harden +and were covered with several coats of damp straw ashes. Finally they +were laid in a bed of the same material with a thin strip of wax leading +from each bell to a central core (f). [FIG. 26] The whole, with the +exception of the top of the central wax strip, was covered with a thick +coating of damp ashes, and when this had hardened pieces of copper, +secured from broken gongs, were placed in the crucible, melted and +poured into the open end of the clay form. The molten metal took the +place of the wax as it was dissolved and flowed to all parts where it +had been. After being dropped in water the form was broken open, +revealing six nearly perfect little bells which were ready for use as +soon as the ashes were removed from them. The same method was used for +all other casting. Clay forms were made as desired, were covered with +wax, and the final coating of ashes applied before the casting. The +workers in copper and brass are under the care and guidance of a spirit, +Tolus ka towangan, for whom they make a yearly ceremony, <i>Gomek +towangan</i>.</p> + +<a name="26A"></a> +<img src="images/FIG026A.JPG" alt="FIG. 26. STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF +METAL BELLS."> + +<a name="26B"></a> +<img src="images/FIG026B.JPG" alt="FIG. 26. STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF +METAL BELLS."> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: Two different figures on different pages are both +labeled FIG. 26.]</p> + +<p>Of even greater importance are the smiths who are also under the care +of a powerful spirit for whom the <i>Gomek-gomanan</i> ceremony is +celebrated each year, just prior to the planting time. Their forges are +hidden away in the hemp fields, and I was repeatedly informed that no +woman might see the smith at work. Whether or no such a rule is rigidly +enforced at all times I cannot say, but at no time did I see a woman +about the forge while the fire was burning, and although I was allowed +to see and photograph the process, my wife was at all times prevented +from doing so. The forge differs in no material respects from that used +by the brass casters, except that hollowed out logs replace the bamboo +tubes, and that a metal anvil and iron hammers are used. After an iron +knife or spear head has been roughly shaped, the smith splits the edge +to a slight depth and inserts a band of steel. The iron is pounded down +on the harder metal and the whole is brought to a white heat in the +charcoal fire. Removing it to the anvil the smith gives the blade one or +two light blows and returns it to the fire. This is repeated many times +before he begins to add the heavy strokes which finally weld the iron +and steel together. The blade having been given its final shape is again +heated and is held above a tube of water until the glowing metal begins +to turn a yellowish green, when it is plunged into the cold water. This +process, repeated many times, gives a fair temper to the whole weapon. +Charcoal for the fire is secured by burning logs and chilling them +suddenly with cold water.</p> + +<p>Brass wire, secured in trade, is made into bracelets in the following +manner. In order to soften it and make it more easily worked the roll of +wire is heated until it begins to turn grey, when it is allowed to cool +and is scraped, so as to restore the yellow color. One end is laid on an +anvil made of an iron strip on a wooden block (Plate XXVII), and is cut +into various designs by means of metal dies. A wooden cone is used as a +form, about which the wire is placed in order to shape and measure +it.</p> + +<p>Hemp[20] grows wild in the Davao District and the Bagobo have, for +generations, used it in the manufacture of their clothing. In recent +years the demand for fiber has shown the people an easy way to secure +the trade articles which they desire and, as a result, rather extensive +plantings are found even in the more remote districts. The women strip a +large part of the fiber in local use, but all that prepared for trade is +produced by the men. When the ever-present cogon grass begins to invade +a clearing, the young hemp is planted. In about eighteen months it has +grown to a height of some sixteen feet and is ready to be cut. The man +goes to the fields, cuts down some stalks and, having removed the +leaves, splits off the outer fiber layers from the cellular matter of +the interior, using a bone knife for this purpose. When he has +accumulated a sufficient number of strips he carries them to the hemp +machine (Fig. 27). This consists of a knife which rests on a wooden +block. The handle turns on a pivot and the end is drawn upwards by means +of a bent twig, or sapling, which acts as a spring. This spring is +lowered and the knife blade raised by means of a foot treadle; a strip +of hemp is laid on the block; the foot pressure is removed, and the +knife descends. Taking a firm hold of one end of the strip, the operator +draws it toward him under the blade, thus removing the pulp and leaving +the free hemp threads. These are hung in the sun until dry, when they +are tied in bundles ready to be carried to the coast. The work is hard +and, unless necessity forces him to greater effort, a man seldom engages +in it for more than three or four days in a month. He thinks his duty +ceases with this expenditure of energy and, unless he is fortunate +enough to possess animals or slaves, is quite content to allow his wife, +or wives, to carry the product to the coast trader.</p> + +<p>[20] <i>Musa textilis</i>.</p> + +<a name="27"></a> +<img src="images/FIG027.JPG" alt="FIG. 27. HEMP MACHINE."> + +<p>During ceremonies and at festivals a fermented drink made of sugar +cane is served, and in anticipation of its pleasurable effects the +Bagobo is willing to expend a considerable amount of effort. The juice +of the cane is extracted by means of a press made of two logs arranged +in parallel horizontal positions, so that the end of a wooden lever can +slip under one and rest in a groove cut in the other (Fig. 28). The cane +is placed in the groove and the operator bears his weight on the lever, +thus squeezing out the juice. After being boiled with the bark of +certain trees and lime juice, the liquor is sealed in jars or bamboo +tubes and is stored away until needed.</p> + +<a name="28"></a> +<img src="images/FIG028.JPG" alt="FIG. 28. SUGAR CANE PRESS."> + +<p>The sago palm is found in parts of the Bagobo territory, and in times +of need, the people make temporary camps near to the sago districts, +where they prepare the flour. This is done in the same manner as is +fully described on page 140.</p> + +<p>The most important thing in the life of the Bagobo is the care of the +rice, for on this crop he depends for the greater part of his food +supply, and by its condition he can ascertain with what favor he is +looked upon by the spirits. So closely is the cultivation of this cereal +coupled with the religious beliefs that it is necessary, in this +relation, to describe the ceremonies connected with it.</p> + +<p>We have previously stated that the incursion of the cogon grass into +the fields makes necessary some new clearings each year. In the month of +December a constellation known as <i>Balatik</i> appears in the sky. +This has a double significance; first, it is the reminder for the yearly +sacrifice; and secondly, it notifies all workers that the tools, which +are to be used in making new clearings, shall be placed in readiness. +All those who expect to prepare new fields for themselves, or are to +assist others in such work, gather at the forge of the local smith and +there take part in a ceremony held in honor of his patron spirit. They +carry with them offerings of rice and chickens which they cook in bamboo +tubes, for food taken from a pot is not acceptable to this spirit. When +all is ready the food is placed on a rice winnower, near to the forge, +and on it the men lay their weapons and working knives (Plate XXIX). +Standing before the offering the smith, in a droning voice, calls on the +spirit, beseeching him to come and eat of the food, to accept the +weapons and tools, and having done so to be watchful over the workers +during the clearing time, so that they may not be injured in the work or +be molested by enemies. The prayer finished, the smith eats a little of +the food, and all the men follow his example, but no woman may so much +as touch this offering. Meanwhile other food which can be eaten by all +has been prepared. After the meal the weapons and tools which are to be +used during the clearing time are removed, but, as they now belong to +the spirit, they can never be disposed of without first recompensing +him. During this day there is a strict prohibition against music and +dancing. For three days the men abstain from work and the forge stands +idle. When the fire is again lighted the first knife made is the +property of the spirit.</p> + +<p>With the ending of the period of taboo the workers go to the fields +and, in the center of each, place a <i>tambara</i>[21] fitted with a +white dish containing betel nut. This is an offering to Eugpamolak +Manobo, who is besought to drive from the field any <i>tigbanawa</i> or +<i>tagamaling</i>[22] who may live there, to keep the workers in good +health, to allow an abundant crop, and, finally, to make the owner rich +and happy. The weeds, brush, and trees, after being cut and allowed to +dry are fired, while the logs remaining after this initial burning are +piled together and again set on fire, and the field is ready for the +planting. No soil is broken and not a seed goes into the ground until +the spirits again designate the time, by placing the constellation +<i>Marara</i> in the sky. This appears early in April, and is followed +by a period of great activity in the fields. If, for any reason, the +owner of the land cannot plant at this time, he has two or more +opportunities given him when the constellations <i>Mamari</i> and +<i>Bwaya</i> appear, the latter toward the end of June.</p> + +<p>[21] See p. 66, Fig. 12.</p> + +<p>[22] Evil spirits which are classed with the <i>buso</i>. See p. +107.</p> + +<p>When the workers go to the field on the day set for the planting they +enter at one corner and proceed directly across it to the far left hand +corner where they erect a small house or place a <i>tambara</i> which is +known as <i>pEmEg'ge</i>. As soon as it is complete, the <i>mabalian</i> +begin to call on the spirits. Manama[23] is called first and after him +other spirits, according to their rank and power. They are informed that +the planting is about to begin and that the people are showing them this +mark of respect so that they will not allow anything to interfere with +the crop. This done, they go to the center of the field and place a +second <i>tambara</i>, called <i>parobanian</i>, for the spirit +Taragómi/Taragomi, who owns all food. Leaves pleasing to him and +presents of food or bracelets are placed in it, as well as in his +<i>tambara</i> found in the house.[24] The owner of the field takes the +<i>malayag</i>, a large variety of rice, and plants it around the +<i>parobanian</i>,[25] and as the last grain is planted the +<i>mabalian</i> again starts her prayer, this time beginning with +Taragómi/Taragomi. She asks for good crops, and protection for the field +from all animals, blight and drought. Finally, she begs Eugpamolak +Manobo to control the sun and winds so that they will always be +favorable to the growing grain. Having thus done all in their power to +secure the cooperation of the superior beings the men take their rice +planters and real work begins.[26] The planter (Fig. 29) consists of a +long shaft at one end of which is a metal blade while at the other is a +bamboo clapper decorated with feathers. When this instrument is struck +on the ground it digs a shallow hole an inch or more in depth, the +clapper meanwhile keeping up an incessant noise. It is said by some that +the rattle is intended to please the guardian spirit of the fields, but +this does not seem to be the prevalent idea. The women follow the men, +dropping seeds into the holes and pushing the soil over them with their +feet.</p> + +<p>[23] Eugpamolak Manobo.</p> + +<p>[24] At Cibolan only brass objects are placed in this +<i>tambara</i>.</p> + +<p>[25] At Digos the <i>mabalian</i> does the planting and harvesting +about the <i>tambara</i>, and the rice grown there is reserved as seed, +for the next season.</p> + +<p>[26] FATHER GISBERT relates that it is the custom to sacrifice a +slave at this time, but this is denied by the <i>datu</i> consulted by +the writer. See letters of FATHER GISBERT in BLAIR and ROBERTSON, The +Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII; pp. 233-4.</p> + +<a name="29"></a> +<img src="images/FIG029.JPG" alt="FIG. 29. RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO +CLAPPER ATTACHED TO TOP."> + +<p>At nightfall of the day in which the planting has been completed a +<i>mabalian</i> cooks fish and rice, which she carries to the +<i>parobanian</i>. Early next morning the family goes to the field and +eats this offering which "belongs to Taragómi/Taragomi, so should be +eaten at his house." From this time until harvest the fields must be +guarded against birds and animals, but no further offerings take place +unless unusual conditions should satisfy the owner that the spirits are +demanding more gifts. When harvest time comes the owner and a few of his +friends will go to the field and pull a few of the fresh stalks, which +they place in the <i>pEmEg'ge</i> and <i>parobanian</i>, meanwhile +addressing the spirits, and the cutting of the rice begins. This is done +by women who, for this purpose, employ a small knife called <i>gElat</i> +(Plate XXIXd). The last grain to be cut is that about the +<i>parobanian</i>. The <i>mabalian</i> cooks a little of the new rice in +the house and places a part of it in the various <i>tambara</i> and +shrines; then, having placed a number of rice stalks on the floor, she +offers them one by one to the spirits. Not until she has finished can +any of the prepared food be eaten. The balance of the crop lies in the +sun until dry, when it is tied in bundles and placed in the granary.</p> + +<p>When all the harvesting is finished the people will make a festival +known as <i>Gatokbia-an</i>, or <i>pakakaro</i>. Ordinarily each family +will have its own celebration, but at times all the inhabitants of a +village will join in one great celebration. The period of toil and doubt +is past, the food supply is assured, and the people gather to give +thanks. No New England Thanksgiving dinner is prepared with greater +thought, or less regard for expense, than that which is made ready at +this time. The finest of the rice, cocoanuts[sic], eggs, chickens, fish, +shrimps, and many other edibles are prepared and placed in certain +dishes which are dedicated to the spirits and are used only at this +time. These plates are arranged in a row in the center of the room and +the <i>mabalian</i> gather around them. Taking a wand of sandal wood in +her hand one of the number waves it over the offerings, while she chants +long prayers. Beginning with the most powerful, she addresses the +spirits one by one, thanking them for the care they have given to the +growing grain and to the laborers, and for the bounteous harvest. +Frequently individuals will interrupt the proceedings to place near to +the <i>mabalian</i> a fine knife or some other prized object which they +desire to have presented to the spirits as evidence of their gratitude. +At first, it is a little hard to understand this lavishness, but it +transpires that the former owners still have possession of these +objects, and that the spirits offer no objections to their use, so long +as their ownership is not disputed, truly a case of eating the pie but +still having it.</p> + +<p>The knives and other implements which have been used in the fields +are laid on a large basket filled with rice, "in order that they may +eat, and, therefore, have no cause to injure their owners." Another +large dish of rice is set aside as a special offering. In some cases +this is taken out to the fields, where it is eaten by the wife, or wives +of the host; but in Cibolan it is kept in the house until the next +morning, when it is eaten by all the members of the family. The +ceremonial eating of this rice causes the supply to last longer and +assures abundant rains for the succeeding crop. Part of the food from +the dishes is placed in the <i>tambara</i> and shrines, and then all the +guests are permitted to feast and make merry. Unlike most Bagobo +ceremonies this one lacks the music of the <i>agongs</i>,[27] for only +bamboo guitars, flutes, and the <i>bolang-bolang</i> are permitted at +this time. The last named instrument is made by placing a board on a +rice mortar; the women gather around it with their wooden pestles and +beat a rythmical[sic] tattoo. This concludes the festival proper, but +many guests will remain for two or three days to enjoy the hospitality +of their host.</p> + +<p>[27] Copper gongs.</p> + +<p>On the third morning after the festival the family and some friends +will celebrate <i>BagkEs</i> "the tying together." The dishes in which +food was offered are tied together and are carried to the rice field +where, with great solemnity, the little dish in the <i>parobanian</i> is +removed and placed among the others, while the people tell it that the +other plates have come to take it away, but that it will be returned to +its home the following year. The family goes back to the village in +silence and after tying all the dishes together place them in the rice +granary.</p> + +<p>In the Bagobo settlement at Digos, the women hold still another +festival following the cutting of the rice. This is known as <i>Gomeng +ka taragomi</i>, or <i>bitinbagáybe</i>. In the main it resembles the +ceremony of similar name, which the women of Malilla hold on the second +day of <i>GinEm</i> (See page 111). A bamboo pole decked with leaves and +green fruit of the <i>areca</i> palm is placed in the center of a room +and is surrounded with cooked food. After this has been offered to the +spirits, it is eaten by the guests who then indulge in dancing about the +decorated pole. This generally lasts eight days, but in one instance the +festivities continued for sixteen days and nights. The explanation given +is that "the women wish to show Taragómi/Taragomi and the <i>Nitos</i> +(anitos) how happy they are because of the good harvest, for when they +see this they will be pleased and will help again next year."</p> + +<center><h3>TRANSPORTATION AND TRADE.</h3></center> + +<p>The Bagobo makes no use of boats or rafts, for until recent times he +has lived at a considerable distance from the sea; and the rivers, which +flow in deep cañons, may be changed in a day from tiny streams to +rushing torrents in which no craft could keep afloat. Left to his own +devices, he pays little attention to trails, but cuts his way through +the underbrush directly to his destination. The government has forced +him to clear and maintain several fairly good roads between the larger +settlements and the coast, and these are now the highways over which he +transports his hemp and other trade articles. Quite a number of carabao +and horses are to be found in the territory, where they are used as pack +and riding animals. Both men and women are excellent riders and take +great pride in the decoration of their mounts. The saddle used is carved +from wood, in exact duplication of those used by the Spaniards. The +copper bits are also copies, but are of native casting. Strings of bells +surround the neck of a prized animal, and it is further beautified by an +artificial forelock. Rattan whips, wound with braid, and decorated with +beads, are also a part of his trappings. According to Bagobo tradition, +they have had horses from the most remote times, and Professor +BLUMENTRITT is inclined to believe that they possessed these animals +prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. In support of this contention, he +points to the fact that, unlike most Philippine tribes, they use the +Malayan name.[28]</p> + +<p>[28] The terms used are, <i>bait koda</i>—stallion, and +<i>mamat koda</i>—mare.</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: The uncontracted forms of these phrases are +<i>bayi ta koda'</i> and <i>mama ta koda'</i>. Because <i>bayi</i> means +"female" and <i>mama</i> means "male," the definitions of "stallion" and +"mare" appear to have been interchanged in error.]</p> + +<p>Heavy loads of field products are transported on animals, or are +carried in cylindrical bark or rattan boxes or carrying frames (Fig. +30). Such a receptacle is supported on the back by means of a band which +passes around the forehead, or by other bands which slip over the +shoulders. Both sexes carry loads in this way, although it must be +confessed that consideration for the members of the gentler sex has not +reached such a stage that they are relieved of any great part of such +labor. When gathering grain and forest products, or when searching for +snails, the woman attaches a small basket to her belt so that it hangs +at a convenient height against her thigh. We have previously noticed the +decorated bags and baskets which serve as pockets, and also contain the +betel nut outfits.</p> + +<a name="30"></a> +<img src="images/FIG030.JPG" alt="FIG. 30. CARRYING FRAME."> + +<p>A small child is supported at the mother's hip by means of a broad +sash, which passes over the right shoulder and under the left arm. When +it is able to walk the scarf is discarded, and it sits astride the +mother's hip, where it is held in place by her left arm. Older children +and the men devote considerable time to the newcomers, but at a very +early age the youngsters begin to run about as wild and carefree as only +little savages can.</p> + +<p>The Bagobo is a keen trader and many small articles of all kinds +reach, and pass from him through trade; and to make this barter possible +he intentionally produces an excess of certain things. Chief of these is +hemp, which he now carries to the coast traders, and for which he +receives trade cloth, iron pots, copper gongs, bells, and the beads +which he prizes so highly. In exchange for the betel boxes, bells, and +knife guards, which come from his forge, he receives shell disks, +certain articles of dress, cooking pots, and various other household +articles as well as salt and some animals. The knives made by him are in +great demand and often travel far inland. While among the Bukidnon of +the North-Central part of the Island the writer secured one blade and +guard of undoubted Bagobo workmanship. In early days, Chinese and Moro +traders brought gongs, jars, plates, and other crockery, as well as many +other articles now among the prized heirlooms of wealthy men or +occupying an important place in the ceremonial life of the tribe. +Through these same channels came the Borneo ivory of which the ear plugs +are made, while other objects from more distant regions were +occasionally brought in. Two examples of this trade are now in the +collections of the Field Museum of Natural History. One is a jacket made +from Javanese cloth; the second a belt buckle which apparently +originated in Perak.</p> + +<p>Local feuds, as well as the desire of individuals to be known as +<i>magani</i>, have always made it unsafe for small numbers of traders +to venture to any great distance from home, and this has been a great +hindrance to trade. However, large parties, even from other tribes, +sometimes go to a village for purposes of trade, having previously +notified the inhabitants of their intentions. While in Malilla the +writer met with a party of thirty Bila-an traders who lived three days' +march to the east. The influence of capture, intermarriage, and looting, +in carrying the artifacts of one tribe into the territory of another has +previously been mentioned.</p> + +<center><h3>WARFARE.</h3></center> + +<p>The offensive weapons used by the Bagobo are spears, knives (Fig. 15 +and Plate XXXII), and at times bows and arrows (Fig. 17). For defense +they carry shields, either round or oblong (Figs. 31-32), and cover the +body with so many strips of hemp cloth that a knife thrust is warded +off. Turning his body sideways to the enemy, the warrior crouches behind +his shield, keeping up a continuous capering, rushing forward or dancing +backward, seeking for an opening but seldom coming to close quarters. +Arrows and spears are glanced off with the shield. An attack is usually +initiated by the throwing of spears, then, if the enemy is at a +disadvantage or confused, the warriors rush in to close combat. For this +purpose they rely entirely on their knives, and as fencers they are +unexcelled. They are but indifferent shots with the bow and arrow, and +that weapon is but little used in actual combat. It has been frequently +stated that these arrows are poisoned but I was unable to discover a +single specimen so prepared. When hard-pressed, or when a camp must be +made in dangerous territory, sharpened bamboo +sticks—<i>sogiang</i>—are stuck into the ground with their +points directed toward the enemy. These must be carefully gathered up by +the pursuers, who otherwise run the risk of having the knife-like blades +driven into their feet. Old warriors state that in former years they not +only covered the upper part of the body with hemp cloth but wound over +this long decorated strips called <i>gindua</i>; they also tell of coats +of mail made of carabao horn or rattan. None of these outfits exist in +the territory today, but it is not at all improbable that they were +formerly in use, for the long decorated bands are still found among the +Bukidnon of the North, with whom some trade is carried on; and a few +coats of mail are to be seen among the neighboring Moro.</p> + +<a name="31A"></a> +<img src="images/FIG031.JPG" alt="FIG. 31A AND B. FRONT AND BACK OF AN +OBLONG SHIELD."> +<br> +<a name="32B"></a> +<img src="images/FIG032.JPG" alt="FIG. 32A AND B."> + +<p>FIG 32A.—FRONT OF A DECORATED SHIELD.<br> +FIG 32B.—BACK OF SHIELD A.</p> + +<p>Hostile raids against the neighboring Bila-an, Tagakaolo, and Ata +seem to have been common from the most ancient times. After the arrival +of the Spaniards there were many minor conflicts with the Moro, and the +tribal history takes note of several serious feuds between Bagobo +villages. Single warriors, usually those desiring to become +<i>magani</i>, sometimes enter hostile territory and there lie in wait +for an opportunity to spear a passing foe. The fact that these attacks +are frequently from ambush, or that whole families are slain while +asleep on the floors of their houses, does not seem to detract in the +least from the honor due for the deed. Generally, parties of sixty or +more, under the direction of a <i>magani</i>, are made up to avenge the +death of their townspeople, to secure loot and slaves, or to win glory +and distinction. An ambush is formed near to a hostile village and just +at dawn an attack is made on the early risers who are scattered and +unprepared. The invaders are usually satisfied with a few victims and +then make their escape. Women and children are either killed or are +carried away as slaves. It is customary for all the warriors to make at +least one cut in the bodies, and to eat a portion of the livers of +enemies who have shown great bravery, for in this way it is thought they +gain in that quality. This seems to be the only occasion when human +flesh is tasted, despite the fact that the members of this tribe have +been frequently referred to as cannibals.</p> + +<p>The warriors of Cibolan and Malilla formerly carried heads of enemies +to their towns and made use of them during the <i>GinEm</i> ceremony, +while at Bansalan and Digos a lock of hair, cut from the head of the +slain, answered the same purpose. Individual raiders sometimes carry +home a head or a hand as evidence of a successful fight, and at such +times festivals may be held to celebrate the event. However, the trophy +soon loses its value and is hung or buried at a distance from the +village. Head-hunting for the sake of the trophy itself, does not exist +here.</p> + +<p>Peace can be effected by means of a blood compact known as +<i>dayándi</i>. Each principal cuts his own wrist until the blood flows +freely; this he catches in his free hand and offers to the other +participant to drink. Sometimes the blood of both is caught and mixed in +a dish from which they drink, meanwhile addressing the +<i>tigyama</i>,[29] saying, "We are now like brothers, like children of +the same parents, and now we cannot fight any more. We ask you to be the +witnesses."</p> + +<p>[29] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 12 pages later in this +document.]</p> + +<center><h3>SOCIAL ORGANIZATION.</h3></center> + +<p>There seems to be no trace of clan or totemic grouping among the +Bagobo. Blood relationship is traced as far as the second cousin and is +a bar to marriage. The suggestion that a man might marry his +mother-in-law was received with horror, but whether this was due to +local mother-in-law stories or to an idea of relationship could not be +ascertained. However, a man may marry the sister of his wife.</p> + +<p>Each district has its head man, or petty <i>datu</i> who is supposed +to be subject to the <i>datu</i> of Cibolan. This seems actually to have +been the case until a few years ago, when some of the local rulers +withdrew their allegiance. The office is hereditary and usually passes +from the father to his eldest son. Should the <i>datu</i> be without an +heir, or the son be considered inefficient, the under chiefs and wise +old men may choose a leader from among their number.</p> + +<p>In his own district the power of the <i>datu</i> is very great, but +even he is obliged to respect the laws and customs handed down by the +ancestors. He is supreme judge in all matters, though he may, if he +desires, call in the old men to help him decide difficult cases. The +usual method of punishment is by means of a fine. Should the culprit be +unwilling or unable to pay he is placed in servitude until such a time +as the debt is considered canceled, but should he refuse to serve he is +killed without further ado. The <i>datu</i> appoints a man for this +purpose, and he usually gets his victim by stealth, either by waylaying +him in the road or by driving a spear through him as he lies asleep on +the floor of his house. When a fine is levied the <i>datu</i> retains a +portion as pay for his services; if the more drastic punishment follows +it serves to emphasize his power and is more valuable to him than the +payment. When his house needs repairing, his hemp requires stripping, or +his fields need attention, his followers give him assistance. In return +for these services he helps support a number of fighting men who can +always be called upon for the defence of the people. His house is +considered the property of all to the extent that anyone goes there at +any time and stays as long as he pleases, partaking meanwhile of the +<i>datu's</i> food. In times of danger, or during festivals, all the +people assemble there and assist, in the defense or the +merry-making.</p> + +<p>Datu Tongkaling is the most industrious man in the tribe. He does not +hesitate to work in the rice fields, to aid in the house-building or to +take his turn at the forge, neither will he tolerate any loafing on the +part of his followers. While in most instances he mingles freely with +his people he never eats with them. His wives, children, and guests eat +from a long row of dishes set on the floor, but the <i>datu</i> takes +his food alone at a considerable distance from the others.</p> + +<p>The balance of the people can be roughly divided between freeman and +slaves, but slavery here is of such a mild type, and the members of that +class become so quickly merged into the tribe that the lines cannot be +closely drawn. Women and children secured in raids become the slaves of +their captors, and may be bought and sold, or pass by inheritance, like +other property. It is considered proper for a man to live with his slave +without marrying her, but should she become pregnant she is usually +given her freedom at once; if not then, she is certain to be upon the +death of her master, while her offspring are free and legitimate heirs. +Children born to a slave couple remain in their class, as do those born +to a slave mother and a man not her master. These slaves are treated +with kindness and consideration and seldom try to make their escape. In +fact it is often difficult to pick out the members of this class from +the other members of the family.</p> + +<p>The chief aim in life of the man is to have the right to wear the +blood-red clothing and to be known as <i>magani</i>. As stated earlier +in the paper, this term is applied to a man who has killed two or more +persons. He is then entitled to wear the peculiar chocolate-colored head +covering (Plate XXV). When his score has reached four he can don +blood-red trousers, and when he has six lives to his credit he is +permitted to wear the complete blood-red suit and to carry a bag of the +same color.[30] From that time on his clothing does not change with the +number of his victims, but his influence increases with each life put to +his credit. It is said that formerly, at Digos and Bansalan, a man who +had killed twenty or more was known as <i>gemáwan</i>, and was +distinguished by a black hemp suit. This claim to the black clothing is +no longer respected, and such garments are worn by any who desire them. +The man who has never killed a person is called <i>matálo</i>, a rather +slighting term signifying one who has no desire to fight but remains at +home with the women. A man who kills an unfaithful wife and her admirer +may count the two on his score. He may also count those of his +townspeople whom he has killed in fair fight, but unprovoked murder will +be punished by the death of the offender. The candidate for +<i>magani</i> honors may go to an unfriendly town, or to a neighboring +tribe, and kill without fear of censure from his own people.</p> + +<p>[30] This is the rule at Cibolan. At Malilla and Digos, the kerchief +may be worn when one life has been taken, the trousers for two, the coat +for three, and finally the sack for four.</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: <i>matálo</i> in the paragraph above means +"coward."]</p> + +<p>The <i>magani</i> is one of the leaders in a war party; he is chosen +to inflict the death penalty when it is decreed, and it is men of this +class that assist in the human sacrifices. He is under the special +protection of Mandarangan and Darago, and all petitions to these +powerful spirits must be made through him. His clothing is considered +the property of these spirits, and when such specimens were secured for +the collection, the wearer would invariably place the garment beside +some prized article, such as a knife or spear, then taking a green betel +nut would rub the garment and object, meanwhile beseeching the spirits +to leave the one and enter the other. Later the nut was placed in the +<i>tambara</i> belonging to those spirits. A father may not bequeath to +his son the right to the red clothing; and such articles, together with +his weapons, should be buried with him. Should one not entitled to these +garments dare to make use of them, the spirits would straightway cause +his body to swell or turn yellow, and he would die.</p> + +<p>In a previous paragraph we mentioned the unorganized priesthood, the +members of which are known as <i>mabalian</i>. Men are not barred from +this profession, but the greater number of its members are old, or +middle-aged, women.[31] A woman may live the greater part of her life +without an idea of becoming a member of this order, and then suddenly be +warned in dreams, by visions, or by other <i>mabalian</i> that she has +been chosen by the spirits. The one thus elected becomes a pupil of a +qualified <i>mabalian</i> and for several months will be drilled in the +duties of that office. She will be taught the medicines to be used at +certain times,[32] the duties of a midwife, the correct method of +building shrines and conducting ceremonies, and finally, she will learn +the prayers with which the spirits should be addressed. It seems to be +the belief that, at times during the ceremonies, the <i>mabalian</i> may +be possessed by a spirit and that she then speaks not as a mortal but as +the spirit itself. She also knows how to weave and dye the turban worn +by the <i>magani</i>, and because of this accomplishment is considered +to be under the protection of Baitpandi,[33] and is permitted to wear +garments made of red cloth, the same as the <i>magani</i>.</p> + +<p>[31] There are five <i>mabalian</i> in Cibolan, all of whom are women +past middle life.</p> + +<p>[32] A medicine is used with the idea that it assists in driving away +evil influences.</p> + +<p>[33] The patron spirit of the weavers.</p> + +<p>The workers in the various crafts are under the guidance and +protection of special spirits, but there is no bar against other members +of the tribe entering those professions.</p> + +<p>Apparently then, Bagobo society is divided into several classes or +divisions, but with the exception of a few individuals in the slave +class, there is a possibility or an opportunity for each member of the +tribe to enter any class open to his or her sex. Even a slave woman may +become the wife of a <i>datu</i>, and her son may assume the leadership +of the tribe.</p> + +<center><h3>LAWS. PROPERTY AND INHERITANCE.</h3></center> + +<p>The laws of the people are those imposed by custom and religion, and +are equally binding on all classes. Public opinion is sufficient to +prevent most crimes; the fear of offending the spirits is a further +deterrent; while the final bar is the drastic punishment meted out by +the <i>datu</i>. Theft is punished by the levying of a fine if the +culprit is able to pay, or by a term of servitude if he has no property. +If a husband finds that his wife has been unfaithful, he should kill +both her and her admirer, but the spear with which he avenges his wrongs +should be left in the body of one of the victims, as a sign that the +murder was provoked by the fault. When this is done the husband cannot +be held accountable either to the <i>datu</i> or to the dead person's +relatives. If, however, he withdraws the weapon, the brothers or other +male relatives of the deceased have a right and a duty to avenge the +deaths. A man who has killed his wife and her lover is allowed to count +both on his score towards becoming a <i>magani</i>—a further +incentive for him to avenge his wrongs. Cases are known where the +husband accepted payment for his wife's affections, but it was +considered a sign of weakness, or cowardice, and the man lost caste. +Unprovoked murder of one from the same or a friendly village is punished +by death.</p> + +<p>A man having illicit relations with a slave woman, not his own, is +subjected to a heavy fine or a term of servitude. Incest should be +punished by the death of the culprits for should such a crime go +unpunished the spirits would cause the sea to rise and cover the land. +Datu Tongkaling claims that on two occasions, since he became ruler, he +has put such offenders to death. In the first case he had the couple +bound and thrown into the sea, while in the second instance, they were +tied to trees in the forest and sacrificed in the presence of all the +people of the village.</p> + +<p>Prohibitions exist against the wearing of the clothing which +distinguishes warriors and priestesses, and there are rules governing +the conduct of individuals while near shrines or during ceremonies, but +punishment for the breaking of these rules is meted out by the spirits +rather than by the <i>datu</i>.</p> + +<p>Each settlement is recognized as having property rights to all +adjacent lands. Within these recognized limits, its members may take up +as much land as they need, provided it is not already in use, but when a +field is, for any reason, abandoned it again becomes the property of the +community. Individual ownership extends to houses, furnishings, and all +articles of clothing, as well as to weapons, traps, animals, and slaves. +Although bought with a price the wife is still very independent and has +undisputed rights to her baskets, cooking utensils, looms, and to the +finery with which she adorns her person.</p> + +<p>Since all the people assist in the support of the <i>datu</i> they +consider his home to be, to a certain extent, their own and make use of +it and its furnishings without question.</p> + +<p>Probably at no place in the world has borrowing gone to greater +extremes than here. When attempting to purchase clothing, or articles in +daily use, the writer frequently found that not a single garment worn by +an individual was his own; and it was usually necessary to consult +several persons in order to secure a complete outfit.</p> + +<p>Upon the death of a man, his property is taken in charge by his first +wife, or by the old men, and is divided equally among his wives and +children, with perhaps a little extra added to the share of the first +mate. The belongings of a free-born woman go to her children, or, in +case she is barren, are given to her relatives. In cases where both the +parents are dead, the children pass into the care of the father's +family.</p> + +<p>Despite the fact that property is owned by individuals, a large part +of the labor, especially in house-building and in the fields, is done in +common. When a man desires to clear or plant a field or to build a +house, he summons his friends to aid him and they respond with no idea +of payment other than their food and drink, and the return of like +services when they are in similar need.</p> + +<center><h3>BIRTH.</h3></center> + +<p>For about six months before and after the birth of a child the mother +is relieved from hard labor; she is not allowed to taste of any thing +sour, neither may she eat dried fish or flesh, lest her child be thin +and weak. The father is under no restrictions other than that he is +expected to remain near to his home for a few days following the birth +of a child. Other action on his part would be considered by the spirits +as an admission that he does not care for the child, and they would +cause the umbilical cord to decay so that the child would die. The +mother is delivered in the regular dwelling, where she is attended by +two or more midwives or <i>mabalian</i>.[34] She is placed with her back +against an inclined board, while in her hands she holds a rope which is +attached to the roof. With the initial pains, one of the midwives +massages the abdomen, while another prepares a drink made from leaves, +roots, and bark, and gives it to the expectant woman. The preparation of +this concoction was taught by friendly spirits, and it is supposed to +insure an easy delivery. Still another <i>mabalian</i> spreads a mat in +the middle of the room, and on it places valuable cloths, weapons, and +gongs, which she offers to the spirits; praying that they will make the +birth easy and give good health to the infant. The articles offered at +this time can be used by their former owners but as they are now the +property of the spirits they must not be sold or traded. The writer was +very anxious to secure an excellent weapon which had been thus offered. +The user finally agreed to part with it but first he placed it beside +another of equal value, and taking a piece of betel nut he rubbed each +weapon with it a number of times, then dipping his fingers in the water +he touched both the old and the new blades, all the time asking the +spirit to accept and enter the new weapon. The child is removed by the +<i>mabalian</i> who, in cutting the umbilical cord, makes use of the +kind of knife used by the members of the child's sex, otherwise the +wound would never heal. The child is placed on a piece of soft betel +bark, "for its bones are soft and our hands are hard and are apt to +break the soft bones," then water is poured over it and its body is +rubbed with <i>pogonok</i>.[35] The afterbirth is placed in a bamboo +tube, is covered with ashes and a leaf, and the whole is hung against +the side of the dwelling where it remains until it falls of its own +accord or the house is destroyed. In Cibolan the midwife applies a +mixture of clay and herbs called <i>karamir</i> to the eyes of all who +have witnessed the birth "so that they will not become blind." Having +done this she gives the child its name, usually that of a relative, and +her duties are over. As payment she will receive a large and a small +knife, a plate, some cloth, and a needle.[36]</p> + +<p>[34] In Cibolan the midwife is called <i>taratEk-Ekn</i>, and need +not be a <i>mabalian</i>.</p> + +<p>[35] A medicine made of bark and rattan.</p> + +<p>[36] The payment given at the birth of a boy is somewhat greater than +that for a girl.</p> + +<p>In Malilla the naming does not take place until three clays after the +birth, and the eyes are not always anointed, although the old people +agree that it is an ancient custom and "a good thing to do." At that +time the mat containing the gifts is spread on the floor and the +offerings are again called to the attention of the spirits, who are +urged to look to the welfare of the child. Should the infant be ailing, +or cry a great deal, it is a sign that the spirits are displeased with +the name given to it and another will be substituted; however, this does +not seem to be done with an idea of fooling the spirits, as is the case +with some other tribes. The child is nursed until two or three years of +age, or until another takes its place. There is no superstition +concerning twins, but triplets are at once put to death by filling their +mouths with ashes, otherwise "the parents would die, for they are like +dogs."</p> + +<p>When questioned concerning abortion, Datu Tongkaling asserted that he +considered it "very bad," and that he would prohibit any <i>mabalian</i> +who assisted in such a practice from continuing her profession, but he +said that despite his orders secret medicines which produce that result +are sometimes administered. Such a practice is not common, however, as +children are greatly desired and no worse slur can be applied to a woman +than to speak of her as barren.</p> + +<p>So far as could be learned there is no ceremony or celebration of any +kind when a child reaches the age of puberty but soon thereafter its +teeth will be filed and blackened. In some villages the boys are +circumcised, but the practice is not compulsory, neither is it general +throughout the territory.</p> + +<center><h3>MARRIAGE.</h3></center> + +<p>Marriage among the Bagobo takes place much later than is common among +most Philippine tribes, the couple often being eighteen or twenty years +of age. As a rule the parents of the boy select the girl and negotiate +the match. Going to the house of the girl they casually broach the +subject and if her parents are favorable, a day is set to discuss the +details. This meeting is attended by the friends and relatives of both +families, and two head-men or <i>datu</i> must also be present to +represent the contracting parties. The price the girl should bring +varies according to the wealth of the interested parties and the +accomplishments of the bride. Whatever the sum paid, the father of the +girl must make a return present equal to one-half the value of the +marriage gift "so that he does not sell his daughter like a slave." +Usually marriage does not take place until a year or more after this +settlement, and during the interval the boy must serve his father-in-law +to be. When the time for the final ceremony arrives the relatives and +friends assemble and for two or three days they feast and make merry. A +<i>mabalian</i> spreads a mat on the floor, places on it many valuable +articles and then offers all to the spirits, in order that they may be +pleased to give the couple a long and prosperous life together. Finally, +she puts a dish of rice on the mat and, after offering it to the +spirits, places it between the boy and the girl as they sit on the +floor. The girl takes a handful of the rice and feeds it to the boy who, +in turn, feeds her, and the ceremony is complete. The couple may then go +to their new home, but for several years the girl's family will exact a +certain amount of service from the groom.</p> + +<p>A slight variation of the usual order occurred recently at the +marriage of one of Datu Tongkaling's sons. At that time all the details +were arranged by the <i>datu</i>, who, accompanied by his son and a +number of relatives, went to the girl's house and proposed the union. +After the girl had brought wine, betel nut, and food, and had placed +them before the visitors, she was directed by her mother to make a +carrying bag for her lover. Had she objected to the union and refused to +make this gift, her decision would probably have been accepted as final +and all negotiations abandoned. However, it is not customary for the +young people to refuse to carry out the wishes of their elders. As the +girl offered no objections, the party fell to discussing the price the +groom should pay, and finally, after several hours of bargaining, +decided that he should furnish her father with one <i>agong</i>,[37] one +horse, and a double betel box.[38] Five days later, when he paid this +sum, he received a return gift of one <i>agong</i> and ten skirts from +the bride's mother. About one-half the value of the groom's gift was +distributed among the girl's relatives, who were at the same time +admonished that, in case a separation should occur, they would be +expected to return an equal amount. In the presence of about a hundred +friends, the pair drank wine from the same dish, then submitted to +having a little hair cut from their heads, and were pronounced man and +wife. Before they retired for the night the <i>mabalian</i> combed their +hair, then, having directed the groom to precede his bride to their +sleeping place, she secured a child and placed it on the mat between the +pair. This, she explained, was an old custom, and was done so that the +girl might not be ashamed, for she was not the first to sleep there. +Having finished this duty, she returned to the center of the room and +placed a number of plates and a knife on the <i>tambara</i>, where they +were allowed to remain for four days as offerings to the <i>anito</i>, +Manama, Toglái and the <i>tigyama</i>.[39] At the end of that period the +plates were attached to the outside walls of the house, and the knife +returned to its former owner. This completed the duties of the +<i>mabalian</i> who returned home carrying an <i>agong</i>, the payment +for her services.</p> + +<p>[37] Large copper gong.</p> + +<p>[38] Much more is often given. One girl in Cibolan brought six +horses, five agongs, and several spears and knives.</p> + +<p>[39] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 5 pages after this.]</p> + +<p>A man may have as many wives as he desires and can afford, but he may +not take a second mate until a child has been born to the first union, +or the wife has been proved beyond doubt to be barren. The groom renders +no services to the father of the second wife, but instead of this pays a +double price for the girl, for he not only pays her parents but is +forced also to give a like sum to his first wife, who, in turn, presents +it to her father. Should a third wife be added to the family a sum equal +to her cost is divided among the earlier wives. The first wife is +generally the lady of the house and does not particularly object to +having other girls added to the family, provided they are willing to +obey her. Datu Tongkaling has had four wives, three of whom are still +living.</p> + +<p>If a couple cannot agree, a separation can be arranged by applying to +the local head-man, who, after listening to their troubles, decides +which one is at fault, and whether or no the marriage gifts must be +returned. When a couple parts, plates, bowls, and jars are sometimes +broken as a sign that they will never live together again and the +spirits are thus called to witness. A divorced woman may remarry, but +unless the sum originally paid for her has been returned, the new groom +must pay such an amount to the first husband.</p> + +<center><h3>SICKNESS AND DEATH.</h3></center> + +<p>In case of illness a <i>mabalian</i> administers some simple remedy +without any call on the spirits. If, however, the sickness does not +yield readily to this treatment, it is evident that the trouble is +caused by some spirit who can only be appeased by a gift, Betel nuts, +leaves, food, clothing, and some article in daily use by the patient are +placed in a dish of palm bark and on top of all is laid a roughly carved +figure of a man. This offering is passed over the body of the patient +while the <i>mabalian</i> addresses the spirits as follows. "Now, you +can have the man on this dish, for we have changed him for the sick man. +Pardon anything this man may have done, and let him be well again." +Immediately after this the dish is carried away and hidden so that the +sick person may never see it again, for should he do so the illness +would return.</p> + +<p>According to Father GISBERT a doll is carved from a piece of wood and +the spirit is addressed: "O God, Thou who has created men and trees, and +all things, do not deprive us of life, and receive in exchange this bit +of wood which has our face."</p> + +<p>In obstinate cases the invalid may be removed from his own house to +another, in order that he may be under the care of the good spirits +residing there. The <i>mabalian</i> appplies[sic] certain medicines and +then decrees a period of taboo, during which no outsiders may enter the +house. Those within at the time the medicine was given may go out if +they desire, but must return there to sleep. Should it become evident +that the patient will die he is taken back to his own place, otherwise +his family would be called upon to reimburse the owner of the house in +which the death occurs, for bringing evil or unfriendly spirits into +their dwelling.</p> + +<p>Governor Bolton describes a somewhat different procedure among the +members of the Guianga branch of this tribe. Having learned that Datu +Angalan was ill he went to see him, but found his house deserted. The +<i>datu</i> was finally located in a small hut about a hundred yards +away from his own dwelling, with no attendants. The governor writes, +"When I went in the tribesmen entered. I soon found that I had broken a +charm which prevented anyone seeing him for a certain time; that he had +been placed in the hut for that reason, and to insure his not dying in +the large house. It is likely that they had a human sacrifice at that +time."[40]</p> + +<p>[40] Extract from letters of Gov. Bolton, in files of the Governor at +Davao.</p> + +<p>Following a death the body is covered with good clothing and is +placed in the middle of the house. Wailers sit by the corpse, fanning it +to keep away flies, or making an occasional offering of food; while the +friends gather to talk of the virtues of the deceased, to console the +family, and to partake of the food and drink which has been provided for +the gathering. The body is kept over one night, and in the case of great +personages, for three days, or until the coffin—a large log split +in halves and hollowed out—is prepared. When this is ready the +body is placed in it, together with some prized articles of the +deceased. After the top has been fitted to the lower portion, they are +lashed together and the cracks are filled with lime.[41] The body is +buried beneath the house, and the grave is protected by a bamboo fence, +within which is placed food, small offerings, or perhaps a shield and +spear. In some instances the coffin is allowed to remain in the house, +which is then abandoned. It is said that when Datu Taopan died his +funeral lasted ten days, and on the last day the house was decked, +inside and out, with flowers and valuable gifts, and was then +deserted.</p> + +<p>[41] When the deceased has been a person of note the coffin is +sometimes decorated or colored. The coffin of a <i>magani</i> should be +red, yellow, and black; while that of a <i>mabalian</i> should be +yellow, black, and brown.</p> + +<p>Following the burial the family lives in the house where the death +occurred until a human sacrifice has been made. During this period they +live very quietly, eat poor food, wear old clothing, and abstain from +all amusements. If their wealth permits, they may shorten the period of +mourning by making a special sacrifice, but in most cases the bereaved +will wait until the yearly sacrifice when they will purchase a share in +the victim and thus remove the taboo. Following the offering, the old +house is abandoned and is allowed to fall to pieces for "the man has +gone and his house must go also." The procedure is the same for women, +and for children who have survived infancy.</p> + +<center><h3>BELIEFS CONCERNING THE SOUL, SPIRITS, ORACLES, AND +MAGIC.</h3></center> + +<p>There is some variance, in different parts of the Bagobo area, in the +beliefs concerning the spirits or souls of a man. In Cibolan each man +and woman is supposed to have eight spirits or <i>gimokod</i>, which +dwell in the head, the right and left hands and feet, and other parts +not specified. At death these <i>gimokod</i> part, four from the right +side of the body, going up to a place called <i>palakalángit</i>, and +four descending to a region known as <i>karonaronawan</i>.These places +differ in no respects from the present home of the Bagobo, except that +in the region above it is always day, and all useful plants grow in +abundance. In these places the <i>gimokod</i> are met by the spirits, +Toglái and Tigyama, and by them are assigned to their future homes. If a +man has been a <i>datu</i> on earth, his spirits have like rank in the +other life, but go to the same place as those of common people. The +<i>gimokod</i> of evil men are punished by being crowded into poor +houses. These spirits may return to their old home for short periods, +and talk with the <i>gimokod</i> of the living through dreams, but they +never return to dwell again on earth.</p> + +<p>In the districts to the west of Cibolan the general belief is that +there are but two <i>gimokod</i>, one inhabiting the right side of the +body, the other the left. That of the right side is good, while all evil +deeds and inclinations come from the one dwelling on the left. It is a +common thing when a child is ill to attach a chain bracelet to its right +arm and to bid the good spirit not to depart, but to remain and restore +the child to health. In Malilla it is believed that after death the +spirit of the right side goes to a good place, while the one on the left +remains to wander about on earth as a <i>buso</i>,[42] but this latter +belief does not seem to be shared by the people of other districts.</p> + +<p>[42] See p. 107.</p> + +<p>Aside from the <i>gimokod</i> the Bagobo believe that there exists a +great company of powerful spirits who make their homes in the sky above, +in the space beneath the world, or in the sea, in streams, cliffs, +mountains, or trees. The following is the list related by Datu +Tongkaling, a number of <i>mabalian</i>, and others supposed to have +special knowledge concerning these superior beings.</p> + +<p>I. Eugpamolak Manobo, also called Manama and Kalayágan. The first and +greatest of the spirits, and the creator of all that is. His home is in +the sky from whence he can observe the doings of men. Gifts for him +should be white, and should be placed above and in the center of +offerings intended for other spirits. He may be addressed by the +<i>mabalian</i>, the <i>datu</i>, and wise old men.</p> + +<p>II. Tolus ka balakat, "dweller in the <i>balakat</i>[43]." A male +spirit who loves the blood, but not the flesh of human beings, and one +of the three for whom the yearly sacrifice is made. Only the +<i>magani</i> may offer petitions to him. He is not recognized by the +people of Digos and vicinity.</p> + +<p>[43] A hanger in which offerings are placed.</p> + +<p>III and IV. Mandarangan and his wife Darago. This couple look after +the fortunes of the warriors, and in return demand the yearly sacrifice +of a slave. They are supposed to dwell in the great fissure of Mt. Apo, +from which clouds of sulphur fumes are constantly rising. The intentions +of this pair are evil, and only the utmost care on the part of the +<i>magani</i> can prevent them from causing quarrels and +dissentions[sic] among the people, or even actually devouring some of +them.</p> + +<p>V. Taragómi/Taragomi. A male spirit who owns all food. He is the +guardian of the crops and it is for him that the shrine known as +<i>parobanian</i> is erected in the center of the rice field.</p> + +<p>VI. Tolus ka towangan. The patron of the workers in brass and +copper.</p> + +<p>VII. Tolus ka gomanan. Patron of the smiths.</p> + +<p>VIII. Baitpandi. A female spirit who taught the women to weave, and +who now presides over the looms and the weavers.</p> + +<p>IX. and X. Toglái, also called Si Niladan and Maniládan, and his wife +Toglibon. The first man and woman to live on the earth. They gave to the +people their language and customs. After their death they became +spirits, and are now responsible for all marriages and births. By some +people Toglái is believed to be one of the judges over the shades of the +dead, while in Bansalan he is identified with Eugpamolak Manobo.</p> + +<p>XI. Tigyama. A class of spirits, one of whom looks after each family. +When children marry, the <i>tigyama</i> of the two families unite to +form one who thereafter guards the couple. While usually well disposed +they are capable of killing those who fail to show them respect, or who +violate the rules governing family life.</p> + +<p>XII. Diwata. A class of numerous spirits who serve Eugpamolak +Manobo.</p> + +<p>XIII. Anito. A name applied to a great body of spirits, some of whom +are said formerly to have been people. They know all medicines and cures +for illness, and it is from them that the <i>mabalian</i> secures her +knowledge and her power. They also assist the <i>tigyama</i> in caring +for the families.</p> + +<p>XIV. Buso. Mean, evil spirits who eat dead people and have some power +to injure the living. A young Bagobo described his idea of a <i>buso</i> +as follows: "He has a long body, long feet and neck, curly hair, and +black face, flat nose, and one big red or yellow eye. He has big feet +and fingers, but small arms, and his two big teeth are long and pointed. +Like a dog he goes about eating anything, even dead persons." As already +noted, the people of Malilla are inclined to identify the <i>gimokod</i> +of the left side with this evil class.</p> + +<p>XV. Tagamaling. Evil spirits who dwell in big trees.</p> + +<p>XVI. Tigbanua. Ill disposed beings inhabiting rocks and cliffs in the +mountains. These last two classes are frequently confused with the +<i>buso</i>.</p> + +<p>In addition to these, the old men of Malilla gave the following:</p> + +<p>1. Tagareso. Low spirits who cause people to become angry and to do +little evil deeds. In some cases they cause insanity.</p> + +<p>2. Sarinago. Spirits who steal rice. It is best to appease them, +otherwise the supply of rice will vanish rapidly.</p> + +<p>3. Tagasoro. Beings who cause sudden anger which results in quarrels +and death. They are the ones who furnish other spirits with human +flesh.</p> + +<p>4 and 5. Balinonok and his wife Balinsogo. This couple love blood and +for this reason cause men and women to fight or to run amuck.</p> + +<p>6. Siring. Mischievous spirits who inhabit caves, cliffs, and +dangerous places. They have long nails and can be distinguished by that +characteristic. They sometimes impersonate members of the family and +thus succeed in stealing women and children, whom they carry to their +mountain homes. The captives are not eaten but are fed on snakes and +worms, and should they try to escape the <i>siring</i> will scratch them +with their long nails.</p> + +<p>Other spirits were named and described by individuals, but as they +are not generally accepted by the people of the tribe they are not +mentioned here.</p> + +<p>The stars, thunder and lightning, and similar phenomena are generally +considered as "lights or signs" belonging to the spirits, yet one +frequently hears hazy tales such as that "the constellation Marara is a +one-legged and one-armed man who sometimes causes cloudy weather at +planting time so that people may not see his deformities," or we are +told that "the sun was placed in the sky by the creator, and on it lives +an evil spirit who sometimes kills people. The sun is moved about by the +wind;" again, "the sun and moon were once married and all the stars are +their children."</p> + +<p>Despite repeated assertions by previous writers that the Bagobo are +fire-worshippers no evidence was obtained during our visit to support +the statement. The older people insisted that it was not a spirit and +that no offerings were ever made to it. One <i>mabalian</i> stated that +fire was injurious to a woman in her periods and hence it was best for +her not to cook at such times; she was also of the opinion that fire was +of two kinds, good and bad, and hence might belong to both good and bad +spirits.</p> + +<p>A common method used by the spirits to communicate with mortals is +through the call of the <i>limokon</i>[44] All the people know the +meaning of its calls and all respect its warnings. If a man is starting +to buy or trade for an article and this bird gives its warning the sale +is stopped. Should the <i>limokon</i> call when a person is on the trail +he at ones doubles his fist and thrusts it in the direction from which +the warning comes. If it becomes necessary to point backwards, it is a +signal to return, or should the arm point directly in front it is +certain that danger is there, and it is best to turn back and avoid it. +When it is not clear from whence the note came, the traveler looks +toward the right side. If he sees there strong, sturdy trees, he knows +that all is well, but if they are cut or weaklings, he should use great +care to avoid impending danger. When questioned as to why one should +look only to the right, an old man quickly replied: "The right side +belongs to you; the left side is bad and belongs to someone else."</p> + +<p>[44] See p. 63, note. [Transcriber's note: footnote above beginning, +"A dove."]</p> + +<p>Sneezing is a bad omen, and should a person sneeze when about to +undertake a journey, he knows that it is a warning of danger, and will +delay until another time.</p> + +<p>Certain charms, or actions, are of value either in warding off evil +spirits, in causing trouble or death to an enemy, or in gaining an +advantage over another in trading and in games. One type of charm is a +narrow cloth belt in which "medicines" are tied. These medicines may be +peculiarly shaped stones, bits of fungus growth, a tooth, shell, or +similar object. Such belts are known as <i>pamadan</i>, or +<i>lambos</i>, and are worn soldier-fashion over one shoulder. They are +supposed to protect their owners in battle or to make it easy for them +to get the best of other parties in a trade, A little dust gathered from +the footprint of an enemy and placed in one of these belts will +immediately cause the foe to become ill.</p> + +<p>It is a simple matter to cause a person to become insane. All that is +needed is to secure a piece of his hair, or clothing, place it in a dish +of water and stir in one direction for several hours.</p> + +<p>Father GISBERT relates the following method of detecting theft:</p> + +<p>"There are not, as a rule, many thefts among the Bagobo, for they +believe that a thief can be discovered easily by means of their famous +<i>bongat</i>. That consists of two small joints of bamboo, which +contain certain mysterious powders. He who has been robbed and wishes to +determine the robber takes a hen's egg, makes a hole in it, puts a pinch +of the above said powder in it, and leaves it in the fire. If he wishes +the robber to die he has nothing else to do than to break the egg; but +since the thief may sometimes be a relative or a beloved person, the egg +is not usually broken, so that there may be or may be able to be a +remedy. For under all circumstances, when this operation is performed, +if the robber lives, wherever he may be, he himself must inform on +himself by crying out, 'I am the thief; I am the thief,' as he is +compelled to do (they say) by the sharp pain which he feels all through +his body. When he is discovered, he may be cured by putting powder from +the other joint into the water and bathing his body with it. This +practice is very common here among the heathens and Moros. A Bagobo, +named Anas, who was converted, gave me the <i>bongat</i> with which he +had frightened many people when a heathen."</p> + +<p>In Bansalan crab shells are hung over the doors of houses, for these +shells are distasteful to the <i>buso</i> who will thus be kept at a +distance.</p> + +<p>I was frequently told of persons who could foretell the future by +means of palmistry, but was never able to see a palmist at work, or to +verify the information.</p> + +<center><h3>MUSIC, DANCES AND CEREMONIES.</h3></center> + +<p>The music for the dances is generally furnished by one or more +persons beating on several <i>agongs</i> of different sizes and notes, +which are suspended in regular order from the house rafters (Plate +XXXa). The player stands in front of the line and begins to beat the +instruments with a padded stick. Oftentimes he is accompanied by a man +who strikes a wooden drum with the palm of one hand and a stick held in +the other. The music grows faster, emphasizing certain beats, until it +becomes a compelling rhythm that starts the feet of the onlookers, and +suddenly a man or woman begins to dance. At first she keeps time to the +music by raising on her toes and heels, bending the knees and twisting +the body from side to side, but soon she becomes more animated, the feet +are raised high above the floor and brought down with a sort of shuffle +which reminds one of the sound made by the feet of a clog dancer. Still +swaying her body, she begins to circle, contra-clockwise, around the +gongs, and soon she is joined by others until all the dancing space is +filled. The scene is most picturesque, for these dances usually occur at +night, in rooms illuminated only by the flickering light of torches. The +rich clothing of the participants loses nothing of its beauty in this +dim light, while the bells and rattles with which each dancer surrounds +arms, legs and ankles, add to the din and weirdness of the occasion. +Before the dance has progressed far the musicians begin to keep time +with their feet and frequently dance away from their instruments, +circle, and then return to continue the music.</p> + +<p>With slight variation, this is the dance used on all occasions. At +certain ceremonies small gongs, or the <i>bolang bolang</i>,[45] replace +the <i>agongs</i>, and at times also a single dancer will accompany +himself on the <i>kodloñ</i>—a long wooden guitar with rattan +strings (Plate XXXb).</p> + +<p>[45] An instrument made by placing a small board on a rice mortar. +This is pounded or beaten with short sticks, or with the wooden +pestles.</p> + +<p>In this description we have named a large share of the musical +instruments used by the Bagobo. The women frequently play on a sort of +guitar made of a section of bamboo from the outside of which narrow +strings are cut. These are raised and made taut with small wooden +bridges and are then picked with a stick or the fingers (Fig. 33). +Bamboo Jew's-harps and mouth flutes are played by the men, but the nose +flute, so common in most parts of the Philippines, was not seen in use +here.</p> + +<a name="33"></a> +<img src="images/FIG033.JPG" alt="FIG. 33. TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR."> + +<p>The ceremonies and dances are so closely associated with every day +affairs that in the description of the life of the people up to this +point we have left only a few still to be discussed. These are, in the +main, very similar throughout the Bagobo belt, but to avoid confusion +the description here given of the two greatest events of the +year—the <i>GinEm</i> ceremony and the human sacrifice—deals +with Cibolan, unless expressly stated to the contrary.</p> + +<p>The greatest of all Bagobo ceremonies—the +<i>GinEm</i>—may be given by the <i>datu</i> within three or four +months after the appearance of the constellation <i>Balatik</i>, when +the moon is new or full. Its object is to thank the spirits for success +in war or domestic affairs, to ward off sickness and other dangers, to +drive away the <i>buso</i>, and finally to so gratify the spirits that +they will be pleased to increase the wealth of all the people. Datu +Tongkaling expressed a belief that this ceremony is in a way related to +the rice harvest, "for it is always made when there is plenty of rice in +the granaries." It appears to the writer, however, that this ceremony +probably originated in connection with warfare.</p> + +<p>According to the tales of the old men, it was formerly the custom to +go on a raid before this ceremony was to take place, and successful +warriors would bring home with them the skulls of their victims which +they tied to the <i>patan'nan</i>.[46] It seems also to have been +closely associated with the yearly sacrifice, for it was never made +until after the appearance of the constellation <i>Balatik</i>, and +without doubt a sacrifice frequently did take place during the first day +of the ceremony, at the time the decorated poles were raised. However, +such an offering at this time did not relieve the <i>datu</i> from the +obligation of making the regular sacrifice.</p> + +<p>[46] Ceremonial poles dedicated to Mandarangan and Darago. In Digos +and Bansalan the skulls were not taken but hair cut from the heads of +enemies was placed in the swinging altar <i>balakat</i>, and were left +there until the conclusion of the ceremony.</p> + +<p>Datu Ansig of Talun informed me that, unless the death of some great +person made a special sacrifice necessary, there was only one such +offering made during the year, and that at the time the decorated poles +were placed in the dwelling.</p> + +<p>The time for the festival having been agreed upon, messengers are +sent to other <i>datu</i> and head-men, inviting them and their people +to attend. Sufficient food is prepared for the guests and when all is +ready the <i>mabalian</i> takes one chicken from among those to be used +for food and frees it as an offering to the <i>gimokod</i>. It is bidden +to wander about in the forest, and no one will molest the fowl, for +should he do so he is certain to become ill.[47] The <i>mabalian</i> has +previously placed festoons of leaves and vines at various points in the +house and now she spreads a mat on the floor. A jar of <i>balaba</i>, +wine, stands at each corner, while at one end is an <i>agong</i>, and a +plate containing betel nut, leaf, and two varieties of rattan; at the +other end are several <i>tambara</i>. When all is thus prepared the +people place offerings of beautiful clothing, knives, and other costly +gifts on the mat. Two <i>mabalian</i>, a man and a woman call upon the +spirits,[48] urging them to look with favor on the offering made by the +people, to grant them a good year with health and plentiful harvests, to +let their journeys be without mishap, and to keep them all under their +constant care. The <i>tambara</i> are fastened in various parts of the +house, and the gifts are hung on or laid beside them. Later these +offerings may be removed by their former owners who now regard them as +being loaned to them by the spirits.</p> + +<p>[47] This offering is not made at Bansalan, neither has the +<i>mabalian</i> any part in the ceremonies of the first day.</p> + +<p>[48] Those called at this time are Toglái, Toglibon, <i>tigyma</i>, +and Kalayágan—Eugpamolak Manobo.</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: The word <i>tigyma</i> in the above footnote +should be spelled <i>tigyama</i>.]</p> + +<p>Following the offering the <i>magani</i> go to a bamboo thicket and +cut two large poles, one nine sections long, the other eight. With each +stroke of the knife the men give their battle cry, then when the poles +are felled, all seize hold and carry them to the house of the +<i>datu</i>. Here they are decorated, first by being cut down for short +distances, thus leaving the lower part attached so that the shavings +make a sort of fringe, and then by attaching strips of palm or bamboo +leaves and cloth or palm leaf streamers. When complete these poles are +known as <i>patan'nan</i> and are then the property of the spirits +Mandanagan and Darago. The longer one is for the male spirit, while the +one of eight sections is for his wife. Under no circumstances may anyone +not a <i>magani</i> touch these poles. They are carried into the house +and are fastened near to the elevated platform at the end of the room +where the <i>datu</i> or leading <i>magani</i> stands ready to sacrifice +a chicken. He allows some of the blood from the offering to drip onto +the poles, at the same time begging the spirits not to let the people +fight or quarrel during the <i>GinEm</i>, "for blood is now being +offered." In at least two recent offerings the <i>datu</i> urged the +spirits to be content with this offering of a fowl, since it was +impossible for them to kill a man. At this time, it is said, the skulls +of enemies should be attached to the <i>patan'nan</i>. As the leader +finishes his offering, the men and boys gather about the poles and yell +lustily, then sit quietly down and amuse themselves by chewing betel nut +until the chicken, just killed, and the other food has been prepared for +eating. Old dishes are placed in the center of the floor and in them +food is offered for all the spirits, but in the exact center of all is a +large plate of white food for the supreme being. A second large dish of +food is placed in a <i>tambara</i> at the corner of the room as an +offering to the warrior deities "so that they will not eat anyone during +the fiesta." Again the spirits are besought to give them a good year, +with abundant crops, health, and success in war. Going to the +<i>patan'nan</i> each <i>magani</i>, beginning with the <i>datu</i> or +his son, takes hold of the poles, and in a loud voice, begins to confess +all his warlike deeds. He relates how and when he killed his victims, +the number of sacrifices he has participated in, the towns he has sacked +and the slaves he has captured. In short, he tells of all the manly +deeds he has performed in order to gain the right to wear his red suit +and be known as <i>magani</i>. When all have confessed, the men and boys +eat the chicken which was sacrificed before the poles, and from then +until near midnight, all the people may dance to the music of the +<i>agongs</i> or may indulge in feasting and drinking. From the middle +of the night until daybreak they chant songs or poems, many words of +which are now obsolete so that they are not fully understood.[49]</p> + +<p>[49] Mr. Gohn informs me that at midnight during the last +<i>GinEm</i> made by Datu Ali in Santa Cruz, a gun was fired, and the +<i>datu</i> said that a sacrifice should have taken place at that +time.</p> + +<p>The festival may last one or more days. The last held in Cibolan +(1909) extended through two days and nights. At that time no offerings +were made to the spirits on the second day, but the people feasted and +drank while the <i>datu</i> gathered a little apart and held a +council.</p> + +<p>In Malilla the second day of this ceremony is called +<i>EgbikbEgáybe</i> and is given over almost entirely to the women. Two +<i>tambara</i> are erected in the house, and young betel nut buds and +women's skirts are hung on them. The women and some men form a line and +dance in a circle around the offerings, keeping time to music furnished +by beating small gongs, or by pounding on a board resting on a rice +mortar.[50] Before each dance the <i>mabalian</i> informs a spirit that +this dance is for him and it is customary to add a gift of some kind to +those already on the <i>tambara</i>. Sixteen spirits are thus honored. +Throughout the day there is much feasting and drinking, and at some time +before sunset the women are baptized. Having filled an old agong with +water, the <i>mabalian</i> dips certain leaves into it and sprinkles the +heads of the women present eight times, meanwhile bidding the spirits to +grant to them a good mind and habit.</p> + +<p>[50] See p. 110, note. [Transcriber's note: back 3 pages, the +footnote beginning, "An instrument made by placing...."]</p> + +<p>Mr. Gohn, a planter of Santa Cruz who has witnessed a number of these +ceremonies, says that with the Bagobo of that place it was customary for +the <i>datu</i> to baptize the women prior to the day of <i>GinEm</i>. +On the second day, a <i>mabalian</i> provided a long palm leaf, and a +number of betel nut buds which, she said, represented streams, rivers, +tribes, and individuals. Taking up a bud she swung the palm leaf above +it, chanting meanwhile, and, as she finished, handed it to the +<i>datu</i> who opened it and read the signs sent by the spirits. At the +conclusion of this act, all the women went to the river to bathe.</p> + +<p>In the writings of the early missionary fathers stationed among the +Bagobo are found many references to human sacrifices. Since American +occupation several articles have appeared describing this custom, and +following the sacrifice held in Talun in 1907, this practice became the +subject of official communication between the Governor of the District +and his superiors. While these descriptions agree, in the main, there +are so many minor variations that it seems best to first relate the +account given to the writer by Datu Tongkaling and ten of his +<i>magani</i>, after which we shall take up some of the earlier +accounts, and the official correspondence of 1907.</p> + +<p>Datu Tongkaling is a <i>magani</i>. He claims to have killed more +than thirty of his enemies in fair fight and to have assisted in, or to +have witnessed, an even greater number of sacrifices. Prior to his +elevation to the office of <i>datu</i> he had aided in several of the +yearly offerings. At the time he became <i>datu</i> he entertained all +his people for seven days and on the morning of the last day, in the +presence of his subjects, he alone sacrificed a decrepit Bila-an slave +for whom he had paid three <i>agongs</i>. Hence, probably, no man in the +tribe is better fitted to describe this event than he.</p> + +<p>According to him, a sacrifice should be held each year following the +appearance in the sky of a constellation of seven stars known as +<i>Balatik</i> ("pig trap").[51] The stars are placed there by the +spirits for two purposes:—first, to inform the people that it is +time to prepare for the clearing of new fields; second, to remind them +that they should offer a slave to Mandarangan, Darago, and Balakat as +payment for the good year they have enjoyed, and to secure their good +will for the coming season. A great epidemic or continued +calamaties[sic] might also be signs that the spirits were in need of +another offering, and this could take place at any time. Upon the death +of an adult it becomes the duty of the family to make a sacrifice, but, +unless the deceased is of very great importance, they may wait until the +yearly sacrifice[52] when they can purchase a share in it. The one other +occasion for which this offering is obligatory is the installation of a +new <i>datu</i> in office. For the yearly event the ruler should provide +a decrepit slave, and then invite all those who have had death or +trouble in the family and who wish a part in the sacrifice to help bear +the expense of the ceremony. Guests gather from near and far and for two +or three days, feast, dance, and make merry in the house of the +<i>datu</i>. On the morning of the last day they accompany their leader +to a great tree in the forest and there witness or take part in the +sacrifice. The victim is tied with his back to the tree, his arms +stretched high above his head. Meanwhile a little table or altar is +constructed near by, and on it the principals place their offerings of +betel nut, clothes, or weapons, and on top of all is a dish of white +food for Eugpamolak Manobo. When all is ready one of the <i>magani</i> +begins a prayer, begging the spirits to look and see that the people are +following the old custom, to give them success in battle, and to protect +their homes from sickness and enemies. The prayer being completed, the +<i>datu</i> places his spear below and just in front of the right +armpit; then all those who have purchased a share in the victim take +hold of the weapon, and at a signal given by the <i>datu</i>, thrust it +through the body. As soon as it is withdrawn, the <i>magani</i> who has +offered the greatest price for the privilege attempts to cut the body in +two with one blow of his fighting knife. If he fails in the attempt, +another tries, and so on until someone succeeds. The two portions are +then released from the tree and cast into a shallow grave near by. +Before the body is covered with earth any person who wishes may cut off +a portion of the flesh or hair and carry it to the grave of some +relative whom he may have reason to believe is being troubled by evil +spirits. In such a case the evil spirit will be content to eat of the +slave, and cease disturbing the other body. Returning to the house of +the <i>datu</i>, the people continue the dancing and merry-making +throughout another night.</p> + +<p>[51] This is the constellation Orion which appears early in +December.</p> + +<p>[52] We have already seen that this offering sometimes occurs during +the <i>GinEm</i> ceremony.</p> + +<p>The following accounts are extracts from the official correspondence +forwarded by the Governor of Davao to the Governor of the Moro +Province:</p> + +<p>"I have the honor to submit herewith a full report of an +investigation made by myself and the Senior Inspector of Constabulary of +Davao, regarding a human sacrifice made by the Bagobos at Talun near +Digos on Dec. 9th, 1907.</p> + +<p>"We left Davao on the morning of the 27th of December and arrived at +Digos in the afternoon of the same day. An order was immediately sent +out to the Bagobos of Talun to come down to Digos to meet us.</p> + +<p>"On the morning of the 30th, the entire population of +Talun—men, women and children, to the number of almost one hundred +and fifty—arrived at Digos. They were informed that it was +reported that a human sacrifice had been made at their town and that the +authorities desired to know if this was so.</p> + +<p>"Datto[sic] Ansig replied that it was true that a sacrifice had been +held as stated and that both he and his people were ready to tell all +about it as to the best of their belief they had committed no crime, but +only followed out a religious custom practiced by themselves and their +ancestors from time immemorial.</p> + +<p>"From the statements made by Ansig and his followers, it appears as +follows:</p> + +<p>"That the Bagobos have several gods, 'Bacalad,' God of the spirits, +Agpanmole[sic] Monobo[sic], God of good and his wife the goddess Dewata; +Mandarangan, the God of evil (corresponding perhaps to our devil) and to +whom sacrifice is made to appease his wrath which is shown by +misfortune, years of drought, or evil befalling the tribe or its +members, also it is at times necessary to offer him human sacrifice so +that he will allow the spirits of the deceased to rest, etc. They say +that in case a Bagobo of rank or influence dies, and his widow be unable +to secure another husband, it is necessary for her to offer sacrifice to +appease the spirit of her departed husband in order that she may secure +another. In order that these sacrifices be not made too often, it is +customary for the old men of the town to gather together once each year +during a time when a collection of seven stars, three at right angle to +the other four, are seen in the heavens at seven o'clock in the evening, +which is said to occur once each year during the first part of the month +of December.</p> + +<p>"This collection of stars is called by the Bagobos 'Balatic,' and is +the sign of the sacrifice, that is, if a sacrifice is to occur, it must +take place during the time that the stars are in this position.</p> + +<p>"The old men meet and decide if enough misfortune has overtaken the +tribe or village during the period since the last sacrifice to render +necessary another tribute to the god of evil. It is not necessary to +offer a sacrifice for each evil, but when the misfortunes amount to a +considerable, a sacrifice is held to cover the entire lot.</p> + +<p>"In this case it appears that two widows, Addy and Obby, went to +Datto[sic] Ansig and requested that he arrange a sacrifice to appease +the spirits of their departed husbands which were bothering them. Ansig +called a meeting of the old men at which were present besides himself +Bagobos Oling, Pandaya, and Ansig, and these four decided that as they +had not had a sacrifice since the great drought (about three years ago) +and that since that time many evils had befallen them, it would be well +to offer a sacrifice. These four men sent out to find a slave for +sacrifice, the finder becoming the chief of the sacrifice.</p> + +<p>"Ongon, a henchman of Datto Ansig, purchased from Bagobo Ido, a Bilan +slave boy named Sacum about eight years old and who was deaf and +cross-eyed, and had other defects of vision, making him of little or no +value as a laborer. Ido originally received this slave from Duon, a +Bilan, as a wedding present when he married Duon's daughter about a year +ago.</p> + +<p>"Ongon agreed to pay Ido five agongs for the boy and took him to the +house of Ansig where arrangements were made for the sacrifice by calling +on all who for any reason had need to appease the evil spirits to come +and take part. Three days after the slave was brought to the house of +Ansig, the people met at Talun near the river Inolia, a short distance +from Ansig's house, this being the regular place of sacrifice.</p> + +<p>"Leaving the house of Ansig the boy Sacum was seated upon the ground +near the place of sacrifice. He was naked but no other preparation was +made with regard to the person. Upon a platform or bench of bamboo about +two feet high and a foot or two square was placed a small basket or +receptacle made of the bark of the bunga tree; in this each person +present and taking part in the sacrifice placed a piece of betel-nut, +over this the men placed their head handkerchiefs and the women strips +of the bark of the palma tree. Upon this the men laid their bolos, and +spears were then stuck in the ground in a circle around the platform. +Next Datto Ansig as chief of the sacrifice made an oration which was +about as follows: 'Oh, Mandarangan, chief of evil spirits and all the +other spirits, come to our feast and accept our sacrifice. Let this +sacrifice appease your wrath and take from us our misfortunes, granting +us better times.'</p> + +<p>"After this, the boy Sacum was brought forward by Ongon, placed +against a small tree about six feet high, his hands tied above his head, +and his body tied to the tree with bejuco strips at the waist and knees. +Ansig then placed a spear at the child's right side at a point below the +right arm and above the margin of the ribs. This lance was grasped by +the widows Addy and Obby, who at a signal from Ansig forced it through +the child's body, it coming out at the other side. It was immediately +withdrawn and the body cut in two at the waist by bolos in the hands of +Moesta Barraro and Ola, after which the body was cut down and chopped +into bits by the people present, each of whom was allowed to take a +small portion as a momento[sic] of the occasion, the remainder of the +body being buried in a hole prepared for it.</p> + +<p>"It is said the child was deaf and almost blind and that it did not +realize what was to happen to it until the moment it was tied up when it +began to cry; further, that death was almost instantaneous, the only cry +being one uttered when the spear first entered the child's body.</p> + +<p>"Datto Ansig, a man about sixty years of age, says that in his life +he has attended or officiated at fifty human sacrifices, more or less, +both among the Bagobos and the Bilanes, and that human sacrifice is also +practiced among the Tagacolos, although he has never been present at one +held by that tribe.</p> + +<p>"The Bagobos do not sacrifice any but old and decrepit or useless +slaves captured from other tribes, but the Bilanes sacrifice even their +own people.</p> + +<p>"Being asked if it was customary to eat any portion of the body +sacrificed, Ansig replied that it was not customary nor did he know of +any case where such had occurred.</p> + +<p>"The last sacrifice before this was held at Talun during the year of +the drought (about 1905) when a Bilan slave, an old man who was +paralyzed in one arm, was sacrificed by Datto Oling, his master.</p> + +<p>"Asked if the sacrifice of an animal would not do as well as that of +a human being, they said, 'No, better to have no sacrifice at all.'</p> + +<p>"They appeared utterly unconscious of having committed any crime, +told their story with frankness, said it was a matter not talked about +among their own people but that if we wanted to know the facts they +would give them to the authorities. They claimed the offering of human +sacrifices by their tribe to be an old custom and, as far as they knew +the only way to appease the wrath of the evil spirits, but said if they +were ordered to give the custom up they would do so even if the devil +got them all."</p> + +<p>Then follows the statement of an eye-witness to the ceremony:</p> + +<p>"My name is Modesta Barrera; I live in the town of Santa Cruz, my +father being a Visayan, my mother a Bagobo. I cannot read or write, and +I think that I am about twenty-three years old, although I am not +certain on that point.</p> + +<p>"On the 8th instant myself, Baon, Otoy, and Oton left Santa Cruz +early in the morning to go to Talun, a day's march from Santa Cruz, for +the purpose of trading with the natives of Talun, and also to collect +some debts which they owed Baon. We remained that night at Saculampula, +near Talun, where Ungon and Ido, two Bagobos, live with their families. +There we found two children the only persons at the house who informed +us that we should go to the house of Ambing, at Talun, where we could +sell our merchandise. On the morning of the 9th we got up about 7 or 8 +o'clock and started for Ambing's house. When within about an hour's walk +of the house, we found a great many people congregated together. We were +told that a human sacrifice had just taken place and on approaching to +discover what had happened, we saw a little boy about eight or nine +years old, the upper half of whose body was suspended by the wrists to a +tree, the lower half lying on the ground. The child had been thus tied +up while alive and had been cut into two parts at the waist; this was +about the position of the body when we saw it.</p> + +<p>"Immediately about twenty persons began to chop the body into small +pieces; and Ansig, the datto of Talun, came over to us and gave Baon two +pieces of the victim's hair attached to the scalp, which is a sign of +the sacrifice. The victim was a slave owned and sacrificed by Datto +Ansig. The first bolo cut which severs the body at the waist and which +in this case we were told was done by Ansig is always performed by the +person making the sacrifice. The people present were guests of Ansig and +were not responsible for the killing, though it is the custom for the +more favored ones to assist in chopping the victim into small pieces +after death."</p> + +<p>In the letters written by Father GISBERT in 1886, are many references +to the religious practices of the Bagobo, from which the following are +extracts:</p> + +<p>"The feast which they hold before the sowing is a criminal and +repugnant trago-comedy. The tragical part is the first thing that is +done. When they have assembled in the middle of the woods * * * they +tightly bind the slave whom they are going to sacrifice. All armed with +sharp knives, leap and jump about their victim striking him, one after +the other, or several at one time, amid infernal cries and shouts, until +the body of the victim sacrificed has been cut to bits. From the place +of the sacrifice they then go to the house of their chief or the master +of the feast, holding branches in their hands which they place in a +large bamboo, which is not only the chief adornment but the altar of the +house in which they meet * * * The principal part is reserved for the +old man or master of the feast, he standing near the bamboo which I have +mentioned above, holding the vessel of wine in his hand, and, talking +with his comrades, addresses the great demon called <i>Darago</i>, whose +feast they are celebrating, in the following words: 'Darago, we are +making you this feast, with great good will and gladness, offering you +the blood of the sacrifice which we have made and this wine which we +drink so that you may be our friend, accompany us, and be propitious in +our wars.' * * * * * * * * * * *</p> + +<p>"When they marry, if the lovers think that it will be of any use they +make a human sacrifice so that they may have a good marriage, so that +the weather may be good, so that they may have no storm, sickness, etc., +all things which they attribute to the devil. In the same way also when +they learn that there is any contagious disease, or fear death, several +of them assemble and make a human sacrifice, asking the devil to let +them live, since they generously offer him that victim. They also +believe that the disease can be conjured. But the time that it is +necessary to make a sacrifice, according to the law of the Bagobos, is +at the death of anyone of the family, before they can remove the +<i>laláoan</i> or mourning * * * At the point and on the day assigned, +all the sacrificers assemble, or possibly one member of each of the +families who are in mourning, at times fifty or more. The value of the +slave sacrificed is paid among them all, and he who pays most has the +right to sacrifice first."**</p> + +<p>**In BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII. pp. 244-51, will be found a +very interesting letter from FATHER GISBERT, in which he describes the +sacrifice of a Bagabo[sic] half-blood who had fallen in debt.</p> + +<p>The official files in the Governor's office at Davao contain an +account, written by Gov. Bolton, of the sacrifice at Cataloonan, July 1, +1904. This was held to secure the return to health of Chief Obo, who +later died.</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: The two paragraphs immediately above both +comprise a single footnote.]</p> + +<p>By the side of the trail, or in the forests, little shrines or +platforms about 3 ft. high and a foot square at the top, are frequently +seen. These are known as <i>buis</i> and are erected for the +<i>buso</i>, in order to avert their displeasure and to keep them at a +distance from the dwellings. When the family has been subjected to petty +annoyances, or when for any other reason, the <i>mabalian</i> thinks an +offering should be made, she orders the family to provide her with betel +nut, a piece of iron, and bits of broken dishes, or castoff clothing. +These are placed on the platform and the <i>buso</i> are exhorted to +come and accept them. Good offerings are never made to this class of +spirits, for "they do not expect to be treated like the more powerful." +A shrub known as <i>dalingding</i> is planted by the side of the shrine +so that its location may be known even after the platform has fallen, +and all passersby will make some small offering, hoping thus to keep +these evil beings in good humor.</p> + +<p>Rain can be stopped by placing an offering of a leg ring, or prepared +betel nut beside the trail and presenting them to the <i>Gimokod</i>, at +the same time asking them to stop the downpour.</p> + +<center><h3>DECORATIVE ART.</h3></center> + +<p>To a stranger entering a Bagobo house, in the absence of its owners, +it appears that the people have little artistic development. He sees no +paintings, no drawings, and few, if any, attempts to beautify the house +with carvings. The pots sitting by the fire, show no decoration nor do +the other household utensils exhibit embellishment of any kind. A closer +study of the field baskets, however, shows a slight attempt to produce +ornamentation by changing the weave of the central band from that at the +top and bottom, or by adding a few rude lines in pitch. The moment the +people enter, however, all is changed. The clothing they wear is covered +with intricate patterns, some realistic, others highly conventionalized +(Plate XXXI). Wonderful designs in beads or shell disks appear on coats, +jackets, and carrying bags, while at neck, waist, shoulder, and at the +bottom of sleeves and trousers are other figures in fine embroidery or +applique. Strands of beads and seeds exhibiting a great variety of +designs surround the necks of both men and women, while rings, armlets, +leglets, and anklets of beads, plaited material or metal, are common. +Combs are covered with pitch and inlaid with beads, or patterns are +incised in the wood and filled with lime. Ear plugs exhibit beautiful +delicate patterns inlaid with brass or silver.</p> + +<p>A glance at the weapons carried by the man shows that his knife has +been ornamented with caps of brass (Plate XXXII), the metal guard has +cut or cast patterns in its surface, while sheath and carrying belt are +covered with thin brass plates, painted lines, or a beaded cloth (Plate +XXXIII) with bells attached. Fronts and backs of shields are covered +with incised designs, while the metal ferrule next to the spear head +seldom lacks in conventionalized figures. So the list might be extended +to cover the women's knives and their pocket and carrying baskets, as +well as the betel boxes and lime holders used by both sexes. In short, +there seems to be no end to the list of personal ornaments and equipment +which may be improved by carvings, arrangements of beads or metal +castings and inlays. Even the horses are decorated with artificial +forelocks of hair and beads. Strings of bells surround their necks, +while saddles and whips display the aesthetic taste of their owners.</p> + +<p>A part of this decoration is apparently realistic and will readily be +identified by any member of the tribe; another part is suggestive and +with a widely known meaning, but by far the greater number of designs +have no generally accepted signification. The writer spent many hours +securing the names of the designs on textiles, ornaments, or on lime +boxes, only to receive the reply "done to make pretty," or to find that +no two of five or a dozen informants could agree on many patterns, while +frequently it was found that some obliging individual had volunteered +names at one time which he could not remember on the day following. It +is possible that a long residence with the people and diligent inquiry +along this line might yield more definite results, but for the present +the writer must content himself by showing some typical examples of the +decorative art, and adding a few notes to the same.</p> + +<p>The great majority of baskets lack in decoration, other than that +which can be obtained by a slight change in the weave. In these a +central band can be distinguished from those at top and bottom, although +the same material is used and there is only a minor variation in the +technique.</p> + +<p>Small carrying receptacles, or trinket baskets, frequently have +designs produced by plaiting the rattan or bamboo of natural color with +that which has been blackened (Plate XXXIVa). No uniform meaning or +pattern name seems to be attached to the designs shown in this specimen, +but an incised design on the wooden rim was readily identified as a +crocodile.</p> + +<p>The small baskets in the coiled weave sometimes have the fronts +entirely covered with beads which are woven into the basket in parallel +lines. The tobacco box shown in Plate XXXV has been covered with cloth +and pitch, in which an artistic design made from the yellow cuticle of +an orchid has been inlaid. Plate XXXVb shows the wooden tops of three +tobacco boxes. Nos. 1 and 2 are carved and inlaid with beads and buttons +in designs which "look pretty," but number 3 depicts a hunting scene in +which two men and a dog are hunting the alligator. Several beads are +missing so that it requires quite a stretch of the imagination to secure +the impression the native artist meant to impart.</p> + +<p>The prized trinket baskets of the women generally have the fronts +covered with cloth, to which hundreds of colored beads are sewed, in +elaborate designs (Plate XXXVI).</p> + +<p>The patterns brought out in the weaving are as beautiful and +intricate as they are confusing. Five typical specimens of cloth used in +women's skirts are shown in Plate XXXVII. In them can be found several +apparently different designs to some of which names were assigned, but +as there was no agreement among my informers I refrain from giving them +here. The pattern marked X in (c) was generally identified as +"alligator," yet the weavers were by no means agreed.</p> + +<p>The strip of cloth (Plate XXXVIII) was intended for the center +breadth in a woman's skirt and shows the typical designs employed in the +best garments.</p> + +<p>The extensive use of beads is shown in Plates XXXIX-XL. Carrying +bags, clothing, combs, necklaces, armlets, belts and sheath covers are +partially covered with or made up of colored beads, always in designs, +yet very few of these patterns have generally accepted meanings or +names. The same holds true of the designs in shell disks, which, on the +finer garments, take the place of beads. A few exceptions to this are +found in which realistic patterns appear in (Plate XXXIb and Fig. +34).</p> + +<a name="34"></a> +<img src="images/FIG034.JPG" alt="FIG. 34. REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS +AND SHELL DISKS."> + +<p>Like the bead work, the embroidery and applique found on many +garments are added "to make pretty." Some of this work is quite fine, +but in general that of recent years is either inferior to that found on +old garments or is borrowed from, or made by, the Bila-an women. Some +garments, with designs produced by oversewing before dyeing, are seen +here, but they are recent importations from the Kulaman or Tagakaolo +tribes.</p> + +<p>Necklaces and leglets are made of rattan and are decorated with +burned lines or by being overlaid with platted strips of orchid and fern +cuticle (Fig. 2).</p> + +<p>A few rare specimens, such as personal ornaments or basket rims, have +sewed in designs in which the sewing has been done with fern cuticle +(Plate XXXIVb).</p> + +<p>Incised patterns appear on nearly all the bamboo lime and tobacco +holders, but here individual fancy plays such an important part that a +hundred specimens might be examined without finding duplicate patterns. +Fig. 14. shows nine of these tubes covered with cut-in designs, yet only +one figure, that marked X in <i>b</i> could be identified. This was said +to be the familiar crocodile.</p> + +<p>Coming to the work in brass and copper we encounter an entirely new +type of design. In some cases straight inlaid or overlaid strips and +twisted wires are used to ornament the specimen; while in the raised and +cut-in lines on the bells we find simple patterns. In the main, however, +the ornamentation on this class of material consists of complicated +scrolls (Plate XLI), designs suggesting flower or tree patterns, or +conventionalized figures. One only needs to compare these objects with +similar specimens from Borneo and the Malayan Islands of the South, to +find the source of this type of ornamentation.[53] In fact the imitation +of Moro wares is practiced today. In Plate XLIa and b are shown two +betel nut boxes—No. 1 the work of the Samal Moro, No. 2 the +imitation of the inlaid work on the top of the first specimen. This last +was made in my presence, and with the expressed intention of duplicating +the Moro box. However, in this case, as in all others, the Bagobo caster +did not attempt to exactly reproduce the work of another, but simply +borrowed a broad idea, and thus he often creates new forms.</p> + +<p>[53] See LING ROTH, Oriental Silver Work.</p> + +<p>Not once did the writer receive a name for any pattern or design +shown in metal work. A careful study of the method of work, of the +articles produced, and of the folk-lore and religious observances +connected with the work in brass and copper brings one to the conclusion +that this class of work is of comparatively recent introduction and that +the instructors in the art were the Samal Moro.</p> + +<p>Mention has already been made of the designs incised on combs and +other objects which are afterwards filled with lime. Just here it is +interesting to note that, so far as is known, the southern end of +Mindanao and adjacent small islands, are the only parts of the +Philippines in which this decoration, so typical of Melanesia, is to be +found.</p> + +<p>Realistic carvings were seen used in only two capacities. The first +in certain ceremonies, where extremely crude wooden figures were offered +to the spirits in exchange for the sick person (see p. 103), and the +second, the wooden decoys used in hunting doves (See Plate XVIII).</p> + +<p>Summing up our present information we can say: first, that the Bagobo +makes use of certain realistic designs which in some cases have become +conventionalized but still retain their former significance; second, +that the greater part of decoration in beads, shell disks, embroidery or +applique, as well as the incised designs in lime boxes and the like, +have no meaning to the people of the present day, and are added only to +make the objects more beautiful in the eyes of the owners. In this work +there are no set patterns and each artist gives full reign to the fancy +in producing these figures. Third, that the ideas for the patterns +inlaid, incised, and cast in brass or copper, are furnished by the +examples of this work coming from the Malays to the south, but that even +in these the artist has taken great liberties in the execution of the +design. Fourth, that one type of decoration, i. e., the incised figures +filled with lime, suggests the possible influence of Melanesia on the +artistic ideas of this people.</p> + +<center><h3>MYTHOLOGY.</h3></center> + +<p>During my stay with this tribe I heard parts of many folk-tales, some +chanted, others told with gravity, and still others which caused the +greatest levity. My limited knowledge of the dialect and pressure of +other work caused me to delay the recording of these tales until I +should begin a systematic study of the language. Owing to unforeseen +circumstances, that time never came, and it is now possible to give only +the slightest idea of a very rich body of tales.[54]</p> + +<p>[54] Since this was written MISS BENEDICT has published an excellent +collection of Bagobo Myths (<i>Journal of American Folklore</i>, 1913, +XXVI. pp. 13-63.)</p> + +<p>In the main these stories are an attempt to account for the present +order of things. In the tale which we quoted in part, at the beginning +of the paper, we are told of an all-powerful being who created the earth +and all that is. Other spirits and many animals inhabited the sky and +earth which the creator had made. Of the latter only one, the monkey, is +named. He and his kind, we are told, once inhabited and owned all the +world, but were dispossessed by two human beings, Toglái and Toglibon, +from whom all the people of the world are descended. After their death a +great drought caused the people to disperse and seek out new homes in +other parts. They journeyed in pairs and because of the objects which +they carried with them, they are now known by certain names. One couple, +for instance, carried with them a small basket called <i>bira-an</i>, +and for this reason their children are known as Bira-an (Bila-an). From +the time of the dispersion until the arrival of the Spaniards we learn +that certain mythical heroes performed wonderful feats, in some cases +being closely identified with the spirits themselves, in others making +use of magic, the knowledge of which seems to have been common in those +times.</p> + +<p>The two following tales are typical of those commonly heard in a +Bagobo gathering. The first was told by Urbano Eli, a Bagobo of +Malilla.</p> + +<p>"After the people were created a man named LumábEt was born. He could +talk when he was one day old and the people said he was sent by Manama. +He lived ninety seasons and when still a young man he had a hunting dog +which he took to hunt on the mountain. The dog started up a white deer +and LumábEt and his companions followed until they had gone about the +world nine times when they finally caught it. At the time they caught +the deer LumábEt's hair was grey and he was an old man. All the time he +was gone he had only one banana and one camote with him for food. When +night came he planted the skin of the banana and in the morning he had +ripe bananas to eat, and the camotes came the same way. When he had +caught the deer LumábEt called the people to see him and he told them to +kill his father. They obeyed him and then LumábEt took off his headband +and waved it in the air over the dead man, and he at once was alive +again. He did this eight times and at the eighth time his father was +small like a little boy, for every time the people cut him in two the +knife took off a little flesh. So all the people thought LumábEt was +like a god.</p> + +<p>"One year after he killed the deer he told all the people to come +into his house, but they said they could not, for the house was small +and the people many. But LumábEt said there was plenty of room, so all +entered his house and were not crowded. The next morning the +<i>diwata</i>, <i>tigyama</i>, and other spirits came and talked with +him. After that he told the people that all who believed that he was +powerful could go with him, but all who did not go would be turned into +animals and <i>buso</i>. Then LumábEt started away and those who stayed +back became animals and <i>buso</i>.</p> + +<p>"He went to the place Binaton, across the ocean, the place where the +earth and sky meet. When he got there he saw that the sky kept going up +and down the same as a man opening and closing his jaws. LumábEt said to +the sky 'You must go up,' but the sky replied 'No.' At last LumábEt +promised the sky that if he let the others go he might catch the last +one who tried to pass; so the sky opened and the people went through; +but when near to the last the sky shut down and caught the bolo of next +to the last man. The last one he caught and ate.</p> + +<p>"That day LumábEt's son Tagalion was hunting and caught many animals +which he hung up. Then he said he must go to his father's place; so he +leaned an arrow against a <i>baliti</i> tree and sat on it. It began to +grow down and carried him down to his father's place, but when he +arrived there were no people there. He saw a gun, made out of gold, and +some white bees in the house. The bees said 'You must not cry; we can +take you to the sky,' So he rode on the gun, and the bees took him to +the sky and he arrived there in three days.</p> + +<p>"One of the men was looking down on the land below, and all of the +spirits made fun of him and said they would take out his intestines so +that he would be like one of them and never die. The man refused to let +them, and he wanted to go back home because he was afraid; so Manama +said to let him go.</p> + +<p>"The spirits took leaves of the <i>karan</i> grass and tied to his +legs, and made a chain of the grass and let him down to the earth. When +he reached the earth he was no longer a man but was an owl."</p> + +<p>(2) The second tale, which was recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J., is +as follows:</p> + +<p>"In one of the torrents which has its origin at the foot of Apo, +there were two eels which, having acquired extraordinary magnitude, had +no room in so little water, on account of which they determined to +separate, each one taking a different direction in search of the sea or +the great lakes. One arrived, happily, at the sea by the Padada river, +and from it came eels in the sea. The other descending a torrent, +swimming and confining himself as well as he might, enclosed in these +narrow places, said to himself 'I haven't the slightest idea of what the +sea is, but it appears to me that when I see before me an extraordinary +clearness on a limpid surface, that must be the sea, and with one spring +I will jump into it.' So saying, he arrived at a point where the torrent +formed a cascade. He noticed that it cut off the horizon and to his view +it appeared of an extraordinary clearness; he thought he could swim +there without limit, and at his pleasure, and that this, in fine, must +be the sea. He darted into it, but the unhappy one was dashed against +the rocks, and too fatigued to swim through the rough waters, he lost +his life. His body lay there inert and formed undulations which are now +the folds which the earth forms to the left of Mt. Apo."</p> + +<center><<h3>OTHER BRANCHES OF THE TRIBE.</h3></center> + +<p>To the south and southwest of Mt. Apo, and west of Digos, are seven +settlements, the inhabitants of which are known as Obo or Tigdapaya. On +the south they meet the Bila-an, and, like this latter people, extend +over the watershed into the valley of the Cotabato river. On the +northwest they come in contact with the Ata. They have intermarried with +both of these tribes, have adopted many of their customs, and in some +cases their manner of dress. However, they consider themselves, and are +considered by the Bagobo, as a part of that tribe, and recognize +Tongkaling as their chief. Bagobo customs and blood predominate, +although intermarriage with the Negrito was evident in nearly every +individual of this division seen by the writer.</p> + +<p>Immediately wrest of Daliao are three villages whose people are known +as Eto or Ata. Aside from a slightly greater percentage of individuals +showing negroid features, these people do not differ in any respect from +the Bagobo. It does not seem that they should be classed with the people +later referred to as Ata. To the north, their lands join the territory +held by the Guianga.</p> + +<p>The habitat of the division called Guianga begins a few miles back of +the Gulf and extends west to the watershed. An east and west line drawn +through the village of Taloma marks their southern boundary, while to +the north they approach the Lasan river. They are found in a number of +scattered settlements which owe allegiance and are subject to five petty +<i>datu</i>. Tongkaling is not recognized as having any authority in the +district, and there seems to be no remembrance of a time when any of the +Bagobo rulers held authority over the Guianga. Physically and culturally +they do not seem to be far removed from the Bagobo, while their language +is so closely related that individuals of the two divisions, meeting for +the first time can carry on a conversation. There is, however, +considerable variation between the dialects, both in intonation and +vocabulary.</p> + +<p>Further study may result in raising this branch to the dignity of a +tribe, but the information at hand does not justify us in considering +them other than a dialect group of the Bagobo.</p> + +<a name="II"></a> +<p> </p> +<center><h2>II. BILA-AN.</h2></center> + +<h4>SYNONYMS.</h4> + +<p>(a) TAGALÁGAD—"dwellers in the back country" is the name +generally applied to this tribe by the coast natives.<br> +(b) TAGKOGON—"dwellers in the cogon"—The group living on the +grass plains west of Malalag.<br> +(c) BULÚAN, BULUÁNES—The members of this tribe dwelling near to +Lake Buluan. This group is sometimes identified with the Tagabili or +Tagabulú who also reside in that region.<br> +(d) BIRA-AN, BARA-AN—Synonym for BILA-AN, often used by the +neighboring Bagobo.<br> +(e) VILANES, BILANES.<br> +(f) BALUD or TUMÁNAO—name sometimes applied by early writers to +the Bila-an who live on the Sarangani Islands.</p> + +<p>This tribe is found in the mountains on the west side of Davao Gulf +beginning at an east and west line drawn through Bulatakay and extending +south to Sarangani Point, and they also appear in small numbers in the +Sarangani Islands which lie just south of the mainland. At Bulatakay +they are a day's march back from the coast and to reach them it is +necessary to pass for several hours through a rolling belt of forest +land, then as the mountains are approached, gently sloping cogon plains +about ten miles in width are crossed. West of Malalag they are still far +from the sea with a belt of hill Tagakaolo between them and the coast +people. In this region they have spread out in considerable numbers on +to the grass plains, and for this reason are locally known as Tagkogon +"dwellers in the cogon." On the gulf side of the divide, south of +Malalag, they are found in small groups far back in the mountains, while +between them and the sea are Tagakaolo, Kulaman and Moro. Along the +watershed between the districts of Davao and Cotabato they possess all +the territory and even extend in some numbers into the lowlands toward +Lake Buluan. They are distinctly a mountain people, having never reached +the sea, except near Sarangani Point, until after the advent of the +American. Since then a few hundred have been induced to move to the +coast plantations, and the town of Labau has been established on the +Padada river about six miles back of the coast. According to Mr. H. S. +Wilson, tribal ward headman for the Bila-an, this tribe numbers about +ten thousand persons, of which number fifteen hundred reside on the +Sarangani Islands.</p> + +<p>The material here presented was gathered from the people of Labau, +the Malalag cogon, and those living near the headwaters of the Ma-al and +Padada rivers.</p> + +<p>Formerly a neutral, uninhabited belt extended between them and the +coast people, and at stated intervals they went to recognized trading +points in this territory to exchange their agricultural and forest +products for salt, fish, and other articles of barter. Beyond this +trading and an occasional fight, they had few dealings with the coast +people and seem never to have encountered the Spaniard.</p> + +<p>They are almost unknown to history, for aside from two or three short +accounts,[55] based mostly on hearsay, we find no mention of them. The +coast natives who knew them by name only had many stories concerning +their life and prowess, and one still hears that "the Bila-an are of +small stature but agile like monkeys. One may wander for days through +their territory without encountering a person and then when in a bad +place suddenly see the little people in hundreds swarming down the sides +of impassable cliffs. They are always in such numbers that, while they +use only the bow and arrow, they are almost sure to exterminate the +intruders." As a matter of fact, the Bila-an compare in stature with the +coast natives and differ little from them in color, although a few +individuals of decidedly lighter cast are met with.</p> + +<p>[55] BLAIR and ROBERTSON The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, pp. 239, +282-283. Census of the Philippine Islands, 1905.</p> + +<p>Observations were made on thirty-eight men, but no women could be +induced to submit to being measured. The maximum height of the men was +found to be 163.6 cm.; minimum 142.3 cm.; with an average of 154.7 cm. +The cephalic indices showed 87.8 cm. as the maximum; 74 cm. the minimum; +and 80.4 cm. the average. The greatest length-height index was 78.6 cm.; +the minimum 62.4 cm. and the average 69.7 cm. From these measurements it +appears that the Bila-an are somewhat shorter than the Bagobo; are more +short headed, the majority being brachycephalic; while the height from +tragus to vertex is about the same in both groups, and both have the +crown and back of the head strongly arched. The face[56] is absolutely +shorter and relatively broader than in the Bagobo. The forehead is +usually high and full, but in about one-third of the individuals +measured it was moderately retreating, while in the same proportion the +supra-orbital ridges were quite strongly marked. In other features, as +well as in hair form, eyes, body form and color, this people conform to +the description given of the Bagobo (Plates XLII-XLVIII).</p> + +<p>[56] Measured from the chin to the hair of the forehead. The greater +part of this tribe live far back in the rugged mountains which form the +watershed between the Cotabato valley and the Gulf of Davao. Travel +through that district is entirely on foot, and is principally along the +water courses, so that in going from place to place a person is +continually crossing the stream. From time to time dim trails, scarcely +worthy of that name, lead from the river's bank almost perpendicularly +up the mountain-side or to the summits of high hills, where will be +found one or two frail houses (Plate XLIX). The dwellings are never in +large groups, and more frequently each house is by itself. From one +habitation it is possible to look across the hills and see many others +at no great distance, to reach which would necessitate a descent of +several hundred feet and an equal climb up to each.</p> + +<p>There is considerable variation in the architecture of the dwellings +but the following description of the home of Datu Dialum, on the +headwaters of the Ma-al river, will give the general plan of all.</p> + +<p>Small hardwood poles about twenty feet in length formed the uprights +to which the side and crossbeams were lashed, while in the center of +each end beam smaller sticks were tied to form the king posts. From the +ridge pole small timbers extended to the side beams, thus forming the +framework on which the final topping of flattened bamboo was laid. This +roof was of one pitch and at the sides overhung the walls by about a +foot. Twelve feet above the ground other poles were lashed to the +uprights and on these rested the cross timbers of the floor, which in +turn were covered with broad strips of bark. The side walls extended +between the floor and the beams, but in no place did they extend up to +the roof. Entrance to the dwelling was gained by a notched log.</p> + +<p>Once inside the house the arrangement impressed one as being similar +to those of the Bagobo. Just above the door, and again in the far end of +the room, poles were laid across the beams to form the floors of lofts +which, in this case, were used as sleeping rooms.</p> + +<p>In front of the door, at the opposite side of the room, was a bed of +ashes in which three stones were sunk to form the stove, and above this +was suspended a rack which contained cooking pots, drying wood, ears of +corn, and the like. Close to the stove were a few earthen pots (Fig. 35) +and many short bamboo tubes filled with water, while against the wall +hung rattan frames filled with half cocoanut-shell dishes, spoons, and +two or three old Chinese plates. Near the center of the room stood a +rice mortar made by hollowing out a section of log. At the far end of +the room was a raised sleeping platform, such as is found in all Bagobo +houses, and extending from this to the center and on each side of the +room were narrow stalls where the women were engaged in weaving, and in +which they slept and kept their most valued possessions.</p> + +<a name="35"></a> +<img src="images/FIG035.JPG" alt="FIG. 35. COOKING POT AND COVER."> + +<p>In the description of the house we have mentioned most of the +furnishings. In addition it is customary to find a few well made mats of +<i>pandanus</i> or <i>buri</i> palm leaf. These are spread on the floor +when the owners wish to retire and for the rest of the time are rolled +up and laid along the walls. Carved forked sticks which serve as +torch-holders stand in various parts of the room, while somewhere near +the stove is a miscellany of wooden meat blocks, bamboo fans and fly +swatters, gourds filled with millet, salt, or mashed peppers, and +shovel-shaped or round rice winnowers, which also serve as common eating +dishes for the family and guests. Well made baskets stand by the walls +or hang from pegs along with articles of clothing, while spears, +shields, and other weapons are fastened to side walls or roof.</p> + +<p>Small clearings are found at no great distance from these dwellings +and in them the people raise rice, corn, millet, camotes, sugar-cane, +and a few banana and hemp plants (Plate L). As is the case with all the +wild tribes in this district, the Bila-an make new clearings as soon as +the cogon grass begins to invade their fields, and this in time causes +them to move their homes from one locality to another.</p> + +<p>The domestic animals consist of a few chickens, dogs, an occasional +cat and pig, and in the lower cogon lands, a few families possess +horses. Some fish are secured from the river, while deer, wild pig, +jungle fowl, and other game are taken with traps or secured by +hunting.</p> + +<p>There seems never to have been a time when this tribe was organized +under a single leader as was the case with the Bagobo. Each district is +so isolated from the others and the population so scattering that any +such development has been barred, and hence the people of each river +valley or highland plain have their local ruler. The power of this ruler +is real only so far as his personal influence can make it so. He +receives no pay for his services, but his position makes it possible for +him to secure the help of his fellows when he is in need of workers or +warriors. In return he conducts negotiations with other groups and +administers justice in accordance with the customs handed down from +bygone ages. Upon his death he is succeeded by his eldest son, +unless</p> + +<p>the old men of the group should consider him incompetent, in which +case they will determine upon the successor.</p> + +<p>Warriors who have killed one or more persons[57] are known as +<i>lEbE</i> (Plate XLII), and are permitted to wear plain red suits +decorated with embroidery. Their duties and privileges are much the same +as those of the Bagobo <i>magani</i>.</p> + +<p>[57] Said to be four among the Tagkogon.</p> + +<p>A class known as <i>almo-os</i> is composed mostly of middle-aged +women who are in close communication with the spirits and who, like the +<i>mabalian</i> of the Bagobo, conduct ceremonies to aid in the cure of +the sick, to secure good crops, or to thank the higher beings for their +help and watchfulness. Unlike the <i>mabalian</i>, these women are +seldom midwives, such duties being performed by a group called +<i>fandita</i>.[58] Finally, we learn that slaves are sometimes taken +from neighboring tribes or even from unfriendly settlements of their own +people, to which class may be added offenders against the laws of the +group. Slavery, however, is not very prevalent, for men are not greatly +desired unless needed for a sacrifice, while young girls and women soon +become regular members of their master's family.</p> + +<p>[58] Probably a corruption of the Moro term <i>pandita</i>.</p> + +<p>As has just been indicated a man may have as many wives as he can +secure by purchase or capture, provided they are not blood relations, +but a new wife cannot be added to the family until the one preceding has +borne a child.</p> + +<p>Difficulties are generally settled between the parties concerned, but +if they carry their case to the ruler they must abide by his decision. A +thief is usually compelled to return the stolen property, but in at +least one case the culprit was sacrificed.[59]</p> + +<p>[59] See p. 145.</p> + +<p>Murder can be avenged by a murder so long as the trouble remains a +family affair, but if the case goes to the ruler it is probable that he +will levy a fine on the culprit. Unfaithfulness in a wife can be +punished by the death of one or both offenders if the husband exacts the +punishment, otherwise a fine is imposed.</p> + +<p>The type of clothing worn by this tribe is practically identical with +that of the Bagobo, while the cloth from which it is made is procured by +a like process. However, in the ornamentation of these garments there is +wide variation. Beads are not used to any great extent, but in their +place are intricate embroidered designs which excel, both in beauty and +technique the work of any other wild tribe in the Islands, while on the +more elaborate costumes hundreds of shell disks are used in artistic +designs. The woman's skirt is of hemp and is made in exactly the same +manner as those of the Bagobo, but the general pattern is different, and +it seldom contains the broad decorative center panel (Plate LX).</p> + +<p>Some of the men cut their hair so that it falls in bangs along the +center line of the forehead and behind reaches to the nape of the neck, +but the majority of them, and all the women, allow the back hair to grow +long and tie it in a knot at the back of the head. Ordinarily the men +dispense with head covering, or at most twist a bit of cloth into a +turban, but for special occasions they wear palm leaf hats covered with +many parallel bands of rattan and crowned with notched chicken feathers +(Plate LI). Rarely is a women seen with any kind of head protection or +hair ornament other than a small comb which is peculiar to this tribe +(Fig. 36). This comb is made of bamboo or rattan splints drawn together +at the center but flaring at top and bottom until it forms an ornament +in the shape of an hour glass. The ear plugs worn by the men are of wood +and are undecorated, but those of the women have the fronts overlaid +with incised brass plates (Fig. 37). In other respects the dress of the +women differs little from that of the Bagobo. They have the same +necklaces, arm and finger rings, leglets, and anklets, although in less +quantity. They also carry trinket baskets, but these are larger than +those used by the women of the other tribe and are lacking in bead and +bell pendants. However, they are tastily decorated with designs in +colored bamboo or fern cuticle. We have already noted that the use of +plain red garments is limited to warriors, but cloth of that hue which +contains narrow black stripes may be used by all. Quite a number of +garments are seen in which white pattens appear in a red background +(Plate LVIIIc). In this tribe the use of such suits is not restricted, +but with the neighboring Kulaman they can be worn by warriors[60] +only.</p> + +<a name="36"></a> +<img src="images/FIG036.JPG" alt="FIG. 36. WOMEN'S COMBS."> +<br> +<a name="37"></a> +<img src="images/FIG037.JPG" alt="FIG. 37. A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS. B. +MEN'S EAR PLUGS."> + +<p>[60] See p. 155 for a description of this process. [Transcriber's +note: 20 pages further from this one.]</p> + +<p>Before we proceed further with the description of the life of the +people, it will be well for us to inquire into their religious beliefs, +for, as is the case with all their neighbors, their faith in unseen +beings influences their daily life to a very great extent. The two +following tales deal with the Bila-an genesis.</p> + +<p>"In the beginning was <i>MElú</i>—a being of such great size as +to be beyond comparison with any known thing; who was white, having gold +teeth, and who sat upon the clouds, and occupied all space above.</p> + +<p>"He was very cleanly and was constantly rubbing himself with his +hands in order that he might keep his skin quite white. The scurf or +dead skin which he thus removed, he placed to one side where it +accumulated at last to such a heap that it annoyed him. To be rid of +this annoyance he made the earth, and being pleased with his work, he +decided to make two beings like himself only much smaller in size. This +he did from remnants of the material from which he made the earth.</p> + +<p>"Now, while MElú was making the first two men, and when he had the +first one finished, all excepting the nose; and the second one finished +all excepting the nose and one other part, Tau Tana (Funtana) or Tau +Dalom Tana appeared and demanded of MElú that he be allowed to make the +nose. Then began a great argument in which Tau Dalom Tana gained his +point and did make the noses and placed them on the faces of the first +two people upside down. So great had been the argument over this making +and placing of noses that MElú forgot to finish that part of the second +person and went away to his place above the clouds, and Tau Dalom Tana +went away to his place below the earth. Then came a great rain and the +two people on the earth were about to perish on account of the water +which ran off their heads into their noses. MElú seeing what was +happening came to them and changed their noses, and then told them that +they should save all the hair which came from their heads, and all the +scurf which came from their bodies to the end that when he came again he +might make more people. As time passed there came to be a great many +people, and they lived in a village having plenty to eat and no labor +but the gathering of such fruits as they desired.</p> + +<p>"One day when the rest of the people were about the village and the +near country, a man and woman who had been left behind fell to gazing, +one upon the person of the other, and after a little while they went +away apart from the rest and were gone many days, and when they returned +the woman carried a child in her arms, and the people wondered and were +afraid. When MElú came again soon, knowing what had taken place, he was +very angry and he went away abandoning them, and a great drought came, +when for two seasons no rain fell and everything withered up and died. +At last the people went away, two by two, one man and one woman +together, and MElú never again came to visit his people on +earth."[61]</p> + +<p>[61] Recorded by Mr. H. S. Wilson.</p> + +<p>The writer did not hear the foregoing tale, but the following, with +more or less variation, was told to him by several Bila-an:</p> + +<p>"In the beginning four beings, MElú and Fiuweigh-males, and Dwata and +Sawegh (or sEwE or sEweigh)-females, lived on a small earth or island as +large as a hat and called <i>salnaoñ</i>. There were no trees or grass +on this island, but they had one bird called Baswit. They sent this bird +across the waters to secure some earth, the fruit of the rattan and of +trees. When it returned MElú took the earth and beat it the same as a +woman beats pots until he had made the land, then he planted the seeds +in it and they grew. When he had watched it for a time he said: 'Of what +use is land without people'; so the others said, 'Let us make wax into +people.' They did so, but when they put the wax near to the fire it +melted, so they saw they could not make man that way. Next it was +decided that they should use dirt, and MElú and Fiuweigh began to make +man. All. went well until they were ready to make the nose. Fiuweigh who +was making this part put the nose on upside down and when MElú told him +that the people would drown if he left it that way he became very angry +and refused to change it. When he turned his back, MElú seized the nose +quickly and turned it as it now is, and you can see where, in his haste, +he pressed his fingers (at the root).</p> + +<p>"The people they made were Adnato and Andawi, male and female. These +two had children, Tapi (or Mastafi) and Lakarol. (Informants disagreed +here, part insisting that MEsa, Lakbang, and Mangarang were part of the +first people made.) Their descendants were Sinudal (female), Moáy +(male), Limbay (female), Madinda (female), Sinnamoway (male), Kamansa +(male), Gilay (female), Gomayau (male), Salau (male), Slayen (female), +BaEn (female), Kanfal (female), Latara (male)."</p> + +<p>[Transcriber's note: These identifications of male and female (in +parentheses above and below) are all signaled in the text using +non-ASCII symbols; the symbols for male or female were footnoted.]</p> + +<p>The last was the father of Alimama, the chief informant of this tale. +Inok, dato of Labau, is also of this line, tracing his descent from +Lakbang.</p> + +<p>It is said that MElú and Sawegh now live below, Dwata and Fiuweigh in +the sky.</p> + +<p>A variation of this story credits MElú and Dwata with being the +creators of Fiuweigh and SEweigh. They were the ancestors of men, for +they took earth and made it into the form of people and then whipped it +until it moved. The first people they made were Otis (male) and Lakbang +(female). Two of their children were Mastafi (male) and Lakarol (or +Landol) (female). From these two came all the Bila-an. "These two lived +in a small distant place and their one animal was Baswit—a bird. +They sent him on a long journey and when he returned he brought a piece +of earth and the fruit of a <i>pandag</i> tree. Lakarol planted the +fruit in the piece of earth and when it grew the leaves fell down and +finally made the earth."</p> + +<p>From these tales and later questioning we learn the MElú, or MElE, is +the most powerful of all the natural spirits and that his help is sought +in times of calamity and at very important occasions.</p> + +<p>Duwata (Duatá, Dwata, Adwata, Diwata) is generally considered to be +the wife of MElú and of equal strength with him. She is sometimes +identified with a female spirit called Kalalokan.</p> + +<p>Fiuweigh and SEweigh are now powerful spirits; but there is some +dispute as to whether they have always been so, or once were human.</p> + +<p>Lamot ta Mangayó, also called Mandalangan, is the patron spirit of +the warriors and is in all respects almost identical with Mandarangan of +the Bagobo.</p> + +<p>The <i>busau</i> are a class of spirits, often ill-disposed toward +men, who live in various parts of the mountains. Bakay, one of the +<i>busau</i>, is said to be the owner of the deer and pig and is held in +considerable esteem by the people of the Padada region, but he is not +recognized by the Tagkogon branch of the tribe. Another spirit, Bawi, +who owns the rice, is in great favor with the Padada people, but is +unknown to the latter group. Flau is the spirit of an unborn child whose +mother died in pregnancy. Its cry is often heard at night, and at times +it attacks and injures people.</p> + +<p>These natural spirits are very powerful, and since they sometimes +interest themselves in the doings of mortals it behooves all to keep +their good will. Below them is another class of spirits, less powerful, +but far more concerned in the affairs of men, and for this reason more +to be feared should they become displeased. This class is made up of the +spirits of the dead. A man's spirit, <i>almogol</i>, does not live in +his body, but always accompanies him during life. If at any time it +wanders the man becomes ill, and if it fails to return its owner dies. +After separating from the body the <i>almogol</i> goes to Kilot, a good +place below the earth where there is no work or punishment. There it +spends most of its time, but upon occasion returns to its former haunts +where it aids or injures the living.</p> + +<p>The <i>almo-os</i>, already mentioned,[62] have considerable +influence with all the spirits, but they are particularly close to the +<i>almogol</i>. When a person is ill he is placed in a little house +known as <i>lawig</i> (Plate LII), beside which a fire is kindled. +Nearby are two decorated bamboo sticks, behind which the spirit of the +sick man stands while he watches the proceeding. The <i>almo-os</i> +takes a chicken in his hands and, while five or six assistants dance, he +chants, appealing to the spirit to see the good things that are being +prepared, and to be pleased to return to the sick man. Occasionally, the +music stops and one of the dancers cries "<i>almogol</i>, here is food +for you; you must not go away." After a time the fowl is killed, is +cooked over the fire, and is fed to the invalid, while the "doctor" +continues his song of entreaty. If the call pleases the spirit it will +pass between the bamboo sticks and go to the sick person in the +<i>lawig</i>, but if it is not convinced that it should remain it +departs, and the patient dies. The sick person is kept in the spirit +house for a day and is then returned to his home.</p> + +<p>[62] See page 133.</p> + +<p>Little structures known as <i>boloñ</i> are erected for other spirits +who may be trying to injure the <i>almogol</i> or attempting to persuade +it to leave its owner.</p> + +<p>Certain ceremonies and offerings occur after a death, at the birth of +a child, at planting and harvest times, and when the warriors are about +to start on a raid; all of which will be spoken of in a later paragraph. +When approaching a place known to be owned by certain spirits, it is +thought wise to make a small offering. On the trail to Ma-al is a large +rock which marks the divide between the mountains and the open cogon +lands. As the writer's party approached this stone one of the men +removed some of his leg bands and placed them beside the rock, at the +same time praying the <i>busau</i> to "take the present and do not let +any of our party fall sick or be injured on the journey." It is also +customary for a man who wishes to buy anything or to make a trade, first +to make an offering of betel-nut to the spirit of some rich man, and to +ask his help in the venture.</p> + +<p>Some new clearings are cut in the jungle each year, after the +constellation <i>Balatik</i> has risen out of the sea. The spirits place +this sign in the heavens to notify all that the land should be cleared, +but it does not call for a sacrifice as in the case of the people we +have previously described. At that time the men cut the trees and +underbrush, and after allowing them to dry, fire them. They also make +the holes into which the women drop seed rice.</p> + +<p>When the land is ready for planting, a little house called +<i>botabwE</i> is built in the center of the field, and beside it is +placed a platform or table, <i>sina-al</i>, on which is an offering of +food. Early in the morning, while the others sleep, the owner and his +wife carry the seed rice to the field and place it on the +<i>botabwE</i>. After a time they eat some of the food which has +previously been offered and then begin to plant, beginning close to the +spirit house. Soon they are joined by other workers who aid them in the +planting. These assistants do not receive payment for their services +other than food while working and like help when in need. At this time a +bamboo pole, with one end split and spread open like a cup,[63] is +placed in front of the elevated platform of the family dwelling and the +guardian spirit of the fields is promised that after the harvest he will +receive the new seed rice. While the rice is growing the men attend to +the fences and the women keep down weeds or frighten birds and other +intruders away. When the crops have matured all the people of a +neighborhood will meet at the home of the chief, and there celebrate a +ceremony known as <i>Pandoman</i>. Two bundles of rice are laid on a mat +in the center of the room, and beside them a spear is thrust into the +floor. These are offerings to the great spirits MElú and Dwata who are +besought to give health to the workers while they are gathering crops. +As soon as this offering is made, the men begin to build the rice +granaries; meanwhile the women silently guard the mat and gifts, for +until the new storehouses are completed there must be no dancing or +merry-making. When all is ready for the harvest, the wife of the owner +goes alone to the field, and having cut a few heads of grain, she +carries them back to the house. One portion is placed in the +<i>sabak</i> another on a little platform, <i>gramso</i>, near to the +house, as an offering to MElú and Dwata; and the balance is cooked and +eaten by the family. The following morning all the women go to the +fields to gather the harvest. When the last bundle has been carried to +the house a celebration begins, agongs and <i>EdEl</i>[64] furnish the +music for the dancers, and for a day and a night all feast and make +merry; then the workers return to their homes carrying small gifts of +cooked food or new rice.</p> + +<p>[63] This pole which is here known as <i>sabak</i> is the same as the +<i>tambara</i> of the Bagobo. See p. 66 and Fig. 12.</p> + +<p>[64] See p. 110 note. [Transcriber's note: 30 pages earlier.]</p> + +<p>Aside from clearing the land and helping somewhat with the rice +crops, the men seldom concern themselves with work in the fields but +leave the cultivation of corn, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and the like to +the women.</p> + +<p>A large part of the food of the tribe is furnished by the fruits and +herbs of the jungle and here again the women are the chief providers. +Although in the sago industry both sexes have well defined duties.</p> + +<p>Along the edge of the cogon lands are many large <i>buri</i> +palms,[65] from which a starch commercially known as sago is secured. +The men cut down a tree close to its roots and remove the hard outer +bark, thus exposing the soft fibrous interior (Plate LIII); then a +section of bamboo is bent so as to resemble an adze[sic], and with this +the men loosen or break up the soft interior portion of the trunk. This +is removed to a near-by stream, and is placed in a bark vat into which +water is led by means of bamboo tubes. Here a woman works it with her +hands until the starch grains are separated from the fibrous matter. As +the water drains slowly out the fine starch is carried with it into a +coarse cloth sieve, which retains all the larger matter but allows the +starch to be carried into another bark vat below. Fresh water passes +slowly through this lower vat, removing the bitter sap from the flour, +which is deposited on the bottom of the vat. From time to time this is +scraped up and placed in baskets where it is kept until needed. The +flour, while rather tasteless, is nutritious and in years of drought is +the chief source of food supply.</p> + +<p>[65] <i>Corypha umbraculifera</i>.</p> + +<p>Preparation of the meals, care of the children, basket and mat +making, weaving and decoration of clothing, take up most of the time of +the women when they are not engaged in the cultivation of the fields or +in search of forest products.</p> + +<p>The hardest work in the fields falls to the men; they also strip the +hemp needed in weaving, while a few of them are skilled workers in brass +and copper and turn out bells and other ornaments not at all inferior to +those of the coast natives. Their methods of casting as well as their +manufactures are identical with those of the Bagobo from whom they +probably learned the art. So far as could be learned no iron work is +done by members of this tribe, and the few spears and knives possessed +by the warriors seem to be trade articles.</p> + +<p>The old men claim that until recent years the bow and arrow was their +sole offensive weapon. It is certain that today they have a greater +variety of arrows and are more skillful in the use of this type of +weapon than are any of their neighbors. None of the weapons found on the +gulf side of the divide appeared to be poisoned, but a number secured by +Major Porter from the Lake Buluan region seem to have been so treated +(Fig. 38). Different types of arrows have been developed for different +purposes; one for fighting, another for deer and pig, another for +monkeys, and still others for fish and birds (Fig. 39). Birds are killed +also by means of reed blow guns, identical in type with those shown on +page 73, Fig. 18. As a rule such weapons are used by boys. Pitch sticks +(Fig. 40), chicken snares, and fish traps are in common use, but bird +nets and wooden decoys seem to be unknown.</p> + +<a name="38"></a> +<img src="images/FIG038.JPG" alt="FIG. 38. BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM +LAKE BULÚAN REGION."> +<br> +<a name="39"></a> +<img src="images/FIG039.JPG" alt="FIG. 39. BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON +USE."> +<br> +<a name="40"></a> +<img src="images/FIG040.JPG" alt="FIG. 40. PITCH STICK USED IN THE +CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS."> + +<p>When on a raid warriors carry beautifully carved shields, bows and +arrows, spears, and fighting knives (Plates LIV-LV). They are in bad +repute with the coast natives, but are really far less warlike and +troublesome than any of their neighbors. Their isolated dwellings serve +as protection against invaders, but at the same time make it difficult +to gather large bodies of men for raiding purposes. It is only when +urged on by an invasion of their country, by a desire for revenge for +real or fancied wrongs, or when a victim is needed for a sacrifice that +great raids are planned. Before a war party is to start against an enemy +the leader takes eight pieces of betel nut and some leg bands and +placing them on his shield, bids his followers lay their weapons upon +them. Addressing the guardian spirit of the warriors, he speaks as +follows: "Now listen Lamot ta Mangayó, let the person who killed my +brother come to meet us even though his head does ache, for now we offer +to you. Give us good fortune in the fight." Upon returning from the fray +they place eight whole betel nuts, together with leaves, on a plate, and +having set it outside the house, one of the warriors calls to MElú +saying: "If the brother of the man we have killed in payment for my +brother calls on you for aid, you must not give heed, for here we make a +present to you."</p> + +<p>There are no restrictions placed upon a pregnant woman, who, as a +rule, continues her regular duties until near the time of delivery.[66] +When the first pains begin an old man or woman offers four pieces of +betel nut to MElú, and to the spirit of the child's grandfather, if +deceased. The midwife prepares a drink which is supposed to aid in the +delivery, and after the birth she cuts the umbilical cord with a bamboo +knife. She also assists about the house for a time, and for these +services receives two or three Chinese plates, some small knives, rings +for the right arm, and some needles. The father is not under any +restrictions at this time, but for a day of two he will gather young +<i>patina</i> palms and from them prepare food for his wife.</p> + +<p>[66] A woman does not work during her periods, and any food prepared +by her at that time would be refused by all who knew her condition.</p> + +<p>From birth until marriage the career of the child is without special +event. He is a welcome addition to the family, but no ceremonies attend +either his naming, or his arrival at the age of puberty.</p> + +<p>As a rule, a youth does not take a wife until he is near twenty years +of age, and then his mate is generally of his own choosing. Having +decided upon a suitable girl he informs his parents and the friends he +may wish to accompany him when he goes to her home to press his suit. +Arrived at the house, the father of the suitor expresses his belief that +his son wishes to reside there since he now asks the daughter for his +wife. In reply he is told that the family is poor, having neither +agongs, animals, or other things of value. The suitor at once makes an +offering of some of these desired articles, but whatever the gift may +be, a return present equal to half its value must be made.[67] Should +the girl's parents reject the gift all negotiations would be called off +and the guests return home, but as a rule, both families are well aware +of and favorable to the expected wedding sometime before the visit of +the groom's parents. After the exchange of gifts, food is furnished +first to the guests and later to the couple, who in the presence of all +the friends, feed each other with rice and are henceforth considered as +husband and wife. Until after the birth of a child the couple live with +the girl's family and the groom serves his father-in-law. After the +birth of an heir the couple establish a home of their own and to it the +husband may bring other wives if he desires. He pays a price for these +new wives, but does not give any services to their families. The first +mate is considered superior to the others, and in case her husband dies, +she acts as administrator of his property; however, the children of a +second wife share equally with those by the first marriage.</p> + +<p>[67] Note the similarity to the Bagobo custom. Page 101.</p> + +<p>The evening following a death, the friends gather and throughout the +night sing of the virtues of the deceased and of their own sorrow. The +body is placed on a mat in the center of the house and for three days is +watched over by the relatives, who, during this time, abstain from +music, dancing, shouting, or loud talking. The women cease from weaving +and the men refrain from all labor. A breaking of this taboo would +result in the certain death of the offender, for the spirit of the dead +man is still near at hand and is sure to wreak his vengeance on those +who show him disrespect. Finally, the body is wrapped in mats and is +buried at some little distance from the house. All the people return to +the dwelling, where the headman makes a cup out of leaves, and having +placed in it a narrow belt or string, together with betel leaves, sets +it adrift on a near-by stream, while all the men shout.[68] This removes +the ban, so that all the people can resume their regular +occupations.</p> + +<p>[68] See pp. 157 and 161. [Transcriber's note: This is page 144.]</p> + +<p>If the deceased has been a person of great importance, the death +should be followed eight days later by a human sacrifice. This rite, +while less common than with the Bagobo, is by no means infrequent, and +may be occasioned by several causes beside that of death. For instance, +if a person has been ill for a long time and his relatives have become +convinced that an enemy has used magic to bring about the misfortune, +they may seize and sacrifice him, even though he be a member of their +own community. A case is known where a thief was put to death in this +manner. As there is considerable variation in the accounts of this +important ceremony the writer has thought it wise to give the +descriptions of two eye-witnesses.</p> + +<p>The first informant was an eighteen year old Bila-an boy of Labau +named Lantingan. His account is as follows:</p> + +<p>"Sololin of Ma-al, the wife of Karan, a Bila-an living near Digos, +died and her husband, in company with Umook, Gamban, and Bunod, Bagobos +of Digos, and the people of Labau, decided that a sacrifice was +necessary both because of the death and in order that the size, wealth, +and fame of the tribe might be increased. About this time Dianon, a +Bila-an of Latian (now deceased), caught a man named Saligon stealing +camotes, sugar-cane, and corn from the land.[69] He bound and tied the +man, and after a conference with Karan, Dianon agreed to turn over his +prisoner for the sacrifice if paid five agongs and one gun.</p> + +<p>[69] The woman Sololin had planted this sugar-cane and is reported to +have eaten some of it just prior to her death. The cane stolen was from +the patch, but the informant could not say whether or not this had +anything to do with later developments.</p> + +<p>"The sacrifice took place on a stream called Matinao near Labau +during the new moon. Two poles were sunk into the ground seven feet +apart, and a cross-piece attached about six feet above the ground. The +culprit was tied with hands crossed, one on each side of the horizontal +pole so that his arms were high above his head, and his feet were +fastened to a stake.</p> + +<p>"The men gathered close around the poles, but the women and children +stood at a distance. Karan took his stand just back and to the right of +the victim, and Umook stood in front on the left side. Both unsheathed +their knives and then they called upon the spirits Dwata, MElú and Lamot +ta Mangayó to look and see that they were killing the man because of his +great fault; if this were not true they surely would not kill him.[70] +At this point Saligon, the victim, told the men that he was not afraid +to die, that if they killed him, their fault would be great, but that if +they would release him, he would return at once to his home in Bilawan +and would not cause them any trouble because of what they had proposed +to do. When he stopped talking, Karan struck him from in front just +below the ribs with his fighting knife, and Umook struck him from in +back. The other men present who were willing to pay for the privilege +then struck at the body with their knives. The body was then cut down +and buried in a shallow grave already prepared for it. No parts were +carried away, although in some cases the women take the long hairs of +the victim and sew them in the designs on the men's trousers in place of +black thread."[71]</p> + +<p>[70] The informant here added that if the man had not been guilty, +Karan and Umook would surely have been punished with sickness; but since +they were not ill, it is certain that he was bad, and that Dwata had +taken his body up and would not punish his murderers.</p> + +<p>[71] The informant further volunteered, that the Bila-an make a +sacrifice every two years, and that several years ago his uncle named KE +was the victim. At that time he was too young to remember the +details.</p> + +<p>Datu Baklay who now lives near the Padada river, but was formerly a +resident of the Malalag cogon plains, claims that the ceremony is not a +yearly event, as is the case with the Bagobo, neither does it follow +each death; but if the deceased has been a person of great importance or +a member of the ruler's family it should take place in eight days, +regardless of the phase of the moon or the position of the stars. He +further insists that neither <i>Balatik</i> nor any other constellation +governs the time of an offering, nor does such a ceremony insure better +crops or success in war. He describes the sacrifice following the death +of Datu Kalayan, his father, as follows:</p> + +<p>"A Bila-an slave was purchased for one agong and preparations made +for a sacrifice. A small house without floor or sides was built in the +forest some distance from the town, and in this were two upright poles +which supported a crossbeam at a height of about seven feet. Near them +and inside the house a shallow grave was dug and then the victim was +brought in. He was tied to the horizontal pole, hands crossed one on +each side of the beam. The men filled the house, leaving a free place +only near the victim, and the women and children crowded close around in +the yard. After addressing the spirits, Lamot ta Mangayó, MElú, and +Dwata, I placed my spear to the man's side, and then all the male +relatives took hold of the shaft and at my signal forced the weapon +through the body. Other men then cut at the body with their knives, +finally releasing it from the pole. While it lay on the ground the women +and boys were allowed to enter the house and throw spears at it, after +which it was buried."</p> + +<p>Baloey, a Kagan living at Padada, claims to have seen a Bila-an +sacrifice at Ma-al, about ten years ago, while Bagobo Datu Ansig of +Talun, and Tongkaling of Cibolan claim to have witnessed several of +these events. As their accounts agree in most particulars with the two +just recorded, it seems probable that we have here a fairly accurate +account of a rite which no white man has seen or can hope to see.</p> + +<p>In studying the decorative art of this people a person encounters the +same difficulties as with the Bagobo. Nearly all garments are covered +with elaborate patterns (Plates LVI-LX), to some of which all the people +will give the same names and explanations; but by far the greater +portion of the designs have only pattern names which are unexplained. +Many designs are readily identified as men and alligators. In Fig. 41 +the forms marked a are identified as men and women, while the +conventionalized crocodile is shown in the same plates by the figures +marked b. Fig. 42 is perhaps the most interesting since it shows in one +garment the process of conventionalization. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, are +realistic representations of the human form; in 5 and 6 the heads are +lacking but the figures are easily recognized, while the balance have +lost all resemblance to the original, except for the uplifted arms and +spread legs, However, the great majority of decorative patterns on +clothing are without meaning to the mass of the people, and this is true +also of the designs on baskets, in mats, the incised designs often seen +on pottery jars, and of the carvings which frequently cover hangers, +tobacco tubes, and the like.</p> + +<a name="41"></a> +<img src="images/FIG041.JPG" alt="FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S +CLOTHING."> +<br> +<a name="42"></a> +<img src="images/FIG042.JPG" alt="FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S +CLOTHING."> + +<p>The language of this tribe, while quite uniform among its divisions, +varies considerably from that of any of their coast neighbors. There is +at once noticeable a more common use of obscure vowel and consonant +sounds, such as b, f, E, a, and k, in the beginning, end or even in the +body of the word; while the letter f, seldom found in Philippine +dialects, is here very common; and finally, there is wide variation in +vocabulary.</p> + +<p>There are certain ill-defined tales to the effect that this tribe +once lived about Lake Buluan, and one writer[72] has attempted to show +that the tribal name is derived from that early home. Today they are +still in considerable numbers in that region, and this together with the +fact that they are now, and have been since the advent of the white man, +primarily an interior mountain people, helps to give credence to the +belief that they have spread to their present homes from the lake +district. Their language is a further proof that they have long been +separated from the people of the Davao Gulf region, for it differs more +from all the other dialects studied than did any of these vary among +themselves. Despite the foregoing statement, this brief sketch has shown +that in material culture, religion, and even physical type this tribe +does not differ radically from the Bagobo.</p> + +<p>[72] BLUMENTRITT, <i>Smithsonian Report</i> for 1899.</p> + +<a name="III"></a> +<p> </p> +<center><h2>III. KULAMAN.</h2></center> + +<h4>SYNONYMS.</h4> + +<p>(a) CULAMANES.<br> +(b) MANOBO.</p> + +<p>According to Governor Bolton this tribe numbers about thirty-five +hundred individuals and occupies a considerable portion of the coast, +and adjacent mountains, from the Padada river on the north to Sarangani +Bay on the south. On the east side of Davao Gulf its members are found +along the beach and in the mountains, from Sigaboy to Cape San Agustin, +and also in a few scattered villages on the southeastern Pacific +Coast.</p> + +<p>By their neighbors they are known as Kulaman or Manobo. The former +designation is translated as "bad man," but it is probable that they +received the name from the town of Kulaman, where they formerly resided. +They are equally well known as Manobo—a word meaning "man." +Earlier writers, misled by these two names, have generally treated this +people as forming two distinct groups, but this is quite incorrect, both +names being applied to a part or to the whole of the tribe. It has also +been customary to describe them as a part of the great Manobo tribe +which inhabits a large portion of Central and Northeastern Mindanao. The +writer is of the opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to +justify such a classification and that for the present we must consider +them as distinct from the Manobo of the northern district as are the +other tribes of Davao Gulf.</p> + +<p>According to their own tales, the Kulaman once held all the coast +from the Padada River to Sarangani Bay, but did not extend far back from +the sea, since in the mountains lived the Tagakaolo and Bila-an with +whom they were constantly at war. When the Moro appeared on their coasts +and offered help against the hill tribes in return for land, they were +gladly received and were given several village sites near to the mouths +of various rivers. Aside from a few minor quarrels, the Kulaman have +always lived on friendly terms with these later comers, and not a few of +the tribe have been converted to Mohammedism.</p> + +<p>Influenced by their new allies they organized under several petty +rulers who were subservient to the datu at Kulaman, and with this +superior organization they were able to carry on such successful warfare +against the hill tribes that the Tagakaolo were, for a time, partially +under their rule.</p> + +<p>When the Spaniards arrived and undertook to subdue the Moro, the +Kulaman cast their lot with their Mohammedan allies, and even after the +power of the Moro was broken, they remained irreconcilable and +frequently raided the settlements under the care of the Spanish +priests.</p> + +<p>The recent history of the tribe, as told by Datu Bongkalasan of +Padada, as is follows: "About a hundred years ago when Gogo became +<i>datu</i>, he left Kulaman and settled at Piapi, not far from Padada, +and planted the cocoanut trees which can still be seen there. He was a +man with a very small head, but his arms were as large as a man's legs. +He lived until very old, and during his lifetime never did any work but +was always a great warrior. Under him the tribe became strong and all +the other <i>datu</i> feared him. When he died his son Kolatau my uncle, +succeeded him. Like his father, he was a great warrior and all the +neighboring tribes paid him slaves and other tribute. His two sons died +during his lifetime; so upon his death the leadership fell to me, +Bongkalasan."</p> + +<p>By the time Bongkalasan became ruler, the influence of the Spaniards +was strong enough to break the power of any coast <i>datu</i>, and after +a hostile demonstration by the new ruler his town was destroyed and his +following scattered. A part of the people took to the hills while others +migrated to the east side of the Gulf and settled near Sigaboy. It is +not believed that any members of this tribe were in that vicinity prior +to this time. A further migration took place shortly after the arrival +of the Americans, when a brother of Bongkalasan took a number of the +Kulaman over to Sigaboy. A certain amount of communication is kept up +between the people on both sides of the Gulf and the dialects are still +so similar that it is certain the separation has not been for any great +period of time.</p> + +<p>Upon the establishment of American rule a number of hemp planters +settled along the coast and soon their inducements to laborers began to +scatter the people, until today members of this tribe can be found as +far north as Santa Cruz. The power and influence of the <i>datu</i> has +waned until he now has a following of less than two hundred people. Only +that portion of the tribe which retired to the hills still maintains any +semblance of their old prowess and even those groups are growing smaller +year by year.</p> + +<p>At the height of their power the men of the tribe were noted as +boat-builders[73] and fishermen. Fighting also took up a considerable +portion of their time, for added to their desire for loot and slaves was +a demand for victims imposed by the warrior deity. The women cultivated +little patches of corn, camotes, and some cocoanuts, and at certain +seasons all the members of the tribe went to the forest to gather sago, +but aside from this the sea furnished most of their food supply. +According to their own stories they did not cultivate rice until recent +years, and Datu Bongkalasan insists that none of the people planted rice +when he was a boy. It is his belief that all the ceremonies connected +with the rice culture were learned from the Tagakaolo and Bila-an.</p> + +<p>[73] This art is now practically lost and their boats are secured +from the Moro.</p> + +<p>From the Spanish writers[74] we hear little but evil of this people. +They are spoken of as warlike, superstitious, treacherous, and vengeful +as head-hunters "who expose the heads of their enemies on poles," and as +slavers. From Father GISBERT[75] we learn that in 1886, about twelve +hundred members of the tribe were converted to Christianity; but during +the period following the departure of the Spaniards most of them +deserted the faith and returned to the old life. Since American +occupation they have been among the most troublesome people of Southern +Mindanao, and only as late as 1911 were responsible for the death of a +number of planters and the destruction of the plantations in the +neighborhood of Nuin. They are rapidly breaking up as a tribe, and are +intermarrying with the coast natives and hill tribes, from both of whom +they are adopting artifacts and ideas. Already they have so altered +their dwellings that we cannot refer to a typical Kulaman home; their +house-hold utensils[76] are those of their neighbors, and this is true +also of most of the clothing, although one special type will be +mentioned later on.</p> + +<p>[74] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. LV, p. 556.</p> + +<p>[75] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 242.</p> + +<p>[76] Long narrow hemp cloth pillows (fig. 43) and round waterproof +boxes with infitting, tray-like tops (fig. 44) are found in nearly every +house. The use of these two articles is not confined to this people, but +is typical of them. The same type of box is found among the Manobo of +the Agusan river valley.</p> + +<a name="43"></a> +<img src="images/FIG043.JPG" alt="FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW +COVER."> + +<a name="44"></a> +<img src="images/FIG044.JPG" alt="FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH +INFITTING TOP."> + +<p>As a result of their slave raids, and the adoption of captive women +and their offspring into the family, we find great variation in the +members of the tribe (Plates LXI-LXII).</p> + +<p>Measurements on twenty-seven men gave the following results:<br> +Height:—Maximum 169.0 cm.; minimum 146.0 cm.; average 158.3 +cm.<br> Cephalic Index:—Maximum 86.4; minimum 71.7; average +78.1.<br> Length-Height. Index:—Maximum 76.5; minimum 61.9; +average 68.4.</p> + +<p>If these figures are compared with those of the Bagobo it will be +seen that there is little difference in the averages; however, this +similarity is less real than the figures indicate, for with the Kulaman +there are more individuals at both extremes. For example: the cephalic +indices of eight out of the twenty-seven were 80 or above, while six +were less than 75; again, in the length-height indices six were above 70 +and an equal number less than 65. In other respects there is such +variation that it is hard to generalize. It is noticeable that there is +a greater tendency toward prognathism than we have heretofore met with; +the forehead, while high, is moderately retreating and the supra-orbital +ridges prominent in most individuals; the hair is brown-black and is +inclined to curl in locks. The wide variation of type within the tribe +is to be expected when we know that its members have been constantly +recruited from the neighboring tribes. It is even possible that a +considerable number of slave women from distant islands may have been +added to the group by purchase from the Moro.[77]</p> + +<p>[77] According to early writers, the Moro of the Gulf carried on a +lucrative slave trade with this and other tribes. As the Moro raids were +made by water and often reached as far as the Northeastern coast of this +island and south to the Celebes it is quite possible that these remote +districts have helped in the upbuilding of the tribe under +discussion.</p> + +<p>The religious beliefs have many points in common with those of the +neighboring tribes, but there are some which require special notice.</p> + +<p>Two powerful beings, TimanEm and his wife Diwata[78] are above all +other spirits.</p> + +<p>[78] The Padada people say the term <i>diwata</i> is a name which may +be applied to the <i>timanEm</i>, of whom there are two, a male and a +female.</p> + +<p>Mandalangan, also called Siling or Manobo Siring, is much like the +Bagobo divinity of similar name. He is fond of war and bloodshed and +when there has been a great slaughter he feasts on the flesh and drinks +of the blood of the slain. Only warriors can address him and make the +offerings of red food which he demands. Once a year, usually after the +rice harvest and when the moon is full, a raid must be made and victims +slain so that this spirit can feast.[79] If the Warriors fail to render +him this service Mandalangan will cause their bodies to swell up and +many will die, while sickness will visit all other members of the +tribe.[80]</p> + +<p>[79] Data Bongkalasan says it was formerly the custom to make a foray +at each full moon.</p> + +<p>[80] This was the reason given for the raid on the coast plantations +in 1911.</p> + +<p>The many spirits who inhabit rocks and large trees are generally +favorable to man and are collectively known as <i>magintalonan</i>.</p> + +<p>Tamà owns the deer and wild pigs, and no one hunts or traps in the +forest until he has made an offering of betel nut to this spirit. When +game is secured its tail and ears are strung on rattan and are hung in a +tree, in exchange for the live animal.</p> + +<p>The <i>maniokan</i>, generally evil spirits, resemble snakes, and +like them live in the ground. People are frequently made lame by simply +stepping over their homes.</p> + +<p>Each man and woman has a spirit, <i>kalaloa</i>,[81] dwelling in his +body during lifetime. At death this spirit goes into the sky, unless it +deserves punishment, in which case it is hurried to Kilot, a region +below. In either place these spirits keep close watch over the living +and bring success or disaster according to their will. They have come to +be looked upon as the guardians of the fields, and suitable offerings +are made to them at planting and harvest time.</p> + +<p>[81] The Kulaman of Santa Cruz insist that each person has two +<i>kalaloa</i>, one on the right side and one on the left. At death the +one on the right side goes to a good place in the sky, where there is no +work and "thoughts come easy." The <i>kalaloa</i> of the left side goes +into the ground to a poor place called Kilot. It is probable that the +neighboring Bagobo have influenced the beliefs of this group.</p> + +<p>A few old men, <i>makating</i>, are thought to be able to address the +spirits with greater probability of success than the others; but they do +not stand in the same relation to the spirit world as do the +<i>mabalian</i> of the Bagobo. The nearest approach to that class is a +group of women known as <i>lokEs</i>[82], who act as midwives and make +use of roots and herbs in curing sickness.</p> + +<p>[82] In Santa Cruz known as <i>bagbabolan</i> or +<i>mananagámen</i>i.</p> + +<p>The people are warned of disaster or impending danger by various +signs. A snake crossing the trail is an imperative order for the +traveler to turn back; the call of the <i>limokon</i>[83] is likewise a +warning, while should one of the principals to any agreement sneeze +during the negotiations the project would be delayed or abandoned.</p> + +<p>[83] See p. 63 note.</p> + +<p>There is only slight development of beliefs and ceremonies in +connection with the cultivation of field crops, due probably to the +recent adoption of agriculture by the members of this tribe. A field is +seldom planted to rice for more than one season, after which the land is +used for corn, camotes, and the like, until the invasion of <i>cogon</i> +grass makes further cultivation impossible.</p> + +<p>As a result new land must be broken for each planting. When the +constellation <i>layag</i> "a sail" and <i>balangay</i> "a boat" appear +in the month of December, the people go to the desired plot, cut down +the trees, and when these are dry, fire them.</p> + +<p>Before the planting can be begun the seed rice must be carried to the +center of the field where a bamboo pole, <i>talabinian</i>, and a stalk +of sugar-cane have previously been placed, as an offering to the +<i>kalaloa</i> who guard the land. Again at harvest time an offering of +food is taken to this spot and the spirits of the dead are besought as +follows: "Do not take our rice, but let it last for a long time, for now +we give a part to you." A meal and dance follow the offering and then +all who desire may aid in cutting the new rice.</p> + +<p>No offerings are associated with the planting or harvesting of other +field crops, but the gathering of sago flour is attended by gifts to the +spirits of the dead and prayers for the health of the workers. The +method of obtaining and preparing the flour is the same as that already +described. Offerings are made before and after a hunt, and a man never +goes to fish without first placing a leg ring and some betel nut on the +sand close to the water, meanwhile saying, "You TimanEm must give us +some food; and you shall have your part." Upon his return he places a +small fish beside the first offering and is then free to take his catch +to the village.</p> + +<p>In addition to the pursuits already outlined, we find that some of +the men are expert workers in iron (Fig. 45), copper, and brass, while +the women are weavers. Their weaving does not differ from that +previously described, but a peculiar type of decoration has been +developed by this tribe, and from them has spread somewhat to their +neighbors. Waxed threads are used to work designs into cloth so that +when the fabric is placed in dye the liquid will not reach the portions +thus covered. Later, when the threads are removed, white patterns appear +on the red background (See Plate LXIII).</p> + +<a name="45"></a> +<img src="images/FIG045.JPG" alt="FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH."> + +<p>Slaves are kept, but their duties are so similar to those of the +freeborn that it is impossible for the casual observer to pick out the +members of this class.</p> + +<p>Until recent years a large part of the man's time was taken up in +preparation for or active participation in the inter-tribal fights. +There are several incentives for these raids. First is the desire for +loot and slaves; then comes the ambition of the young men to be +recognized as successful warriors; and finally, and most compelling is +the demand of the spirit Mandalangan for victims.</p> + +<p>A man who has killed five or more persons is entitled to wear a red +suit covered with peculiar white designs (See Plate LXIII), and is +henceforth known as <i>mabolot</i>. When his score has reached +twenty-five he receives the still more honorable title of <i>maisEg</i> +and is then allowed to dress entirely in black and to deck his hair with +red flowers.[84]</p> + +<p>[84] The flowers used are <i>Celosia cristata L., Graptophyllum +hortense nees</i>; <i>Coleus atropurpeus Benth</i>.</p> + +<p>A raid is made only when the moon is full. A dish of red rice is +decorated with red flowers and is placed in the center of the room. +Around it the warriors stick their spears and then one of the oldest of +the company takes up a handful of the food and offers it to the spirit, +saying: "Mandalangan come and eat, for we are ready to fight; go with us +and help us." As he finishes his prayer each warrior takes a portion of +the rice and throws it out of doors, for "they are not yet worthy to eat +what Mandalangan has left." Returning to the room they all eat of white +rice and are ready for the raid. In addition to their spears they should +carry shields and fighting knives, and in recent years quite a number +have come into possession of firearms.</p> + +<p>Although the warriors are bold in their attack and do not hesitate to +assault strong villages, they have no scruples against seizing or +killing members of small parties or the inhabitants of isolated +dwellings.[85] It is necessary that the raiders secure at least one +victim, otherwise another foray must be made at once. The body of the +slain is opened, the liver is extracted and is eaten by the warriors who +thus "become like Mandalangan."[86] The head, forearms, and lower part +of the legs are carried back to the village where they are cut to pieces +by the women and children. The men take no part in this mutilation of +the body, but as soon as the fragments are buried they begin to dance, +meanwhile holding their unsheathed knives high above their heads. After +a time the head-man blows loudly on a decorated bamboo trumpet (Fig. +46), while all the men unite in shouting "to announce their victory." At +last they have fulfilled all the commands of Mandalangan and without +fear they enter the house and partake of the red food which has been +offered to him.</p> + +<p>[85] Should water fall by accident on a warrior who is on a raid, it +is considered a bad omen and the plans may be changed or delayed. In one +instance the owner of a place marked for attack fastened dishes of water +so that the marauders unwittingly knocked them over on themselves, and, +as a result, the place was left unharmed.</p> + +<p>[86] At times the skull is opened and the brain eaten.</p> + +<a name="46"></a> +<img src="images/FIG046.JPG" alt="FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO +TRUMPET."> + +<p>The events just preceding and following the birth of a child are very +similar to those of the Bagobo, except that there are no restrictions of +any kind placed on the father and mother, neither are there any +ceremonies connected with the birth or naming of a child unless unusual +events have convinced the people that the spirits are in some way +displeased.[87]</p> + +<p>[87] Triplets are killed, as with the Bagobo.</p> + +<p>The afterbirth is placed in the care of an old woman who carries it +directly to a sturdy molave[88] tree and there attaches it to the +branches "so that the child may become strong like the tree." While on +this mission the bearer looks neither to the right nor to the left, nor +does she hesitate, for such actions on her part might influence the +disposition of the child or cause it to have physical deformities.[89] +No special attention is given to youths when they reach the age of +puberty, although it is customary to file and blacken their teeth at +about that period.</p> + +<p>[88] Vitex littoralis Decne.</p> + +<p>[89] Similar beliefs are held by the Tinguian of Northern Luzon.</p> + +<p>Marriage is attended by gifts and ceremonies, such as we have +previously described. We find the groom paying a price for his bride, +but receiving a return gift from her parents; the couple feed one +another with rice and are thereby legally married; and finally we learn +that a child is kept with them until they have had intercourse. It is +customary for the youth to serve his father-in-law-to-be for two or +three years preceding the wedding, after which he is released from such +service.</p> + +<p>As is the case with the neighboring tribes, polygamy is practiced, +the only bar to marriage being blood relationship. Upon the death of the +head of the family one-half of his property goes to his wife and half to +the children. If there are two or more wives, the first wife still +retains half, while all the children share equally in the balance of the +estate, thus leaving the second and succeeding wives without a +portion.</p> + +<p>Sickness may be caused by evil spirits, or it may be due to a desire +on the part of the <i>kalaloa</i> to leave its present abode. In either +case the man becomes ill and it behooves him to take immediate steps to +placate the evil spirits or to convince his <i>kalaloa</i> to remain +with him. This last can best be accomplished by bathing the sick person +with water which has been heated in a good <i>agong</i>. A fine dish +would do equally well, but should the hot water cause it to break the +spirit would depart at once. In extreme cases the <i>lokEs</i> will +gather certain roots and brew them into a drink which she gives to the +sick person. At each tree or shrub visited in her search for medicines +she leaves an offering of betel nuts and leg rings, and when the drink +has been prepared she makes a further gift, meanwhile begging TimanEm to +aid her in effecting a cure. If all efforts fail and the spirit leaves, +the corpse is placed in the center of the house, where it is kept from +two to nine days according to the wealth and prominence of the deceased. +During this time no one should sleep in the dwelling, for the spirit +might be resentful and turn the face of the sleeper black.</p> + +<p>Usually, the body is buried in the ground at a distance from the +house. The coffin is made out of a split log, in which weapons, jars, +and the like are placed for the use of the spirit. If the dead man has +been a warrior he is dressed in the clothing distinctive of his rank, +and his grave is covered with red flowers. At times the coffins are +shaped to resemble small boats and are then placed on high poles near to +the beach.</p> + +<p>For a month following a funeral the relatives refrain from all +merrymaking. At the expiration of this period all go to a near-by river +and with their knives, cut to pieces a braided cord, which has been made +since the burial, and as they destroy it they shout "This is a man we +are killing. This is a man we are killing." Finally, the pieces are +thrown into the river and the period of taboo is past.</p> + +<a name="IV"></a> +<p> </p> +<center><h2>IV. TAGAKAOLO.</h2></center> + +<h4>SYNONYMS.</h4> + +<p>(a) TAGAKAOLA.<br> +(b) SAKA—"head of the river."<br> +(c) KAGAN, KALAGAN, CALAGANES, CALAGARS.<br> +(d) LAOC. According to the account of PASTELL,[90] this name is given to +a small, degraded division of the Tagakaolo who live in the mountains of +Haguimitan on San Augustin peninsula.</p> + +<p>[90] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 259.</p> + +<p>The present habitat and general condition of this tribe is nearly the +same as that of the Kulaman.</p> + +<p>Prior to Spanish times they held the hill region back of the coast, +between Malalag and Lais. On the Gulf side they were barred from the sea +by the Kulaman and Moro, while in the mountains they encountered the +powerful Bila-an tribe.</p> + +<p>About fifty years ago that part of the tribe living furthest to the +north united under the leadership of a brave warrior named Paugok, and +made war on the Bagobo. They were successful in this conflict and drove +their enemies from the rich valleys of the Padada and Bulatakay rivers, +where they established themselves. This brought them in close contact +with the Kulaman and Moro of the coast, with whom they lived on friendly +terms. The influence of the latter group was so great that the newcomers +not only adopted their style of dress, but also substituted cotton for +hemp in the manufacture of their garments. Today the members of this +tribe can still be recognized by their close fitting suits of red and +yellow striped cloth, from which they have received the name of +Kagan.[91] They have also been constant borrowers, from all their +neighbors, of ideas for house-building and utensils. They have +intermarried to some extent with the Kulaman, and in times past Bila-an +and Bagobo slave women have been added to the tribe.</p> + +<p>[91] The general name applied to red cotton trade cloth.</p> + +<p>Today practically all the members of the Kagan division are found +living on the American plantations along the Padada and Bulatakay +rivers. They are on friendly terms with their Tagakaolo kinsmen, and are +still so like them in language, social customs, and religious beliefs, +that one description will suffice for both.</p> + +<p>At some unrecorded date a considerable, portion of the tribe migrated +to the east side of Davao Gulf, and settled near Cape San Agustin, +where, it is said, they now number more than two thousand.</p> + +<p>The name Tagakaolo signifies "those who dwell at the head of the +river," and is applied to all the hill people living between the coast +and the country of the Bila-an. They have always been broken up into +small groups, often at war with one another, yet they appear to be quite +uniform in type, language, and religious beliefs. In recent years many +of them have been induced to come down to the coast plantations, but the +great majority still remain in the mountains. They are of a turbulent, +warlike disposition, and have been a constant source of trouble to the +Spanish and American authorities.[92] At the time of the writer's visit +they had joined with the Kulaman in raiding the coast settlements, and, +as a result, were being vigorously pursued by the American troops; for +this reason it was only possible to gain information from those +remaining on the plantations.</p> + +<p>[92] Members of this tribe were responsible for the murder of +Governor Bolton.</p> + +<p>The total number of persons making up the tribe is estimated at six +thousand, but this is at best a mere guess.</p> + +<p>There is scarcely any variation in physical type between the Kagan +branch and the Tagakaolo proper, while for the whole tribe there is less +variation between its members than in any group so far discussed.</p> + +<p>The following results were obtained by measurements on twenty-seven +men:<br> Maximum height 166.6 cm.; minimum 151.3 cm.; average 157.4 +cm.<br> Cephalic indices—Maximum 89.7; minimum 76.3; average +81.5.<br> Length-height indices—Maximum 79.0; minimum 63.1, +average 70.0.</p> + +<p>These tables show that aside from being more short-headed, this tribe +differs little from the Bagobo, Bila-an, and Kulaman. Like the Kulaman, +they have high foreheads, often full and vaulted but quite as frequently +retreating from well-marked supra-orbital ridges. They are slightly more +prognathous than the Kulaman, and in the majority of cases the hair is +curled in locks. The teeth are usually mutilated and blackened, while +shaving of the eyebrows and tattooing of the left forearm and breast are +quite common.</p> + +<p>The historians of the tribe tell us that all the Tagakaolo are +descended from Lakbang, MEngEdan, and his wife Bodek. In the beginning +these three persons lived on a small island in the sea. Two children, +Linkanan and Lampagan, were born to them and they in turn were parents +of two birds—the <i>kalau</i> and <i>sabitan</i>. These birds flew +away to other places and returned with bits of soil which their parents +patted and moulded with their hands until they had formed the earth. +Other children were born and from them have come all the people who now +inhabit the land.</p> + +<p>Two powerful spirits, <i>Diwata</i> and <i>TimanEm</i>, watched the +formation of the world, and when it was completed the latter spirit +planted trees upon it. He still takes considerable interest in the +affairs of men and each year sends the spirits Layag and Bangay,[93] as +stars, to tell the people when to prepare their land for the planting of +crops.</p> + +<p>[93] See page 154.</p> + +<p>Other spirits, less friendly, have existed from the first time. Of +these one named Siling causes much trouble by confusing travelers +through the forest. Spirits of unborn +children—<i>mantianak</i>[94]—wander through the forest +crying "ina-a-a" (mother), and often attack human beings. The only way +persons thus assailed can hope to escape is by running to a stream and +throwing water on the abdomens of their pursuers.</p> + +<p>[94] Frequently called <i>busau</i>.</p> + +<p>The powerful spirit Tamà owns the deer and wild pig, and is usually +kind to hunters who offer him proper gifts. Should they fail in this +duty he may cause them to become lost or injured. Mandalangan +(Mandangan) is known as a powerful spirit who loves war and bloodshed, +but he is so closely interwoven in the minds of the people with TimanEm +that it is doubtful if he should be classed as a separate spirit.</p> + +<p>In addition to these beings are the <i>kawE</i>, or shades of the +dead, the chiefs of whom are the people who created the earth. During +life the <i>kawE</i> live in the body, but after death they go to the +sky where they remain the greater part of the time. They do return to +earth at certain seasons, to aid or injure the living, and it is usually +one of their number who keeps guard over the rice-fields. Certain +persons known as <i>balian</i> can talk to these spirits and from them +have learned the ceremonies which the people should perform at certain +seasons, and at the critical periods of life. In the main these +ceremonies are so similar to those just described that it is useless to +repeat. The proceedings at a birth, marriage, or death are practically +identical with the Kulaman, as are also those at planting and harvest +time. A slight variation was noticed after the rice planting at Padada, +when all the workers placed their planting sticks on an offering of rice +and then poured water over them "so as to cause an abundance of rain." +Another difference is noticed following the death of a warrior. His +knife lies in its sheath beside the body for seven days and during that +time can only be drawn if it is to be used in sacrificing a slave. If +such an offering is made it is carried out in much the same way as the +Bagobo sacrifice, except that the bereaved father, son, or brother cuts +the body in halves.</p> + +<p>If it is impossible to offer a slave, a palm leaf cup is filled with +water and is carried to the forest. Here the relatives dance and then +dip the knife and some sticks in the water for "this is the same as +dipping them in blood." Later they are carried back and hung up in the +house of mourning.</p> + +<p>According to the long established custom, warriors must go to fight +once each year, when the moon is bright. Spears, fighting knives, bows +and arrows, sharpened bamboo sticks, and shields have long been used, +and to these several guns have been added in recent years.</p> + +<p>The attack is from ambush and the victims are generally cut to +pieces, although women and children are sometimes taken captive. Tufts +of hair taken from the slain are attached to the shields of the +warriors, and an arm is carried back to the home town "so that the women +and children can cut it to pieces and become brave."</p> + +<p>The foregoing account shows that the Kagan and Tagakaolo living on +the hemp plantations differ very little from their neighbors, whom we +have previously described. It may be that an investigation, carried on +in peaceful times, far back in the mountains, will show that more +radical differences exist in the great body of the tribe.</p> + +<a name="V"></a> +<p> </p> +<center><h2>V. ATA.</h2></center> + +<p>The people classed under this name are the least known of any of the +wild inhabitants of Mindanao. They probably receive their name from the +word <i>atás</i> which signifies "those up above" or "the dwellers in +the uplands." It does not appear that they form a single tribe, or that +they are even of uniform type.</p> + +<p>The writer did no intensive work with them, and the following notes +make no pretense of being first-hand knowledge. I have drawn on all +possible sources for this scanty information, but am mostly indebted to +the letters and reports of the late Governor Bolton, who, without doubt, +knew more of this people than any other white man.</p> + +<p>I am thus compelled to make my descriptions vague; indeed, my one +excuse for dealing with the Ata is to bring together such information as +we possess in the hope that it may be of value to some other worker who +may later take up the task of studying this little known people.</p> + +<p>According to Governor Bolton, the Ata inhabit the regions west and +northwest of Mt. Apo, the headwaters of the Davao river—north and +west of the Guianga—as well as the headwaters of the Lasan, +Tuganay, and Libagawan rivers. In all these regions they extend over the +watershed, converging toward the center of the island at the headwaters +of the Pulangi river.</p> + +<p>It should be noted at the outset that the Eto or Ata, living between +the Guianga and Bagobo, should not be included in this division.</p> + +<p>In the region about Mt. Apo they are closely allied to the Obo and +Tigdapaya,[95] while in the region adjoining the Guianga they have +intermarried with that people and have adopted many of their customs as +well as dress. On the headwaters of the Lasan river we are told that +they are known as Dugbatang or Dugbatung; that they are a timid +degenerate branch having no fixed habitations and very little clothing; +they are small, with crispy hair, and often decorate their bodies with +tattooed designs. About twenty miles up the Tuganay river Governor +Bolton encountered a similar group of Ata whom he describes as being +very wild. From the headwaters of this river he crossed over near to the +source of the river Libagawan where he discovered a hitherto unknown +people—the Tugauanum. These he believed were mixed Malay and +Negrito, with crispy or curly hair and sharp features.</p> + +<p>[95] See p. 128.</p> + +<p>While in the central part of Mindanao, on the headwaters of the +Pulangi river, the writer saw about fifty people known as Tugauanum who +came over the mountains to trade. They were certainly of mixed ancestry, +showing a distinct infusion of Negrito blood, and in other respects +conforming to the description of Governor Bolton. Among articles of +barter carried by them were the typical knives and hemp cloth of the +west side of the Davao gulf region, showing that they are at least in +the line of trade with the tribes we have already studied.</p> + +<p>According to their own stories, the original home of the tribe was +along the river Mapula which flows into the Tuganay near its source. +Governor Bolton tells of hearing, while in this section, of a people +called Dedaanum "who were small and black and had curly hair," but who +had all been killed by the Tugauanum. He was also informed that a +numerous tribe of very small black people called Tugniah lived on the +headwaters of the river Omiern, which flows north of the Libagawan. They +were said to live in trees, to plant nothing, and to subsist on sago +flour. "Their bolos are like sabers and they use lances, bows, and +arrows."</p> + +<p>The Governor classes the Tugauanum as Ata "since they speak the same +language" but he adds "they are probably the same race as the +Libabaoan." This latter people are elsewhere in his notes referred to as +Guibabauon or Dibabaoan. They live along the headwaters of the Tagum +river and are, he believes, a mixture of Ata and Mandaya.[96]</p> + +<p>[96] The writer believes that the Libabaoan are probably the same as +the Divavaoan who are classed as a branch of the Mandaya. See p. +165.</p> + +<p>From one source we learn that the Ata are small, in many respects +resembling the Negrito; that they are timid and are either nomads or +build their houses high in the branches of trees. Another writer tells +us that they are a superior type, with aquiline noses, thick beards, and +are tall. "They are very brave and hold their own with the Moro." We are +also told that they cultivate the soil and build good houses.</p> + +<p>The estimates concerning their numbers are equally conflicting. +Governor Bolton gives the population as six thousand; the report of the +Philippine Commission for 1900 credits them with eight thousand, while +Father Gisbert believed that they aggregated "not less than twenty +thousand souls."</p> + +<p>The divergent reports are due to the fact that up to the year 1886 +only one village of this people had been visited,[97] and since that +time only a few hasty trips have been made into their territory.</p> + +<p>[97] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 242-3.</p> + +<p>From our present information it seems probable that the Ata are +descendants of an early invading people who intermarried first with the +early Negrito inhabitants, and later with other tribes with which they +came in contact. They have been free borrowers from their neighbors in +all respects, and hence we find them occupying all the steps from the +nomad condition of the pygmy blacks to the highly specialized life of +the Guianga.</p> + +<p>The following account of their beliefs was extracted from letters +written by Governor Bolton. He fails to designate the section from which +the information was gathered, but its similarity to Bagobo and Guianga +makes it probable that the account comes from the Ata dwelling near +those people. Considerable variation will doubtless be found in other +districts.</p> + +<p>"The greatest of all the spirits is Manama[98] who made the first men +from blades of grass, weaving them together until they resembled a human +form. In this manner he made eight persons—male and +female—who later became the ancestors of the Ata and all the +neighboring tribes. Long after this the water covered the whole earth +and all the Ata were drowned except two men and a woman. The waters +carried them far away and they would have perished had not a large eagle +come to their aid. This bird offered to carry them to their homes on its +back. One man refused, but the other two accepted its help and returned +to Mapula.</p> + +<p>[98] See page 106.</p> + +<p>"The other deities are Mandarangan, Malalayug, god of agriculture; +Mabalian, the spirit who presides over childbirth; Tarasyub and +Taratuan, the guardian spirits of the brass and iron workers; +Boypandi—the spirit who guards over the weavers."</p> + +<p>While in the Ata country the Governor observed certain customs of the +people. As his party approached the palisaded house of Madundun they +stopped for twenty minutes to perform a ceremony called +<i>anting-anting</i>. "An old man waved his shield and a cloth, +meanwhile repeating mysterious words. Then each man was given a chew of +betel-nut and was well rubbed with a charm." "At Tuli a swarm of bees +passed over the house just as the party was ready to start. This was +taken as a sign that some of the party would be killed by the arrows of +the enemy, hence they refused to go." "Likewise, if the dove +<i>limokan</i> calls on the left side of the trail the party will refuse +to proceed, unless another <i>limokan</i> answers the call from the +right side of the path."</p> + +<a name="VI"></a> +<p> </p> +<center> +<h2>VI. MANDAYA.<br> +("Inhabitants of the Uplands").</h2> +</center> + +<h4>SYNONYMS.</h4> + +<p>(a) MANSAKA ("Inhabitants of the mountain clearings"). This name is +applied to those Mandaya who formerly dwelt far back in the +mountains. Many of this division have recently emigrated to the coast +and are now found at the north and east part of Davao Gulf.<br> +(b) PAGSUPAN. The appellation by which the members of this tribe, +living near the Tagum and Hijo rivers, are known.<br> +(c) MANGWANGA or MANGRANGAN ("Dwellers in the forests"). A name by which +are designated those Mandaya who live in the heavily forested mountains +skirting the coast.<br> +(d) MANAGOSAN or MAGOSAN. The members of the tribe living on the +headwaters of the Agusan river bear this name.<br> +(e) DIVAVAOAN. A division which inhabits a small district to the south +and west of Compostela. Very little is known of this people, but from +the information now at hand it seems that they should be classed as a +branch of the Mandaya.</p> + +<center><h3>HABITAT.</h3></center> + +<p>This tribe occupies both slopes of the mountain range which borders +the Pacific ocean, from about 9 degrees of North latitude south nearly +to Cape San Agustin. Its members are also found in considerable numbers +from the head of the Agusan drainage nearly to the town of Compostela, +and several settlements of this people are to be found along the Hijo +and Tagum rivers, while in recent years a number have established +themselves on the eastern side of Davao Gulf.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, this whole region is extremely mountainous and at +the same time heavily wooded. It is only when the Agusan, Hijo, and +Tagum rivers are approached that the country becomes more open. On the +Pacific coast there are few harbors, for the mountains extend down +almost to the water's edge forming high sheer cliffs. Aside from the +three rivers mentioned the water courses are, for the greater part, +small and unnavigable and a short distance back from the coast appear as +tiny rivulets at the bottom of deep cañons.</p> + +<p>There is no organization of the tribe as a whole, since each district +has its local ruler who is subject to no other authority. These +divisions I are seldom on good terms, and are frequently in open warfare +with one another or with neighboring tribes.</p> + +<p>Despite this lack of unity and the great area they inhabit, their +dialects are mutually intelligible, and in other respects they are so +similar that I believe we are justified in regarding them as one group +linguistically, physically, and culturally.</p> + +<center><h3>DESCRIPTION.</h3></center> + +<p>Measurements made on fifteen men and five women gave the following +results:<br> +Height—Men: Maximum 161.3 cm., minimum 145.1 cm., average 153.9 +cm.<br> +Women: Maximum 152.3 cm., minimum 144.1 cm., average 146.8 cm.<br> +Cephalic index—Men: Maximum 89.1, minimum 76.3, average 84.6.<br> +Women: Maximum 84.8, minimum 75.2, average 81.3.<br> +Length-height index—Men: maximum 78.7, minimum 64.5, average +74.2.<br> +Women: Maximum 81.8, minimum 75.0, average 77.4.</p> + +<p>From these figures it appears that there is considerable variation +between individuals, but a closer study of the charts shows that the +majority of those measured come closer to the averages than do the +members of any other group here mentioned (Plates LXIV-LXIX).</p> + +<p>Both sexes wear the hair long and comb it to a knot at the back of +the head. The women generally bang the hair over the forehead, while the +men allow a lock to fall in front of each ear. The hair is brown-black +and generally slightly wavy, although four individuals with straight +hair were seen.</p> + +<p>The forehead is high, and in about half the persons observed somewhat +retreating; however, full, vaulted foreheads are by no means uncommon. +The distance from the vertex to the tragus is uniformly great.</p> + +<p>The cheek bones are quite prominent, while the whole face tapers from +above so as to be somewhat angular. In twenty per cent of the men the +root of the nose seemed to be continuous with the supra-orbital ridge, +which, in such cases, was strongly marked. In general the root of the +nose is broad, low, and depressed, and there is a tendency for the ridge +to be somewhat concave. The lips are thick and bowed, but there is +little or no prognathism.</p> + +<p>The skin of the body is not tattooed or mutilated in any other way, +but the eyebrows are often shaved to a thin line, and the teeth are +filed and blackened. Filing was formerly done with small stones but +imported files are now used for this purpose. The coloring is effected +by chewing the roots of the <i>anmoñ</i> vine and applying to the teeth +the "sweat" caught on a steel blade, held above burning bark of the +<i>magawan</i> tree. This practice seems to have no significance other +than that of beautifying the person and saving the youth from the +ridicule of his fellows. To keep the teeth black, tobacco treated with +lemon juice which has stood on rusty iron is chewed frequently.</p> + +<p>Despite constant statements to the effect that the members of this +tribe are light-colored and the assertion of one writer[99] that at +least one division is white, observations made with the V. Luschan color +table on more than fifty individuals showed that while certain persons +are somewhat lighter than their fellows, as was also the case in other +tribes, there is not an appreciable difference in color between this +tribe and the others of the Gulf region.</p> + +<p>[99] LANDOR, The Gems of the East. It should be noted that the +district from which the white tribe was reported is now fairly well +known and there seems to be no reason to believe that the people +residing there differ materially in color from the other natives of the +island.</p> + +<center><h3>CLOTHING.</h3></center> + +<p>The ordinary man of the tribe wears a loosely fitting shirt and wide +trousers made of white or blue cotton cloth. (Plate LXIX-LXX). These +garments are frequently decorated with embroidered designs and are +finished at the shoulders and knees with a cotton fringe. The trousers +are supported at the waist by means of a belt, and below reach nearly to +the ankles.[100] An incised silver disk is attached to the front of the +jacket, while ornaments of beads, seeds, and alligators' teeth encircle +the neck.</p> + +<p>[100] Along the coast this type of garment is now seldom seen, for +the men are adopting the close-fitting dress of the Moro.</p> + +<p>When on the trail the man covers his head with a little palm bark hat +(Fig. 47). This is sometimes conical, but more frequently is narrow and +turned up at the front and back. Painted designs, betel wings, and +chicken feathers make the hat a striking decoration which compensates +for its lack of utility.</p> + +<a name="47"></a> +<img src="images/FIG047.JPG" alt="FIG. 47. MEN'S HATS."> + +<p>A class of warriors known as <i>bagam</i>[101] dress in red and wear +turbans of the same hue, while women mediums, <i>ballyan</i>,[102] may +also make use of red cloth.</p> + +<p>[101] See p. 180. [Transcriber's note: This is page 167.]</p> + +<p>[102] See p. 174.</p> + +<p>Other women wear blue cotton jackets, in the fronts and back of which +are many artistic embroidered designs. Their hemp cloth skirts, like +those of the Bagobo, are made tube-like and are held at the waist by +means of belts. They are very careless about the hang of these garments +and one side may be above the calf of the leg while the other drags on +the ground (Plate LXVII). No head coverings are worn, but quite +elaborate combs (Fig. 48) are thrust into the knots of hair at the back +of the head. Wooden ear plugs (Fig. 49) ornamented with incised silver +plates and with bead and silver pendants fit into openings in the lobes +of the ears. Like the men they wear necklaces of beads, sweet smelling +herbs, and seeds. Many of the latter are considered to have medicinal +value and are eaten to cure pains in the stomach. One or more silver +disks are worn on the chest or over the breasts, while anklets, such as +are used by the women of the other tribes, are frequently seen. Both +sexes are fond of bracelets of brass, shell, or vines, as well as of +finger rings of tortoise shell and silver (Plate LXXI).</p> + +<a name="48"></a> +<img src="images/FIG048.JPG" alt="FIG. 48. WOMAN'S COMB."> + +<a name="49"></a> +<img src="images/FIG049.JPG" alt="FIG. 49. FAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS."> + +<p>None of the garments contain pockets, and in order to make up for +this deficiency the men carry bags (Plate LXX) suspended on their backs +by means of bands which pass over the shoulders. In these they carry +their betel-nut outfits, tobacco, and the like. Small covered waterproof +baskets (Plate LXVIII) serve the same purpose for the women and are +carried at the back or at the side.</p> + +<center><h3>HISTORY.</h3></center> + +<p>Probably no wild tribe in Mindanao has received so much mention in +histories, reports, and books of travel as have the Mandaya, but these +references have been, in the main, so vague and often so misleading that +they are of little value for our purposes. Quite in contrast with this +mass of material are the excellent reports of the late Governor Bolton, +and Mr. Melbourne A. Maxey,[103] who for a number of years has been +closely associated with the members of the tribe residing in the +vicinity of Cateel. In the preparation of this paper frequent use has +been made of the notes gathered by these two gentlemen.</p> + +<p>[103] Published in the Mindanao Herald.</p> + +<p>When the first white men visited the tribe they found that the +neighboring Moro were making frequent raids on their villages and were +carrying away women and children whom they sold to the Bagobo and other +tribes of the Gulf.[104] At the same time it was learned that they, in +turn, were slave holders and were eager to purchase captives from the +Mohammedan raiders. The great distances traveled by the Moro in their +raids make it possible that slaves from distant islands may thus have +been introduced into the tribe. Later we shall see that it was difficult +for a slave or a descendant of a slave to become a freeman, yet it was +by no means impossible, and it is likely that a considerable part of the +tribe are descendants of people brought to the district through purchase +and capture. Another possible source of outside blood is suggested by +well verified stories of castaways on the east coast of Mindanao and +adjacent islands.[105] While working with the Mandaya in the region of +Mayo bay the writer was frequently told that three times, in the memory +of the present inhabitants, strange boats filled with strange people had +been driven to their coasts by storms. The informants insisted that +these newcomers were not put to death but that such of them as survived +were taken into the tribe. These stories are given strong substantiation +by the fact that only a few months prior to my visit a boat load of +people from the Carolines was driven to the shores of Mayo bay and that +their boat, as well as one survivor, was then at the village of Mali. +(Plate LXXII). I am indebted to Mr. Henry Hubbel for the following +explicit account of these castaways: "One native banca of castaways +arrived at Lucatan, N. E. corner of Mayo Bay, Mindanao, on January 2nd, +1909. The banca left the Island of Uluthi for the Island of Yap, two +days' journey, on December 10th, 1908. They were blown out of their +course and never sighted land until January 2nd, twenty-two days after +setting sail. There were nine persons aboard, six men, two boys, and one +woman, all natives of Yap except one man who was a Visayan from Capiz, +Panay, P. I., who settled on the Island of Yap in 1889. These people +were nineteen days without food or water except what water could be +caught during rain storms. The Visayan, Victor Valenamo, died soon after +his arrival, as a result of starvation. The natives recovered at once +and all traces of their starvation disappeared within two weeks. The men +were powerfully built, nearly six feet high. Their bodies were all +covered with tattoo work. The woman was decorated even more than the +men. Fever soon took hold of these castaways and in a year's time all +died except one small boy who seems to have become acclimated and will +become identified with the natives in Mati. I took care of these people +until they died.</p> + +<p>[104] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, p. +203.</p> + +<p>[105] FOREMAN. The Philippine Islands, pp. 257-9. JAGOR. Travels in +the Philippines, Ch. XX.</p> + +<p>"The clothing worn by the men and woman was nothing but the +'lavalava,' a scarf of sea-grass fiber about 18 inches wide and five +feet long. This was worn around the loins.</p> + +<p>"The banca, which was of very curious construction, was taken to +Zamboanga last year by General Pershing, to be placed in Moro Province +Museum."</p> + +<p>After the advent of the Spaniards into their territory a considerable +number of this people were converted to the Christian faith and were +induced to settle in villages. There they met and intermarried with +Visayan and other emigrants who had followed the Spaniards to the South. +During the time of the Spanish rule these settlements were partially +destroyed by Moro raiders, and following the Spanish-American war these +attacks became so frequent that many of the inhabitants deserted their +homes and returning to their mountain kinsmen again took up the old +life. The effect of this return is especially noticeable in the vicinity +of Caraga where as late as 1885 there were 596 Mandaya converts.</p> + +<p>Several attempts were also made to colonize the Mandaya near the +mouths of the Tagum and Hijo rivers, but the restlessness of the natives +or the hostility of the Moro was always sufficient to cause the early +break up of the new settlements.</p> + +<p>The last great influence on this tribe has come through American +planters who have prevailed upon the more venturesome members to come +down to the coast plantations and there adopt the life of the +Christianized natives. Many of these adventurers have returned to their +mountain homes, carrying with them new ideas and artifacts and, in some +cases, wives from other tribes. With all these influences at work there +has been considerable modification of the life in many districts, +particularly along the Pacific coast. This description will attempt to +give the old life of the tribe as it still exists in the more isolated +districts, or as it was related by older people of the coast +settlements.</p> + +<center><h3>MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION.</h3></center> + +<p>In order to enter into a full understanding of the social, economic, +and aesthetic life we must have some knowledge of the mythology and +religious beliefs, for these pervade every activity.</p> + +<p>Several stories accounting for natural phenomena and the origin of +the tribe were heard. One of these relates that the sun and moon were +married and lived happily together until many children had been born to +them. At last they quarreled and the moon ran away from her husband who +has since been pursuing her through the heavens. After the separation of +their parents the children died, and the moon gathering up their bodies +cut them into small pieces and threw them into space. Those fragments +which fell into water became fish, those which fell on land were +converted into snakes and animals, while "those which fell upward" +remained in the sky as stars.</p> + +<p>A somewhat different version of this tale agrees that the quarrel and +subsequent chase occurred, but denies that the children died and were +cut up. It states that it is true that the offspring were animals, but +they were so from the time of their birth. One of these children is a +giant crab named <i>tambanokaua</i> who lives in the sea. When he moves +about he causes the tides and high waves; when he opens his eyes +lightning appears. For some unknown reason this animal frequently seeks +to devour his mother, the moon, and when he nearly succeeds an eclipse +occurs. At such a time the people shout, beat on gongs, and in other +ways try to frighten the monster so that he can not accomplish his +purpose.[106] The phases of the moon are caused by her putting on or +taking off her garments. When the moon is full she is thought to be +entirely naked.</p> + +<p>[106] The writer found almost identical beliefs and practices among +the Batak and Tagbanua of Palawan.</p> + +<p>According to this tale the stars had quite a different origin than +that just related, "In the beginning of things there was only one great +star, who was like a man in appearance. He sought to usurp the place of +of the sun and the result was a conflict in which the latter was +victorious. He cut his rival into small bits and scattered him over the +whole sky as a woman sows rice."</p> + +<p>The earth was once entirely flat but was pressed up into mountains by +a mythical woman, Agusanan. It has always rested on the back of a great +eel whose movements cause earthquakes. Sometimes crabs or other small +animals annoy him until, in his rage, he attempts to reach them, then +the earth is shaken so violently that whole mountains are thrown into +the sea.</p> + +<p>A great lake exists in the sky and it is the spray from its waves +which fall to the earth as rain. When angered the spirits sometimes +break the banks of this lake and allow torrents of water to fall on the +earth below.</p> + +<p>According to Mr. Maxey, the Mandaya of Cateel believe that many +generations ago a great flood occurred which caused the death of all the +inhabitants of the world except one pregnant woman. She prayed that her +child might be a boy. Her prayer was answered and she gave birth to a +son whose name was Uacatan. He, when he had grown up, took his mother +for his wife and from this union have sprung all the Mandaya.</p> + +<p>Quite a different account is current among the people of Mayo. From +them we learn that formerly the <i>limokon</i>,[107] although a bird, +could talk like a man. At one time it laid two eggs, one at the mouth +and one at the source of the Mayo river. These hatched and from the one +at the headwaters of the river came a woman named Mag,[108] while a man +named BEgenday[109] emerged from the one near the sea. For many years +the man dwelt alone on the bank of the river, but one day, being lonely +and dissatisfied with his location, he started to cross the stream. +While he was in deep water a long hair was swept against his legs and +held him so tightly that he narrowly escaped drowning. When he succeeded +in reaching the shore he examined the hair and at once determined to +find its owner. After wandering many days he met the woman and induced +her to be his wife. From this union came all the Mandaya.</p> + +<p>[107] See p. 63 note.</p> + +<p>[108] Also known as Manway.</p> + +<p>[109] Also known as Samay.</p> + +<p>A variant of this tale says that both eggs were laid up stream and +that one hatched a woman, the other a snake. The snake went down the +current until it arrived at the place where the sea and the river meet. +There it blew up and a man emerged from its carcass. The balance of the +tale is as just related. This close relationship of the <i>limokon</i> +to the Mandaya is given as the reason why its calls are given such heed. +A traveler on the trail hearing the cooing of this bird at once doubles +his fist and points it in the direction from whence the sound came. If +this causes the hand to point to the right side it is a sign that +success will attend the journey.[110] If, however, it points to the +left, in front, or in back, the Mandaya knows that the omen bird is +warning him of danger or failure, and he delays or gives up his mission. +The writer was once watching some Mandaya as they were clearing a piece +of land, preparatory to the planting. They had labored about two hours +when the call of the <i>limokon</i> was heard to the left of the owner. +Without hesitation the men gathered up their tools and left the plot, +explaining that it was useless for them to plant there for the +<i>limokon</i> had warned them that rats would eat any crop they might +try to grow in that spot.</p> + +<p>[110] Maxey states exactly the opposite, for the Mandaya of Cateel, +<i>i. e.</i>, the right side is bad, the left good.</p> + +<p>The people do not make offerings to this bird, neither do they regard +it as a spirit, but rather as a messenger from the spirit world. The old +men were certain that anyone who molested one of these birds would +die.</p> + +<p>Another bird known as <i>wak-wak</i> "which looks like a crow but is +larger and only calls at night" foretells ill-fortune. Sneezing is also +a bad omen, particularly if it occurs at the beginning of an +undertaking. Certain words, accompanied by small offerings, may be +sufficient to overcome the dangers foretold by these warnings. It is +also possible to thwart the designs of ill-disposed spirits or human +enemies by wearing a sash or charm which contains bits of fungus growth, +peculiarly shaped stones, or the root of a plant called <i>gam</i>. +These charms not only ward off ill-fortune and sickness, but give +positive aid in battle and keep the dogs on the trail of the +game.[111]</p> + +<p>[111] The use of these magic sashes, known as <i>anting-anting</i>, +is widespread throughout the southern Philippines both with the pagan +and Mohammedan tribes.</p> + +<p>There is in each community one or more persons, generally women, who +are known as <i>ballyan</i>. These priestesses, or mediums, are versed +in all the ceremonies and dances which the ancestors have found +effectual in overcoming evil influences, and in retaining the favor of +the spirits. They, better than all others, understand the omens, and +often through them the higher beings make known their desires. So far as +could be learned the <i>ballyan</i> is not at any time possessed, but +when in a trance sees and converses with the most powerful spirits as +well as with the shades of the departed. This power to communicate with +supernatural beings and to control the forces of nature, is not +voluntarily sought by the future <i>ballyan</i>, but comes to the +candidate either through one already occupying such a position or by her +being unexpectedly seized with a fainting or trembling fit, in which +condition she finds that she is able to communicate with the inhabitants +of the spirit world. Having been thus chosen she at once becomes the +pupil of some experienced <i>ballyan</i> from whom she learns all the +secrets of the profession and the details of ceremonies to be made.</p> + +<p>At the time of planting or reaping, at a birth or death, when a great +celebration is held, or when the spirits are to be invoked for the cure +of the sick, one or more of these women take charge of the ceremonies +and for the time being are the religious heads of the community. At such +a time the <i>ballyan</i> wears a blood-red waist,[112] but on other +occasions her dress is the same as that of the other women, and her life +does not differ from their's in any respect.</p> + +<p>[112] PEDRO ROSELL, writing in 1885, says that the <i>ballyan</i> +then dressed entirely in red. BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. +217.</p> + +<p>When about to converse with the spirits the <i>ballyan</i> places an +offering before her and begins to chant and wail. A distant stare comes +into her eyes, her body begins to twitch convulsively until she is +shivering and trembling as if seized with the ague. In this condition +she receives the messages of the spirits and under their direction +conducts the ceremony.</p> + +<p>Rosell gives the following description of the possession of a +<i>ballyan</i>.[113] Nothing of this nature was seen by the writer.</p> + +<p>[113] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 218.</p> + +<p>"They erect a sort of small altar on which they place the +<i>manaúgs</i> or images of the said gods which are made of the special +wood of the <i>bayog</i> tree, which they destine exclusively for this +use. When the unfortunate hog which is to serve as a sacrifice is placed +above the said altar, the chief <i>bailana</i> approaches with +<i>balarao</i> or dagger in hand which she brandishes and drives into +the poor animal, which will surely be grunting in spite of the gods and +the religious solemnity, as it is fearful of what is going to happen to +it; and leaves the victim weltering in its blood. Then immediately all +the <i>bailanas</i> drink of the blood in order to attract the prophetic +spirit to themselves and to give their auguries or the supposed +inspirations of their gods. Scarcely have they drunk the blood, when +they become as though possessed by an infernal spirit which agitates +them and makes them tremble as does the body of a person with the ague +or like one who shivers with the cold."</p> + +<center><h3>SPIRITS.</h3></center> + +<p>The following spirits are known to the <i>ballyan</i> of the Mayo +district:</p> + +<p>I. DIWATA. A good spirit who is besought for aid against the +machinations of evil beings. The people of Mayo claim that they do not +now, nor have they at any time made images of their gods, but in the +vicinity of Cateel Maxey has seen wooden images called <i>manaog</i>, +which were said to represent Diwata on earth. According to his account +"the <i>ballyan</i> dances for three consecutive nights before the +<i>manaog</i>, invoking his aid and also holding conversation with the +spirits. This is invariably done while the others are asleep." He +further states that with the aid of Diwata the <i>ballyan</i> is able to +foretell the future by the reading of palms. "If she should fail to read +the future the first time, she dances for one night before the +<i>manaog</i> and the following day is able to read it clearly, the +Diwata having revealed the hidden meaning to her during the night +conference."[114]</p> + +<p>[114] In the Mayo district palmistry is practiced by several old +people who make no claim of having the aid of the spirits. Bagani +Paglambayon read the palms of the writer and one of his assistants, but +all his predictions were of an exceedingly general nature and on the +safe side.</p> + +<p>Spanish writers make frequent mention of these idols,[115] and in his +reports[116] Governor Bolton describes the image of a crocodile seen by +him in the Mandaya country "which was carved of wood and painted black, +was five feet long, and life-like. The people said it was the likeness +of their god." Lieutenant J. R. Youngblood, when near the headwaters of +the Agusan River, saw in front of a chief's house "a rude wooden image +of a man which seemed to be treated with some religious awe and +respect." Mr. Robert F. Black, a missionary residing in Davao, writes +that "the Mandaya have in their homes wooden dolls which may be +idols."</p> + +<p>[115] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XII, 269, XLIII, p. 217, etc.</p> + +<p>[116] Filed in the office of the Governor of Davao.</p> + +<p>From this testimony it appears that in a part of the Mandaya +territory the spirit Diwata, at least, is represented by images.</p> + +<p>2. Asuáng. This name is applied to a class of malevolent spirits who +inhabit certain trees, cliffs and streams. They delight to trouble or +injure the living, and sickness is usually caused by them. For this +reason, when a person falls ill, a <i>ballyan</i> offers a live chicken +to these spirits bidding them "to take and kill this chicken in place of +this man, so that he need not die." If the patient recovers it is +understood that the <i>asuang</i> have agreed to the exchange and the +bird is released in the jungle.</p> + +<p>There are many spirits who are known as <i>asuang</i> but the five +most powerful are here given according to their rank, (a) Tagbanua, (b) +Tagamaling, (c) Sigbinan, (d) Lumaman, (e) Bigwa. The first two are of +equal importance and are only a little less powerful than Diwata. They +sometimes inhabit caves but generally reside in the <i>bud-bud</i> +(baliti) trees. The ground beneath these trees is generally free from +undergrowth and thus it is known that "a spirit who keeps his yard clean +resides there." In clearing ground for a new field it sometimes becomes +necessary to cut down one of these trees, but before it is disturbed an +offering of betel-nut, food, and a white chicken is carried to the plot. +The throat of the fowl is cut and its blood is allowed to fall in the +roots of the tree. Meanwhile one of the older men calls the attention of +the spirits to the offerings and begs that they be accepted in payment +for the dwelling which they are about to destroy. This food is never +eaten, as is customary with offerings made to other spirits. After a +lapse of two or three days it is thought that the occupant of the tree +has had time to move and the plot is cleared.</p> + +<p>In former times it was the custom for a victorious war party to place +the corpses of their dead, together with their weapons, at the roots of +a <i>baliti</i> tree. The reason for this custom seems now to be +lost.</p> + +<p>3. Busau. Among the Mandaya at the north end of Davao Gulf this +spirit is also known as Tuglinsau, Tagbusau, or Mandangum. He looks +after the welfare of the <i>bagani</i>, or warriors, and is in many +respects similar to Mandarangan of the Bagobo.[117] He is described as a +gigantic man who always shows his teeth and is otherwise of ferocious +aspect. A warrior seeing him is at once filled with a desire to kill. By +making occasional offerings of pigs and rice it is usually possible to +keep him from doing injury to a settlement, but at times these gifts +fail of their purpose and many people are slain by those who serve +him.</p> + +<p>[117] p. 106.</p> + +<p>4. OMAYAN, OR KALALOA NANG OMAY, is the spirit of the rice. He +resides in the rice fields, and there offerings are made to him before +the time of planting and reaping.</p> + +<p>5. MUNTIANAK is the spirit of a child whose mother died while +pregnant, and who for this reason was born in the ground. It wanders +through the forest frightening people but seldom assailing +them.[118]</p> + +<p>[118] The belief in a similar spirit known as Mantianak is widespread +throughout the southern Philippines.</p> + +<p>6. Magbabaya. Some informants stated that this is the name given to +the first man and woman, who emerged from the <i>limokon</i> eggs. They +are now true spirits who exercise considerable influence over worldly +affairs. Other informants, including two <i>ballyan</i> denied any +knowledge of such spirits, while still others said <i>magbabaya</i> is a +single spirit who was made known to them at the time of the +<i>Tungud</i> movement.[119] Among the Bukidnon who inhabit the central +portion of the island the <i>magbabaya</i> are the most powerful of all +spirits.</p> + +<p>[119] p. 179.</p> + +<p>7. Kalaloa. Each person has one spirit which is known by this name. +If this <i>kalaloa</i> leaves the body it decays, but the spirit goes to +Dagkotanan—"a good place, probably in the sky." Such a spirit can +return to its former haunts for a time and may aid or injure the living, +but it never returns to dwell in any other form.</p> + +<p>In addition to those just mentioned Governor Bolton gives the +following list of spirits known to the Mandaya of the Tagum river +valley. None of these were accepted by the people of Mayo district. +According to rank they are Mangkokiman, Mongungyahn, Mibucha Andepit, +Mibuohn, and Ebu—who made all people from the hairs of his +head.</p> + +<p>For the neighboring Mangwanga he gives, Likedanum as the creator and +chief spirit, Dagpudanum and Macguliput as gods of agriculture, and +Manamoan—a female spirit who works the soil and presides over +childbirth. All of these are unknown to the Mandaya of the Pacific +coast.</p> + +<p>While in the Salug river valley Governor Bolton witnessed a most +interesting ceremony which, so far as the writer is aware, is quite +unknown to the balance of the tribe. His quotation follows: "One +religious dance contained a sleight of hand performance, considered by +the people as a miracle, but the chiefs were evidently initiated. A man +dressed himself as a woman, and with the gongs and drums beaten rapidly +he danced, whirling round and round upon a mat until weak and dizzy, so +that he had to lean on a post. For a time he appeared to be in a trance. +After resting a few minutes he stalked majestically around the edge of +the mat, exaggerating the lifting and placing of his feet and putting on +an arrogant manner. After walking a minute or two he picked up a red +handkerchief, doubled it in his hand so that the middle of the kerchief +projected in a bunch above his thumb and forefinger; then he thrust this +into the flame of an <i>almaciga</i> torch. The music started anew and +he resumed his frantic dance until the flame reached his hand when he +slapped it out with his left hand, and stopped dancing; then catching +the kerchief by two corners he shook it out showing it untouched by +fire. The daughter of Bankiaoan next went into a trance lying down and +singing the message of Tagbusau and other gods to the assemblage. The +singing was done in a small inclosed room, the singer slipping in and +out without my seeing her."</p> + +<p>The letters of Pedro Rosell written at Caraga in 1885 contain many +references to the duties of the <i>ballyan</i>. In one account he +records the following song which he says is sung by the priestesses when +they invoke their gods Mansilátan and Badla.[120]</p> + +<p>[120] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 217-21, and Vol. XII, p. +270.</p> + +<p>"Miminsad, miminsad si Mansilátan<br> +Opod si Badla nga magadayao nang dumia<br> +Bailan, managunsayao,<br> +Bailan, managunliguit."</p> + +<p>This means:<br> +"Mansilátan has come down, has come down.<br> +Later (will come) Badla, who will preserve the earth.<br> +Bailanas, dance; bailanas, turn ye round about."</p> + +<p>This Rosell takes as "a confirmation of the most transcendental +questions of our true religion," for in Mansilátan he finds the +principal god and father of Balda, "who descended from the heavens where +he dwells, in order to create the world. Afterwards his only son Badla +came down also to preserve and protect the world—that is men and +things—against the power and trickery of the evil spirits +Pudaugnon and Malimbung." The writer made persistent inquiry among the +Mandaya to the south of Caraga, but could not find a trace of a belief +in any one of the four spirits named; neither are these spirits +mentioned in the notes of Governor Bolton, nor in the excellent +description of the people about Cateel, furnished by such a careful +observer as Mr. Maxey. It seems that this account, together with the +song and its translation, must have been gathered from other than +Mandayan sources. Long before 1885 the town of Caraga had become one of +the strongholds of the church on the east coast of Mindanao, and +Christianized settlers from all the southern islands had come to the +vicinity.[121] It is probable that Rosell's information was secured from +Christianized or Moro emigrants, and the first spirits named refer to +Badhala—Bathala, or Batala—"the all powerful," and Dian +Mansalanta—"the patron of lovers and generation."[122]</p> + +<p>[121] They are often referred to as <i>Caragas</i> in the early +writings.</p> + +<p>[122] Further information regarding these spirits will be found in +the Relations of Loarca, 1582 (BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. V, p. 171), and +the Relation of Juan de Plasencia, 1589 (<i>ibid</i>, Vol. VII, pp. +189-96, Vol. XII, p. 265). It is worthy of note that the Bagobo spirit +Toglái, who is one of the pair responsible for marriages and births, is +sometimes addressed as Maniládan.</p> + +<center><h4>THE TUNGUD MOVEMENT</h4></center> + +<p>In 1908 a religious movement known as <i>tungud</i> started among the +Manobo[123] at the source of the Rio Libaganon. Soon it had spread over +practically the whole southeastern portion of Mindanao, and finally +reached the Mandaya of the Pacific Coast. According to Mr. J. M. Garvan, +of the Philippine Bureau of Science, the movement was instigated by a +Manobo named Mapakla. This man was taken ill, probably with cholera, and +was left for dead by his kinsmen. Three days later he appeared among the +terrified people and explained, that a powerful spirit named Magbabaya +had entered his body and cured him. He further stated that the world was +about to be destroyed and that only those persons who gave heed to his +instructions would survive. These instructions bade all to cease +planting and to kill their animals for, he said, "if they survive to the +end they will eat you." A religious house or shrine was to be built in +every settlement, and was to be looked after by divinely appointed +ministers. Those persons who were at first inclined to be skeptical as +to the truth of the message, were soon convinced by seeing the Magbabaya +enter the bodies of the ministers, causing them to perform new, frantic +dances, interrupted only by trembling fits during which their eyes +protruded and gave them the semblance of dead men.</p> + +<p>[123] Not the Kulaman.</p> + +<p>By the time the <i>tungud</i> had reached the Mayo district it had +lost most of its striking features, but was still powerful enough to +cause many of the Mandaya to kill their animals and hold religious +dances. The coast Moro, who at that time were restless, took advantage +of the movement to further a plan to drive American planters and +Christianized natives from the district. The leading Mandaya were +invited to the house of the Moro <i>pandita</i>[124] "to see the spirit +Diwata." During several nights the son of the <i>pandita</i> +impersonated the spirit and appeared in the darkened room. Over his +chest and forehead he had stretched thin gauze and beneath this had +placed many fire-flies, which to the imaginative people made him appear +superhuman. His entrance into the room was attended by a vigorous +shaking of the house, caused by a younger brother stationed below. A +weird dance followed and then the spirit advised the people to rise and +wipe out the whole Christianized population. The Mandaya had become so +impressed by the nightly appearance of Diwata that it is more than +probable they would have joined the Moro in their project had not an +American planter at Mayo learned of the plot. He imprisoned the leaders, +thus ending a scheme which, if successful, would have given new +attributes to at least one of the spirits.</p> + +<p>[124] The religious head of the settlement.</p> + +<center><h3>SOCIAL ORGANIZATION</h3></center> + +<p>The before-mentioned <i>ballyan</i> direct the religious observances +of the tribe. Their mysterious powers give them great influence among +their fellows but, nevertheless, they are subservient to the local +ruler.</p> + +<p>The tribe is divided into many small groups, each of which is +governed by a <i>bagani</i>. To reach this coveted position a man must +have distinguished himself as a warrior and have killed at least ten +persons with his own hand.[125] The victims need not be killed in +warfare and may be of any sex or age so long as they come from a hostile +village. When the required number of lives has been taken, the aspirant +appeals to the neighboring <i>bagani</i> for the right to be numbered in +their select company. They will assemble to partake of a feast prepared +by the candidate and then solemnly discuss the merits of his case. The +petition may be disregarded entirely, or it may be decided that the +exploits related are sufficient only to allow the warrior to be known as +a half <i>bagani</i>. In this case he may wear trousers of red cloth, +but if he is granted the full title he is permitted to don a blood-red +suit and to wear a turban of the same hue. This distinction is eagerly +sought by the more vigorous men of the tribe and, as a result, many +lives are taken each year.</p> + +<p>[125] At Mayo it was said that it is necessary to kill only six, but +the two <i>bagani</i> living there had each killed more than twice that +number. Among the Mansaka the number required is often as high as +thirty.</p> + +<p>A short time ago a candidate entered the district of Bungalung on the +east coast of Davao and killed thirty-two persons. In that same section +are now living five <i>bagani</i> who have gained this title by similar +exploits.[126] Whole communities become involved in feuds as a result of +these individual raids, for it is the duty of a murdered man's family to +seek revenge for his death. It is not necessary that they kill the +offender, as any member of his family or settlement will suffice. In +some districts the unmarried relatives of a murdered person are not +allowed to wed until the death is avenged.</p> + +<p>[126] These are Maclingtong at Pandisan; Pankard at Tagauanan; +Kasicknan, Lewanan, and Malañgit, in the mountains between Taguanan and +Piso.</p> + +<p>Instances are known where the old men have conferred the title of +<i>bagani</i> upon the son of some deceased warrior. In such a case the +recipient of the honor starts at once to fulfil the requirements of +election, for otherwise he brings disgrace to himself and family. In his +own settlement the oldest of the <i>bagani</i> becomes supreme ruler, +and if powerful enough he may extend his influence to a considerable +distance. In a few cases on the East coast the holders of the title have +so instilled fear of themselves into the neighboring districts that they +have been able to levy blackmail, even on the Christianized natives. War +parties are led by these wearers of the red garments, and they also +enforce the laws handed down from their forefathers.</p> + +<p>The day a warrior is elevated to this order he is in a large measure +cut away from his fellows. He no longer associates with them as equals +but eats his meals alone, unless it happens that other <i>bagani</i> are +present.</p> + +<p>Below the <i>bagani</i> in rank come the warriors, a class which +includes practically all the able-bodied free men; and still below them +are the slaves. Slavery was an ancient institution with this people when +the Spaniards first visited their country, and it has continued to +flourish up to the present, in all districts a little removed from the +influence of the white man. The great majority of slaves are secured by +capture, but until recent years the Moro of the coast have carried on a +lucrative slave trade with this tribe. Girls and women become members of +their master's household, but their children are treated as slaves. +Captive boys and men aid their masters in the chase and in the fields, +and in most cases it would be hard indeed for a stranger to pick servant +from master. Sometimes the people of a neighboring village ransom one of +their fellows and in such a case the freed slave may return to his old +home or he may become a free member of the community in which he has +been serving.</p> + +<center><h3>DWELLINGS</h3></center> + +<p>The insecurity of life resulting from the conditions described has +caused the people to build their homes high in the branches of trees, +often so situated on the edge of cliffs that they can be approached only +from one direction (Plates LXXIII-LXXIV).</p> + +<p>Two sorts of dwellings are commonly seen. Of these, the rudest rest +on the limbs of trees, and conform in size and shape to the nature of +the supporting branches. Some few houses of this kind have horizontal +sides and sloping roofs, but more frequently a roof which slopes +directly from a central ridge pole to the edges of the platform does +away with the necessity of side walls.</p> + +<p>The second and more common type of house is shown in Plate LXXIV. +Here the top of the tree has been cut off some fifteen or twenty feet +above the ground leaving a stump to serve as a part of the foundation. +Many smaller poles help support the floor and then extend upward to form +the wall and roof stays. The upper flooring of beaten bark rests on +cross-beams which have been lashed to the uprights. Above it are +occasional horizontal poles, forming a skeleton to which the walls of +<i>nipa</i> palm are fastened. In some houses two or three of the +foundation poles extend above the floor to such a height that they are +used as the supports for the ridge pole. In others true king posts rest +on the beams, which in turn are supported by the corner poles. From the +ridge a number of smaller rods extend to or project out over the side +walls, and on them rests the roofing of <i>nipa</i> palm. A space of +several inches often intervenes between the roof and the side walls. The +whole structure is so firmly lashed together with rattan that it is +capable of withstanding severe storms, despite the fact that it gives +and creaks with every wind. During violent storms the house is further +secured by anchoring it with rattan lines to nearby trees.</p> + +<p>Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of bamboo or rattan +ladders. These are drawn up at night, and with all means of access thus +removed the inhabitants need have little fear of a surprise attack. If +enemies do attempt to dislodge them the defenders have the advantage of +their elevated position in the use of their weapons.</p> + +<p>Generally, each house contains only one room which varies in size +according to the number of inhabitants. Frequently two or three families +are found living in one house, for it is the custom for the suitors, and +often for the husbands of the married daughters, to live with the girls' +people.</p> + +<p>Near the door, or in one comer of the room, is a small box of earth +in which several stones are imbedded. This constitutes the hearth, about +which is found a miscellany of pots, jars, and other kitchen vessels. +The smoke finds its way out through a small opening at each end of the +roof, or through the narrow space under the eaves. There is no +recognized arrangement of the room. Utensils[127] are scattered +promiscuously about and when the inhabitants are ready to sleep they +occupy such parts of the floor as are free or can be most easily +cleared.</p> + +<p>[127] These consist of baskets, rice mortars, and winnowers, weaving +outfits, bark dye vats, as well as traps and weapons, nearly all of +which are so similar to those already described for the Bagobo that they +do not call for special notice here.</p> + +<p>The people of a community build their houses within a short distance +of one another, yet seldom so close together as to form a village. +However, village life is not entirely unknown, for in the vicinity of +Cateel Governor Bolton found six houses, partially surrounded by +palisades, perched on the top of a conical hill.</p> + +<p>Lieutenant Youngblood gives the following description of the people +and dwellings seen by him near the upper waters of the Agusan river:</p> + +<p>"The people seemed to be living in an atmosphere of fear as far as +intercourse with the world outside their crater-like valley was +concerned. They believed it was death to look upon the sea, of which +they had heard disjointed tales, but which none of them had ever seen. +They feared the coast people with a mortal fear, justified perhaps by +the experiences of occasional meetings in times gone by. They fear each +other to a certain extent, especially men who live further north of the +headwaters of the Agusan. This ever-present state of fear gives coloring +to their whole life. They take to the brush at the least unwonted sound. +They make their clearings on the steep mountainsides and in these build +two or three of their houses in strategic positions. In the very +construction of their dwellings the idea of security in case of attack +is predominant.</p> + +<p>"The houses in this section are generally built in clearings on the +sawn-off trunk of some giant tree and placed from the ground some forty +or fifty feet. Numerous posts help support the structure, entrance to +which is gained by a notched pole firmly set in the ground and held in +place by tightly wound bejuca. Oftentimes this stair pole is bowed +outwards slightly, which gives it a peculiar appearance and requires a +considerable amount of skill in climbing. The front and only door to +these houses consists of a section of the floor composed of hewn plank, +hinged at one end. One end of this is raised by a bejuca rope during the +day, while at night it is let down forming a solid floor throughout the +house.</p> + +<p>"The roof is of shingles made from mountain cane; the floor and sides +of hand-hewn logs and planks; the roof is at no place more than seven +feet from the floor and is blackened on the inside from smoke. The +largest house visited in this locality was that of Chief Leuanan, and +this was some twenty feet square. These houses consist of one room and +are inhabited by two or more families."</p> + +<center><h3>AGRICULTURE</h3></center> + +<p>About the settlements are the fields in which rice, corn, camotes, +sugar-cane, and a small amount of tobacco, cotton and hemp are raised. +However, the crops are usually so small that even with the addition of +game and forest products there is, each year, a period closely bordering +on starvation. New clearings are frequently made near to the old, for +the primitive tools[128] with which the people work are ill-fitted to +combat the incursion into the open land of the rank cogon grass. Only +the exhaustion of suitable timber land for a new clearing, the +prevalence of an epidemic, or the near approach of a powerful enemy will +cause the people to move their homes from one district to another.</p> + +<p>[128] These consist of a mall axe, working knife, and planting +stick.</p> + +<p>We have already referred to the important part the <i>limokon</i> +plays in the selection and clearing of a new plot of ground,[129] and to +the offerings made to the spirits when it becomes necessary to cut down +certain trees.[130] The crops, aside from the rice, are planted and +harvested without further reference to the spirit world, but the +cultivation and care of this cereal can only be carried on according to +certain fixed conditions.</p> + +<p>[129] See pages 173 and 177.</p> + +<p>[130] Near Cateel the wishes of the spirits are learned by means of +cords. A number of strings are tied together in the center and the knot +is buried. The loose ends are then joined and if it happens that the two +ends of a cord have been tied together it is taken as a sign that the +spirits give their consent to the proposed clearing.</p> + +<p>About November first, when a group of seven stars called <i>poyo +poyo</i> appears in the west, it is a signal for all who expect to clear +new land to begin their labors. By December first this constellation +rises straight above and it is then time to plant. This is further +confirmed by the appearance of a star known as <i>sabak</i>. If any have +delayed their planting until the middle of December they are given a +last warning when the stars forming <i>Bayatik</i>[131] appear.</p> + +<p>[131] This is the same as <i>balatik</i>, page 62.</p> + +<p>As soon as the land has been cleared a pole is placed in the center +of the field and is surrounded by a fence. This is known as +<i>tagbinian</i> and seems to be erected in honor of the spirit Omayan, +although by some it is insisted that it is intended for his residence. +The seed rice is deposited inside the enclosure[132] and the men begin +to prepare the soil about it. This they do by thrusting sharpened sticks +into the ground, thus making holes an inch or two in depth. Taking rice +from the <i>tagbinian</i> the women follow, dropping seeds into the +holes.</p> + +<p>[132] Maxey relates that at planting and harvest tune the Mandaya of +Cateel carry offerings to the <i>baliti</i> trees and there offer it to +Diwata, in supplication or thanks for an abundant crop.</p> + +<p>When the harvest time is near at hand the men repair the old +granaries or build new and then, when all is ready for the crop, an old +man or woman goes alone, in the middle of the night, to the fields and +there cuts a few stalks of the rice. Should this be neglected the crop +is sure to be small and will vanish quickly. This grain is not used as +an offering, nor are any gifts made to the spirits until the crop has +been harvested and the people are ready to eat of the new rice. At that +time a little of the recently harvested grain is placed on a dish, +together with other food and betel-nut, and is carried to the granary, +where it is presented to the spirit "in order that the granary may +always be full." When the grain is needed for use it is removed from the +straw by pounding it with wooden pestles, it is then placed in a wooden +mortar and is again pounded until the husks are loosened. This +accomplished, the grain is freed from chaff by tossing it in a winnower. +If a greater amount has been cleared than is needed it is stored in +gourds or water-proof baskets (Fig. 50). A month or two after the +harvest a great celebration is held, the principal features of which are +a feast and dance but no offerings are then made to the spirits.</p> + +<a name="50"></a> +<img src="images/FIG050.JPG" alt="FIG. 50. GOURD RICE HOLDER."> + +<p>The small crop of sugar-cane is made into an alcoholic drink, which +is sometimes indulged in at meal time but is generally reserved for +festive occasions. The juice is boiled with a plant called <i>palba</i>, +similar to ginger, and is stored away in bamboo tubes until it has +reached a suitable stage of fermentation. Another drink is made by +boiling strained honey with the <i>palba</i> and allowing it to +ferment.</p> + +<center><h3>HUNTING AND FISHING</h3></center> + +<p>A considerable portion of the food supply is secured by hunting and +fishing. Small birds are captured by placing a sticky substance on bare +limbs of fruit-bearing trees, or by fastening gummed sticks in places +frequented by birds. When a victim alights on this it is held securely +until captured by the hunter. Fig. 51 shows another method of securing +such small game. A cord with a noose at one end is attached to a bent +limb. In the center of this cord is tied a short stick which acts as a +trigger. This trigger is placed with the top end pressing against an +arched twig <i>a</i>, while the other end draws <i>b</i> against the +sides of the arch. Other sticks rest on <i>b</i> and on them is a +covering of leaves on which is placed bait and the open noose. The +weight of a bird or small animal on the cross-piece is sufficient to +release the trigger and then the bent limb draws the noose taut.</p> + +<a name="51"></a> +<img src="images/FIG051.JPG" alt="FIG. 51. BIRD SNARE."> + +<p>The series of slip nooses attached to a central cord which surrounds +a tame decoy is also found in use here, and boys frequently secure birds +by means of blow-guns. The latter do not differ from those already +described on p. 73, but with this tribe they are regarded only as a +boy's plaything.</p> + +<p>Deer and pig are sometimes hunted by large parties with the aid of +dogs. In such cases an attempt is made to drive the animals past +concealed hunters, or to dispatch them with spears when brought to bay +by the dogs. The more successful method, however, is by means of traps +several types of which were seen by the writer. The first and most +common is a dead fall consisting of a heavy log so arranged in the +runway of the game that a passing animal will cause it to fall. Next in +favor with the hunters is the <i>bayatik</i>. One end of a sapling is +tied horizontally to a tree and is then bent back like a spring. It is +held in place by means of a trigger which is released when an animal +disturbs a vine stretched across the runway. Against the free end of the +spring a long bamboo spear or arrow is placed in such a manner that it +is thrown with great force against the animal which has released the +trigger. This trap is frequently used in warfare to protect the retreat +of a war party, or to surprise an enemy.</p> + +<p>Sharpened bamboo sticks, two or three feet long, planted at points +where animals are accustomed to jump or run down steep inclines, are +wonderfully efficient in securing game. Sticks and leaves cover pits in +which sharpened poles are planted and into these unsuspecting animals or +members of a hostile party often fall. All these last named devices are +exceedingly dangerous and it is unadvisable for a traveler in the jungle +to try to penetrate a strange region unless accompanied by a native who +knows the position of the traps and pits.</p> + +<p>Fish are secured by means of bamboo traps through which a part of the +water of a stream is diverted. These traps do not differ in any respect +from those shown in Fig. 19. Along the coast metal fishhooks and dip and +throw nets are in common use, but these are at present largely obtained +from the Moro. The easiest and hence the most popular method of securing +fish is to mash together the poisonous roots of the <i>tobli</i> tree +and the fruit of the <i>oliskEb</i>. The pulp is then sunk into still +pools of water and in a short time, the stupified[sic] fish begin to +float to the surface, where they are quickly seized by the +fishermen.</p> + +<center><h3>WARFARE</h3></center> + +<p>Mention has already been made of the use of pits and traps in +warfare. In addition to these it is customary for a returning war party +to conceal in the trail many <i>saoñag</i>, small stiletto-shaped bamboo +sticks, which pierce the feet of those in pursuit. A night camp is +effectively protected in the same manner against barefooted enemies.</p> + +<p>The arms used are spears, fighting knives with wide bellied blades, +daggers, narrow shields with which weapons are defected (Fig. 52), and +in some sections bows and arrows. The fighting knives and daggers +(Plates LXXV-LXXVI) deserve more than casual notice. The heavy bellied +blades of the knives are highly tempered, and not infrequently are bored +through and inlaid with silver, in which instances they are known as +<i>binuta</i>,—blind (Plate LXXVa). The sheaths, with their +sharply upturned ends, are made of light wood on which are carved +decorations, attached or inlaid bands of silver, or stained designs. The +handles of the weapons are also decorated with incised silver bands.</p> + +<a name="52"></a> +<img src="images/FIG052.JPG" alt="FIG. 52. WOODEN SHIELDS."> + +<p>Much as the fighting knives are prized, the dagger, <i>bayadau</i> or +<i>bádau</i>, is in even greater favor. It is worn on the front +left-hand part of the body in ready reach of the right hand, and is +never removed unless the owner is in the company of trusted relatives. A +light thread, easily broken, holds the dagger in its sheath and the +slightest disturbance is enough to cause the owner to draw his +weapon.</p> + +<p>The older warriors claim that it formerly was their custom to protect +themselves with strips of hemp cloth, <i>limbotung</i>, which they wound +many times around their bodies in order to ward off knife thrusts, but +this method of protection seems to have fallen into disuse.[133]</p> + +<p>[133] This type of protective armor is still used by the Bukidnon of +Central Mindanao.</p> + +<p>Individual warriors lie in ambush for their foes, but when a great +raid is planned the party is under the command of a <i>bagani</i>. These +attacks are arranged to take place during the full moon and the warriors +usually assault a settlement which they think can be taken by surprise, +and hence unprepared. It is very seldom that these people fight in the +open, and invaders do not attempt a combat unless they feel sure of the +outcome. If they find a house well protected they may attempt to fire it +by attaching a torch to an arrow and shooting it into the grass roof, +the occupants being slaughtered as they rush out. If one of the enemy +puts up an especially good fight his body is opened and the warriors eat +a portion of his heart and liver, thinking thus to gain in valor.</p> + +<p>Mr. Maxey mentions the use of poisoned weapons in the neighborhood of +Cateel, but the Mandaya of the south seem to be entirely ignorant of +this custom, Maxey's account of the preparation of the poison is as +follows:</p> + +<p>"The poison is, according to the writer's informant, prepared as +follows: A long bamboo is cut and carried to a tree called +<i>camandag</i>.[134] The bamboo must be long enough to reach to the +limit of the shadow cast by the tree to the trunk of the same, as the +tree is so poisonous that it even affects those who stand beneath it. +The bamboo has a sharp point which is stuck into the tree and receives +the milk which exudes from the cut. After several days the bamboo is +removed and the contents emptied into another bamboo which serves for a +sheath or quiver for the arrows, these being placed in it point down. +The slightest scratch will cause death. A peculiar thing about the tree +from which the poison is extracted, is that the person extracting must +not only not get under the tree, but must approach it from the windward, +as the effects of even the odor are unpleasant and dangerous."</p> + +<p>[134] <i>Croton tiglium L</i>.</p> + +<center><h3>INDUSTRIES</h3></center> + +<p>In the description of the tribe up to this point we have touched upon +those pursuits which engross the greater part of the time. In addition +to these, it falls to the lot of the women to manufacture and decorate +all the clothing worn by members of the tribe. Some cotton is grown and +is used in the manufacture of jackets, but the bulk of the garments are +of hemp. In the description of the Decorative Art we shall deal with the +decoration of the hemp cloth skirts worn by the women. Here it is only +necessary for us to observe that this cloth is produced and colored by +exactly the same process as is employed by the Bagobo women.[135]</p> + +<p>[135] See p. 79.</p> + +<p>A very little brass casting is done by the Mandaya of one district, +but it is evidently a crude copy of Moro work. By far the greater part +of the brass betel boxes, and ornaments of that metal, as well as spear +heads, are purchased from the coast Mohammedans.</p> + +<p>Iron working is an ancient art with this people and the beauty and +temper of their knives and daggers is not excelled by the output of any +other Philippine tribe. In the manufacture of these weapons they employ +the same methods as their neighbors to the south and west.</p> + +<p>No wild tribe in the archipelago has made so much use of silver in +the production of ornaments as has the Mandaya. Thin silver plates are +rolled into small tubes and are attached to the woman's ear plugs (Fig. +49), finger rings of the same metal are produced in great numbers, but +the finest work appears in the large silver ornaments worn on the +breasts by both sexes (Fig. 53). Silver coins are beaten into thin</p> + +<a name="53"></a> +<img src="images/FIG053.JPG" alt="FIG. 53. SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS."> + +<p>disks, in the center of which a hole is cut. About this opening +appear beautiful intricate designs, some engraved, others stamped with +metal dies.</p> + +<p>All work in metal is limited to a few skilled men, but many lesser +industries, such as shaping tortoise shell rings and shell bracelets, +carving of spoons, and making baskets, are carried on by other members +of the tribe during their leisure hours.</p> + +<center><h3>BIRTH</h3></center> + +<p>In each district there are one or two mid wives, known as +<i>managámon</i>. They are women past middle life who are versed in the +medicines and rites which should be employed at the time of birth. They +are not considered as <i>ballyan</i>, yet they talk to the spirits upon +certain occasions.</p> + +<p>When a pregnant woman is about to be delivered the midwife crushes +the bark of the <i>dap-dap</i> tree and makes a medicine called +<i>tagaúmo</i>, which she gives to the patient. It is claimed that this +causes the muscles to relax so that they allow an easy delivery. The +umbilical cord is cut with a bamboo knife and as soon as the child has +been bathed it is given to the mother. The afterbirth is placed in a +specially prepared basket and is either hung against the side of the +house or in a nearby tree. For a few days the midwife assists about the +house and then, if all is well with the child, she takes her payment of +rice, chicken, and fish, and returns to her home. Should the child be +ailing she will return, and having placed rice and betel-nut on banana +leaves she carries these to the top of the house and there offers them +to the <i>asuang</i>,[136] meanwhile asking those spirits to accept the +offering and to cease troubling the child. No ceremony takes place at +the time of naming or at the age of puberty, but at the latter period +the teeth are filed and blackened so that the young person may be more +beautiful and, therefore, able to contract a suitable marriage.</p> + +<p>[136] See p. 176. [Transcriber's note: This is page 192.]</p> + +<center><h3>MARRIAGE</h3></center> + +<p>Frequently parents arrange matches for their children while they are +still very young, but in the majority of cases the matter is left until +after the age of puberty when the wishes of the young people are taken +into consideration. The youth or his father having chosen a suitable +girl takes or sends a spear, knife, or other acceptable present to her +father. If this offering is accepted it indicates approval of the match, +and soon thereafter a feast is prepared to which friends of both +families are invited. At this feast the price to be paid for the girl +and the time of marriage are agreed upon, and at least partial payment +is made. As is the case with the neighboring tribes, a part of the value +of this gift is returned. Following the agreement the boy enters the +service of his fiancee's father and for a year or more lives as a member +of the family. Even after the marriage a considerable amount of service +is expected from him at the time of planting, harvesting, or +building.</p> + +<p>The marriage ceremony proper follows a feast, and consists of the +young couple feeding each other with rice and drinking from a common +cup.</p> + +<p>Should anything occur to prevent the marriage, after the payment for +the girl has been made, the gifts must be returned or service equal to +their value must be rendered.</p> + +<p>Unfaithfulness on the part of the woman seems to be the one cause for +a separation and this is uncommon, for unless her admirer purchases her +for a sum equal to the amount her husband spent in obtaining her, the +divorced woman remains as a slave in the home of her former husband.</p> + +<p>Polygamy is permitted and is quite common, but a man may not take a +second wife until a child has been born to the first. In addition to his +wives a man may have as many concubines as he can afford to +purchase.</p> + +<p>It is said to be a grave offense for a man to embrace a married +woman, or even to touch the breasts, elbows, or heels of any woman he +does not intend to marry. An unmarried woman who permits such +familiarities is considered as good as married. Despite this assertion, +the writer knows of several cases where young people openly lived +together without being considered married, and later the parents +arranged marriages between these girls and other suitors.</p> + +<p>According to several informants, incest is punished by the sacrifice +of the guilty parties. They are tied to a tree with their hands drawn +backward around the trunks and are then speared to death. This seems to +be the one and only occasion when human sacrifice is practiced by +members of this tribe.</p> + +<center><h3>SICKNESS AND DEATH.</h3></center> + +<p>When a person is seriously ill a <i>ballyan</i> is summoned and she, +after securing prepared rice, betel-nuts, and a live chicken, enters +into communication with the spirits. First she converses with the dead +father or other deceased relative of the sick person and requests his +aid in effecting a cure, next she presents food to Diwata and implores +his aid, and finally calls upon the <i>asuang</i> to whom she offers the +live fowl on the condition that they will cease trying to injure the +patient. Having thus done all in her power to influence the spirits she +may administer some simple remedy, after which she begins to dance +contra-clockwise, around a bamboo pole on which leaves and betel-nut +have been hung.[137]</p> + +<p>[137] This ceremony usually takes place in the house, but if the man +was taken ill in the forest or in his field it may be conducted +there.</p> + +<p>If this treatment proves to be of no avail and the patient dies his +body is placed in the center of the house and for two days and nights is +guarded by relatives and friends. During the time that the body remains +in the dwelling the family is required to fast and all the people of the +settlement are prohibited from playing on agongs, from singing or +indulging in other signs of merriment. Finally, the body is wrapped in a +mat and is buried in the forest.[138]</p> + +<p>[138] Maxey gives the following account of burial near Cateel: "The +dead person is dressed in his best clothes, wrapped in a piece of +<i>abaca</i> cloth, and placed in a coffin of bamboo poles, or one hewn +from a solid log, if the person was one of means, and buried. If of the +poorer class he is merely wrapped in a piece of matting-, and either +buried or covered over with stones, sticks, and the like. If of high +rank, the body is not buried, but after preparation is taken into the +forest and placed in a small hut under a <i>balete</i> tree. Food, +spears, bolos, hats, shields, and some articles of furniture are placed +on the graves to placate the spirits who might otherwise bring harm to +the surviving members of the clan or family. There is no fixed period of +mourning, but the members of the family must wear black for some time +after the death. The sick are never abandoned prior to death, but slaves +nearing death are sometimes killed to stop their sufferings. The owner, +however, must first consult with others of the clan."</p> + +<p>Returning from the burial all the people partake of a feast and then +set fire to the dwelling "because we do not like the <i>asuang</i> which +killed the man in that house." During the ensuing nine days the spouse +of the dead dresses in black and for a month following, or until they +can purchase a slave, the whole family is barred from merry-making. Two +reasons for the purchase of this slave were advanced by members of the +tribe. One was that the family could be happy if they were still rich +enough to purchase a slave. The second, that they thus replaced the dead +man with another, "for the slaves are like members of our own +family."</p> + +<center><h3>DECORATIVE ART.</h3></center> + +<p>The decorative art of the Mandaya is similar in many respects to that +of the Bagobo and Bila-an, yet in part it differs greatly from both. As +is true with the other tribes, the weavers make use of many figures +which they do not associate with any living forms, but which, +nevertheless, strongly suggest that they may have been derived from +realistic designs. In addition to such patterns they frequently employ +figures which are intentional copies of human or animal forms. Of these +the most common are those representing a man and a crocodile; these +sometimes appear together, sometimes alone. The requirements of the +space to be filled, as well as readiness of the worker to alter any part +in order to give a more pleasing effect to the design have resulted in +many distorted and conventionalized figures which can only be explained +by the artist. The accompanying drawings are taken from articles +collected by the writer and now in the Field Museum of Natural +History.</p> + +<p>Patterns <i>A</i> to <i>H</i> in Fig. 54 appear in hemp cloth skirts. +These show the steps in the conventionalization of the human +figure,[139] as explained by the weavers. In the first four the forms +are so realistic that they need no explanation, but <i>E</i> is more +complicated. Here two greatly conventionalized figures have been used, +one erect, the other with head down. The size of the head has been +increased while the body is represented by a small diamond-shaped +pattern with outstretched arms attached. The legs and feet of both +figures help to form a pattern similar to a head, except that it lacks +the "hair" shown in the end designs. <i>F</i> resembles the preceding +quite closely. In it the central head-like pattern does not appear and +the legs and feet of one figure help to form the head of the other. This +design has been doubled, thus necessitating some alteration of the +figures at the points of union. In <i>G</i> and <i>H</i> nearly all the +realistic elements have vanished, yet certain resemblance to <i>D</i> +and <i>E</i> can be discerned.</p> + +<p>[139] One weaver insisted that this figure represents a frog, because +of its webbed feet, but none of the others agreed with her.</p> + +<a name="54"></a> +<img src="images/FIG054.JPG" alt="FIG. 54A TO H. DESIGNS REPRESENTING +THE HUMAN FORM."> + +<p>We have already learned that the crocodile is held in great regard +and in some sections there is evidence of its more or less sacred +character. Its importance in the minds of the people is well shown by +the frequency with which it appears in their decorative designs. Fig. +55<i>A</i> shows one of these animals which has just eaten a man. Both +figures are so realistic that the intention of the weaver is apparent. +In <i>B</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, and <i>F</i>, the animal is still +realistic, but the man disappears, and in his place is a formless object +or straight lines which are identified as "something eaten."</p> + +<a name="55"></a> +<img src="images/FIG055.JPG" alt="FIG. 55A TO H. CROCODILE DESIGNS."> + +<p>The pattern <i>G</i> is given as the next step in the +conventionalization. Here the legs, feet, and "something eaten" have +assumed undue proportions, while nearly every trace of likeness has +vanished. This figure is multiplied five times to obtain the highly +conventionalized form shown in <i>H</i>.</p> + +<p>By referring to <i>G</i> it is possible to see how the complicated +designs in <i>I</i> and <i>J</i> have been derived, although they bear +little resemblance to the original crocodile form.</p> + +<p>Fig. 56 was identified as a crocodile but was not regarded as a step +in the conventionalization shown. Many other figures such as 57 appear +so closely related to the designs just described that it seems certain +they must have had a common origin, yet this was denied by all the +weavers, who insisted that such decorations were added only to make the +garments pretty.</p> + +<a name="56"></a> +<img src="images/FIG056.JPG" alt="FIG. 56. CROCODILE DESIGN."> + +<a name="57"></a> +<img src="images/FIG057.JPG" alt="FIG. 57. DESIGN USED IN WEAVING."> + +<p>Going from weaving to designs cut in wood, something of the same +state of affairs is encountered. Pattern <i>a</i> on the bamboo comb +(Fig. 48) is identified as the crocodile, yet the very similar figures +shown on a bamboo lime holder (Fig. 58) and on a wooden clothes-hanger +(Fig. 59) are not so recognized.</p> + +<a name="58"></a> +<img src="images/FIG058.JPG" alt="FIG. 58. INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO +LIME HOLDER."> + +<a name="59"></a> +<img src="images/FIG059.JPG" alt="FIG. 59. CLOTHES HANGER."> + +<p>Figs. 60 and 61 show characteristic designs which are embroidered on +jackets or carrying bags. All these are added with the one idea of +beautifying the garment, without any thought of copying some living +form. This is true also of the incised zigzag lines, scrolls, and +meander patterns seen on the silver breast disks (Fig. 53), and those +stained on palm bark hats (Fig. 47).</p> + +<a name="60"></a> +<img src="images/FIG060.JPG" alt="FIG. 60. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON +JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS."> + +<a name="61"></a> +<img src="images/FIG061.JPG" alt="FIG. 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON +JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS."> + +<p>FIGS. 60 AND 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING +BAGS.</p> +<p>FIGS. 60 AND 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING +BAGS.</p> + +<p>Tobacco pouches (Fig. 62) are often completely covered with bright +colored geometrical designs embroidered in trade yarn. This work, which +is quite unlike the other decoration used by this people, was probably +introduced along with trade yarn and analine[sic] dyes.</p> + +<a name="62"></a> +<img src="images/FIG062.JPG" alt="FIG. 62. TOBACCO POUCHES."> +<br> + +<a name="VII"></a> +<p> </p> +<center><h2>CONCLUSION</h2></center> + +<p>From the material now at our disposal certain general conclusions can +be drawn.</p> + +<p>A comparison of the physical measurements indicates that no group is +of pure race. There are significant variations between members of +different tribes, but these occur also between individuals of the same +village. The average person in each group is short-headed, yet +long-headed individuals are found in every tribe and variations just as +great as this appear in the other measurements and observations.</p> + +<p>We have previously noted the evidences of an aboriginal pygmy +population, that has been partially absorbed by intermarriage with the +later comers.[140] In all the groups, except the Bila-an, the percentage +of individuals showing evidences of Negrito blood increases as we go +from the coasts toward the interior, until in such divisions as the Obo +and Tigdapaya of the Bagobo, and the Tugauanum of the Ata, practically +all the people show traces of this admixture.</p> + +<p>[140] Negrito are reported from the Samal Islands in the Gulf of +Davao.</p> + +<p>In addition to the types already described there are found in each +tribe individuals who in all but color might readily pass as white men. +These persons freely intermarry with the rest of the population, and it +is no uncommon thing to find in one family children of this sort as well +as those showing Negrito characteristics or those conforming to the +average type.[141]</p> + +<p>[141] This will be discussed in a forthcoming publication on Physical +Types. That paper will present a full series of measurements accompanied +by photographs, including the Bukidnon of North Central Mindanao in +which tribe this type is more frequently seen than in Davao +District.</p> + +<p>The facts indicate that the tribes now found in Davao District did +not reach the coasts of Mindanao at the same time, but rather that they +represent several periods of migration, of which the Kulaman is the +last. This tribe, which only a few generations ago seems to have been +made up of seafarers, has not yet entirely adapted itself to a settled +existence and it is only within the lifetime of the present generation +that its members have taken seriously to agriculture.</p> + +<p>It appears that the Bila-an once inhabited the district about Lake +Buluan, but the pressure of the Moro has forced most of them from that +region toward the mountains to the south and east. They have taken +possession of both sides of this mountain range, except for the lower +eastern slopes where they have encountered the Tagakaolo.</p> + +<p>The other tribes probably landed on the southern or southeastern +coast of the Island, from whence they have gradually moved to their +present habitats.</p> + +<p>Intermarriage between the tribes, Moro raids, warfare with the +accompanying capture of slaves, and the possible influence of boat-loads +of castaways, all have to be considered in dealing with the types found +in Davao District. We have already seen that the physical measurements +indicate a complex racial history.</p> + +<p>After giving full credit to all these influences, however, it does +not appear to the writer that such radical differences exist between the +tribes as will justify us in assigning to them different ancestry or +places of origin. The summarized description of the Bagobo given on page +56 would, with only, slight modification, apply to all the other tribes, +with the exception of certain groups of the Ata in which the Negrito +element is very pronounced. In brief, the various influences that have +been at work on one group have influenced all the others, since their +arrival on the island of Mindanao.</p> + +<p>This conclusion is further justified by the language in which a large +per cent of the words in daily use are common to all the groups. Even +the Bila-an dialect, which differs more from all the others than do any +of those from one another, has so many words in common with the coast +tongues and is so similar in structure that one of my native boys, who +never before had seen a Bila-an, was able freely to carry on a +conversation within a few days after his arrival in one of their most +isolated settlements.</p> + +<p>Similar as are the people and their dialects, the cultural agreements +are even more noticeable. Taking the Bagobo as a starting point, we find +a highly developed culture which, with a few minor changes, holds good +for the tribes immediately surrounding. These in turn differ little from +their neighbors, although from time to time some new forms appear. The +Cibolan type of dwelling, with its raised platform at one end and +box-like enclosures along the side walls, is met with until the Mandaya +territory is approached, while, with little variation, the house +furnishings and utensils in daily use are the same throughout the +District. The same complicated method of overtying, dyeing, and weaving +of hemp employed in the manufacture of women's skirts is in use from +Cateel in the north to Sarangani Bay in the south, while in the +manufacture of weapons the iron worker in Cibolan differs not at all +from his fellow-craftsman among the Mandaya. Here we are confronted by +the objection that, so far as is known, no iron work is done by the +Bila-an and Ata, but this is a condition which is encountered throughout +the archipelago. In the interior of Luzon are found isolated villages, +the inhabitants of which are expert workers in iron and steel, while +their neighbors seem to be ignorant of the process.[142] The writer +holds to the opinion that iron working is an ancient art throughout the +Philippine archipelago and that its use for various reasons, such as +lack of material, has died out in certain sections. Brass workers are +found among most of the tribes, but, as was observed earlier in this +paper, there is sufficient evidence that the industry is of recent +introduction, and the amount and excellence of the work done by the +brass casters is governed by the nearness or remoteness of Moro +settlements.</p> + +<p>[142] The process used in Northern Luzon is very similar to that +employed in Southern Mindanao.</p> + +<p>Except for the cotton garments recently adopted by the Kagan branch +of the Tagakaolo, and the suits worn by the Mandaya men, the clothing +seen throughout the District is very similar. A few ornaments, such as +the silver rings and breast disks of the Mandaya, have only a limited +distribution, but for the most part the decorations worn by the +different tribes differ only in the number of beads, bells, and shell +disks used in their manufacture.</p> + +<p>In the ornamentation of their garments certain groups have +specialized until the bead work of the Bagobo excels all such work found +in the Philippines. The same can be said of the intricate and +beautifully embroidered designs seen in the garments of the Bila-an or +the oversewed fabrics of the Kulaman, while the crudely embroidered +patterns of the Mandaya are wonderfully effective. Yet, despite apparent +dissimilarities, there is such a likeness in many forms of +ornamentation, as well as in the technique of the methods of production, +that there seems to be ample proof of free borrowing, or of a common +origin.</p> + +<p>On the non-material side the similarities between the groups are even +more marked. In each tribe the warriors gain distinction among their +fellows, the protection of certain spirits, and the privilege of wearing +red garments, by killing a certain number of persons. Except among the +Kulaman, mediums much like the <i>mabalian</i> of the Bagobo make known +the wishes of the superior beings and direct the ceremonies. The people +are instructed when to plant by the spirits who place certain +constellations in the skies. These are the same for all the groups, +although often known by different names. The <i>limokon</i> warns or +encourages the traveler, while certain acts of the individual, such as +sneezing, are looked upon as warnings from unseen beings. Many of these +beings having like attributes, although often bearing different names, +are known to each group. The idea of one or more spirits dwelling in +different parts of a man's body is widespread, while the belief that the +right side of the body is under the care of good influences and the left +subject to the bad, is well nigh universal in the District.</p> + +<p>In conclusion note should be made of oft repeated assertions to the +effect that a part of the people of Davao District are white, and that +they are also cannibals and headhunters. The first can be dismissed with +the statement that so far as the writer has been able to observe or to +learn from trustworthy sources, there is no justification for such a +story. It can be just as positively stated that neither the Mandaya nor +any other tribe here described practice cannabalism[sic]. Warriors do +eat a part of the livers and hearts of men who have shown great valor, +the eaters thus securing some of the good qualities of the victims. The +Kulaman warriors always taste of the liver of the slain "in order to +become like Mandalangan," but they expressed the greatest disgust when +it was suggested that the balance of the body might make good food.</p> + +<p>While it is true that the Kulaman take the heads, and some times the +arms,[143] of slain foes, and that the same custom is some times +followed by individual warriors of the other tribes, head-hunting for +the sake of the trophy is not practiced here, as is the case in Northern +Luzon. The skull or other portions of the body are kept only long enough +to prove the murder, or until they can be mutilated by the women and +children, "who thus become brave."</p> + +<p>[143] This is also the custom of the Bukidnon.</p> + +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr class="full" noshade> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, MINDANAO***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 18273-h.txt or 18273-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273">http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/2/7/18273</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a6567bb --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #18273 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18273) diff --git a/old/18273-8.txt b/old/18273-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4311ede --- /dev/null +++ b/old/18273-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6719 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao, +by Fay-Cooper Cole + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao + The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition + + +Author: Fay-Cooper Cole + + + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [eBook #18273] +Most recently updated: May 30, 2006 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, +MINDANAO*** + + +E-text prepared by Carl D. DuBois + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 18273-h.htm or 18273-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273/18273-h/18273-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273/18273-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + The Table of Contents and the List of Illustrations were added + by the transcriber. The text refers to 76 photographic "PLATES," + but the source copy contained only the first. Two of the + illustrations were labeled "FIG. 26;" I have labeled them + FIG. 26A and FIG. 26B. + + + + + +Field Museum of Natural History. +Publication 170. +Anthropological Series Vol. XII, No. 2. + +THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, MINDANAO + +by + +FAY-COOPER COLE +Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology + +The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition + +George A. Dorsey +Curator, Department of Anthropology + + + + + + + +[Frontispiece:] TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT + + + +Chicago, U. S. A. +September, 1913 + + + + +CONTENTS + + I. THE BAGOBO. + II. BILA-AN. +III. KULAMAN. + IV. TAGAKAOLO. + V. ATA. + VI. MANDAYA. + CONCLUSION + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + Plate 1. TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT + + FIG. 1. SHELL BRACELET. + FIG. 2. NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID WITH FERN AND ORCHID CUTICLE. + FIG. 3. BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN. + FIG. 4. TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS. + FIG. 5. EAR STRETCHERS. + FIG. 6. WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS. + FIG. 7. LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS. + FIG. 8. THE "STOVE." + FIG. 9. BAMBOO PLATE RACK. + FIG. 10A. RICE MORTAR. + FIG. 10B. PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND. + FIG. 10C. CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT GRAIN FROM + FALLING OUT. + FIG. 10D. WOODEN PESTLE. + FIG. 11. COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH WOODEN HANDLES. + FIG. 12. TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE RECEPTACLE IN WHICH OFFERINGS + ARE MADE. + FIG. 13. RICE WINNOWER. + FIG. 14. INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES. + FIG. 15. SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND HUNTING. + FIG. 16. CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING CASE. + FIG, 17. BOWS AND ARROWS. + FIG. 18. BLOW GUNS AND DARTS. + FIG. 19. BAMBOO FISH TRAP. + FIG. 20. (LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH SPEAR. + FIG. 21. (RIGHT) FISH LURE. + FIG. 22. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 23. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 24. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 25. COCOANUT SCRAPER. + FIG. 26A. STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + FIG. 26B. STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + FIG. 27. HEMP MACHINE. + FIG. 28. SUGAR CANE PRESS. + FIG. 29. RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO CLAPPER ATTACHED TO TOP. + FIG. 30. CARRYING FRAME. + FIG. 31A. FRONT OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + FIG. 32B. BACK OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + FIG. 33. TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR. + FIG. 34. REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS AND SHELL DISKS. + FIG. 35. COOKING POT AND COVER. + FIG. 36. WOMEN'S COMBS. + FIG. 37. A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS. B. MEN'S EAR PLUGS. + FIG. 38. BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM LAKE BULUAN REGION. + FIG. 39. BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON USE. + FIG. 40. PITCH STICK USED IN THE CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS. + FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER. + FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP. + FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH. + FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET. + FIG. 47. MEN'S HATS. + FIG. 48. WOMAN'S COMB. + FIG. 49. EAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS. + FIG. 50. GOURD RICE HOLDER. + FIG. 51. BIRD SNARE. + FIG. 52. WOODEN SHIELDS. + FIG. 53. SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS. + FIG. 54A. TO 54H. DESIGNS REPRESENTING THE HUMAN FORM. + FIG. 55A. TO 55H. CROCODILE DESIGNS. + FIG. 56. CROCODILE DESIGN. + FIG. 57. DESIGN USED IN WEAVING. + FIG. 58. INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO LIME HOLDER. + FIG. 59. CLOTHES HANGER. + FIG. 60. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + FIG. 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + FIG. 62. TOBACCO POUCHES. + + + + +PREFACE. + +The material presented in this paper was obtained, for the most part, +during a stay of seven months among the tribes of Davao District in +Southern Mindanao of the Philippine Islands. Previous to this I had +spent a like period studying the Bukidnon, of the North-Central part of +the Island, and while thus engaged, had penetrated to within about fifty +miles of the Gulf of Davao. In order to trace migrations, relationships, +and trade routes, it was determined to continue the work from the Gulf +coast toward the interior. In pursuance of this plan I went to Davao in +July, nineteen hundred and ten. + +All information to be secured from publications, settlers, or natives +was to the effect that there were at least fourteen distinct tribes to +be met with in the Gulf region. The preliminary reconnaissance of the +field made it plain that the earlier classifications were greatly at +fault. Several divisions recognized as tribes were found to be only +dialect groups, while others differing in no essential respects from one +another secured names from the districts in which they resided. It was +also found that in recent years there had been a considerable movement +of the hill people toward the coast, and that in some places they had +penetrated and established themselves in the territory formerly held by +other tribes. + +The capture of slaves, intermarriage, and trade between the groups have +been powerful influences in obliterating tribal lines, thus adding +further confusion to the classification of the people. + +The field offered so much of interest that I determined to make detailed +studies of the various tribes encountered. The work progressed +satisfactorily for seven months, when a severe illness caused me to +leave the tropics for a time, at least. As a result the work with the +Gulf tribes is still far from complete. The tribes living on or near the +upper waters of the Agusan river and north of Compostela were not +visited, and, hence, will not be mentioned here, while certain other +divisions received only scant attention. No attempt is here made to +treat of the Christianized or Mohammedanized people, who inhabit a +considerable part of the coast and the Samal Islands, further than to +indicate their influence on the wild tribes. Both have settled in Davao +District in historic times, and have taken many native converts into +their villages. From these settlements new ideas, types of garments, and +industries have spread toward the interior, while the extensive slave +trade carried on by the Moro has had a marked effect on all the tribes +with whom they have come in contact. + +In the preparation of this paper I have, so far as possible, drawn on +the knowledge of others to fill in the gaps in my own notes. In spite of +this the information on certain groups is still so scanty that this can +be, at best, only a sketch. It is offered at this time in the hope that +it may serve as a help to other anthropologists who may plan to visit +this most interesting field. + +I wish here to extend my thanks to the various civil and military +authorities who gave me valuable assistance; also to Captain James +Burchfield, H. S. Wilson, James Irwin, Otto Hanson, William Gohn, Henry +Hubbell, and Juan de la Cruz, planters, whose wide knowledge of, and +acquaintance with the interior tribes made possible my work in many +localities. + +It is a pleasure and a duty to acknowledge the assistance rendered by my +wife, who accompanied me throughout my Philippine work. Her presence +made it possible to secure the complete confidence of the hill people, +and thus to gain an insight into their home life which otherwise would +have been impossible. A large part of the material here presented, +particularly that relating to the women, was gathered by her and many of +the photographs are from her camera. + +The dialects spoken by the tribes of central and southern Mindanao are +to be dealt with in a separate publication, so that at this time I shall +merely give a brief description of the characters appearing in the +native names used in this paper. The consonants are pronounced as in +English, except _r_ which is as in Spanish. _c_ is used as _ch_ in +_church_, __, which occurs frequently, is a palatal nasal. There is no +clear articulation and the stop is not present, but the back of the +tongue is well up on the soft palate. + +The vowels are used as follows: +_macron-a_ like _a_ in _father_ +_macron-e_ like _a_ in _fate_ +_macron-i_ like _i_ in _ravine_ +_macron-o_ like _o_ in _note_ +_macron-u_ like _u_ in _flute_ +_a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, short of the above. + +[Transcribers' note: The macron-over-vowel orthographic symbols have +regretfully been irreproducible in this document.] + +_E_ is a sound between the obscure vowel _e_, as _e_ in _sun_, and the +_ur_ in _burrow_. + +The dipthongs[sic] are _ai_ like _ai_ in _aisle_, _au_ like _ou_ in +_mouse_, or final Spanish _ao_ as in _carabao_, _ei_ like _ei_ in +_eight_, _oi_ as in _boy_, also _Eu_, _eu_, etc. + +FAY-COOPER COLE, +Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology. +CHICAGO, September, 1913. + + + +I. THE BAGOBO. + +SYNONYMS: + +(a) GUIANGA, GUANGA, GULANGA + +(b) OBO + +(c) TIGDAPAYA + +(d) ETO + +HABITAT. + +The west coast of Davao Gulf between Daliao and Digos is dotted with +small villages, the inhabitants of which are largely Bagobo who have +been converted to the Christian faith and have been induced to give up +their mountain homes and settle in towns. Back of this coast line rise +densely timbered mountain peaks, lateral spurs from which often +terminate in abrupt cliffs overlooking the sea. From other peaks +extensive grass covered plains slope gently down nearly to the water's +edge. Deep river canons cut between these mountains and across the +plains, giving evidence of active erosion for a long period of time. If +these mountain chains and river courses are followed back it is found +that they all radiate from one stupendous mass, the center of which is +Mt. Apo, the highest mountain in the Philippines and reputed to be an +active volcano. Near to its summit is a deep fissure from which, on +clear mornings, columns of smoke or steam can be seen ascending, while +the first rays of the rising sun turn into gold, or sheets of white, the +fields of sulphur which surround the cone. + +Along the lower eastern and southern slopes of this mountain and its +tributary peaks live the wilder branch of this tribe, whose traditions, +religious observances, and daily life are closely related to the +manifestations of latent energy in the old volcano. + +NUMBER. + +The exact number who fall under this classification is not known, +Governor Bolton, who was intimately acquainted with the wild tribes of +the District, estimated their number at sixty-five hundred, but this +count did not include the sub-division here given as Obo. One +enumeration, made by a Jesuit missionary, places the population at +fifteen thousand, while the Government report of 1900 gives them +eighteen thousand four hundred. The latter estimates are certainly +excessive. It is probable that they were determined by compiling the +population of villages reported to exist in the interior. + +The wilder members of this tribe are, to a certain extent, migratory, +moving their villages from one location to another according to the +demands of their mode of agriculture. Their rice fields are made in +mountain-side clearings, and as the ever present cogon grass[1] begins +to invade the open land they substitute sweet potatoes or hemp. In time +even these lusty plants give way to the rank grass, and the people find +it easier to make new clearings in the forest than to combat the pest +with the primitive tools at their command. This results in some new +fields each year, and when these are at too great a distance from the +dwellings the old settlements are abandoned and new ones formed at more +convenient locations. + +[1] _Imperata koenigii_. + +It is probable that the total number belonging to this tribe does not +exceed ten thousand persons. + +INFLUENCE OF NEIGHBORS:--HISTORY. + +The influence of the neighboring tribes and of the white man on the +Bagobo has been considerable. The desire for women, slaves, and loot, as +well as the eagerness of individual warriors for distinction, has caused +many hostile raids to be made against neighboring tribes. Similar +motives have led others to attack them and thus there has been, through +a long period, a certain exchange of blood, customs, and artifacts. +Peaceful exchange of commodities has also been carried on for many years +along the borders of their territory. With the advent of the Moro along +the sea coast a brisk trade was opened up and new industries introduced. +There seems to have been little, if any, intermarriage between these +people, but their relations were sufficiently close for the Moro to +exert a marked influence on the religious and civil life of the wilder +tribe, and to cause them to incorporate into their language many new +words and terms. + +The friendly relations with the Moro seem to have been broken off upon +the arrival and settlement of the Spaniards in Davao. The newcomers were +then at war with the followers of Mohammed and soon succeeded in +enlisting the Bagobo rulers in their cause. A Chinese plate decorated +with the picture of a large blue fish was offered for each Moro head the +tribesmen presented to the Spanish commander. The desire for these +trophies was sufficient soon to start a brisk trade in heads, to judge +from the number of these plates still to be seen among the prized +objects of the petty rulers. + +After the overthrow of Moro power on the coast, Jesuit missionaries +began their labors among the Bagobo, and later established their +followers in several villages. In 1886 Father Gisbert reported eight +hundred converts living in five coast towns. Following the conflict +between Spain and the United States, and during the subsequent +insurrection, these villages were left without protection or guidance. +As a result, large numbers of the inhabitants retired to the hills where +they were again merged with their wilder brothers. Naturally, they +carried with them new ideas as well as material objects. With the +re-establishment of order under American rule many returned to the +deserted villages while others were induced by Governor Bolton to form +compact settlements midway between the coast and the mountain +fastnesses. The influence of the Government has become stronger each +year, and following the human sacrifice at Talun in 1907, that powerful +village and several of the neighboring settlements were compelled to +move down near to the sea where they could be more easily controlled. + +Schools have been opened in some localities and these, together with the +activities of Catholic and Protestant missionaries, are causing a rapid +change in the life and beliefs of the tribe. + +The presence of American hemp planters, with the consequent demand for +laborers, is also proving an immense factor in wiping out old tribal +lines and in introducing new ideas. + +Beyond a few letters written by the missionaries[2] we find scant +reference to this tribe in history, but their own traditions and +genealogies are well known even by the younger generation. + +[2] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands. + +According to the tribal historians the human race sprang from a man, +Toglai, and his wife, Toglibon, who lived on Mt. Apo.[3] "They were +there from the beginning, at a point near to the present settlement of +Cibolan. Many fruits grew on the mountains and the forests abounded in +game so that it was easy for them to secure food. There were born to +them children, who, when they grew up, married. One day Toglai and +Toglibon told their oldest boy and girl that they should go far away +across the ocean, for there was a good place for them. So the two +departed and were seen no more until their descendants, the white +people, came back to Davao. The other children remained with their +parents and were happy and prosperous until Toglai and Toglibon died and +went to the sky, where they became spirits. Soon after their death the +country suffered a great drought. This finally became so severe that the +water in the rivers dried up and there was no more food in the land. At +last the children were forced to leave their home and seek out new +habitations in other parts. They traveled in pairs, in different +directions, until they came to favorable locations where they settled +down. From them have sprung all the tribes known to the Bagobo. One pair +was too weak to make the journey from the drought-cursed land, and staid +at Cibolan. One day the man crawled out into the ruined fields to see if +he could not find some one thing alive, and when he arrived there he +saw, to his amazement, a single stalk of sugar cane growing lustily. He +cut it with his knife, and water began to come out until there was +enough for the couple to drink. The flow did not cease until the rains +came again to refresh the land. From these two the tribe has again grown +until it numbers its members in the thousands. The people have remained +true to their belief in the spirits, and each year has found them +stronger in numbers, and richer in houses, land, and slaves." + +[3] See fuller account by author, in _Philippine Journal of Science_. +June 1911, Vol. VI, No. 3, pp. 128-9. + +The genealogy of the Bagobo rulers is traced back through ten +generations. The first ruler of whom there is record was Salingolop, +during whose reign, it seems, the Spaniards first came to the +Philippines. According to the tale[4] "Salingolop was a man of great and +prodigious force, and as tall as the Lauan, which is the tallest tree in +these forests. He had three sons called Bato, Sipongos, and Calisquisan, +and a daughter named Panugutan. When the Spaniards arrived at Manila, +and found that there existed a man so tall and powerful, they sent a +battalion of soldiers. They disembarked on the shore of Bimigao near +Daron, and ascended the mountain where Salingolop lived. He was not +found, because at the time he was on the other side of the mountain +hunting wild boars, and the soldiers returned to the shore, taking +Panugutan as a hostage. Salingolop, having found out what had happened +descended the mountain alone to fight the soldiers which were there. +These fired on him, but in vain, because the balls could make no +impression. On seeing this, they dropped their rifles and with bars of +iron they struck him on the legs, trying to overthrow him. As he fell on +the side towards the sea, the noise of the waves, it is said, reached to +the Cape of San Augustin. They cut off his head and, as he lay dead, +they cut off his legs that he might not arise again. The Spaniards +returned to Manila, taking with them Panugutan; she married in Manila a +Spaniard, by whom she had two children, who later returned to these +parts and were well received, being considered not only as friends but +as brothers of the Bagobo." + +[4] Recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J. + +Salingolop was succeeded by his son Bato who, in turn, was followed by +Boas, Basian, Lumbay, Banga, Maliadi, and Taopan. Until we come to this +last mentioned ruler we learn little more of importance, but at the +beginning of his rule, we learn that the Bagobo had become a powerful +people. Under his leadership they made frequent forays into neighboring +districts and returned with many slaves and rich loot. The _datu_[5] was +noted as a brave warrior, but in addition to this he was a wise and just +ruler, greatly beloved by all his people. When he died more than one +thousand of his subjects attended the funeral which lasted ten days. On +the last day the house was decked, inside and out, with red and yellow +flowers; many valuable gifts were placed beside the corpse, and the +place was then abandoned. + +[5] The Moro name for chief or ruler. The Bagobo name is _lagaimoda_ or +_matanem_, but the Moro term is in general use. + +He was succeeded by his son Pangilan, whose administration, like that of +his father, was firm and just. Upon his death he bequeathed the +leadership of a united people to his son Manib. The new _datu_ did not +prove to be a great warrior and his decisions in matters of dispute were +not always just, so that bad blood arose between the people of Cibolan +and Talun. He was unable to quell the disturbances, and finally open +warfare broke out, petty chiefs of other districts throwing off his +control and ruling as _datu_. This was the condition which confronted +the present ruler, Tongkaling, when he found himself ruler of Cibolan. + +The claims of leadership over all the Bagobo had never been +relinquished, but the actual power of the _datu_ outside his own +district amounted to little. Tongkaling soon established his right to +the name of a great warrior, and his people so prospered under his rule +that upon the advent of the Americans he was much the most powerful +among the several chiefs. Under the administration of Governor Bolton, +Tongkaling was officially recognized as head of the Bagobo, and with +this added prestige, he has finally succeeded in gaining recognition +from all the chiefs except those about Santa Cruz, but his actual +control over them is still very slight. He has been a consistent friend +of the Americans, but has jealously guarded his people against outside +influences, so that they are much less affected than those of other +districts. For this reason we shall, in this paper, use Cibolan as a +type settlement, but where radical differences occur in other districts +they will be noted. + +PHYSICAL TYPE.[6] + +[6] This subject will be treated fully in a separate publication. + +An idea of the general appearance of the Bagobo can best be obtained by +a study of the accompanying photographs. Plates II-VIII. + +Measurements were made on thirty-three men and fifteen women. The +maximum height of the males was found to be 164.8 cm.; minimum 149.8 +cm.; with an average of 158.6 cm. For the women the maximum was 152.8 +cm.; minimum 141 cm.; average 147.3 cm. + +The cephalic indices of the same individuals showed 84.5 as the maximum, +74.3 minimum, and 78.8 the average for the males. The maximum for the +females was 83.1, minimum 76.2, average 80.7. The average length-height +index, taken from the tragus to the vertex, of the same persons, was +69.8--maximum 75.6, minimum 65.1 for the men; and for the women +73.1--maximum 76.6, minimum 70.2-. + +The face is long, moderately broad, and the zygomatic arches are seldom +prominent. The forehead is high and full with supra-orbital ridge +slightly developed. The crown and back of the head are rather strongly +arched. The people are seldom prognathous, yet individuals are met with +who are markedly so (Plate V). + +The lips are full and bowed; the chin is round and well formed. The root +of the nose is depressed; the ridge broad and generally inclined to be +concave, although straight noses are not uncommon. The nasal wings are +moderately broad and arched or swelled. The eye slits are oblique and +moderately open, showing dark or brown-black eyes. The hair is +brown-black and generally slightly wavy or loosely curled, while in some +cases it is found curled in locks. Women comb their hair straight back +and plaster it with cocoanut oil, but even this does not prevent stray +locks from creeping out. Both face and body hairs are scanty and are +generally removed, yet occasionally a man is seen who has cultivated a +few hairs into a fair semblance of a beard. + +The Bagobo, while well nourished, are inclined to be of slight build, +with very narrow waists. In color they are a light reddish brown with a +slight olive tinge which is more pronounced in the women than in the +men. + +In a brief summary, we can say that they are a short, slightly built, +metsati-cephalic people, with wavy hair, long faces, and broad, full +noses and lips. Individuals are met with who exhibit many of the +physical characteristics of the Negrito;[7] while still others, both in +color and facial lines, are comparable to the Chinese. + +[7] Pygmy blacks of the Philippines. + +DRESS--PERSONAL ADORNMENT. + +No wild tribe in the Islands gives more attention to dress than does the +Bagobo. By an intricate process hemp is colored and woven into excellent +garments, which, in turn, are decorated with embroidery, applique, or +designs in shell disks and beads. The men wear their hair long and after +twisting it around the head hold it in place with kerchiefs, the edges +of which are decorated with beads and tassels. + +A close fitting undershirt is often worn, and above this is an +elaborately beaded or embroidered coat which generally opens in front. +The hemp cloth trousers scarcely reach to the knee, and the bottom of +each leg is decorated with a beaded or embroidered band. Two belts are +worn, one to hold the trousers, the other to support the fighting or +working knives which each man carries. In lieu of pockets he has on his +back an elaborately beaded hemp cloth bag bordered with tassels and +bells of native casting. Highly prized shell bracelets, worn as cuffs by +some men, are made of a large, conical sea-shell (Fig. 1) the base and +interior spirals of which have been cut away. Necklaces made of rattan +strips decorated or overlaid with alternating layers of fern and orchid +cuticle (Fig. 2) are frequently seen, while many strands of beads and +carved seeds surround the necks of both men and women. Both sexes also +wear, above the calf of the leg, plaited or beaded leglets to some of +which magical properties are ascribed. + +FIG. 1. SHELL BRACELET. + +FIG. 2. NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID WITH FERN AND ORCHID CUTICLE. + +The woman wears a jacket which is close fitting about the neck and +reaches to the skirt, so that no portion of the upper part of the body +is exposed. The cloth now used in this garment is generally secured in +trade, and in recent years decoration in applique has begun to succeed +the excellent embroidery seen on older garments. Frequently the two +types of decoration are seen on the same jacket, and to these are added +complicated designs in shell or metal disks, or beads. The narrow tube +skirt is of hemp cloth and is made like a sack with both ends open. At +the waist it is held in place by means of a cloth or beaded belt. + +In addition to the many strands of beads which encircle the neck and +fall over the chest, a broad bead band is often worn over one shoulder, +passing under the opposite arm near the waist. Scarfs of colored cloth +are also worn in this manner when the ladies are on dress parade. +Leglets and brass anklets, made like tubes so as to enclose metal balls +(Fig. 3) or with bells and rattles attached, are commonly worn. The +women are fond of loading their arms with ornaments of shell or brass +(Fig. 4) and one forearm is covered with separate rings of incised brass +wire which increase in size from the centre towards the ends, forming an +ornament in the shape of an hour-glass. Their hair is generally cut so +as to leave a narrow band in front; this is brushed back, but often +falls forward on the face or in front of the ears. Back of this the hair +is kept well oiled and is combed straight to the back of the head, where +it is tied in a knot. Into this knot is pushed a wooden comb decorated +with incised lines filled with lime, or inlaid with beads. On festive +occasions more elaborate combs, with plumes or other decorations +attached, are worn. Aside from these ornaments the head is uncovered. + +FIG. 3. BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN. + +FIG. 4. TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS. + +Men and women are seen who have their eyebrows shaved to thin lines. +This is a matter of individual taste and is done only for beauty. + +Neither sex makes use of tattooing, nor do they mutilate the lips or +nose, but what they lack in these respects they make up for in ear +ornaments. + +When a child is very young a small hole is pierced in the ear lobes, and +into this opening a piece of twisted banana or hemp leaf is placed. +(Fig. 5a). This leaf acts as a spring, continually enlarging the opening +until the ear plugs can be inserted. Another method, sometimes employed, +is to fill the opening with small round sticks (Fig. 5b), adding more +from time to time, until the desired result is obtained. The plugs worn +by the women are of wood, the fronts of which are inlaid with silver or +brass in artistic designs, and are connected by strands of beads passing +under the chin (Fig. 6). Large wooden ornaments are also worn by the +men, but more prized are large ivory ear plugs made like enormous collar +buttons (Plates II-IV). These are very rare, since the ivory for their +manufacture must be secured from Borneo, and by the time it has passed +through the hands of many traders it has assumed a value which limits +the possession of articles made from it to a few wealthy men. A further +method of ear adornment, frequently seen among the women, consists of +beads sewed into a number of holes which have been pierced through the +helices of the ears. + +FIG. 5. EAR STRETCHERS. + +FIG. 6. WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS. + +Both men and women file and blacken the teeth. When a boy or girl has +reached the age of puberty, it is time that this beautifying should be +done. There is, however, no prohibition to having it performed earlier +if desired. The candidate places his head against the operator and grips +a stick of wood between his teeth while each tooth is filed so as to +leave only the stump, or is cut or broken to a point (Plate XIIa and b). +When this has been successfully accomplished, what is left of the teeth +is blackened. + +The color is obtained in two ways. The more common method is to place a +piece of metal on one end of a bamboo[8] tube, the other extremity of +which rests on glowing coals. The smoke from the charring bamboo is +conducted through the tube to the cold metal on which it leaves a +deposit or "sweat." This deposit is rubbed on the teeth, at intervals, +for several days until they become a shiny black. A second method is to +use a powder known as _tapEl_ which is secured from the _lamod_ tree. +The writer did not see this tree but, from the description given of it, +believes it to be the tamarindus. This powder is put on leaves and is +chewed. During the period of treatment the patient is under certain +restrictions. He may neither drink water, cook or eat anything sour, nor +may he attend a funeral. Should he do so his teeth will have a poor +color or be "sick." When the teeth have been properly beautified the +young man or woman is considered ready to enter society. + +[8] A variety known as _balakayo_ is used for this purpose. + +Boys run about quite nude until they are three or four years of age. +Until about the same age the girls' sole garment is a little pubic +shield, cut from a coconut shell and decorated with incised lines filled +with lime (Fig. 7). Not infrequently bells are attached to the sides of +this "garment." When children do begin to wear clothing their dress +differs in no respects from that of their elders. + +FIG. 7. LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS. + +SKETCH OF FUNDAMENTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. + +Although we shall treat religion more fully in a later paragraph, it is +desirable that we now gain an idea of those beliefs which enter +intimately into every activity of the daily life of this people. + +The Bagobo believes in a mighty company of superior beings who exercise +great control over the lives of men. Above all is Eugpamolak Manobo, +also called Manama, who was the first cause and creator of all. Serving +him is a vast number of spirits not malevolently inclined but capable of +exacting punishment unless proper offerings and other tokens of respect +are accorded them. Below them is a horde of low, mean spirits who +delight to annoy mankind with mischievous pranks, or even to bring +sickness and disaster to them. To this class generally belong the +spirits who inhabit mountains, cliffs, rooks, trees, rivers, and +springs. Standing between these two types are the shades of the dead +who, after they have departed from this life, continue to exercise +considerable influence, for good or bad, over the living. + +We have still to mention a powerful class of supernatural beings who, in +strength and importance, are removed only a little from the Creator. +These are the patron spirits. + +Guarding the warriors are two powerful beings, Mandarangan and his wife, +Darago, who are popularly supposed to make their home in the crater of +the volcano. They bring success in battle and give to the victors loot +and slaves. In return for these favors they demand, at certain times, +the sacrifice of a slave. Dissentions[sic], disasters, and death will be +sure to visit the people should they fail to make the offering. Each +year in the month of December the people are reminded of their +obligation by the appearance in the sky of a constellation known as +_Balatik_,[9] and soon thereafter a human sacrifice doubtless takes +place in some one or more of the Bagobo settlements. + +[9] Orion. + +A man to come under the protection of these two deities must first have +taken at least two human lives. He is then entitled to wear a peculiar +chocolate-colored kerchief with white patterns in it. When he has killed +four he may wear blood-red trousers, and when his score has reached six +he may don a full blood-red suit and carry a sack of the same color. +Such a man is known as _magani_ and his clothing marks him as a person +of distinction and power in his village. He is one of the leaders in a +war party; he is chosen by the _datu_ to inflict the death penalty when +it has been decreed; and he is one of the assistants in the yearly +sacrifice. It is not necessary that those he kills, in order to gain the +right to wear a red suit, be warriors. On the contrary he may kill women +and children from ambush and still receive credit for the achievement, +provided his victims are from a hostile village. He may count those of +his townspeople whom he has killed in fair fight, and the murder of an +unfaithful wife and her admirer is credited to him as a meritorious +deed. + +The workers in iron and brass, the weavers of hemp cloth, and the +mediums or shamans--known as _mabalian_--are under the protection of +special deities for whom they make ceremonies at certain times of the +year. + +The _mabalian_ just mentioned are people--generally women past middle +life--who, through sufficient knowledge of the spirits and their desires, +are able to converse with them, and to make ceremonies and offerings +which will attract their attention, secure their good will, or appease +their wrath. They may have a crude knowledge of medicine plants, and, in +some cases, act as exorcists. The ceremonies which art performed at the +critical periods of life are conducted by these _mabalian_, and they +also direct the offerings associated with planting and harvesting. They +are generally the ones who erect the little shrines seen along the +trails or in the forests, and it is they who put offerings in the +"spirit boxes" in the houses. Although they, better than all others, +know how to read the signs and warnings sent by the spirits, yet, all of +the people know the meaning of certain omens sent through the medium of +birds and the like. The call of the _limokon_[10] is recognized as an +encouragement or a warning and its message will be heeded without fail. +In brief, every natural phenomenon and every living thing is caused by +or is subject to the will of unseen beings, who in turn can be +influenced by the acts of individuals. As a result everything of +importance is undertaken with reference to these superior powers. + +[10] A dove (_Calcophops indica_). Similar beliefs held by the Tagalog +were mentioned by Juan de Plasencia in 1589. See BLAIR and ROBERTSON, +Vol. VII, p. 189. + +DWELLINGS--HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS. + +The houses found in the coast villages line well marked streets and +differ in few respects from those built by the Christianized natives +throughout the Islands. Even in the more isolated districts the effect +of this outside influence is marked. However, we can state with +confidence that village life is a new idea to the Bagobo. He has, from +time immemorial, built his home near to his fields, and there he and his +family reside, except during festivals or when extreme danger threatens. +At such times all go to the house of the local ruler and there unite in +the festivities or the common defense. + +The smaller dwellings have but one room, the floor of which is raised +several feet above the ground and supported by many piles. A part of the +latter extend five of[sic] six feet above the floor and form supports +for the side and cross-beams. From the center of the room lighter poles +project eight or ten feet above the cross-beams and form the main +supports for the ridge timber. From beams at the end and sides of the +room similar pieces run to this central ridge; below this they are +joined together, at intervals, by means of horizontal poles and +cross-beams. To this framework are lashed strips of _palma brava_, +supports for a covering of closely laid _runo_, on which rests the final +topping of flattened bamboo. The ridge pole is always at a sufficient +height above the floor to give the roof a steep peak, and is of such +length that, at the top, the side roof overhangs the ends. The roof +generally rises in two pitches and always extends past the sides of the +room. + +In house building, the roof, which is made first, is raised to the +desired height, thus serving as a shelter for the workers until the +structure is complete (Plate XIII). Resting on the cross-beams, just +below the rafters, a number of loose boards are laid to form a sort of +attic or storage room where all unused articles, and odds and ends are +allowed to accumulate. + +The sides of the room, which are of flattened bamboo, are about six feet +in height, and extend only to within a foot of the roof. In the walls +small peep holes are cut so that the inhabitants can look outside +without being seen (Plate XIV). + +The flooring, which is generally made of strips of _palma brava_, is in +two levels, forming a narrow elevated platform at one end of the room on +which a part of the family sleep. + +The furniture of this house is very scanty. Near to the door is the +"stove" (Fig. 8)--a bed of ashes in which three stones are sunk to form a +support for the pots and jars and nearby stand a few native jars and +sections of bamboo filled with water. On a hanger above the fire may be +found articles of food, seeds, and the like, which need protection from +flies and insects. Against the wall is a bamboo rack (Fig. 9), filled +with Chinese plates, or half cocoanut shells which serve as dishes. Near +to the stove is a rice mortar standing on its own wooden pedestal which +reaches to the ground (Fig. 10). + +FIG. 8. THE "STOVE." + +FIG. 9. BAMBOO PLATE RACK. + +FIG. 10A. RICE MORTAR. + +FIG. 10B. PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND. + +FIG. 10C. CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT GRAIN FROM + FALLING OUT. + +FIG. 10D. WOODEN PESTLE. + +A child's cradle, made of a blanket suspended hammock-like between the +wall and a beam support, will probably be found. A few boxes and jars, +usually of Chinese make, and always a copper gong or two are regular +furnishings, while to these can be added a miscellany of clothing, +looms, spears, shields, meat blocks, spoons (Fig. 11), and the like. +Akin to furniture, since they are found in every house, are little +basket-like receptacles made by splitting one end of a bamboo pole into +several vertical strips and then weaving in other shorter horizontal +strips (Fig. 12). These are attached to walls and supporting poles, and +in them offerings are made to the various spirits. + +FIG. 11. COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH WOODEN HANDLES. + +FIG. 12. TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE RECEPTACLE IN WHICH OFFERINGS ARE MADE +TO THE SPIRITS. + +This is our picture of a typical home. It is not a cheery place by day, +for the lack of windows, as well as a fog of smoke from the open stove, +makes it dark and gloomy. Nevertheless, since the house offers a cool +retreat from the blazing sun, and the smoke-laden air is free from flies +and mosquitoes, it is a popular resort for all members of the family +during the hottest part of the day. The little light, which filters in +through the many cracks in the floors and walls, is sufficient to allow +the women to spin, dye, weave, and decorate their clothing, or to engage +in other activities. After dark the resinous nuts of the _bitaog_ tree, +or leaf covered resin torches are burned, and by their uncertain light +the women and men carry on their labors until far into the night. +Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of a notched log, bamboo +pole, or by a ladder of the same material. As a protection against +strong winds many props are placed against the sides of the house, and +when large trees are available the dwellings are further secured by +being anchored to them with rattan lines. + +In each settlement or district will be found one large house built on +the same general plan as the smaller dwellings, but capable of housing +several hundred people (Plate XV). This is the home of the local _datu_ +or ruler. All great ceremonies are held here, and it is the place to +which all hasten when danger threatens. It is the social center of the +community, and all who desire go there at any time and remain as long as +they wish, accepting meanwhile the food and hospitality of the ruler. + +A brief description of the house of Datu Tongkaling will give a good +idea of this type of structure. Except for size--the dimensions being 44 +x 20 ft.--the exterior does not differ greatly from the houses already +described. A long, partially covered porch leading to the doorway is +provided with benches which are always occupied by men and boys, +loitering or engaged in the absorbing task of lousing one another. At +the far end of the room is the elevated platform, but this one is much +wider than is customary, and is intended as the sleeping place for the +warriors, or illustrious guests. As the writer and his wife were +considered, by the _datu_, as belonging to the latter class, they were +favored with this vantage spot, from which they could view and be viewed +by the whole household. Along the sides of the room are elevated +box-like enclosures in which the _datu_ and some of his wives and +daughters sleep and keep their belongings. At night the balance of the +family, including men, women, children, and dogs, occupy the floor. +Midway between the side walls and near to the elevated platform are two +decorated bamboo poles, which are raised in honor of the patron spirits +of the warriors; while in other parts of the room are baskets, hanging +altars, and other devices in which are placed offerings intended for the +spirits. In addition to the customary furnishings are hundreds of +objects testifying to the wealth of the _datu_. Clothes, boxes, dozens +of huge copper gongs, drums, ancient Chinese jars and plates, spears and +shields, beaded clothing, baskets, and last but not least--in the +estimation of the _datu_--a huge enameled advertisement of an American +brewery. + +In the western part of the Bagobo district is a village known as +Bansalan. Recently its people have been induced to leave the old +settlement and build in a new location, midway between the mountains and +the sea. Here the writer found a very different type of house (Plate +XVIa). Small trees formed the uprights to which cross-beams were tied to +make the roof supports, and on these rested a final covering of _nipa_ +palm. A few feet above the ground other supports were lashed and on them +strips of _palma brava_ were laid as flooring. In the few cases where +the houses were fitted with sides, strips of _nipa_ palm fastened +together with rattan were used. There seemed to be no uniform type of +dwelling, each house differing from its neighbor in number of rooms, +floor levels, or in other respects. Only one feature, the elevated +sleeping platform at one end of the house, was always found. A few miles +further inland, in the old settlement, the houses are of the type +already described in detail. The people have been practically forced to +their new location by governmental action. The new careless type of +structures seen in Bansalan probably represents, to them, temporary +structures in which they expect to remain only until a change of +governors will furnish an excuse for returning to the old location. + +OTHER BUILDINGS. + +Near to each farm house or settlement will be seen one or more +granaries, in which rice is stored (Plate XIV). Four poles form the +support for a rectangular base from which the sides of the structure +slope out at an angle of about 25 degrees from the perpendicular until +they meet the roof. The sides and roof are of bamboo beaten flat, the +latter covered with a topping of straw. + +In the hemp fields is an occasional shed where the fiber is sometimes +stripped, but more often these buildings, thus hidden from the public +gaze, house the forges on which the smiths fashion knives and spears, or +cast the bells and betel nut boxes so dear to the heart of each Bagobo. + +Aside from the shrines or altars, which we shall describe later, the +Bagobo erects no other buildings. He sometimes encloses a rice or +cornfield with a fence, but this requires no special skill in building, +since it consists of two parallel lines of uprights, between which +bamboo tubes are laid to the desired height (Plate XVIb). + +FOOD AND ITS PREPARATION. + +It is impossible, without including about everything edible in a +vegetable line to be found in the district, to give a full list of +foods; hence no such attempt will be made. Chief of all is the rice, +many varieties of which are grown in the mountain-side clearings.[11] + +[11] Back of the coast there are no irrigated fields to be found in the +Davao District. + +Next in importance is the _camote_, or sweet potato, and then follow in +the order of their importance: corn, banana, sago and cocoanut. + +Fish, eels, crabs, grasshoppers, monkeys,[12] deer, pigs, and chickens +form a part of the food supply; in fact, the people seem to draw the +line at nothing but crows, snakes, mice, rats, goats, horses, dogs, and +cats. Despite the assertion of a number of worthy informants that the +last three are on the prohibited list, it is the opinion of the writer +that it is the scarcity of the supply rather than any feeling of +prejudice which causes them to be included. + +[12] Some people refuse to eat monkey meat. + +Salt and pepper are used as condiments. The former is secured in trade +with the coast natives and Chinese, while the latter is produced by +mashing the fruit of a small wild pepper, locally known as _katombal_. + +Rice, after being allowed to dry, is stored without being separated from +the straw. When a supply is needed a bundle is laid on a piece of hide +and is beaten with a wooden pestle, wielded by a woman or a slave. This +separates the grain, which is gathered up and placed in a wooden mortar, +where it is again beaten with the pestle until the outer husk has been +loosened. To remove the chaff the rice is taken from the mortar, placed +on a flat winnowing tray (Fig. 13), and tossed and caught, until the +wind has carried away the lighter husks, thus leaving the grain free. +This is placed in a pot, a small quantity of water is added, and the +vessel is placed over the fire. Here it is allowed to remain only until +it begins to boil, when it is placed on the ashes, near enough to the +fire to keep it hot. From time to time the woman turns the jar until the +contents is cooked through, wren each grain stands out free from its +fellows.[13] + +[13] This is the usual way of preparing rice throughout the archipelago. + +FIG. 13. RICE WINNOWER. + +Other vegetable foods are eaten raw, or are cooked with water and salt, +with perhaps the addition of a little meat broth or a sour[sic]. + +[Transcriber's note: "sour" should read "soup."] + +Small birds and fish are cooked without other treatment than a hasty +cleaning; but the flesh of larger fowls, deer, and pig is generally cut +into small cubes and cooked with condiments in a jar or small Chinese +caldron. Birds are sometimes prepared by placing them on a spit, +covering them with green banana leaves, and suspending them above the +fire until roasted. This primitive paper bag cooking yields a most +excellent dish. + +Grasshoppers are relished, and are secured in the following manner: A +clear grass spot is selected and several deep holes are dug in one end. +Back of them, and leading toward them, is a high tight fence made in a +V. By beating the grass with boughs as they walk toward the trap, the +people drive the grasshoppers before them until they are finally forced +into the pit, from which they are collected by the bushel. + +I was told that meat was sometimes salted, dried, and stored away for +future use. The climate seems to be absolutely opposed to such +foresight, and the one time that I saw the process being used, the odors +were such that I beat a hasty retreat and chose to accept, without +proof, the verdict of the natives, that venison thus prepared was +excellent. + +Of almost as much importance as food is the use of the betel or areca +nut,[14] which is chewed almost constantly by young and old of both +sexes. The nut is divided into quarters and a piece of _buyo_ leaf[15] +is wrapped about each bit. To this is added a little lime and a pinch of +tobacco, and it is ready for the mouth. The resultant deep red saliva is +distributed indiscriminately on the floor, walls, and furniture where it +leaves a permanent stain. To hold the materials necessary for this +practice brass betel nut boxes, secured from the Moro or of their own +manufacture, as well as plaited grass boxes and pouches are constantly +carried (Plates XVIIa and XLI). The brass boxes generally have three +compartments; the first for nuts, the second for leaves and tobacco, and +the third for lime. Lime is also carried in small bamboo tubes (Fig. +14), in the decoration of which a great deal of time is consumed. The +open end is fitted with a rattan sifter so that the powder is +distributed evenly on the nut and leaf. + +[14] _Catechu L_. + +[15] _Piper betel L_. + +FIG. 14. INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES. + +Aged persons and those whose teeth have been so mutilated that they +cannot chew, make use of an outfit which includes a small mortar and +pestle (Plate XVIIb). Cutting open green betel nuts, the chewer wraps +the pieces in leaves and, after adding a liberal supply of lime, mashes +them in the mortar until all are reduced to a soft mass. + +Lime is secured by placing snail shells in a fire, from which they are +taken while hot and dropped into cold water. They can then be crushed +into powder with the fingers. + +Although the Bagobo raises a considerable quantity of tobacco he seldom, +if ever, smokes it unless the leaf is furnished him, already prepared, +by an outsider. Sometimes a small ball made of the green leaves is +placed between the teeth and upper lip, where it remains until all the +flavor has been extracted. + +The outfits for betel nut and tobacco, aside from the brass boxes which +fasten at the side, are generally carried in the sacks worn on the backs +of the men or in the elaborate shoulder bags worn by the women. However, +a small waterproof box is frequently seen attached to a man's belt, and +in this he carries his betel nut, tobacco, and fire-making outfit. + +The usual method of making fire is by the use of flint and steel, but +when this is not at hand a flame can be quickly obtained by rubbing two +pieces of bamboo rapidly together until the friction produces a spark. + +HUNTING AND FISHING. + +Since only a few domesticated animals and fowls are found in a +settlement, the greater part of the meat supply is secured by hunting +and fishing. + +Deer and wild pig are taken by means of spears. The hunter either lies +in wait near the runways of the game, or the animals are driven toward +the spot where the huntsmen are concealed. For this purpose the ordinary +lance (Figs. 15a, b and c) is often used, but a more effective weapon is +the spear known as _kalawat_ (Fig. 15d). In this the metal head fits +loosely into a long shaft to which it is attached by a rope. As soon as +the weapon enters the body of the animal the head pulls out of the +shaft, and this trails behind until it becomes entangled in the +undergrowth, thus putting the game at the mercy of the hunter. Dead +falls and pits are put in the runways, and a frightened animal is +sometimes impaled on concealed sharpened bamboo sticks. Less frequently, +large animals are secured by means of rope loops which hang from trees +past which the game is accustomed to pass. Until recent years the +_balatik_, a trap which when sprung throws an arrow with great force +against the animal which releases it, was much used but so many domestic +animals have been killed by it that this sort of trap is now in +disfavor. + +FIG. 15. SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND HUNTING. + +Wild chickens are captured by means of snares (Fig. 16). A tame rooster +is fastened in the jungle and around him is placed a snare, consisting +of running knots attached to a central band. The crowing of this fowl +soon attracts the wild birds which, coming in to fight, are almost sure +to become entangled in one of the nooses. Slip loops, attached to a bent +twig and released by disturbing the bait, are also employed in the +capture of wild fowl. + +FIG. 16. CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING CASE. + +Birds of all sizes are secured by use of bows and arrows, blow guns, or +nets. Wooden decoys (Plate XVIII) are tied to the branches of trees in +which the hunters are concealed. The bows used are of _palma brava_, in +each end of which notches are cut to hold the rattan bow strings (Fig. +17). The arrow shafts are of light reeds and are fitted with one or two +bamboo points. These weapons are effective only for close range, and +even then the Bagobo are far from being expert marksmen. Boys use a reed +blow gun through which they shoot light darts tufted with cotton (Fig. +18). The missile is not poisoned and is of little use at a distance of +more than twenty feet. + +FIG. 17. BOWS AND ARROWS. + +FIG. 18. BLOW GUNS AND DARTS. + +By far the most effective means of securing birds is to stretch a net +between trees or poles where the birds are accustomed to fly. Wooden +decoys are attached to the net in order to attract the game which, once +enmeshed, is easily caught. + +Various devices are employed in the capture of fresh water fish,[16] but +the most common is a torpedo-shaped trap of bamboo (Fig. 19). Stone +conduits lead the water from streams into the open ends of these traps, +thus carrying in fish and shrimps. The funnel-shaped opening has the +sharpened ends set close together so that it is quite impossible for the +prisoners to escape, although the water readily passes between the +bamboo strips. + +[16] Along the coast the methods of the Christianized natives are used +in salt water fishing. + +FIG. 19. BAMBOO FISH TRAP. + +A hook and line is employed, especially for eels; while in clear pools +fish are secured by means of a four-pointed spear which is thrust or +thrown (Fig. 20). Perhaps the most interesting device used is a lure, +known as _boro_ (Fig. 21). A live minnow is fastened at the end of the +rod near to a rattan noose. A cord running from the noose to the end of +the stick allows the fisherman to draw up the noose as he desires. The +struggles of the captive fish soon attract others, and when one enters +the loop the line is drawn taut, securely binding the intruder. Several +fish can be taken from a single pool by this method. A berry (_anamirta +coccithis L_.) is used in the capture of fish. It is crushed to a +powder, is wrapped with vines and leaves, and is thrown into pools. The +fish become stupified[sic] and float to the surface where they are +easily captured. After being cooked they are eaten without any ill +effects. + +FIG. 20. (LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH SPEAR. + +FIG. 21. (RIGHT) FISH LURE. + +OCCUPATIONS. + +Mention has already been made of some of the daily occupations of the +people. We have found the women caring for the home and preparing the +rice and other foods which are served in the house. At no time did the +writer see a man, other than a slave, take any part in such household +duties; but when on the trail each would do his share in preparing the +meals. In the village we found the women and children carrying the water +and wood and, at rare intervals, doing laundry work. Instead of soaping +and rubbing soiled clothing, they soak the garments in water, then place +them on stones and beat them with wooden paddles or clubs. The articles +are alternately soaked and beaten until at least a part of the dirt has +been removed. It is also the privilege of any woman to engage in the +manufacture of basketry, or to act as a potter. + +In the manufacture of baskets the woman makes use chiefly of bamboo and +rattan, though other materials, such as _pandanus_ are sometimes brought +into service. Three weaves or their variants are employed. The first is +the common diagonal or twilled weave, in which each element of the weft +passes over two or more of the warp elements. In this way most of the +rice winnowers, transportation baskets, knife sheaths, and the like are +made. In the second weave (Fig. 22), the foundation of the basket is +made up of parallel horizontal rods, or strips of bamboo. These are +laced together by warp strips which pass alternately under one and over +one of the foundation rods, crossing each other at an angle, one above +the other below the rod. The trinket baskets carried by the women, the +larger waterproof receptacles known as _binota_, and the covers for wild +chicken snares are in this technic. A variant of this weave is found in +the rattan carrying frames and in some fish traps (Fig. 23). Here the +warp strips cross one another at an angle, at each meeting place +enclosing the horizontal foundation strips. Unlike the second weave +described, the warp strips do not pass alternately above and below the +horizontal foundation, but retain the same relation to it throughout the +entire length of each strip. A coiled weave (Fig. 24) is used in the +manufacture of tobacco boxes (Plate XIX) and in the rims of women's +baskets. In this type the foundation consists of a series of horizontal +rattan strips or rods which are sewed together in the following manner. +A narrow strip _A_ passes over two of these parallel rods _2_ and _3_ in +a left handed spiral. At the top of the loop the strip passes under a +similar strip _B_ which binds rod _2_ to the one above. Passing downward +inside the basket, the strip _A_ goes beneath the strip _C_ which binds +rods _3_ and _4_ together. These are drawn tightly while damp, thus +forcing the foundation rods so closely together as to make the basket +practically water-tight. Pitch from the _tabon-tabon_ nuts may also be +rubbed over the outside surface, thus making the receptacle impervious +to water. + +FIG. 22. + +FIG. 23. + +FIG. 24. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + +In the great majority of baskets the surface is divided into three +parallel zones or decorative bands. These are produced by making a +slight variation in the weave, by the use of blackened strips of bamboo +and rattan, or by substituting in their place the black cuticle of a +fern. + +As a rule the women of this tribe are not good potters and take little +pride in their work. In some districts the art has been entirely lost, +and the people depend on the coast natives for their cooking utensils. +At the village of Bansalan the women were found still to be proficient +in their work. After the dampened clay had been carefully kneaded in +order to remove lumps and gravel, the bottom of the jar was moulded with +the fingers and placed on a dish which was turned on a bit of cloth or a +board and answered the purpose of a potter's wheel. As the dish was +turned with the right hand the operator shaped the clay with the fingers +of the left adding fresh strips of material from time to time until the +desired size was obtained. The final shaping was done with a wooden +paddle and the jar was allowed to dry, after which it was smoothed off +with a stone. When ready for firing it was placed in the midst of a pile +of rubbish, over which green leaves were placed to cause a slow fire. + +Other dishes are made by splitting a cocoanut in half and removing the +"meat." This is readily accomplished by the use of a scraper fitted with +a rough iron blade (Fig. 25), over which the concave side or the half +nut is drawn. The cocoanut meat is used for food and oil. + +FIG. 25. COCOANUT SCRAPER. + +A little later we shall describe the active part woman takes in the +planting and care of the fields, but now we shall take up in some detail +the industry in which she stands pre-eminent, the preparation and +weaving of hemp. + +The hemp ordinarily stripped by the men is considered too fine to be +used in the manufacture of clothing, so a smaller stripping device is +employed by the woman (Plate XX). On this she cleans the outer layers of +the hemp stalk, from which a stronger and coarser thread can be +obtained. The fiber is tied in a continuous thread and is wound onto a +reel. The warp threads are measured on sharpened sticks driven into a +hemp or banana stalk, and are then transferred to a rectangular frame +(Plate XXI). The operator, with the final pattern in mind, overties or +wraps with waxed threads, such portions of the warp as she desires to +remain white in the completed garment. So carefully does she wrap these +sections, that, when the thread is removed from the frame and placed in +the liquid dye, no portion of the coloring matter penetrates to the +portions thus protected. If a red color is desired the root of the +_sikarig_[17] palm is scraped and the scrapings placed in bark vats +filled with cold water. The thread is first washed in, and is later +boiled with the dye for a half hour, after which it is placed in a +basket to drain and dry. The process is repeated daily for about two +weeks, or until the thread assumes a brick red color. If a purple hue is +desired a little lime is added to the dye. Black is obtained by a +slightly different method. The leaves, root, and bark of the _pinarrEm_ +tree are crushed in water. This yields a black liquor which is poured +into a jar containing the thread and the whole is placed over a slow +fire where it remains until the liquid is near the boiling point. When +this is reached the thread is removed and placed in a gourd, the open +end of which fits over the jar so as to catch the steam coming from the +dye. After a time the thread is removed and dried, and the process is +repeated until at last a permanent black is obtained. After the coloring +is complete the thread is again placed on the rectangular frame, the +over-tying is removed and the warp is ready for the loom (Plate XXII.) +In the loom (Plate XXIII) the threads encircle a bamboo pole attached to +the wall, and are held tense by a strap which passes around the waist of +the operator. The weft threads are forced up against the fabric by means +of the comber board and are beaten in with a baton. The warp threads are +held in their relative positions, first by the comber board, second by +loops which pass under the lower threads and over a small stick or lease +rod, and lastly by passing over and under, or around, other lease rods. +These are rolled away as the work progresses. + +[17] _Morinda Bracteata Roxb_. + +[18] Woof threads are generally of one color. A somewhat similar process +used in Java is described by SIR THOS. RAFFLES in The History of Java, +Vol. I, p. 189. + +[Transcriber's note: Although footnote 2 appears on the same page as the +above paragraph, it is not clear to what particular part of that +paragraph it refers.] + +After the cloth is removed from the loom it is polished. A long pole of +_palma brava_ is fitted into a notch in the roof. The operator seats +herself on the floor with a smooth board before her, or in her lap, and +on it places the dampened cloth. A shell is fitted over the lower end of +the pole, which is bent and made bowlike, until the shell rests on the +cloth. It is then ironed rapidly to and fro until the fabric has +received a high polish (Plate XXIV). + +The woman's duties do not end with the manufacture of cloth, for all the +garments worn by the members of the tribe are the result of her +handiwork. She sews the strips of hemp cloth into skirts, men's +trousers, carrying bags, and sometimes into jackets. The women devote +hours of labor to these jackets, covering arms, necks, and waist bands +with colored embroidery or designs in applique, while on the better +garments they place elaborate designs in beads or shell disks. + +After the evening meal is over the women of the household gather around +the flickering lights, and until far into the night work on these +garments, bead necklaces, or other ornaments. + +Only a few of the weavers attempt to make the peculiar chocolate-colored +head covering worn by the _magani_. For these kerchiefs the woman weaves +a square cotton cloth of the desired size, and at one corner attaches a +small brass hook. Joined to the hook, by means of a chain, is a loop +which fits over the toes of the operator, thus enabling her to keep the +fabric taut while her hands are left free for work. Small sections of +this cloth are raised and are wrapped with waxed thread, so that when +the fabric is dyed these portions will not receive the coloring matter +(Plate XXV). Later the overtying is removed, leaving small white rings +or squares on a chocolate-colored background. These cloths are meant +primarily for the warriors, but expert weavers, who are under the +protection of a certain powerful spirit, are also permitted to wear an +upper garment of this material. + +A considerable part of the man's time is consumed in preparation for, or +actual participation in, hunting or warfare, but in addition to this he +does a goodly portion of the work in the fields, and is the house +builder. When a man is about to erect a dwelling he notifies his friends +to come and aid him. This they will do without pay, but when in need of +similar services they will expect and will receive similar help. All +sorts of house-furnishings, such as spoons, meat blocks, or rice mortars +are made by the man, and not infrequently, he assists in the making or +waterproofing of baskets. A few of the old men of Cibolan still engage +in the manufacture of small shell disks with which valuable suits are +decorated, but the greater part of those now in use have been inherited, +or are purchased from neighboring peoples. The men carve beads out of +"Job's tears"[19] and make them into necklaces. For this purpose a +peculiarly carved and decorated stick is employed (Plate XXVI). This is +placed in the palm of the left hand so that the thumb and forefinger can +hold the seed which fits into a depression in the top. A knife in the +right hand of the artist is worked over the seed thus cutting a line +into which dirt is rubbed. Women's combs are made by shaping a half +circle out of light wood and then cutting teeth into it with a saw-like +blade of tin or iron. + +[19] _Coix lachryma Johi L_. + +Among the men, as with the women, certain industries are monopolized by +a few individuals. In this community no men stand higher in the +estimation of their fellows than do the smiths and the casters of +copper. The writer spent many hours watching I-o, the brass and copper +worker of Cibolan, while he shaped bells, bracelets, and betel boxes at +his forge on the outskirts of the village (Plate XXVII). Feathered +plungers, which worked up and down in two bamboo cylinders, forced air +through a small clay-tipped tube into a charcoal fire. This served as a +bellows, while a small cup made of straw ashes formed an excellent +crucible. The first day I watched I-o, he was making bells. Taking a +ball of wax the size of a bucket shot, he put it on the end of a stick +(Fig. 26a), and over this moulded the form of a bell in damp ashes +obtained from rice straw (b). When several bells were thus fashioned +they were dipped in melted wax and were turned on a leaf until smooth, +after which an opening was cut through the wax at the bottom of each +form (c). Strips of wax were rolled out and laid in shallow grooves +which had been cut in the sides of the bells and were pressed in, at +intervals, with a small bamboo knife (d). The top stick was then +withdrawn, leaving an opening down to the wax ball inside. Into this +hole a thin strip of wax was inserted and was doubled back on itself so +as to form a hanger (e). For three days the forms were allowed to harden +and were covered with several coats of damp straw ashes. Finally they +were laid in a bed of the same material with a thin strip of wax leading +from each bell to a central core (f). [FIG. 26] The whole, with the +exception of the top of the central wax strip, was covered with a thick +coating of damp ashes, and when this had hardened pieces of copper, +secured from broken gongs, were placed in the crucible, melted and +poured into the open end of the clay form. The molten metal took the +place of the wax as it was dissolved and flowed to all parts where it +had been. After being dropped in water the form was broken open, +revealing six nearly perfect little bells which were ready for use as +soon as the ashes were removed from them. The same method was used for +all other casting. Clay forms were made as desired, were covered with +wax, and the final coating of ashes applied before the casting. The +workers in copper and brass are under the care and guidance of a spirit, +Tolus ka towangan, for whom they make a yearly ceremony, _Gomek +towangan_. + +FIG. 26. STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + +FIG. 26. STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + +[Transcriber's note: Two different figures on different pages are both +labeled FIG. 26.] + +Of even greater importance are the smiths who are also under the care of +a powerful spirit for whom the _Gomek-gomanan_ ceremony is celebrated +each year, just prior to the planting time. Their forges are hidden away +in the hemp fields, and I was repeatedly informed that no woman might +see the smith at work. Whether or no such a rule is rigidly enforced at +all times I cannot say, but at no time did I see a woman about the forge +while the fire was burning, and although I was allowed to see and +photograph the process, my wife was at all times prevented from doing +so. The forge differs in no material respects from that used by the +brass casters, except that hollowed out logs replace the bamboo tubes, +and that a metal anvil and iron hammers are used. After an iron knife or +spear head has been roughly shaped, the smith splits the edge to a +slight depth and inserts a band of steel. The iron is pounded down on +the harder metal and the whole is brought to a white heat in the +charcoal fire. Removing it to the anvil the smith gives the blade one or +two light blows and returns it to the fire. This is repeated many times +before he begins to add the heavy strokes which finally weld the iron +and steel together. The blade having been given its final shape is again +heated and is held above a tube of water until the glowing metal begins +to turn a yellowish green, when it is plunged into the cold water. This +process, repeated many times, gives a fair temper to the whole weapon. +Charcoal for the fire is secured by burning logs and chilling them +suddenly with cold water. + +Brass wire, secured in trade, is made into bracelets in the following +manner. In order to soften it and make it more easily worked the roll of +wire is heated until it begins to turn grey, when it is allowed to cool +and is scraped, so as to restore the yellow color. One end is laid on an +anvil made of an iron strip on a wooden block (Plate XXVII), and is cut +into various designs by means of metal dies. A wooden cone is used as a +form, about which the wire is placed in order to shape and measure it. + +Hemp[20] grows wild in the Davao District and the Bagobo have, for +generations, used it in the manufacture of their clothing. In recent +years the demand for fiber has shown the people an easy way to secure +the trade articles which they desire and, as a result, rather extensive +plantings are found even in the more remote districts. The women strip a +large part of the fiber in local use, but all that prepared for trade is +produced by the men. When the ever-present cogon grass begins to invade +a clearing, the young hemp is planted. In about eighteen months it has +grown to a height of some sixteen feet and is ready to be cut. The man +goes to the fields, cuts down some stalks and, having removed the +leaves, splits off the outer fiber layers from the cellular matter of +the interior, using a bone knife for this purpose. When he has +accumulated a sufficient number of strips he carries them to the hemp +machine (Fig. 27). This consists of a knife which rests on a wooden +block. The handle turns on a pivot and the end is drawn upwards by means +of a bent twig, or sapling, which acts as a spring. This spring is +lowered and the knife blade raised by means of a foot treadle; a strip +of hemp is laid on the block; the foot pressure is removed, and the +knife descends. Taking a firm hold of one end of the strip, the operator +draws it toward him under the blade, thus removing the pulp and leaving +the free hemp threads. These are hung in the sun until dry, when they +are tied in bundles ready to be carried to the coast. The work is hard +and, unless necessity forces him to greater effort, a man seldom engages +in it for more than three or four days in a month. He thinks his duty +ceases with this expenditure of energy and, unless he is fortunate +enough to possess animals or slaves, is quite content to allow his wife, +or wives, to carry the product to the coast trader. + +[20] _Musa textilis_. + +FIG. 27. HEMP MACHINE. + +During ceremonies and at festivals a fermented drink made of sugar cane +is served, and in anticipation of its pleasurable effects the Bagobo is +willing to expend a considerable amount of effort. The juice of the cane +is extracted by means of a press made of two logs arranged in parallel +horizontal positions, so that the end of a wooden lever can slip under +one and rest in a groove cut in the other (Fig. 28). The cane is placed +in the groove and the operator bears his weight on the lever, thus +squeezing out the juice. After being boiled with the bark of certain +trees and lime juice, the liquor is sealed in jars or bamboo tubes and +is stored away until needed. + +FIG. 28. SUGAR CANE PRESS. + +The sago palm is found in parts of the Bagobo territory, and in times of +need, the people make temporary camps near to the sago districts, where +they prepare the flour. This is done in the same manner as is fully +described on page 140. + +The most important thing in the life of the Bagobo is the care of the +rice, for on this crop he depends for the greater part of his food +supply, and by its condition he can ascertain with what favor he is +looked upon by the spirits. So closely is the cultivation of this cereal +coupled with the religious beliefs that it is necessary, in this +relation, to describe the ceremonies connected with it. + +We have previously stated that the incursion of the cogon grass into the +fields makes necessary some new clearings each year. In the month of +December a constellation known as _Balatik_ appears in the sky. This has +a double significance; first, it is the reminder for the yearly +sacrifice; and secondly, it notifies all workers that the tools, which +are to be used in making new clearings, shall be placed in readiness. +All those who expect to prepare new fields for themselves, or are to +assist others in such work, gather at the forge of the local smith and +there take part in a ceremony held in honor of his patron spirit. They +carry with them offerings of rice and chickens which they cook in bamboo +tubes, for food taken from a pot is not acceptable to this spirit. When +all is ready the food is placed on a rice winnower, near to the forge, +and on it the men lay their weapons and working knives (Plate XXIX). +Standing before the offering the smith, in a droning voice, calls on the +spirit, beseeching him to come and eat of the food, to accept the +weapons and tools, and having done so to be watchful over the workers +during the clearing time, so that they may not be injured in the work or +be molested by enemies. The prayer finished, the smith eats a little of +the food, and all the men follow his example, but no woman may so much +as touch this offering. Meanwhile other food which can be eaten by all +has been prepared. After the meal the weapons and tools which are to be +used during the clearing time are removed, but, as they now belong to +the spirit, they can never be disposed of without first recompensing +him. During this day there is a strict prohibition against music and +dancing. For three days the men abstain from work and the forge stands +idle. When the fire is again lighted the first knife made is the +property of the spirit. + +With the ending of the period of taboo the workers go to the fields and, +in the center of each, place a _tambara_[21] fitted with a white dish +containing betel nut. This is an offering to Eugpamolak Manobo, who is +besought to drive from the field any _tigbanawa_ or _tagamaling_[22] who +may live there, to keep the workers in good health, to allow an abundant +crop, and, finally, to make the owner rich and happy. The weeds, brush, +and trees, after being cut and allowed to dry are fired, while the logs +remaining after this initial burning are piled together and again set on +fire, and the field is ready for the planting. No soil is broken and not +a seed goes into the ground until the spirits again designate the time, +by placing the constellation _Marara_ in the sky. This appears early in +April, and is followed by a period of great activity in the fields. If, +for any reason, the owner of the land cannot plant at this time, he has +two or more opportunities given him when the constellations _Mamari_ and +_Bwaya_ appear, the latter toward the end of June. + +[21] See p. 66, Fig. 12. + +[22] Evil spirits which are classed with the _buso_. See p. 107. + +When the workers go to the field on the day set for the planting they +enter at one corner and proceed directly across it to the far left hand +corner where they erect a small house or place a _tambara_ which is +known as _pEmEg'ge_. As soon as it is complete, the _mabalian_ begin to +call on the spirits. Manama[23] is called first and after him other +spirits, according to their rank and power. They are informed that the +planting is about to begin and that the people are showing them this +mark of respect so that they will not allow anything to interfere with +the crop. This done, they go to the center of the field and place a +second _tambara_, called _parobanian_, for the spirit Taragomi, who owns +all food. Leaves pleasing to him and presents of food or bracelets are +placed in it, as well as in his _tambara_ found in the house.[24] The +owner of the field takes the _malayag_, a large variety of rice, and +plants it around the _parobanian_,[25] and as the last grain is planted +the _mabalian_ again starts her prayer, this time beginning with +Taragomi. She asks for good crops, and protection for the field from all +animals, blight and drought. Finally, she begs Eugpamolak Manobo to +control the sun and winds so that they will always be favorable to the +growing grain. Having thus done all in their power to secure the +cooperation of the superior beings the men take their rice planters and +real work begins.[26] The planter (Fig. 29) consists of a long shaft at +one end of which is a metal blade while at the other is a bamboo clapper +decorated with feathers. When this instrument is struck on the ground it +digs a shallow hole an inch or more in depth, the clapper meanwhile +keeping up an incessant noise. It is said by some that the rattle is +intended to please the guardian spirit of the fields, but this does not +seem to be the prevalent idea. The women follow the men, dropping seeds +into the holes and pushing the soil over them with their feet. + +[23] Eugpamolak Manobo. + +[24] At Cibolan only brass objects are placed in this _tambara_. + +[25] At Digos the _mabalian_ does the planting and harvesting about the +_tambara_, and the rice grown there is reserved as seed, for the next +season. + +[26] FATHER GISBERT relates that it is the custom to sacrifice a slave +at this time, but this is denied by the _datu_ consulted by the writer. +See letters of FATHER GISBERT in BLAIR and ROBERTSON, The Philippine +Islands, Vol. XLIII; pp. 233-4. + +FIG. 29. RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO CLAPPER ATTACHED TO TOP. + +At nightfall of the day in which the planting has been completed a +_mabalian_ cooks fish and rice, which she carries to the _parobanian_. +Early next morning the family goes to the field and eats this offering +which "belongs to Taragomi, so should be eaten at his house." From this +time until harvest the fields must be guarded against birds and animals, +but no further offerings take place unless unusual conditions should +satisfy the owner that the spirits are demanding more gifts. When +harvest time comes the owner and a few of his friends will go to the +field and pull a few of the fresh stalks, which they place in the +_pEmEg'ge_ and _parobanian_, meanwhile addressing the spirits, and the +cutting of the rice begins. This is done by women who, for this purpose, +employ a small knife called _gElat_ (Plate XXIXd). The last grain to be +cut is that about the _parobanian_. The _mabalian_ cooks a little of the +new rice in the house and places a part of it in the various _tambara_ +and shrines; then, having placed a number of rice stalks on the floor, +she offers them one by one to the spirits. Not until she has finished +can any of the prepared food be eaten. The balance of the crop lies in +the sun until dry, when it is tied in bundles and placed in the granary. + +When all the harvesting is finished the people will make a festival +known as _Gatokbia-an_, or _pakakaro_. Ordinarily each family will have +its own celebration, but at times all the inhabitants of a village will +join in one great celebration. The period of toil and doubt is past, the +food supply is assured, and the people gather to give thanks. No New +England Thanksgiving dinner is prepared with greater thought, or less +regard for expense, than that which is made ready at this time. The +finest of the rice, cocoanuts[sic], eggs, chickens, fish, shrimps, and +many other edibles are prepared and placed in certain dishes which are +dedicated to the spirits and are used only at this time. These plates +are arranged in a row in the center of the room and the _mabalian_ +gather around them. Taking a wand of sandal wood in her hand one of the +number waves it over the offerings, while she chants long prayers. +Beginning with the most powerful, she addresses the spirits one by one, +thanking them for the care they have given to the growing grain and to +the laborers, and for the bounteous harvest. Frequently individuals will +interrupt the proceedings to place near to the _mabalian_ a fine knife +or some other prized object which they desire to have presented to the +spirits as evidence of their gratitude. At first, it is a little hard to +understand this lavishness, but it transpires that the former owners +still have possession of these objects, and that the spirits offer no +objections to their use, so long as their ownership is not disputed, +truly a case of eating the pie but still having it. + +The knives and other implements which have been used in the fields are +laid on a large basket filled with rice, "in order that they may eat, +and, therefore, have no cause to injure their owners." Another large +dish of rice is set aside as a special offering. In some cases this is +taken out to the fields, where it is eaten by the wife, or wives of the +host; but in Cibolan it is kept in the house until the next morning, +when it is eaten by all the members of the family. The ceremonial eating +of this rice causes the supply to last longer and assures abundant rains +for the succeeding crop. Part of the food from the dishes is placed in +the _tambara_ and shrines, and then all the guests are permitted to +feast and make merry. Unlike most Bagobo ceremonies this one lacks the +music of the _agongs_,[27] for only bamboo guitars, flutes, and the +_bolang-bolang_ are permitted at this time. The last named instrument is +made by placing a board on a rice mortar; the women gather around it +with their wooden pestles and beat a rythmical[sic] tattoo. This +concludes the festival proper, but many guests will remain for two or +three days to enjoy the hospitality of their host. + +[27] Copper gongs. + +On the third morning after the festival the family and some friends will +celebrate _BagkEs_ "the tying together." The dishes in which food was +offered are tied together and are carried to the rice field where, with +great solemnity, the little dish in the _parobanian_ is removed and +placed among the others, while the people tell it that the other plates +have come to take it away, but that it will be returned to its home the +following year. The family goes back to the village in silence and after +tying all the dishes together place them in the rice granary. + +In the Bagobo settlement at Digos, the women hold still another festival +following the cutting of the rice. This is known as _Gomeng ka +taragomi_, or _bitinbagaybe_. In the main it resembles the ceremony of +similar name, which the women of Malilla hold on the second day of +_GinEm_ (See page 111). A bamboo pole decked with leaves and green fruit +of the _areca_ palm is placed in the center of a room and is surrounded +with cooked food. After this has been offered to the spirits, it is +eaten by the guests who then indulge in dancing about the decorated +pole. This generally lasts eight days, but in one instance the +festivities continued for sixteen days and nights. The explanation given +is that "the women wish to show Taragomi and the _Nitos_ (anitos) how +happy they are because of the good harvest, for when they see this they +will be pleased and will help again next year." + +TRANSPORTATION AND TRADE. + +The Bagobo makes no use of boats or rafts, for until recent times he has +lived at a considerable distance from the sea; and the rivers, which +flow in deep caons, may be changed in a day from tiny streams to +rushing torrents in which no craft could keep afloat. Left to his own +devices, he pays little attention to trails, but cuts his way through +the underbrush directly to his destination. The government has forced +him to clear and maintain several fairly good roads between the larger +settlements and the coast, and these are now the highways over which he +transports his hemp and other trade articles. Quite a number of carabao +and horses are to be found in the territory, where they are used as pack +and riding animals. Both men and women are excellent riders and take +great pride in the decoration of their mounts. The saddle used is carved +from wood, in exact duplication of those used by the Spaniards. The +copper bits are also copies, but are of native casting. Strings of bells +surround the neck of a prized animal, and it is further beautified by an +artificial forelock. Rattan whips, wound with braid, and decorated with +beads, are also a part of his trappings. According to Bagobo tradition, +they have had horses from the most remote times, and Professor +BLUMENTRITT is inclined to believe that they possessed these animals +prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. In support of this contention, he +points to the fact that, unlike most Philippine tribes, they use the +Malayan name.[28] + +[28] The terms used are, _bait koda_--stallion, and _mamat koda_--mare. + +[Transcriber's note: The uncontracted forms of these phrases are _bayi +ta koda'_ and _mama ta koda'_. Because _bayi_ means "female" and _mama_ +means "male," the definitions of "stallion" and "mare" appear to have +been interchanged in error.] + +Heavy loads of field products are transported on animals, or are carried +in cylindrical bark or rattan boxes or carrying frames (Fig. 30). Such a +receptacle is supported on the back by means of a band which passes +around the forehead, or by other bands which slip over the shoulders. +Both sexes carry loads in this way, although it must be confessed that +consideration for the members of the gentler sex has not reached such a +stage that they are relieved of any great part of such labor. When +gathering grain and forest products, or when searching for snails, the +woman attaches a small basket to her belt so that it hangs at a +convenient height against her thigh. We have previously noticed the +decorated bags and baskets which serve as pockets, and also contain the +betel nut outfits. + +FIG. 30. CARRYING FRAME. + +A small child is supported at the mother's hip by means of a broad sash, +which passes over the right shoulder and under the left arm. When it is +able to walk the scarf is discarded, and it sits astride the mother's +hip, where it is held in place by her left arm. Older children and the +men devote considerable time to the newcomers, but at a very early age +the youngsters begin to run about as wild and carefree as only little +savages can. + +The Bagobo is a keen trader and many small articles of all kinds reach, +and pass from him through trade; and to make this barter possible he +intentionally produces an excess of certain things. Chief of these is +hemp, which he now carries to the coast traders, and for which he +receives trade cloth, iron pots, copper gongs, bells, and the beads +which he prizes so highly. In exchange for the betel boxes, bells, and +knife guards, which come from his forge, he receives shell disks, +certain articles of dress, cooking pots, and various other household +articles as well as salt and some animals. The knives made by him are in +great demand and often travel far inland. While among the Bukidnon of +the North-Central part of the Island the writer secured one blade and +guard of undoubted Bagobo workmanship. In early days, Chinese and Moro +traders brought gongs, jars, plates, and other crockery, as well as many +other articles now among the prized heirlooms of wealthy men or +occupying an important place in the ceremonial life of the tribe. +Through these same channels came the Borneo ivory of which the ear plugs +are made, while other objects from more distant regions were +occasionally brought in. Two examples of this trade are now in the +collections of the Field Museum of Natural History. One is a jacket made +from Javanese cloth; the second a belt buckle which apparently +originated in Perak. + +Local feuds, as well as the desire of individuals to be known as +_magani_, have always made it unsafe for small numbers of traders to +venture to any great distance from home, and this has been a great +hindrance to trade. However, large parties, even from other tribes, +sometimes go to a village for purposes of trade, having previously +notified the inhabitants of their intentions. While in Malilla the +writer met with a party of thirty Bila-an traders who lived three days' +march to the east. The influence of capture, intermarriage, and looting, +in carrying the artifacts of one tribe into the territory of another has +previously been mentioned. + +WARFARE. + +The offensive weapons used by the Bagobo are spears, knives (Fig. 15 and +Plate XXXII), and at times bows and arrows (Fig. 17). For defense they +carry shields, either round or oblong (Figs. 31-32), and cover the body +with so many strips of hemp cloth that a knife thrust is warded off. +Turning his body sideways to the enemy, the warrior crouches behind his +shield, keeping up a continuous capering, rushing forward or dancing +backward, seeking for an opening but seldom coming to close quarters. +Arrows and spears are glanced off with the shield. An attack is usually +initiated by the throwing of spears, then, if the enemy is at a +disadvantage or confused, the warriors rush in to close combat. For this +purpose they rely entirely on their knives, and as fencers they are +unexcelled. They are but indifferent shots with the bow and arrow, and +that weapon is but little used in actual combat. It has been frequently +stated that these arrows are poisoned but I was unable to discover a +single specimen so prepared. When hard-pressed, or when a camp must be +made in dangerous territory, sharpened bamboo sticks--_sogiang_--are stuck +into the ground with their points directed toward the enemy. These must +be carefully gathered up by the pursuers, who otherwise run the risk of +having the knife-like blades driven into their feet. Old warriors state +that in former years they not only covered the upper part of the body +with hemp cloth but wound over this long decorated strips called +_gindua_; they also tell of coats of mail made of carabao horn or +rattan. None of these outfits exist in the territory today, but it is +not at all improbable that they were formerly in use, for the long +decorated bands are still found among the Bukidnon of the North, with +whom some trade is carried on; and a few coats of mail are to be seen +among the neighboring Moro. + +FIG. 31A AND B. FRONT AND BACK OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + +FIG. 32A AND B. A.--FRONT OF A DECORATED SHIELD. B.--BACK OF SHIELD A. + +Hostile raids against the neighboring Bila-an, Tagakaolo, and Ata seem +to have been common from the most ancient times. After the arrival of +the Spaniards there were many minor conflicts with the Moro, and the +tribal history takes note of several serious feuds between Bagobo +villages. Single warriors, usually those desiring to become _magani_, +sometimes enter hostile territory and there lie in wait for an +opportunity to spear a passing foe. The fact that these attacks are +frequently from ambush, or that whole families are slain while asleep on +the floors of their houses, does not seem to detract in the least from +the honor due for the deed. Generally, parties of sixty or more, under +the direction of a _magani_, are made up to avenge the death of their +townspeople, to secure loot and slaves, or to win glory and distinction. +An ambush is formed near to a hostile village and just at dawn an attack +is made on the early risers who are scattered and unprepared. The +invaders are usually satisfied with a few victims and then make their +escape. Women and children are either killed or are carried away as +slaves. It is customary for all the warriors to make at least one cut in +the bodies, and to eat a portion of the livers of enemies who have shown +great bravery, for in this way it is thought they gain in that quality. +This seems to be the only occasion when human flesh is tasted, despite +the fact that the members of this tribe have been frequently referred to +as cannibals. + +The warriors of Cibolan and Malilla formerly carried heads of enemies to +their towns and made use of them during the _GinEm_ ceremony, while at +Bansalan and Digos a lock of hair, cut from the head of the slain, +answered the same purpose. Individual raiders sometimes carry home a +head or a hand as evidence of a successful fight, and at such times +festivals may be held to celebrate the event. However, the trophy soon +loses its value and is hung or buried at a distance from the village. +Head-hunting for the sake of the trophy itself, does not exist here. + +Peace can be effected by means of a blood compact known as _dayandi_. +Each principal cuts his own wrist until the blood flows freely; this he +catches in his free hand and offers to the other participant to drink. +Sometimes the blood of both is caught and mixed in a dish from which +they drink, meanwhile addressing the _tigyama_,[29] saying, "We are now +like brothers, like children of the same parents, and now we cannot +fight any more. We ask you to be the witnesses." + +[29] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 12 pages later in this document.] + +SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. + +There seems to be no trace of clan or totemic grouping among the Bagobo. +Blood relationship is traced as far as the second cousin and is a bar to +marriage. The suggestion that a man might marry his mother-in-law was +received with horror, but whether this was due to local mother-in-law +stories or to an idea of relationship could not be ascertained. However, +a man may marry the sister of his wife. + +Each district has its head man, or petty _datu_ who is supposed to be +subject to the _datu_ of Cibolan. This seems actually to have been the +case until a few years ago, when some of the local rulers withdrew their +allegiance. The office is hereditary and usually passes from the father +to his eldest son. Should the _datu_ be without an heir, or the son be +considered inefficient, the under chiefs and wise old men may choose a +leader from among their number. + +In his own district the power of the _datu_ is very great, but even he +is obliged to respect the laws and customs handed down by the ancestors. +He is supreme judge in all matters, though he may, if he desires, call +in the old men to help him decide difficult cases. The usual method of +punishment is by means of a fine. Should the culprit be unwilling or +unable to pay he is placed in servitude until such a time as the debt is +considered canceled, but should he refuse to serve he is killed without +further ado. The _datu_ appoints a man for this purpose, and he usually +gets his victim by stealth, either by waylaying him in the road or by +driving a spear through him as he lies asleep on the floor of his house. +When a fine is levied the _datu_ retains a portion as pay for his +services; if the more drastic punishment follows it serves to emphasize +his power and is more valuable to him than the payment. When his house +needs repairing, his hemp requires stripping, or his fields need +attention, his followers give him assistance. In return for these +services he helps support a number of fighting men who can always be +called upon for the defence of the people. His house is considered the +property of all to the extent that anyone goes there at any time and +stays as long as he pleases, partaking meanwhile of the _datu's_ food. +In times of danger, or during festivals, all the people assemble there +and assist, in the defense or the merry-making. + +Datu Tongkaling is the most industrious man in the tribe. He does not +hesitate to work in the rice fields, to aid in the house-building or to +take his turn at the forge, neither will he tolerate any loafing on the +part of his followers. While in most instances he mingles freely with +his people he never eats with them. His wives, children, and guests eat +from a long row of dishes set on the floor, but the _datu_ takes his +food alone at a considerable distance from the others. + +The balance of the people can be roughly divided between freeman and +slaves, but slavery here is of such a mild type, and the members of that +class become so quickly merged into the tribe that the lines cannot be +closely drawn. Women and children secured in raids become the slaves of +their captors, and may be bought and sold, or pass by inheritance, like +other property. It is considered proper for a man to live with his slave +without marrying her, but should she become pregnant she is usually +given her freedom at once; if not then, she is certain to be upon the +death of her master, while her offspring are free and legitimate heirs. +Children born to a slave couple remain in their class, as do those born +to a slave mother and a man not her master. These slaves are treated +with kindness and consideration and seldom try to make their escape. In +fact it is often difficult to pick out the members of this class from +the other members of the family. + +The chief aim in life of the man is to have the right to wear the +blood-red clothing and to be known as _magani_. As stated earlier in the +paper, this term is applied to a man who has killed two or more persons. +He is then entitled to wear the peculiar chocolate-colored head covering +(Plate XXV). When his score has reached four he can don blood-red +trousers, and when he has six lives to his credit he is permitted to +wear the complete blood-red suit and to carry a bag of the same +color.[30] From that time on his clothing does not change with the +number of his victims, but his influence increases with each life put to +his credit. It is said that formerly, at Digos and Bansalan, a man who +had killed twenty or more was known as _gemawan_, and was distinguished +by a black hemp suit. This claim to the black clothing is no longer +respected, and such garments are worn by any who desire them. The man +who has never killed a person is called _matalo_, a rather slighting +term signifying one who has no desire to fight but remains at home with +the women. A man who kills an unfaithful wife and her admirer may count +the two on his score. He may also count those of his townspeople whom he +has killed in fair fight, but unprovoked murder will be punished by the +death of the offender. The candidate for _magani_ honors may go to an +unfriendly town, or to a neighboring tribe, and kill without fear of +censure from his own people. + +[30] This is the rule at Cibolan. At Malilla and Digos, the kerchief may +be worn when one life has been taken, the trousers for two, the coat for +three, and finally the sack for four. + +[Transcriber's note: _matalo_ in the paragraph above means "coward."] + +The _magani_ is one of the leaders in a war party; he is chosen to +inflict the death penalty when it is decreed, and it is men of this +class that assist in the human sacrifices. He is under the special +protection of Mandarangan and Darago, and all petitions to these +powerful spirits must be made through him. His clothing is considered +the property of these spirits, and when such specimens were secured for +the collection, the wearer would invariably place the garment beside +some prized article, such as a knife or spear, then taking a green betel +nut would rub the garment and object, meanwhile beseeching the spirits +to leave the one and enter the other. Later the nut was placed in the +_tambara_ belonging to those spirits. A father may not bequeath to his +son the right to the red clothing; and such articles, together with his +weapons, should be buried with him. Should one not entitled to these +garments dare to make use of them, the spirits would straightway cause +his body to swell or turn yellow, and he would die. + +In a previous paragraph we mentioned the unorganized priesthood, the +members of which are known as _mabalian_. Men are not barred from this +profession, but the greater number of its members are old, or +middle-aged, women.[31] A woman may live the greater part of her life +without an idea of becoming a member of this order, and then suddenly be +warned in dreams, by visions, or by other _mabalian_ that she has been +chosen by the spirits. The one thus elected becomes a pupil of a +qualified _mabalian_ and for several months will be drilled in the +duties of that office. She will be taught the medicines to be used at +certain times,[32] the duties of a midwife, the correct method of +building shrines and conducting ceremonies, and finally, she will learn +the prayers with which the spirits should be addressed. It seems to be +the belief that, at times during the ceremonies, the _mabalian_ may be +possessed by a spirit and that she then speaks not as a mortal but as +the spirit itself. She also knows how to weave and dye the turban worn +by the _magani_, and because of this accomplishment is considered to be +under the protection of Baitpandi,[33] and is permitted to wear garments +made of red cloth, the same as the _magani_. + +[31] There are five _mabalian_ in Cibolan, all of whom are women past +middle life. + +[32] A medicine is used with the idea that it assists in driving away +evil influences. + +[33] The patron spirit of the weavers. + +The workers in the various crafts are under the guidance and protection +of special spirits, but there is no bar against other members of the +tribe entering those professions. + +Apparently then, Bagobo society is divided into several classes or +divisions, but with the exception of a few individuals in the slave +class, there is a possibility or an opportunity for each member of the +tribe to enter any class open to his or her sex. Even a slave woman may +become the wife of a _datu_, and her son may assume the leadership of +the tribe. + +LAWS. PROPERTY AND INHERITANCE. + +The laws of the people are those imposed by custom and religion, and are +equally binding on all classes. Public opinion is sufficient to prevent +most crimes; the fear of offending the spirits is a further deterrent; +while the final bar is the drastic punishment meted out by the _datu_. +Theft is punished by the levying of a fine if the culprit is able to +pay, or by a term of servitude if he has no property. If a husband finds +that his wife has been unfaithful, he should kill both her and her +admirer, but the spear with which he avenges his wrongs should be left +in the body of one of the victims, as a sign that the murder was +provoked by the fault. When this is done the husband cannot be held +accountable either to the _datu_ or to the dead person's relatives. If, +however, he withdraws the weapon, the brothers or other male relatives +of the deceased have a right and a duty to avenge the deaths. A man who +has killed his wife and her lover is allowed to count both on his score +towards becoming a _magani_--a further incentive for him to avenge his +wrongs. Cases are known where the husband accepted payment for his +wife's affections, but it was considered a sign of weakness, or +cowardice, and the man lost caste. Unprovoked murder of one from the +same or a friendly village is punished by death. + +A man having illicit relations with a slave woman, not his own, is +subjected to a heavy fine or a term of servitude. Incest should be +punished by the death of the culprits for should such a crime go +unpunished the spirits would cause the sea to rise and cover the land. +Datu Tongkaling claims that on two occasions, since he became ruler, he +has put such offenders to death. In the first case he had the couple +bound and thrown into the sea, while in the second instance, they were +tied to trees in the forest and sacrificed in the presence of all the +people of the village. + +Prohibitions exist against the wearing of the clothing which +distinguishes warriors and priestesses, and there are rules governing +the conduct of individuals while near shrines or during ceremonies, but +punishment for the breaking of these rules is meted out by the spirits +rather than by the _datu_. + +Each settlement is recognized as having property rights to all adjacent +lands. Within these recognized limits, its members may take up as much +land as they need, provided it is not already in use, but when a field +is, for any reason, abandoned it again becomes the property of the +community. Individual ownership extends to houses, furnishings, and all +articles of clothing, as well as to weapons, traps, animals, and slaves. +Although bought with a price the wife is still very independent and has +undisputed rights to her baskets, cooking utensils, looms, and to the +finery with which she adorns her person. + +Since all the people assist in the support of the _datu_ they consider +his home to be, to a certain extent, their own and make use of it and +its furnishings without question. + +Probably at no place in the world has borrowing gone to greater extremes +than here. When attempting to purchase clothing, or articles in daily +use, the writer frequently found that not a single garment worn by an +individual was his own; and it was usually necessary to consult several +persons in order to secure a complete outfit. + +Upon the death of a man, his property is taken in charge by his first +wife, or by the old men, and is divided equally among his wives and +children, with perhaps a little extra added to the share of the first +mate. The belongings of a free-born woman go to her children, or, in +case she is barren, are given to her relatives. In cases where both the +parents are dead, the children pass into the care of the father's +family. + +Despite the fact that property is owned by individuals, a large part of +the labor, especially in house-building and in the fields, is done in +common. When a man desires to clear or plant a field or to build a +house, he summons his friends to aid him and they respond with no idea +of payment other than their food and drink, and the return of like +services when they are in similar need. + +BIRTH. + +For about six months before and after the birth of a child the mother is +relieved from hard labor; she is not allowed to taste of any thing sour, +neither may she eat dried fish or flesh, lest her child be thin and +weak. The father is under no restrictions other than that he is expected +to remain near to his home for a few days following the birth of a +child. Other action on his part would be considered by the spirits as an +admission that he does not care for the child, and they would cause the +umbilical cord to decay so that the child would die. The mother is +delivered in the regular dwelling, where she is attended by two or more +midwives or _mabalian_.[34] She is placed with her back against an +inclined board, while in her hands she holds a rope which is attached to +the roof. With the initial pains, one of the midwives massages the +abdomen, while another prepares a drink made from leaves, roots, and +bark, and gives it to the expectant woman. The preparation of this +concoction was taught by friendly spirits, and it is supposed to insure +an easy delivery. Still another _mabalian_ spreads a mat in the middle +of the room, and on it places valuable cloths, weapons, and gongs, which +she offers to the spirits; praying that they will make the birth easy +and give good health to the infant. The articles offered at this time +can be used by their former owners but as they are now the property of +the spirits they must not be sold or traded. The writer was very anxious +to secure an excellent weapon which had been thus offered. The user +finally agreed to part with it but first he placed it beside another of +equal value, and taking a piece of betel nut he rubbed each weapon with +it a number of times, then dipping his fingers in the water he touched +both the old and the new blades, all the time asking the spirit to +accept and enter the new weapon. The child is removed by the _mabalian_ +who, in cutting the umbilical cord, makes use of the kind of knife used +by the members of the child's sex, otherwise the wound would never heal. +The child is placed on a piece of soft betel bark, "for its bones are +soft and our hands are hard and are apt to break the soft bones," then +water is poured over it and its body is rubbed with _pogonok_.[35] The +afterbirth is placed in a bamboo tube, is covered with ashes and a leaf, +and the whole is hung against the side of the dwelling where it remains +until it falls of its own accord or the house is destroyed. In Cibolan +the midwife applies a mixture of clay and herbs called _karamir_ to the +eyes of all who have witnessed the birth "so that they will not become +blind." Having done this she gives the child its name, usually that of a +relative, and her duties are over. As payment she will receive a large +and a small knife, a plate, some cloth, and a needle.[36] + +[34] In Cibolan the midwife is called _taratEk-Ekn_, and need not be a +_mabalian_. + +[35] A medicine made of bark and rattan. + +[36] The payment given at the birth of a boy is somewhat greater than +that for a girl. + +In Malilla the naming does not take place until three clays after the +birth, and the eyes are not always anointed, although the old people +agree that it is an ancient custom and "a good thing to do." At that +time the mat containing the gifts is spread on the floor and the +offerings are again called to the attention of the spirits, who are +urged to look to the welfare of the child. Should the infant be ailing, +or cry a great deal, it is a sign that the spirits are displeased with +the name given to it and another will be substituted; however, this does +not seem to be done with an idea of fooling the spirits, as is the case +with some other tribes. The child is nursed until two or three years of +age, or until another takes its place. There is no superstition +concerning twins, but triplets are at once put to death by filling their +mouths with ashes, otherwise "the parents would die, for they are like +dogs." + +When questioned concerning abortion, Datu Tongkaling asserted that he +considered it "very bad," and that he would prohibit any _mabalian_ who +assisted in such a practice from continuing her profession, but he said +that despite his orders secret medicines which produce that result are +sometimes administered. Such a practice is not common, however, as +children are greatly desired and no worse slur can be applied to a woman +than to speak of her as barren. + +So far as could be learned there is no ceremony or celebration of any +kind when a child reaches the age of puberty but soon thereafter its +teeth will be filed and blackened. In some villages the boys are +circumcised, but the practice is not compulsory, neither is it general +throughout the territory. + +MARRIAGE. + +Marriage among the Bagobo takes place much later than is common among +most Philippine tribes, the couple often being eighteen or twenty years +of age. As a rule the parents of the boy select the girl and negotiate +the match. Going to the house of the girl they casually broach the +subject and if her parents are favorable, a day is set to discuss the +details. This meeting is attended by the friends and relatives of both +families, and two head-men or _datu_ must also be present to represent +the contracting parties. The price the girl should bring varies +according to the wealth of the interested parties and the +accomplishments of the bride. Whatever the sum paid, the father of the +girl must make a return present equal to one-half the value of the +marriage gift "so that he does not sell his daughter like a slave." +Usually marriage does not take place until a year or more after this +settlement, and during the interval the boy must serve his father-in-law +to be. When the time for the final ceremony arrives the relatives and +friends assemble and for two or three days they feast and make merry. A +_mabalian_ spreads a mat on the floor, places on it many valuable +articles and then offers all to the spirits, in order that they may be +pleased to give the couple a long and prosperous life together. Finally, +she puts a dish of rice on the mat and, after offering it to the +spirits, places it between the boy and the girl as they sit on the +floor. The girl takes a handful of the rice and feeds it to the boy who, +in turn, feeds her, and the ceremony is complete. The couple may then go +to their new home, but for several years the girl's family will exact a +certain amount of service from the groom. + +A slight variation of the usual order occurred recently at the marriage +of one of Datu Tongkaling's sons. At that time all the details were +arranged by the _datu_, who, accompanied by his son and a number of +relatives, went to the girl's house and proposed the union. After the +girl had brought wine, betel nut, and food, and had placed them before +the visitors, she was directed by her mother to make a carrying bag for +her lover. Had she objected to the union and refused to make this gift, +her decision would probably have been accepted as final and all +negotiations abandoned. However, it is not customary for the young +people to refuse to carry out the wishes of their elders. As the girl +offered no objections, the party fell to discussing the price the groom +should pay, and finally, after several hours of bargaining, decided that +he should furnish her father with one _agong_,[37] one horse, and a +double betel box.[38] Five days later, when he paid this sum, he +received a return gift of one _agong_ and ten skirts from the bride's +mother. About one-half the value of the groom's gift was distributed +among the girl's relatives, who were at the same time admonished that, +in case a separation should occur, they would be expected to return an +equal amount. In the presence of about a hundred friends, the pair drank +wine from the same dish, then submitted to having a little hair cut from +their heads, and were pronounced man and wife. Before they retired for +the night the _mabalian_ combed their hair, then, having directed the +groom to precede his bride to their sleeping place, she secured a child +and placed it on the mat between the pair. This, she explained, was an +old custom, and was done so that the girl might not be ashamed, for she +was not the first to sleep there. Having finished this duty, she +returned to the center of the room and placed a number of plates and a +knife on the _tambara_, where they were allowed to remain for four days +as offerings to the _anito_, Manama, Toglai and the _tigyama_.[39] At +the end of that period the plates were attached to the outside walls of +the house, and the knife returned to its former owner. This completed +the duties of the _mabalian_ who returned home carrying an _agong_, the +payment for her services. + +[37] Large copper gong. + +[38] Much more is often given. One girl in Cibolan brought six horses, +five agongs, and several spears and knives. + +[39] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 5 pages after this.] + +A man may have as many wives as he desires and can afford, but he may +not take a second mate until a child has been born to the first union, +or the wife has been proved beyond doubt to be barren. The groom renders +no services to the father of the second wife, but instead of this pays a +double price for the girl, for he not only pays her parents but is +forced also to give a like sum to his first wife, who, in turn, presents +it to her father. Should a third wife be added to the family a sum equal +to her cost is divided among the earlier wives. The first wife is +generally the lady of the house and does not particularly object to +having other girls added to the family, provided they are willing to +obey her. Datu Tongkaling has had four wives, three of whom are still +living. + +If a couple cannot agree, a separation can be arranged by applying to +the local head-man, who, after listening to their troubles, decides +which one is at fault, and whether or no the marriage gifts must be +returned. When a couple parts, plates, bowls, and jars are sometimes +broken as a sign that they will never live together again and the +spirits are thus called to witness. A divorced woman may remarry, but +unless the sum originally paid for her has been returned, the new groom +must pay such an amount to the first husband. + +SICKNESS AND DEATH. + +In case of illness a _mabalian_ administers some simple remedy without +any call on the spirits. If, however, the sickness does not yield +readily to this treatment, it is evident that the trouble is caused by +some spirit who can only be appeased by a gift, Betel nuts, leaves, +food, clothing, and some article in daily use by the patient are placed +in a dish of palm bark and on top of all is laid a roughly carved figure +of a man. This offering is passed over the body of the patient while the +_mabalian_ addresses the spirits as follows. "Now, you can have the man +on this dish, for we have changed him for the sick man. Pardon anything +this man may have done, and let him be well again." Immediately after +this the dish is carried away and hidden so that the sick person may +never see it again, for should he do so the illness would return. + +According to Father GISBERT a doll is carved from a piece of wood and +the spirit is addressed: "O God, Thou who has created men and trees, and +all things, do not deprive us of life, and receive in exchange this bit +of wood which has our face." + +In obstinate cases the invalid may be removed from his own house to +another, in order that he may be under the care of the good spirits +residing there. The _mabalian_ appplies[sic] certain medicines and then +decrees a period of taboo, during which no outsiders may enter the +house. Those within at the time the medicine was given may go out if +they desire, but must return there to sleep. Should it become evident +that the patient will die he is taken back to his own place, otherwise +his family would be called upon to reimburse the owner of the house in +which the death occurs, for bringing evil or unfriendly spirits into +their dwelling. + +Governor Bolton describes a somewhat different procedure among the +members of the Guianga branch of this tribe. Having learned that Datu +Angalan was ill he went to see him, but found his house deserted. The +_datu_ was finally located in a small hut about a hundred yards away +from his own dwelling, with no attendants. The governor writes, "When I +went in the tribesmen entered. I soon found that I had broken a charm +which prevented anyone seeing him for a certain time; that he had been +placed in the hut for that reason, and to insure his not dying in the +large house. It is likely that they had a human sacrifice at that +time."[40] + +[40] Extract from letters of Gov. Bolton, in files of the Governor at +Davao. + +Following a death the body is covered with good clothing and is placed +in the middle of the house. Wailers sit by the corpse, fanning it to +keep away flies, or making an occasional offering of food; while the +friends gather to talk of the virtues of the deceased, to console the +family, and to partake of the food and drink which has been provided for +the gathering. The body is kept over one night, and in the case of great +personages, for three days, or until the coffin--a large log split in +halves and hollowed out--is prepared. When this is ready the body is +placed in it, together with some prized articles of the deceased. After +the top has been fitted to the lower portion, they are lashed together +and the cracks are filled with lime.[41] The body is buried beneath the +house, and the grave is protected by a bamboo fence, within which is +placed food, small offerings, or perhaps a shield and spear. In some +instances the coffin is allowed to remain in the house, which is then +abandoned. It is said that when Datu Taopan died his funeral lasted ten +days, and on the last day the house was decked, inside and out, with +flowers and valuable gifts, and was then deserted. + +[41] When the deceased has been a person of note the coffin is sometimes +decorated or colored. The coffin of a _magani_ should be red, yellow, +and black; while that of a _mabalian_ should be yellow, black, and +brown. + +Following the burial the family lives in the house where the death +occurred until a human sacrifice has been made. During this period they +live very quietly, eat poor food, wear old clothing, and abstain from +all amusements. If their wealth permits, they may shorten the period of +mourning by making a special sacrifice, but in most cases the bereaved +will wait until the yearly sacrifice when they will purchase a share in +the victim and thus remove the taboo. Following the offering, the old +house is abandoned and is allowed to fall to pieces for "the man has +gone and his house must go also." The procedure is the same for women, +and for children who have survived infancy. + +BELIEFS CONCERNING THE SOUL, SPIRITS, ORACLES, AND MAGIC. + +There is some variance, in different parts of the Bagobo area, in the +beliefs concerning the spirits or souls of a man. In Cibolan each man +and woman is supposed to have eight spirits or _gimokod_, which dwell in +the head, the right and left hands and feet, and other parts not +specified. At death these _gimokod_ part, four from the right side of +the body, going up to a place called _palakalangit_, and four descending +to a region known as _karonaronawan_.These places differ in no respects +from the present home of the Bagobo, except that in the region above it +is always day, and all useful plants grow in abundance. In these places +the _gimokod_ are met by the spirits, Toglai and Tigyama, and by them +are assigned to their future homes. If a man has been a _datu_ on earth, +his spirits have like rank in the other life, but go to the same place +as those of common people. The _gimokod_ of evil men are punished by +being crowded into poor houses. These spirits may return to their old +home for short periods, and talk with the _gimokod_ of the living +through dreams, but they never return to dwell again on earth. + +In the districts to the west of Cibolan the general belief is that there +are but two _gimokod_, one inhabiting the right side of the body, the +other the left. That of the right side is good, while all evil deeds and +inclinations come from the one dwelling on the left. It is a common +thing when a child is ill to attach a chain bracelet to its right arm +and to bid the good spirit not to depart, but to remain and restore the +child to health. In Malilla it is believed that after death the spirit +of the right side goes to a good place, while the one on the left +remains to wander about on earth as a _buso_,[42] but this latter belief +does not seem to be shared by the people of other districts. + +[42] See p. 107. + +Aside from the _gimokod_ the Bagobo believe that there exists a great +company of powerful spirits who make their homes in the sky above, in +the space beneath the world, or in the sea, in streams, cliffs, +mountains, or trees. The following is the list related by Datu +Tongkaling, a number of _mabalian_, and others supposed to have special +knowledge concerning these superior beings. + +I. Eugpamolak Manobo, also called Manama and Kalayagan. The first and +greatest of the spirits, and the creator of all that is. His home is in +the sky from whence he can observe the doings of men. Gifts for him +should be white, and should be placed above and in the center of +offerings intended for other spirits. He may be addressed by the +_mabalian_, the _datu_, and wise old men. + +II. Tolus ka balakat, "dweller in the _balakat_[43]." A male spirit who +loves the blood, but not the flesh of human beings, and one of the three +for whom the yearly sacrifice is made. Only the _magani_ may offer +petitions to him. He is not recognized by the people of Digos and +vicinity. + +[43] A hanger in which offerings are placed. + +III and IV. Mandarangan and his wife Darago. This couple look after the +fortunes of the warriors, and in return demand the yearly sacrifice of a +slave. They are supposed to dwell in the great fissure of Mt. Apo, from +which clouds of sulphur fumes are constantly rising. The intentions of +this pair are evil, and only the utmost care on the part of the _magani_ +can prevent them from causing quarrels and dissentions[sic] among the +people, or even actually devouring some of them. + +V. Taragomi. A male spirit who owns all food. He is the guardian of the +crops and it is for him that the shrine known as _parobanian_ is erected +in the center of the rice field. + +VI. Tolus ka towangan. The patron of the workers in brass and copper. + +VII. Tolus ka gomanan. Patron of the smiths. + +VIII. Baitpandi. A female spirit who taught the women to weave, and who +now presides over the looms and the weavers. + +IX. and X. Toglai, also called Si Niladan and Maniladan, and his wife +Toglibon. The first man and woman to live on the earth. They gave to the +people their language and customs. After their death they became +spirits, and are now responsible for all marriages and births. By some +people Toglai is believed to be one of the judges over the shades of the +dead, while in Bansalan he is identified with Eugpamolak Manobo. + +XI. Tigyama. A class of spirits, one of whom looks after each family. +When children marry, the _tigyama_ of the two families unite to form one +who thereafter guards the couple. While usually well disposed they are +capable of killing those who fail to show them respect, or who violate +the rules governing family life. + +XII. Diwata. A class of numerous spirits who serve Eugpamolak Manobo. + +XIII. Anito. A name applied to a great body of spirits, some of whom are +said formerly to have been people. They know all medicines and cures for +illness, and it is from them that the _mabalian_ secures her knowledge +and her power. They also assist the _tigyama_ in caring for the +families. + +XIV. Buso. Mean, evil spirits who eat dead people and have some power to +injure the living. A young Bagobo described his idea of a _buso_ as +follows: "He has a long body, long feet and neck, curly hair, and black +face, flat nose, and one big red or yellow eye. He has big feet and +fingers, but small arms, and his two big teeth are long and pointed. +Like a dog he goes about eating anything, even dead persons." As already +noted, the people of Malilla are inclined to identify the _gimokod_ of +the left side with this evil class. + +XV. Tagamaling. Evil spirits who dwell in big trees. + +XVI. Tigbanua. Ill disposed beings inhabiting rocks and cliffs in the +mountains. These last two classes are frequently confused with the +_buso_. + +In addition to these, the old men of Malilla gave the following: + +1. Tagareso. Low spirits who cause people to become angry and to do +little evil deeds. In some cases they cause insanity. + +2. Sarinago. Spirits who steal rice. It is best to appease them, +otherwise the supply of rice will vanish rapidly. + +3. Tagasoro. Beings who cause sudden anger which results in quarrels and +death. They are the ones who furnish other spirits with human flesh. + +4 and 5. Balinonok and his wife Balinsogo. This couple love blood and +for this reason cause men and women to fight or to run amuck. + +6. Siring. Mischievous spirits who inhabit caves, cliffs, and dangerous +places. They have long nails and can be distinguished by that +characteristic. They sometimes impersonate members of the family and +thus succeed in stealing women and children, whom they carry to their +mountain homes. The captives are not eaten but are fed on snakes and +worms, and should they try to escape the _siring_ will scratch them with +their long nails. + +Other spirits were named and described by individuals, but as they are +not generally accepted by the people of the tribe they are not mentioned +here. + +The stars, thunder and lightning, and similar phenomena are generally +considered as "lights or signs" belonging to the spirits, yet one +frequently hears hazy tales such as that "the constellation Marara is a +one-legged and one-armed man who sometimes causes cloudy weather at +planting time so that people may not see his deformities," or we are +told that "the sun was placed in the sky by the creator, and on it lives +an evil spirit who sometimes kills people. The sun is moved about by the +wind;" again, "the sun and moon were once married and all the stars are +their children." + +Despite repeated assertions by previous writers that the Bagobo are +fire-worshippers no evidence was obtained during our visit to support +the statement. The older people insisted that it was not a spirit and +that no offerings were ever made to it. One _mabalian_ stated that fire +was injurious to a woman in her periods and hence it was best for her +not to cook at such times; she was also of the opinion that fire was of +two kinds, good and bad, and hence might belong to both good and bad +spirits. + +A common method used by the spirits to communicate with mortals is +through the call of the _limokon_[44] All the people know the meaning of +its calls and all respect its warnings. If a man is starting to buy or +trade for an article and this bird gives its warning the sale is +stopped. Should the _limokon_ call when a person is on the trail he at +ones doubles his fist and thrusts it in the direction from which the +warning comes. If it becomes necessary to point backwards, it is a +signal to return, or should the arm point directly in front it is +certain that danger is there, and it is best to turn back and avoid it. +When it is not clear from whence the note came, the traveler looks +toward the right side. If he sees there strong, sturdy trees, he knows +that all is well, but if they are cut or weaklings, he should use great +care to avoid impending danger. When questioned as to why one should +look only to the right, an old man quickly replied: "The right side +belongs to you; the left side is bad and belongs to someone else." + +[44] See p. 63, note. [Transcriber's note: footnote above beginning, "A +dove."] + +Sneezing is a bad omen, and should a person sneeze when about to +undertake a journey, he knows that it is a warning of danger, and will +delay until another time. + +Certain charms, or actions, are of value either in warding off evil +spirits, in causing trouble or death to an enemy, or in gaining an +advantage over another in trading and in games. One type of charm is a +narrow cloth belt in which "medicines" are tied. These medicines may be +peculiarly shaped stones, bits of fungus growth, a tooth, shell, or +similar object. Such belts are known as _pamadan_, or _lambos_, and are +worn soldier-fashion over one shoulder. They are supposed to protect +their owners in battle or to make it easy for them to get the best of +other parties in a trade, A little dust gathered from the footprint of +an enemy and placed in one of these belts will immediately cause the foe +to become ill. + +It is a simple matter to cause a person to become insane. All that is +needed is to secure a piece of his hair, or clothing, place it in a dish +of water and stir in one direction for several hours. + +Father GISBERT relates the following method of detecting theft: + +"There are not, as a rule, many thefts among the Bagobo, for they +believe that a thief can be discovered easily by means of their famous +_bongat_. That consists of two small joints of bamboo, which contain +certain mysterious powders. He who has been robbed and wishes to +determine the robber takes a hen's egg, makes a hole in it, puts a pinch +of the above said powder in it, and leaves it in the fire. If he wishes +the robber to die he has nothing else to do than to break the egg; but +since the thief may sometimes be a relative or a beloved person, the egg +is not usually broken, so that there may be or may be able to be a +remedy. For under all circumstances, when this operation is performed, +if the robber lives, wherever he may be, he himself must inform on +himself by crying out, 'I am the thief; I am the thief,' as he is +compelled to do (they say) by the sharp pain which he feels all through +his body. When he is discovered, he may be cured by putting powder from +the other joint into the water and bathing his body with it. This +practice is very common here among the heathens and Moros. A Bagobo, +named Anas, who was converted, gave me the _bongat_ with which he had +frightened many people when a heathen." + +In Bansalan crab shells are hung over the doors of houses, for these +shells are distasteful to the _buso_ who will thus be kept at a +distance. + +I was frequently told of persons who could foretell the future by means +of palmistry, but was never able to see a palmist at work, or to verify +the information. + +MUSIC, DANCES AND CEREMONIES. + +The music for the dances is generally furnished by one or more persons +beating on several _agongs_ of different sizes and notes, which are +suspended in regular order from the house rafters (Plate XXXa). The +player stands in front of the line and begins to beat the instruments +with a padded stick. Oftentimes he is accompanied by a man who strikes a +wooden drum with the palm of one hand and a stick held in the other. The +music grows faster, emphasizing certain beats, until it becomes a +compelling rhythm that starts the feet of the onlookers, and suddenly a +man or woman begins to dance. At first she keeps time to the music by +raising on her toes and heels, bending the knees and twisting the body +from side to side, but soon she becomes more animated, the feet are +raised high above the floor and brought down with a sort of shuffle +which reminds one of the sound made by the feet of a clog dancer. Still +swaying her body, she begins to circle, contra-clockwise, around the +gongs, and soon she is joined by others until all the dancing space is +filled. The scene is most picturesque, for these dances usually occur at +night, in rooms illuminated only by the flickering light of torches. The +rich clothing of the participants loses nothing of its beauty in this +dim light, while the bells and rattles with which each dancer surrounds +arms, legs and ankles, add to the din and weirdness of the occasion. +Before the dance has progressed far the musicians begin to keep time +with their feet and frequently dance away from their instruments, +circle, and then return to continue the music. + +With slight variation, this is the dance used on all occasions. At +certain ceremonies small gongs, or the _bolang bolang_,[45] replace the +_agongs_, and at times also a single dancer will accompany himself on +the _kodlon_--a long wooden guitar with rattan strings (Plate XXXb). + +[45] An instrument made by placing a small board on a rice mortar. This +is pounded or beaten with short sticks, or with the wooden pestles. + +In this description we have named a large share of the musical +instruments used by the Bagobo. The women frequently play on a sort of +guitar made of a section of bamboo from the outside of which narrow +strings are cut. These are raised and made taut with small wooden +bridges and are then picked with a stick or the fingers (Fig. 33). +Bamboo Jew's-harps and mouth flutes are played by the men, but the nose +flute, so common in most parts of the Philippines, was not seen in use +here. + +FIG. 33. TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR. + +The ceremonies and dances are so closely associated with every day +affairs that in the description of the life of the people up to this +point we have left only a few still to be discussed. These are, in the +main, very similar throughout the Bagobo belt, but to avoid confusion +the description here given of the two greatest events of the year--the +_GinEm_ ceremony and the human sacrifice--deals with Cibolan, unless +expressly stated to the contrary. + +The greatest of all Bagobo ceremonies--the _GinEm_--may be given by the +_datu_ within three or four months after the appearance of the +constellation _Balatik_, when the moon is new or full. Its object is to +thank the spirits for success in war or domestic affairs, to ward off +sickness and other dangers, to drive away the _buso_, and finally to so +gratify the spirits that they will be pleased to increase the wealth of +all the people. Datu Tongkaling expressed a belief that this ceremony is +in a way related to the rice harvest, "for it is always made when there +is plenty of rice in the granaries." It appears to the writer, however, +that this ceremony probably originated in connection with warfare. + +According to the tales of the old men, it was formerly the custom to go +on a raid before this ceremony was to take place, and successful +warriors would bring home with them the skulls of their victims which +they tied to the _patan'nan_.[46] It seems also to have been closely +associated with the yearly sacrifice, for it was never made until after +the appearance of the constellation _Balatik_, and without doubt a +sacrifice frequently did take place during the first day of the +ceremony, at the time the decorated poles were raised. However, such an +offering at this time did not relieve the _datu_ from the obligation of +making the regular sacrifice. + +[46] Ceremonial poles dedicated to Mandarangan and Darago. In Digos and +Bansalan the skulls were not taken but hair cut from the heads of +enemies was placed in the swinging altar _balakat_, and were left there +until the conclusion of the ceremony. + +Datu Ansig of Talun informed me that, unless the death of some great +person made a special sacrifice necessary, there was only one such +offering made during the year, and that at the time the decorated poles +were placed in the dwelling. + +The time for the festival having been agreed upon, messengers are sent +to other _datu_ and head-men, inviting them and their people to attend. +Sufficient food is prepared for the guests and when all is ready the +_mabalian_ takes one chicken from among those to be used for food and +frees it as an offering to the _gimokod_. It is bidden to wander about +in the forest, and no one will molest the fowl, for should he do so he +is certain to become ill.[47] The _mabalian_ has previously placed +festoons of leaves and vines at various points in the house and now she +spreads a mat on the floor. A jar of _balaba_, wine, stands at each +corner, while at one end is an _agong_, and a plate containing betel +nut, leaf, and two varieties of rattan; at the other end are several +_tambara_. When all is thus prepared the people place offerings of +beautiful clothing, knives, and other costly gifts on the mat. Two +_mabalian_, a man and a woman call upon the spirits,[48] urging them to +look with favor on the offering made by the people, to grant them a good +year with health and plentiful harvests, to let their journeys be +without mishap, and to keep them all under their constant care. The +_tambara_ are fastened in various parts of the house, and the gifts are +hung on or laid beside them. Later these offerings may be removed by +their former owners who now regard them as being loaned to them by the +spirits. + +[47] This offering is not made at Bansalan, neither has the _mabalian_ +any part in the ceremonies of the first day. + +[48] Those called at this time are Toglai, Toglibon, _tigyma_, and +Kalayagan--Eugpamolak Manobo. + +[Transcriber's note: The word _tigyma_ in the above footnote should be +spelled _tigyama_.] + +Following the offering the _magani_ go to a bamboo thicket and cut two +large poles, one nine sections long, the other eight. With each stroke +of the knife the men give their battle cry, then when the poles are +felled, all seize hold and carry them to the house of the _datu_. Here +they are decorated, first by being cut down for short distances, thus +leaving the lower part attached so that the shavings make a sort of +fringe, and then by attaching strips of palm or bamboo leaves and cloth +or palm leaf streamers. When complete these poles are known as +_patan'nan_ and are then the property of the spirits Mandanagan and +Darago. The longer one is for the male spirit, while the one of eight +sections is for his wife. Under no circumstances may anyone not a +_magani_ touch these poles. They are carried into the house and are +fastened near to the elevated platform at the end of the room where the +_datu_ or leading _magani_ stands ready to sacrifice a chicken. He +allows some of the blood from the offering to drip onto the poles, at +the same time begging the spirits not to let the people fight or quarrel +during the _GinEm_, "for blood is now being offered." In at least two +recent offerings the _datu_ urged the spirits to be content with this +offering of a fowl, since it was impossible for them to kill a man. At +this time, it is said, the skulls of enemies should be attached to the +_patan'nan_. As the leader finishes his offering, the men and boys +gather about the poles and yell lustily, then sit quietly down and amuse +themselves by chewing betel nut until the chicken, just killed, and the +other food has been prepared for eating. Old dishes are placed in the +center of the floor and in them food is offered for all the spirits, but +in the exact center of all is a large plate of white food for the +supreme being. A second large dish of food is placed in a _tambara_ at +the corner of the room as an offering to the warrior deities "so that +they will not eat anyone during the fiesta." Again the spirits are +besought to give them a good year, with abundant crops, health, and +success in war. Going to the _patan'nan_ each _magani_, beginning with +the _datu_ or his son, takes hold of the poles, and in a loud voice, +begins to confess all his warlike deeds. He relates how and when he +killed his victims, the number of sacrifices he has participated in, the +towns he has sacked and the slaves he has captured. In short, he tells +of all the manly deeds he has performed in order to gain the right to +wear his red suit and be known as _magani_. When all have confessed, the +men and boys eat the chicken which was sacrificed before the poles, and +from then until near midnight, all the people may dance to the music of +the _agongs_ or may indulge in feasting and drinking. From the middle of +the night until daybreak they chant songs or poems, many words of which +are now obsolete so that they are not fully understood.[49] + +[49] Mr. Gohn informs me that at midnight during the last _GinEm_ made +by Datu Ali in Santa Cruz, a gun was fired, and the _datu_ said that a +sacrifice should have taken place at that time. + +The festival may last one or more days. The last held in Cibolan (1909) +extended through two days and nights. At that time no offerings were +made to the spirits on the second day, but the people feasted and drank +while the _datu_ gathered a little apart and held a council. + +In Malilla the second day of this ceremony is called _EgbikbEgaybe_ and +is given over almost entirely to the women. Two _tambara_ are erected in +the house, and young betel nut buds and women's skirts are hung on them. +The women and some men form a line and dance in a circle around the +offerings, keeping time to music furnished by beating small gongs, or by +pounding on a board resting on a rice mortar.[50] Before each dance the +_mabalian_ informs a spirit that this dance is for him and it is +customary to add a gift of some kind to those already on the _tambara_. +Sixteen spirits are thus honored. Throughout the day there is much +feasting and drinking, and at some time before sunset the women are +baptized. Having filled an old agong with water, the _mabalian_ dips +certain leaves into it and sprinkles the heads of the women present +eight times, meanwhile bidding the spirits to grant to them a good mind +and habit. + +[50] See p. 110, note. [Transcriber's note: back 3 pages, the footnote +beginning, "An instrument made by placing...."] + +Mr. Gohn, a planter of Santa Cruz who has witnessed a number of these +ceremonies, says that with the Bagobo of that place it was customary for +the _datu_ to baptize the women prior to the day of _GinEm_. On the +second day, a _mabalian_ provided a long palm leaf, and a number of +betel nut buds which, she said, represented streams, rivers, tribes, and +individuals. Taking up a bud she swung the palm leaf above it, chanting +meanwhile, and, as she finished, handed it to the _datu_ who opened it +and read the signs sent by the spirits. At the conclusion of this act, +all the women went to the river to bathe. + +In the writings of the early missionary fathers stationed among the +Bagobo are found many references to human sacrifices. Since American +occupation several articles have appeared describing this custom, and +following the sacrifice held in Talun in 1907, this practice became the +subject of official communication between the Governor of the District +and his superiors. While these descriptions agree, in the main, there +are so many minor variations that it seems best to first relate the +account given to the writer by Datu Tongkaling and ten of his _magani_, +after which we shall take up some of the earlier accounts, and the +official correspondence of 1907. + +Datu Tongkaling is a _magani_. He claims to have killed more than thirty +of his enemies in fair fight and to have assisted in, or to have +witnessed, an even greater number of sacrifices. Prior to his elevation +to the office of _datu_ he had aided in several of the yearly offerings. +At the time he became _datu_ he entertained all his people for seven +days and on the morning of the last day, in the presence of his +subjects, he alone sacrificed a decrepit Bila-an slave for whom he had +paid three _agongs_. Hence, probably, no man in the tribe is better +fitted to describe this event than he. + +According to him, a sacrifice should be held each year following the +appearance in the sky of a constellation of seven stars known as +_Balatik_ ("pig trap").[51] The stars are placed there by the spirits +for two purposes:--first, to inform the people that it is time to prepare +for the clearing of new fields; second, to remind them that they should +offer a slave to Mandarangan, Darago, and Balakat as payment for the +good year they have enjoyed, and to secure their good will for the +coming season. A great epidemic or continued calamaties[sic] might also +be signs that the spirits were in need of another offering, and this +could take place at any time. Upon the death of an adult it becomes the +duty of the family to make a sacrifice, but, unless the deceased is of +very great importance, they may wait until the yearly sacrifice[52] when +they can purchase a share in it. The one other occasion for which this +offering is obligatory is the installation of a new _datu_ in office. +For the yearly event the ruler should provide a decrepit slave, and then +invite all those who have had death or trouble in the family and who +wish a part in the sacrifice to help bear the expense of the ceremony. +Guests gather from near and far and for two or three days, feast, dance, +and make merry in the house of the _datu_. On the morning of the last +day they accompany their leader to a great tree in the forest and there +witness or take part in the sacrifice. The victim is tied with his back +to the tree, his arms stretched high above his head. Meanwhile a little +table or altar is constructed near by, and on it the principals place +their offerings of betel nut, clothes, or weapons, and on top of all is +a dish of white food for Eugpamolak Manobo. When all is ready one of the +_magani_ begins a prayer, begging the spirits to look and see that the +people are following the old custom, to give them success in battle, and +to protect their homes from sickness and enemies. The prayer being +completed, the _datu_ places his spear below and just in front of the +right armpit; then all those who have purchased a share in the victim +take hold of the weapon, and at a signal given by the _datu_, thrust it +through the body. As soon as it is withdrawn, the _magani_ who has +offered the greatest price for the privilege attempts to cut the body in +two with one blow of his fighting knife. If he fails in the attempt, +another tries, and so on until someone succeeds. The two portions are +then released from the tree and cast into a shallow grave near by. +Before the body is covered with earth any person who wishes may cut off +a portion of the flesh or hair and carry it to the grave of some +relative whom he may have reason to believe is being troubled by evil +spirits. In such a case the evil spirit will be content to eat of the +slave, and cease disturbing the other body. Returning to the house of +the _datu_, the people continue the dancing and merry-making throughout +another night. + +[51] This is the constellation Orion which appears early in December. + +[52] We have already seen that this offering sometimes occurs during the +_GinEm_ ceremony. + +The following accounts are extracts from the official correspondence +forwarded by the Governor of Davao to the Governor of the Moro Province: + +"I have the honor to submit herewith a full report of an investigation +made by myself and the Senior Inspector of Constabulary of Davao, +regarding a human sacrifice made by the Bagobos at Talun near Digos on +Dec. 9th, 1907. + +"We left Davao on the morning of the 27th of December and arrived at +Digos in the afternoon of the same day. An order was immediately sent +out to the Bagobos of Talun to come down to Digos to meet us. + +"On the morning of the 30th, the entire population of Talun--men, women +and children, to the number of almost one hundred and fifty--arrived at +Digos. They were informed that it was reported that a human sacrifice +had been made at their town and that the authorities desired to know if +this was so. + +"Datto[sic] Ansig replied that it was true that a sacrifice had been +held as stated and that both he and his people were ready to tell all +about it as to the best of their belief they had committed no crime, but +only followed out a religious custom practiced by themselves and their +ancestors from time immemorial. + +"From the statements made by Ansig and his followers, it appears as +follows: + +"That the Bagobos have several gods, 'Bacalad,' God of the spirits, +Agpanmole[sic] Monobo[sic], God of good and his wife the goddess Dewata; +Mandarangan, the God of evil (corresponding perhaps to our devil) and to +whom sacrifice is made to appease his wrath which is shown by +misfortune, years of drought, or evil befalling the tribe or its +members, also it is at times necessary to offer him human sacrifice so +that he will allow the spirits of the deceased to rest, etc. They say +that in case a Bagobo of rank or influence dies, and his widow be unable +to secure another husband, it is necessary for her to offer sacrifice to +appease the spirit of her departed husband in order that she may secure +another. In order that these sacrifices be not made too often, it is +customary for the old men of the town to gather together once each year +during a time when a collection of seven stars, three at right angle to +the other four, are seen in the heavens at seven o'clock in the evening, +which is said to occur once each year during the first part of the month +of December. + +"This collection of stars is called by the Bagobos 'Balatic,' and is the +sign of the sacrifice, that is, if a sacrifice is to occur, it must take +place during the time that the stars are in this position. + +"The old men meet and decide if enough misfortune has overtaken the +tribe or village during the period since the last sacrifice to render +necessary another tribute to the god of evil. It is not necessary to +offer a sacrifice for each evil, but when the misfortunes amount to a +considerable, a sacrifice is held to cover the entire lot. + +"In this case it appears that two widows, Addy and Obby, went to +Datto[sic] Ansig and requested that he arrange a sacrifice to appease +the spirits of their departed husbands which were bothering them. Ansig +called a meeting of the old men at which were present besides himself +Bagobos Oling, Pandaya, and Ansig, and these four decided that as they +had not had a sacrifice since the great drought (about three years ago) +and that since that time many evils had befallen them, it would be well +to offer a sacrifice. These four men sent out to find a slave for +sacrifice, the finder becoming the chief of the sacrifice. + +"Ongon, a henchman of Datto Ansig, purchased from Bagobo Ido, a Bilan +slave boy named Sacum about eight years old and who was deaf and +cross-eyed, and had other defects of vision, making him of little or no +value as a laborer. Ido originally received this slave from Duon, a +Bilan, as a wedding present when he married Duon's daughter about a year +ago. + +"Ongon agreed to pay Ido five agongs for the boy and took him to the +house of Ansig where arrangements were made for the sacrifice by calling +on all who for any reason had need to appease the evil spirits to come +and take part. Three days after the slave was brought to the house of +Ansig, the people met at Talun near the river Inolia, a short distance +from Ansig's house, this being the regular place of sacrifice. + +"Leaving the house of Ansig the boy Sacum was seated upon the ground +near the place of sacrifice. He was naked but no other preparation was +made with regard to the person. Upon a platform or bench of bamboo about +two feet high and a foot or two square was placed a small basket or +receptacle made of the bark of the bunga tree; in this each person +present and taking part in the sacrifice placed a piece of betel-nut, +over this the men placed their head handkerchiefs and the women strips +of the bark of the palma tree. Upon this the men laid their bolos, and +spears were then stuck in the ground in a circle around the platform. +Next Datto Ansig as chief of the sacrifice made an oration which was +about as follows: 'Oh, Mandarangan, chief of evil spirits and all the +other spirits, come to our feast and accept our sacrifice. Let this +sacrifice appease your wrath and take from us our misfortunes, granting +us better times.' + +"After this, the boy Sacum was brought forward by Ongon, placed against +a small tree about six feet high, his hands tied above his head, and his +body tied to the tree with bejuco strips at the waist and knees. Ansig +then placed a spear at the child's right side at a point below the right +arm and above the margin of the ribs. This lance was grasped by the +widows Addy and Obby, who at a signal from Ansig forced it through the +child's body, it coming out at the other side. It was immediately +withdrawn and the body cut in two at the waist by bolos in the hands of +Moesta Barraro and Ola, after which the body was cut down and chopped +into bits by the people present, each of whom was allowed to take a +small portion as a momento[sic] of the occasion, the remainder of the +body being buried in a hole prepared for it. + +"It is said the child was deaf and almost blind and that it did not +realize what was to happen to it until the moment it was tied up when it +began to cry; further, that death was almost instantaneous, the only cry +being one uttered when the spear first entered the child's body. + +"Datto Ansig, a man about sixty years of age, says that in his life he +has attended or officiated at fifty human sacrifices, more or less, both +among the Bagobos and the Bilanes, and that human sacrifice is also +practiced among the Tagacolos, although he has never been present at one +held by that tribe. + +"The Bagobos do not sacrifice any but old and decrepit or useless slaves +captured from other tribes, but the Bilanes sacrifice even their own +people. + +"Being asked if it was customary to eat any portion of the body +sacrificed, Ansig replied that it was not customary nor did he know of +any case where such had occurred. + +"The last sacrifice before this was held at Talun during the year of the +drought (about 1905) when a Bilan slave, an old man who was paralyzed in +one arm, was sacrificed by Datto Oling, his master. + +"Asked if the sacrifice of an animal would not do as well as that of a +human being, they said, 'No, better to have no sacrifice at all.' + +"They appeared utterly unconscious of having committed any crime, told +their story with frankness, said it was a matter not talked about among +their own people but that if we wanted to know the facts they would give +them to the authorities. They claimed the offering of human sacrifices +by their tribe to be an old custom and, as far as they knew the only way +to appease the wrath of the evil spirits, but said if they were ordered +to give the custom up they would do so even if the devil got them all." + +Then follows the statement of an eye-witness to the ceremony: + +"My name is Modesta Barrera; I live in the town of Santa Cruz, my father +being a Visayan, my mother a Bagobo. I cannot read or write, and I think +that I am about twenty-three years old, although I am not certain on +that point. + +"On the 8th instant myself, Baon, Otoy, and Oton left Santa Cruz early +in the morning to go to Talun, a day's march from Santa Cruz, for the +purpose of trading with the natives of Talun, and also to collect some +debts which they owed Baon. We remained that night at Saculampula, near +Talun, where Ungon and Ido, two Bagobos, live with their families. There +we found two children the only persons at the house who informed us that +we should go to the house of Ambing, at Talun, where we could sell our +merchandise. On the morning of the 9th we got up about 7 or 8 o'clock +and started for Ambing's house. When within about an hour's walk of the +house, we found a great many people congregated together. We were told +that a human sacrifice had just taken place and on approaching to +discover what had happened, we saw a little boy about eight or nine +years old, the upper half of whose body was suspended by the wrists to a +tree, the lower half lying on the ground. The child had been thus tied +up while alive and had been cut into two parts at the waist; this was +about the position of the body when we saw it. + +"Immediately about twenty persons began to chop the body into small +pieces; and Ansig, the datto of Talun, came over to us and gave Baon two +pieces of the victim's hair attached to the scalp, which is a sign of +the sacrifice. The victim was a slave owned and sacrificed by Datto +Ansig. The first bolo cut which severs the body at the waist and which +in this case we were told was done by Ansig is always performed by the +person making the sacrifice. The people present were guests of Ansig and +were not responsible for the killing, though it is the custom for the +more favored ones to assist in chopping the victim into small pieces +after death." + +In the letters written by Father GISBERT in 1886, are many references to +the religious practices of the Bagobo, from which the following are +extracts: + +"The feast which they hold before the sowing is a criminal and repugnant +trago-comedy. The tragical part is the first thing that is done. When +they have assembled in the middle of the woods * * * they tightly bind +the slave whom they are going to sacrifice. All armed with sharp knives, +leap and jump about their victim striking him, one after the other, or +several at one time, amid infernal cries and shouts, until the body of +the victim sacrificed has been cut to bits. From the place of the +sacrifice they then go to the house of their chief or the master of the +feast, holding branches in their hands which they place in a large +bamboo, which is not only the chief adornment but the altar of the house +in which they meet * * * The principal part is reserved for the old man +or master of the feast, he standing near the bamboo which I have +mentioned above, holding the vessel of wine in his hand, and, talking +with his comrades, addresses the great demon called _Darago_, whose +feast they are celebrating, in the following words: 'Darago, we are +making you this feast, with great good will and gladness, offering you +the blood of the sacrifice which we have made and this wine which we +drink so that you may be our friend, accompany us, and be propitious in +our wars.' * * * * * * * * * * * + +"When they marry, if the lovers think that it will be of any use they +make a human sacrifice so that they may have a good marriage, so that +the weather may be good, so that they may have no storm, sickness, etc., +all things which they attribute to the devil. In the same way also when +they learn that there is any contagious disease, or fear death, several +of them assemble and make a human sacrifice, asking the devil to let +them live, since they generously offer him that victim. They also +believe that the disease can be conjured. But the time that it is +necessary to make a sacrifice, according to the law of the Bagobos, is +at the death of anyone of the family, before they can remove the +_lalaoan_ or mourning * * * At the point and on the day assigned, all +the sacrificers assemble, or possibly one member of each of the families +who are in mourning, at times fifty or more. The value of the slave +sacrificed is paid among them all, and he who pays most has the right to +sacrifice first."[**] + +[**] In BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII. pp. 244-51, will be found a +very interesting letter from FATHER GISBERT, in which he describes the +sacrifice of a Bagabo[sic] half-blood who had fallen in debt. + +The official files in the Governor's office at Davao contain an account, +written by Gov. Bolton, of the sacrifice at Cataloonan, July 1, 1904. +This was held to secure the return to health of Chief Obo, who later +died. + +[Transcriber's note: The two paragraphs immediately above both comprise +a single footnote.] + +By the side of the trail, or in the forests, little shrines or platforms +about 3 ft. high and a foot square at the top, are frequently seen. +These are known as _buis_ and are erected for the _buso_, in order to +avert their displeasure and to keep them at a distance from the +dwellings. When the family has been subjected to petty annoyances, or +when for any other reason, the _mabalian_ thinks an offering should be +made, she orders the family to provide her with betel nut, a piece of +iron, and bits of broken dishes, or castoff clothing. These are placed +on the platform and the _buso_ are exhorted to come and accept them. +Good offerings are never made to this class of spirits, for "they do not +expect to be treated like the more powerful." A shrub known as +_dalingding_ is planted by the side of the shrine so that its location +may be known even after the platform has fallen, and all passersby will +make some small offering, hoping thus to keep these evil beings in good +humor. + +Rain can be stopped by placing an offering of a leg ring, or prepared +betel nut beside the trail and presenting them to the _Gimokod_, at the +same time asking them to stop the downpour. + +DECORATIVE ART. + +To a stranger entering a Bagobo house, in the absence of its owners, it +appears that the people have little artistic development. He sees no +paintings, no drawings, and few, if any, attempts to beautify the house +with carvings. The pots sitting by the fire, show no decoration nor do +the other household utensils exhibit embellishment of any kind. A closer +study of the field baskets, however, shows a slight attempt to produce +ornamentation by changing the weave of the central band from that at the +top and bottom, or by adding a few rude lines in pitch. The moment the +people enter, however, all is changed. The clothing they wear is covered +with intricate patterns, some realistic, others highly conventionalized +(Plate XXXI). Wonderful designs in beads or shell disks appear on coats, +jackets, and carrying bags, while at neck, waist, shoulder, and at the +bottom of sleeves and trousers are other figures in fine embroidery or +applique. Strands of beads and seeds exhibiting a great variety of +designs surround the necks of both men and women, while rings, armlets, +leglets, and anklets of beads, plaited material or metal, are common. +Combs are covered with pitch and inlaid with beads, or patterns are +incised in the wood and filled with lime. Ear plugs exhibit beautiful +delicate patterns inlaid with brass or silver. + +A glance at the weapons carried by the man shows that his knife has been +ornamented with caps of brass (Plate XXXII), the metal guard has cut or +cast patterns in its surface, while sheath and carrying belt are covered +with thin brass plates, painted lines, or a beaded cloth (Plate XXXIII) +with bells attached. Fronts and backs of shields are covered with +incised designs, while the metal ferrule next to the spear head seldom +lacks in conventionalized figures. So the list might be extended to +cover the women's knives and their pocket and carrying baskets, as well +as the betel boxes and lime holders used by both sexes. In short, there +seems to be no end to the list of personal ornaments and equipment which +may be improved by carvings, arrangements of beads or metal castings and +inlays. Even the horses are decorated with artificial forelocks of hair +and beads. Strings of bells surround their necks, while saddles and +whips display the aesthetic taste of their owners. + +A part of this decoration is apparently realistic and will readily be +identified by any member of the tribe; another part is suggestive and +with a widely known meaning, but by far the greater number of designs +have no generally accepted signification. The writer spent many hours +securing the names of the designs on textiles, ornaments, or on lime +boxes, only to receive the reply "done to make pretty," or to find that +no two of five or a dozen informants could agree on many patterns, while +frequently it was found that some obliging individual had volunteered +names at one time which he could not remember on the day following. It +is possible that a long residence with the people and diligent inquiry +along this line might yield more definite results, but for the present +the writer must content himself by showing some typical examples of the +decorative art, and adding a few notes to the same. + +The great majority of baskets lack in decoration, other than that which +can be obtained by a slight change in the weave. In these a central band +can be distinguished from those at top and bottom, although the same +material is used and there is only a minor variation in the technique. + +Small carrying receptacles, or trinket baskets, frequently have designs +produced by plaiting the rattan or bamboo of natural color with that +which has been blackened (Plate XXXIVa). No uniform meaning or pattern +name seems to be attached to the designs shown in this specimen, but an +incised design on the wooden rim was readily identified as a crocodile. + +The small baskets in the coiled weave sometimes have the fronts entirely +covered with beads which are woven into the basket in parallel lines. +The tobacco box shown in Plate XXXV has been covered with cloth and +pitch, in which an artistic design made from the yellow cuticle of an +orchid has been inlaid. Plate XXXVb shows the wooden tops of three +tobacco boxes. Nos. 1 and 2 are carved and inlaid with beads and buttons +in designs which "look pretty," but number 3 depicts a hunting scene in +which two men and a dog are hunting the alligator. Several beads are +missing so that it requires quite a stretch of the imagination to secure +the impression the native artist meant to impart. + +The prized trinket baskets of the women generally have the fronts +covered with cloth, to which hundreds of colored beads are sewed, in +elaborate designs (Plate XXXVI). + +The patterns brought out in the weaving are as beautiful and intricate +as they are confusing. Five typical specimens of cloth used in women's +skirts are shown in Plate XXXVII. In them can be found several +apparently different designs to some of which names were assigned, but +as there was no agreement among my informers I refrain from giving them +here. The pattern marked X in (c) was generally identified as +"alligator," yet the weavers were by no means agreed. + +The strip of cloth (Plate XXXVIII) was intended for the center breadth +in a woman's skirt and shows the typical designs employed in the best +garments. + +The extensive use of beads is shown in Plates XXXIX-XL. Carrying bags, +clothing, combs, necklaces, armlets, belts and sheath covers are +partially covered with or made up of colored beads, always in designs, +yet very few of these patterns have generally accepted meanings or +names. The same holds true of the designs in shell disks, which, on the +finer garments, take the place of beads. A few exceptions to this are +found in which realistic patterns appear in (Plate XXXIb and Fig. 34). + +FIG. 34. REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS AND SHELL DISKS. + +Like the bead work, the embroidery and applique found on many garments +are added "to make pretty." Some of this work is quite fine, but in +general that of recent years is either inferior to that found on old +garments or is borrowed from, or made by, the Bila-an women. Some +garments, with designs produced by oversewing before dyeing, are seen +here, but they are recent importations from the Kulaman or Tagakaolo +tribes. + +Necklaces and leglets are made of rattan and are decorated with burned +lines or by being overlaid with platted strips of orchid and fern +cuticle (Fig. 2). + +A few rare specimens, such as personal ornaments or basket rims, have +sewed in designs in which the sewing has been done with fern cuticle +(Plate XXXIVb). + +Incised patterns appear on nearly all the bamboo lime and tobacco +holders, but here individual fancy plays such an important part that a +hundred specimens might be examined without finding duplicate patterns. +Fig. 14. shows nine of these tubes covered with cut-in designs, yet only +one figure, that marked X in _b_ could be identified. This was said to +be the familiar crocodile. + +Coming to the work in brass and copper we encounter an entirely new type +of design. In some cases straight inlaid or overlaid strips and twisted +wires are used to ornament the specimen; while in the raised and cut-in +lines on the bells we find simple patterns. In the main, however, the +ornamentation on this class of material consists of complicated scrolls +(Plate XLI), designs suggesting flower or tree patterns, or +conventionalized figures. One only needs to compare these objects with +similar specimens from Borneo and the Malayan Islands of the South, to +find the source of this type of ornamentation.[53] In fact the imitation +of Moro wares is practiced today. In Plate XLIa and b are shown two +betel nut boxes--No. 1 the work of the Samal Moro, No. 2 the imitation of +the inlaid work on the top of the first specimen. This last was made in +my presence, and with the expressed intention of duplicating the Moro +box. However, in this case, as in all others, the Bagobo caster did not +attempt to exactly reproduce the work of another, but simply borrowed a +broad idea, and thus he often creates new forms. + +[53] See LING ROTH, Oriental Silver Work. + +Not once did the writer receive a name for any pattern or design shown +in metal work. A careful study of the method of work, of the articles +produced, and of the folk-lore and religious observances connected with +the work in brass and copper brings one to the conclusion that this +class of work is of comparatively recent introduction and that the +instructors in the art were the Samal Moro. + +Mention has already been made of the designs incised on combs and other +objects which are afterwards filled with lime. Just here it is +interesting to note that, so far as is known, the southern end of +Mindanao and adjacent small islands, are the only parts of the +Philippines in which this decoration, so typical of Melanesia, is to be +found. + +Realistic carvings were seen used in only two capacities. The first in +certain ceremonies, where extremely crude wooden figures were offered to +the spirits in exchange for the sick person (see p. 103), and the +second, the wooden decoys used in hunting doves (See Plate XVIII). + +Summing up our present information we can say: first, that the Bagobo +makes use of certain realistic designs which in some cases have become +conventionalized but still retain their former significance; second, +that the greater part of decoration in beads, shell disks, embroidery or +applique, as well as the incised designs in lime boxes and the like, +have no meaning to the people of the present day, and are added only to +make the objects more beautiful in the eyes of the owners. In this work +there are no set patterns and each artist gives full reign to the fancy +in producing these figures. Third, that the ideas for the patterns +inlaid, incised, and cast in brass or copper, are furnished by the +examples of this work coming from the Malays to the south, but that even +in these the artist has taken great liberties in the execution of the +design. Fourth, that one type of decoration, i. e., the incised figures +filled with lime, suggests the possible influence of Melanesia on the +artistic ideas of this people. + +MYTHOLOGY. + +During my stay with this tribe I heard parts of many folk-tales, some +chanted, others told with gravity, and still others which caused the +greatest levity. My limited knowledge of the dialect and pressure of +other work caused me to delay the recording of these tales until I +should begin a systematic study of the language. Owing to unforeseen +circumstances, that time never came, and it is now possible to give only +the slightest idea of a very rich body of tales.[54] + +[54] Since this was written MISS BENEDICT has published an excellent +collection of Bagobo Myths (_Journal of American Folklore_, 1913, XXVI. +pp. 13-63.) + +In the main these stories are an attempt to account for the present +order of things. In the tale which we quoted in part, at the beginning +of the paper, we are told of an all-powerful being who created the earth +and all that is. Other spirits and many animals inhabited the sky and +earth which the creator had made. Of the latter only one, the monkey, is +named. He and his kind, we are told, once inhabited and owned all the +world, but were dispossessed by two human beings, Toglai and Toglibon, +from whom all the people of the world are descended. After their death a +great drought caused the people to disperse and seek out new homes in +other parts. They journeyed in pairs and because of the objects which +they carried with them, they are now known by certain names. One couple, +for instance, carried with them a small basket called _bira-an_, and for +this reason their children are known as Bira-an (Bila-an). From the time +of the dispersion until the arrival of the Spaniards we learn that +certain mythical heroes performed wonderful feats, in some cases being +closely identified with the spirits themselves, in others making use of +magic, the knowledge of which seems to have been common in those times. + +The two following tales are typical of those commonly heard in a Bagobo +gathering. The first was told by Urbano Eli, a Bagobo of Malilla. + +"After the people were created a man named LumabEt was born. He could +talk when he was one day old and the people said he was sent by Manama. +He lived ninety seasons and when still a young man he had a hunting dog +which he took to hunt on the mountain. The dog started up a white deer +and LumabEt and his companions followed until they had gone about the +world nine times when they finally caught it. At the time they caught +the deer LumabEt's hair was grey and he was an old man. All the time he +was gone he had only one banana and one camote with him for food. When +night came he planted the skin of the banana and in the morning he had +ripe bananas to eat, and the camotes came the same way. When he had +caught the deer LumabEt called the people to see him and he told them to +kill his father. They obeyed him and then LumabEt took off his headband +and waved it in the air over the dead man, and he at once was alive +again. He did this eight times and at the eighth time his father was +small like a little boy, for every time the people cut him in two the +knife took off a little flesh. So all the people thought LumabEt was +like a god. + +"One year after he killed the deer he told all the people to come into +his house, but they said they could not, for the house was small and the +people many. But LumabEt said there was plenty of room, so all entered +his house and were not crowded. The next morning the _diwata_, +_tigyama_, and other spirits came and talked with him. After that he +told the people that all who believed that he was powerful could go with +him, but all who did not go would be turned into animals and _buso_. +Then LumabEt started away and those who stayed back became animals and +_buso_. + +"He went to the place Binaton, across the ocean, the place where the +earth and sky meet. When he got there he saw that the sky kept going up +and down the same as a man opening and closing his jaws. LumabEt said to +the sky 'You must go up,' but the sky replied 'No.' At last LumabEt +promised the sky that if he let the others go he might catch the last +one who tried to pass; so the sky opened and the people went through; +but when near to the last the sky shut down and caught the bolo of next +to the last man. The last one he caught and ate. + +"That day LumabEt's son Tagalion was hunting and caught many animals +which he hung up. Then he said he must go to his father's place; so he +leaned an arrow against a _baliti_ tree and sat on it. It began to grow +down and carried him down to his father's place, but when he arrived +there were no people there. He saw a gun, made out of gold, and some +white bees in the house. The bees said 'You must not cry; we can take +you to the sky,' So he rode on the gun, and the bees took him to the sky +and he arrived there in three days. + +"One of the men was looking down on the land below, and all of the +spirits made fun of him and said they would take out his intestines so +that he would be like one of them and never die. The man refused to let +them, and he wanted to go back home because he was afraid; so Manama +said to let him go. + +"The spirits took leaves of the _karan_ grass and tied to his legs, and +made a chain of the grass and let him down to the earth. When he reached +the earth he was no longer a man but was an owl." + +(2) The second tale, which was recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J., is as +follows: + +"In one of the torrents which has its origin at the foot of Apo, there +were two eels which, having acquired extraordinary magnitude, had no +room in so little water, on account of which they determined to +separate, each one taking a different direction in search of the sea or +the great lakes. One arrived, happily, at the sea by the Padada river, +and from it came eels in the sea. The other descending a torrent, +swimming and confining himself as well as he might, enclosed in these +narrow places, said to himself 'I haven't the slightest idea of what the +sea is, but it appears to me that when I see before me an extraordinary +clearness on a limpid surface, that must be the sea, and with one spring +I will jump into it.' So saying, he arrived at a point where the torrent +formed a cascade. He noticed that it cut off the horizon and to his view +it appeared of an extraordinary clearness; he thought he could swim +there without limit, and at his pleasure, and that this, in fine, must +be the sea. He darted into it, but the unhappy one was dashed against +the rocks, and too fatigued to swim through the rough waters, he lost +his life. His body lay there inert and formed undulations which are now +the folds which the earth forms to the left of Mt. Apo." + +OTHER BRANCHES OF THE TRIBE. + +To the south and southwest of Mt. Apo, and west of Digos, are seven +settlements, the inhabitants of which are known as Obo or Tigdapaya. On +the south they meet the Bila-an, and, like this latter people, extend +over the watershed into the valley of the Cotabato river. On the +northwest they come in contact with the Ata. They have intermarried with +both of these tribes, have adopted many of their customs, and in some +cases their manner of dress. However, they consider themselves, and are +considered by the Bagobo, as a part of that tribe, and recognize +Tongkaling as their chief. Bagobo customs and blood predominate, +although intermarriage with the Negrito was evident in nearly every +individual of this division seen by the writer. + +Immediately wrest of Daliao are three villages whose people are known as +Eto or Ata. Aside from a slightly greater percentage of individuals +showing negroid features, these people do not differ in any respect from +the Bagobo. It does not seem that they should be classed with the people +later referred to as Ata. To the north, their lands join the territory +held by the Guianga. + +The habitat of the division called Guianga begins a few miles back of +the Gulf and extends west to the watershed. An east and west line drawn +through the village of Taloma marks their southern boundary, while to +the north they approach the Lasan river. They are found in a number of +scattered settlements which owe allegiance and are subject to five petty +_datu_. Tongkaling is not recognized as having any authority in the +district, and there seems to be no remembrance of a time when any of the +Bagobo rulers held authority over the Guianga. Physically and culturally +they do not seem to be far removed from the Bagobo, while their language +is so closely related that individuals of the two divisions, meeting for +the first time can carry on a conversation. There is, however, +considerable variation between the dialects, both in intonation and +vocabulary. + +Further study may result in raising this branch to the dignity of a +tribe, but the information at hand does not justify us in considering +them other than a dialect group of the Bagobo. + + + +II. BILA-AN. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) TAGALAGAD--"dwellers in the back country" is the name generally +applied to this tribe by the coast natives. + +(b) TAGKOGON--"dwellers in the cogon"--The group living on the grass +plains west of Malalag. + +(c) BULUAN, BULUANES--The members of this tribe dwelling near to Lake +Buluan. This group is sometimes identified with the Tagabili or Tagabulu +who also reside in that region. + +(d) BIRA-AN, BARA-AN--Synonym for BILA-AN, often used by the neighboring +Bagobo. + +(e) VILANES, BILANES. + +(f) BALUD or TUMANAO--name sometimes applied by early writers to the +Bila-an who live on the Sarangani Islands. + +This tribe is found in the mountains on the west side of Davao Gulf +beginning at an east and west line drawn through Bulatakay and extending +south to Sarangani Point, and they also appear in small numbers in the +Sarangani Islands which lie just south of the mainland. At Bulatakay +they are a day's march back from the coast and to reach them it is +necessary to pass for several hours through a rolling belt of forest +land, then as the mountains are approached, gently sloping cogon plains +about ten miles in width are crossed. West of Malalag they are still far +from the sea with a belt of hill Tagakaolo between them and the coast +people. In this region they have spread out in considerable numbers on +to the grass plains, and for this reason are locally known as Tagkogon +"dwellers in the cogon." On the gulf side of the divide, south of +Malalag, they are found in small groups far back in the mountains, while +between them and the sea are Tagakaolo, Kulaman and Moro. Along the +watershed between the districts of Davao and Cotabato they possess all +the territory and even extend in some numbers into the lowlands toward +Lake Buluan. They are distinctly a mountain people, having never reached +the sea, except near Sarangani Point, until after the advent of the +American. Since then a few hundred have been induced to move to the +coast plantations, and the town of Labau has been established on the +Padada river about six miles back of the coast. According to Mr. H. S. +Wilson, tribal ward headman for the Bila-an, this tribe numbers about +ten thousand persons, of which number fifteen hundred reside on the +Sarangani Islands. + +The material here presented was gathered from the people of Labau, the +Malalag cogon, and those living near the headwaters of the Ma-al and +Padada rivers. + +Formerly a neutral, uninhabited belt extended between them and the coast +people, and at stated intervals they went to recognized trading points +in this territory to exchange their agricultural and forest products for +salt, fish, and other articles of barter. Beyond this trading and an +occasional fight, they had few dealings with the coast people and seem +never to have encountered the Spaniard. + +They are almost unknown to history, for aside from two or three short +accounts,[55] based mostly on hearsay, we find no mention of them. The +coast natives who knew them by name only had many stories concerning +their life and prowess, and one still hears that "the Bila-an are of +small stature but agile like monkeys. One may wander for days through +their territory without encountering a person and then when in a bad +place suddenly see the little people in hundreds swarming down the sides +of impassable cliffs. They are always in such numbers that, while they +use only the bow and arrow, they are almost sure to exterminate the +intruders." As a matter of fact, the Bila-an compare in stature with the +coast natives and differ little from them in color, although a few +individuals of decidedly lighter cast are met with. + +[55] BLAIR and ROBERTSON The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, pp. 239, +282-283. Census of the Philippine Islands, 1905. + +Observations were made on thirty-eight men, but no women could be +induced to submit to being measured. The maximum height of the men was +found to be 163.6 cm.; minimum 142.3 cm.; with an average of 154.7 cm. +The cephalic indices showed 87.8 cm. as the maximum; 74 cm. the minimum; +and 80.4 cm. the average. The greatest length-height index was 78.6 cm.; +the minimum 62.4 cm. and the average 69.7 cm. From these measurements it +appears that the Bila-an are somewhat shorter than the Bagobo; are more +short headed, the majority being brachycephalic; while the height from +tragus to vertex is about the same in both groups, and both have the +crown and back of the head strongly arched. The face[56] is absolutely +shorter and relatively broader than in the Bagobo. The forehead is +usually high and full, but in about one-third of the individuals +measured it was moderately retreating, while in the same proportion the +supra-orbital ridges were quite strongly marked. In other features, as +well as in hair form, eyes, body form and color, this people conform to +the description given of the Bagobo (Plates XLII-XLVIII). + +[56] Measured from the chin to the hair of the forehead. The greater +part of this tribe live far back in the rugged mountains which form the +watershed between the Cotabato valley and the Gulf of Davao. Travel +through that district is entirely on foot, and is principally along the +water courses, so that in going from place to place a person is +continually crossing the stream. From time to time dim trails, scarcely +worthy of that name, lead from the river's bank almost perpendicularly +up the mountain-side or to the summits of high hills, where will be +found one or two frail houses (Plate XLIX). The dwellings are never in +large groups, and more frequently each house is by itself. From one +habitation it is possible to look across the hills and see many others +at no great distance, to reach which would necessitate a descent of +several hundred feet and an equal climb up to each. + +There is considerable variation in the architecture of the dwellings but +the following description of the home of Datu Dialum, on the headwaters +of the Ma-al river, will give the general plan of all. + +Small hardwood poles about twenty feet in length formed the uprights to +which the side and crossbeams were lashed, while in the center of each +end beam smaller sticks were tied to form the king posts. From the ridge +pole small timbers extended to the side beams, thus forming the +framework on which the final topping of flattened bamboo was laid. This +roof was of one pitch and at the sides overhung the walls by about a +foot. Twelve feet above the ground other poles were lashed to the +uprights and on these rested the cross timbers of the floor, which in +turn were covered with broad strips of bark. The side walls extended +between the floor and the beams, but in no place did they extend up to +the roof. Entrance to the dwelling was gained by a notched log. + +Once inside the house the arrangement impressed one as being similar to +those of the Bagobo. Just above the door, and again in the far end of +the room, poles were laid across the beams to form the floors of lofts +which, in this case, were used as sleeping rooms. + +In front of the door, at the opposite side of the room, was a bed of +ashes in which three stones were sunk to form the stove, and above this +was suspended a rack which contained cooking pots, drying wood, ears of +corn, and the like. Close to the stove were a few earthen pots (Fig. 35) +and many short bamboo tubes filled with water, while against the wall +hung rattan frames filled with half cocoanut-shell dishes, spoons, and +two or three old Chinese plates. Near the center of the room stood a +rice mortar made by hollowing out a section of log. At the far end of +the room was a raised sleeping platform, such as is found in all Bagobo +houses, and extending from this to the center and on each side of the +room were narrow stalls where the women were engaged in weaving, and in +which they slept and kept their most valued possessions. + +FIG. 35. COOKING POT AND COVER. + +In the description of the house we have mentioned most of the +furnishings. In addition it is customary to find a few well made mats of +_pandanus_ or _buri_ palm leaf. These are spread on the floor when the +owners wish to retire and for the rest of the time are rolled up and +laid along the walls. Carved forked sticks which serve as torch-holders +stand in various parts of the room, while somewhere near the stove is a +miscellany of wooden meat blocks, bamboo fans and fly swatters, gourds +filled with millet, salt, or mashed peppers, and shovel-shaped or round +rice winnowers, which also serve as common eating dishes for the family +and guests. Well made baskets stand by the walls or hang from pegs along +with articles of clothing, while spears, shields, and other weapons are +fastened to side walls or roof. + +Small clearings are found at no great distance from these dwellings and +in them the people raise rice, corn, millet, camotes, sugar-cane, and a +few banana and hemp plants (Plate L). As is the case with all the wild +tribes in this district, the Bila-an make new clearings as soon as the +cogon grass begins to invade their fields, and this in time causes them +to move their homes from one locality to another. + +The domestic animals consist of a few chickens, dogs, an occasional cat +and pig, and in the lower cogon lands, a few families possess horses. +Some fish are secured from the river, while deer, wild pig, jungle fowl, +and other game are taken with traps or secured by hunting. + +There seems never to have been a time when this tribe was organized +under a single leader as was the case with the Bagobo. Each district is +so isolated from the others and the population so scattering that any +such development has been barred, and hence the people of each river +valley or highland plain have their local ruler. The power of this ruler +is real only so far as his personal influence can make it so. He +receives no pay for his services, but his position makes it possible for +him to secure the help of his fellows when he is in need of workers or +warriors. In return he conducts negotiations with other groups and +administers justice in accordance with the customs handed down from +bygone ages. Upon his death he is succeeded by his eldest son, unless +the old men of the group should consider him incompetent, in which case +they will determine upon the successor. + +Warriors who have killed one or more persons[57] are known as _lEbE_ +(Plate XLII), and are permitted to wear plain red suits decorated with +embroidery. Their duties and privileges are much the same as those of +the Bagobo _magani_. + +[57] Said to be four among the Tagkogon. + +A class known as _almo-os_ is composed mostly of middle-aged women who +are in close communication with the spirits and who, like the _mabalian_ +of the Bagobo, conduct ceremonies to aid in the cure of the sick, to +secure good crops, or to thank the higher beings for their help and +watchfulness. Unlike the _mabalian_, these women are seldom midwives, +such duties being performed by a group called _fandita_.[58] Finally, we +learn that slaves are sometimes taken from neighboring tribes or even +from unfriendly settlements of their own people, to which class may be +added offenders against the laws of the group. Slavery, however, is not +very prevalent, for men are not greatly desired unless needed for a +sacrifice, while young girls and women soon become regular members of +their master's family. + +[58] Probably a corruption of the Moro term _pandi'a_. + +As has just been indicated a man may have as many wives as he can secure +by purchase or capture, provided they are not blood relations, but a new +wife cannot be added to the family until the one preceding has borne a +child. + +Difficulties are generally settled between the parties concerned, but if +they carry their case to the ruler they must abide by his decision. A +thief is usually compelled to return the stolen property, but in at +least one case the culprit was sacrificed.[59] + +[59] See p. 145. + +Murder can be avenged by a murder so long as the trouble remains a +family affair, but if the case goes to the ruler it is probable that he +will levy a fine on the culprit. Unfaithfulness in a wife can be +punished by the death of one or both offenders if the husband exacts the +punishment, otherwise a fine is imposed. + +The type of clothing worn by this tribe is practically identical with +that of the Bagobo, while the cloth from which it is made is procured by +a like process. However, in the ornamentation of these garments there is +wide variation. Beads are not used to any great extent, but in their +place are intricate embroidered designs which excel, both in beauty and +technique the work of any other wild tribe in the Islands, while on the +more elaborate costumes hundreds of shell disks are used in artistic +designs. The woman's skirt is of hemp and is made in exactly the same +manner as those of the Bagobo, but the general pattern is different, and +it seldom contains the broad decorative center panel (Plate LX). + +Some of the men cut their hair so that it falls in bangs along the +center line of the forehead and behind reaches to the nape of the neck, +but the majority of them, and all the women, allow the back hair to grow +long and tie it in a knot at the back of the head. Ordinarily the men +dispense with head covering, or at most twist a bit of cloth into a +turban, but for special occasions they wear palm leaf hats covered with +many parallel bands of rattan and crowned with notched chicken feathers +(Plate LI). Rarely is a women seen with any kind of head protection or +hair ornament other than a small comb which is peculiar to this tribe +(Fig. 36). This comb is made of bamboo or rattan splints drawn together +at the center but flaring at top and bottom until it forms an ornament +in the shape of an hour glass. The ear plugs worn by the men are of wood +and are undecorated, but those of the women have the fronts overlaid +with incised brass plates (Fig. 37). In other respects the dress of the +women differs little from that of the Bagobo. They have the same +necklaces, arm and finger rings, leglets, and anklets, although in less +quantity. They also carry trinket baskets, but these are larger than +those used by the women of the other tribe and are lacking in bead and +bell pendants. However, they are tastily decorated with designs in +colored bamboo or fern cuticle. We have already noted that the use of +plain red garments is limited to warriors, but cloth of that hue which +contains narrow black stripes may be used by all. Quite a number of +garments are seen in which white pattens appear in a red background +(Plate LVIIIc). In this tribe the use of such suits is not restricted, +but with the neighboring Kulaman they can be worn by warriors[60] only. + +FIG. 36. WOMEN'S COMBS. + +FIG. 37. A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS. B. MEN'S EAR PLUGS. + +[60] See p. 155 for a description of this process. [Transcriber's note: +20 pages further from this one.] + +Before we proceed further with the description of the life of the +people, it will be well for us to inquire into their religious beliefs, +for, as is the case with all their neighbors, their faith in unseen +beings influences their daily life to a very great extent. The two +following tales deal with the Bila-an genesis. + +"In the beginning was _MElu_--a being of such great size as to be beyond +comparison with any known thing; who was white, having gold teeth, and +who sat upon the clouds, and occupied all space above. + +"He was very cleanly and was constantly rubbing himself with his hands +in order that he might keep his skin quite white. The scurf or dead skin +which he thus removed, he placed to one side where it accumulated at +last to such a heap that it annoyed him. To be rid of this annoyance he +made the earth, and being pleased with his work, he decided to make two +beings like himself only much smaller in size. This he did from remnants +of the material from which he made the earth. + +"Now, while MElu was making the first two men, and when he had the first +one finished, all excepting the nose; and the second one finished all +excepting the nose and one other part, Tau Tana (Funtana) or Tau Dalom +Tana appeared and demanded of MElu that he be allowed to make the nose. +Then began a great argument in which Tau Dalom Tana gained his point and +did make the noses and placed them on the faces of the first two people +upside down. So great had been the argument over this making and placing +of noses that MElu forgot to finish that part of the second person and +went away to his place above the clouds, and Tau Dalom Tana went away to +his place below the earth. Then came a great rain and the two people on +the earth were about to perish on account of the water which ran off +their heads into their noses. MElu seeing what was happening came to +them and changed their noses, and then told them that they should save +all the hair which came from their heads, and all the scurf which came +from their bodies to the end that when he came again he might make more +people. As time passed there came to be a great many people, and they +lived in a village having plenty to eat and no labor but the gathering +of such fruits as they desired. + +"One day when the rest of the people were about the village and the near +country, a man and woman who had been left behind fell to gazing, one +upon the person of the other, and after a little while they went away +apart from the rest and were gone many days, and when they returned the +woman carried a child in her arms, and the people wondered and were +afraid. When MElu came again soon, knowing what had taken place, he was +very angry and he went away abandoning them, and a great drought came, +when for two seasons no rain fell and everything withered up and died. +At last the people went away, two by two, one man and one woman +together, and MElu never again came to visit his people on earth."[61] + +[61] Recorded by Mr. H. S. Wilson. + +The writer did not hear the foregoing tale, but the following, with more +or less variation, was told to him by several Bila-an: + +"In the beginning four beings, MElu and Fiuweigh-males, and Dwata and +Saweigh (or sEwE or sEweigh)-females, lived on a small earth or island +as large as a hat and called _salnaon_. There were no trees or grass on +this island, but they had one bird called Baswit. They sent this bird +across the waters to secure some earth, the fruit of the rattan and of +trees. When it returned MElu took the earth and beat it the same as a +woman beats pots until he had made the land, then he planted the seeds +in it and they grew. When he had watched it for a time he said: 'Of what +use is land without people'; so the others said, 'Let us make wax into +people.' They did so, but when they put the wax near to the fire it +melted, so they saw they could not make man that way. Next it was +decided that they should use dirt, and MElu and Fiuweigh began to make +man. All. went well until they were ready to make the nose. Fiuweigh who +was making this part put the nose on upside down and when MElu told him +that the people would drown if he left it that way he became very angry +and refused to change it. When he turned his back, MElu seized the nose +quickly and turned it as it now is, and you can see where, in his haste, +he pressed his fingers (at the root). + +"The people they made were Adnato and Andawi, male and female. These two +had children, Tapi (or Mastafi) and Lakarol. (Informants disagreed here, +part insisting that MEsa, Lakbang, and Mangarang were part of the first +people made.) Their descendants were Sinudal (female), Moay (male), +Limbay (female), Madinda (female), Sinnamoway (male), Kamansa (male), +Gilay (female), Gomayau (male), Salau (male), Slayen (female), BaEn +(female), Kanfal (female), Latara (male)." + +[Transcriber's note: These identifications of male and female (in +parentheses above and below) are all signaled in the text using +non-ASCII symbols; the symbols for male or female were footnoted.] + +The last was the father of Alimama, the chief informant of this tale. +Inok, dato of Labau, is also of this line, tracing his descent from +Lakbang. + +It is said that MElu and Saweigh now live below, Dwata and Fiuweigh in +the sky. + +A variation of this story credits MElu and Dwata with being the creators +of Fiuweigh and SEweigh. They were the ancestors of men, for they took +earth and made it into the form of people and then whipped it until it +moved. The first people they made were Otis (male) and Lakbang (female). +Two of their children were Mastafi (male) and Lakarol (or Landol) +(female). From these two came all the Bila-an. "These two lived in a +small distant place and their one animal was Baswit--a bird. They sent +him on a long journey and when he returned he brought a piece of earth +and the fruit of a _pandag_ tree. Lakarol planted the fruit in the piece +of earth and when it grew the leaves fell down and finally made the +earth." + +From these tales and later questioning we learn the MElu, or MElE, is +the most powerful of all the natural spirits and that his help is sought +in times of calamity and at very important occasions. + +Duwata (Duata, Dwata, Adwata, Diwata) is generally considered to be the +wife of MElu and of equal strength with him. She is sometimes identified +with a female spirit called Kalalokan. + +Fiuweigh and SEweigh are now powerful spirits; but there is some dispute +as to whether they have always been so, or once were human. + +Lamot ta Mangayo, also called Mandalangan, is the patron spirit of the +warriors and is in all respects almost identical with Mandarangan of the +Bagobo. + +The _busau_ are a class of spirits, often ill-disposed toward men, who +live in various parts of the mountains. Bakay, one of the _busau_, is +said to be the owner of the deer and pig and is held in considerable +esteem by the people of the Padada region, but he is not recognized by +the Tagkogon branch of the tribe. Another spirit, Bawi, who owns the +rice, is in great favor with the Padada people, but is unknown to the +latter group. Flau is the spirit of an unborn child whose mother died in +pregnancy. Its cry is often heard at night, and at times it attacks and +injures people. + +These natural spirits are very powerful, and since they sometimes +interest themselves in the doings of mortals it behooves all to keep +their good will. Below them is another class of spirits, less powerful, +but far more concerned in the affairs of men, and for this reason more +to be feared should they become displeased. This class is made up of the +spirits of the dead. A man's spirit, _almogol_, does not live in his +body, but always accompanies him during life. If at any time it wanders +the man becomes ill, and if it fails to return its owner dies. After +separating from the body the _almogol_ goes to Kilot, a good place below +the earth where there is no work or punishment. There it spends most of +its time, but upon occasion returns to its former haunts where it aids +or injures the living. + +The _almo-os_, already mentioned,[62] have considerable influence with +all the spirits, but they are particularly close to the _almogol_. When +a person is ill he is placed in a little house known as _lawig_ (Plate +LII), beside which a fire is kindled. Nearby are two decorated bamboo +sticks, behind which the spirit of the sick man stands while he watches +the proceeding. The _almo-os_ takes a chicken in his hands and, while +five or six assistants dance, he chants, appealing to the spirit to see +the good things that are being prepared, and to be pleased to return to +the sick man. Occasionally, the music stops and one of the dancers cries +"_almogol_, here is food for you; you must not go away." After a time +the fowl is killed, is cooked over the fire, and is fed to the invalid, +while the "doctor" continues his song of entreaty. If the call pleases +the spirit it will pass between the bamboo sticks and go to the sick +person in the _lawig_, but if it is not convinced that it should remain +it departs, and the patient dies. The sick person is kept in the spirit +house for a day and is then returned to his home. + +[62] See page 133. + +Little structures known as _bolon_ are erected for other spirits who may +be trying to injure the _almogol_ or attempting to persuade it to leave +its owner. + +Certain ceremonies and offerings occur after a death, at the birth of a +child, at planting and harvest times, and when the warriors are about to +start on a raid; all of which will be spoken of in a later paragraph. +When approaching a place known to be owned by certain spirits, it is +thought wise to make a small offering. On the trail to Ma-al is a large +rock which marks the divide between the mountains and the open cogon +lands. As the writer's party approached this stone one of the men +removed some of his leg bands and placed them beside the rock, at the +same time praying the _busau_ to "take the present and do not let any of +our party fall sick or be injured on the journey." It is also customary +for a man who wishes to buy anything or to make a trade, first to make +an offering of betel-nut to the spirit of some rich man, and to ask his +help in the venture. + +Some new clearings are cut in the jungle each year, after the +constellation _Balatik_ has risen out of the sea. The spirits place this +sign in the heavens to notify all that the land should be cleared, but +it does not call for a sacrifice as in the case of the people we have +previously described. At that time the men cut the trees and underbrush, +and after allowing them to dry, fire them. They also make the holes into +which the women drop seed rice. + +When the land is ready for planting, a little house called _botabwE_ is +built in the center of the field, and beside it is placed a platform or +table, _sina-al_, on which is an offering of food. Early in the morning, +while the others sleep, the owner and his wife carry the seed rice to +the field and place it on the _botabwE_. After a time they eat some of +the food which has previously been offered and then begin to plant, +beginning close to the spirit house. Soon they are joined by other +workers who aid them in the planting. These assistants do not receive +payment for their services other than food while working and like help +when in need. At this time a bamboo pole, with one end split and spread +open like a cup,[63] is placed in front of the elevated platform of the +family dwelling and the guardian spirit of the fields is promised that +after the harvest he will receive the new seed rice. While the rice is +growing the men attend to the fences and the women keep down weeds or +frighten birds and other intruders away. When the crops have matured all +the people of a neighborhood will meet at the home of the chief, and +there celebrate a ceremony known as _Pandoman_. Two bundles of rice are +laid on a mat in the center of the room, and beside them a spear is +thrust into the floor. These are offerings to the great spirits MElu and +Dwata who are besought to give health to the workers while they are +gathering crops. As soon as this offering is made, the men begin to +build the rice granaries; meanwhile the women silently guard the mat and +gifts, for until the new storehouses are completed there must be no +dancing or merry-making. When all is ready for the harvest, the wife of +the owner goes alone to the field, and having cut a few heads of grain, +she carries them back to the house. One portion is placed in the _sabak_ +another on a little platform, _gramso_, near to the house, as an +offering to MElu and Dwata; and the balance is cooked and eaten by the +family. The following morning all the women go to the fields to gather +the harvest. When the last bundle has been carried to the house a +celebration begins, agongs and _EdEl_[64] furnish the music for the +dancers, and for a day and a night all feast and make merry; then the +workers return to their homes carrying small gifts of cooked food or new +rice. + +[63] This pole which is here known as _sabak_ is the same as the +_tambara_ of the Bagobo. See p. 66 and Fig. 12. + +[64] See p. 110 note. [Transcriber's note: 30 pages earlier.] + +Aside from clearing the land and helping somewhat with the rice crops, +the men seldom concern themselves with work in the fields but leave the +cultivation of corn, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and the like to the women. + +A large part of the food of the tribe is furnished by the fruits and +herbs of the jungle and here again the women are the chief providers. +Although in the sago industry both sexes have well defined duties. + +Along the edge of the cogon lands are many large _buri_ palms,[65] from +which a starch commercially known as sago is secured. The men cut down a +tree close to its roots and remove the hard outer bark, thus exposing +the soft fibrous interior (Plate LIII); then a section of bamboo is bent +so as to resemble an adze[sic], and with this the men loosen or break up +the soft interior portion of the trunk. This is removed to a near-by +stream, and is placed in a bark vat into which water is led by means of +bamboo tubes. Here a woman works it with her hands until the starch +grains are separated from the fibrous matter. As the water drains slowly +out the fine starch is carried with it into a coarse cloth sieve, which +retains all the larger matter but allows the starch to be carried into +another bark vat below. Fresh water passes slowly through this lower +vat, removing the bitter sap from the flour, which is deposited on the +bottom of the vat. From time to time this is scraped up and placed in +baskets where it is kept until needed. The flour, while rather +tasteless, is nutritious and in years of drought is the chief source of +food supply. + +[65] _Corypha umbraculifera_. + +Preparation of the meals, care of the children, basket and mat making, +weaving and decoration of clothing, take up most of the time of the +women when they are not engaged in the cultivation of the fields or in +search of forest products. + +The hardest work in the fields falls to the men; they also strip the +hemp needed in weaving, while a few of them are skilled workers in brass +and copper and turn out bells and other ornaments not at all inferior to +those of the coast natives. Their methods of casting as well as their +manufactures are identical with those of the Bagobo from whom they +probably learned the art. So far as could be learned no iron work is +done by members of this tribe, and the few spears and knives possessed +by the warriors seem to be trade articles. + +The old men claim that until recent years the bow and arrow was their +sole offensive weapon. It is certain that today they have a greater +variety of arrows and are more skillful in the use of this type of +weapon than are any of their neighbors. None of the weapons found on the +gulf side of the divide appeared to be poisoned, but a number secured by +Major Porter from the Lake Buluan region seem to have been so treated +(Fig. 38). Different types of arrows have been developed for different +purposes; one for fighting, another for deer and pig, another for +monkeys, and still others for fish and birds (Fig. 39). Birds are killed +also by means of reed blow guns, identical in type with those shown on +page 73, Fig. 18. As a rule such weapons are used by boys. Pitch sticks +(Fig. 40), chicken snares, and fish traps are in common use, but bird +nets and wooden decoys seem to be unknown. + +FIG. 38. BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM LAKE BULUAN REGION. + +FIG. 39. BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON USE. + +FIG. 40. PITCH STICK USED IN THE CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS. + +When on a raid warriors carry beautifully carved shields, bows and +arrows, spears, and fighting knives (Plates LIV-LV). They are in bad +repute with the coast natives, but are really far less warlike and +troublesome than any of their neighbors. Their isolated dwellings serve +as protection against invaders, but at the same time make it difficult +to gather large bodies of men for raiding purposes. It is only when +urged on by an invasion of their country, by a desire for revenge for +real or fancied wrongs, or when a victim is needed for a sacrifice that +great raids are planned. Before a war party is to start against an enemy +the leader takes eight pieces of betel nut and some leg bands and +placing them on his shield, bids his followers lay their weapons upon +them. Addressing the guardian spirit of the warriors, he speaks as +follows: "Now listen Lamot ta Mangayo, let the person who killed my +brother come to meet us even though his head does ache, for now we offer +to you. Give us good fortune in the fight." Upon returning from the fray +they place eight whole betel nuts, together with leaves, on a plate, and +having set it outside the house, one of the warriors calls to MElu +saying: "If the brother of the man we have killed in payment for my +brother calls on you for aid, you must not give heed, for here we make a +present to you." + +There are no restrictions placed upon a pregnant woman, who, as a rule, +continues her regular duties until near the time of delivery.[66] When +the first pains begin an old man or woman offers four pieces of betel +nut to MElu, and to the spirit of the child's grandfather, if deceased. +The midwife prepares a drink which is supposed to aid in the delivery, +and after the birth she cuts the umbilical cord with a bamboo knife. She +also assists about the house for a time, and for these services receives +two or three Chinese plates, some small knives, rings for the right arm, +and some needles. The father is not under any restrictions at this time, +but for a day of two he will gather young _patina_ palms and from them +prepare food for his wife. + +[66] A woman does not work during her periods, and any food prepared by +her at that time would be refused by all who knew her condition. + +From birth until marriage the career of the child is without special +event. He is a welcome addition to the family, but no ceremonies attend +either his naming, or his arrival at the age of puberty. + +As a rule, a youth does not take a wife until he is near twenty years of +age, and then his mate is generally of his own choosing. Having decided +upon a suitable girl he informs his parents and the friends he may wish +to accompany him when he goes to her home to press his suit. Arrived at +the house, the father of the suitor expresses his belief that his son +wishes to reside there since he now asks the daughter for his wife. In +reply he is told that the family is poor, having neither agongs, +animals, or other things of value. The suitor at once makes an offering +of some of these desired articles, but whatever the gift may be, a +return present equal to half its value must be made.[67] Should the +girl's parents reject the gift all negotiations would be called off and +the guests return home, but as a rule, both families are well aware of +and favorable to the expected wedding sometime before the visit of the +groom's parents. After the exchange of gifts, food is furnished first to +the guests and later to the couple, who in the presence of all the +friends, feed each other with rice and are henceforth considered as +husband and wife. Until after the birth of a child the couple live with +the girl's family and the groom serves his father-in-law. After the +birth of an heir the couple establish a home of their own and to it the +husband may bring other wives if he desires. He pays a price for these +new wives, but does not give any services to their families. The first +mate is considered superior to the others, and in case her husband dies, +she acts as administrator of his property; however, the children of a +second wife share equally with those by the first marriage. + +[67] Note the similarity to the Bagobo custom. Page 101. + +The evening following a death, the friends gather and throughout the +night sing of the virtues of the deceased and of their own sorrow. The +body is placed on a mat in the center of the house and for three days is +watched over by the relatives, who, during this time, abstain from +music, dancing, shouting, or loud talking. The women cease from weaving +and the men refrain from all labor. A breaking of this taboo would +result in the certain death of the offender, for the spirit of the dead +man is still near at hand and is sure to wreak his vengeance on those +who show him disrespect. Finally, the body is wrapped in mats and is +buried at some little distance from the house. All the people return to +the dwelling, where the headman makes a cup out of leaves, and having +placed in it a narrow belt or string, together with betel leaves, sets +it adrift on a near-by stream, while all the men shout.[68] This removes +the ban, so that all the people can resume their regular occupations. + +[68] See pp. 157 and 161. [Transcriber's note: This is page 144.] + +If the deceased has been a person of great importance, the death should +be followed eight days later by a human sacrifice. This rite, while less +common than with the Bagobo, is by no means infrequent, and may be +occasioned by several causes beside that of death. For instance, if a +person has been ill for a long time and his relatives have become +convinced that an enemy has used magic to bring about the misfortune, +they may seize and sacrifice him, even though he be a member of their +own community. A case is known where a thief was put to death in this +manner. As there is considerable variation in the accounts of this +important ceremony the writer has thought it wise to give the +descriptions of two eye-witnesses. + +The first informant was an eighteen year old Bila-an boy of Labau named +Lantingari. His account is as follows: + +"Sololin of Ma-al, the wife of Karan, a Bila-an living near Digos, died +and her husband, in company with Umook, Gamban, and Bunod, Bagobos of +Digos, and the people of Labau, decided that a sacrifice was necessary +both because of the death and in order that the size, wealth, and fame +of the tribe might be increased. About this time Dianon, a Bila-an of +Latian (now deceased), caught a man named Saligon stealing camotes, +sugar-cane, and corn from the land.[69] He bound and tied the man, and +after a conference with Karan, Dianon agreed to turn over his prisoner +for the sacrifice if paid five agongs and one gun. + +[69] The woman Sololin had planted this sugar-cane and is reported to +have eaten some of it just prior to her death. The cane stolen was from +the patch, but the informant could not say whether or not this had +anything to do with later developments. + +"The sacrifice took place on a stream called Matinao near Labau during +the new moon. Two poles were sunk into the ground seven feet apart, and +a cross-piece attached about six feet above the ground. The culprit was +tied with hands crossed, one on each side of the horizontal pole so that +his arms were high above his head, and his feet were fastened to a +stake. + +"The men gathered close around the poles, but the women and children +stood at a distance. Karan took his stand just back and to the right of +the victim, and Umook stood in front on the left side. Both unsheathed +their knives and then they called upon the spirits Dwata, MElu and Lamot +ta Mangayo to look and see that they were killing the man because of his +great fault; if this were not true they surely would not kill him.[70] +At this point Saligon, the victim, told the men that he was not afraid +to die, that if they killed him, their fault would be great, but that if +they would release him, he would return at once to his home in Bilawan +and would not cause them any trouble because of what they had proposed +to do. When he stopped talking, Karan struck him from in front just +below the ribs with his fighting knife, and Umook struck him from in +back. The other men present who were willing to pay for the privilege +then struck at the body with their knives. The body was then cut down +and buried in a shallow grave already prepared for it. No parts were +carried away, although in some cases the women take the long hairs of +the victim and sew them in the designs on the men's trousers in place of +black thread."[71] + +[70] The informant here added that if the man had not been guilty, Karan +and Umook would surely have been punished with sickness; but since they +were not ill, it is certain that he was bad, and that Dwata had taken +his body up and would not punish his murderers. + +[71] The informant further volunteered, that the Bila-an make a +sacrifice every two years, and that several years ago his uncle named KE +was the victim. At that time he was too young to remember the details. + +Datu Baklay who now lives near the Padada river, but was formerly a +resident of the Malalag cogon plains, claims that the ceremony is not a +yearly event, as is the case with the Bagobo, neither does it follow +each death; but if the deceased has been a person of great importance or +a member of the ruler's family it should take place in eight days, +regardless of the phase of the moon or the position of the stars. He +further insists that neither _Balatik_ nor any other constellation +governs the time of an offering, nor does such a ceremony insure better +crops or success in war. He describes the sacrifice following the death +of Datu Kalayan, his father, as follows: + +"A Bila-an slave was purchased for one agong and preparations made for a +sacrifice. A small house without floor or sides was built in the forest +some distance from the town, and in this were two upright poles which +supported a crossbeam at a height of about seven feet. Near them and +inside the house a shallow grave was dug and then the victim was brought +in. He was tied to the horizontal pole, hands crossed one on each side +of the beam. The men filled the house, leaving a free place only near +the victim, and the women and children crowded close around in the yard. +After addressing the spirits, Lamot ta Mangayo, MElu, and Dwata, I +placed my spear to the man's side, and then all the male relatives took +hold of the shaft and at my signal forced the weapon through the body. +Other men then cut at the body with their knives, finally releasing it +from the pole. While it lay on the ground the women and boys were +allowed to enter the house and throw spears at it, after which it was +buried." + +Baloey, a Kagan living at Padada, claims to have seen a Bila-an +sacrifice at Ma-al, about ten years ago, while Bagobo Datu Ansig of +Talun, and Tongkaling of Cibolan claim to have witnessed several of +these events. As their accounts agree in most particulars with the two +just recorded, it seems probable that we have here a fairly accurate +account of a rite which no white man has seen or can hope to see. + +In studying the decorative art of this people a person encounters the +same difficulties as with the Bagobo. Nearly all garments are covered +with elaborate patterns (Plates LVI-LX), to some of which all the people +will give the same names and explanations; but by far the greater +portion of the designs have only pattern names which are unexplained. +Many designs are readily identified as men and alligators. In Fig. 41 +the forms marked a are identified as men and women, while the +conventionalized crocodile is shown in the same plates by the figures +marked b. Fig. 42 is perhaps the most interesting since it shows in one +garment the process of conventionalization. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, are +realistic representations of the human form; in 5 and 6 the heads are +lacking but the figures are easily recognized, while the balance have +lost all resemblance to the original, except for the uplifted arms and +spread legs, However, the great majority of decorative patterns on +clothing are without meaning to the mass of the people, and this is true +also of the designs on baskets, in mats, the incised designs often seen +on pottery jars, and of the carvings which frequently cover hangers, +tobacco tubes, and the like. + +FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + +FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + +The language of this tribe, while quite uniform among its divisions, +varies considerably from that of any of their coast neighbors. There is +at once noticeable a more common use of obscure vowel and consonant +sounds, such as b, f, E, a, and k, in the beginning, end or even in the +body of the word; while the letter f, seldom found in Philippine +dialects, is here very common; and finally, there is wide variation in +vocabulary. + +There are certain ill-defined tales to the effect that this tribe once +lived about Lake Buluan, and one writer[72] has attempted to show that +the tribal name is derived from that early home. Today they are still in +considerable numbers in that region, and this together with the fact +that they are now, and have been since the advent of the white man, +primarily an interior mountain people, helps to give credence to the +belief that they have spread to their present homes from the lake +district. Their language is a further proof that they have long been +separated from the people of the Davao Gulf region, for it differs more +from all the other dialects studied than did any of these vary among +themselves. Despite the foregoing statement, this brief sketch has shown +that in material culture, religion, and even physical type this tribe +does not differ radically from the Bagobo. + +[72] BLUMENTRITT, _Smithsonian Report_ for 1899. + + + +III. KULAMAN. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) CULAMANES. + +(b) MANOBO. + +According to Governor Bolton this tribe numbers about thirty-five +hundred individuals and occupies a considerable portion of the coast, +and adjacent mountains, from the Padada river on the north to Sarangani +Bay on the south. On the east side of Davao Gulf its members are found +along the beach and in the mountains, from Sigaboy to Cape San Agustin, +and also in a few scattered villages on the southeastern Pacific Coast. + +By their neighbors they are known as Kulaman or Manobo. The former +designation is translated as "bad man," but it is probable that they +received the name from the town of Kulaman, where they formerly resided. +They are equally well known as Manobo--a word meaning "man." Earlier +writers, misled by these two names, have generally treated this people +as forming two distinct groups, but this is quite incorrect, both names +being applied to a part or to the whole of the tribe. It has also been +customary to describe them as a part of the great Manobo tribe which +inhabits a large portion of Central and Northeastern Mindanao. The +writer is of the opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to +justify such a classification and that for the present we must consider +them as distinct from the Manobo of the northern district as are the +other tribes of Davao Gulf. + +According to their own tales, the Kulaman once held all the coast from +the Padada River to Sarangani Bay, but did not extend far back from the +sea, since in the mountains lived the Tagakaolo and Bila-an with whom +they were constantly at war. When the Moro appeared on their coasts and +offered help against the hill tribes in return for land, they were +gladly received and were given several village sites near to the mouths +of various rivers. Aside from a few minor quarrels, the Kulaman have +always lived on friendly terms with these later comers, and not a few of +the tribe have been converted to Mohammedism. + +Influenced by their new allies they organized under several petty rulers +who were subservient to the datu at Kulaman, and with this superior +organization they were able to carry on such successful warfare against +the hill tribes that the Tagakaolo were, for a time, partially under +their rule. + +When the Spaniards arrived and undertook to subdue the Moro, the Kulaman +cast their lot with their Mohammedan allies, and even after the power of +the Moro was broken, they remained irreconcilable and frequently raided +the settlements under the care of the Spanish priests. + +The recent history of the tribe, as told by Datu Bongkalasan of Padada, +as is follows: "About a hundred years ago when Gogo became _datu_, he +left Kulaman and settled at Piapi, not far from Padada, and planted the +cocoanut trees which can still be seen there. He was a man with a very +small head, but his arms were as large as a man's legs. He lived until +very old, and during his lifetime never did any work but was always a +great warrior. Under him the tribe became strong and all the other +_datu_ feared him. When he died his son Kolatau my uncle, succeeded him. +Like his father, he was a great warrior and all the neighboring tribes +paid him slaves and other tribute. His two sons died during his +lifetime; so upon his death the leadership fell to me, Bongkalasan." + +By the time Bongkalasan became ruler, the influence of the Spaniards was +strong enough to break the power of any coast _datu_, and after a +hostile demonstration by the new ruler his town was destroyed and his +following scattered. A part of the people took to the hills while others +migrated to the east side of the Gulf and settled near Sigaboy. It is +not believed that any members of this tribe were in that vicinity prior +to this time. A further migration took place shortly after the arrival +of the Americans, when a brother of Bongkalasan took a number of the +Kulaman over to Sigaboy. A certain amount of communication is kept up +between the people on both sides of the Gulf and the dialects are still +so similar that it is certain the separation has not been for any great +period of time. + +Upon the establishment of American rule a number of hemp planters +settled along the coast and soon their inducements to laborers began to +scatter the people, until today members of this tribe can be found as +far north as Santa Cruz. The power and influence of the _datu_ has waned +until he now has a following of less than two hundred people. Only that +portion of the tribe which retired to the hills still maintains any +semblance of their old prowess and even those groups are growing smaller +year by year. + +At the height of their power the men of the tribe were noted as +boat-builders[73] and fishermen. Fighting also took up a considerable +portion of their time, for added to their desire for loot and slaves was +a demand for victims imposed by the warrior deity. The women cultivated +little patches of corn, camotes, and some cocoanuts, and at certain +seasons all the members of the tribe went to the forest to gather sago, +but aside from this the sea furnished most of their food supply. +According to their own stories they did not cultivate rice until recent +years, and Datu Bongkalasan insists that none of the people planted rice +when he was a boy. It is his belief that all the ceremonies connected +with the rice culture were learned from the Tagakaolo and Bila-an. + +[73] This art is now practically lost and their boats are secured from +the Moro. + +From the Spanish writers[74] we hear little but evil of this people. +They are spoken of as warlike, superstitious, treacherous, and vengeful +as head-hunters "who expose the heads of their enemies on poles," and as +slavers. From Father GISBERT[75] we learn that in 1886, about twelve +hundred members of the tribe were converted to Christianity; but during +the period following the departure of the Spaniards most of them +deserted the faith and returned to the old life. Since American +occupation they have been among the most troublesome people of Southern +Mindanao, and only as late as 1911 were responsible for the death of a +number of planters and the destruction of the plantations in the +neighborhood of Nuin. They are rapidly breaking up as a tribe, and are +intermarrying with the coast natives and hill tribes, from both of whom +they are adopting artifacts and ideas. Already they have so altered +their dwellings that we cannot refer to a typical Kulaman home; their +house-hold utensils[76] are those of their neighbors, and this is true +also of most of the clothing, although one special type will be +mentioned later on. + +[74] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. LV, p. 556. + +[75] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 242. + +[76] Long narrow hemp cloth pillows (fig. 43) and round waterproof boxes +with infitting, tray-like tops (fig. 44) are found in nearly every +house. The use of these two articles is not confined to this people, but +is typical of them. The same type of box is found among the Manobo of +the Agusan river valley. + +FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER. + +FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP. + +As a result of their slave raids, and the adoption of captive women and +their offspring into the family, we find great variation in the members +of the tribe (Plates LXI-LXII). + +Measurements on twenty-seven men gave the following results: + +Height:--Maximum 169.0 cm.; minimum 146.0 cm.; average 158.3 cm. + +Cephalic Index:--Maximum 86.4; minimum 71.7; average 78.1. + +Length-Height. Index:--Maximum 76.5; minimum 61.9; average 68.4. + +If these figures are compared with those of the Bagobo it will be seen +that there is little difference in the averages; however, this +similarity is less real than the figures indicate, for with the Kulaman +there are more individuals at both extremes. For example: the cephalic +indices of eight out of the twenty-seven were 80 or above, while six +were less than 75; again, in the length-height indices six were above 70 +and an equal number less than 65. In other respects there is such +variation that it is hard to generalize. It is noticeable that there is +a greater tendency toward prognathism than we have heretofore met with; +the forehead, while high, is moderately retreating and the supra-orbital +ridges prominent in most individuals; the hair is brown-black and is +inclined to curl in locks. The wide variation of type within the tribe +is to be expected when we know that its members have been constantly +recruited from the neighboring tribes. It is even possible that a +considerable number of slave women from distant islands may have been +added to the group by purchase from the Moro.[77] + +[77] According to early writers, the Moro of the Gulf carried on a +lucrative slave trade with this and other tribes. As the Moro raids were +made by water and often reached as far as the Northeastern coast of this +island and south to the Celebes it is quite possible that these remote +districts have helped in the upbuilding of the tribe under discussion. + +The religious beliefs have many points in common with those of the +neighboring tribes, but there are some which require special notice. + +Two powerful beings, TimanEm and his wife Diwata[78] are above all other +spirits. + +[78] The Padada people say the term _diwata_ is a name which may be +applied to the _timanEm_, of whom there are two, a male and a female. + +Mandalangan, also called Siling or Manobo Siring, is much like the +Bagobo divinity of similar name. He is fond of war and bloodshed and +when there has been a great slaughter he feasts on the flesh and drinks +of the blood of the slain. Only warriors can address him and make the +offerings of red food which he demands. Once a year, usually after the +rice harvest and when the moon is full, a raid must be made and victims +slain so that this spirit can feast.[79] If the Warriors fail to render +him this service Mandalangan will cause their bodies to swell up and +many will die, while sickness will visit all other members of the +tribe.[80] + +[79] Data Bongkalasan says it was formerly the custom to make a foray at +each full moon. + +[80] This was the reason given for the raid on the coast plantations in +1911. + +The many spirits who inhabit rocks and large trees are generally +favorable to man and are collectively known as _magintalonan_. + +Tama owns the deer and wild pigs, and no one hunts or traps in the +forest until he has made an offering of betel nut to this spirit. When +game is secured its tail and ears are strung on rattan and are hung in a +tree, in exchange for the live animal. + +The _maniokan_, generally evil spirits, resemble snakes, and like them +live in the ground. People are frequently made lame by simply stepping +over their homes. + +Each man and woman has a spirit, _kalaloa_,[81] dwelling in his body +during lifetime. At death this spirit goes into the sky, unless it +deserves punishment, in which case it is hurried to Kilot, a region +below. In either place these spirits keep close watch over the living +and bring success or disaster according to their will. They have come to +be looked upon as the guardians of the fields, and suitable offerings +are made to them at planting and harvest time. + +[81] The Kulaman of Santa Cruz insist that each person has two +_kalaloa_, one on the right side and one on the left. At death the one +on the right side goes to a good place in the sky, where there is no +work and "thoughts come easy." The _kalaloa_ of the left side goes into +the ground to a poor place called Kilot. It is probable that the +neighboring Bagobo have influenced the beliefs of this group. + +A few old men, _makating_, are thought to be able to address the spirits +with greater probability of success than the others; but they do not +stand in the same relation to the spirit world as do the _mabalian_ of +the Bagobo. The nearest approach to that class is a group of women known +as _lokEs_[82], who act as midwives and make use of roots and herbs in +curing sickness. + +[82] In Santa Cruz known as _bagbabolan_ or _mananagmen_. + +The people are warned of disaster or impending danger by various signs. +A snake crossing the trail is an imperative order for the traveler to +turn back; the call of the _limokon_[83] is likewise a warning, while +should one of the principals to any agreement sneeze during the +negotiations the project would be delayed or abandoned. + +[83] See p. 63 note. + +There is only slight development of beliefs and ceremonies in connection +with the cultivation of field crops, due probably to the recent adoption +of agriculture by the members of this tribe. A field is seldom planted +to rice for more than one season, after which the land is used for corn, +camotes, and the like, until the invasion of _cogon_ grass makes further +cultivation impossible. + +As a result new land must be broken for each planting. When the +constellation _layag_ "a sail" and _balangay_ "a boat" appear in the +month of December, the people go to the desired plot, cut down the +trees, and when these are dry, fire them. + +Before the planting can be begun the seed rice must be carried to the +center of the field where a bamboo pole, _talabinian_, and a stalk of +sugar-cane have previously been placed, as an offering to the _kalaloa_ +who guard the land. Again at harvest time an offering of food is taken +to this spot and the spirits of the dead are besought as follows: "Do +not take our rice, but let it last for a long time, for now we give a +part to you." A meal and dance follow the offering and then all who +desire may aid in cutting the new rice. + +No offerings are associated with the planting or harvesting of other +field crops, but the gathering of sago flour is attended by gifts to the +spirits of the dead and prayers for the health of the workers. The +method of obtaining and preparing the flour is the same as that already +described. Offerings are made before and after a hunt, and a man never +goes to fish without first placing a leg ring and some betel nut on the +sand close to the water, meanwhile saying, "You TimanEm must give us +some food; and you shall have your part." Upon his return he places a +small fish beside the first offering and is then free to take his catch +to the village. + +In addition to the pursuits already outlined, we find that some of the +men are expert workers in iron (Fig. 45), copper, and brass, while the +women are weavers. Their weaving does not differ from that previously +described, but a peculiar type of decoration has been developed by this +tribe, and from them has spread somewhat to their neighbors. Waxed +threads are used to work designs into cloth so that when the fabric is +placed in dye the liquid will not reach the portions thus covered. +Later, when the threads are removed, white patterns appear on the red +background (See Plate LXIII). + +FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH. + +Slaves are kept, but their duties are so similar to those of the +freeborn that it is impossible for the casual observer to pick out the +members of this class. + +Until recent years a large part of the man's time was taken up in +preparation for or active participation in the inter-tribal fights. +There are several incentives for these raids. First is the desire for +loot and slaves; then comes the ambition of the young men to be +recognized as successful warriors; and finally, and most compelling is +the demand of the spirit Mandalangan for victims. + +A man who has killed five or more persons is entitled to wear a red suit +covered with peculiar white designs (See Plate LXIII), and is henceforth +known as _mabolot_. When his score has reached twenty-five he receives +the still more honorable title of _maisEg_ and is then allowed to dress +entirely in black and to deck his hair with red flowers.[84] + +[84] The flowers used are _Celosia cristata L., Graptophyllum hortense +nees_; _Coleus atropurpeus Benth_. + +A raid is made only when the moon is full. A dish of red rice is +decorated with red flowers and is placed in the center of the room. +Around it the warriors stick their spears and then one of the oldest of +the company takes up a handful of the food and offers it to the spirit, +saying: "Mandalangan come and eat, for we are ready to fight; go with us +and help us." As he finishes his prayer each warrior takes a portion of +the rice and throws it out of doors, for "they are not yet worthy to eat +what Mandalangan has left." Returning to the room they all eat of white +rice and are ready for the raid. In addition to their spears they should +carry shields and fighting knives, and in recent years quite a number +have come into possession of firearms. + +Although the warriors are bold in their attack and do not hesitate to +assault strong villages, they have no scruples against seizing or +killing members of small parties or the inhabitants of isolated +dwellings.[85] It is necessary that the raiders secure at least one +victim, otherwise another foray must be made at once. The body of the +slain is opened, the liver is extracted and is eaten by the warriors who +thus "become like Mandalangan."[86] The head, forearms, and lower part +of the legs are carried back to the village where they are cut to pieces +by the women and children. The men take no part in this mutilation of +the body, but as soon as the fragments are buried they begin to dance, +meanwhile holding their unsheathed knives high above their heads. After +a time the head-man blows loudly on a decorated bamboo trumpet (Fig. +46), while all the men unite in shouting "to announce their victory." At +last they have fulfilled all the commands of Mandalangan and without +fear they enter the house and partake of the red food which has been +offered to him. + +[85] Should water fall by accident on a warrior who is on a raid, it is +considered a bad omen and the plans may be changed or delayed. In one +instance the owner of a place marked for attack fastened dishes of water +so that the marauders unwittingly knocked them over on themselves, and, +as a result, the place was left unharmed. + +[86] At times the skull is opened and the brain eaten. + +FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET. + +The events just preceding and following the birth of a child are very +similar to those of the Bagobo, except that there are no restrictions of +any kind placed on the father and mother, neither are there any +ceremonies connected with the birth or naming of a child unless unusual +events have convinced the people that the spirits are in some way +displeased.[87] + +[87] Triplets are killed, as with the Bagobo. + +The afterbirth is placed in the care of an old woman who carries it +directly to a sturdy molave[88] tree and there attaches it to the +branches "so that the child may become strong like the tree." While on +this mission the bearer looks neither to the right nor to the left, nor +does she hesitate, for such actions on her part might influence the +disposition of the child or cause it to have physical deformities.[89] +No special attention is given to youths when they reach the age of +puberty, although it is customary to file and blacken their teeth at +about that period. + +[88] Vitex littoralis Decne. + +[89] Similar beliefs are held by the Tinguian of Northern Luzon. + +Marriage is attended by gifts and ceremonies, such as we have previously +described. We find the groom paying a price for his bride, but receiving +a return gift from her parents; the couple feed one another with rice +and are thereby legally married; and finally we learn that a child is +kept with them until they have had intercourse. It is customary for the +youth to serve his father-in-law-to-be for two or three years preceding +the wedding, after which he is released from such service. + +As is the case with the neighboring tribes, polygamy is practiced, the +only bar to marriage being blood relationship. Upon the death of the +head of the family one-half of his property goes to his wife and half to +the children. If there are two or more wives, the first wife still +retains half, while all the children share equally in the balance of the +estate, thus leaving the second and succeeding wives without a portion. + +Sickness may be caused by evil spirits, or it may be due to a desire on +the part of the _kalaloa_ to leave its present abode. In either case the +man becomes ill and it behooves him to take immediate steps to placate +the evil spirits or to convince his _kalaloa_ to remain with him. This +last can best be accomplished by bathing the sick person with water +which has been heated in a good _agong_. A fine dish would do equally +well, but should the hot water cause it to break the spirit would depart +at once. In extreme cases the _lokEs_ will gather certain roots and brew +them into a drink which she gives to the sick person. At each tree or +shrub visited in her search for medicines she leaves an offering of +betel nuts and leg rings, and when the drink has been prepared she makes +a further gift, meanwhile begging TimanEm to aid her in effecting a +cure. If all efforts fail and the spirit leaves, the corpse is placed in +the center of the house, where it is kept from two to nine days +according to the wealth and prominence of the deceased. During this time +no one should sleep in the dwelling, for the spirit might be resentful +and turn the face of the sleeper black. + +Usually, the body is buried in the ground at a distance from the house. +The coffin is made out of a split log, in which weapons, jars, and the +like are placed for the use of the spirit. If the dead man has been a +warrior he is dressed in the clothing distinctive of his rank, and his +grave is covered with red flowers. At times the coffins are shaped to +resemble small boats and are then placed on high poles near to the +beach. + +For a month following a funeral the relatives refrain from all +merrymaking. At the expiration of this period all go to a near-by river +and with their knives, cut to pieces a braided cord, which has been made +since the burial, and as they destroy it they shout "This is a man we +are killing. This is a man we are killing." Finally, the pieces are +thrown into the river and the period of taboo is past. + + + +IV. TAGAKAOLO. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) TAGAKAOLA. + +(b) SAKA--"head of the river." + +(c) KAGAN, KALAGAN, CALAGANES, CALAGARS. + +(d) LAOC. According to the account of PASTELL,[90] this name is given to +a small, degraded division of the Tagakaolo who live in the mountains of +Haguimitan on San Augustin peninsula. + +[90] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 259. + +The present habitat and general condition of this tribe is nearly the +same as that of the Kulaman. + +Prior to Spanish times they held the hill region back of the coast, +between Malalag and Lais. On the Gulf side they were barred from the sea +by the Kulaman and Moro, while in the mountains they encountered the +powerful Bila-an tribe. + +About fifty years ago that part of the tribe living furthest to the +north united under the leadership of a brave warrior named Paugok, and +made war on the Bagobo. They were successful in this conflict and drove +their enemies from the rich valleys of the Padada and Bulatakay rivers, +where they established themselves. This brought them in close contact +with the Kulaman and Moro of the coast, with whom they lived on friendly +terms. The influence of the latter group was so great that the newcomers +not only adopted their style of dress, but also substituted cotton for +hemp in the manufacture of their garments. Today the members of this +tribe can still be recognized by their close fitting suits of red and +yellow striped cloth, from which they have received the name of +Kagan.[91] They have also been constant borrowers, from all their +neighbors, of ideas for house-building and utensils. They have +intermarried to some extent with the Kulaman, and in times past Bila-an +and Bagobo slave women have been added to the tribe. + +[91] The general name applied to red cotton trade cloth. + +Today practically all the members of the Kagan division are found living +on the American plantations along the Padada and Bulatakay rivers. They +are on friendly terms with their Tagakaolo kinsmen, and are still so +like them in language, social customs, and religious beliefs, that one +description will suffice for both. + +At some unrecorded date a considerable, portion of the tribe migrated to +the east side of Davao Gulf, and settled near Cape San Agustin, where, +it is said, they now number more than two thousand. + +The name Tagakaolo signifies "those who dwell at the head of the river," +and is applied to all the hill people living between the coast and the +country of the Bila-an. They have always been broken up into small +groups, often at war with one another, yet they appear to be quite +uniform in type, language, and religious beliefs. In recent years many +of them have been induced to come down to the coast plantations, but the +great majority still remain in the mountains. They are of a turbulent, +warlike disposition, and have been a constant source of trouble to the +Spanish and American authorities.[92] At the time of the writer's visit +they had joined with the Kulaman in raiding the coast settlements, and, +as a result, were being vigorously pursued by the American troops; for +this reason it was only possible to gain information from those +remaining on the plantations. + +[92] Members of this tribe were responsible for the murder of Governor +Bolton. + +The total number of persons making up the tribe is estimated at six +thousand, but this is at best a mere guess. + +There is scarcely any variation in physical type between the Kagan +branch and the Tagakaolo proper, while for the whole tribe there is less +variation between its members than in any group so far discussed. + +The following results were obtained by measurements on twenty-seven men: + +Maximum height 166.6 cm.; minimum 151.3 cm.; average 157.4 cm. + +Cephalic indices--Maximum 89.7; minimum 76.3; average 81.5. + +Length-height indices--Maximum 79.0; minimum 63.1, average 70.0. + +These tables show that aside from being more short-headed, this tribe +differs little from the Bagobo, Bila-an, and Kulaman. Like the Kulaman, +they have high foreheads, often full and vaulted but quite as frequently +retreating from well-marked supra-orbital ridges. They are slightly more +prognathous than the Kulaman, and in the majority of cases the hair is +curled in locks. The teeth are usually mutilated and blackened, while +shaving of the eyebrows and tattooing of the left forearm and breast are +quite common. + +The historians of the tribe tell us that all the Tagakaolo are descended +from Lakbang, MEngEdan, and his wife Bodek. In the beginning these three +persons lived on a small island in the sea. Two children, Linkanan and +Lampagan, were born to them and they in turn were parents of two +birds--the _kalau_ and _sabitan_. These birds flew away to other places +and returned with bits of soil which their parents patted and moulded +with their hands until they had formed the earth. Other children were +born and from them have come all the people who now inhabit the land. + +Two powerful spirits, _Diwata_ and _TimanEm_, watched the formation of +the world, and when it was completed the latter spirit planted trees +upon it. He still takes considerable interest in the affairs of men and +each year sends the spirits Layag and Bangay,[93] as stars, to tell the +people when to prepare their land for the planting of crops. + +[93] See page 154. + +Other spirits, less friendly, have existed from the first time. Of these +one named Siling causes much trouble by confusing travelers through the +forest. Spirits of unborn children--_mantianak_[94]--wander through the +forest crying "ina-a-a" (mother), and often attack human beings. The +only way persons thus assailed can hope to escape is by running to a +stream and throwing water on the abdomens of their pursuers. + +[94] Frequently called _busau_. + +The powerful spirit Tama owns the deer and wild pig, and is usually kind +to hunters who offer him proper gifts. Should they fail in this duty he +may cause them to become lost or injured. Mandalangan (Mandangan) is +known as a powerful spirit who loves war and bloodshed, but he is so +closely interwoven in the minds of the people with TimanEm that it is +doubtful if he should be classed as a separate spirit. + +In addition to these beings are the _kawE_, or shades of the dead, the +chiefs of whom are the people who created the earth. During life the +_kawE_ live in the body, but after death they go to the sky where they +remain the greater part of the time. They do return to earth at certain +seasons, to aid or injure the living, and it is usually one of their +number who keeps guard over the rice-fields. Certain persons known as +_balian_ can talk to these spirits and from them have learned the +ceremonies which the people should perform at certain seasons, and at +the critical periods of life. In the main these ceremonies are so +similar to those just described that it is useless to repeat. The +proceedings at a birth, marriage, or death are practically identical +with the Kulaman, as are also those at planting and harvest time. A +slight variation was noticed after the rice planting at Padada, when all +the workers placed their planting sticks on an offering of rice and then +poured water over them "so as to cause an abundance of rain." Another +difference is noticed following the death of a warrior. His knife lies +in its sheath beside the body for seven days and during that time can +only be drawn if it is to be used in sacrificing a slave. If such an +offering is made it is carried out in much the same way as the Bagobo +sacrifice, except that the bereaved father, son, or brother cuts the +body in halves. + +If it is impossible to offer a slave, a palm leaf cup is filled with +water and is carried to the forest. Here the relatives dance and then +dip the knife and some sticks in the water for "this is the same as +dipping them in blood." Later they are carried back and hung up in the +house of mourning. + +According to the long established custom, warriors must go to fight once +each year, when the moon is bright. Spears, fighting knives, bows and +arrows, sharpened bamboo sticks, and shields have long been used, and to +these several guns have been added in recent years. + +The attack is from ambush and the victims are generally cut to pieces, +although women and children are sometimes taken captive. Tufts of hair +taken from the slain are attached to the shields of the warriors, and an +arm is carried back to the home town "so that the women and children can +cut it to pieces and become brave." + +The foregoing account shows that the Kagan and Tagakaolo living on the +hemp plantations differ very little from their neighbors, whom we have +previously described. It may be that an investigation, carried on in +peaceful times, far back in the mountains, will show that more radical +differences exist in the great body of the tribe. + + + +V. ATA. + +The people classed under this name are the least known of any of the +wild inhabitants of Mindanao. They probably receive their name from the +word _atas_ which signifies "those up above" or "the dwellers in the +uplands." It does not appear that they form a single tribe, or that they +are even of uniform type. + +The writer did no intensive work with them, and the following notes make +no pretense of being first-hand knowledge. I have drawn on all possible +sources for this scanty information, but am mostly indebted to the +letters and reports of the late Governor Bolton, who, without doubt, +knew more of this people than any other white man. + +I am thus compelled to make my descriptions vague; indeed, my one excuse +for dealing with the Ata is to bring together such information as we +possess in the hope that it may be of value to some other worker who may +later take up the task of studying this little known people. + +According to Governor Bolton, the Ata inhabit the regions west and +northwest of Mt. Apo, the headwaters of the Davao river--north and west +of the Guianga--as well as the headwaters of the Lasan, Tuganay, and +Libagawan rivers. In all these regions they extend over the watershed, +converging toward the center of the island at the headwaters of the +Pulangi river. + +It should be noted at the outset that the Eto or Ata, living between the +Guianga and Bagobo, should not be included in this division. + +In the region about Mt. Apo they are closely allied to the Obo and +Tigdapaya,[95] while in the region adjoining the Guianga they have +intermarried with that people and have adopted many of their customs as +well as dress. On the headwaters of the Lasan river we are told that +they are known as Dugbatang or Dugbatung; that they are a timid +degenerate branch having no fixed habitations and very little clothing; +they are small, with crispy hair, and often decorate their bodies with +tattooed designs. About twenty miles up the Tuganay river Governor +Bolton encountered a similar group of Ata whom he describes as being +very wild. From the headwaters of this river he crossed over near to the +source of the river Libagawan where he discovered a hitherto unknown +people--the Tugauanum. These he believed were mixed Malay and Negrito, +with crispy or curly hair and sharp features. + +[95] See p. 128. + +While in the central part of Mindanao, on the headwaters of the Pulangi +river, the writer saw about fifty people known as Tugauanum who came +over the mountains to trade. They were certainly of mixed ancestry, +showing a distinct infusion of Negrito blood, and in other respects +conforming to the description of Governor Bolton. Among articles of +barter carried by them were the typical knives and hemp cloth of the +west side of the Davao gulf region, showing that they are at least in +the line of trade with the tribes we have already studied. + +According to their own stories, the original home of the tribe was along +the river Mapula which flows into the Tuganay near its source. Governor +Bolton tells of hearing, while in this section, of a people called +Dedaanum "who were small and black and had curly hair," but who had all +been killed by the Tugauanum. He was also informed that a numerous tribe +of very small black people called Tugniah lived on the headwaters of the +river Omiern, which flows north of the Libagawan. They were said to live +in trees, to plant nothing, and to subsist on sago flour. "Their bolos +are like sabers and they use lances, bows, and arrows." + +The Governor classes the Tugauanum as Ata "since they speak the same +language" but he adds "they are probably the same race as the +Libabaoan." This latter people are elsewhere in his notes referred to as +Guibabauon or Dibabaoan. They live along the headwaters of the Tagum +river and are, he believes, a mixture of Ata and Mandaya.[96] + +[96] The writer believes that the Libabaoan are probably the same as the +Divavaoan who are classed as a branch of the Mandaya. See p. 165. + +From one source we learn that the Ata are small, in many respects +resembling the Negrito; that they are timid and are either nomads or +build their houses high in the branches of trees. Another writer tells +us that they are a superior type, with aquiline noses, thick beards, and +are tall. "They are very brave and hold their own with the Moro." We are +also told that they cultivate the soil and build good houses. + +The estimates concerning their numbers are equally conflicting. Governor +Bolton gives the population as six thousand; the report of the +Philippine Commission for 1900 credits them with eight thousand, while +Father Gisbert believed that they aggregated "not less than twenty +thousand souls." + +The divergent reports are due to the fact that up to the year 1886 only +one village of this people had been visited,[97] and since that time +only a few hasty trips have been made into their territory. + +[97] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 242-3. + +From our present information it seems probable that the Ata are +descendants of an early invading people who intermarried first with the +early Negrito inhabitants, and later with other tribes with which they +came in contact. They have been free borrowers from their neighbors in +all respects, and hence we find them occupying all the steps from the +nomad condition of the pygmy blacks to the highly specialized life of +the Guianga. + +The following account of their beliefs was extracted from letters +written by Governor Bolton. He fails to designate the section from which +the information was gathered, but its similarity to Bagobo and Guianga +makes it probable that the account comes from the Ata dwelling near +those people. Considerable variation will doubtless be found in other +districts. + +"The greatest of all the spirits is Manama[98] who made the first men +from blades of grass, weaving them together until they resembled a human +form. In this manner he made eight persons--male and female--who later +became the ancestors of the Ata and all the neighboring tribes. Long +after this the water covered the whole earth and all the Ata were +drowned except two men and a woman. The waters carried them far away and +they would have perished had not a large eagle come to their aid. This +bird offered to carry them to their homes on its back. One man refused, +but the other two accepted its help and returned to Mapula. + +[98] See page 106. + +"The other deities are Mandarangan, Malalayug, god of agriculture; +Mabalian, the spirit who presides over childbirth; Tarasyub and +Taratuan, the guardian spirits of the brass and iron workers; +Boypandi--the spirit who guards over the weavers." + +While in the Ata country the Governor observed certain customs of the +people. As his party approached the palisaded house of Madundun they +stopped for twenty minutes to perform a ceremony called _anting-anting_. +"An old man waved his shield and a cloth, meanwhile repeating mysterious +words. Then each man was given a chew of betel-nut and was well rubbed +with a charm." "At Tuli a swarm of bees passed over the house just as +the party was ready to start. This was taken as a sign that some of the +party would be killed by the arrows of the enemy, hence they refused to +go." "Likewise, if the dove _limokan_ calls on the left side of the +trail the party will refuse to proceed, unless another _limokan_ answers +the call from the right side of the path." + + + +VI. MANDAYA. + +("Inhabitants of the Uplands"). + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) MANSAKA ("Inhabitants of the mountain clearings"). This name is +applied to those Mandaya who formerly dwelt far back in the mountains. +Many of this division have recently emigrated to the coast and are now +found at the north and east part of Davao Gulf. + +(b) PAGSUPAN. The appellation by which the members of this tribe, living +near the Tagum and Hijo rivers, are known. + +(c) MANGWANGA or MANGRANGAN ("Dwellers in the forests"). A name by which +are designated those Mandaya who live in the heavily forested mountains +skirting the coast. + +(d) MANAGOSAN or MAGOSAN. The members of the tribe living on the +headwaters of the Agusan river bear this name. + +(e) DIVAVAOAN. A division which inhabits a small district to the south +and west of Compostela. Very little is known of this people, but from +the information now at hand it seems that they should be classed as a +branch of the Mandaya. + +HABITAT. + +This tribe occupies both slopes of the mountain range which borders the +Pacific ocean, from about 9 degrees of North latitude south nearly to +Cape San Agustin. Its members are also found in considerable numbers +from the head of the Agusan drainage nearly to the town of Compostela, +and several settlements of this people are to be found along the Hijo +and Tagum rivers, while in recent years a number have established +themselves on the eastern side of Davao Gulf. + +Generally speaking, this whole region is extremely mountainous and at +the same time heavily wooded. It is only when the Agusan, Hijo, and +Tagum rivers are approached that the country becomes more open. On the +Pacific coast there are few harbors, for the mountains extend down +almost to the water's edge forming high sheer cliffs. Aside from the +three rivers mentioned the water courses are, for the greater part, +small and unnavigable and a short distance back from the coast appear as +tiny rivulets at the bottom of deep caons. + +There is no organization of the tribe as a whole, since each district +has its local ruler who is subject to no other authority. These +divisions I are seldom on good terms, and are frequently in open warfare +with one another or with neighboring tribes. + +Despite this lack of unity and the great area they inhabit, their +dialects are mutually intelligible, and in other respects they are so +similar that I believe we are justified in regarding them as one group +linguistically, physically, and culturally. + +DESCRIPTION. + +Measurements made on fifteen men and five women gave the following +results: + +Height--Men: Maximum 161.3 cm., minimum 145.1 cm., average 153.9 cm. + +Women: Maximum 152.3 cm., minimum 144.1 cm., average 146.8 cm. + +Cephalic index--Men: Maximum 89.1, minimum 76.3, average 84.6. + +Women: Maximum 84.8, minimum 75.2, average 81.3. + +Length-height index--Men: maximum 78.7, minimum 64.5, average 74.2. + +Women: Maximum 81.8, minimum 75.0, average 77.4. + +From these figures it appears that there is considerable variation +between individuals, but a closer study of the charts shows that the +majority of those measured come closer to the averages than do the +members of any other group here mentioned (Plates LXIV-LXIX). + +Both sexes wear the hair long and comb it to a knot at the back of the +head. The women generally bang the hair over the forehead, while the men +allow a lock to fall in front of each ear. The hair is brown-black and +generally slightly wavy, although four individuals with straight hair +were seen. + +The forehead is high, and in about half the persons observed somewhat +retreating; however, full, vaulted foreheads are by no means uncommon. +The distance from the vertex to the tragus is uniformly great. + +The cheek bones are quite prominent, while the whole face tapers from +above so as to be somewhat angular. In twenty per cent of the men the +root of the nose seemed to be continuous with the supra-orbital ridge, +which, in such cases, was strongly marked. In general the root of the +nose is broad, low, and depressed, and there is a tendency for the ridge +to be somewhat concave. The lips are thick and bowed, but there is +little or no prognathism. + +The skin of the body is not tattooed or mutilated in any other way, but +the eyebrows are often shaved to a thin line, and the teeth are filed +and blackened. Filing was formerly done with small stones but imported +files are now used for this purpose. The coloring is effected by chewing +the roots of the _anmon_ vine and applying to the teeth the "sweat" +caught on a steel blade, held above burning bark of the _magawan_ tree. +This practice seems to have no significance other than that of +beautifying the person and saving the youth from the ridicule of his +fellows. To keep the teeth black, tobacco treated with lemon juice which +has stood on rusty iron is chewed frequently. + +Despite constant statements to the effect that the members of this tribe +are light-colored and the assertion of one writer[99] that at least one +division is white, observations made with the V. Luschan color table on +more than fifty individuals showed that while certain persons are +somewhat lighter than their fellows, as was also the case in other +tribes, there is not an appreciable difference in color between this +tribe and the others of the Gulf region. + +[99] LANDOR, The Gems of the East. It should be noted that the district +from which the white tribe was reported is now fairly well known and +there seems to be no reason to believe that the people residing there +differ materially in color from the other natives of the island. + +CLOTHING. + +The ordinary man of the tribe wears a loosely fitting shirt and wide +trousers made of white or blue cotton cloth. (Plate LXIX-LXX). These +garments are frequently decorated with embroidered designs and are +finished at the shoulders and knees with a cotton fringe. The trousers +are supported at the waist by means of a belt, and below reach nearly to +the ankles.[100] An incised silver disk is attached to the front of the +jacket, while ornaments of beads, seeds, and alligators' teeth encircle +the neck. + +[100] Along the coast this type of garment is now seldom seen, for the +men are adopting the close-fitting dress of the Moro. + +When on the trail the man covers his head with a little palm bark hat +(Fig. 47). This is sometimes conical, but more frequently is narrow and +turned up at the front and back. Painted designs, betel wings, and +chicken feathers make the hat a striking decoration which compensates +for its lack of utility. + +FIG. 47. MEN'S HATS. + +A class of warriors known as _bagam_[101] dress in red and wear turbans +of the same hue, while women mediums, _ballyan_,[102] may also make use +of red cloth. + +[101] See p. 180. [Transcriber's note: This is page 167.] + +[102] See p. 174. + +Other women wear blue cotton jackets, in the fronts and back of which +are many artistic embroidered designs. Their hemp cloth skirts, like +those of the Bagobo, are made tube-like and are held at the waist by +means of belts. They are very careless about the hang of these garments +and one side may be above the calf of the leg while the other drags on +the ground (Plate LXVII). No head coverings are worn, but quite +elaborate combs (Fig. 48) are thrust into the knots of hair at the back +of the head. Wooden ear plugs (Fig. 49) ornamented with incised silver +plates and with bead and silver pendants fit into openings in the lobes +of the ears. Like the men they wear necklaces of beads, sweet smelling +herbs, and seeds. Many of the latter are considered to have medicinal +value and are eaten to cure pains in the stomach. One or more silver +disks are worn on the chest or over the breasts, while anklets, such as +are used by the women of the other tribes, are frequently seen. Both +sexes are fond of bracelets of brass, shell, or vines, as well as of +finger rings of tortoise shell and silver (Plate LXXI). + +FIG. 48. WOMAN'S COMB. + +FIG. 49. FAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS. + +None of the garments contain pockets, and in order to make up for this +deficiency the men carry bags (Plate LXX) suspended on their backs by +means of bands which pass over the shoulders. In these they carry their +betel-nut outfits, tobacco, and the like. Small covered waterproof +baskets (Plate LXVIII) serve the same purpose for the women and are +carried at the back or at the side. + +HISTORY. + +Probably no wild tribe in Mindanao has received so much mention in +histories, reports, and books of travel as have the Mandaya, but these +references have been, in the main, so vague and often so misleading that +they are of little value for our purposes. Quite in contrast with this +mass of material are the excellent reports of the late Governor Bolton, +and Mr. Melbourne A. Maxey,[103] who for a number of years has been +closely associated with the members of the tribe residing in the +vicinity of Cateel. In the preparation of this paper frequent use has +been made of the notes gathered by these two gentlemen. + +[103] Published in the Mindanao Herald. + +When the first white men visited the tribe they found that the +neighboring Moro were making frequent raids on their villages and were +carrying away women and children whom they sold to the Bagobo and other +tribes of the Gulf.[104] At the same time it was learned that they, in +turn, were slave holders and were eager to purchase captives from the +Mohammedan raiders. The great distances traveled by the Moro in their +raids make it possible that slaves from distant islands may thus have +been introduced into the tribe. Later we shall see that it was difficult +for a slave or a descendant of a slave to become a freeman, yet it was +by no means impossible, and it is likely that a considerable part of the +tribe are descendants of people brought to the district through purchase +and capture. Another possible source of outside blood is suggested by +well verified stories of castaways on the east coast of Mindanao and +adjacent islands.[105] While working with the Mandaya in the region of +Mayo bay the writer was frequently told that three times, in the memory +of the present inhabitants, strange boats filled with strange people had +been driven to their coasts by storms. The informants insisted that +these newcomers were not put to death but that such of them as survived +were taken into the tribe. These stories are given strong substantiation +by the fact that only a few months prior to my visit a boat load of +people from the Carolines was driven to the shores of Mayo bay and that +their boat, as well as one survivor, was then at the village of Mali. +(Plate LXXII). I am indebted to Mr. Henry Hubbel for the following +explicit account of these castaways: "One native banca of castaways +arrived at Lucatan, N. E. corner of Mayo Bay, Mindanao, on January 2nd, +1909. The banca left the Island of Uluthi for the Island of Yap, two +days' journey, on December 10th, 1908. They were blown out of their +course and never sighted land until January 2nd, twenty-two days after +setting sail. There were nine persons aboard, six men, two boys, and one +woman, all natives of Yap except one man who was a Visayan from Capiz, +Panay, P. I., who settled on the Island of Yap in 1889. These people +were nineteen days without food or water except what water could be +caught during rain storms. The Visayan, Victor Valenamo, died soon after +his arrival, as a result of starvation. The natives recovered at once +and all traces of their starvation disappeared within two weeks. The men +were powerfully built, nearly six feet high. Their bodies were all +covered with tattoo work. The woman was decorated even more than the +men. Fever soon took hold of these castaways and in a year's time all +died except one small boy who seems to have become acclimated and will +become identified with the natives in Mati. I took care of these people +until they died. + +[104] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, p. 203. + +[105] FOREMAN. The Philippine Islands, pp. 257-9. JAGOR. Travels in the +Philippines, Ch. XX. + +"The clothing worn by the men and woman was nothing but the 'lavalava,' +a scarf of sea-grass fiber about 18 inches wide and five feet long. This +was worn around the loins. + +"The banca, which was of very curious construction, was taken to +Zamboanga last year by General Pershing, to be placed in Moro Province +Museum." + +After the advent of the Spaniards into their territory a considerable +number of this people were converted to the Christian faith and were +induced to settle in villages. There they met and intermarried with +Visayan and other emigrants who had followed the Spaniards to the South. +During the time of the Spanish rule these settlements were partially +destroyed by Moro raiders, and following the Spanish-American war these +attacks became so frequent that many of the inhabitants deserted their +homes and returning to their mountain kinsmen again took up the old +life. The effect of this return is especially noticeable in the vicinity +of Caraga where as late as 1885 there were 596 Mandaya converts. + +Several attempts were also made to colonize the Mandaya near the mouths +of the Tagum and Hijo rivers, but the restlessness of the natives or the +hostility of the Moro was always sufficient to cause the early break up +of the new settlements. + +The last great influence on this tribe has come through American +planters who have prevailed upon the more venturesome members to come +down to the coast plantations and there adopt the life of the +Christianized natives. Many of these adventurers have returned to their +mountain homes, carrying with them new ideas and artifacts and, in some +cases, wives from other tribes. With all these influences at work there +has been considerable modification of the life in many districts, +particularly along the Pacific coast. This description will attempt to +give the old life of the tribe as it still exists in the more isolated +districts, or as it was related by older people of the coast +settlements. + +MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION. + +In order to enter into a full understanding of the social, economic, and +aesthetic life we must have some knowledge of the mythology and +religious beliefs, for these pervade every activity. + +Several stories accounting for natural phenomena and the origin of the +tribe were heard. One of these relates that the sun and moon were +married and lived happily together until many children had been born to +them. At last they quarreled and the moon ran away from her husband who +has since been pursuing her through the heavens. After the separation of +their parents the children died, and the moon gathering up their bodies +cut them into small pieces and threw them into space. Those fragments +which fell into water became fish, those which fell on land were +converted into snakes and animals, while "those which fell upward" +remained in the sky as stars. + +A somewhat different version of this tale agrees that the quarrel and +subsequent chase occurred, but denies that the children died and were +cut up. It states that it is true that the offspring were animals, but +they were so from the time of their birth. One of these children is a +giant crab named _tambanokaua_ who lives in the sea. When he moves about +he causes the tides and high waves; when he opens his eyes lightning +appears. For some unknown reason this animal frequently seeks to devour +his mother, the moon, and when he nearly succeeds an eclipse occurs. At +such a time the people shout, beat on gongs, and in other ways try to +frighten the monster so that he can not accomplish his purpose.[106] The +phases of the moon are caused by her putting on or taking off her +garments. When the moon is full she is thought to be entirely naked. + +[106] The writer found almost identical beliefs and practices among the +Batak and Tagbanua of Palawan. + +According to this tale the stars had quite a different origin than that +just related, "In the beginning of things there was only one great star, +who was like a man in appearance. He sought to usurp the place of of the +sun and the result was a conflict in which the latter was victorious. He +cut his rival into small bits and scattered him over the whole sky as a +woman sows rice." + +The earth was once entirely flat but was pressed up into mountains by a +mythical woman, Agusanan. It has always rested on the back of a great +eel whose movements cause earthquakes. Sometimes crabs or other small +animals annoy him until, in his rage, he attempts to reach them, then +the earth is shaken so violently that whole mountains are thrown into +the sea. + +A great lake exists in the sky and it is the spray from its waves which +fall to the earth as rain. When angered the spirits sometimes break the +banks of this lake and allow torrents of water to fall on the earth +below. + +According to Mr. Maxey, the Mandaya of Cateel believe that many +generations ago a great flood occurred which caused the death of all the +inhabitants of the world except one pregnant woman. She prayed that her +child might be a boy. Her prayer was answered and she gave birth to a +son whose name was Uacatan. He, when he had grown up, took his mother +for his wife and from this union have sprung all the Mandaya. + +Quite a different account is current among the people of Mayo. From them +we learn that formerly the _limokon_,[107] although a bird, could talk +like a man. At one time it laid two eggs, one at the mouth and one at +the source of the Mayo river. These hatched and from the one at the +headwaters of the river came a woman named Mag,[108] while a man named +BEgenday[109] emerged from the one near the sea. For many years the man +dwelt alone on the bank of the river, but one day, being lonely and +dissatisfied with his location, he started to cross the stream. While he +was in deep water a long hair was swept against his legs and held him so +tightly that he narrowly escaped drowning. When he succeeded in reaching +the shore he examined the hair and at once determined to find its owner. +After wandering many days he met the woman and induced her to be his +wife. From this union came all the Mandaya. + +[107] See p. 63 note. + +[108] Also known as Manway. + +[109] Also known as Samay. + +A variant of this tale says that both eggs were laid up stream and that +one hatched a woman, the other a snake. The snake went down the current +until it arrived at the place where the sea and the river meet. There it +blew up and a man emerged from its carcass. The balance of the tale is +as just related. This close relationship of the _limokon_ to the Mandaya +is given as the reason why its calls are given such heed. A traveler on +the trail hearing the cooing of this bird at once doubles his fist and +points it in the direction from whence the sound came. If this causes +the hand to point to the right side it is a sign that success will +attend the journey.[110] If, however, it points to the left, in front, +or in back, the Mandaya knows that the omen bird is warning him of +danger or failure, and he delays or gives up his mission. The writer was +once watching some Mandaya as they were clearing a piece of land, +preparatory to the planting. They had labored about two hours when the +call of the _limokon_ was heard to the left of the owner. Without +hesitation the men gathered up their tools and left the plot, explaining +that it was useless for them to plant there for the _limokon_ had warned +them that rats would eat any crop they might try to grow in that spot. + +[110] Maxey states exactly the opposite, for the Mandaya of Cateel, _i. +e._, the right side is bad, the left good. + +The people do not make offerings to this bird, neither do they regard it +as a spirit, but rather as a messenger from the spirit world. The old +men were certain that anyone who molested one of these birds would die. + +Another bird known as _wak-wak_ "which looks like a crow but is larger +and only calls at night" foretells ill-fortune. Sneezing is also a bad +omen, particularly if it occurs at the beginning of an undertaking. +Certain words, accompanied by small offerings, may be sufficient to +overcome the dangers foretold by these warnings. It is also possible to +thwart the designs of ill-disposed spirits or human enemies by wearing a +sash or charm which contains bits of fungus growth, peculiarly shaped +stones, or the root of a plant called _gam_. These charms not only ward +off ill-fortune and sickness, but give positive aid in battle and keep +the dogs on the trail of the game.[111] + +[111] The use of these magic sashes, known as _anting-anting_, is +widespread throughout the southern Philippines both with the pagan and +Mohammedan tribes. + +There is in each community one or more persons, generally women, who are +known as _ballyan_. These priestesses, or mediums, are versed in all the +ceremonies and dances which the ancestors have found effectual in +overcoming evil influences, and in retaining the favor of the spirits. +They, better than all others, understand the omens, and often through +them the higher beings make known their desires. So far as could be +learned the _ballyan_ is not at any time possessed, but when in a trance +sees and converses with the most powerful spirits as well as with the +shades of the departed. This power to communicate with supernatural +beings and to control the forces of nature, is not voluntarily sought by +the future _ballyan_, but comes to the candidate either through one +already occupying such a position or by her being unexpectedly seized +with a fainting or trembling fit, in which condition she finds that she +is able to communicate with the inhabitants of the spirit world. Having +been thus chosen she at once becomes the pupil of some experienced +_ballyan_ from whom she learns all the secrets of the profession and the +details of ceremonies to be made. + +At the time of planting or reaping, at a birth or death, when a great +celebration is held, or when the spirits are to be invoked for the cure +of the sick, one or more of these women take charge of the ceremonies +and for the time being are the religious heads of the community. At such +a time the _ballyan_ wears a blood-red waist,[112] but on other +occasions her dress is the same as that of the other women, and her life +does not differ from their's in any respect. + +[112] PEDRO ROSELL, writing in 1885, says that the _ballyan_ then +dressed entirely in red. BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 217. + +When about to converse with the spirits the _ballyan_ places an offering +before her and begins to chant and wail. A distant stare comes into her +eyes, her body begins to twitch convulsively until she is shivering and +trembling as if seized with the ague. In this condition she receives the +messages of the spirits and under their direction conducts the ceremony. + +Rosell gives the following description of the possession of a +_ballyan_.[113] Nothing of this nature was seen by the writer. + +[113] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 218. + +"They erect a sort of small altar on which they place the _manaugs_ or +images of the said gods which are made of the special wood of the +_bayog_ tree, which they destine exclusively for this use. When the +unfortunate hog which is to serve as a sacrifice is placed above the +said altar, the chief _bailana_ approaches with _balarao_ or dagger in +hand which she brandishes and drives into the poor animal, which will +surely be grunting in spite of the gods and the religious solemnity, as +it is fearful of what is going to happen to it; and leaves the victim +weltering in its blood. Then immediately all the _bailanas_ drink of the +blood in order to attract the prophetic spirit to themselves and to give +their auguries or the supposed inspirations of their gods. Scarcely have +they drunk the blood, when they become as though possessed by an +infernal spirit which agitates them and makes them tremble as does the +body of a person with the ague or like one who shivers with the cold." + +SPIRITS. + +The following spirits are known to the _ballyan_ of the Mayo district: + +I. DIWATA. A good spirit who is besought for aid against the +machinations of evil beings. The people of Mayo claim that they do not +now, nor have they at any time made images of their gods, but in the +vicinity of Cateel Maxey has seen wooden images called _manaog_, which +were said to represent Diwata on earth. According to his account "the +_ballyan_ dances for three consecutive nights before the _manaog_, +invoking his aid and also holding conversation with the spirits. This is +invariably done while the others are asleep." He further states that +with the aid of Diwata the _ballyan_ is able to foretell the future by +the reading of palms. "If she should fail to read the future the first +time, she dances for one night before the _manaog_ and the following day +is able to read it clearly, the Diwata having revealed the hidden +meaning to her during the night conference."[114] + +[114] In the Mayo district palmistry is practiced by several old people +who make no claim of having the aid of the spirits. Bagani Paglambayon +read the palms of the writer and one of his assistants, but all his +predictions were of an exceedingly general nature and on the safe side. + +Spanish writers make frequent mention of these idols,[115] and in his +reports[116] Governor Bolton describes the image of a crocodile seen by +him in the Mandaya country "which was carved of wood and painted black, +was five feet long, and life-like. The people said it was the likeness +of their god." Lieutenant J. R. Youngblood, when near the headwaters of +the Agusan River, saw in front of a chief's house "a rude wooden image +of a man which seemed to be treated with some religious awe and +respect." Mr. Robert F. Black, a missionary residing in Davao, writes +that "the Mandaya have in their homes wooden dolls which may be idols." + +[115] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XII, 269, XLIII, p. 217, etc. + +[116] Filed in the office of the Governor of Davao. + +From this testimony it appears that in a part of the Mandaya territory +the spirit Diwata, at least, is represented by images. + +2. Asuang. This name is applied to a class of malevolent spirits who +inhabit certain trees, cliffs and streams. They delight to trouble or +injure the living, and sickness is usually caused by them. For this +reason, when a person falls ill, a _ballyan_ offers a live chicken to +these spirits bidding them "to take and kill this chicken in place of +this man, so that he need not die." If the patient recovers it is +understood that the _asuang_ have agreed to the exchange and the bird is +released in the jungle. + +There are many spirits who are known as _asuang_ but the five most +powerful are here given according to their rank, (a) Tagbanua, (b) +Tagamaling, (c) Sigbinan, (d) Lumaman, (e) Bigwa. The first two are of +equal importance and are only a little less powerful than Diwata. They +sometimes inhabit caves but generally reside in the _bud-bud_ (baliti) +trees. The ground beneath these trees is generally free from undergrowth +and thus it is known that "a spirit who keeps his yard clean resides +there." In clearing ground for a new field it sometimes becomes +necessary to cut down one of these trees, but before it is disturbed an +offering of betel-nut, food, and a white chicken is carried to the plot. +The throat of the fowl is cut and its blood is allowed to fall in the +roots of the tree. Meanwhile one of the older men calls the attention of +the spirits to the offerings and begs that they be accepted in payment +for the dwelling which they are about to destroy. This food is never +eaten, as is customary with offerings made to other spirits. After a +lapse of two or three days it is thought that the occupant of the tree +has had time to move and the plot is cleared. + +In former times it was the custom for a victorious war party to place +the corpses of their dead, together with their weapons, at the roots of +a _baliti_ tree. The reason for this custom seems now to be lost. + +3. Busau. Among the Mandaya at the north end of Davao Gulf this spirit +is also known as Tuglinsau, Tagbusau, or Mandangum. He looks after the +welfare of the _bagani_, or warriors, and is in many respects similar to +Mandarangan of the Bagobo.[117] He is described as a gigantic man who +always shows his teeth and is otherwise of ferocious aspect. A warrior +seeing him is at once filled with a desire to kill. By making occasional +offerings of pigs and rice it is usually possible to keep him from doing +injury to a settlement, but at times these gifts fail of their purpose +and many people are slain by those who serve him. + +[117] p. 106. + +4. OMAYAN, OR KALALOA NANG OMAY, is the spirit of the rice. He resides +in the rice fields, and there offerings are made to him before the time +of planting and reaping. + +5. MUNTIANAK is the spirit of a child whose mother died while pregnant, +and who for this reason was born in the ground. It wanders through the +forest frightening people but seldom assailing them.[118] + +[118] The belief in a similar spirit known as Mantianak is widespread +throughout the southern Philippines. + +6. Magbabaya. Some informants stated that this is the name given to the +first man and woman, who emerged from the _limokon_ eggs. They are now +true spirits who exercise considerable influence over worldly affairs. +Other informants, including two _ballyan_ denied any knowledge of such +spirits, while still others said _magbabaya_ is a single spirit who was +made known to them at the time of the _Tungud_ movement.[119] Among the +Bukidnon who inhabit the central portion of the island the _magbabaya_ +are the most powerful of all spirits. + +[119] p. 179. + +7. Kalaloa. Each person has one spirit which is known by this name. If +this _kalaloa_ leaves the body it decays, but the spirit goes to +Dagkotanan--"a good place, probably in the sky." Such a spirit can return +to its former haunts for a time and may aid or injure the living, but it +never returns to dwell in any other form. + +In addition to those just mentioned Governor Bolton gives the following +list of spirits known to the Mandaya of the Tagum river valley. None of +these were accepted by the people of Mayo district. According to rank +they are Mangkokiman, Mongungyahn, Mibucha Andepit, Mibuohn, and Ebu--who +made all people from the hairs of his head. + +For the neighboring Mangwanga he gives, Likedanum as the creator and +chief spirit, Dagpudanum and Macguliput as gods of agriculture, and +Manamoan--a female spirit who works the soil and presides over +childbirth. All of these are unknown to the Mandaya of the Pacific +coast. + +While in the Salug river valley Governor Bolton witnessed a most +interesting ceremony which, so far as the writer is aware, is quite +unknown to the balance of the tribe. His quotation follows: "One +religious dance contained a sleight of hand performance, considered by +the people as a miracle, but the chiefs were evidently initiated. A man +dressed himself as a woman, and with the gongs and drums beaten rapidly +he danced, whirling round and round upon a mat until weak and dizzy, so +that he had to lean on a post. For a time he appeared to be in a trance. +After resting a few minutes he stalked majestically around the edge of +the mat, exaggerating the lifting and placing of his feet and putting on +an arrogant manner. After walking a minute or two he picked up a red +handkerchief, doubled it in his hand so that the middle of the kerchief +projected in a bunch above his thumb and forefinger; then he thrust this +into the flame of an _almaciga_ torch. The music started anew and he +resumed his frantic dance until the flame reached his hand when he +slapped it out with his left hand, and stopped dancing; then catching +the kerchief by two corners he shook it out showing it untouched by +fire. The daughter of Bankiaoan next went into a trance lying down and +singing the message of Tagbusau and other gods to the assemblage. The +singing was done in a small inclosed room, the singer slipping in and +out without my seeing her." + +The letters of Pedro Rosell written at Caraga in 1885 contain many +references to the duties of the _ballyan_. In one account he records the +following song which he says is sung by the priestesses when they invoke +their gods Mansilatan and Badla.[120] + +[120] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 217-21, and Vol. XII, p. 270. + +"Miminsad, miminsad si Mansilatan + +Opod si Badla nga magadayao nang dumia + +Bailan, managunsayao, + +Bailan, managunliguit." + +This means: + +"Mansilatan has come down, has come down. + +Later (will come) Badla, who will preserve the earth. + +Bailanas, dance; bailanas, turn ye round about." + +This Rosell takes as "a confirmation of the most transcendental +questions of our true religion," for in Mansilatan he finds the +principal god and father of Balda, "who descended from the heavens where +he dwells, in order to create the world. Afterwards his only son Badla +came down also to preserve and protect the world--that is men and +things--against the power and trickery of the evil spirits Pudaugnon and +Malimbung." The writer made persistent inquiry among the Mandaya to the +south of Caraga, but could not find a trace of a belief in any one of +the four spirits named; neither are these spirits mentioned in the notes +of Governor Bolton, nor in the excellent description of the people about +Cateel, furnished by such a careful observer as Mr. Maxey. It seems that +this account, together with the song and its translation, must have been +gathered from other than Mandayan sources. Long before 1885 the town of +Caraga had become one of the strongholds of the church on the east coast +of Mindanao, and Christianized settlers from all the southern islands +had come to the vicinity.[121] It is probable that Rosell's information +was secured from Christianized or Moro emigrants, and the first spirits +named refer to Badhala--Bathala, or Batala--"the all powerful," and Dian +Mansalanta--"the patron of lovers and generation."[122] + +[121] They are often referred to as _Caragas_ in the early writings. + +[122] Further information regarding these spirits will be found in the +Relations of Loarca, 1582 (BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. V, p. 171), and the +Relation of Juan de Plasencia, 1589 (_ibid_, Vol. VII, pp. 189-96, Vol. +XII, p. 265). It is worthy of note that the Bagobo spirit Toglat, who is +one of the pair responsible for marriages and births, is sometimes +addressed as Maniladan. + +THE TUNGUD MOVEMENT + +In 1908 a religious movement known as _tungud_ started among the +Manobo[123] at the source of the Rio Libaganon. Soon it had spread over +practically the whole southeastern portion of Mindanao, and finally +reached the Mandaya of the Pacific Coast. According to Mr. J. M. Garvan, +of the Philippine Bureau of Science, the movement was instigated by a +Manobo named Mapakla. This man was taken ill, probably with cholera, and +was left for dead by his kinsmen. Three days later he appeared among the +terrified people and explained, that a powerful spirit named Magbabaya +had entered his body and cured him. He further stated that the world was +about to be destroyed and that only those persons who gave heed to his +instructions would survive. These instructions bade all to cease +planting and to kill their animals for, he said, "if they survive to the +end they will eat you." A religious house or shrine was to be built in +every settlement, and was to be looked after by divinely appointed +ministers. Those persons who were at first inclined to be skeptical as +to the truth of the message, were soon convinced by seeing the Magbabaya +enter the bodies of the ministers, causing them to perform new, frantic +dances, interrupted only by trembling fits during which their eyes +protruded and gave them the semblance of dead men. + +[123] Not the Kulaman. + +By the time the _tungud_ had reached the Mayo district it had lost most +of its striking features, but was still powerful enough to cause many of +the Mandaya to kill their animals and hold religious dances. The coast +Moro, who at that time were restless, took advantage of the movement to +further a plan to drive American planters and Christianized natives from +the district. The leading Mandaya were invited to the house of the Moro +_pandita_[124] "to see the spirit Diwata." During several nights the son +of the _pandita_ impersonated the spirit and appeared in the darkened +room. Over his chest and forehead he had stretched thin gauze and +beneath this had placed many fire-flies, which to the imaginative people +made him appear superhuman. His entrance into the room was attended by a +vigorous shaking of the house, caused by a younger brother stationed +below. A weird dance followed and then the spirit advised the people to +rise and wipe out the whole Christianized population. The Mandaya had +become so impressed by the nightly appearance of Diwata that it is more +than probable they would have joined the Moro in their project had not +an American planter at Mayo learned of the plot. He imprisoned the +leaders, thus ending a scheme which, if successful, would have given new +attributes to at least one of the spirits. + +[124] The religious head of the settlement. + +SOCIAL ORGANIZATION + +The before-mentioned _ballyan_ direct the religious observances of the +tribe. Their mysterious powers give them great influence among their +fellows but, nevertheless, they are subservient to the local ruler. + +The tribe is divided into many small groups, each of which is governed +by a _bagani_. To reach this coveted position a man must have +distinguished himself as a warrior and have killed at least ten persons +with his own hand.[125] The victims need not be killed in warfare and +may be of any sex or age so long as they come from a hostile village. +When the required number of lives has been taken, the aspirant appeals +to the neighboring _bagani_ for the right to be numbered in their select +company. They will assemble to partake of a feast prepared by the +candidate and then solemnly discuss the merits of his case. The petition +may be disregarded entirely, or it may be decided that the exploits +related are sufficient only to allow the warrior to be known as a half +_bagani_. In this case he may wear trousers of red cloth, but if he is +granted the full title he is permitted to don a blood-red suit and to +wear a turban of the same hue. This distinction is eagerly sought by the +more vigorous men of the tribe and, as a result, many lives are taken +each year. + +[125] At Mayo it was said that it is necessary to kill only six, but the +two _bagani_ living there had each killed more than twice that number. +Among the Mansaka the number required is often as high as thirty. + +A short time ago a candidate entered the district of Bungalung on the +east coast of Davao and killed thirty-two persons. In that same section +are now living five _bagani_ who have gained this title by similar +exploits.[126] Whole communities become involved in feuds as a result of +these individual raids, for it is the duty of a murdered man's family to +seek revenge for his death. It is not necessary that they kill the +offender, as any member of his family or settlement will suffice. In +some districts the unmarried relatives of a murdered person are not +allowed to wed until the death is avenged. + +[126] These are Maclingtong at Pandisan; Pankard at Tagauanan; +Kasicknan, Lewanan, and Malangit, in the mountains between Taguanan and +Piso. + +Instances are known where the old men have conferred the title of +_bagani_ upon the son of some deceased warrior. In such a case the +recipient of the honor starts at once to fulfil the requirements of +election, for otherwise he brings disgrace to himself and family. In his +own settlement the oldest of the _bagani_ becomes supreme ruler, and if +powerful enough he may extend his influence to a considerable distance. +In a few cases on the East coast the holders of the title have so +instilled fear of themselves into the neighboring districts that they +have been able to levy blackmail, even on the Christianized natives. War +parties are led by these wearers of the red garments, and they also +enforce the laws handed down from their forefathers. + +The day a warrior is elevated to this order he is in a large measure cut +away from his fellows. He no longer associates with them as equals but +eats his meals alone, unless it happens that other _bagani_ are present. + +Below the _bagani_ in rank come the warriors, a class which includes +practically all the able-bodied free men; and still below them are the +slaves. Slavery was an ancient institution with this people when the +Spaniards first visited their country, and it has continued to flourish +up to the present, in all districts a little removed from the influence +of the white man. The great majority of slaves are secured by capture, +but until recent years the Moro of the coast have carried on a lucrative +slave trade with this tribe. Girls and women become members of their +master's household, but their children are treated as slaves. Captive +boys and men aid their masters in the chase and in the fields, and in +most cases it would be hard indeed for a stranger to pick servant from +master. Sometimes the people of a neighboring village ransom one of +their fellows and in such a case the freed slave may return to his old +home or he may become a free member of the community in which he has +been serving. + +DWELLINGS + +The insecurity of life resulting from the conditions described has +caused the people to build their homes high in the branches of trees, +often so situated on the edge of cliffs that they can be approached only +from one direction (Plates LXXIII-LXXIV). + +Two sorts of dwellings are commonly seen. Of these, the rudest rest on +the limbs of trees, and conform in size and shape to the nature of the +supporting branches. Some few houses of this kind have horizontal sides +and sloping roofs, but more frequently a roof which slopes directly from +a central ridge pole to the edges of the platform does away with the +necessity of side walls. + +The second and more common type of house is shown in Plate LXXIV. Here +the top of the tree has been cut off some fifteen or twenty feet above +the ground leaving a stump to serve as a part of the foundation. Many +smaller poles help support the floor and then extend upward to form the +wall and roof stays. The upper flooring of beaten bark rests on +cross-beams which have been lashed to the uprights. Above it are +occasional horizontal poles, forming a skeleton to which the walls of +_nipa_ palm are fastened. In some houses two or three of the foundation +poles extend above the floor to such a height that they are used as the +supports for the ridge pole. In others true king posts rest on the +beams, which in turn are supported by the corner poles. From the ridge a +number of smaller rods extend to or project out over the side walls, and +on them rests the roofing of _nipa_ palm. A space of several inches +often intervenes between the roof and the side walls. The whole +structure is so firmly lashed together with rattan that it is capable of +withstanding severe storms, despite the fact that it gives and creaks +with every wind. During violent storms the house is further secured by +anchoring it with rattan lines to nearby trees. + +Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of bamboo or rattan ladders. +These are drawn up at night, and with all means of access thus removed +the inhabitants need have little fear of a surprise attack. If enemies +do attempt to dislodge them the defenders have the advantage of their +elevated position in the use of their weapons. + +Generally, each house contains only one room which varies in size +according to the number of inhabitants. Frequently two or three families +are found living in one house, for it is the custom for the suitors, and +often for the husbands of the married daughters, to live with the girls' +people. + +Near the door, or in one comer of the room, is a small box of earth in +which several stones are imbedded. This constitutes the hearth, about +which is found a miscellany of pots, jars, and other kitchen vessels. +The smoke finds its way out through a small opening at each end of the +roof, or through the narrow space under the eaves. There is no +recognized arrangement of the room. Utensils[127] are scattered +promiscuously about and when the inhabitants are ready to sleep they +occupy such parts of the floor as are free or can be most easily +cleared. + +[127] These consist of baskets, rice mortars, and winnowers, weaving +outfits, bark dye vats, as well as traps and weapons, nearly all of +which are so similar to those already described for the Bagobo that they +do not call for special notice here. + +The people of a community build their houses within a short distance of +one another, yet seldom so close together as to form a village. However, +village life is not entirely unknown, for in the vicinity of Cateel +Governor Bolton found six houses, partially surrounded by palisades, +perched on the top of a conical hill. + +Lieutenant Youngblood gives the following description of the people and +dwellings seen by him near the upper waters of the Agusan river: + +"The people seemed to be living in an atmosphere of fear as far as +intercourse with the world outside their crater-like valley was +concerned. They believed it was death to look upon the sea, of which +they had heard disjointed tales, but which none of them had ever seen. +They feared the coast people with a mortal fear, justified perhaps by +the experiences of occasional meetings in times gone by. They fear each +other to a certain extent, especially men who live further north of the +headwaters of the Agusan. This ever-present state of fear gives coloring +to their whole life. They take to the brush at the least unwonted sound. +They make their clearings on the steep mountainsides and in these build +two or three of their houses in strategic positions. In the very +construction of their dwellings the idea of security in case of attack +is predominant. + +"The houses in this section are generally built in clearings on the +sawn-off trunk of some giant tree and placed from the ground some forty +or fifty feet. Numerous posts help support the structure, entrance to +which is gained by a notched pole firmly set in the ground and held in +place by tightly wound bejuca. Oftentimes this stair pole is bowed +outwards slightly, which gives it a peculiar appearance and requires a +considerable amount of skill in climbing. The front and only door to +these houses consists of a section of the floor composed of hewn plank, +hinged at one end. One end of this is raised by a bejuca rope during the +day, while at night it is let down forming a solid floor throughout the +house. + +"The roof is of shingles made from mountain cane; the floor and sides of +hand-hewn logs and planks; the roof is at no place more than seven feet +from the floor and is blackened on the inside from smoke. The largest +house visited in this locality was that of Chief Leuanan, and this was +some twenty feet square. These houses consist of one room and are +inhabited by two or more families." + +AGRICULTURE + +About the settlements are the fields in which rice, corn, camotes, +sugar-cane, and a small amount of tobacco, cotton and hemp are raised. +However, the crops are usually so small that even with the addition of +game and forest products there is, each year, a period closely bordering +on starvation. New clearings are frequently made near to the old, for +the primitive tools[128] with which the people work are ill-fitted to +combat the incursion into the open land of the rank cogon grass. Only +the exhaustion of suitable timber land for a new clearing, the +prevalence of an epidemic, or the near approach of a powerful enemy will +cause the people to move their homes from one district to another. + +[128] These consist of a mall axe, working knife, and planting stick. + +We have already referred to the important part the _limokon_ plays in +the selection and clearing of a new plot of ground,[129] and to the +offerings made to the spirits when it becomes necessary to cut down +certain trees.[130] The crops, aside from the rice, are planted and +harvested without further reference to the spirit world, but the +cultivation and care of this cereal can only be carried on according to +certain fixed conditions. + +[129] See pages 173 and 177. + +[130] Near Cateel the wishes of the spirits are learned by means of +cords. A number of strings are tied together in the center and the knot +is buried. The loose ends are then joined and if it happens that the two +ends of a cord have been tied together it is taken as a sign that the +spirits give their consent to the proposed clearing. + +About November first, when a group of seven stars called _poyo poyo_ +appears in the west, it is a signal for all who expect to clear new land +to begin their labors. By December first this constellation rises +straight above and it is then time to plant. This is further confirmed +by the appearance of a star known as _sabak_. If any have delayed their +planting until the middle of December they are given a last warning when +the stars forming _Bayatik_[131] appear. + +[131] This is the same as _balatik_, page 62. + +As soon as the land has been cleared a pole is placed in the center of +the field and is surrounded by a fence. This is known as _tagbinian_ and +seems to be erected in honor of the spirit Omayan, although by some it +is insisted that it is intended for his residence. The seed rice is +deposited inside the enclosure[132] and the men begin to prepare the +soil about it. This they do by thrusting sharpened sticks into the +ground, thus making holes an inch or two in depth. Taking rice from the +_tagbinian_ the women follow, dropping seeds into the holes. + +[132] Maxey relates that at planting and harvest tune the Mandaya of +Cateel carry offerings to the _baliti_ trees and there offer it to +Diwata, in supplication or thanks for an abundant crop. + +When the harvest time is near at hand the men repair the old granaries +or build new and then, when all is ready for the crop, an old man or +woman goes alone, in the middle of the night, to the fields and there +cuts a few stalks of the rice. Should this be neglected the crop is sure +to be small and will vanish quickly. This grain is not used as an +offering, nor are any gifts made to the spirits until the crop has been +harvested and the people are ready to eat of the new rice. At that time +a little of the recently harvested grain is placed on a dish, together +with other food and betel-nut, and is carried to the granary, where it +is presented to the spirit "in order that the granary may always be +full." When the grain is needed for use it is removed from the straw by +pounding it with wooden pestles, it is then placed in a wooden mortar +and is again pounded until the husks are loosened. This accomplished, +the grain is freed from chaff by tossing it in a winnower. If a greater +amount has been cleared than is needed it is stored in gourds or +water-proof baskets (Fig. 50). A month or two after the harvest a great +celebration is held, the principal features of which are a feast and +dance but no offerings are then made to the spirits. + +FIG. 50. GOURD RICE HOLDER. + +The small crop of sugar-cane is made into an alcoholic drink, which is +sometimes indulged in at meal time but is generally reserved for festive +occasions. The juice is boiled with a plant called _palba_, similar to +ginger, and is stored away in bamboo tubes until it has reached a +suitable stage of fermentation. Another drink is made by boiling +strained honey with the _palba_ and allowing it to ferment. + +HUNTING AND FISHING + +A considerable portion of the food supply is secured by hunting and +fishing. Small birds are captured by placing a sticky substance on bare +limbs of fruit-bearing trees, or by fastening gummed sticks in places +frequented by birds. When a victim alights on this it is held securely +until captured by the hunter. Fig. 51 shows another method of securing +such small game. A cord with a noose at one end is attached to a bent +limb. In the center of this cord is tied a short stick which acts as a +trigger. This trigger is placed with the top end pressing against an +arched twig _a_, while the other end draws _b_ against the sides of the +arch. Other sticks rest on _b_ and on them is a covering of leaves on +which is placed bait and the open noose. The weight of a bird or small +animal on the cross-piece is sufficient to release the trigger and then +the bent limb draws the noose taut. + +FIG. 51. BIRD SNARE. + +The series of slip nooses attached to a central cord which surrounds a +tame decoy is also found in use here, and boys frequently secure birds +by means of blow-guns. The latter do not differ from those already +described on p. 73, but with this tribe they are regarded only as a +boy's plaything. + +Deer and pig are sometimes hunted by large parties with the aid of dogs. +In such cases an attempt is made to drive the animals past concealed +hunters, or to dispatch them with spears when brought to bay by the +dogs. The more successful method, however, is by means of traps several +types of which were seen by the writer. The first and most common is a +dead fall consisting of a heavy log so arranged in the runway of the +game that a passing animal will cause it to fall. Next in favor with the +hunters is the _bayatik_. One end of a sapling is tied horizontally to a +tree and is then bent back like a spring. It is held in place by means +of a trigger which is released when an animal disturbs a vine stretched +across the runway. Against the free end of the spring a long bamboo +spear or arrow is placed in such a manner that it is thrown with great +force against the animal which has released the trigger. This trap is +frequently used in warfare to protect the retreat of a war party, or to +surprise an enemy. + +Sharpened bamboo sticks, two or three feet long, planted at points where +animals are accustomed to jump or run down steep inclines, are +wonderfully efficient in securing game. Sticks and leaves cover pits in +which sharpened poles are planted and into these unsuspecting animals or +members of a hostile party often fall. All these last named devices are +exceedingly dangerous and it is unadvisable for a traveler in the jungle +to try to penetrate a strange region unless accompanied by a native who +knows the position of the traps and pits. + +Fish are secured by means of bamboo traps through which a part of the +water of a stream is diverted. These traps do not differ in any respect +from those shown in Fig. 19. Along the coast metal fishhooks and dip and +throw nets are in common use, but these are at present largely obtained +from the Moro. The easiest and hence the most popular method of securing +fish is to mash together the poisonous roots of the _tobli_ tree and the +fruit of the _oliskEb_. The pulp is then sunk into still pools of water +and in a short time, the stupified[sic] fish begin to float to the +surface, where they are quickly seized by the fishermen. + +WARFARE + +Mention has already been made of the use of pits and traps in warfare. +In addition to these it is customary for a returning war party to +conceal in the trail many _saoag_, small stiletto-shaped bamboo sticks, +which pierce the feet of those in pursuit. A night camp is effectively +protected in the same manner against barefooted enemies. + +The arms used are spears, fighting knives with wide bellied blades, +daggers, narrow shields with which weapons are defected (Fig. 52), and +in some sections bows and arrows. The fighting knives and daggers +(Plates LXXV-LXXVI) deserve more than casual notice. The heavy bellied +blades of the knives are highly tempered, and not infrequently are bored +through and inlaid with silver, in which instances they are known as +_binuta_,--blind (Plate LXXVa). The sheaths, with their sharply upturned +ends, are made of light wood on which are carved decorations, attached +or inlaid bands of silver, or stained designs. The handles of the +weapons are also decorated with incised silver bands. + +FIG. 52. WOODEN SHIELDS. + +Much as the fighting knives are prized, the dagger, _bayadau_ or +_badau_, is in even greater favor. It is worn on the front left-hand +part of the body in ready reach of the right hand, and is never removed +unless the owner is in the company of trusted relatives. A light thread, +easily broken, holds the dagger in its sheath and the slightest +disturbance is enough to cause the owner to draw his weapon. + +The older warriors claim that it formerly was their custom to protect +themselves with strips of hemp cloth, _limbotung_, which they wound many +times around their bodies in order to ward off knife thrusts, but this +method of protection seems to have fallen into disuse.[133] + +[133] This type of protective armor is still used by the Bukidnon of +Central Mindanao. + +Individual warriors lie in ambush for their foes, but when a great raid +is planned the party is under the command of a _bagani_. These attacks +are arranged to take place during the full moon and the warriors usually +assault a settlement which they think can be taken by surprise, and +hence unprepared. It is very seldom that these people fight in the open, +and invaders do not attempt a combat unless they feel sure of the +outcome. If they find a house well protected they may attempt to fire it +by attaching a torch to an arrow and shooting it into the grass roof, +the occupants being slaughtered as they rush out. If one of the enemy +puts up an especially good fight his body is opened and the warriors eat +a portion of his heart and liver, thinking thus to gain in valor. + +Mr. Maxey mentions the use of poisoned weapons in the neighborhood of +Cateel, but the Mandaya of the south seem to be entirely ignorant of +this custom, Maxey's account of the preparation of the poison is as +follows: + +"The poison is, according to the writer's informant, prepared as +follows: A long bamboo is cut and carried to a tree called +_camandag_.[134] The bamboo must be long enough to reach to the limit of +the shadow cast by the tree to the trunk of the same, as the tree is so +poisonous that it even affects those who stand beneath it. The bamboo +has a sharp point which is stuck into the tree and receives the milk +which exudes from the cut. After several days the bamboo is removed and +the contents emptied into another bamboo which serves for a sheath or +quiver for the arrows, these being placed in it point down. The +slightest scratch will cause death. A peculiar thing about the tree from +which the poison is extracted, is that the person extracting must not +only not get under the tree, but must approach it from the windward, as +the effects of even the odor are unpleasant and dangerous." + +[134] _Croton tiglium L_. + +INDUSTRIES + +In the description of the tribe up to this point we have touched upon +those pursuits which engross the greater part of the time. In addition +to these, it falls to the lot of the women to manufacture and decorate +all the clothing worn by members of the tribe. Some cotton is grown and +is used in the manufacture of jackets, but the bulk of the garments are +of hemp. In the description of the Decorative Art we shall deal with the +decoration of the hemp cloth skirts worn by the women. Here it is only +necessary for us to observe that this cloth is produced and colored by +exactly the same process as is employed by the Bagobo women.[135] + +[135] See p. 79. + +A very little brass casting is done by the Mandaya of one district, but +it is evidently a crude copy of Moro work. By far the greater part of +the brass betel boxes, and ornaments of that metal, as well as spear +heads, are purchased from the coast Mohammedans. + +Iron working is an ancient art with this people and the beauty and +temper of their knives and daggers is not excelled by the output of any +other Philippine tribe. In the manufacture of these weapons they employ +the same methods as their neighbors to the south and west. + +No wild tribe in the archipelago has made so much use of silver in the +production of ornaments as has the Mandaya. Thin silver plates are +rolled into small tubes and are attached to the woman's ear plugs (Fig. +49), finger rings of the same metal are produced in great numbers, but +the finest work appears in the large silver ornaments worn on the +breasts by both sexes (Fig. 53). Silver coins are beaten into thin +disks, in the center of which a hole is cut. About this opening appear +beautiful intricate designs, some engraved, others stamped with metal +dies. + +FIG. 53. SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS. + +All work in metal is limited to a few skilled men, but many lesser +industries, such as shaping tortoise shell rings and shell bracelets, +carving of spoons, and making baskets, are carried on by other members +of the tribe during their leisure hours. + +BIRTH + +In each district there are one or two mid wives, known as _managamon_. +They are women past middle life who are versed in the medicines and +rites which should be employed at the time of birth. They are not +considered as _ballyan_, yet they talk to the spirits upon certain +occasions. + +When a pregnant woman is about to be delivered the midwife crushes the +bark of the _dap-dap_ tree and makes a medicine called _tagaumo_, which +she gives to the patient. It is claimed that this causes the muscles to +relax so that they allow an easy delivery. The umbilical cord is cut +with a bamboo knife and as soon as the child has been bathed it is given +to the mother. The afterbirth is placed in a specially prepared basket +and is either hung against the side of the house or in a nearby tree. +For a few days the midwife assists about the house and then, if all is +well with the child, she takes her payment of rice, chicken, and fish, +and returns to her home. Should the child be ailing she will return, and +having placed rice and betel-nut on banana leaves she carries these to +the top of the house and there offers them to the _asuang_,[136] +meanwhile asking those spirits to accept the offering and to cease +troubling the child. No ceremony takes place at the time of naming or at +the age of puberty, but at the latter period the teeth are filed and +blackened so that the young person may be more beautiful and, therefore, +able to contract a suitable marriage. + +[136] See p. 176. [Transcriber's note: This is page 192.] + +MARRIAGE + +Frequently parents arrange matches for their children while they are +still very young, but in the majority of cases the matter is left until +after the age of puberty when the wishes of the young people are taken +into consideration. The youth or his father having chosen a suitable +girl takes or sends a spear, knife, or other acceptable present to her +father. If this offering is accepted it indicates approval of the match, +and soon thereafter a feast is prepared to which friends of both +families are invited. At this feast the price to be paid for the girl +and the time of marriage are agreed upon, and at least partial payment +is made. As is the case with the neighboring tribes, a part of the value +of this gift is returned. Following the agreement the boy enters the +service of his fiancee's father and for a year or more lives as a member +of the family. Even after the marriage a considerable amount of service +is expected from him at the time of planting, harvesting, or building. + +The marriage ceremony proper follows a feast, and consists of the young +couple feeding each other with rice and drinking from a common cup. + +Should anything occur to prevent the marriage, after the payment for the +girl has been made, the gifts must be returned or service equal to their +value must be rendered. + +Unfaithfulness on the part of the woman seems to be the one cause for a +separation and this is uncommon, for unless her admirer purchases her +for a sum equal to the amount her husband spent in obtaining her, the +divorced woman remains as a slave in the home of her former husband. + +Polygamy is permitted and is quite common, but a man may not take a +second wife until a child has been born to the first. In addition to his +wives a man may have as many concubines as he can afford to purchase. + +It is said to be a grave offense for a man to embrace a married woman, +or even to touch the breasts, elbows, or heels of any woman he does not +intend to marry. An unmarried woman who permits such familiarities is +considered as good as married. Despite this assertion, the writer knows +of several cases where young people openly lived together without being +considered married, and later the parents arranged marriages between +these girls and other suitors. + +According to several informants, incest is punished by the sacrifice of +the guilty parties. They are tied to a tree with their hands drawn +backward around the trunks and are then speared to death. This seems to +be the one and only occasion when human sacrifice is practiced by +members of this tribe. + +SICKNESS AND DEATH. + +When a person is seriously ill a _ballyan_ is summoned and she, after +securing prepared rice, betel-nuts, and a live chicken, enters into +communication with the spirits. First she converses with the dead father +or other deceased relative of the sick person and requests his aid in +effecting a cure, next she presents food to Diwata and implores his aid, +and finally calls upon the _asuang_ to whom she offers the live fowl on +the condition that they will cease trying to injure the patient. Having +thus done all in her power to influence the spirits she may administer +some simple remedy, after which she begins to dance contra-clockwise, +around a bamboo pole on which leaves and betel-nut have been hung.[137] + +[137] This ceremony usually takes place in the house, but if the man was +taken ill in the forest or in his field it may be conducted there. + +If this treatment proves to be of no avail and the patient dies his body +is placed in the center of the house and for two days and nights is +guarded by relatives and friends. During the time that the body remains +in the dwelling the family is required to fast and all the people of the +settlement are prohibited from playing on agongs, from singing or +indulging in other signs of merriment. Finally, the body is wrapped in a +mat and is buried in the forest.[138] + +[138] Maxey gives the following account of burial near Cateel: "The dead +person is dressed in his best clothes, wrapped in a piece of _abaca_ +cloth, and placed in a coffin of bamboo poles, or one hewn from a solid +log, if the person was one of means, and buried. If of the poorer class +he is merely wrapped in a piece of matting-, and either buried or +covered over with stones, sticks, and the like. If of high rank, the +body is not buried, but after preparation is taken into the forest and +placed in a small hut under a _balete_ tree. Food, spears, bolos, hats, +shields, and some articles of furniture are placed on the graves to +placate the spirits who might otherwise bring harm to the surviving +members of the clan or family. There is no fixed period of mourning, but +the members of the family must wear black for some time after the death. +The sick are never abandoned prior to death, but slaves nearing death +are sometimes killed to stop their sufferings. The owner, however, must +first consult with others of the clan." + +Returning from the burial all the people partake of a feast and then set +fire to the dwelling "because we do not like the _asuang_ which killed +the man in that house." During the ensuing nine days the spouse of the +dead dresses in black and for a month following, or until they can +purchase a slave, the whole family is barred from merry-making. Two +reasons for the purchase of this slave were advanced by members of the +tribe. One was that the family could be happy if they were still rich +enough to purchase a slave. The second, that they thus replaced the dead +man with another, "for the slaves are like members of our own family." + +DECORATIVE ART. + +The decorative art of the Mandaya is similar in many respects to that of +the Bagobo and Bila-an, yet in part it differs greatly from both. As is +true with the other tribes, the weavers make use of many figures which +they do not associate with any living forms, but which, nevertheless, +strongly suggest that they may have been derived from realistic designs. +In addition to such patterns they frequently employ figures which are +intentional copies of human or animal forms. Of these the most common +are those representing a man and a crocodile; these sometimes appear +together, sometimes alone. The requirements of the space to be filled, +as well as readiness of the worker to alter any part in order to give a +more pleasing effect to the design have resulted in many distorted and +conventionalized figures which can only be explained by the artist. The +accompanying drawings are taken from articles collected by the writer +and now in the Field Museum of Natural History. + +Patterns _A_ to _H_ in Fig. 54 appear in hemp cloth skirts. These show +the steps in the conventionalization of the human figure,[139] as +explained by the weavers. In the first four the forms are so realistic +that they need no explanation, but _E_ is more complicated. Here two +greatly conventionalized figures have been used, one erect, the other +with head down. The size of the head has been increased while the body +is represented by a small diamond-shaped pattern with outstretched arms +attached. The legs and feet of both figures help to form a pattern +similar to a head, except that it lacks the "hair" shown in the end +designs. _F_ resembles the preceding quite closely. In it the central +head-like pattern does not appear and the legs and feet of one figure +help to form the head of the other. This design has been doubled, thus +necessitating some alteration of the figures at the points of union. In +_G_ and _H_ nearly all the realistic elements have vanished, yet certain +resemblance to _D_ and _E_ can be discerned. + +[139] One weaver insisted that this figure represents a frog, because of +its webbed feet, but none of the others agreed with her. + +FIG. 54A TO H. DESIGNS REPRESENTING THE HUMAN FORM. + +We have already learned that the crocodile is held in great regard and +in some sections there is evidence of its more or less sacred character. +Its importance in the minds of the people is well shown by the frequency +with which it appears in their decorative designs. Fig. 55_A_ shows one +of these animals which has just eaten a man. Both figures are so +realistic that the intention of the weaver is apparent. In _B_, _D_, +_E_, and _F_, the animal is still realistic, but the man disappears, and +in his place is a formless object or straight lines which are identified +as "something eaten." + +FIG. 55A TO H. CROCODILE DESIGNS. + +The pattern _G_ is given as the next step in the conventionalization. +Here the legs, feet, and "something eaten" have assumed undue +proportions, while nearly every trace of likeness has vanished. This +figure is multiplied five times to obtain the highly conventionalized +form shown in _H_. + +By referring to _G_ it is possible to see how the complicated designs in +_I_ and _J_ have been derived, although they bear little resemblance to +the original crocodile form. + +Fig. 56 was identified as a crocodile but was not regarded as a step in +the conventionalization shown. Many other figures such as 57 appear so +closely related to the designs just described that it seems certain they +must have had a common origin, yet this was denied by all the weavers, +who insisted that such decorations were added only to make the garments +pretty. + +FIG. 56. CROCODILE DESIGN. + +FIG. 57. DESIGN USED IN WEAVING. + +Going from weaving to designs cut in wood, something of the same state +of affairs is encountered. Pattern _a_ on the bamboo comb (Fig. 48) is +identified as the crocodile, yet the very similar figures shown on a +bamboo lime holder (Fig. 58) and on a wooden clothes-hanger (Fig. 59) +are not so recognized. + +FIG. 58. INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO LIME HOLDER. + +FIG. 59. CLOTHES HANGER. + +Figs. 60 and 61 show characteristic designs which are embroidered on +jackets or carrying bags. All these are added with the one idea of +beautifying the garment, without any thought of copying some living +form. This is true also of the incised zigzag lines, scrolls, and +meander patterns seen on the silver breast disks (Fig. 53), and those +stained on palm bark hats (Fig. 47). + +FIGS. 60 AND 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + +Tobacco pouches (Fig. 62) are often completely covered with bright +colored geometrical designs embroidered in trade yarn. This work, which +is quite unlike the other decoration used by this people, was probably +introduced along with trade yarn and analine[sic] dyes. + +FIG. 62. TOBACCO POUCHES. + + + +CONCLUSION + +From the material now at our disposal certain general conclusions can be +drawn. + +A comparison of the physical measurements indicates that no group is of +pure race. There are significant variations between members of different +tribes, but these occur also between individuals of the same village. +The average person in each group is short-headed, yet long-headed +individuals are found in every tribe and variations just as great as +this appear in the other measurements and observations. + +We have previously noted the evidences of an aboriginal pygmy +population, that has been partially absorbed by intermarriage with the +later comers.[140] In all the groups, except the Bila-an, the percentage +of individuals showing evidences of Negrito blood increases as we go +from the coasts toward the interior, until in such divisions as the Obo +and Tigdapaya of the Bagobo, and the Tugauanum of the Ata, practically +all the people show traces of this admixture. + +[140] Negrito are reported from the Samal Islands in the Gulf of Davao. + +In addition to the types already described there are found in each tribe +individuals who in all but color might readily pass as white men. These +persons freely intermarry with the rest of the population, and it is no +uncommon thing to find in one family children of this sort as well as +those showing Negrito characteristics or those conforming to the average +type.[141] + +[141] This will be discussed in a forthcoming publication on Physical +Types. That paper will present a full series of measurements accompanied +by photographs, including the Bukidnon of North Central Mindanao in +which tribe this type is more frequently seen than in Davao District. + +The facts indicate that the tribes now found in Davao District did not +reach the coasts of Mindanao at the same time, but rather that they +represent several periods of migration, of which the Kulaman is the +last. This tribe, which only a few generations ago seems to have been +made up of seafarers, has not yet entirely adapted itself to a settled +existence and it is only within the lifetime of the present generation +that its members have taken seriously to agriculture. + +It appears that the Bila-an once inhabited the district about Lake +Buluan, but the pressure of the Moro has forced most of them from that +region toward the mountains to the south and east. They have taken +possession of both sides of this mountain range, except for the lower +eastern slopes where they have encountered the Tagakaolo. + +The other tribes probably landed on the southern or southeastern coast +of the Island, from whence they have gradually moved to their present +habitats. + +Intermarriage between the tribes, Moro raids, warfare with the +accompanying capture of slaves, and the possible influence of boat-loads +of castaways, all have to be considered in dealing with the types found +in Davao District. We have already seen that the physical measurements +indicate a complex racial history. + +After giving full credit to all these influences, however, it does not +appear to the writer that such radical differences exist between the +tribes as will justify us in assigning to them different ancestry or +places of origin. The summarized description of the Bagobo given on page +56 would, with only, slight modification, apply to all the other tribes, +with the exception of certain groups of the Ata in which the Negrito +element is very pronounced. In brief, the various influences that have +been at work on one group have influenced all the others, since their +arrival on the island of Mindanao. + +This conclusion is further justified by the language in which a large +per cent of the words in daily use are common to all the groups. Even +the Bila-an dialect, which differs more from all the others than do any +of those from one another, has so many words in common with the coast +tongues and is so similar in structure that one of my native boys, who +never before had seen a Bila-an, was able freely to carry on a +conversation within a few days after his arrival in one of their most +isolated settlements. + +Similar as are the people and their dialects, the cultural agreements +are even more noticeable. Taking the Bagobo as a starting point, we find +a highly developed culture which, with a few minor changes, holds good +for the tribes immediately surrounding. These in turn differ little from +their neighbors, although from time to time some new forms appear. The +Cibolan type of dwelling, with its raised platform at one end and +box-like enclosures along the side walls, is met with until the Mandaya +territory is approached, while, with little variation, the house +furnishings and utensils in daily use are the same throughout the +District. The same complicated method of overtying, dyeing, and weaving +of hemp employed in the manufacture of women's skirts is in use from +Cateel in the north to Sarangani Bay in the south, while in the +manufacture of weapons the iron worker in Cibolan differs not at all +from his fellow-craftsman among the Mandaya. Here we are confronted by +the objection that, so far as is known, no iron work is done by the +Bila-an and Ata, but this is a condition which is encountered throughout +the archipelago. In the interior of Luzon are found isolated villages, +the inhabitants of which are expert workers in iron and steel, while +their neighbors seem to be ignorant of the process.[142] The writer +holds to the opinion that iron working is an ancient art throughout the +Philippine archipelago and that its use for various reasons, such as +lack of material, has died out in certain sections. Brass workers are +found among most of the tribes, but, as was observed earlier in this +paper, there is sufficient evidence that the industry is of recent +introduction, and the amount and excellence of the work done by the +brass casters is governed by the nearness or remoteness of Moro +settlements. + +[142] The process used in Northern Luzon is very similar to that +employed in Southern Mindanao. + +Except for the cotton garments recently adopted by the Kagan branch of +the Tagakaolo, and the suits worn by the Mandaya men, the clothing seen +throughout the District is very similar. A few ornaments, such as the +silver rings and breast disks of the Mandaya, have only a limited +distribution, but for the most part the decorations worn by the +different tribes differ only in the number of beads, bells, and shell +disks used in their manufacture. + +In the ornamentation of their garments certain groups have specialized +until the bead work of the Bagobo excels all such work found in the +Philippines. The same can be said of the intricate and beautifully +embroidered designs seen in the garments of the Bila-an or the oversewed +fabrics of the Kulaman, while the crudely embroidered patterns of the +Mandaya are wonderfully effective. Yet, despite apparent +dissimilarities, there is such a likeness in many forms of +ornamentation, as well as in the technique of the methods of production, +that there seems to be ample proof of free borrowing, or of a common +origin. + +On the non-material side the similarities between the groups are even +more marked. In each tribe the warriors gain distinction among their +fellows, the protection of certain spirits, and the privilege of wearing +red garments, by killing a certain number of persons. Except among the +Kulaman, mediums much like the _mabalian_ of the Bagobo make known the +wishes of the superior beings and direct the ceremonies. The people are +instructed when to plant by the spirits who place certain constellations +in the skies. These are the same for all the groups, although often +known by different names. The _limokon_ warns or encourages the +traveler, while certain acts of the individual, such as sneezing, are +looked upon as warnings from unseen beings. Many of these beings having +like attributes, although often bearing different names, are known to +each group. The idea of one or more spirits dwelling in different parts +of a man's body is widespread, while the belief that the right side of +the body is under the care of good influences and the left subject to +the bad, is well nigh universal in the District. + +In conclusion note should be made of oft repeated assertions to the +effect that a part of the people of Davao District are white, and that +they are also cannibals and headhunters. The first can be dismissed with +the statement that so far as the writer has been able to observe or to +learn from trustworthy sources, there is no justification for such a +story. It can be just as positively stated that neither the Mandaya nor +any other tribe here described practice cannabalism[sic]. Warriors do +eat a part of the livers and hearts of men who have shown great valor, +the eaters thus securing some of the good qualities of the victims. The +Kulaman warriors always taste of the liver of the slain "in order to +become like Mandalangan," but they expressed the greatest disgust when +it was suggested that the balance of the body might make good food. + +While it is true that the Kulaman take the heads, and some times the +arms,[143] of slain foes, and that the same custom is some times +followed by individual warriors of the other tribes, head-hunting for +the sake of the trophy is not practiced here, as is the case in Northern +Luzon. The skull or other portions of the body are kept only long enough +to prove the murder, or until they can be mutilated by the women and +children, "who thus become brave." + +[143] This is also the custom of the Bukidnon. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, +MINDANAO*** + + +******* This file should be named 18273-8.txt or 18273-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao + The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition + + +Author: Fay-Cooper Cole + + + +Release Date: April 28, 2006 [eBook #18273] +Most recently updated: May 30, 2006 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, +MINDANAO*** + + +E-text prepared by Carl D. DuBois + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 18273-h.htm or 18273-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273/18273-h/18273-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273/18273-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + The Table of Contents and the List of Illustrations were added + by the transcriber. The text refers to 76 photographic "PLATES," + but the source copy contained only the first. Two of the + illustrations were labeled "FIG. 26;" I have labeled them + FIG. 26A and FIG. 26B. + + + + + +Field Museum of Natural History. +Publication 170. +Anthropological Series Vol. XII, No. 2. + +THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, MINDANAO + +by + +FAY-COOPER COLE +Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology + +The R. F. Cummings Philippine Expedition + +George A. Dorsey +Curator, Department of Anthropology + + + + + + + +[Frontispiece:] TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT + + + +Chicago, U. S. A. +September, 1913 + + + + +CONTENTS + + I. THE BAGOBO. + II. BILA-AN. +III. KULAMAN. + IV. TAGAKAOLO. + V. ATA. + VI. MANDAYA. + CONCLUSION + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + Plate 1. TRIBAL MAP OF DAVAO DISTRICT + + FIG. 1. SHELL BRACELET. + FIG. 2. NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID WITH FERN AND ORCHID CUTICLE. + FIG. 3. BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN. + FIG. 4. TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS. + FIG. 5. EAR STRETCHERS. + FIG. 6. WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS. + FIG. 7. LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS. + FIG. 8. THE "STOVE." + FIG. 9. BAMBOO PLATE RACK. + FIG. 10A. RICE MORTAR. + FIG. 10B. PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND. + FIG. 10C. CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT GRAIN FROM + FALLING OUT. + FIG. 10D. WOODEN PESTLE. + FIG. 11. COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH WOODEN HANDLES. + FIG. 12. TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE RECEPTACLE IN WHICH OFFERINGS + ARE MADE. + FIG. 13. RICE WINNOWER. + FIG. 14. INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES. + FIG. 15. SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND HUNTING. + FIG. 16. CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING CASE. + FIG, 17. BOWS AND ARROWS. + FIG. 18. BLOW GUNS AND DARTS. + FIG. 19. BAMBOO FISH TRAP. + FIG. 20. (LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH SPEAR. + FIG. 21. (RIGHT) FISH LURE. + FIG. 22. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 23. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 24. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + FIG. 25. COCOANUT SCRAPER. + FIG. 26A. STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + FIG. 26B. STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + FIG. 27. HEMP MACHINE. + FIG. 28. SUGAR CANE PRESS. + FIG. 29. RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO CLAPPER ATTACHED TO TOP. + FIG. 30. CARRYING FRAME. + FIG. 31A. FRONT OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + FIG. 32B. BACK OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + FIG. 33. TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR. + FIG. 34. REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS AND SHELL DISKS. + FIG. 35. COOKING POT AND COVER. + FIG. 36. WOMEN'S COMBS. + FIG. 37. A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS. B. MEN'S EAR PLUGS. + FIG. 38. BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM LAKE BULUAN REGION. + FIG. 39. BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON USE. + FIG. 40. PITCH STICK USED IN THE CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS. + FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER. + FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP. + FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH. + FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET. + FIG. 47. MEN'S HATS. + FIG. 48. WOMAN'S COMB. + FIG. 49. EAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS. + FIG. 50. GOURD RICE HOLDER. + FIG. 51. BIRD SNARE. + FIG. 52. WOODEN SHIELDS. + FIG. 53. SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS. + FIG. 54A. TO 54H. DESIGNS REPRESENTING THE HUMAN FORM. + FIG. 55A. TO 55H. CROCODILE DESIGNS. + FIG. 56. CROCODILE DESIGN. + FIG. 57. DESIGN USED IN WEAVING. + FIG. 58. INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO LIME HOLDER. + FIG. 59. CLOTHES HANGER. + FIG. 60. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + FIG. 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + FIG. 62. TOBACCO POUCHES. + + + + +PREFACE. + +The material presented in this paper was obtained, for the most part, +during a stay of seven months among the tribes of Davao District in +Southern Mindanao of the Philippine Islands. Previous to this I had +spent a like period studying the Bukidnon, of the North-Central part of +the Island, and while thus engaged, had penetrated to within about fifty +miles of the Gulf of Davao. In order to trace migrations, relationships, +and trade routes, it was determined to continue the work from the Gulf +coast toward the interior. In pursuance of this plan I went to Davao in +July, nineteen hundred and ten. + +All information to be secured from publications, settlers, or natives +was to the effect that there were at least fourteen distinct tribes to +be met with in the Gulf region. The preliminary reconnaissance of the +field made it plain that the earlier classifications were greatly at +fault. Several divisions recognized as tribes were found to be only +dialect groups, while others differing in no essential respects from one +another secured names from the districts in which they resided. It was +also found that in recent years there had been a considerable movement +of the hill people toward the coast, and that in some places they had +penetrated and established themselves in the territory formerly held by +other tribes. + +The capture of slaves, intermarriage, and trade between the groups have +been powerful influences in obliterating tribal lines, thus adding +further confusion to the classification of the people. + +The field offered so much of interest that I determined to make detailed +studies of the various tribes encountered. The work progressed +satisfactorily for seven months, when a severe illness caused me to +leave the tropics for a time, at least. As a result the work with the +Gulf tribes is still far from complete. The tribes living on or near the +upper waters of the Agusan river and north of Compostela were not +visited, and, hence, will not be mentioned here, while certain other +divisions received only scant attention. No attempt is here made to +treat of the Christianized or Mohammedanized people, who inhabit a +considerable part of the coast and the Samal Islands, further than to +indicate their influence on the wild tribes. Both have settled in Davao +District in historic times, and have taken many native converts into +their villages. From these settlements new ideas, types of garments, and +industries have spread toward the interior, while the extensive slave +trade carried on by the Moro has had a marked effect on all the tribes +with whom they have come in contact. + +In the preparation of this paper I have, so far as possible, drawn on +the knowledge of others to fill in the gaps in my own notes. In spite of +this the information on certain groups is still so scanty that this can +be, at best, only a sketch. It is offered at this time in the hope that +it may serve as a help to other anthropologists who may plan to visit +this most interesting field. + +I wish here to extend my thanks to the various civil and military +authorities who gave me valuable assistance; also to Captain James +Burchfield, H. S. Wilson, James Irwin, Otto Hanson, William Gohn, Henry +Hubbell, and Juan de la Cruz, planters, whose wide knowledge of, and +acquaintance with the interior tribes made possible my work in many +localities. + +It is a pleasure and a duty to acknowledge the assistance rendered by my +wife, who accompanied me throughout my Philippine work. Her presence +made it possible to secure the complete confidence of the hill people, +and thus to gain an insight into their home life which otherwise would +have been impossible. A large part of the material here presented, +particularly that relating to the women, was gathered by her and many of +the photographs are from her camera. + +The dialects spoken by the tribes of central and southern Mindanao are +to be dealt with in a separate publication, so that at this time I shall +merely give a brief description of the characters appearing in the +native names used in this paper. The consonants are pronounced as in +English, except _r_ which is as in Spanish. _c_ is used as _ch_ in +_church_, _~n_, which occurs frequently, is a palatal nasal. There is no +clear articulation and the stop is not present, but the back of the +tongue is well up on the soft palate. + +The vowels are used as follows: +_macron-a_ like _a_ in _father_ +_macron-e_ like _a_ in _fate_ +_macron-i_ like _i_ in _ravine_ +_macron-o_ like _o_ in _note_ +_macron-u_ like _u_ in _flute_ +_a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, short of the above. + +[Transcribers' note: The macron-over-vowel orthographic symbols have +regretfully been irreproducible in this document.] + +_E_ is a sound between the obscure vowel _e_, as _e_ in _sun_, and the +_ur_ in _burrow_. + +The dipthongs[sic] are _ai_ like _ai_ in _aisle_, _au_ like _ou_ in +_mouse_, or final Spanish _ao_ as in _carabao_, _ei_ like _ei_ in +_eight_, _oi_ as in _boy_, also _Eu_, _eu_, etc. + +FAY-COOPER COLE, +Assistant Curator of Malayan Ethnology. +CHICAGO, September, 1913. + + + +I. THE BAGOBO. + +SYNONYMS: + +(a) GUIANGA, GUANGA, GULANGA + +(b) OBO + +(c) TIGDAPAYA + +(d) ETO + +HABITAT. + +The west coast of Davao Gulf between Daliao and Digos is dotted with +small villages, the inhabitants of which are largely Bagobo who have +been converted to the Christian faith and have been induced to give up +their mountain homes and settle in towns. Back of this coast line rise +densely timbered mountain peaks, lateral spurs from which often +terminate in abrupt cliffs overlooking the sea. From other peaks +extensive grass covered plains slope gently down nearly to the water's +edge. Deep river canons cut between these mountains and across the +plains, giving evidence of active erosion for a long period of time. If +these mountain chains and river courses are followed back it is found +that they all radiate from one stupendous mass, the center of which is +Mt. Apo, the highest mountain in the Philippines and reputed to be an +active volcano. Near to its summit is a deep fissure from which, on +clear mornings, columns of smoke or steam can be seen ascending, while +the first rays of the rising sun turn into gold, or sheets of white, the +fields of sulphur which surround the cone. + +Along the lower eastern and southern slopes of this mountain and its +tributary peaks live the wilder branch of this tribe, whose traditions, +religious observances, and daily life are closely related to the +manifestations of latent energy in the old volcano. + +NUMBER. + +The exact number who fall under this classification is not known, +Governor Bolton, who was intimately acquainted with the wild tribes of +the District, estimated their number at sixty-five hundred, but this +count did not include the sub-division here given as Obo. One +enumeration, made by a Jesuit missionary, places the population at +fifteen thousand, while the Government report of 1900 gives them +eighteen thousand four hundred. The latter estimates are certainly +excessive. It is probable that they were determined by compiling the +population of villages reported to exist in the interior. + +The wilder members of this tribe are, to a certain extent, migratory, +moving their villages from one location to another according to the +demands of their mode of agriculture. Their rice fields are made in +mountain-side clearings, and as the ever present cogon grass[1] begins +to invade the open land they substitute sweet potatoes or hemp. In time +even these lusty plants give way to the rank grass, and the people find +it easier to make new clearings in the forest than to combat the pest +with the primitive tools at their command. This results in some new +fields each year, and when these are at too great a distance from the +dwellings the old settlements are abandoned and new ones formed at more +convenient locations. + +[1] _Imperata koenigii_. + +It is probable that the total number belonging to this tribe does not +exceed ten thousand persons. + +INFLUENCE OF NEIGHBORS:--HISTORY. + +The influence of the neighboring tribes and of the white man on the +Bagobo has been considerable. The desire for women, slaves, and loot, as +well as the eagerness of individual warriors for distinction, has caused +many hostile raids to be made against neighboring tribes. Similar +motives have led others to attack them and thus there has been, through +a long period, a certain exchange of blood, customs, and artifacts. +Peaceful exchange of commodities has also been carried on for many years +along the borders of their territory. With the advent of the Moro along +the sea coast a brisk trade was opened up and new industries introduced. +There seems to have been little, if any, intermarriage between these +people, but their relations were sufficiently close for the Moro to +exert a marked influence on the religious and civil life of the wilder +tribe, and to cause them to incorporate into their language many new +words and terms. + +The friendly relations with the Moro seem to have been broken off upon +the arrival and settlement of the Spaniards in Davao. The newcomers were +then at war with the followers of Mohammed and soon succeeded in +enlisting the Bagobo rulers in their cause. A Chinese plate decorated +with the picture of a large blue fish was offered for each Moro head the +tribesmen presented to the Spanish commander. The desire for these +trophies was sufficient soon to start a brisk trade in heads, to judge +from the number of these plates still to be seen among the prized +objects of the petty rulers. + +After the overthrow of Moro power on the coast, Jesuit missionaries +began their labors among the Bagobo, and later established their +followers in several villages. In 1886 Father Gisbert reported eight +hundred converts living in five coast towns. Following the conflict +between Spain and the United States, and during the subsequent +insurrection, these villages were left without protection or guidance. +As a result, large numbers of the inhabitants retired to the hills where +they were again merged with their wilder brothers. Naturally, they +carried with them new ideas as well as material objects. With the +re-establishment of order under American rule many returned to the +deserted villages while others were induced by Governor Bolton to form +compact settlements midway between the coast and the mountain +fastnesses. The influence of the Government has become stronger each +year, and following the human sacrifice at Talun in 1907, that powerful +village and several of the neighboring settlements were compelled to +move down near to the sea where they could be more easily controlled. + +Schools have been opened in some localities and these, together with the +activities of Catholic and Protestant missionaries, are causing a rapid +change in the life and beliefs of the tribe. + +The presence of American hemp planters, with the consequent demand for +laborers, is also proving an immense factor in wiping out old tribal +lines and in introducing new ideas. + +Beyond a few letters written by the missionaries[2] we find scant +reference to this tribe in history, but their own traditions and +genealogies are well known even by the younger generation. + +[2] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands. + +According to the tribal historians the human race sprang from a man, +Toglai, and his wife, Toglibon, who lived on Mt. Apo.[3] "They were +there from the beginning, at a point near to the present settlement of +Cibolan. Many fruits grew on the mountains and the forests abounded in +game so that it was easy for them to secure food. There were born to +them children, who, when they grew up, married. One day Toglai and +Toglibon told their oldest boy and girl that they should go far away +across the ocean, for there was a good place for them. So the two +departed and were seen no more until their descendants, the white +people, came back to Davao. The other children remained with their +parents and were happy and prosperous until Toglai and Toglibon died and +went to the sky, where they became spirits. Soon after their death the +country suffered a great drought. This finally became so severe that the +water in the rivers dried up and there was no more food in the land. At +last the children were forced to leave their home and seek out new +habitations in other parts. They traveled in pairs, in different +directions, until they came to favorable locations where they settled +down. From them have sprung all the tribes known to the Bagobo. One pair +was too weak to make the journey from the drought-cursed land, and staid +at Cibolan. One day the man crawled out into the ruined fields to see if +he could not find some one thing alive, and when he arrived there he +saw, to his amazement, a single stalk of sugar cane growing lustily. He +cut it with his knife, and water began to come out until there was +enough for the couple to drink. The flow did not cease until the rains +came again to refresh the land. From these two the tribe has again grown +until it numbers its members in the thousands. The people have remained +true to their belief in the spirits, and each year has found them +stronger in numbers, and richer in houses, land, and slaves." + +[3] See fuller account by author, in _Philippine Journal of Science_. +June 1911, Vol. VI, No. 3, pp. 128-9. + +The genealogy of the Bagobo rulers is traced back through ten +generations. The first ruler of whom there is record was Salingolop, +during whose reign, it seems, the Spaniards first came to the +Philippines. According to the tale[4] "Salingolop was a man of great and +prodigious force, and as tall as the Lauan, which is the tallest tree in +these forests. He had three sons called Bato, Sipongos, and Calisquisan, +and a daughter named Panugutan. When the Spaniards arrived at Manila, +and found that there existed a man so tall and powerful, they sent a +battalion of soldiers. They disembarked on the shore of Bimigao near +Daron, and ascended the mountain where Salingolop lived. He was not +found, because at the time he was on the other side of the mountain +hunting wild boars, and the soldiers returned to the shore, taking +Panugutan as a hostage. Salingolop, having found out what had happened +descended the mountain alone to fight the soldiers which were there. +These fired on him, but in vain, because the balls could make no +impression. On seeing this, they dropped their rifles and with bars of +iron they struck him on the legs, trying to overthrow him. As he fell on +the side towards the sea, the noise of the waves, it is said, reached to +the Cape of San Augustin. They cut off his head and, as he lay dead, +they cut off his legs that he might not arise again. The Spaniards +returned to Manila, taking with them Panugutan; she married in Manila a +Spaniard, by whom she had two children, who later returned to these +parts and were well received, being considered not only as friends but +as brothers of the Bagobo." + +[4] Recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J. + +Salingolop was succeeded by his son Bato who, in turn, was followed by +Boas, Basian, Lumbay, Banga, Maliadi, and Taopan. Until we come to this +last mentioned ruler we learn little more of importance, but at the +beginning of his rule, we learn that the Bagobo had become a powerful +people. Under his leadership they made frequent forays into neighboring +districts and returned with many slaves and rich loot. The _datu_[5] was +noted as a brave warrior, but in addition to this he was a wise and just +ruler, greatly beloved by all his people. When he died more than one +thousand of his subjects attended the funeral which lasted ten days. On +the last day the house was decked, inside and out, with red and yellow +flowers; many valuable gifts were placed beside the corpse, and the +place was then abandoned. + +[5] The Moro name for chief or ruler. The Bagobo name is _lagaimoda_ or +_matanem_, but the Moro term is in general use. + +He was succeeded by his son Pangilan, whose administration, like that of +his father, was firm and just. Upon his death he bequeathed the +leadership of a united people to his son Manib. The new _datu_ did not +prove to be a great warrior and his decisions in matters of dispute were +not always just, so that bad blood arose between the people of Cibolan +and Talun. He was unable to quell the disturbances, and finally open +warfare broke out, petty chiefs of other districts throwing off his +control and ruling as _datu_. This was the condition which confronted +the present ruler, Tongkaling, when he found himself ruler of Cibolan. + +The claims of leadership over all the Bagobo had never been +relinquished, but the actual power of the _datu_ outside his own +district amounted to little. Tongkaling soon established his right to +the name of a great warrior, and his people so prospered under his rule +that upon the advent of the Americans he was much the most powerful +among the several chiefs. Under the administration of Governor Bolton, +Tongkaling was officially recognized as head of the Bagobo, and with +this added prestige, he has finally succeeded in gaining recognition +from all the chiefs except those about Santa Cruz, but his actual +control over them is still very slight. He has been a consistent friend +of the Americans, but has jealously guarded his people against outside +influences, so that they are much less affected than those of other +districts. For this reason we shall, in this paper, use Cibolan as a +type settlement, but where radical differences occur in other districts +they will be noted. + +PHYSICAL TYPE.[6] + +[6] This subject will be treated fully in a separate publication. + +An idea of the general appearance of the Bagobo can best be obtained by +a study of the accompanying photographs. Plates II-VIII. + +Measurements were made on thirty-three men and fifteen women. The +maximum height of the males was found to be 164.8 cm.; minimum 149.8 +cm.; with an average of 158.6 cm. For the women the maximum was 152.8 +cm.; minimum 141 cm.; average 147.3 cm. + +The cephalic indices of the same individuals showed 84.5 as the maximum, +74.3 minimum, and 78.8 the average for the males. The maximum for the +females was 83.1, minimum 76.2, average 80.7. The average length-height +index, taken from the tragus to the vertex, of the same persons, was +69.8--maximum 75.6, minimum 65.1 for the men; and for the women +73.1--maximum 76.6, minimum 70.2-. + +The face is long, moderately broad, and the zygomatic arches are seldom +prominent. The forehead is high and full with supra-orbital ridge +slightly developed. The crown and back of the head are rather strongly +arched. The people are seldom prognathous, yet individuals are met with +who are markedly so (Plate V). + +The lips are full and bowed; the chin is round and well formed. The root +of the nose is depressed; the ridge broad and generally inclined to be +concave, although straight noses are not uncommon. The nasal wings are +moderately broad and arched or swelled. The eye slits are oblique and +moderately open, showing dark or brown-black eyes. The hair is +brown-black and generally slightly wavy or loosely curled, while in some +cases it is found curled in locks. Women comb their hair straight back +and plaster it with cocoanut oil, but even this does not prevent stray +locks from creeping out. Both face and body hairs are scanty and are +generally removed, yet occasionally a man is seen who has cultivated a +few hairs into a fair semblance of a beard. + +The Bagobo, while well nourished, are inclined to be of slight build, +with very narrow waists. In color they are a light reddish brown with a +slight olive tinge which is more pronounced in the women than in the +men. + +In a brief summary, we can say that they are a short, slightly built, +metsati-cephalic people, with wavy hair, long faces, and broad, full +noses and lips. Individuals are met with who exhibit many of the +physical characteristics of the Negrito;[7] while still others, both in +color and facial lines, are comparable to the Chinese. + +[7] Pygmy blacks of the Philippines. + +DRESS--PERSONAL ADORNMENT. + +No wild tribe in the Islands gives more attention to dress than does the +Bagobo. By an intricate process hemp is colored and woven into excellent +garments, which, in turn, are decorated with embroidery, applique, or +designs in shell disks and beads. The men wear their hair long and after +twisting it around the head hold it in place with kerchiefs, the edges +of which are decorated with beads and tassels. + +A close fitting undershirt is often worn, and above this is an +elaborately beaded or embroidered coat which generally opens in front. +The hemp cloth trousers scarcely reach to the knee, and the bottom of +each leg is decorated with a beaded or embroidered band. Two belts are +worn, one to hold the trousers, the other to support the fighting or +working knives which each man carries. In lieu of pockets he has on his +back an elaborately beaded hemp cloth bag bordered with tassels and +bells of native casting. Highly prized shell bracelets, worn as cuffs by +some men, are made of a large, conical sea-shell (Fig. 1) the base and +interior spirals of which have been cut away. Necklaces made of rattan +strips decorated or overlaid with alternating layers of fern and orchid +cuticle (Fig. 2) are frequently seen, while many strands of beads and +carved seeds surround the necks of both men and women. Both sexes also +wear, above the calf of the leg, plaited or beaded leglets to some of +which magical properties are ascribed. + +FIG. 1. SHELL BRACELET. + +FIG. 2. NECKLACE OF RATTAN OVERLAID WITH FERN AND ORCHID CUTICLE. + +The woman wears a jacket which is close fitting about the neck and +reaches to the skirt, so that no portion of the upper part of the body +is exposed. The cloth now used in this garment is generally secured in +trade, and in recent years decoration in applique has begun to succeed +the excellent embroidery seen on older garments. Frequently the two +types of decoration are seen on the same jacket, and to these are added +complicated designs in shell or metal disks, or beads. The narrow tube +skirt is of hemp cloth and is made like a sack with both ends open. At +the waist it is held in place by means of a cloth or beaded belt. + +In addition to the many strands of beads which encircle the neck and +fall over the chest, a broad bead band is often worn over one shoulder, +passing under the opposite arm near the waist. Scarfs of colored cloth +are also worn in this manner when the ladies are on dress parade. +Leglets and brass anklets, made like tubes so as to enclose metal balls +(Fig. 3) or with bells and rattles attached, are commonly worn. The +women are fond of loading their arms with ornaments of shell or brass +(Fig. 4) and one forearm is covered with separate rings of incised brass +wire which increase in size from the centre towards the ends, forming an +ornament in the shape of an hour-glass. Their hair is generally cut so +as to leave a narrow band in front; this is brushed back, but often +falls forward on the face or in front of the ears. Back of this the hair +is kept well oiled and is combed straight to the back of the head, where +it is tied in a knot. Into this knot is pushed a wooden comb decorated +with incised lines filled with lime, or inlaid with beads. On festive +occasions more elaborate combs, with plumes or other decorations +attached, are worn. Aside from these ornaments the head is uncovered. + +FIG. 3. BRASS ANKLETS WORN BY THE WOMEN. + +FIG. 4. TYPES OF BRASS BRACELETS. + +Men and women are seen who have their eyebrows shaved to thin lines. +This is a matter of individual taste and is done only for beauty. + +Neither sex makes use of tattooing, nor do they mutilate the lips or +nose, but what they lack in these respects they make up for in ear +ornaments. + +When a child is very young a small hole is pierced in the ear lobes, and +into this opening a piece of twisted banana or hemp leaf is placed. +(Fig. 5a). This leaf acts as a spring, continually enlarging the opening +until the ear plugs can be inserted. Another method, sometimes employed, +is to fill the opening with small round sticks (Fig. 5b), adding more +from time to time, until the desired result is obtained. The plugs worn +by the women are of wood, the fronts of which are inlaid with silver or +brass in artistic designs, and are connected by strands of beads passing +under the chin (Fig. 6). Large wooden ornaments are also worn by the +men, but more prized are large ivory ear plugs made like enormous collar +buttons (Plates II-IV). These are very rare, since the ivory for their +manufacture must be secured from Borneo, and by the time it has passed +through the hands of many traders it has assumed a value which limits +the possession of articles made from it to a few wealthy men. A further +method of ear adornment, frequently seen among the women, consists of +beads sewed into a number of holes which have been pierced through the +helices of the ears. + +FIG. 5. EAR STRETCHERS. + +FIG. 6. WOMAN'S EAR PLUGS. + +Both men and women file and blacken the teeth. When a boy or girl has +reached the age of puberty, it is time that this beautifying should be +done. There is, however, no prohibition to having it performed earlier +if desired. The candidate places his head against the operator and grips +a stick of wood between his teeth while each tooth is filed so as to +leave only the stump, or is cut or broken to a point (Plate XIIa and b). +When this has been successfully accomplished, what is left of the teeth +is blackened. + +The color is obtained in two ways. The more common method is to place a +piece of metal on one end of a bamboo[8] tube, the other extremity of +which rests on glowing coals. The smoke from the charring bamboo is +conducted through the tube to the cold metal on which it leaves a +deposit or "sweat." This deposit is rubbed on the teeth, at intervals, +for several days until they become a shiny black. A second method is to +use a powder known as _tapEl_ which is secured from the _lamod_ tree. +The writer did not see this tree but, from the description given of it, +believes it to be the tamarindus. This powder is put on leaves and is +chewed. During the period of treatment the patient is under certain +restrictions. He may neither drink water, cook or eat anything sour, nor +may he attend a funeral. Should he do so his teeth will have a poor +color or be "sick." When the teeth have been properly beautified the +young man or woman is considered ready to enter society. + +[8] A variety known as _balakayo_ is used for this purpose. + +Boys run about quite nude until they are three or four years of age. +Until about the same age the girls' sole garment is a little pubic +shield, cut from a coconut shell and decorated with incised lines filled +with lime (Fig. 7). Not infrequently bells are attached to the sides of +this "garment." When children do begin to wear clothing their dress +differs in no respects from that of their elders. + +FIG. 7. LITTLE GIRLS' PUBIC SHIELDS. + +SKETCH OF FUNDAMENTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. + +Although we shall treat religion more fully in a later paragraph, it is +desirable that we now gain an idea of those beliefs which enter +intimately into every activity of the daily life of this people. + +The Bagobo believes in a mighty company of superior beings who exercise +great control over the lives of men. Above all is Eugpamolak Manobo, +also called Manama, who was the first cause and creator of all. Serving +him is a vast number of spirits not malevolently inclined but capable of +exacting punishment unless proper offerings and other tokens of respect +are accorded them. Below them is a horde of low, mean spirits who +delight to annoy mankind with mischievous pranks, or even to bring +sickness and disaster to them. To this class generally belong the +spirits who inhabit mountains, cliffs, rooks, trees, rivers, and +springs. Standing between these two types are the shades of the dead +who, after they have departed from this life, continue to exercise +considerable influence, for good or bad, over the living. + +We have still to mention a powerful class of supernatural beings who, in +strength and importance, are removed only a little from the Creator. +These are the patron spirits. + +Guarding the warriors are two powerful beings, Mandarangan and his wife, +Darago, who are popularly supposed to make their home in the crater of +the volcano. They bring success in battle and give to the victors loot +and slaves. In return for these favors they demand, at certain times, +the sacrifice of a slave. Dissentions[sic], disasters, and death will be +sure to visit the people should they fail to make the offering. Each +year in the month of December the people are reminded of their +obligation by the appearance in the sky of a constellation known as +_Balatik_,[9] and soon thereafter a human sacrifice doubtless takes +place in some one or more of the Bagobo settlements. + +[9] Orion. + +A man to come under the protection of these two deities must first have +taken at least two human lives. He is then entitled to wear a peculiar +chocolate-colored kerchief with white patterns in it. When he has killed +four he may wear blood-red trousers, and when his score has reached six +he may don a full blood-red suit and carry a sack of the same color. +Such a man is known as _magani_ and his clothing marks him as a person +of distinction and power in his village. He is one of the leaders in a +war party; he is chosen by the _datu_ to inflict the death penalty when +it has been decreed; and he is one of the assistants in the yearly +sacrifice. It is not necessary that those he kills, in order to gain the +right to wear a red suit, be warriors. On the contrary he may kill women +and children from ambush and still receive credit for the achievement, +provided his victims are from a hostile village. He may count those of +his townspeople whom he has killed in fair fight, and the murder of an +unfaithful wife and her admirer is credited to him as a meritorious +deed. + +The workers in iron and brass, the weavers of hemp cloth, and the +mediums or shamans--known as _mabalian_--are under the protection of +special deities for whom they make ceremonies at certain times of the +year. + +The _mabalian_ just mentioned are people--generally women past middle +life--who, through sufficient knowledge of the spirits and their desires, +are able to converse with them, and to make ceremonies and offerings +which will attract their attention, secure their good will, or appease +their wrath. They may have a crude knowledge of medicine plants, and, in +some cases, act as exorcists. The ceremonies which art performed at the +critical periods of life are conducted by these _mabalian_, and they +also direct the offerings associated with planting and harvesting. They +are generally the ones who erect the little shrines seen along the +trails or in the forests, and it is they who put offerings in the +"spirit boxes" in the houses. Although they, better than all others, +know how to read the signs and warnings sent by the spirits, yet, all of +the people know the meaning of certain omens sent through the medium of +birds and the like. The call of the _limokon_[10] is recognized as an +encouragement or a warning and its message will be heeded without fail. +In brief, every natural phenomenon and every living thing is caused by +or is subject to the will of unseen beings, who in turn can be +influenced by the acts of individuals. As a result everything of +importance is undertaken with reference to these superior powers. + +[10] A dove (_Calcophops indica_). Similar beliefs held by the Tagalog +were mentioned by Juan de Plasencia in 1589. See BLAIR and ROBERTSON, +Vol. VII, p. 189. + +DWELLINGS--HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS. + +The houses found in the coast villages line well marked streets and +differ in few respects from those built by the Christianized natives +throughout the Islands. Even in the more isolated districts the effect +of this outside influence is marked. However, we can state with +confidence that village life is a new idea to the Bagobo. He has, from +time immemorial, built his home near to his fields, and there he and his +family reside, except during festivals or when extreme danger threatens. +At such times all go to the house of the local ruler and there unite in +the festivities or the common defense. + +The smaller dwellings have but one room, the floor of which is raised +several feet above the ground and supported by many piles. A part of the +latter extend five of[sic] six feet above the floor and form supports +for the side and cross-beams. From the center of the room lighter poles +project eight or ten feet above the cross-beams and form the main +supports for the ridge timber. From beams at the end and sides of the +room similar pieces run to this central ridge; below this they are +joined together, at intervals, by means of horizontal poles and +cross-beams. To this framework are lashed strips of _palma brava_, +supports for a covering of closely laid _runo_, on which rests the final +topping of flattened bamboo. The ridge pole is always at a sufficient +height above the floor to give the roof a steep peak, and is of such +length that, at the top, the side roof overhangs the ends. The roof +generally rises in two pitches and always extends past the sides of the +room. + +In house building, the roof, which is made first, is raised to the +desired height, thus serving as a shelter for the workers until the +structure is complete (Plate XIII). Resting on the cross-beams, just +below the rafters, a number of loose boards are laid to form a sort of +attic or storage room where all unused articles, and odds and ends are +allowed to accumulate. + +The sides of the room, which are of flattened bamboo, are about six feet +in height, and extend only to within a foot of the roof. In the walls +small peep holes are cut so that the inhabitants can look outside +without being seen (Plate XIV). + +The flooring, which is generally made of strips of _palma brava_, is in +two levels, forming a narrow elevated platform at one end of the room on +which a part of the family sleep. + +The furniture of this house is very scanty. Near to the door is the +"stove" (Fig. 8)--a bed of ashes in which three stones are sunk to form a +support for the pots and jars and nearby stand a few native jars and +sections of bamboo filled with water. On a hanger above the fire may be +found articles of food, seeds, and the like, which need protection from +flies and insects. Against the wall is a bamboo rack (Fig. 9), filled +with Chinese plates, or half cocoanut shells which serve as dishes. Near +to the stove is a rice mortar standing on its own wooden pedestal which +reaches to the ground (Fig. 10). + +FIG. 8. THE "STOVE." + +FIG. 9. BAMBOO PLATE RACK. + +FIG. 10A. RICE MORTAR. + +FIG. 10B. PEDESTAL WHICH REACHES TO THE GROUND. + +FIG. 10C. CIRCLE OF CORN HUSKS PLACED SO AS TO PREVENT GRAIN FROM + FALLING OUT. + +FIG. 10D. WOODEN PESTLE. + +A child's cradle, made of a blanket suspended hammock-like between the +wall and a beam support, will probably be found. A few boxes and jars, +usually of Chinese make, and always a copper gong or two are regular +furnishings, while to these can be added a miscellany of clothing, +looms, spears, shields, meat blocks, spoons (Fig. 11), and the like. +Akin to furniture, since they are found in every house, are little +basket-like receptacles made by splitting one end of a bamboo pole into +several vertical strips and then weaving in other shorter horizontal +strips (Fig. 12). These are attached to walls and supporting poles, and +in them offerings are made to the various spirits. + +FIG. 11. COCOANUT SHELL SPOONS WITH WOODEN HANDLES. + +FIG. 12. TAMBARA OR BASKET-LIKE RECEPTACLE IN WHICH OFFERINGS ARE MADE +TO THE SPIRITS. + +This is our picture of a typical home. It is not a cheery place by day, +for the lack of windows, as well as a fog of smoke from the open stove, +makes it dark and gloomy. Nevertheless, since the house offers a cool +retreat from the blazing sun, and the smoke-laden air is free from flies +and mosquitoes, it is a popular resort for all members of the family +during the hottest part of the day. The little light, which filters in +through the many cracks in the floors and walls, is sufficient to allow +the women to spin, dye, weave, and decorate their clothing, or to engage +in other activities. After dark the resinous nuts of the _bitaog_ tree, +or leaf covered resin torches are burned, and by their uncertain light +the women and men carry on their labors until far into the night. +Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of a notched log, bamboo +pole, or by a ladder of the same material. As a protection against +strong winds many props are placed against the sides of the house, and +when large trees are available the dwellings are further secured by +being anchored to them with rattan lines. + +In each settlement or district will be found one large house built on +the same general plan as the smaller dwellings, but capable of housing +several hundred people (Plate XV). This is the home of the local _datu_ +or ruler. All great ceremonies are held here, and it is the place to +which all hasten when danger threatens. It is the social center of the +community, and all who desire go there at any time and remain as long as +they wish, accepting meanwhile the food and hospitality of the ruler. + +A brief description of the house of Datu Tongkaling will give a good +idea of this type of structure. Except for size--the dimensions being 44 +x 20 ft.--the exterior does not differ greatly from the houses already +described. A long, partially covered porch leading to the doorway is +provided with benches which are always occupied by men and boys, +loitering or engaged in the absorbing task of lousing one another. At +the far end of the room is the elevated platform, but this one is much +wider than is customary, and is intended as the sleeping place for the +warriors, or illustrious guests. As the writer and his wife were +considered, by the _datu_, as belonging to the latter class, they were +favored with this vantage spot, from which they could view and be viewed +by the whole household. Along the sides of the room are elevated +box-like enclosures in which the _datu_ and some of his wives and +daughters sleep and keep their belongings. At night the balance of the +family, including men, women, children, and dogs, occupy the floor. +Midway between the side walls and near to the elevated platform are two +decorated bamboo poles, which are raised in honor of the patron spirits +of the warriors; while in other parts of the room are baskets, hanging +altars, and other devices in which are placed offerings intended for the +spirits. In addition to the customary furnishings are hundreds of +objects testifying to the wealth of the _datu_. Clothes, boxes, dozens +of huge copper gongs, drums, ancient Chinese jars and plates, spears and +shields, beaded clothing, baskets, and last but not least--in the +estimation of the _datu_--a huge enameled advertisement of an American +brewery. + +In the western part of the Bagobo district is a village known as +Bansalan. Recently its people have been induced to leave the old +settlement and build in a new location, midway between the mountains and +the sea. Here the writer found a very different type of house (Plate +XVIa). Small trees formed the uprights to which cross-beams were tied to +make the roof supports, and on these rested a final covering of _nipa_ +palm. A few feet above the ground other supports were lashed and on them +strips of _palma brava_ were laid as flooring. In the few cases where +the houses were fitted with sides, strips of _nipa_ palm fastened +together with rattan were used. There seemed to be no uniform type of +dwelling, each house differing from its neighbor in number of rooms, +floor levels, or in other respects. Only one feature, the elevated +sleeping platform at one end of the house, was always found. A few miles +further inland, in the old settlement, the houses are of the type +already described in detail. The people have been practically forced to +their new location by governmental action. The new careless type of +structures seen in Bansalan probably represents, to them, temporary +structures in which they expect to remain only until a change of +governors will furnish an excuse for returning to the old location. + +OTHER BUILDINGS. + +Near to each farm house or settlement will be seen one or more +granaries, in which rice is stored (Plate XIV). Four poles form the +support for a rectangular base from which the sides of the structure +slope out at an angle of about 25 degrees from the perpendicular until +they meet the roof. The sides and roof are of bamboo beaten flat, the +latter covered with a topping of straw. + +In the hemp fields is an occasional shed where the fiber is sometimes +stripped, but more often these buildings, thus hidden from the public +gaze, house the forges on which the smiths fashion knives and spears, or +cast the bells and betel nut boxes so dear to the heart of each Bagobo. + +Aside from the shrines or altars, which we shall describe later, the +Bagobo erects no other buildings. He sometimes encloses a rice or +cornfield with a fence, but this requires no special skill in building, +since it consists of two parallel lines of uprights, between which +bamboo tubes are laid to the desired height (Plate XVIb). + +FOOD AND ITS PREPARATION. + +It is impossible, without including about everything edible in a +vegetable line to be found in the district, to give a full list of +foods; hence no such attempt will be made. Chief of all is the rice, +many varieties of which are grown in the mountain-side clearings.[11] + +[11] Back of the coast there are no irrigated fields to be found in the +Davao District. + +Next in importance is the _camote_, or sweet potato, and then follow in +the order of their importance: corn, banana, sago and cocoanut. + +Fish, eels, crabs, grasshoppers, monkeys,[12] deer, pigs, and chickens +form a part of the food supply; in fact, the people seem to draw the +line at nothing but crows, snakes, mice, rats, goats, horses, dogs, and +cats. Despite the assertion of a number of worthy informants that the +last three are on the prohibited list, it is the opinion of the writer +that it is the scarcity of the supply rather than any feeling of +prejudice which causes them to be included. + +[12] Some people refuse to eat monkey meat. + +Salt and pepper are used as condiments. The former is secured in trade +with the coast natives and Chinese, while the latter is produced by +mashing the fruit of a small wild pepper, locally known as _katombal_. + +Rice, after being allowed to dry, is stored without being separated from +the straw. When a supply is needed a bundle is laid on a piece of hide +and is beaten with a wooden pestle, wielded by a woman or a slave. This +separates the grain, which is gathered up and placed in a wooden mortar, +where it is again beaten with the pestle until the outer husk has been +loosened. To remove the chaff the rice is taken from the mortar, placed +on a flat winnowing tray (Fig. 13), and tossed and caught, until the +wind has carried away the lighter husks, thus leaving the grain free. +This is placed in a pot, a small quantity of water is added, and the +vessel is placed over the fire. Here it is allowed to remain only until +it begins to boil, when it is placed on the ashes, near enough to the +fire to keep it hot. From time to time the woman turns the jar until the +contents is cooked through, wren each grain stands out free from its +fellows.[13] + +[13] This is the usual way of preparing rice throughout the archipelago. + +FIG. 13. RICE WINNOWER. + +Other vegetable foods are eaten raw, or are cooked with water and salt, +with perhaps the addition of a little meat broth or a sour[sic]. + +[Transcriber's note: "sour" should read "soup."] + +Small birds and fish are cooked without other treatment than a hasty +cleaning; but the flesh of larger fowls, deer, and pig is generally cut +into small cubes and cooked with condiments in a jar or small Chinese +caldron. Birds are sometimes prepared by placing them on a spit, +covering them with green banana leaves, and suspending them above the +fire until roasted. This primitive paper bag cooking yields a most +excellent dish. + +Grasshoppers are relished, and are secured in the following manner: A +clear grass spot is selected and several deep holes are dug in one end. +Back of them, and leading toward them, is a high tight fence made in a +V. By beating the grass with boughs as they walk toward the trap, the +people drive the grasshoppers before them until they are finally forced +into the pit, from which they are collected by the bushel. + +I was told that meat was sometimes salted, dried, and stored away for +future use. The climate seems to be absolutely opposed to such +foresight, and the one time that I saw the process being used, the odors +were such that I beat a hasty retreat and chose to accept, without +proof, the verdict of the natives, that venison thus prepared was +excellent. + +Of almost as much importance as food is the use of the betel or areca +nut,[14] which is chewed almost constantly by young and old of both +sexes. The nut is divided into quarters and a piece of _buyo_ leaf[15] +is wrapped about each bit. To this is added a little lime and a pinch of +tobacco, and it is ready for the mouth. The resultant deep red saliva is +distributed indiscriminately on the floor, walls, and furniture where it +leaves a permanent stain. To hold the materials necessary for this +practice brass betel nut boxes, secured from the Moro or of their own +manufacture, as well as plaited grass boxes and pouches are constantly +carried (Plates XVIIa and XLI). The brass boxes generally have three +compartments; the first for nuts, the second for leaves and tobacco, and +the third for lime. Lime is also carried in small bamboo tubes (Fig. +14), in the decoration of which a great deal of time is consumed. The +open end is fitted with a rattan sifter so that the powder is +distributed evenly on the nut and leaf. + +[14] _Catechu L_. + +[15] _Piper betel L_. + +FIG. 14. INCISED LIME AND TOBACCO TUBES. + +Aged persons and those whose teeth have been so mutilated that they +cannot chew, make use of an outfit which includes a small mortar and +pestle (Plate XVIIb). Cutting open green betel nuts, the chewer wraps +the pieces in leaves and, after adding a liberal supply of lime, mashes +them in the mortar until all are reduced to a soft mass. + +Lime is secured by placing snail shells in a fire, from which they are +taken while hot and dropped into cold water. They can then be crushed +into powder with the fingers. + +Although the Bagobo raises a considerable quantity of tobacco he seldom, +if ever, smokes it unless the leaf is furnished him, already prepared, +by an outsider. Sometimes a small ball made of the green leaves is +placed between the teeth and upper lip, where it remains until all the +flavor has been extracted. + +The outfits for betel nut and tobacco, aside from the brass boxes which +fasten at the side, are generally carried in the sacks worn on the backs +of the men or in the elaborate shoulder bags worn by the women. However, +a small waterproof box is frequently seen attached to a man's belt, and +in this he carries his betel nut, tobacco, and fire-making outfit. + +The usual method of making fire is by the use of flint and steel, but +when this is not at hand a flame can be quickly obtained by rubbing two +pieces of bamboo rapidly together until the friction produces a spark. + +HUNTING AND FISHING. + +Since only a few domesticated animals and fowls are found in a +settlement, the greater part of the meat supply is secured by hunting +and fishing. + +Deer and wild pig are taken by means of spears. The hunter either lies +in wait near the runways of the game, or the animals are driven toward +the spot where the huntsmen are concealed. For this purpose the ordinary +lance (Figs. 15a, b and c) is often used, but a more effective weapon is +the spear known as _kalawat_ (Fig. 15d). In this the metal head fits +loosely into a long shaft to which it is attached by a rope. As soon as +the weapon enters the body of the animal the head pulls out of the +shaft, and this trails behind until it becomes entangled in the +undergrowth, thus putting the game at the mercy of the hunter. Dead +falls and pits are put in the runways, and a frightened animal is +sometimes impaled on concealed sharpened bamboo sticks. Less frequently, +large animals are secured by means of rope loops which hang from trees +past which the game is accustomed to pass. Until recent years the +_balatik_, a trap which when sprung throws an arrow with great force +against the animal which releases it, was much used but so many domestic +animals have been killed by it that this sort of trap is now in +disfavor. + +FIG. 15. SPEARS USED IN FIGHTING AND HUNTING. + +Wild chickens are captured by means of snares (Fig. 16). A tame rooster +is fastened in the jungle and around him is placed a snare, consisting +of running knots attached to a central band. The crowing of this fowl +soon attracts the wild birds which, coming in to fight, are almost sure +to become entangled in one of the nooses. Slip loops, attached to a bent +twig and released by disturbing the bait, are also employed in the +capture of wild fowl. + +FIG. 16. CHICKEN SNARE AND CARRYING CASE. + +Birds of all sizes are secured by use of bows and arrows, blow guns, or +nets. Wooden decoys (Plate XVIII) are tied to the branches of trees in +which the hunters are concealed. The bows used are of _palma brava_, in +each end of which notches are cut to hold the rattan bow strings (Fig. +17). The arrow shafts are of light reeds and are fitted with one or two +bamboo points. These weapons are effective only for close range, and +even then the Bagobo are far from being expert marksmen. Boys use a reed +blow gun through which they shoot light darts tufted with cotton (Fig. +18). The missile is not poisoned and is of little use at a distance of +more than twenty feet. + +FIG. 17. BOWS AND ARROWS. + +FIG. 18. BLOW GUNS AND DARTS. + +By far the most effective means of securing birds is to stretch a net +between trees or poles where the birds are accustomed to fly. Wooden +decoys are attached to the net in order to attract the game which, once +enmeshed, is easily caught. + +Various devices are employed in the capture of fresh water fish,[16] but +the most common is a torpedo-shaped trap of bamboo (Fig. 19). Stone +conduits lead the water from streams into the open ends of these traps, +thus carrying in fish and shrimps. The funnel-shaped opening has the +sharpened ends set close together so that it is quite impossible for the +prisoners to escape, although the water readily passes between the +bamboo strips. + +[16] Along the coast the methods of the Christianized natives are used +in salt water fishing. + +FIG. 19. BAMBOO FISH TRAP. + +A hook and line is employed, especially for eels; while in clear pools +fish are secured by means of a four-pointed spear which is thrust or +thrown (Fig. 20). Perhaps the most interesting device used is a lure, +known as _boro_ (Fig. 21). A live minnow is fastened at the end of the +rod near to a rattan noose. A cord running from the noose to the end of +the stick allows the fisherman to draw up the noose as he desires. The +struggles of the captive fish soon attract others, and when one enters +the loop the line is drawn taut, securely binding the intruder. Several +fish can be taken from a single pool by this method. A berry (_anamirta +coccithis L_.) is used in the capture of fish. It is crushed to a +powder, is wrapped with vines and leaves, and is thrown into pools. The +fish become stupified[sic] and float to the surface where they are +easily captured. After being cooked they are eaten without any ill +effects. + +FIG. 20. (LEFT) FOUR-POINTED FISH SPEAR. + +FIG. 21. (RIGHT) FISH LURE. + +OCCUPATIONS. + +Mention has already been made of some of the daily occupations of the +people. We have found the women caring for the home and preparing the +rice and other foods which are served in the house. At no time did the +writer see a man, other than a slave, take any part in such household +duties; but when on the trail each would do his share in preparing the +meals. In the village we found the women and children carrying the water +and wood and, at rare intervals, doing laundry work. Instead of soaping +and rubbing soiled clothing, they soak the garments in water, then place +them on stones and beat them with wooden paddles or clubs. The articles +are alternately soaked and beaten until at least a part of the dirt has +been removed. It is also the privilege of any woman to engage in the +manufacture of basketry, or to act as a potter. + +In the manufacture of baskets the woman makes use chiefly of bamboo and +rattan, though other materials, such as _pandanus_ are sometimes brought +into service. Three weaves or their variants are employed. The first is +the common diagonal or twilled weave, in which each element of the weft +passes over two or more of the warp elements. In this way most of the +rice winnowers, transportation baskets, knife sheaths, and the like are +made. In the second weave (Fig. 22), the foundation of the basket is +made up of parallel horizontal rods, or strips of bamboo. These are +laced together by warp strips which pass alternately under one and over +one of the foundation rods, crossing each other at an angle, one above +the other below the rod. The trinket baskets carried by the women, the +larger waterproof receptacles known as _binota_, and the covers for wild +chicken snares are in this technic. A variant of this weave is found in +the rattan carrying frames and in some fish traps (Fig. 23). Here the +warp strips cross one another at an angle, at each meeting place +enclosing the horizontal foundation strips. Unlike the second weave +described, the warp strips do not pass alternately above and below the +horizontal foundation, but retain the same relation to it throughout the +entire length of each strip. A coiled weave (Fig. 24) is used in the +manufacture of tobacco boxes (Plate XIX) and in the rims of women's +baskets. In this type the foundation consists of a series of horizontal +rattan strips or rods which are sewed together in the following manner. +A narrow strip _A_ passes over two of these parallel rods _2_ and _3_ in +a left handed spiral. At the top of the loop the strip passes under a +similar strip _B_ which binds rod _2_ to the one above. Passing downward +inside the basket, the strip _A_ goes beneath the strip _C_ which binds +rods _3_ and _4_ together. These are drawn tightly while damp, thus +forcing the foundation rods so closely together as to make the basket +practically water-tight. Pitch from the _tabon-tabon_ nuts may also be +rubbed over the outside surface, thus making the receptacle impervious +to water. + +FIG. 22. + +FIG. 23. + +FIG. 24. TYPES OF WEAVING USED IN BASKETRY. + +In the great majority of baskets the surface is divided into three +parallel zones or decorative bands. These are produced by making a +slight variation in the weave, by the use of blackened strips of bamboo +and rattan, or by substituting in their place the black cuticle of a +fern. + +As a rule the women of this tribe are not good potters and take little +pride in their work. In some districts the art has been entirely lost, +and the people depend on the coast natives for their cooking utensils. +At the village of Bansalan the women were found still to be proficient +in their work. After the dampened clay had been carefully kneaded in +order to remove lumps and gravel, the bottom of the jar was moulded with +the fingers and placed on a dish which was turned on a bit of cloth or a +board and answered the purpose of a potter's wheel. As the dish was +turned with the right hand the operator shaped the clay with the fingers +of the left adding fresh strips of material from time to time until the +desired size was obtained. The final shaping was done with a wooden +paddle and the jar was allowed to dry, after which it was smoothed off +with a stone. When ready for firing it was placed in the midst of a pile +of rubbish, over which green leaves were placed to cause a slow fire. + +Other dishes are made by splitting a cocoanut in half and removing the +"meat." This is readily accomplished by the use of a scraper fitted with +a rough iron blade (Fig. 25), over which the concave side or the half +nut is drawn. The cocoanut meat is used for food and oil. + +FIG. 25. COCOANUT SCRAPER. + +A little later we shall describe the active part woman takes in the +planting and care of the fields, but now we shall take up in some detail +the industry in which she stands pre-eminent, the preparation and +weaving of hemp. + +The hemp ordinarily stripped by the men is considered too fine to be +used in the manufacture of clothing, so a smaller stripping device is +employed by the woman (Plate XX). On this she cleans the outer layers of +the hemp stalk, from which a stronger and coarser thread can be +obtained. The fiber is tied in a continuous thread and is wound onto a +reel. The warp threads are measured on sharpened sticks driven into a +hemp or banana stalk, and are then transferred to a rectangular frame +(Plate XXI). The operator, with the final pattern in mind, overties or +wraps with waxed threads, such portions of the warp as she desires to +remain white in the completed garment. So carefully does she wrap these +sections, that, when the thread is removed from the frame and placed in +the liquid dye, no portion of the coloring matter penetrates to the +portions thus protected. If a red color is desired the root of the +_sikarig_[17] palm is scraped and the scrapings placed in bark vats +filled with cold water. The thread is first washed in, and is later +boiled with the dye for a half hour, after which it is placed in a +basket to drain and dry. The process is repeated daily for about two +weeks, or until the thread assumes a brick red color. If a purple hue is +desired a little lime is added to the dye. Black is obtained by a +slightly different method. The leaves, root, and bark of the _pinarrEm_ +tree are crushed in water. This yields a black liquor which is poured +into a jar containing the thread and the whole is placed over a slow +fire where it remains until the liquid is near the boiling point. When +this is reached the thread is removed and placed in a gourd, the open +end of which fits over the jar so as to catch the steam coming from the +dye. After a time the thread is removed and dried, and the process is +repeated until at last a permanent black is obtained. After the coloring +is complete the thread is again placed on the rectangular frame, the +over-tying is removed and the warp is ready for the loom (Plate XXII.) +In the loom (Plate XXIII) the threads encircle a bamboo pole attached to +the wall, and are held tense by a strap which passes around the waist of +the operator. The weft threads are forced up against the fabric by means +of the comber board and are beaten in with a baton. The warp threads are +held in their relative positions, first by the comber board, second by +loops which pass under the lower threads and over a small stick or lease +rod, and lastly by passing over and under, or around, other lease rods. +These are rolled away as the work progresses. + +[17] _Morinda Bracteata Roxb_. + +[18] Woof threads are generally of one color. A somewhat similar process +used in Java is described by SIR THOS. RAFFLES in The History of Java, +Vol. I, p. 189. + +[Transcriber's note: Although footnote 2 appears on the same page as the +above paragraph, it is not clear to what particular part of that +paragraph it refers.] + +After the cloth is removed from the loom it is polished. A long pole of +_palma brava_ is fitted into a notch in the roof. The operator seats +herself on the floor with a smooth board before her, or in her lap, and +on it places the dampened cloth. A shell is fitted over the lower end of +the pole, which is bent and made bowlike, until the shell rests on the +cloth. It is then ironed rapidly to and fro until the fabric has +received a high polish (Plate XXIV). + +The woman's duties do not end with the manufacture of cloth, for all the +garments worn by the members of the tribe are the result of her +handiwork. She sews the strips of hemp cloth into skirts, men's +trousers, carrying bags, and sometimes into jackets. The women devote +hours of labor to these jackets, covering arms, necks, and waist bands +with colored embroidery or designs in applique, while on the better +garments they place elaborate designs in beads or shell disks. + +After the evening meal is over the women of the household gather around +the flickering lights, and until far into the night work on these +garments, bead necklaces, or other ornaments. + +Only a few of the weavers attempt to make the peculiar chocolate-colored +head covering worn by the _magani_. For these kerchiefs the woman weaves +a square cotton cloth of the desired size, and at one corner attaches a +small brass hook. Joined to the hook, by means of a chain, is a loop +which fits over the toes of the operator, thus enabling her to keep the +fabric taut while her hands are left free for work. Small sections of +this cloth are raised and are wrapped with waxed thread, so that when +the fabric is dyed these portions will not receive the coloring matter +(Plate XXV). Later the overtying is removed, leaving small white rings +or squares on a chocolate-colored background. These cloths are meant +primarily for the warriors, but expert weavers, who are under the +protection of a certain powerful spirit, are also permitted to wear an +upper garment of this material. + +A considerable part of the man's time is consumed in preparation for, or +actual participation in, hunting or warfare, but in addition to this he +does a goodly portion of the work in the fields, and is the house +builder. When a man is about to erect a dwelling he notifies his friends +to come and aid him. This they will do without pay, but when in need of +similar services they will expect and will receive similar help. All +sorts of house-furnishings, such as spoons, meat blocks, or rice mortars +are made by the man, and not infrequently, he assists in the making or +waterproofing of baskets. A few of the old men of Cibolan still engage +in the manufacture of small shell disks with which valuable suits are +decorated, but the greater part of those now in use have been inherited, +or are purchased from neighboring peoples. The men carve beads out of +"Job's tears"[19] and make them into necklaces. For this purpose a +peculiarly carved and decorated stick is employed (Plate XXVI). This is +placed in the palm of the left hand so that the thumb and forefinger can +hold the seed which fits into a depression in the top. A knife in the +right hand of the artist is worked over the seed thus cutting a line +into which dirt is rubbed. Women's combs are made by shaping a half +circle out of light wood and then cutting teeth into it with a saw-like +blade of tin or iron. + +[19] _Coix lachryma Johi L_. + +Among the men, as with the women, certain industries are monopolized by +a few individuals. In this community no men stand higher in the +estimation of their fellows than do the smiths and the casters of +copper. The writer spent many hours watching I-o, the brass and copper +worker of Cibolan, while he shaped bells, bracelets, and betel boxes at +his forge on the outskirts of the village (Plate XXVII). Feathered +plungers, which worked up and down in two bamboo cylinders, forced air +through a small clay-tipped tube into a charcoal fire. This served as a +bellows, while a small cup made of straw ashes formed an excellent +crucible. The first day I watched I-o, he was making bells. Taking a +ball of wax the size of a bucket shot, he put it on the end of a stick +(Fig. 26a), and over this moulded the form of a bell in damp ashes +obtained from rice straw (b). When several bells were thus fashioned +they were dipped in melted wax and were turned on a leaf until smooth, +after which an opening was cut through the wax at the bottom of each +form (c). Strips of wax were rolled out and laid in shallow grooves +which had been cut in the sides of the bells and were pressed in, at +intervals, with a small bamboo knife (d). The top stick was then +withdrawn, leaving an opening down to the wax ball inside. Into this +hole a thin strip of wax was inserted and was doubled back on itself so +as to form a hanger (e). For three days the forms were allowed to harden +and were covered with several coats of damp straw ashes. Finally they +were laid in a bed of the same material with a thin strip of wax leading +from each bell to a central core (f). [FIG. 26] The whole, with the +exception of the top of the central wax strip, was covered with a thick +coating of damp ashes, and when this had hardened pieces of copper, +secured from broken gongs, were placed in the crucible, melted and +poured into the open end of the clay form. The molten metal took the +place of the wax as it was dissolved and flowed to all parts where it +had been. After being dropped in water the form was broken open, +revealing six nearly perfect little bells which were ready for use as +soon as the ashes were removed from them. The same method was used for +all other casting. Clay forms were made as desired, were covered with +wax, and the final coating of ashes applied before the casting. The +workers in copper and brass are under the care and guidance of a spirit, +Tolus ka towangan, for whom they make a yearly ceremony, _Gomek +towangan_. + +FIG. 26. STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + +FIG. 26. STAGE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF METAL BELLS. + +[Transcriber's note: Two different figures on different pages are both +labeled FIG. 26.] + +Of even greater importance are the smiths who are also under the care of +a powerful spirit for whom the _Gomek-gomanan_ ceremony is celebrated +each year, just prior to the planting time. Their forges are hidden away +in the hemp fields, and I was repeatedly informed that no woman might +see the smith at work. Whether or no such a rule is rigidly enforced at +all times I cannot say, but at no time did I see a woman about the forge +while the fire was burning, and although I was allowed to see and +photograph the process, my wife was at all times prevented from doing +so. The forge differs in no material respects from that used by the +brass casters, except that hollowed out logs replace the bamboo tubes, +and that a metal anvil and iron hammers are used. After an iron knife or +spear head has been roughly shaped, the smith splits the edge to a +slight depth and inserts a band of steel. The iron is pounded down on +the harder metal and the whole is brought to a white heat in the +charcoal fire. Removing it to the anvil the smith gives the blade one or +two light blows and returns it to the fire. This is repeated many times +before he begins to add the heavy strokes which finally weld the iron +and steel together. The blade having been given its final shape is again +heated and is held above a tube of water until the glowing metal begins +to turn a yellowish green, when it is plunged into the cold water. This +process, repeated many times, gives a fair temper to the whole weapon. +Charcoal for the fire is secured by burning logs and chilling them +suddenly with cold water. + +Brass wire, secured in trade, is made into bracelets in the following +manner. In order to soften it and make it more easily worked the roll of +wire is heated until it begins to turn grey, when it is allowed to cool +and is scraped, so as to restore the yellow color. One end is laid on an +anvil made of an iron strip on a wooden block (Plate XXVII), and is cut +into various designs by means of metal dies. A wooden cone is used as a +form, about which the wire is placed in order to shape and measure it. + +Hemp[20] grows wild in the Davao District and the Bagobo have, for +generations, used it in the manufacture of their clothing. In recent +years the demand for fiber has shown the people an easy way to secure +the trade articles which they desire and, as a result, rather extensive +plantings are found even in the more remote districts. The women strip a +large part of the fiber in local use, but all that prepared for trade is +produced by the men. When the ever-present cogon grass begins to invade +a clearing, the young hemp is planted. In about eighteen months it has +grown to a height of some sixteen feet and is ready to be cut. The man +goes to the fields, cuts down some stalks and, having removed the +leaves, splits off the outer fiber layers from the cellular matter of +the interior, using a bone knife for this purpose. When he has +accumulated a sufficient number of strips he carries them to the hemp +machine (Fig. 27). This consists of a knife which rests on a wooden +block. The handle turns on a pivot and the end is drawn upwards by means +of a bent twig, or sapling, which acts as a spring. This spring is +lowered and the knife blade raised by means of a foot treadle; a strip +of hemp is laid on the block; the foot pressure is removed, and the +knife descends. Taking a firm hold of one end of the strip, the operator +draws it toward him under the blade, thus removing the pulp and leaving +the free hemp threads. These are hung in the sun until dry, when they +are tied in bundles ready to be carried to the coast. The work is hard +and, unless necessity forces him to greater effort, a man seldom engages +in it for more than three or four days in a month. He thinks his duty +ceases with this expenditure of energy and, unless he is fortunate +enough to possess animals or slaves, is quite content to allow his wife, +or wives, to carry the product to the coast trader. + +[20] _Musa textilis_. + +FIG. 27. HEMP MACHINE. + +During ceremonies and at festivals a fermented drink made of sugar cane +is served, and in anticipation of its pleasurable effects the Bagobo is +willing to expend a considerable amount of effort. The juice of the cane +is extracted by means of a press made of two logs arranged in parallel +horizontal positions, so that the end of a wooden lever can slip under +one and rest in a groove cut in the other (Fig. 28). The cane is placed +in the groove and the operator bears his weight on the lever, thus +squeezing out the juice. After being boiled with the bark of certain +trees and lime juice, the liquor is sealed in jars or bamboo tubes and +is stored away until needed. + +FIG. 28. SUGAR CANE PRESS. + +The sago palm is found in parts of the Bagobo territory, and in times of +need, the people make temporary camps near to the sago districts, where +they prepare the flour. This is done in the same manner as is fully +described on page 140. + +The most important thing in the life of the Bagobo is the care of the +rice, for on this crop he depends for the greater part of his food +supply, and by its condition he can ascertain with what favor he is +looked upon by the spirits. So closely is the cultivation of this cereal +coupled with the religious beliefs that it is necessary, in this +relation, to describe the ceremonies connected with it. + +We have previously stated that the incursion of the cogon grass into the +fields makes necessary some new clearings each year. In the month of +December a constellation known as _Balatik_ appears in the sky. This has +a double significance; first, it is the reminder for the yearly +sacrifice; and secondly, it notifies all workers that the tools, which +are to be used in making new clearings, shall be placed in readiness. +All those who expect to prepare new fields for themselves, or are to +assist others in such work, gather at the forge of the local smith and +there take part in a ceremony held in honor of his patron spirit. They +carry with them offerings of rice and chickens which they cook in bamboo +tubes, for food taken from a pot is not acceptable to this spirit. When +all is ready the food is placed on a rice winnower, near to the forge, +and on it the men lay their weapons and working knives (Plate XXIX). +Standing before the offering the smith, in a droning voice, calls on the +spirit, beseeching him to come and eat of the food, to accept the +weapons and tools, and having done so to be watchful over the workers +during the clearing time, so that they may not be injured in the work or +be molested by enemies. The prayer finished, the smith eats a little of +the food, and all the men follow his example, but no woman may so much +as touch this offering. Meanwhile other food which can be eaten by all +has been prepared. After the meal the weapons and tools which are to be +used during the clearing time are removed, but, as they now belong to +the spirit, they can never be disposed of without first recompensing +him. During this day there is a strict prohibition against music and +dancing. For three days the men abstain from work and the forge stands +idle. When the fire is again lighted the first knife made is the +property of the spirit. + +With the ending of the period of taboo the workers go to the fields and, +in the center of each, place a _tambara_[21] fitted with a white dish +containing betel nut. This is an offering to Eugpamolak Manobo, who is +besought to drive from the field any _tigbanawa_ or _tagamaling_[22] who +may live there, to keep the workers in good health, to allow an abundant +crop, and, finally, to make the owner rich and happy. The weeds, brush, +and trees, after being cut and allowed to dry are fired, while the logs +remaining after this initial burning are piled together and again set on +fire, and the field is ready for the planting. No soil is broken and not +a seed goes into the ground until the spirits again designate the time, +by placing the constellation _Marara_ in the sky. This appears early in +April, and is followed by a period of great activity in the fields. If, +for any reason, the owner of the land cannot plant at this time, he has +two or more opportunities given him when the constellations _Mamari_ and +_Bwaya_ appear, the latter toward the end of June. + +[21] See p. 66, Fig. 12. + +[22] Evil spirits which are classed with the _buso_. See p. 107. + +When the workers go to the field on the day set for the planting they +enter at one corner and proceed directly across it to the far left hand +corner where they erect a small house or place a _tambara_ which is +known as _pEmEg'ge_. As soon as it is complete, the _mabalian_ begin to +call on the spirits. Manama[23] is called first and after him other +spirits, according to their rank and power. They are informed that the +planting is about to begin and that the people are showing them this +mark of respect so that they will not allow anything to interfere with +the crop. This done, they go to the center of the field and place a +second _tambara_, called _parobanian_, for the spirit Taragomi, who owns +all food. Leaves pleasing to him and presents of food or bracelets are +placed in it, as well as in his _tambara_ found in the house.[24] The +owner of the field takes the _malayag_, a large variety of rice, and +plants it around the _parobanian_,[25] and as the last grain is planted +the _mabalian_ again starts her prayer, this time beginning with +Taragomi. She asks for good crops, and protection for the field from all +animals, blight and drought. Finally, she begs Eugpamolak Manobo to +control the sun and winds so that they will always be favorable to the +growing grain. Having thus done all in their power to secure the +cooperation of the superior beings the men take their rice planters and +real work begins.[26] The planter (Fig. 29) consists of a long shaft at +one end of which is a metal blade while at the other is a bamboo clapper +decorated with feathers. When this instrument is struck on the ground it +digs a shallow hole an inch or more in depth, the clapper meanwhile +keeping up an incessant noise. It is said by some that the rattle is +intended to please the guardian spirit of the fields, but this does not +seem to be the prevalent idea. The women follow the men, dropping seeds +into the holes and pushing the soil over them with their feet. + +[23] Eugpamolak Manobo. + +[24] At Cibolan only brass objects are placed in this _tambara_. + +[25] At Digos the _mabalian_ does the planting and harvesting about the +_tambara_, and the rice grown there is reserved as seed, for the next +season. + +[26] FATHER GISBERT relates that it is the custom to sacrifice a slave +at this time, but this is denied by the _datu_ consulted by the writer. +See letters of FATHER GISBERT in BLAIR and ROBERTSON, The Philippine +Islands, Vol. XLIII; pp. 233-4. + +FIG. 29. RICE PLANTER WITH BAMBOO CLAPPER ATTACHED TO TOP. + +At nightfall of the day in which the planting has been completed a +_mabalian_ cooks fish and rice, which she carries to the _parobanian_. +Early next morning the family goes to the field and eats this offering +which "belongs to Taragomi, so should be eaten at his house." From this +time until harvest the fields must be guarded against birds and animals, +but no further offerings take place unless unusual conditions should +satisfy the owner that the spirits are demanding more gifts. When +harvest time comes the owner and a few of his friends will go to the +field and pull a few of the fresh stalks, which they place in the +_pEmEg'ge_ and _parobanian_, meanwhile addressing the spirits, and the +cutting of the rice begins. This is done by women who, for this purpose, +employ a small knife called _gElat_ (Plate XXIXd). The last grain to be +cut is that about the _parobanian_. The _mabalian_ cooks a little of the +new rice in the house and places a part of it in the various _tambara_ +and shrines; then, having placed a number of rice stalks on the floor, +she offers them one by one to the spirits. Not until she has finished +can any of the prepared food be eaten. The balance of the crop lies in +the sun until dry, when it is tied in bundles and placed in the granary. + +When all the harvesting is finished the people will make a festival +known as _Gatokbia-an_, or _pakakaro_. Ordinarily each family will have +its own celebration, but at times all the inhabitants of a village will +join in one great celebration. The period of toil and doubt is past, the +food supply is assured, and the people gather to give thanks. No New +England Thanksgiving dinner is prepared with greater thought, or less +regard for expense, than that which is made ready at this time. The +finest of the rice, cocoanuts[sic], eggs, chickens, fish, shrimps, and +many other edibles are prepared and placed in certain dishes which are +dedicated to the spirits and are used only at this time. These plates +are arranged in a row in the center of the room and the _mabalian_ +gather around them. Taking a wand of sandal wood in her hand one of the +number waves it over the offerings, while she chants long prayers. +Beginning with the most powerful, she addresses the spirits one by one, +thanking them for the care they have given to the growing grain and to +the laborers, and for the bounteous harvest. Frequently individuals will +interrupt the proceedings to place near to the _mabalian_ a fine knife +or some other prized object which they desire to have presented to the +spirits as evidence of their gratitude. At first, it is a little hard to +understand this lavishness, but it transpires that the former owners +still have possession of these objects, and that the spirits offer no +objections to their use, so long as their ownership is not disputed, +truly a case of eating the pie but still having it. + +The knives and other implements which have been used in the fields are +laid on a large basket filled with rice, "in order that they may eat, +and, therefore, have no cause to injure their owners." Another large +dish of rice is set aside as a special offering. In some cases this is +taken out to the fields, where it is eaten by the wife, or wives of the +host; but in Cibolan it is kept in the house until the next morning, +when it is eaten by all the members of the family. The ceremonial eating +of this rice causes the supply to last longer and assures abundant rains +for the succeeding crop. Part of the food from the dishes is placed in +the _tambara_ and shrines, and then all the guests are permitted to +feast and make merry. Unlike most Bagobo ceremonies this one lacks the +music of the _agongs_,[27] for only bamboo guitars, flutes, and the +_bolang-bolang_ are permitted at this time. The last named instrument is +made by placing a board on a rice mortar; the women gather around it +with their wooden pestles and beat a rythmical[sic] tattoo. This +concludes the festival proper, but many guests will remain for two or +three days to enjoy the hospitality of their host. + +[27] Copper gongs. + +On the third morning after the festival the family and some friends will +celebrate _BagkEs_ "the tying together." The dishes in which food was +offered are tied together and are carried to the rice field where, with +great solemnity, the little dish in the _parobanian_ is removed and +placed among the others, while the people tell it that the other plates +have come to take it away, but that it will be returned to its home the +following year. The family goes back to the village in silence and after +tying all the dishes together place them in the rice granary. + +In the Bagobo settlement at Digos, the women hold still another festival +following the cutting of the rice. This is known as _Gomeng ka +taragomi_, or _bitinbagaybe_. In the main it resembles the ceremony of +similar name, which the women of Malilla hold on the second day of +_GinEm_ (See page 111). A bamboo pole decked with leaves and green fruit +of the _areca_ palm is placed in the center of a room and is surrounded +with cooked food. After this has been offered to the spirits, it is +eaten by the guests who then indulge in dancing about the decorated +pole. This generally lasts eight days, but in one instance the +festivities continued for sixteen days and nights. The explanation given +is that "the women wish to show Taragomi and the _Nitos_ (anitos) how +happy they are because of the good harvest, for when they see this they +will be pleased and will help again next year." + +TRANSPORTATION AND TRADE. + +The Bagobo makes no use of boats or rafts, for until recent times he has +lived at a considerable distance from the sea; and the rivers, which +flow in deep canyons, may be changed in a day from tiny streams to +rushing torrents in which no craft could keep afloat. Left to his own +devices, he pays little attention to trails, but cuts his way through +the underbrush directly to his destination. The government has forced +him to clear and maintain several fairly good roads between the larger +settlements and the coast, and these are now the highways over which he +transports his hemp and other trade articles. Quite a number of carabao +and horses are to be found in the territory, where they are used as pack +and riding animals. Both men and women are excellent riders and take +great pride in the decoration of their mounts. The saddle used is carved +from wood, in exact duplication of those used by the Spaniards. The +copper bits are also copies, but are of native casting. Strings of bells +surround the neck of a prized animal, and it is further beautified by an +artificial forelock. Rattan whips, wound with braid, and decorated with +beads, are also a part of his trappings. According to Bagobo tradition, +they have had horses from the most remote times, and Professor +BLUMENTRITT is inclined to believe that they possessed these animals +prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. In support of this contention, he +points to the fact that, unlike most Philippine tribes, they use the +Malayan name.[28] + +[28] The terms used are, _bait koda_--stallion, and _mamat koda_--mare. + +[Transcriber's note: The uncontracted forms of these phrases are _bayi +ta koda'_ and _mama ta koda'_. Because _bayi_ means "female" and _mama_ +means "male," the definitions of "stallion" and "mare" appear to have +been interchanged in error.] + +Heavy loads of field products are transported on animals, or are carried +in cylindrical bark or rattan boxes or carrying frames (Fig. 30). Such a +receptacle is supported on the back by means of a band which passes +around the forehead, or by other bands which slip over the shoulders. +Both sexes carry loads in this way, although it must be confessed that +consideration for the members of the gentler sex has not reached such a +stage that they are relieved of any great part of such labor. When +gathering grain and forest products, or when searching for snails, the +woman attaches a small basket to her belt so that it hangs at a +convenient height against her thigh. We have previously noticed the +decorated bags and baskets which serve as pockets, and also contain the +betel nut outfits. + +FIG. 30. CARRYING FRAME. + +A small child is supported at the mother's hip by means of a broad sash, +which passes over the right shoulder and under the left arm. When it is +able to walk the scarf is discarded, and it sits astride the mother's +hip, where it is held in place by her left arm. Older children and the +men devote considerable time to the newcomers, but at a very early age +the youngsters begin to run about as wild and carefree as only little +savages can. + +The Bagobo is a keen trader and many small articles of all kinds reach, +and pass from him through trade; and to make this barter possible he +intentionally produces an excess of certain things. Chief of these is +hemp, which he now carries to the coast traders, and for which he +receives trade cloth, iron pots, copper gongs, bells, and the beads +which he prizes so highly. In exchange for the betel boxes, bells, and +knife guards, which come from his forge, he receives shell disks, +certain articles of dress, cooking pots, and various other household +articles as well as salt and some animals. The knives made by him are in +great demand and often travel far inland. While among the Bukidnon of +the North-Central part of the Island the writer secured one blade and +guard of undoubted Bagobo workmanship. In early days, Chinese and Moro +traders brought gongs, jars, plates, and other crockery, as well as many +other articles now among the prized heirlooms of wealthy men or +occupying an important place in the ceremonial life of the tribe. +Through these same channels came the Borneo ivory of which the ear plugs +are made, while other objects from more distant regions were +occasionally brought in. Two examples of this trade are now in the +collections of the Field Museum of Natural History. One is a jacket made +from Javanese cloth; the second a belt buckle which apparently +originated in Perak. + +Local feuds, as well as the desire of individuals to be known as +_magani_, have always made it unsafe for small numbers of traders to +venture to any great distance from home, and this has been a great +hindrance to trade. However, large parties, even from other tribes, +sometimes go to a village for purposes of trade, having previously +notified the inhabitants of their intentions. While in Malilla the +writer met with a party of thirty Bila-an traders who lived three days' +march to the east. The influence of capture, intermarriage, and looting, +in carrying the artifacts of one tribe into the territory of another has +previously been mentioned. + +WARFARE. + +The offensive weapons used by the Bagobo are spears, knives (Fig. 15 and +Plate XXXII), and at times bows and arrows (Fig. 17). For defense they +carry shields, either round or oblong (Figs. 31-32), and cover the body +with so many strips of hemp cloth that a knife thrust is warded off. +Turning his body sideways to the enemy, the warrior crouches behind his +shield, keeping up a continuous capering, rushing forward or dancing +backward, seeking for an opening but seldom coming to close quarters. +Arrows and spears are glanced off with the shield. An attack is usually +initiated by the throwing of spears, then, if the enemy is at a +disadvantage or confused, the warriors rush in to close combat. For this +purpose they rely entirely on their knives, and as fencers they are +unexcelled. They are but indifferent shots with the bow and arrow, and +that weapon is but little used in actual combat. It has been frequently +stated that these arrows are poisoned but I was unable to discover a +single specimen so prepared. When hard-pressed, or when a camp must be +made in dangerous territory, sharpened bamboo sticks--_sogiang_--are stuck +into the ground with their points directed toward the enemy. These must +be carefully gathered up by the pursuers, who otherwise run the risk of +having the knife-like blades driven into their feet. Old warriors state +that in former years they not only covered the upper part of the body +with hemp cloth but wound over this long decorated strips called +_gindua_; they also tell of coats of mail made of carabao horn or +rattan. None of these outfits exist in the territory today, but it is +not at all improbable that they were formerly in use, for the long +decorated bands are still found among the Bukidnon of the North, with +whom some trade is carried on; and a few coats of mail are to be seen +among the neighboring Moro. + +FIG. 31A AND B. FRONT AND BACK OF AN OBLONG SHIELD. + +FIG. 32A AND B. A.--FRONT OF A DECORATED SHIELD. B.--BACK OF SHIELD A. + +Hostile raids against the neighboring Bila-an, Tagakaolo, and Ata seem +to have been common from the most ancient times. After the arrival of +the Spaniards there were many minor conflicts with the Moro, and the +tribal history takes note of several serious feuds between Bagobo +villages. Single warriors, usually those desiring to become _magani_, +sometimes enter hostile territory and there lie in wait for an +opportunity to spear a passing foe. The fact that these attacks are +frequently from ambush, or that whole families are slain while asleep on +the floors of their houses, does not seem to detract in the least from +the honor due for the deed. Generally, parties of sixty or more, under +the direction of a _magani_, are made up to avenge the death of their +townspeople, to secure loot and slaves, or to win glory and distinction. +An ambush is formed near to a hostile village and just at dawn an attack +is made on the early risers who are scattered and unprepared. The +invaders are usually satisfied with a few victims and then make their +escape. Women and children are either killed or are carried away as +slaves. It is customary for all the warriors to make at least one cut in +the bodies, and to eat a portion of the livers of enemies who have shown +great bravery, for in this way it is thought they gain in that quality. +This seems to be the only occasion when human flesh is tasted, despite +the fact that the members of this tribe have been frequently referred to +as cannibals. + +The warriors of Cibolan and Malilla formerly carried heads of enemies to +their towns and made use of them during the _GinEm_ ceremony, while at +Bansalan and Digos a lock of hair, cut from the head of the slain, +answered the same purpose. Individual raiders sometimes carry home a +head or a hand as evidence of a successful fight, and at such times +festivals may be held to celebrate the event. However, the trophy soon +loses its value and is hung or buried at a distance from the village. +Head-hunting for the sake of the trophy itself, does not exist here. + +Peace can be effected by means of a blood compact known as _dayandi_. +Each principal cuts his own wrist until the blood flows freely; this he +catches in his free hand and offers to the other participant to drink. +Sometimes the blood of both is caught and mixed in a dish from which +they drink, meanwhile addressing the _tigyama_,[29] saying, "We are now +like brothers, like children of the same parents, and now we cannot +fight any more. We ask you to be the witnesses." + +[29] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 12 pages later in this document.] + +SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. + +There seems to be no trace of clan or totemic grouping among the Bagobo. +Blood relationship is traced as far as the second cousin and is a bar to +marriage. The suggestion that a man might marry his mother-in-law was +received with horror, but whether this was due to local mother-in-law +stories or to an idea of relationship could not be ascertained. However, +a man may marry the sister of his wife. + +Each district has its head man, or petty _datu_ who is supposed to be +subject to the _datu_ of Cibolan. This seems actually to have been the +case until a few years ago, when some of the local rulers withdrew their +allegiance. The office is hereditary and usually passes from the father +to his eldest son. Should the _datu_ be without an heir, or the son be +considered inefficient, the under chiefs and wise old men may choose a +leader from among their number. + +In his own district the power of the _datu_ is very great, but even he +is obliged to respect the laws and customs handed down by the ancestors. +He is supreme judge in all matters, though he may, if he desires, call +in the old men to help him decide difficult cases. The usual method of +punishment is by means of a fine. Should the culprit be unwilling or +unable to pay he is placed in servitude until such a time as the debt is +considered canceled, but should he refuse to serve he is killed without +further ado. The _datu_ appoints a man for this purpose, and he usually +gets his victim by stealth, either by waylaying him in the road or by +driving a spear through him as he lies asleep on the floor of his house. +When a fine is levied the _datu_ retains a portion as pay for his +services; if the more drastic punishment follows it serves to emphasize +his power and is more valuable to him than the payment. When his house +needs repairing, his hemp requires stripping, or his fields need +attention, his followers give him assistance. In return for these +services he helps support a number of fighting men who can always be +called upon for the defence of the people. His house is considered the +property of all to the extent that anyone goes there at any time and +stays as long as he pleases, partaking meanwhile of the _datu's_ food. +In times of danger, or during festivals, all the people assemble there +and assist, in the defense or the merry-making. + +Datu Tongkaling is the most industrious man in the tribe. He does not +hesitate to work in the rice fields, to aid in the house-building or to +take his turn at the forge, neither will he tolerate any loafing on the +part of his followers. While in most instances he mingles freely with +his people he never eats with them. His wives, children, and guests eat +from a long row of dishes set on the floor, but the _datu_ takes his +food alone at a considerable distance from the others. + +The balance of the people can be roughly divided between freeman and +slaves, but slavery here is of such a mild type, and the members of that +class become so quickly merged into the tribe that the lines cannot be +closely drawn. Women and children secured in raids become the slaves of +their captors, and may be bought and sold, or pass by inheritance, like +other property. It is considered proper for a man to live with his slave +without marrying her, but should she become pregnant she is usually +given her freedom at once; if not then, she is certain to be upon the +death of her master, while her offspring are free and legitimate heirs. +Children born to a slave couple remain in their class, as do those born +to a slave mother and a man not her master. These slaves are treated +with kindness and consideration and seldom try to make their escape. In +fact it is often difficult to pick out the members of this class from +the other members of the family. + +The chief aim in life of the man is to have the right to wear the +blood-red clothing and to be known as _magani_. As stated earlier in the +paper, this term is applied to a man who has killed two or more persons. +He is then entitled to wear the peculiar chocolate-colored head covering +(Plate XXV). When his score has reached four he can don blood-red +trousers, and when he has six lives to his credit he is permitted to +wear the complete blood-red suit and to carry a bag of the same +color.[30] From that time on his clothing does not change with the +number of his victims, but his influence increases with each life put to +his credit. It is said that formerly, at Digos and Bansalan, a man who +had killed twenty or more was known as _gemawan_, and was distinguished +by a black hemp suit. This claim to the black clothing is no longer +respected, and such garments are worn by any who desire them. The man +who has never killed a person is called _matalo_, a rather slighting +term signifying one who has no desire to fight but remains at home with +the women. A man who kills an unfaithful wife and her admirer may count +the two on his score. He may also count those of his townspeople whom he +has killed in fair fight, but unprovoked murder will be punished by the +death of the offender. The candidate for _magani_ honors may go to an +unfriendly town, or to a neighboring tribe, and kill without fear of +censure from his own people. + +[30] This is the rule at Cibolan. At Malilla and Digos, the kerchief may +be worn when one life has been taken, the trousers for two, the coat for +three, and finally the sack for four. + +[Transcriber's note: _matalo_ in the paragraph above means "coward."] + +The _magani_ is one of the leaders in a war party; he is chosen to +inflict the death penalty when it is decreed, and it is men of this +class that assist in the human sacrifices. He is under the special +protection of Mandarangan and Darago, and all petitions to these +powerful spirits must be made through him. His clothing is considered +the property of these spirits, and when such specimens were secured for +the collection, the wearer would invariably place the garment beside +some prized article, such as a knife or spear, then taking a green betel +nut would rub the garment and object, meanwhile beseeching the spirits +to leave the one and enter the other. Later the nut was placed in the +_tambara_ belonging to those spirits. A father may not bequeath to his +son the right to the red clothing; and such articles, together with his +weapons, should be buried with him. Should one not entitled to these +garments dare to make use of them, the spirits would straightway cause +his body to swell or turn yellow, and he would die. + +In a previous paragraph we mentioned the unorganized priesthood, the +members of which are known as _mabalian_. Men are not barred from this +profession, but the greater number of its members are old, or +middle-aged, women.[31] A woman may live the greater part of her life +without an idea of becoming a member of this order, and then suddenly be +warned in dreams, by visions, or by other _mabalian_ that she has been +chosen by the spirits. The one thus elected becomes a pupil of a +qualified _mabalian_ and for several months will be drilled in the +duties of that office. She will be taught the medicines to be used at +certain times,[32] the duties of a midwife, the correct method of +building shrines and conducting ceremonies, and finally, she will learn +the prayers with which the spirits should be addressed. It seems to be +the belief that, at times during the ceremonies, the _mabalian_ may be +possessed by a spirit and that she then speaks not as a mortal but as +the spirit itself. She also knows how to weave and dye the turban worn +by the _magani_, and because of this accomplishment is considered to be +under the protection of Baitpandi,[33] and is permitted to wear garments +made of red cloth, the same as the _magani_. + +[31] There are five _mabalian_ in Cibolan, all of whom are women past +middle life. + +[32] A medicine is used with the idea that it assists in driving away +evil influences. + +[33] The patron spirit of the weavers. + +The workers in the various crafts are under the guidance and protection +of special spirits, but there is no bar against other members of the +tribe entering those professions. + +Apparently then, Bagobo society is divided into several classes or +divisions, but with the exception of a few individuals in the slave +class, there is a possibility or an opportunity for each member of the +tribe to enter any class open to his or her sex. Even a slave woman may +become the wife of a _datu_, and her son may assume the leadership of +the tribe. + +LAWS. PROPERTY AND INHERITANCE. + +The laws of the people are those imposed by custom and religion, and are +equally binding on all classes. Public opinion is sufficient to prevent +most crimes; the fear of offending the spirits is a further deterrent; +while the final bar is the drastic punishment meted out by the _datu_. +Theft is punished by the levying of a fine if the culprit is able to +pay, or by a term of servitude if he has no property. If a husband finds +that his wife has been unfaithful, he should kill both her and her +admirer, but the spear with which he avenges his wrongs should be left +in the body of one of the victims, as a sign that the murder was +provoked by the fault. When this is done the husband cannot be held +accountable either to the _datu_ or to the dead person's relatives. If, +however, he withdraws the weapon, the brothers or other male relatives +of the deceased have a right and a duty to avenge the deaths. A man who +has killed his wife and her lover is allowed to count both on his score +towards becoming a _magani_--a further incentive for him to avenge his +wrongs. Cases are known where the husband accepted payment for his +wife's affections, but it was considered a sign of weakness, or +cowardice, and the man lost caste. Unprovoked murder of one from the +same or a friendly village is punished by death. + +A man having illicit relations with a slave woman, not his own, is +subjected to a heavy fine or a term of servitude. Incest should be +punished by the death of the culprits for should such a crime go +unpunished the spirits would cause the sea to rise and cover the land. +Datu Tongkaling claims that on two occasions, since he became ruler, he +has put such offenders to death. In the first case he had the couple +bound and thrown into the sea, while in the second instance, they were +tied to trees in the forest and sacrificed in the presence of all the +people of the village. + +Prohibitions exist against the wearing of the clothing which +distinguishes warriors and priestesses, and there are rules governing +the conduct of individuals while near shrines or during ceremonies, but +punishment for the breaking of these rules is meted out by the spirits +rather than by the _datu_. + +Each settlement is recognized as having property rights to all adjacent +lands. Within these recognized limits, its members may take up as much +land as they need, provided it is not already in use, but when a field +is, for any reason, abandoned it again becomes the property of the +community. Individual ownership extends to houses, furnishings, and all +articles of clothing, as well as to weapons, traps, animals, and slaves. +Although bought with a price the wife is still very independent and has +undisputed rights to her baskets, cooking utensils, looms, and to the +finery with which she adorns her person. + +Since all the people assist in the support of the _datu_ they consider +his home to be, to a certain extent, their own and make use of it and +its furnishings without question. + +Probably at no place in the world has borrowing gone to greater extremes +than here. When attempting to purchase clothing, or articles in daily +use, the writer frequently found that not a single garment worn by an +individual was his own; and it was usually necessary to consult several +persons in order to secure a complete outfit. + +Upon the death of a man, his property is taken in charge by his first +wife, or by the old men, and is divided equally among his wives and +children, with perhaps a little extra added to the share of the first +mate. The belongings of a free-born woman go to her children, or, in +case she is barren, are given to her relatives. In cases where both the +parents are dead, the children pass into the care of the father's +family. + +Despite the fact that property is owned by individuals, a large part of +the labor, especially in house-building and in the fields, is done in +common. When a man desires to clear or plant a field or to build a +house, he summons his friends to aid him and they respond with no idea +of payment other than their food and drink, and the return of like +services when they are in similar need. + +BIRTH. + +For about six months before and after the birth of a child the mother is +relieved from hard labor; she is not allowed to taste of any thing sour, +neither may she eat dried fish or flesh, lest her child be thin and +weak. The father is under no restrictions other than that he is expected +to remain near to his home for a few days following the birth of a +child. Other action on his part would be considered by the spirits as an +admission that he does not care for the child, and they would cause the +umbilical cord to decay so that the child would die. The mother is +delivered in the regular dwelling, where she is attended by two or more +midwives or _mabalian_.[34] She is placed with her back against an +inclined board, while in her hands she holds a rope which is attached to +the roof. With the initial pains, one of the midwives massages the +abdomen, while another prepares a drink made from leaves, roots, and +bark, and gives it to the expectant woman. The preparation of this +concoction was taught by friendly spirits, and it is supposed to insure +an easy delivery. Still another _mabalian_ spreads a mat in the middle +of the room, and on it places valuable cloths, weapons, and gongs, which +she offers to the spirits; praying that they will make the birth easy +and give good health to the infant. The articles offered at this time +can be used by their former owners but as they are now the property of +the spirits they must not be sold or traded. The writer was very anxious +to secure an excellent weapon which had been thus offered. The user +finally agreed to part with it but first he placed it beside another of +equal value, and taking a piece of betel nut he rubbed each weapon with +it a number of times, then dipping his fingers in the water he touched +both the old and the new blades, all the time asking the spirit to +accept and enter the new weapon. The child is removed by the _mabalian_ +who, in cutting the umbilical cord, makes use of the kind of knife used +by the members of the child's sex, otherwise the wound would never heal. +The child is placed on a piece of soft betel bark, "for its bones are +soft and our hands are hard and are apt to break the soft bones," then +water is poured over it and its body is rubbed with _pogonok_.[35] The +afterbirth is placed in a bamboo tube, is covered with ashes and a leaf, +and the whole is hung against the side of the dwelling where it remains +until it falls of its own accord or the house is destroyed. In Cibolan +the midwife applies a mixture of clay and herbs called _karamir_ to the +eyes of all who have witnessed the birth "so that they will not become +blind." Having done this she gives the child its name, usually that of a +relative, and her duties are over. As payment she will receive a large +and a small knife, a plate, some cloth, and a needle.[36] + +[34] In Cibolan the midwife is called _taratEk-Ekn_, and need not be a +_mabalian_. + +[35] A medicine made of bark and rattan. + +[36] The payment given at the birth of a boy is somewhat greater than +that for a girl. + +In Malilla the naming does not take place until three clays after the +birth, and the eyes are not always anointed, although the old people +agree that it is an ancient custom and "a good thing to do." At that +time the mat containing the gifts is spread on the floor and the +offerings are again called to the attention of the spirits, who are +urged to look to the welfare of the child. Should the infant be ailing, +or cry a great deal, it is a sign that the spirits are displeased with +the name given to it and another will be substituted; however, this does +not seem to be done with an idea of fooling the spirits, as is the case +with some other tribes. The child is nursed until two or three years of +age, or until another takes its place. There is no superstition +concerning twins, but triplets are at once put to death by filling their +mouths with ashes, otherwise "the parents would die, for they are like +dogs." + +When questioned concerning abortion, Datu Tongkaling asserted that he +considered it "very bad," and that he would prohibit any _mabalian_ who +assisted in such a practice from continuing her profession, but he said +that despite his orders secret medicines which produce that result are +sometimes administered. Such a practice is not common, however, as +children are greatly desired and no worse slur can be applied to a woman +than to speak of her as barren. + +So far as could be learned there is no ceremony or celebration of any +kind when a child reaches the age of puberty but soon thereafter its +teeth will be filed and blackened. In some villages the boys are +circumcised, but the practice is not compulsory, neither is it general +throughout the territory. + +MARRIAGE. + +Marriage among the Bagobo takes place much later than is common among +most Philippine tribes, the couple often being eighteen or twenty years +of age. As a rule the parents of the boy select the girl and negotiate +the match. Going to the house of the girl they casually broach the +subject and if her parents are favorable, a day is set to discuss the +details. This meeting is attended by the friends and relatives of both +families, and two head-men or _datu_ must also be present to represent +the contracting parties. The price the girl should bring varies +according to the wealth of the interested parties and the +accomplishments of the bride. Whatever the sum paid, the father of the +girl must make a return present equal to one-half the value of the +marriage gift "so that he does not sell his daughter like a slave." +Usually marriage does not take place until a year or more after this +settlement, and during the interval the boy must serve his father-in-law +to be. When the time for the final ceremony arrives the relatives and +friends assemble and for two or three days they feast and make merry. A +_mabalian_ spreads a mat on the floor, places on it many valuable +articles and then offers all to the spirits, in order that they may be +pleased to give the couple a long and prosperous life together. Finally, +she puts a dish of rice on the mat and, after offering it to the +spirits, places it between the boy and the girl as they sit on the +floor. The girl takes a handful of the rice and feeds it to the boy who, +in turn, feeds her, and the ceremony is complete. The couple may then go +to their new home, but for several years the girl's family will exact a +certain amount of service from the groom. + +A slight variation of the usual order occurred recently at the marriage +of one of Datu Tongkaling's sons. At that time all the details were +arranged by the _datu_, who, accompanied by his son and a number of +relatives, went to the girl's house and proposed the union. After the +girl had brought wine, betel nut, and food, and had placed them before +the visitors, she was directed by her mother to make a carrying bag for +her lover. Had she objected to the union and refused to make this gift, +her decision would probably have been accepted as final and all +negotiations abandoned. However, it is not customary for the young +people to refuse to carry out the wishes of their elders. As the girl +offered no objections, the party fell to discussing the price the groom +should pay, and finally, after several hours of bargaining, decided that +he should furnish her father with one _agong_,[37] one horse, and a +double betel box.[38] Five days later, when he paid this sum, he +received a return gift of one _agong_ and ten skirts from the bride's +mother. About one-half the value of the groom's gift was distributed +among the girl's relatives, who were at the same time admonished that, +in case a separation should occur, they would be expected to return an +equal amount. In the presence of about a hundred friends, the pair drank +wine from the same dish, then submitted to having a little hair cut from +their heads, and were pronounced man and wife. Before they retired for +the night the _mabalian_ combed their hair, then, having directed the +groom to precede his bride to their sleeping place, she secured a child +and placed it on the mat between the pair. This, she explained, was an +old custom, and was done so that the girl might not be ashamed, for she +was not the first to sleep there. Having finished this duty, she +returned to the center of the room and placed a number of plates and a +knife on the _tambara_, where they were allowed to remain for four days +as offerings to the _anito_, Manama, Toglai and the _tigyama_.[39] At +the end of that period the plates were attached to the outside walls of +the house, and the knife returned to its former owner. This completed +the duties of the _mabalian_ who returned home carrying an _agong_, the +payment for her services. + +[37] Large copper gong. + +[38] Much more is often given. One girl in Cibolan brought six horses, +five agongs, and several spears and knives. + +[39] See p. 107. [Transcriber's note: 5 pages after this.] + +A man may have as many wives as he desires and can afford, but he may +not take a second mate until a child has been born to the first union, +or the wife has been proved beyond doubt to be barren. The groom renders +no services to the father of the second wife, but instead of this pays a +double price for the girl, for he not only pays her parents but is +forced also to give a like sum to his first wife, who, in turn, presents +it to her father. Should a third wife be added to the family a sum equal +to her cost is divided among the earlier wives. The first wife is +generally the lady of the house and does not particularly object to +having other girls added to the family, provided they are willing to +obey her. Datu Tongkaling has had four wives, three of whom are still +living. + +If a couple cannot agree, a separation can be arranged by applying to +the local head-man, who, after listening to their troubles, decides +which one is at fault, and whether or no the marriage gifts must be +returned. When a couple parts, plates, bowls, and jars are sometimes +broken as a sign that they will never live together again and the +spirits are thus called to witness. A divorced woman may remarry, but +unless the sum originally paid for her has been returned, the new groom +must pay such an amount to the first husband. + +SICKNESS AND DEATH. + +In case of illness a _mabalian_ administers some simple remedy without +any call on the spirits. If, however, the sickness does not yield +readily to this treatment, it is evident that the trouble is caused by +some spirit who can only be appeased by a gift, Betel nuts, leaves, +food, clothing, and some article in daily use by the patient are placed +in a dish of palm bark and on top of all is laid a roughly carved figure +of a man. This offering is passed over the body of the patient while the +_mabalian_ addresses the spirits as follows. "Now, you can have the man +on this dish, for we have changed him for the sick man. Pardon anything +this man may have done, and let him be well again." Immediately after +this the dish is carried away and hidden so that the sick person may +never see it again, for should he do so the illness would return. + +According to Father GISBERT a doll is carved from a piece of wood and +the spirit is addressed: "O God, Thou who has created men and trees, and +all things, do not deprive us of life, and receive in exchange this bit +of wood which has our face." + +In obstinate cases the invalid may be removed from his own house to +another, in order that he may be under the care of the good spirits +residing there. The _mabalian_ appplies[sic] certain medicines and then +decrees a period of taboo, during which no outsiders may enter the +house. Those within at the time the medicine was given may go out if +they desire, but must return there to sleep. Should it become evident +that the patient will die he is taken back to his own place, otherwise +his family would be called upon to reimburse the owner of the house in +which the death occurs, for bringing evil or unfriendly spirits into +their dwelling. + +Governor Bolton describes a somewhat different procedure among the +members of the Guianga branch of this tribe. Having learned that Datu +Angalan was ill he went to see him, but found his house deserted. The +_datu_ was finally located in a small hut about a hundred yards away +from his own dwelling, with no attendants. The governor writes, "When I +went in the tribesmen entered. I soon found that I had broken a charm +which prevented anyone seeing him for a certain time; that he had been +placed in the hut for that reason, and to insure his not dying in the +large house. It is likely that they had a human sacrifice at that +time."[40] + +[40] Extract from letters of Gov. Bolton, in files of the Governor at +Davao. + +Following a death the body is covered with good clothing and is placed +in the middle of the house. Wailers sit by the corpse, fanning it to +keep away flies, or making an occasional offering of food; while the +friends gather to talk of the virtues of the deceased, to console the +family, and to partake of the food and drink which has been provided for +the gathering. The body is kept over one night, and in the case of great +personages, for three days, or until the coffin--a large log split in +halves and hollowed out--is prepared. When this is ready the body is +placed in it, together with some prized articles of the deceased. After +the top has been fitted to the lower portion, they are lashed together +and the cracks are filled with lime.[41] The body is buried beneath the +house, and the grave is protected by a bamboo fence, within which is +placed food, small offerings, or perhaps a shield and spear. In some +instances the coffin is allowed to remain in the house, which is then +abandoned. It is said that when Datu Taopan died his funeral lasted ten +days, and on the last day the house was decked, inside and out, with +flowers and valuable gifts, and was then deserted. + +[41] When the deceased has been a person of note the coffin is sometimes +decorated or colored. The coffin of a _magani_ should be red, yellow, +and black; while that of a _mabalian_ should be yellow, black, and +brown. + +Following the burial the family lives in the house where the death +occurred until a human sacrifice has been made. During this period they +live very quietly, eat poor food, wear old clothing, and abstain from +all amusements. If their wealth permits, they may shorten the period of +mourning by making a special sacrifice, but in most cases the bereaved +will wait until the yearly sacrifice when they will purchase a share in +the victim and thus remove the taboo. Following the offering, the old +house is abandoned and is allowed to fall to pieces for "the man has +gone and his house must go also." The procedure is the same for women, +and for children who have survived infancy. + +BELIEFS CONCERNING THE SOUL, SPIRITS, ORACLES, AND MAGIC. + +There is some variance, in different parts of the Bagobo area, in the +beliefs concerning the spirits or souls of a man. In Cibolan each man +and woman is supposed to have eight spirits or _gimokod_, which dwell in +the head, the right and left hands and feet, and other parts not +specified. At death these _gimokod_ part, four from the right side of +the body, going up to a place called _palakalangit_, and four descending +to a region known as _karonaronawan_.These places differ in no respects +from the present home of the Bagobo, except that in the region above it +is always day, and all useful plants grow in abundance. In these places +the _gimokod_ are met by the spirits, Toglai and Tigyama, and by them +are assigned to their future homes. If a man has been a _datu_ on earth, +his spirits have like rank in the other life, but go to the same place +as those of common people. The _gimokod_ of evil men are punished by +being crowded into poor houses. These spirits may return to their old +home for short periods, and talk with the _gimokod_ of the living +through dreams, but they never return to dwell again on earth. + +In the districts to the west of Cibolan the general belief is that there +are but two _gimokod_, one inhabiting the right side of the body, the +other the left. That of the right side is good, while all evil deeds and +inclinations come from the one dwelling on the left. It is a common +thing when a child is ill to attach a chain bracelet to its right arm +and to bid the good spirit not to depart, but to remain and restore the +child to health. In Malilla it is believed that after death the spirit +of the right side goes to a good place, while the one on the left +remains to wander about on earth as a _buso_,[42] but this latter belief +does not seem to be shared by the people of other districts. + +[42] See p. 107. + +Aside from the _gimokod_ the Bagobo believe that there exists a great +company of powerful spirits who make their homes in the sky above, in +the space beneath the world, or in the sea, in streams, cliffs, +mountains, or trees. The following is the list related by Datu +Tongkaling, a number of _mabalian_, and others supposed to have special +knowledge concerning these superior beings. + +I. Eugpamolak Manobo, also called Manama and Kalayagan. The first and +greatest of the spirits, and the creator of all that is. His home is in +the sky from whence he can observe the doings of men. Gifts for him +should be white, and should be placed above and in the center of +offerings intended for other spirits. He may be addressed by the +_mabalian_, the _datu_, and wise old men. + +II. Tolus ka balakat, "dweller in the _balakat_[43]." A male spirit who +loves the blood, but not the flesh of human beings, and one of the three +for whom the yearly sacrifice is made. Only the _magani_ may offer +petitions to him. He is not recognized by the people of Digos and +vicinity. + +[43] A hanger in which offerings are placed. + +III and IV. Mandarangan and his wife Darago. This couple look after the +fortunes of the warriors, and in return demand the yearly sacrifice of a +slave. They are supposed to dwell in the great fissure of Mt. Apo, from +which clouds of sulphur fumes are constantly rising. The intentions of +this pair are evil, and only the utmost care on the part of the _magani_ +can prevent them from causing quarrels and dissentions[sic] among the +people, or even actually devouring some of them. + +V. Taragomi. A male spirit who owns all food. He is the guardian of the +crops and it is for him that the shrine known as _parobanian_ is erected +in the center of the rice field. + +VI. Tolus ka towangan. The patron of the workers in brass and copper. + +VII. Tolus ka gomanan. Patron of the smiths. + +VIII. Baitpandi. A female spirit who taught the women to weave, and who +now presides over the looms and the weavers. + +IX. and X. Toglai, also called Si Niladan and Maniladan, and his wife +Toglibon. The first man and woman to live on the earth. They gave to the +people their language and customs. After their death they became +spirits, and are now responsible for all marriages and births. By some +people Toglai is believed to be one of the judges over the shades of the +dead, while in Bansalan he is identified with Eugpamolak Manobo. + +XI. Tigyama. A class of spirits, one of whom looks after each family. +When children marry, the _tigyama_ of the two families unite to form one +who thereafter guards the couple. While usually well disposed they are +capable of killing those who fail to show them respect, or who violate +the rules governing family life. + +XII. Diwata. A class of numerous spirits who serve Eugpamolak Manobo. + +XIII. Anito. A name applied to a great body of spirits, some of whom are +said formerly to have been people. They know all medicines and cures for +illness, and it is from them that the _mabalian_ secures her knowledge +and her power. They also assist the _tigyama_ in caring for the +families. + +XIV. Buso. Mean, evil spirits who eat dead people and have some power to +injure the living. A young Bagobo described his idea of a _buso_ as +follows: "He has a long body, long feet and neck, curly hair, and black +face, flat nose, and one big red or yellow eye. He has big feet and +fingers, but small arms, and his two big teeth are long and pointed. +Like a dog he goes about eating anything, even dead persons." As already +noted, the people of Malilla are inclined to identify the _gimokod_ of +the left side with this evil class. + +XV. Tagamaling. Evil spirits who dwell in big trees. + +XVI. Tigbanua. Ill disposed beings inhabiting rocks and cliffs in the +mountains. These last two classes are frequently confused with the +_buso_. + +In addition to these, the old men of Malilla gave the following: + +1. Tagareso. Low spirits who cause people to become angry and to do +little evil deeds. In some cases they cause insanity. + +2. Sarinago. Spirits who steal rice. It is best to appease them, +otherwise the supply of rice will vanish rapidly. + +3. Tagasoro. Beings who cause sudden anger which results in quarrels and +death. They are the ones who furnish other spirits with human flesh. + +4 and 5. Balinonok and his wife Balinsogo. This couple love blood and +for this reason cause men and women to fight or to run amuck. + +6. Siring. Mischievous spirits who inhabit caves, cliffs, and dangerous +places. They have long nails and can be distinguished by that +characteristic. They sometimes impersonate members of the family and +thus succeed in stealing women and children, whom they carry to their +mountain homes. The captives are not eaten but are fed on snakes and +worms, and should they try to escape the _siring_ will scratch them with +their long nails. + +Other spirits were named and described by individuals, but as they are +not generally accepted by the people of the tribe they are not mentioned +here. + +The stars, thunder and lightning, and similar phenomena are generally +considered as "lights or signs" belonging to the spirits, yet one +frequently hears hazy tales such as that "the constellation Marara is a +one-legged and one-armed man who sometimes causes cloudy weather at +planting time so that people may not see his deformities," or we are +told that "the sun was placed in the sky by the creator, and on it lives +an evil spirit who sometimes kills people. The sun is moved about by the +wind;" again, "the sun and moon were once married and all the stars are +their children." + +Despite repeated assertions by previous writers that the Bagobo are +fire-worshippers no evidence was obtained during our visit to support +the statement. The older people insisted that it was not a spirit and +that no offerings were ever made to it. One _mabalian_ stated that fire +was injurious to a woman in her periods and hence it was best for her +not to cook at such times; she was also of the opinion that fire was of +two kinds, good and bad, and hence might belong to both good and bad +spirits. + +A common method used by the spirits to communicate with mortals is +through the call of the _limokon_[44] All the people know the meaning of +its calls and all respect its warnings. If a man is starting to buy or +trade for an article and this bird gives its warning the sale is +stopped. Should the _limokon_ call when a person is on the trail he at +ones doubles his fist and thrusts it in the direction from which the +warning comes. If it becomes necessary to point backwards, it is a +signal to return, or should the arm point directly in front it is +certain that danger is there, and it is best to turn back and avoid it. +When it is not clear from whence the note came, the traveler looks +toward the right side. If he sees there strong, sturdy trees, he knows +that all is well, but if they are cut or weaklings, he should use great +care to avoid impending danger. When questioned as to why one should +look only to the right, an old man quickly replied: "The right side +belongs to you; the left side is bad and belongs to someone else." + +[44] See p. 63, note. [Transcriber's note: footnote above beginning, "A +dove."] + +Sneezing is a bad omen, and should a person sneeze when about to +undertake a journey, he knows that it is a warning of danger, and will +delay until another time. + +Certain charms, or actions, are of value either in warding off evil +spirits, in causing trouble or death to an enemy, or in gaining an +advantage over another in trading and in games. One type of charm is a +narrow cloth belt in which "medicines" are tied. These medicines may be +peculiarly shaped stones, bits of fungus growth, a tooth, shell, or +similar object. Such belts are known as _pamadan_, or _lambos_, and are +worn soldier-fashion over one shoulder. They are supposed to protect +their owners in battle or to make it easy for them to get the best of +other parties in a trade, A little dust gathered from the footprint of +an enemy and placed in one of these belts will immediately cause the foe +to become ill. + +It is a simple matter to cause a person to become insane. All that is +needed is to secure a piece of his hair, or clothing, place it in a dish +of water and stir in one direction for several hours. + +Father GISBERT relates the following method of detecting theft: + +"There are not, as a rule, many thefts among the Bagobo, for they +believe that a thief can be discovered easily by means of their famous +_bongat_. That consists of two small joints of bamboo, which contain +certain mysterious powders. He who has been robbed and wishes to +determine the robber takes a hen's egg, makes a hole in it, puts a pinch +of the above said powder in it, and leaves it in the fire. If he wishes +the robber to die he has nothing else to do than to break the egg; but +since the thief may sometimes be a relative or a beloved person, the egg +is not usually broken, so that there may be or may be able to be a +remedy. For under all circumstances, when this operation is performed, +if the robber lives, wherever he may be, he himself must inform on +himself by crying out, 'I am the thief; I am the thief,' as he is +compelled to do (they say) by the sharp pain which he feels all through +his body. When he is discovered, he may be cured by putting powder from +the other joint into the water and bathing his body with it. This +practice is very common here among the heathens and Moros. A Bagobo, +named Anas, who was converted, gave me the _bongat_ with which he had +frightened many people when a heathen." + +In Bansalan crab shells are hung over the doors of houses, for these +shells are distasteful to the _buso_ who will thus be kept at a +distance. + +I was frequently told of persons who could foretell the future by means +of palmistry, but was never able to see a palmist at work, or to verify +the information. + +MUSIC, DANCES AND CEREMONIES. + +The music for the dances is generally furnished by one or more persons +beating on several _agongs_ of different sizes and notes, which are +suspended in regular order from the house rafters (Plate XXXa). The +player stands in front of the line and begins to beat the instruments +with a padded stick. Oftentimes he is accompanied by a man who strikes a +wooden drum with the palm of one hand and a stick held in the other. The +music grows faster, emphasizing certain beats, until it becomes a +compelling rhythm that starts the feet of the onlookers, and suddenly a +man or woman begins to dance. At first she keeps time to the music by +raising on her toes and heels, bending the knees and twisting the body +from side to side, but soon she becomes more animated, the feet are +raised high above the floor and brought down with a sort of shuffle +which reminds one of the sound made by the feet of a clog dancer. Still +swaying her body, she begins to circle, contra-clockwise, around the +gongs, and soon she is joined by others until all the dancing space is +filled. The scene is most picturesque, for these dances usually occur at +night, in rooms illuminated only by the flickering light of torches. The +rich clothing of the participants loses nothing of its beauty in this +dim light, while the bells and rattles with which each dancer surrounds +arms, legs and ankles, add to the din and weirdness of the occasion. +Before the dance has progressed far the musicians begin to keep time +with their feet and frequently dance away from their instruments, +circle, and then return to continue the music. + +With slight variation, this is the dance used on all occasions. At +certain ceremonies small gongs, or the _bolang bolang_,[45] replace the +_agongs_, and at times also a single dancer will accompany himself on +the _kodlon_--a long wooden guitar with rattan strings (Plate XXXb). + +[45] An instrument made by placing a small board on a rice mortar. This +is pounded or beaten with short sticks, or with the wooden pestles. + +In this description we have named a large share of the musical +instruments used by the Bagobo. The women frequently play on a sort of +guitar made of a section of bamboo from the outside of which narrow +strings are cut. These are raised and made taut with small wooden +bridges and are then picked with a stick or the fingers (Fig. 33). +Bamboo Jew's-harps and mouth flutes are played by the men, but the nose +flute, so common in most parts of the Philippines, was not seen in use +here. + +FIG. 33. TAW-GAU OR BAMBOO GUITAR. + +The ceremonies and dances are so closely associated with every day +affairs that in the description of the life of the people up to this +point we have left only a few still to be discussed. These are, in the +main, very similar throughout the Bagobo belt, but to avoid confusion +the description here given of the two greatest events of the year--the +_GinEm_ ceremony and the human sacrifice--deals with Cibolan, unless +expressly stated to the contrary. + +The greatest of all Bagobo ceremonies--the _GinEm_--may be given by the +_datu_ within three or four months after the appearance of the +constellation _Balatik_, when the moon is new or full. Its object is to +thank the spirits for success in war or domestic affairs, to ward off +sickness and other dangers, to drive away the _buso_, and finally to so +gratify the spirits that they will be pleased to increase the wealth of +all the people. Datu Tongkaling expressed a belief that this ceremony is +in a way related to the rice harvest, "for it is always made when there +is plenty of rice in the granaries." It appears to the writer, however, +that this ceremony probably originated in connection with warfare. + +According to the tales of the old men, it was formerly the custom to go +on a raid before this ceremony was to take place, and successful +warriors would bring home with them the skulls of their victims which +they tied to the _patan'nan_.[46] It seems also to have been closely +associated with the yearly sacrifice, for it was never made until after +the appearance of the constellation _Balatik_, and without doubt a +sacrifice frequently did take place during the first day of the +ceremony, at the time the decorated poles were raised. However, such an +offering at this time did not relieve the _datu_ from the obligation of +making the regular sacrifice. + +[46] Ceremonial poles dedicated to Mandarangan and Darago. In Digos and +Bansalan the skulls were not taken but hair cut from the heads of +enemies was placed in the swinging altar _balakat_, and were left there +until the conclusion of the ceremony. + +Datu Ansig of Talun informed me that, unless the death of some great +person made a special sacrifice necessary, there was only one such +offering made during the year, and that at the time the decorated poles +were placed in the dwelling. + +The time for the festival having been agreed upon, messengers are sent +to other _datu_ and head-men, inviting them and their people to attend. +Sufficient food is prepared for the guests and when all is ready the +_mabalian_ takes one chicken from among those to be used for food and +frees it as an offering to the _gimokod_. It is bidden to wander about +in the forest, and no one will molest the fowl, for should he do so he +is certain to become ill.[47] The _mabalian_ has previously placed +festoons of leaves and vines at various points in the house and now she +spreads a mat on the floor. A jar of _balaba_, wine, stands at each +corner, while at one end is an _agong_, and a plate containing betel +nut, leaf, and two varieties of rattan; at the other end are several +_tambara_. When all is thus prepared the people place offerings of +beautiful clothing, knives, and other costly gifts on the mat. Two +_mabalian_, a man and a woman call upon the spirits,[48] urging them to +look with favor on the offering made by the people, to grant them a good +year with health and plentiful harvests, to let their journeys be +without mishap, and to keep them all under their constant care. The +_tambara_ are fastened in various parts of the house, and the gifts are +hung on or laid beside them. Later these offerings may be removed by +their former owners who now regard them as being loaned to them by the +spirits. + +[47] This offering is not made at Bansalan, neither has the _mabalian_ +any part in the ceremonies of the first day. + +[48] Those called at this time are Toglai, Toglibon, _tigyma_, and +Kalayagan--Eugpamolak Manobo. + +[Transcriber's note: The word _tigyma_ in the above footnote should be +spelled _tigyama_.] + +Following the offering the _magani_ go to a bamboo thicket and cut two +large poles, one nine sections long, the other eight. With each stroke +of the knife the men give their battle cry, then when the poles are +felled, all seize hold and carry them to the house of the _datu_. Here +they are decorated, first by being cut down for short distances, thus +leaving the lower part attached so that the shavings make a sort of +fringe, and then by attaching strips of palm or bamboo leaves and cloth +or palm leaf streamers. When complete these poles are known as +_patan'nan_ and are then the property of the spirits Mandanagan and +Darago. The longer one is for the male spirit, while the one of eight +sections is for his wife. Under no circumstances may anyone not a +_magani_ touch these poles. They are carried into the house and are +fastened near to the elevated platform at the end of the room where the +_datu_ or leading _magani_ stands ready to sacrifice a chicken. He +allows some of the blood from the offering to drip onto the poles, at +the same time begging the spirits not to let the people fight or quarrel +during the _GinEm_, "for blood is now being offered." In at least two +recent offerings the _datu_ urged the spirits to be content with this +offering of a fowl, since it was impossible for them to kill a man. At +this time, it is said, the skulls of enemies should be attached to the +_patan'nan_. As the leader finishes his offering, the men and boys +gather about the poles and yell lustily, then sit quietly down and amuse +themselves by chewing betel nut until the chicken, just killed, and the +other food has been prepared for eating. Old dishes are placed in the +center of the floor and in them food is offered for all the spirits, but +in the exact center of all is a large plate of white food for the +supreme being. A second large dish of food is placed in a _tambara_ at +the corner of the room as an offering to the warrior deities "so that +they will not eat anyone during the fiesta." Again the spirits are +besought to give them a good year, with abundant crops, health, and +success in war. Going to the _patan'nan_ each _magani_, beginning with +the _datu_ or his son, takes hold of the poles, and in a loud voice, +begins to confess all his warlike deeds. He relates how and when he +killed his victims, the number of sacrifices he has participated in, the +towns he has sacked and the slaves he has captured. In short, he tells +of all the manly deeds he has performed in order to gain the right to +wear his red suit and be known as _magani_. When all have confessed, the +men and boys eat the chicken which was sacrificed before the poles, and +from then until near midnight, all the people may dance to the music of +the _agongs_ or may indulge in feasting and drinking. From the middle of +the night until daybreak they chant songs or poems, many words of which +are now obsolete so that they are not fully understood.[49] + +[49] Mr. Gohn informs me that at midnight during the last _GinEm_ made +by Datu Ali in Santa Cruz, a gun was fired, and the _datu_ said that a +sacrifice should have taken place at that time. + +The festival may last one or more days. The last held in Cibolan (1909) +extended through two days and nights. At that time no offerings were +made to the spirits on the second day, but the people feasted and drank +while the _datu_ gathered a little apart and held a council. + +In Malilla the second day of this ceremony is called _EgbikbEgaybe_ and +is given over almost entirely to the women. Two _tambara_ are erected in +the house, and young betel nut buds and women's skirts are hung on them. +The women and some men form a line and dance in a circle around the +offerings, keeping time to music furnished by beating small gongs, or by +pounding on a board resting on a rice mortar.[50] Before each dance the +_mabalian_ informs a spirit that this dance is for him and it is +customary to add a gift of some kind to those already on the _tambara_. +Sixteen spirits are thus honored. Throughout the day there is much +feasting and drinking, and at some time before sunset the women are +baptized. Having filled an old agong with water, the _mabalian_ dips +certain leaves into it and sprinkles the heads of the women present +eight times, meanwhile bidding the spirits to grant to them a good mind +and habit. + +[50] See p. 110, note. [Transcriber's note: back 3 pages, the footnote +beginning, "An instrument made by placing...."] + +Mr. Gohn, a planter of Santa Cruz who has witnessed a number of these +ceremonies, says that with the Bagobo of that place it was customary for +the _datu_ to baptize the women prior to the day of _GinEm_. On the +second day, a _mabalian_ provided a long palm leaf, and a number of +betel nut buds which, she said, represented streams, rivers, tribes, and +individuals. Taking up a bud she swung the palm leaf above it, chanting +meanwhile, and, as she finished, handed it to the _datu_ who opened it +and read the signs sent by the spirits. At the conclusion of this act, +all the women went to the river to bathe. + +In the writings of the early missionary fathers stationed among the +Bagobo are found many references to human sacrifices. Since American +occupation several articles have appeared describing this custom, and +following the sacrifice held in Talun in 1907, this practice became the +subject of official communication between the Governor of the District +and his superiors. While these descriptions agree, in the main, there +are so many minor variations that it seems best to first relate the +account given to the writer by Datu Tongkaling and ten of his _magani_, +after which we shall take up some of the earlier accounts, and the +official correspondence of 1907. + +Datu Tongkaling is a _magani_. He claims to have killed more than thirty +of his enemies in fair fight and to have assisted in, or to have +witnessed, an even greater number of sacrifices. Prior to his elevation +to the office of _datu_ he had aided in several of the yearly offerings. +At the time he became _datu_ he entertained all his people for seven +days and on the morning of the last day, in the presence of his +subjects, he alone sacrificed a decrepit Bila-an slave for whom he had +paid three _agongs_. Hence, probably, no man in the tribe is better +fitted to describe this event than he. + +According to him, a sacrifice should be held each year following the +appearance in the sky of a constellation of seven stars known as +_Balatik_ ("pig trap").[51] The stars are placed there by the spirits +for two purposes:--first, to inform the people that it is time to prepare +for the clearing of new fields; second, to remind them that they should +offer a slave to Mandarangan, Darago, and Balakat as payment for the +good year they have enjoyed, and to secure their good will for the +coming season. A great epidemic or continued calamaties[sic] might also +be signs that the spirits were in need of another offering, and this +could take place at any time. Upon the death of an adult it becomes the +duty of the family to make a sacrifice, but, unless the deceased is of +very great importance, they may wait until the yearly sacrifice[52] when +they can purchase a share in it. The one other occasion for which this +offering is obligatory is the installation of a new _datu_ in office. +For the yearly event the ruler should provide a decrepit slave, and then +invite all those who have had death or trouble in the family and who +wish a part in the sacrifice to help bear the expense of the ceremony. +Guests gather from near and far and for two or three days, feast, dance, +and make merry in the house of the _datu_. On the morning of the last +day they accompany their leader to a great tree in the forest and there +witness or take part in the sacrifice. The victim is tied with his back +to the tree, his arms stretched high above his head. Meanwhile a little +table or altar is constructed near by, and on it the principals place +their offerings of betel nut, clothes, or weapons, and on top of all is +a dish of white food for Eugpamolak Manobo. When all is ready one of the +_magani_ begins a prayer, begging the spirits to look and see that the +people are following the old custom, to give them success in battle, and +to protect their homes from sickness and enemies. The prayer being +completed, the _datu_ places his spear below and just in front of the +right armpit; then all those who have purchased a share in the victim +take hold of the weapon, and at a signal given by the _datu_, thrust it +through the body. As soon as it is withdrawn, the _magani_ who has +offered the greatest price for the privilege attempts to cut the body in +two with one blow of his fighting knife. If he fails in the attempt, +another tries, and so on until someone succeeds. The two portions are +then released from the tree and cast into a shallow grave near by. +Before the body is covered with earth any person who wishes may cut off +a portion of the flesh or hair and carry it to the grave of some +relative whom he may have reason to believe is being troubled by evil +spirits. In such a case the evil spirit will be content to eat of the +slave, and cease disturbing the other body. Returning to the house of +the _datu_, the people continue the dancing and merry-making throughout +another night. + +[51] This is the constellation Orion which appears early in December. + +[52] We have already seen that this offering sometimes occurs during the +_GinEm_ ceremony. + +The following accounts are extracts from the official correspondence +forwarded by the Governor of Davao to the Governor of the Moro Province: + +"I have the honor to submit herewith a full report of an investigation +made by myself and the Senior Inspector of Constabulary of Davao, +regarding a human sacrifice made by the Bagobos at Talun near Digos on +Dec. 9th, 1907. + +"We left Davao on the morning of the 27th of December and arrived at +Digos in the afternoon of the same day. An order was immediately sent +out to the Bagobos of Talun to come down to Digos to meet us. + +"On the morning of the 30th, the entire population of Talun--men, women +and children, to the number of almost one hundred and fifty--arrived at +Digos. They were informed that it was reported that a human sacrifice +had been made at their town and that the authorities desired to know if +this was so. + +"Datto[sic] Ansig replied that it was true that a sacrifice had been +held as stated and that both he and his people were ready to tell all +about it as to the best of their belief they had committed no crime, but +only followed out a religious custom practiced by themselves and their +ancestors from time immemorial. + +"From the statements made by Ansig and his followers, it appears as +follows: + +"That the Bagobos have several gods, 'Bacalad,' God of the spirits, +Agpanmole[sic] Monobo[sic], God of good and his wife the goddess Dewata; +Mandarangan, the God of evil (corresponding perhaps to our devil) and to +whom sacrifice is made to appease his wrath which is shown by +misfortune, years of drought, or evil befalling the tribe or its +members, also it is at times necessary to offer him human sacrifice so +that he will allow the spirits of the deceased to rest, etc. They say +that in case a Bagobo of rank or influence dies, and his widow be unable +to secure another husband, it is necessary for her to offer sacrifice to +appease the spirit of her departed husband in order that she may secure +another. In order that these sacrifices be not made too often, it is +customary for the old men of the town to gather together once each year +during a time when a collection of seven stars, three at right angle to +the other four, are seen in the heavens at seven o'clock in the evening, +which is said to occur once each year during the first part of the month +of December. + +"This collection of stars is called by the Bagobos 'Balatic,' and is the +sign of the sacrifice, that is, if a sacrifice is to occur, it must take +place during the time that the stars are in this position. + +"The old men meet and decide if enough misfortune has overtaken the +tribe or village during the period since the last sacrifice to render +necessary another tribute to the god of evil. It is not necessary to +offer a sacrifice for each evil, but when the misfortunes amount to a +considerable, a sacrifice is held to cover the entire lot. + +"In this case it appears that two widows, Addy and Obby, went to +Datto[sic] Ansig and requested that he arrange a sacrifice to appease +the spirits of their departed husbands which were bothering them. Ansig +called a meeting of the old men at which were present besides himself +Bagobos Oling, Pandaya, and Ansig, and these four decided that as they +had not had a sacrifice since the great drought (about three years ago) +and that since that time many evils had befallen them, it would be well +to offer a sacrifice. These four men sent out to find a slave for +sacrifice, the finder becoming the chief of the sacrifice. + +"Ongon, a henchman of Datto Ansig, purchased from Bagobo Ido, a Bilan +slave boy named Sacum about eight years old and who was deaf and +cross-eyed, and had other defects of vision, making him of little or no +value as a laborer. Ido originally received this slave from Duon, a +Bilan, as a wedding present when he married Duon's daughter about a year +ago. + +"Ongon agreed to pay Ido five agongs for the boy and took him to the +house of Ansig where arrangements were made for the sacrifice by calling +on all who for any reason had need to appease the evil spirits to come +and take part. Three days after the slave was brought to the house of +Ansig, the people met at Talun near the river Inolia, a short distance +from Ansig's house, this being the regular place of sacrifice. + +"Leaving the house of Ansig the boy Sacum was seated upon the ground +near the place of sacrifice. He was naked but no other preparation was +made with regard to the person. Upon a platform or bench of bamboo about +two feet high and a foot or two square was placed a small basket or +receptacle made of the bark of the bunga tree; in this each person +present and taking part in the sacrifice placed a piece of betel-nut, +over this the men placed their head handkerchiefs and the women strips +of the bark of the palma tree. Upon this the men laid their bolos, and +spears were then stuck in the ground in a circle around the platform. +Next Datto Ansig as chief of the sacrifice made an oration which was +about as follows: 'Oh, Mandarangan, chief of evil spirits and all the +other spirits, come to our feast and accept our sacrifice. Let this +sacrifice appease your wrath and take from us our misfortunes, granting +us better times.' + +"After this, the boy Sacum was brought forward by Ongon, placed against +a small tree about six feet high, his hands tied above his head, and his +body tied to the tree with bejuco strips at the waist and knees. Ansig +then placed a spear at the child's right side at a point below the right +arm and above the margin of the ribs. This lance was grasped by the +widows Addy and Obby, who at a signal from Ansig forced it through the +child's body, it coming out at the other side. It was immediately +withdrawn and the body cut in two at the waist by bolos in the hands of +Moesta Barraro and Ola, after which the body was cut down and chopped +into bits by the people present, each of whom was allowed to take a +small portion as a momento[sic] of the occasion, the remainder of the +body being buried in a hole prepared for it. + +"It is said the child was deaf and almost blind and that it did not +realize what was to happen to it until the moment it was tied up when it +began to cry; further, that death was almost instantaneous, the only cry +being one uttered when the spear first entered the child's body. + +"Datto Ansig, a man about sixty years of age, says that in his life he +has attended or officiated at fifty human sacrifices, more or less, both +among the Bagobos and the Bilanes, and that human sacrifice is also +practiced among the Tagacolos, although he has never been present at one +held by that tribe. + +"The Bagobos do not sacrifice any but old and decrepit or useless slaves +captured from other tribes, but the Bilanes sacrifice even their own +people. + +"Being asked if it was customary to eat any portion of the body +sacrificed, Ansig replied that it was not customary nor did he know of +any case where such had occurred. + +"The last sacrifice before this was held at Talun during the year of the +drought (about 1905) when a Bilan slave, an old man who was paralyzed in +one arm, was sacrificed by Datto Oling, his master. + +"Asked if the sacrifice of an animal would not do as well as that of a +human being, they said, 'No, better to have no sacrifice at all.' + +"They appeared utterly unconscious of having committed any crime, told +their story with frankness, said it was a matter not talked about among +their own people but that if we wanted to know the facts they would give +them to the authorities. They claimed the offering of human sacrifices +by their tribe to be an old custom and, as far as they knew the only way +to appease the wrath of the evil spirits, but said if they were ordered +to give the custom up they would do so even if the devil got them all." + +Then follows the statement of an eye-witness to the ceremony: + +"My name is Modesta Barrera; I live in the town of Santa Cruz, my father +being a Visayan, my mother a Bagobo. I cannot read or write, and I think +that I am about twenty-three years old, although I am not certain on +that point. + +"On the 8th instant myself, Baon, Otoy, and Oton left Santa Cruz early +in the morning to go to Talun, a day's march from Santa Cruz, for the +purpose of trading with the natives of Talun, and also to collect some +debts which they owed Baon. We remained that night at Saculampula, near +Talun, where Ungon and Ido, two Bagobos, live with their families. There +we found two children the only persons at the house who informed us that +we should go to the house of Ambing, at Talun, where we could sell our +merchandise. On the morning of the 9th we got up about 7 or 8 o'clock +and started for Ambing's house. When within about an hour's walk of the +house, we found a great many people congregated together. We were told +that a human sacrifice had just taken place and on approaching to +discover what had happened, we saw a little boy about eight or nine +years old, the upper half of whose body was suspended by the wrists to a +tree, the lower half lying on the ground. The child had been thus tied +up while alive and had been cut into two parts at the waist; this was +about the position of the body when we saw it. + +"Immediately about twenty persons began to chop the body into small +pieces; and Ansig, the datto of Talun, came over to us and gave Baon two +pieces of the victim's hair attached to the scalp, which is a sign of +the sacrifice. The victim was a slave owned and sacrificed by Datto +Ansig. The first bolo cut which severs the body at the waist and which +in this case we were told was done by Ansig is always performed by the +person making the sacrifice. The people present were guests of Ansig and +were not responsible for the killing, though it is the custom for the +more favored ones to assist in chopping the victim into small pieces +after death." + +In the letters written by Father GISBERT in 1886, are many references to +the religious practices of the Bagobo, from which the following are +extracts: + +"The feast which they hold before the sowing is a criminal and repugnant +trago-comedy. The tragical part is the first thing that is done. When +they have assembled in the middle of the woods * * * they tightly bind +the slave whom they are going to sacrifice. All armed with sharp knives, +leap and jump about their victim striking him, one after the other, or +several at one time, amid infernal cries and shouts, until the body of +the victim sacrificed has been cut to bits. From the place of the +sacrifice they then go to the house of their chief or the master of the +feast, holding branches in their hands which they place in a large +bamboo, which is not only the chief adornment but the altar of the house +in which they meet * * * The principal part is reserved for the old man +or master of the feast, he standing near the bamboo which I have +mentioned above, holding the vessel of wine in his hand, and, talking +with his comrades, addresses the great demon called _Darago_, whose +feast they are celebrating, in the following words: 'Darago, we are +making you this feast, with great good will and gladness, offering you +the blood of the sacrifice which we have made and this wine which we +drink so that you may be our friend, accompany us, and be propitious in +our wars.' * * * * * * * * * * * + +"When they marry, if the lovers think that it will be of any use they +make a human sacrifice so that they may have a good marriage, so that +the weather may be good, so that they may have no storm, sickness, etc., +all things which they attribute to the devil. In the same way also when +they learn that there is any contagious disease, or fear death, several +of them assemble and make a human sacrifice, asking the devil to let +them live, since they generously offer him that victim. They also +believe that the disease can be conjured. But the time that it is +necessary to make a sacrifice, according to the law of the Bagobos, is +at the death of anyone of the family, before they can remove the +_lalaoan_ or mourning * * * At the point and on the day assigned, all +the sacrificers assemble, or possibly one member of each of the families +who are in mourning, at times fifty or more. The value of the slave +sacrificed is paid among them all, and he who pays most has the right to +sacrifice first."[**] + +[**] In BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII. pp. 244-51, will be found a +very interesting letter from FATHER GISBERT, in which he describes the +sacrifice of a Bagabo[sic] half-blood who had fallen in debt. + +The official files in the Governor's office at Davao contain an account, +written by Gov. Bolton, of the sacrifice at Cataloonan, July 1, 1904. +This was held to secure the return to health of Chief Obo, who later +died. + +[Transcriber's note: The two paragraphs immediately above both comprise +a single footnote.] + +By the side of the trail, or in the forests, little shrines or platforms +about 3 ft. high and a foot square at the top, are frequently seen. +These are known as _buis_ and are erected for the _buso_, in order to +avert their displeasure and to keep them at a distance from the +dwellings. When the family has been subjected to petty annoyances, or +when for any other reason, the _mabalian_ thinks an offering should be +made, she orders the family to provide her with betel nut, a piece of +iron, and bits of broken dishes, or castoff clothing. These are placed +on the platform and the _buso_ are exhorted to come and accept them. +Good offerings are never made to this class of spirits, for "they do not +expect to be treated like the more powerful." A shrub known as +_dalingding_ is planted by the side of the shrine so that its location +may be known even after the platform has fallen, and all passersby will +make some small offering, hoping thus to keep these evil beings in good +humor. + +Rain can be stopped by placing an offering of a leg ring, or prepared +betel nut beside the trail and presenting them to the _Gimokod_, at the +same time asking them to stop the downpour. + +DECORATIVE ART. + +To a stranger entering a Bagobo house, in the absence of its owners, it +appears that the people have little artistic development. He sees no +paintings, no drawings, and few, if any, attempts to beautify the house +with carvings. The pots sitting by the fire, show no decoration nor do +the other household utensils exhibit embellishment of any kind. A closer +study of the field baskets, however, shows a slight attempt to produce +ornamentation by changing the weave of the central band from that at the +top and bottom, or by adding a few rude lines in pitch. The moment the +people enter, however, all is changed. The clothing they wear is covered +with intricate patterns, some realistic, others highly conventionalized +(Plate XXXI). Wonderful designs in beads or shell disks appear on coats, +jackets, and carrying bags, while at neck, waist, shoulder, and at the +bottom of sleeves and trousers are other figures in fine embroidery or +applique. Strands of beads and seeds exhibiting a great variety of +designs surround the necks of both men and women, while rings, armlets, +leglets, and anklets of beads, plaited material or metal, are common. +Combs are covered with pitch and inlaid with beads, or patterns are +incised in the wood and filled with lime. Ear plugs exhibit beautiful +delicate patterns inlaid with brass or silver. + +A glance at the weapons carried by the man shows that his knife has been +ornamented with caps of brass (Plate XXXII), the metal guard has cut or +cast patterns in its surface, while sheath and carrying belt are covered +with thin brass plates, painted lines, or a beaded cloth (Plate XXXIII) +with bells attached. Fronts and backs of shields are covered with +incised designs, while the metal ferrule next to the spear head seldom +lacks in conventionalized figures. So the list might be extended to +cover the women's knives and their pocket and carrying baskets, as well +as the betel boxes and lime holders used by both sexes. In short, there +seems to be no end to the list of personal ornaments and equipment which +may be improved by carvings, arrangements of beads or metal castings and +inlays. Even the horses are decorated with artificial forelocks of hair +and beads. Strings of bells surround their necks, while saddles and +whips display the aesthetic taste of their owners. + +A part of this decoration is apparently realistic and will readily be +identified by any member of the tribe; another part is suggestive and +with a widely known meaning, but by far the greater number of designs +have no generally accepted signification. The writer spent many hours +securing the names of the designs on textiles, ornaments, or on lime +boxes, only to receive the reply "done to make pretty," or to find that +no two of five or a dozen informants could agree on many patterns, while +frequently it was found that some obliging individual had volunteered +names at one time which he could not remember on the day following. It +is possible that a long residence with the people and diligent inquiry +along this line might yield more definite results, but for the present +the writer must content himself by showing some typical examples of the +decorative art, and adding a few notes to the same. + +The great majority of baskets lack in decoration, other than that which +can be obtained by a slight change in the weave. In these a central band +can be distinguished from those at top and bottom, although the same +material is used and there is only a minor variation in the technique. + +Small carrying receptacles, or trinket baskets, frequently have designs +produced by plaiting the rattan or bamboo of natural color with that +which has been blackened (Plate XXXIVa). No uniform meaning or pattern +name seems to be attached to the designs shown in this specimen, but an +incised design on the wooden rim was readily identified as a crocodile. + +The small baskets in the coiled weave sometimes have the fronts entirely +covered with beads which are woven into the basket in parallel lines. +The tobacco box shown in Plate XXXV has been covered with cloth and +pitch, in which an artistic design made from the yellow cuticle of an +orchid has been inlaid. Plate XXXVb shows the wooden tops of three +tobacco boxes. Nos. 1 and 2 are carved and inlaid with beads and buttons +in designs which "look pretty," but number 3 depicts a hunting scene in +which two men and a dog are hunting the alligator. Several beads are +missing so that it requires quite a stretch of the imagination to secure +the impression the native artist meant to impart. + +The prized trinket baskets of the women generally have the fronts +covered with cloth, to which hundreds of colored beads are sewed, in +elaborate designs (Plate XXXVI). + +The patterns brought out in the weaving are as beautiful and intricate +as they are confusing. Five typical specimens of cloth used in women's +skirts are shown in Plate XXXVII. In them can be found several +apparently different designs to some of which names were assigned, but +as there was no agreement among my informers I refrain from giving them +here. The pattern marked X in (c) was generally identified as +"alligator," yet the weavers were by no means agreed. + +The strip of cloth (Plate XXXVIII) was intended for the center breadth +in a woman's skirt and shows the typical designs employed in the best +garments. + +The extensive use of beads is shown in Plates XXXIX-XL. Carrying bags, +clothing, combs, necklaces, armlets, belts and sheath covers are +partially covered with or made up of colored beads, always in designs, +yet very few of these patterns have generally accepted meanings or +names. The same holds true of the designs in shell disks, which, on the +finer garments, take the place of beads. A few exceptions to this are +found in which realistic patterns appear in (Plate XXXIb and Fig. 34). + +FIG. 34. REALISTIC PATTERNS IN BEADS AND SHELL DISKS. + +Like the bead work, the embroidery and applique found on many garments +are added "to make pretty." Some of this work is quite fine, but in +general that of recent years is either inferior to that found on old +garments or is borrowed from, or made by, the Bila-an women. Some +garments, with designs produced by oversewing before dyeing, are seen +here, but they are recent importations from the Kulaman or Tagakaolo +tribes. + +Necklaces and leglets are made of rattan and are decorated with burned +lines or by being overlaid with platted strips of orchid and fern +cuticle (Fig. 2). + +A few rare specimens, such as personal ornaments or basket rims, have +sewed in designs in which the sewing has been done with fern cuticle +(Plate XXXIVb). + +Incised patterns appear on nearly all the bamboo lime and tobacco +holders, but here individual fancy plays such an important part that a +hundred specimens might be examined without finding duplicate patterns. +Fig. 14. shows nine of these tubes covered with cut-in designs, yet only +one figure, that marked X in _b_ could be identified. This was said to +be the familiar crocodile. + +Coming to the work in brass and copper we encounter an entirely new type +of design. In some cases straight inlaid or overlaid strips and twisted +wires are used to ornament the specimen; while in the raised and cut-in +lines on the bells we find simple patterns. In the main, however, the +ornamentation on this class of material consists of complicated scrolls +(Plate XLI), designs suggesting flower or tree patterns, or +conventionalized figures. One only needs to compare these objects with +similar specimens from Borneo and the Malayan Islands of the South, to +find the source of this type of ornamentation.[53] In fact the imitation +of Moro wares is practiced today. In Plate XLIa and b are shown two +betel nut boxes--No. 1 the work of the Samal Moro, No. 2 the imitation of +the inlaid work on the top of the first specimen. This last was made in +my presence, and with the expressed intention of duplicating the Moro +box. However, in this case, as in all others, the Bagobo caster did not +attempt to exactly reproduce the work of another, but simply borrowed a +broad idea, and thus he often creates new forms. + +[53] See LING ROTH, Oriental Silver Work. + +Not once did the writer receive a name for any pattern or design shown +in metal work. A careful study of the method of work, of the articles +produced, and of the folk-lore and religious observances connected with +the work in brass and copper brings one to the conclusion that this +class of work is of comparatively recent introduction and that the +instructors in the art were the Samal Moro. + +Mention has already been made of the designs incised on combs and other +objects which are afterwards filled with lime. Just here it is +interesting to note that, so far as is known, the southern end of +Mindanao and adjacent small islands, are the only parts of the +Philippines in which this decoration, so typical of Melanesia, is to be +found. + +Realistic carvings were seen used in only two capacities. The first in +certain ceremonies, where extremely crude wooden figures were offered to +the spirits in exchange for the sick person (see p. 103), and the +second, the wooden decoys used in hunting doves (See Plate XVIII). + +Summing up our present information we can say: first, that the Bagobo +makes use of certain realistic designs which in some cases have become +conventionalized but still retain their former significance; second, +that the greater part of decoration in beads, shell disks, embroidery or +applique, as well as the incised designs in lime boxes and the like, +have no meaning to the people of the present day, and are added only to +make the objects more beautiful in the eyes of the owners. In this work +there are no set patterns and each artist gives full reign to the fancy +in producing these figures. Third, that the ideas for the patterns +inlaid, incised, and cast in brass or copper, are furnished by the +examples of this work coming from the Malays to the south, but that even +in these the artist has taken great liberties in the execution of the +design. Fourth, that one type of decoration, i. e., the incised figures +filled with lime, suggests the possible influence of Melanesia on the +artistic ideas of this people. + +MYTHOLOGY. + +During my stay with this tribe I heard parts of many folk-tales, some +chanted, others told with gravity, and still others which caused the +greatest levity. My limited knowledge of the dialect and pressure of +other work caused me to delay the recording of these tales until I +should begin a systematic study of the language. Owing to unforeseen +circumstances, that time never came, and it is now possible to give only +the slightest idea of a very rich body of tales.[54] + +[54] Since this was written MISS BENEDICT has published an excellent +collection of Bagobo Myths (_Journal of American Folklore_, 1913, XXVI. +pp. 13-63.) + +In the main these stories are an attempt to account for the present +order of things. In the tale which we quoted in part, at the beginning +of the paper, we are told of an all-powerful being who created the earth +and all that is. Other spirits and many animals inhabited the sky and +earth which the creator had made. Of the latter only one, the monkey, is +named. He and his kind, we are told, once inhabited and owned all the +world, but were dispossessed by two human beings, Toglai and Toglibon, +from whom all the people of the world are descended. After their death a +great drought caused the people to disperse and seek out new homes in +other parts. They journeyed in pairs and because of the objects which +they carried with them, they are now known by certain names. One couple, +for instance, carried with them a small basket called _bira-an_, and for +this reason their children are known as Bira-an (Bila-an). From the time +of the dispersion until the arrival of the Spaniards we learn that +certain mythical heroes performed wonderful feats, in some cases being +closely identified with the spirits themselves, in others making use of +magic, the knowledge of which seems to have been common in those times. + +The two following tales are typical of those commonly heard in a Bagobo +gathering. The first was told by Urbano Eli, a Bagobo of Malilla. + +"After the people were created a man named LumabEt was born. He could +talk when he was one day old and the people said he was sent by Manama. +He lived ninety seasons and when still a young man he had a hunting dog +which he took to hunt on the mountain. The dog started up a white deer +and LumabEt and his companions followed until they had gone about the +world nine times when they finally caught it. At the time they caught +the deer LumabEt's hair was grey and he was an old man. All the time he +was gone he had only one banana and one camote with him for food. When +night came he planted the skin of the banana and in the morning he had +ripe bananas to eat, and the camotes came the same way. When he had +caught the deer LumabEt called the people to see him and he told them to +kill his father. They obeyed him and then LumabEt took off his headband +and waved it in the air over the dead man, and he at once was alive +again. He did this eight times and at the eighth time his father was +small like a little boy, for every time the people cut him in two the +knife took off a little flesh. So all the people thought LumabEt was +like a god. + +"One year after he killed the deer he told all the people to come into +his house, but they said they could not, for the house was small and the +people many. But LumabEt said there was plenty of room, so all entered +his house and were not crowded. The next morning the _diwata_, +_tigyama_, and other spirits came and talked with him. After that he +told the people that all who believed that he was powerful could go with +him, but all who did not go would be turned into animals and _buso_. +Then LumabEt started away and those who stayed back became animals and +_buso_. + +"He went to the place Binaton, across the ocean, the place where the +earth and sky meet. When he got there he saw that the sky kept going up +and down the same as a man opening and closing his jaws. LumabEt said to +the sky 'You must go up,' but the sky replied 'No.' At last LumabEt +promised the sky that if he let the others go he might catch the last +one who tried to pass; so the sky opened and the people went through; +but when near to the last the sky shut down and caught the bolo of next +to the last man. The last one he caught and ate. + +"That day LumabEt's son Tagalion was hunting and caught many animals +which he hung up. Then he said he must go to his father's place; so he +leaned an arrow against a _baliti_ tree and sat on it. It began to grow +down and carried him down to his father's place, but when he arrived +there were no people there. He saw a gun, made out of gold, and some +white bees in the house. The bees said 'You must not cry; we can take +you to the sky,' So he rode on the gun, and the bees took him to the sky +and he arrived there in three days. + +"One of the men was looking down on the land below, and all of the +spirits made fun of him and said they would take out his intestines so +that he would be like one of them and never die. The man refused to let +them, and he wanted to go back home because he was afraid; so Manama +said to let him go. + +"The spirits took leaves of the _karan_ grass and tied to his legs, and +made a chain of the grass and let him down to the earth. When he reached +the earth he was no longer a man but was an owl." + +(2) The second tale, which was recorded by P. Juan Doyle, S. J., is as +follows: + +"In one of the torrents which has its origin at the foot of Apo, there +were two eels which, having acquired extraordinary magnitude, had no +room in so little water, on account of which they determined to +separate, each one taking a different direction in search of the sea or +the great lakes. One arrived, happily, at the sea by the Padada river, +and from it came eels in the sea. The other descending a torrent, +swimming and confining himself as well as he might, enclosed in these +narrow places, said to himself 'I haven't the slightest idea of what the +sea is, but it appears to me that when I see before me an extraordinary +clearness on a limpid surface, that must be the sea, and with one spring +I will jump into it.' So saying, he arrived at a point where the torrent +formed a cascade. He noticed that it cut off the horizon and to his view +it appeared of an extraordinary clearness; he thought he could swim +there without limit, and at his pleasure, and that this, in fine, must +be the sea. He darted into it, but the unhappy one was dashed against +the rocks, and too fatigued to swim through the rough waters, he lost +his life. His body lay there inert and formed undulations which are now +the folds which the earth forms to the left of Mt. Apo." + +OTHER BRANCHES OF THE TRIBE. + +To the south and southwest of Mt. Apo, and west of Digos, are seven +settlements, the inhabitants of which are known as Obo or Tigdapaya. On +the south they meet the Bila-an, and, like this latter people, extend +over the watershed into the valley of the Cotabato river. On the +northwest they come in contact with the Ata. They have intermarried with +both of these tribes, have adopted many of their customs, and in some +cases their manner of dress. However, they consider themselves, and are +considered by the Bagobo, as a part of that tribe, and recognize +Tongkaling as their chief. Bagobo customs and blood predominate, +although intermarriage with the Negrito was evident in nearly every +individual of this division seen by the writer. + +Immediately wrest of Daliao are three villages whose people are known as +Eto or Ata. Aside from a slightly greater percentage of individuals +showing negroid features, these people do not differ in any respect from +the Bagobo. It does not seem that they should be classed with the people +later referred to as Ata. To the north, their lands join the territory +held by the Guianga. + +The habitat of the division called Guianga begins a few miles back of +the Gulf and extends west to the watershed. An east and west line drawn +through the village of Taloma marks their southern boundary, while to +the north they approach the Lasan river. They are found in a number of +scattered settlements which owe allegiance and are subject to five petty +_datu_. Tongkaling is not recognized as having any authority in the +district, and there seems to be no remembrance of a time when any of the +Bagobo rulers held authority over the Guianga. Physically and culturally +they do not seem to be far removed from the Bagobo, while their language +is so closely related that individuals of the two divisions, meeting for +the first time can carry on a conversation. There is, however, +considerable variation between the dialects, both in intonation and +vocabulary. + +Further study may result in raising this branch to the dignity of a +tribe, but the information at hand does not justify us in considering +them other than a dialect group of the Bagobo. + + + +II. BILA-AN. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) TAGALAGAD--"dwellers in the back country" is the name generally +applied to this tribe by the coast natives. + +(b) TAGKOGON--"dwellers in the cogon"--The group living on the grass +plains west of Malalag. + +(c) BULUAN, BULUANES--The members of this tribe dwelling near to Lake +Buluan. This group is sometimes identified with the Tagabili or Tagabulu +who also reside in that region. + +(d) BIRA-AN, BARA-AN--Synonym for BILA-AN, often used by the neighboring +Bagobo. + +(e) VILANES, BILANES. + +(f) BALUD or TUMANAO--name sometimes applied by early writers to the +Bila-an who live on the Sarangani Islands. + +This tribe is found in the mountains on the west side of Davao Gulf +beginning at an east and west line drawn through Bulatakay and extending +south to Sarangani Point, and they also appear in small numbers in the +Sarangani Islands which lie just south of the mainland. At Bulatakay +they are a day's march back from the coast and to reach them it is +necessary to pass for several hours through a rolling belt of forest +land, then as the mountains are approached, gently sloping cogon plains +about ten miles in width are crossed. West of Malalag they are still far +from the sea with a belt of hill Tagakaolo between them and the coast +people. In this region they have spread out in considerable numbers on +to the grass plains, and for this reason are locally known as Tagkogon +"dwellers in the cogon." On the gulf side of the divide, south of +Malalag, they are found in small groups far back in the mountains, while +between them and the sea are Tagakaolo, Kulaman and Moro. Along the +watershed between the districts of Davao and Cotabato they possess all +the territory and even extend in some numbers into the lowlands toward +Lake Buluan. They are distinctly a mountain people, having never reached +the sea, except near Sarangani Point, until after the advent of the +American. Since then a few hundred have been induced to move to the +coast plantations, and the town of Labau has been established on the +Padada river about six miles back of the coast. According to Mr. H. S. +Wilson, tribal ward headman for the Bila-an, this tribe numbers about +ten thousand persons, of which number fifteen hundred reside on the +Sarangani Islands. + +The material here presented was gathered from the people of Labau, the +Malalag cogon, and those living near the headwaters of the Ma-al and +Padada rivers. + +Formerly a neutral, uninhabited belt extended between them and the coast +people, and at stated intervals they went to recognized trading points +in this territory to exchange their agricultural and forest products for +salt, fish, and other articles of barter. Beyond this trading and an +occasional fight, they had few dealings with the coast people and seem +never to have encountered the Spaniard. + +They are almost unknown to history, for aside from two or three short +accounts,[55] based mostly on hearsay, we find no mention of them. The +coast natives who knew them by name only had many stories concerning +their life and prowess, and one still hears that "the Bila-an are of +small stature but agile like monkeys. One may wander for days through +their territory without encountering a person and then when in a bad +place suddenly see the little people in hundreds swarming down the sides +of impassable cliffs. They are always in such numbers that, while they +use only the bow and arrow, they are almost sure to exterminate the +intruders." As a matter of fact, the Bila-an compare in stature with the +coast natives and differ little from them in color, although a few +individuals of decidedly lighter cast are met with. + +[55] BLAIR and ROBERTSON The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, pp. 239, +282-283. Census of the Philippine Islands, 1905. + +Observations were made on thirty-eight men, but no women could be +induced to submit to being measured. The maximum height of the men was +found to be 163.6 cm.; minimum 142.3 cm.; with an average of 154.7 cm. +The cephalic indices showed 87.8 cm. as the maximum; 74 cm. the minimum; +and 80.4 cm. the average. The greatest length-height index was 78.6 cm.; +the minimum 62.4 cm. and the average 69.7 cm. From these measurements it +appears that the Bila-an are somewhat shorter than the Bagobo; are more +short headed, the majority being brachycephalic; while the height from +tragus to vertex is about the same in both groups, and both have the +crown and back of the head strongly arched. The face[56] is absolutely +shorter and relatively broader than in the Bagobo. The forehead is +usually high and full, but in about one-third of the individuals +measured it was moderately retreating, while in the same proportion the +supra-orbital ridges were quite strongly marked. In other features, as +well as in hair form, eyes, body form and color, this people conform to +the description given of the Bagobo (Plates XLII-XLVIII). + +[56] Measured from the chin to the hair of the forehead. The greater +part of this tribe live far back in the rugged mountains which form the +watershed between the Cotabato valley and the Gulf of Davao. Travel +through that district is entirely on foot, and is principally along the +water courses, so that in going from place to place a person is +continually crossing the stream. From time to time dim trails, scarcely +worthy of that name, lead from the river's bank almost perpendicularly +up the mountain-side or to the summits of high hills, where will be +found one or two frail houses (Plate XLIX). The dwellings are never in +large groups, and more frequently each house is by itself. From one +habitation it is possible to look across the hills and see many others +at no great distance, to reach which would necessitate a descent of +several hundred feet and an equal climb up to each. + +There is considerable variation in the architecture of the dwellings but +the following description of the home of Datu Dialum, on the headwaters +of the Ma-al river, will give the general plan of all. + +Small hardwood poles about twenty feet in length formed the uprights to +which the side and crossbeams were lashed, while in the center of each +end beam smaller sticks were tied to form the king posts. From the ridge +pole small timbers extended to the side beams, thus forming the +framework on which the final topping of flattened bamboo was laid. This +roof was of one pitch and at the sides overhung the walls by about a +foot. Twelve feet above the ground other poles were lashed to the +uprights and on these rested the cross timbers of the floor, which in +turn were covered with broad strips of bark. The side walls extended +between the floor and the beams, but in no place did they extend up to +the roof. Entrance to the dwelling was gained by a notched log. + +Once inside the house the arrangement impressed one as being similar to +those of the Bagobo. Just above the door, and again in the far end of +the room, poles were laid across the beams to form the floors of lofts +which, in this case, were used as sleeping rooms. + +In front of the door, at the opposite side of the room, was a bed of +ashes in which three stones were sunk to form the stove, and above this +was suspended a rack which contained cooking pots, drying wood, ears of +corn, and the like. Close to the stove were a few earthen pots (Fig. 35) +and many short bamboo tubes filled with water, while against the wall +hung rattan frames filled with half cocoanut-shell dishes, spoons, and +two or three old Chinese plates. Near the center of the room stood a +rice mortar made by hollowing out a section of log. At the far end of +the room was a raised sleeping platform, such as is found in all Bagobo +houses, and extending from this to the center and on each side of the +room were narrow stalls where the women were engaged in weaving, and in +which they slept and kept their most valued possessions. + +FIG. 35. COOKING POT AND COVER. + +In the description of the house we have mentioned most of the +furnishings. In addition it is customary to find a few well made mats of +_pandanus_ or _buri_ palm leaf. These are spread on the floor when the +owners wish to retire and for the rest of the time are rolled up and +laid along the walls. Carved forked sticks which serve as torch-holders +stand in various parts of the room, while somewhere near the stove is a +miscellany of wooden meat blocks, bamboo fans and fly swatters, gourds +filled with millet, salt, or mashed peppers, and shovel-shaped or round +rice winnowers, which also serve as common eating dishes for the family +and guests. Well made baskets stand by the walls or hang from pegs along +with articles of clothing, while spears, shields, and other weapons are +fastened to side walls or roof. + +Small clearings are found at no great distance from these dwellings and +in them the people raise rice, corn, millet, camotes, sugar-cane, and a +few banana and hemp plants (Plate L). As is the case with all the wild +tribes in this district, the Bila-an make new clearings as soon as the +cogon grass begins to invade their fields, and this in time causes them +to move their homes from one locality to another. + +The domestic animals consist of a few chickens, dogs, an occasional cat +and pig, and in the lower cogon lands, a few families possess horses. +Some fish are secured from the river, while deer, wild pig, jungle fowl, +and other game are taken with traps or secured by hunting. + +There seems never to have been a time when this tribe was organized +under a single leader as was the case with the Bagobo. Each district is +so isolated from the others and the population so scattering that any +such development has been barred, and hence the people of each river +valley or highland plain have their local ruler. The power of this ruler +is real only so far as his personal influence can make it so. He +receives no pay for his services, but his position makes it possible for +him to secure the help of his fellows when he is in need of workers or +warriors. In return he conducts negotiations with other groups and +administers justice in accordance with the customs handed down from +bygone ages. Upon his death he is succeeded by his eldest son, unless +the old men of the group should consider him incompetent, in which case +they will determine upon the successor. + +Warriors who have killed one or more persons[57] are known as _lEbE_ +(Plate XLII), and are permitted to wear plain red suits decorated with +embroidery. Their duties and privileges are much the same as those of +the Bagobo _magani_. + +[57] Said to be four among the Tagkogon. + +A class known as _almo-os_ is composed mostly of middle-aged women who +are in close communication with the spirits and who, like the _mabalian_ +of the Bagobo, conduct ceremonies to aid in the cure of the sick, to +secure good crops, or to thank the higher beings for their help and +watchfulness. Unlike the _mabalian_, these women are seldom midwives, +such duties being performed by a group called _fandita_.[58] Finally, we +learn that slaves are sometimes taken from neighboring tribes or even +from unfriendly settlements of their own people, to which class may be +added offenders against the laws of the group. Slavery, however, is not +very prevalent, for men are not greatly desired unless needed for a +sacrifice, while young girls and women soon become regular members of +their master's family. + +[58] Probably a corruption of the Moro term _pandi'a_. + +As has just been indicated a man may have as many wives as he can secure +by purchase or capture, provided they are not blood relations, but a new +wife cannot be added to the family until the one preceding has borne a +child. + +Difficulties are generally settled between the parties concerned, but if +they carry their case to the ruler they must abide by his decision. A +thief is usually compelled to return the stolen property, but in at +least one case the culprit was sacrificed.[59] + +[59] See p. 145. + +Murder can be avenged by a murder so long as the trouble remains a +family affair, but if the case goes to the ruler it is probable that he +will levy a fine on the culprit. Unfaithfulness in a wife can be +punished by the death of one or both offenders if the husband exacts the +punishment, otherwise a fine is imposed. + +The type of clothing worn by this tribe is practically identical with +that of the Bagobo, while the cloth from which it is made is procured by +a like process. However, in the ornamentation of these garments there is +wide variation. Beads are not used to any great extent, but in their +place are intricate embroidered designs which excel, both in beauty and +technique the work of any other wild tribe in the Islands, while on the +more elaborate costumes hundreds of shell disks are used in artistic +designs. The woman's skirt is of hemp and is made in exactly the same +manner as those of the Bagobo, but the general pattern is different, and +it seldom contains the broad decorative center panel (Plate LX). + +Some of the men cut their hair so that it falls in bangs along the +center line of the forehead and behind reaches to the nape of the neck, +but the majority of them, and all the women, allow the back hair to grow +long and tie it in a knot at the back of the head. Ordinarily the men +dispense with head covering, or at most twist a bit of cloth into a +turban, but for special occasions they wear palm leaf hats covered with +many parallel bands of rattan and crowned with notched chicken feathers +(Plate LI). Rarely is a women seen with any kind of head protection or +hair ornament other than a small comb which is peculiar to this tribe +(Fig. 36). This comb is made of bamboo or rattan splints drawn together +at the center but flaring at top and bottom until it forms an ornament +in the shape of an hour glass. The ear plugs worn by the men are of wood +and are undecorated, but those of the women have the fronts overlaid +with incised brass plates (Fig. 37). In other respects the dress of the +women differs little from that of the Bagobo. They have the same +necklaces, arm and finger rings, leglets, and anklets, although in less +quantity. They also carry trinket baskets, but these are larger than +those used by the women of the other tribe and are lacking in bead and +bell pendants. However, they are tastily decorated with designs in +colored bamboo or fern cuticle. We have already noted that the use of +plain red garments is limited to warriors, but cloth of that hue which +contains narrow black stripes may be used by all. Quite a number of +garments are seen in which white pattens appear in a red background +(Plate LVIIIc). In this tribe the use of such suits is not restricted, +but with the neighboring Kulaman they can be worn by warriors[60] only. + +FIG. 36. WOMEN'S COMBS. + +FIG. 37. A. WOMEN'S EAR PLUGS. B. MEN'S EAR PLUGS. + +[60] See p. 155 for a description of this process. [Transcriber's note: +20 pages further from this one.] + +Before we proceed further with the description of the life of the +people, it will be well for us to inquire into their religious beliefs, +for, as is the case with all their neighbors, their faith in unseen +beings influences their daily life to a very great extent. The two +following tales deal with the Bila-an genesis. + +"In the beginning was _MElu_--a being of such great size as to be beyond +comparison with any known thing; who was white, having gold teeth, and +who sat upon the clouds, and occupied all space above. + +"He was very cleanly and was constantly rubbing himself with his hands +in order that he might keep his skin quite white. The scurf or dead skin +which he thus removed, he placed to one side where it accumulated at +last to such a heap that it annoyed him. To be rid of this annoyance he +made the earth, and being pleased with his work, he decided to make two +beings like himself only much smaller in size. This he did from remnants +of the material from which he made the earth. + +"Now, while MElu was making the first two men, and when he had the first +one finished, all excepting the nose; and the second one finished all +excepting the nose and one other part, Tau Tana (Funtana) or Tau Dalom +Tana appeared and demanded of MElu that he be allowed to make the nose. +Then began a great argument in which Tau Dalom Tana gained his point and +did make the noses and placed them on the faces of the first two people +upside down. So great had been the argument over this making and placing +of noses that MElu forgot to finish that part of the second person and +went away to his place above the clouds, and Tau Dalom Tana went away to +his place below the earth. Then came a great rain and the two people on +the earth were about to perish on account of the water which ran off +their heads into their noses. MElu seeing what was happening came to +them and changed their noses, and then told them that they should save +all the hair which came from their heads, and all the scurf which came +from their bodies to the end that when he came again he might make more +people. As time passed there came to be a great many people, and they +lived in a village having plenty to eat and no labor but the gathering +of such fruits as they desired. + +"One day when the rest of the people were about the village and the near +country, a man and woman who had been left behind fell to gazing, one +upon the person of the other, and after a little while they went away +apart from the rest and were gone many days, and when they returned the +woman carried a child in her arms, and the people wondered and were +afraid. When MElu came again soon, knowing what had taken place, he was +very angry and he went away abandoning them, and a great drought came, +when for two seasons no rain fell and everything withered up and died. +At last the people went away, two by two, one man and one woman +together, and MElu never again came to visit his people on earth."[61] + +[61] Recorded by Mr. H. S. Wilson. + +The writer did not hear the foregoing tale, but the following, with more +or less variation, was told to him by several Bila-an: + +"In the beginning four beings, MElu and Fiuweigh-males, and Dwata and +Saweigh (or sEwE or sEweigh)-females, lived on a small earth or island +as large as a hat and called _salnaon_. There were no trees or grass on +this island, but they had one bird called Baswit. They sent this bird +across the waters to secure some earth, the fruit of the rattan and of +trees. When it returned MElu took the earth and beat it the same as a +woman beats pots until he had made the land, then he planted the seeds +in it and they grew. When he had watched it for a time he said: 'Of what +use is land without people'; so the others said, 'Let us make wax into +people.' They did so, but when they put the wax near to the fire it +melted, so they saw they could not make man that way. Next it was +decided that they should use dirt, and MElu and Fiuweigh began to make +man. All. went well until they were ready to make the nose. Fiuweigh who +was making this part put the nose on upside down and when MElu told him +that the people would drown if he left it that way he became very angry +and refused to change it. When he turned his back, MElu seized the nose +quickly and turned it as it now is, and you can see where, in his haste, +he pressed his fingers (at the root). + +"The people they made were Adnato and Andawi, male and female. These two +had children, Tapi (or Mastafi) and Lakarol. (Informants disagreed here, +part insisting that MEsa, Lakbang, and Mangarang were part of the first +people made.) Their descendants were Sinudal (female), Moay (male), +Limbay (female), Madinda (female), Sinnamoway (male), Kamansa (male), +Gilay (female), Gomayau (male), Salau (male), Slayen (female), BaEn +(female), Kanfal (female), Latara (male)." + +[Transcriber's note: These identifications of male and female (in +parentheses above and below) are all signaled in the text using +non-ASCII symbols; the symbols for male or female were footnoted.] + +The last was the father of Alimama, the chief informant of this tale. +Inok, dato of Labau, is also of this line, tracing his descent from +Lakbang. + +It is said that MElu and Saweigh now live below, Dwata and Fiuweigh in +the sky. + +A variation of this story credits MElu and Dwata with being the creators +of Fiuweigh and SEweigh. They were the ancestors of men, for they took +earth and made it into the form of people and then whipped it until it +moved. The first people they made were Otis (male) and Lakbang (female). +Two of their children were Mastafi (male) and Lakarol (or Landol) +(female). From these two came all the Bila-an. "These two lived in a +small distant place and their one animal was Baswit--a bird. They sent +him on a long journey and when he returned he brought a piece of earth +and the fruit of a _pandag_ tree. Lakarol planted the fruit in the piece +of earth and when it grew the leaves fell down and finally made the +earth." + +From these tales and later questioning we learn the MElu, or MElE, is +the most powerful of all the natural spirits and that his help is sought +in times of calamity and at very important occasions. + +Duwata (Duata, Dwata, Adwata, Diwata) is generally considered to be the +wife of MElu and of equal strength with him. She is sometimes identified +with a female spirit called Kalalokan. + +Fiuweigh and SEweigh are now powerful spirits; but there is some dispute +as to whether they have always been so, or once were human. + +Lamot ta Mangayo, also called Mandalangan, is the patron spirit of the +warriors and is in all respects almost identical with Mandarangan of the +Bagobo. + +The _busau_ are a class of spirits, often ill-disposed toward men, who +live in various parts of the mountains. Bakay, one of the _busau_, is +said to be the owner of the deer and pig and is held in considerable +esteem by the people of the Padada region, but he is not recognized by +the Tagkogon branch of the tribe. Another spirit, Bawi, who owns the +rice, is in great favor with the Padada people, but is unknown to the +latter group. Flau is the spirit of an unborn child whose mother died in +pregnancy. Its cry is often heard at night, and at times it attacks and +injures people. + +These natural spirits are very powerful, and since they sometimes +interest themselves in the doings of mortals it behooves all to keep +their good will. Below them is another class of spirits, less powerful, +but far more concerned in the affairs of men, and for this reason more +to be feared should they become displeased. This class is made up of the +spirits of the dead. A man's spirit, _almogol_, does not live in his +body, but always accompanies him during life. If at any time it wanders +the man becomes ill, and if it fails to return its owner dies. After +separating from the body the _almogol_ goes to Kilot, a good place below +the earth where there is no work or punishment. There it spends most of +its time, but upon occasion returns to its former haunts where it aids +or injures the living. + +The _almo-os_, already mentioned,[62] have considerable influence with +all the spirits, but they are particularly close to the _almogol_. When +a person is ill he is placed in a little house known as _lawig_ (Plate +LII), beside which a fire is kindled. Nearby are two decorated bamboo +sticks, behind which the spirit of the sick man stands while he watches +the proceeding. The _almo-os_ takes a chicken in his hands and, while +five or six assistants dance, he chants, appealing to the spirit to see +the good things that are being prepared, and to be pleased to return to +the sick man. Occasionally, the music stops and one of the dancers cries +"_almogol_, here is food for you; you must not go away." After a time +the fowl is killed, is cooked over the fire, and is fed to the invalid, +while the "doctor" continues his song of entreaty. If the call pleases +the spirit it will pass between the bamboo sticks and go to the sick +person in the _lawig_, but if it is not convinced that it should remain +it departs, and the patient dies. The sick person is kept in the spirit +house for a day and is then returned to his home. + +[62] See page 133. + +Little structures known as _bolon_ are erected for other spirits who may +be trying to injure the _almogol_ or attempting to persuade it to leave +its owner. + +Certain ceremonies and offerings occur after a death, at the birth of a +child, at planting and harvest times, and when the warriors are about to +start on a raid; all of which will be spoken of in a later paragraph. +When approaching a place known to be owned by certain spirits, it is +thought wise to make a small offering. On the trail to Ma-al is a large +rock which marks the divide between the mountains and the open cogon +lands. As the writer's party approached this stone one of the men +removed some of his leg bands and placed them beside the rock, at the +same time praying the _busau_ to "take the present and do not let any of +our party fall sick or be injured on the journey." It is also customary +for a man who wishes to buy anything or to make a trade, first to make +an offering of betel-nut to the spirit of some rich man, and to ask his +help in the venture. + +Some new clearings are cut in the jungle each year, after the +constellation _Balatik_ has risen out of the sea. The spirits place this +sign in the heavens to notify all that the land should be cleared, but +it does not call for a sacrifice as in the case of the people we have +previously described. At that time the men cut the trees and underbrush, +and after allowing them to dry, fire them. They also make the holes into +which the women drop seed rice. + +When the land is ready for planting, a little house called _botabwE_ is +built in the center of the field, and beside it is placed a platform or +table, _sina-al_, on which is an offering of food. Early in the morning, +while the others sleep, the owner and his wife carry the seed rice to +the field and place it on the _botabwE_. After a time they eat some of +the food which has previously been offered and then begin to plant, +beginning close to the spirit house. Soon they are joined by other +workers who aid them in the planting. These assistants do not receive +payment for their services other than food while working and like help +when in need. At this time a bamboo pole, with one end split and spread +open like a cup,[63] is placed in front of the elevated platform of the +family dwelling and the guardian spirit of the fields is promised that +after the harvest he will receive the new seed rice. While the rice is +growing the men attend to the fences and the women keep down weeds or +frighten birds and other intruders away. When the crops have matured all +the people of a neighborhood will meet at the home of the chief, and +there celebrate a ceremony known as _Pandoman_. Two bundles of rice are +laid on a mat in the center of the room, and beside them a spear is +thrust into the floor. These are offerings to the great spirits MElu and +Dwata who are besought to give health to the workers while they are +gathering crops. As soon as this offering is made, the men begin to +build the rice granaries; meanwhile the women silently guard the mat and +gifts, for until the new storehouses are completed there must be no +dancing or merry-making. When all is ready for the harvest, the wife of +the owner goes alone to the field, and having cut a few heads of grain, +she carries them back to the house. One portion is placed in the _sabak_ +another on a little platform, _gramso_, near to the house, as an +offering to MElu and Dwata; and the balance is cooked and eaten by the +family. The following morning all the women go to the fields to gather +the harvest. When the last bundle has been carried to the house a +celebration begins, agongs and _EdEl_[64] furnish the music for the +dancers, and for a day and a night all feast and make merry; then the +workers return to their homes carrying small gifts of cooked food or new +rice. + +[63] This pole which is here known as _sabak_ is the same as the +_tambara_ of the Bagobo. See p. 66 and Fig. 12. + +[64] See p. 110 note. [Transcriber's note: 30 pages earlier.] + +Aside from clearing the land and helping somewhat with the rice crops, +the men seldom concern themselves with work in the fields but leave the +cultivation of corn, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and the like to the women. + +A large part of the food of the tribe is furnished by the fruits and +herbs of the jungle and here again the women are the chief providers. +Although in the sago industry both sexes have well defined duties. + +Along the edge of the cogon lands are many large _buri_ palms,[65] from +which a starch commercially known as sago is secured. The men cut down a +tree close to its roots and remove the hard outer bark, thus exposing +the soft fibrous interior (Plate LIII); then a section of bamboo is bent +so as to resemble an adze[sic], and with this the men loosen or break up +the soft interior portion of the trunk. This is removed to a near-by +stream, and is placed in a bark vat into which water is led by means of +bamboo tubes. Here a woman works it with her hands until the starch +grains are separated from the fibrous matter. As the water drains slowly +out the fine starch is carried with it into a coarse cloth sieve, which +retains all the larger matter but allows the starch to be carried into +another bark vat below. Fresh water passes slowly through this lower +vat, removing the bitter sap from the flour, which is deposited on the +bottom of the vat. From time to time this is scraped up and placed in +baskets where it is kept until needed. The flour, while rather +tasteless, is nutritious and in years of drought is the chief source of +food supply. + +[65] _Corypha umbraculifera_. + +Preparation of the meals, care of the children, basket and mat making, +weaving and decoration of clothing, take up most of the time of the +women when they are not engaged in the cultivation of the fields or in +search of forest products. + +The hardest work in the fields falls to the men; they also strip the +hemp needed in weaving, while a few of them are skilled workers in brass +and copper and turn out bells and other ornaments not at all inferior to +those of the coast natives. Their methods of casting as well as their +manufactures are identical with those of the Bagobo from whom they +probably learned the art. So far as could be learned no iron work is +done by members of this tribe, and the few spears and knives possessed +by the warriors seem to be trade articles. + +The old men claim that until recent years the bow and arrow was their +sole offensive weapon. It is certain that today they have a greater +variety of arrows and are more skillful in the use of this type of +weapon than are any of their neighbors. None of the weapons found on the +gulf side of the divide appeared to be poisoned, but a number secured by +Major Porter from the Lake Buluan region seem to have been so treated +(Fig. 38). Different types of arrows have been developed for different +purposes; one for fighting, another for deer and pig, another for +monkeys, and still others for fish and birds (Fig. 39). Birds are killed +also by means of reed blow guns, identical in type with those shown on +page 73, Fig. 18. As a rule such weapons are used by boys. Pitch sticks +(Fig. 40), chicken snares, and fish traps are in common use, but bird +nets and wooden decoys seem to be unknown. + +FIG. 38. BOWS, ARROWS AND QUIVER FROM LAKE BULUAN REGION. + +FIG. 39. BOWS AND ARROWS IN COMMON USE. + +FIG. 40. PITCH STICK USED IN THE CAPTURE OF SMALL BIRDS. + +When on a raid warriors carry beautifully carved shields, bows and +arrows, spears, and fighting knives (Plates LIV-LV). They are in bad +repute with the coast natives, but are really far less warlike and +troublesome than any of their neighbors. Their isolated dwellings serve +as protection against invaders, but at the same time make it difficult +to gather large bodies of men for raiding purposes. It is only when +urged on by an invasion of their country, by a desire for revenge for +real or fancied wrongs, or when a victim is needed for a sacrifice that +great raids are planned. Before a war party is to start against an enemy +the leader takes eight pieces of betel nut and some leg bands and +placing them on his shield, bids his followers lay their weapons upon +them. Addressing the guardian spirit of the warriors, he speaks as +follows: "Now listen Lamot ta Mangayo, let the person who killed my +brother come to meet us even though his head does ache, for now we offer +to you. Give us good fortune in the fight." Upon returning from the fray +they place eight whole betel nuts, together with leaves, on a plate, and +having set it outside the house, one of the warriors calls to MElu +saying: "If the brother of the man we have killed in payment for my +brother calls on you for aid, you must not give heed, for here we make a +present to you." + +There are no restrictions placed upon a pregnant woman, who, as a rule, +continues her regular duties until near the time of delivery.[66] When +the first pains begin an old man or woman offers four pieces of betel +nut to MElu, and to the spirit of the child's grandfather, if deceased. +The midwife prepares a drink which is supposed to aid in the delivery, +and after the birth she cuts the umbilical cord with a bamboo knife. She +also assists about the house for a time, and for these services receives +two or three Chinese plates, some small knives, rings for the right arm, +and some needles. The father is not under any restrictions at this time, +but for a day of two he will gather young _patina_ palms and from them +prepare food for his wife. + +[66] A woman does not work during her periods, and any food prepared by +her at that time would be refused by all who knew her condition. + +From birth until marriage the career of the child is without special +event. He is a welcome addition to the family, but no ceremonies attend +either his naming, or his arrival at the age of puberty. + +As a rule, a youth does not take a wife until he is near twenty years of +age, and then his mate is generally of his own choosing. Having decided +upon a suitable girl he informs his parents and the friends he may wish +to accompany him when he goes to her home to press his suit. Arrived at +the house, the father of the suitor expresses his belief that his son +wishes to reside there since he now asks the daughter for his wife. In +reply he is told that the family is poor, having neither agongs, +animals, or other things of value. The suitor at once makes an offering +of some of these desired articles, but whatever the gift may be, a +return present equal to half its value must be made.[67] Should the +girl's parents reject the gift all negotiations would be called off and +the guests return home, but as a rule, both families are well aware of +and favorable to the expected wedding sometime before the visit of the +groom's parents. After the exchange of gifts, food is furnished first to +the guests and later to the couple, who in the presence of all the +friends, feed each other with rice and are henceforth considered as +husband and wife. Until after the birth of a child the couple live with +the girl's family and the groom serves his father-in-law. After the +birth of an heir the couple establish a home of their own and to it the +husband may bring other wives if he desires. He pays a price for these +new wives, but does not give any services to their families. The first +mate is considered superior to the others, and in case her husband dies, +she acts as administrator of his property; however, the children of a +second wife share equally with those by the first marriage. + +[67] Note the similarity to the Bagobo custom. Page 101. + +The evening following a death, the friends gather and throughout the +night sing of the virtues of the deceased and of their own sorrow. The +body is placed on a mat in the center of the house and for three days is +watched over by the relatives, who, during this time, abstain from +music, dancing, shouting, or loud talking. The women cease from weaving +and the men refrain from all labor. A breaking of this taboo would +result in the certain death of the offender, for the spirit of the dead +man is still near at hand and is sure to wreak his vengeance on those +who show him disrespect. Finally, the body is wrapped in mats and is +buried at some little distance from the house. All the people return to +the dwelling, where the headman makes a cup out of leaves, and having +placed in it a narrow belt or string, together with betel leaves, sets +it adrift on a near-by stream, while all the men shout.[68] This removes +the ban, so that all the people can resume their regular occupations. + +[68] See pp. 157 and 161. [Transcriber's note: This is page 144.] + +If the deceased has been a person of great importance, the death should +be followed eight days later by a human sacrifice. This rite, while less +common than with the Bagobo, is by no means infrequent, and may be +occasioned by several causes beside that of death. For instance, if a +person has been ill for a long time and his relatives have become +convinced that an enemy has used magic to bring about the misfortune, +they may seize and sacrifice him, even though he be a member of their +own community. A case is known where a thief was put to death in this +manner. As there is considerable variation in the accounts of this +important ceremony the writer has thought it wise to give the +descriptions of two eye-witnesses. + +The first informant was an eighteen year old Bila-an boy of Labau named +Lantingari. His account is as follows: + +"Sololin of Ma-al, the wife of Karan, a Bila-an living near Digos, died +and her husband, in company with Umook, Gamban, and Bunod, Bagobos of +Digos, and the people of Labau, decided that a sacrifice was necessary +both because of the death and in order that the size, wealth, and fame +of the tribe might be increased. About this time Dianon, a Bila-an of +Latian (now deceased), caught a man named Saligon stealing camotes, +sugar-cane, and corn from the land.[69] He bound and tied the man, and +after a conference with Karan, Dianon agreed to turn over his prisoner +for the sacrifice if paid five agongs and one gun. + +[69] The woman Sololin had planted this sugar-cane and is reported to +have eaten some of it just prior to her death. The cane stolen was from +the patch, but the informant could not say whether or not this had +anything to do with later developments. + +"The sacrifice took place on a stream called Matinao near Labau during +the new moon. Two poles were sunk into the ground seven feet apart, and +a cross-piece attached about six feet above the ground. The culprit was +tied with hands crossed, one on each side of the horizontal pole so that +his arms were high above his head, and his feet were fastened to a +stake. + +"The men gathered close around the poles, but the women and children +stood at a distance. Karan took his stand just back and to the right of +the victim, and Umook stood in front on the left side. Both unsheathed +their knives and then they called upon the spirits Dwata, MElu and Lamot +ta Mangayo to look and see that they were killing the man because of his +great fault; if this were not true they surely would not kill him.[70] +At this point Saligon, the victim, told the men that he was not afraid +to die, that if they killed him, their fault would be great, but that if +they would release him, he would return at once to his home in Bilawan +and would not cause them any trouble because of what they had proposed +to do. When he stopped talking, Karan struck him from in front just +below the ribs with his fighting knife, and Umook struck him from in +back. The other men present who were willing to pay for the privilege +then struck at the body with their knives. The body was then cut down +and buried in a shallow grave already prepared for it. No parts were +carried away, although in some cases the women take the long hairs of +the victim and sew them in the designs on the men's trousers in place of +black thread."[71] + +[70] The informant here added that if the man had not been guilty, Karan +and Umook would surely have been punished with sickness; but since they +were not ill, it is certain that he was bad, and that Dwata had taken +his body up and would not punish his murderers. + +[71] The informant further volunteered, that the Bila-an make a +sacrifice every two years, and that several years ago his uncle named KE +was the victim. At that time he was too young to remember the details. + +Datu Baklay who now lives near the Padada river, but was formerly a +resident of the Malalag cogon plains, claims that the ceremony is not a +yearly event, as is the case with the Bagobo, neither does it follow +each death; but if the deceased has been a person of great importance or +a member of the ruler's family it should take place in eight days, +regardless of the phase of the moon or the position of the stars. He +further insists that neither _Balatik_ nor any other constellation +governs the time of an offering, nor does such a ceremony insure better +crops or success in war. He describes the sacrifice following the death +of Datu Kalayan, his father, as follows: + +"A Bila-an slave was purchased for one agong and preparations made for a +sacrifice. A small house without floor or sides was built in the forest +some distance from the town, and in this were two upright poles which +supported a crossbeam at a height of about seven feet. Near them and +inside the house a shallow grave was dug and then the victim was brought +in. He was tied to the horizontal pole, hands crossed one on each side +of the beam. The men filled the house, leaving a free place only near +the victim, and the women and children crowded close around in the yard. +After addressing the spirits, Lamot ta Mangayo, MElu, and Dwata, I +placed my spear to the man's side, and then all the male relatives took +hold of the shaft and at my signal forced the weapon through the body. +Other men then cut at the body with their knives, finally releasing it +from the pole. While it lay on the ground the women and boys were +allowed to enter the house and throw spears at it, after which it was +buried." + +Baloey, a Kagan living at Padada, claims to have seen a Bila-an +sacrifice at Ma-al, about ten years ago, while Bagobo Datu Ansig of +Talun, and Tongkaling of Cibolan claim to have witnessed several of +these events. As their accounts agree in most particulars with the two +just recorded, it seems probable that we have here a fairly accurate +account of a rite which no white man has seen or can hope to see. + +In studying the decorative art of this people a person encounters the +same difficulties as with the Bagobo. Nearly all garments are covered +with elaborate patterns (Plates LVI-LX), to some of which all the people +will give the same names and explanations; but by far the greater +portion of the designs have only pattern names which are unexplained. +Many designs are readily identified as men and alligators. In Fig. 41 +the forms marked a are identified as men and women, while the +conventionalized crocodile is shown in the same plates by the figures +marked b. Fig. 42 is perhaps the most interesting since it shows in one +garment the process of conventionalization. Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, are +realistic representations of the human form; in 5 and 6 the heads are +lacking but the figures are easily recognized, while the balance have +lost all resemblance to the original, except for the uplifted arms and +spread legs, However, the great majority of decorative patterns on +clothing are without meaning to the mass of the people, and this is true +also of the designs on baskets, in mats, the incised designs often seen +on pottery jars, and of the carvings which frequently cover hangers, +tobacco tubes, and the like. + +FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + +FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING. + +The language of this tribe, while quite uniform among its divisions, +varies considerably from that of any of their coast neighbors. There is +at once noticeable a more common use of obscure vowel and consonant +sounds, such as b, f, E, a, and k, in the beginning, end or even in the +body of the word; while the letter f, seldom found in Philippine +dialects, is here very common; and finally, there is wide variation in +vocabulary. + +There are certain ill-defined tales to the effect that this tribe once +lived about Lake Buluan, and one writer[72] has attempted to show that +the tribal name is derived from that early home. Today they are still in +considerable numbers in that region, and this together with the fact +that they are now, and have been since the advent of the white man, +primarily an interior mountain people, helps to give credence to the +belief that they have spread to their present homes from the lake +district. Their language is a further proof that they have long been +separated from the people of the Davao Gulf region, for it differs more +from all the other dialects studied than did any of these vary among +themselves. Despite the foregoing statement, this brief sketch has shown +that in material culture, religion, and even physical type this tribe +does not differ radically from the Bagobo. + +[72] BLUMENTRITT, _Smithsonian Report_ for 1899. + + + +III. KULAMAN. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) CULAMANES. + +(b) MANOBO. + +According to Governor Bolton this tribe numbers about thirty-five +hundred individuals and occupies a considerable portion of the coast, +and adjacent mountains, from the Padada river on the north to Sarangani +Bay on the south. On the east side of Davao Gulf its members are found +along the beach and in the mountains, from Sigaboy to Cape San Agustin, +and also in a few scattered villages on the southeastern Pacific Coast. + +By their neighbors they are known as Kulaman or Manobo. The former +designation is translated as "bad man," but it is probable that they +received the name from the town of Kulaman, where they formerly resided. +They are equally well known as Manobo--a word meaning "man." Earlier +writers, misled by these two names, have generally treated this people +as forming two distinct groups, but this is quite incorrect, both names +being applied to a part or to the whole of the tribe. It has also been +customary to describe them as a part of the great Manobo tribe which +inhabits a large portion of Central and Northeastern Mindanao. The +writer is of the opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to +justify such a classification and that for the present we must consider +them as distinct from the Manobo of the northern district as are the +other tribes of Davao Gulf. + +According to their own tales, the Kulaman once held all the coast from +the Padada River to Sarangani Bay, but did not extend far back from the +sea, since in the mountains lived the Tagakaolo and Bila-an with whom +they were constantly at war. When the Moro appeared on their coasts and +offered help against the hill tribes in return for land, they were +gladly received and were given several village sites near to the mouths +of various rivers. Aside from a few minor quarrels, the Kulaman have +always lived on friendly terms with these later comers, and not a few of +the tribe have been converted to Mohammedism. + +Influenced by their new allies they organized under several petty rulers +who were subservient to the datu at Kulaman, and with this superior +organization they were able to carry on such successful warfare against +the hill tribes that the Tagakaolo were, for a time, partially under +their rule. + +When the Spaniards arrived and undertook to subdue the Moro, the Kulaman +cast their lot with their Mohammedan allies, and even after the power of +the Moro was broken, they remained irreconcilable and frequently raided +the settlements under the care of the Spanish priests. + +The recent history of the tribe, as told by Datu Bongkalasan of Padada, +as is follows: "About a hundred years ago when Gogo became _datu_, he +left Kulaman and settled at Piapi, not far from Padada, and planted the +cocoanut trees which can still be seen there. He was a man with a very +small head, but his arms were as large as a man's legs. He lived until +very old, and during his lifetime never did any work but was always a +great warrior. Under him the tribe became strong and all the other +_datu_ feared him. When he died his son Kolatau my uncle, succeeded him. +Like his father, he was a great warrior and all the neighboring tribes +paid him slaves and other tribute. His two sons died during his +lifetime; so upon his death the leadership fell to me, Bongkalasan." + +By the time Bongkalasan became ruler, the influence of the Spaniards was +strong enough to break the power of any coast _datu_, and after a +hostile demonstration by the new ruler his town was destroyed and his +following scattered. A part of the people took to the hills while others +migrated to the east side of the Gulf and settled near Sigaboy. It is +not believed that any members of this tribe were in that vicinity prior +to this time. A further migration took place shortly after the arrival +of the Americans, when a brother of Bongkalasan took a number of the +Kulaman over to Sigaboy. A certain amount of communication is kept up +between the people on both sides of the Gulf and the dialects are still +so similar that it is certain the separation has not been for any great +period of time. + +Upon the establishment of American rule a number of hemp planters +settled along the coast and soon their inducements to laborers began to +scatter the people, until today members of this tribe can be found as +far north as Santa Cruz. The power and influence of the _datu_ has waned +until he now has a following of less than two hundred people. Only that +portion of the tribe which retired to the hills still maintains any +semblance of their old prowess and even those groups are growing smaller +year by year. + +At the height of their power the men of the tribe were noted as +boat-builders[73] and fishermen. Fighting also took up a considerable +portion of their time, for added to their desire for loot and slaves was +a demand for victims imposed by the warrior deity. The women cultivated +little patches of corn, camotes, and some cocoanuts, and at certain +seasons all the members of the tribe went to the forest to gather sago, +but aside from this the sea furnished most of their food supply. +According to their own stories they did not cultivate rice until recent +years, and Datu Bongkalasan insists that none of the people planted rice +when he was a boy. It is his belief that all the ceremonies connected +with the rice culture were learned from the Tagakaolo and Bila-an. + +[73] This art is now practically lost and their boats are secured from +the Moro. + +From the Spanish writers[74] we hear little but evil of this people. +They are spoken of as warlike, superstitious, treacherous, and vengeful +as head-hunters "who expose the heads of their enemies on poles," and as +slavers. From Father GISBERT[75] we learn that in 1886, about twelve +hundred members of the tribe were converted to Christianity; but during +the period following the departure of the Spaniards most of them +deserted the faith and returned to the old life. Since American +occupation they have been among the most troublesome people of Southern +Mindanao, and only as late as 1911 were responsible for the death of a +number of planters and the destruction of the plantations in the +neighborhood of Nuin. They are rapidly breaking up as a tribe, and are +intermarrying with the coast natives and hill tribes, from both of whom +they are adopting artifacts and ideas. Already they have so altered +their dwellings that we cannot refer to a typical Kulaman home; their +house-hold utensils[76] are those of their neighbors, and this is true +also of most of the clothing, although one special type will be +mentioned later on. + +[74] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. LV, p. 556. + +[75] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 242. + +[76] Long narrow hemp cloth pillows (fig. 43) and round waterproof boxes +with infitting, tray-like tops (fig. 44) are found in nearly every +house. The use of these two articles is not confined to this people, but +is typical of them. The same type of box is found among the Manobo of +the Agusan river valley. + +FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER. + +FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP. + +As a result of their slave raids, and the adoption of captive women and +their offspring into the family, we find great variation in the members +of the tribe (Plates LXI-LXII). + +Measurements on twenty-seven men gave the following results: + +Height:--Maximum 169.0 cm.; minimum 146.0 cm.; average 158.3 cm. + +Cephalic Index:--Maximum 86.4; minimum 71.7; average 78.1. + +Length-Height. Index:--Maximum 76.5; minimum 61.9; average 68.4. + +If these figures are compared with those of the Bagobo it will be seen +that there is little difference in the averages; however, this +similarity is less real than the figures indicate, for with the Kulaman +there are more individuals at both extremes. For example: the cephalic +indices of eight out of the twenty-seven were 80 or above, while six +were less than 75; again, in the length-height indices six were above 70 +and an equal number less than 65. In other respects there is such +variation that it is hard to generalize. It is noticeable that there is +a greater tendency toward prognathism than we have heretofore met with; +the forehead, while high, is moderately retreating and the supra-orbital +ridges prominent in most individuals; the hair is brown-black and is +inclined to curl in locks. The wide variation of type within the tribe +is to be expected when we know that its members have been constantly +recruited from the neighboring tribes. It is even possible that a +considerable number of slave women from distant islands may have been +added to the group by purchase from the Moro.[77] + +[77] According to early writers, the Moro of the Gulf carried on a +lucrative slave trade with this and other tribes. As the Moro raids were +made by water and often reached as far as the Northeastern coast of this +island and south to the Celebes it is quite possible that these remote +districts have helped in the upbuilding of the tribe under discussion. + +The religious beliefs have many points in common with those of the +neighboring tribes, but there are some which require special notice. + +Two powerful beings, TimanEm and his wife Diwata[78] are above all other +spirits. + +[78] The Padada people say the term _diwata_ is a name which may be +applied to the _timanEm_, of whom there are two, a male and a female. + +Mandalangan, also called Siling or Manobo Siring, is much like the +Bagobo divinity of similar name. He is fond of war and bloodshed and +when there has been a great slaughter he feasts on the flesh and drinks +of the blood of the slain. Only warriors can address him and make the +offerings of red food which he demands. Once a year, usually after the +rice harvest and when the moon is full, a raid must be made and victims +slain so that this spirit can feast.[79] If the Warriors fail to render +him this service Mandalangan will cause their bodies to swell up and +many will die, while sickness will visit all other members of the +tribe.[80] + +[79] Data Bongkalasan says it was formerly the custom to make a foray at +each full moon. + +[80] This was the reason given for the raid on the coast plantations in +1911. + +The many spirits who inhabit rocks and large trees are generally +favorable to man and are collectively known as _magintalonan_. + +Tama owns the deer and wild pigs, and no one hunts or traps in the +forest until he has made an offering of betel nut to this spirit. When +game is secured its tail and ears are strung on rattan and are hung in a +tree, in exchange for the live animal. + +The _maniokan_, generally evil spirits, resemble snakes, and like them +live in the ground. People are frequently made lame by simply stepping +over their homes. + +Each man and woman has a spirit, _kalaloa_,[81] dwelling in his body +during lifetime. At death this spirit goes into the sky, unless it +deserves punishment, in which case it is hurried to Kilot, a region +below. In either place these spirits keep close watch over the living +and bring success or disaster according to their will. They have come to +be looked upon as the guardians of the fields, and suitable offerings +are made to them at planting and harvest time. + +[81] The Kulaman of Santa Cruz insist that each person has two +_kalaloa_, one on the right side and one on the left. At death the one +on the right side goes to a good place in the sky, where there is no +work and "thoughts come easy." The _kalaloa_ of the left side goes into +the ground to a poor place called Kilot. It is probable that the +neighboring Bagobo have influenced the beliefs of this group. + +A few old men, _makating_, are thought to be able to address the spirits +with greater probability of success than the others; but they do not +stand in the same relation to the spirit world as do the _mabalian_ of +the Bagobo. The nearest approach to that class is a group of women known +as _lokEs_[82], who act as midwives and make use of roots and herbs in +curing sickness. + +[82] In Santa Cruz known as _bagbabolan_ or _mananagamen_. + +The people are warned of disaster or impending danger by various signs. +A snake crossing the trail is an imperative order for the traveler to +turn back; the call of the _limokon_[83] is likewise a warning, while +should one of the principals to any agreement sneeze during the +negotiations the project would be delayed or abandoned. + +[83] See p. 63 note. + +There is only slight development of beliefs and ceremonies in connection +with the cultivation of field crops, due probably to the recent adoption +of agriculture by the members of this tribe. A field is seldom planted +to rice for more than one season, after which the land is used for corn, +camotes, and the like, until the invasion of _cogon_ grass makes further +cultivation impossible. + +As a result new land must be broken for each planting. When the +constellation _layag_ "a sail" and _balangay_ "a boat" appear in the +month of December, the people go to the desired plot, cut down the +trees, and when these are dry, fire them. + +Before the planting can be begun the seed rice must be carried to the +center of the field where a bamboo pole, _talabinian_, and a stalk of +sugar-cane have previously been placed, as an offering to the _kalaloa_ +who guard the land. Again at harvest time an offering of food is taken +to this spot and the spirits of the dead are besought as follows: "Do +not take our rice, but let it last for a long time, for now we give a +part to you." A meal and dance follow the offering and then all who +desire may aid in cutting the new rice. + +No offerings are associated with the planting or harvesting of other +field crops, but the gathering of sago flour is attended by gifts to the +spirits of the dead and prayers for the health of the workers. The +method of obtaining and preparing the flour is the same as that already +described. Offerings are made before and after a hunt, and a man never +goes to fish without first placing a leg ring and some betel nut on the +sand close to the water, meanwhile saying, "You TimanEm must give us +some food; and you shall have your part." Upon his return he places a +small fish beside the first offering and is then free to take his catch +to the village. + +In addition to the pursuits already outlined, we find that some of the +men are expert workers in iron (Fig. 45), copper, and brass, while the +women are weavers. Their weaving does not differ from that previously +described, but a peculiar type of decoration has been developed by this +tribe, and from them has spread somewhat to their neighbors. Waxed +threads are used to work designs into cloth so that when the fabric is +placed in dye the liquid will not reach the portions thus covered. +Later, when the threads are removed, white patterns appear on the red +background (See Plate LXIII). + +FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH. + +Slaves are kept, but their duties are so similar to those of the +freeborn that it is impossible for the casual observer to pick out the +members of this class. + +Until recent years a large part of the man's time was taken up in +preparation for or active participation in the inter-tribal fights. +There are several incentives for these raids. First is the desire for +loot and slaves; then comes the ambition of the young men to be +recognized as successful warriors; and finally, and most compelling is +the demand of the spirit Mandalangan for victims. + +A man who has killed five or more persons is entitled to wear a red suit +covered with peculiar white designs (See Plate LXIII), and is henceforth +known as _mabolot_. When his score has reached twenty-five he receives +the still more honorable title of _maisEg_ and is then allowed to dress +entirely in black and to deck his hair with red flowers.[84] + +[84] The flowers used are _Celosia cristata L., Graptophyllum hortense +nees_; _Coleus atropurpeus Benth_. + +A raid is made only when the moon is full. A dish of red rice is +decorated with red flowers and is placed in the center of the room. +Around it the warriors stick their spears and then one of the oldest of +the company takes up a handful of the food and offers it to the spirit, +saying: "Mandalangan come and eat, for we are ready to fight; go with us +and help us." As he finishes his prayer each warrior takes a portion of +the rice and throws it out of doors, for "they are not yet worthy to eat +what Mandalangan has left." Returning to the room they all eat of white +rice and are ready for the raid. In addition to their spears they should +carry shields and fighting knives, and in recent years quite a number +have come into possession of firearms. + +Although the warriors are bold in their attack and do not hesitate to +assault strong villages, they have no scruples against seizing or +killing members of small parties or the inhabitants of isolated +dwellings.[85] It is necessary that the raiders secure at least one +victim, otherwise another foray must be made at once. The body of the +slain is opened, the liver is extracted and is eaten by the warriors who +thus "become like Mandalangan."[86] The head, forearms, and lower part +of the legs are carried back to the village where they are cut to pieces +by the women and children. The men take no part in this mutilation of +the body, but as soon as the fragments are buried they begin to dance, +meanwhile holding their unsheathed knives high above their heads. After +a time the head-man blows loudly on a decorated bamboo trumpet (Fig. +46), while all the men unite in shouting "to announce their victory." At +last they have fulfilled all the commands of Mandalangan and without +fear they enter the house and partake of the red food which has been +offered to him. + +[85] Should water fall by accident on a warrior who is on a raid, it is +considered a bad omen and the plans may be changed or delayed. In one +instance the owner of a place marked for attack fastened dishes of water +so that the marauders unwittingly knocked them over on themselves, and, +as a result, the place was left unharmed. + +[86] At times the skull is opened and the brain eaten. + +FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET. + +The events just preceding and following the birth of a child are very +similar to those of the Bagobo, except that there are no restrictions of +any kind placed on the father and mother, neither are there any +ceremonies connected with the birth or naming of a child unless unusual +events have convinced the people that the spirits are in some way +displeased.[87] + +[87] Triplets are killed, as with the Bagobo. + +The afterbirth is placed in the care of an old woman who carries it +directly to a sturdy molave[88] tree and there attaches it to the +branches "so that the child may become strong like the tree." While on +this mission the bearer looks neither to the right nor to the left, nor +does she hesitate, for such actions on her part might influence the +disposition of the child or cause it to have physical deformities.[89] +No special attention is given to youths when they reach the age of +puberty, although it is customary to file and blacken their teeth at +about that period. + +[88] Vitex littoralis Decne. + +[89] Similar beliefs are held by the Tinguian of Northern Luzon. + +Marriage is attended by gifts and ceremonies, such as we have previously +described. We find the groom paying a price for his bride, but receiving +a return gift from her parents; the couple feed one another with rice +and are thereby legally married; and finally we learn that a child is +kept with them until they have had intercourse. It is customary for the +youth to serve his father-in-law-to-be for two or three years preceding +the wedding, after which he is released from such service. + +As is the case with the neighboring tribes, polygamy is practiced, the +only bar to marriage being blood relationship. Upon the death of the +head of the family one-half of his property goes to his wife and half to +the children. If there are two or more wives, the first wife still +retains half, while all the children share equally in the balance of the +estate, thus leaving the second and succeeding wives without a portion. + +Sickness may be caused by evil spirits, or it may be due to a desire on +the part of the _kalaloa_ to leave its present abode. In either case the +man becomes ill and it behooves him to take immediate steps to placate +the evil spirits or to convince his _kalaloa_ to remain with him. This +last can best be accomplished by bathing the sick person with water +which has been heated in a good _agong_. A fine dish would do equally +well, but should the hot water cause it to break the spirit would depart +at once. In extreme cases the _lokEs_ will gather certain roots and brew +them into a drink which she gives to the sick person. At each tree or +shrub visited in her search for medicines she leaves an offering of +betel nuts and leg rings, and when the drink has been prepared she makes +a further gift, meanwhile begging TimanEm to aid her in effecting a +cure. If all efforts fail and the spirit leaves, the corpse is placed in +the center of the house, where it is kept from two to nine days +according to the wealth and prominence of the deceased. During this time +no one should sleep in the dwelling, for the spirit might be resentful +and turn the face of the sleeper black. + +Usually, the body is buried in the ground at a distance from the house. +The coffin is made out of a split log, in which weapons, jars, and the +like are placed for the use of the spirit. If the dead man has been a +warrior he is dressed in the clothing distinctive of his rank, and his +grave is covered with red flowers. At times the coffins are shaped to +resemble small boats and are then placed on high poles near to the +beach. + +For a month following a funeral the relatives refrain from all +merrymaking. At the expiration of this period all go to a near-by river +and with their knives, cut to pieces a braided cord, which has been made +since the burial, and as they destroy it they shout "This is a man we +are killing. This is a man we are killing." Finally, the pieces are +thrown into the river and the period of taboo is past. + + + +IV. TAGAKAOLO. + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) TAGAKAOLA. + +(b) SAKA--"head of the river." + +(c) KAGAN, KALAGAN, CALAGANES, CALAGARS. + +(d) LAOC. According to the account of PASTELL,[90] this name is given to +a small, degraded division of the Tagakaolo who live in the mountains of +Haguimitan on San Augustin peninsula. + +[90] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 259. + +The present habitat and general condition of this tribe is nearly the +same as that of the Kulaman. + +Prior to Spanish times they held the hill region back of the coast, +between Malalag and Lais. On the Gulf side they were barred from the sea +by the Kulaman and Moro, while in the mountains they encountered the +powerful Bila-an tribe. + +About fifty years ago that part of the tribe living furthest to the +north united under the leadership of a brave warrior named Paugok, and +made war on the Bagobo. They were successful in this conflict and drove +their enemies from the rich valleys of the Padada and Bulatakay rivers, +where they established themselves. This brought them in close contact +with the Kulaman and Moro of the coast, with whom they lived on friendly +terms. The influence of the latter group was so great that the newcomers +not only adopted their style of dress, but also substituted cotton for +hemp in the manufacture of their garments. Today the members of this +tribe can still be recognized by their close fitting suits of red and +yellow striped cloth, from which they have received the name of +Kagan.[91] They have also been constant borrowers, from all their +neighbors, of ideas for house-building and utensils. They have +intermarried to some extent with the Kulaman, and in times past Bila-an +and Bagobo slave women have been added to the tribe. + +[91] The general name applied to red cotton trade cloth. + +Today practically all the members of the Kagan division are found living +on the American plantations along the Padada and Bulatakay rivers. They +are on friendly terms with their Tagakaolo kinsmen, and are still so +like them in language, social customs, and religious beliefs, that one +description will suffice for both. + +At some unrecorded date a considerable, portion of the tribe migrated to +the east side of Davao Gulf, and settled near Cape San Agustin, where, +it is said, they now number more than two thousand. + +The name Tagakaolo signifies "those who dwell at the head of the river," +and is applied to all the hill people living between the coast and the +country of the Bila-an. They have always been broken up into small +groups, often at war with one another, yet they appear to be quite +uniform in type, language, and religious beliefs. In recent years many +of them have been induced to come down to the coast plantations, but the +great majority still remain in the mountains. They are of a turbulent, +warlike disposition, and have been a constant source of trouble to the +Spanish and American authorities.[92] At the time of the writer's visit +they had joined with the Kulaman in raiding the coast settlements, and, +as a result, were being vigorously pursued by the American troops; for +this reason it was only possible to gain information from those +remaining on the plantations. + +[92] Members of this tribe were responsible for the murder of Governor +Bolton. + +The total number of persons making up the tribe is estimated at six +thousand, but this is at best a mere guess. + +There is scarcely any variation in physical type between the Kagan +branch and the Tagakaolo proper, while for the whole tribe there is less +variation between its members than in any group so far discussed. + +The following results were obtained by measurements on twenty-seven men: + +Maximum height 166.6 cm.; minimum 151.3 cm.; average 157.4 cm. + +Cephalic indices--Maximum 89.7; minimum 76.3; average 81.5. + +Length-height indices--Maximum 79.0; minimum 63.1, average 70.0. + +These tables show that aside from being more short-headed, this tribe +differs little from the Bagobo, Bila-an, and Kulaman. Like the Kulaman, +they have high foreheads, often full and vaulted but quite as frequently +retreating from well-marked supra-orbital ridges. They are slightly more +prognathous than the Kulaman, and in the majority of cases the hair is +curled in locks. The teeth are usually mutilated and blackened, while +shaving of the eyebrows and tattooing of the left forearm and breast are +quite common. + +The historians of the tribe tell us that all the Tagakaolo are descended +from Lakbang, MEngEdan, and his wife Bodek. In the beginning these three +persons lived on a small island in the sea. Two children, Linkanan and +Lampagan, were born to them and they in turn were parents of two +birds--the _kalau_ and _sabitan_. These birds flew away to other places +and returned with bits of soil which their parents patted and moulded +with their hands until they had formed the earth. Other children were +born and from them have come all the people who now inhabit the land. + +Two powerful spirits, _Diwata_ and _TimanEm_, watched the formation of +the world, and when it was completed the latter spirit planted trees +upon it. He still takes considerable interest in the affairs of men and +each year sends the spirits Layag and Bangay,[93] as stars, to tell the +people when to prepare their land for the planting of crops. + +[93] See page 154. + +Other spirits, less friendly, have existed from the first time. Of these +one named Siling causes much trouble by confusing travelers through the +forest. Spirits of unborn children--_mantianak_[94]--wander through the +forest crying "ina-a-a" (mother), and often attack human beings. The +only way persons thus assailed can hope to escape is by running to a +stream and throwing water on the abdomens of their pursuers. + +[94] Frequently called _busau_. + +The powerful spirit Tama owns the deer and wild pig, and is usually kind +to hunters who offer him proper gifts. Should they fail in this duty he +may cause them to become lost or injured. Mandalangan (Mandangan) is +known as a powerful spirit who loves war and bloodshed, but he is so +closely interwoven in the minds of the people with TimanEm that it is +doubtful if he should be classed as a separate spirit. + +In addition to these beings are the _kawE_, or shades of the dead, the +chiefs of whom are the people who created the earth. During life the +_kawE_ live in the body, but after death they go to the sky where they +remain the greater part of the time. They do return to earth at certain +seasons, to aid or injure the living, and it is usually one of their +number who keeps guard over the rice-fields. Certain persons known as +_balian_ can talk to these spirits and from them have learned the +ceremonies which the people should perform at certain seasons, and at +the critical periods of life. In the main these ceremonies are so +similar to those just described that it is useless to repeat. The +proceedings at a birth, marriage, or death are practically identical +with the Kulaman, as are also those at planting and harvest time. A +slight variation was noticed after the rice planting at Padada, when all +the workers placed their planting sticks on an offering of rice and then +poured water over them "so as to cause an abundance of rain." Another +difference is noticed following the death of a warrior. His knife lies +in its sheath beside the body for seven days and during that time can +only be drawn if it is to be used in sacrificing a slave. If such an +offering is made it is carried out in much the same way as the Bagobo +sacrifice, except that the bereaved father, son, or brother cuts the +body in halves. + +If it is impossible to offer a slave, a palm leaf cup is filled with +water and is carried to the forest. Here the relatives dance and then +dip the knife and some sticks in the water for "this is the same as +dipping them in blood." Later they are carried back and hung up in the +house of mourning. + +According to the long established custom, warriors must go to fight once +each year, when the moon is bright. Spears, fighting knives, bows and +arrows, sharpened bamboo sticks, and shields have long been used, and to +these several guns have been added in recent years. + +The attack is from ambush and the victims are generally cut to pieces, +although women and children are sometimes taken captive. Tufts of hair +taken from the slain are attached to the shields of the warriors, and an +arm is carried back to the home town "so that the women and children can +cut it to pieces and become brave." + +The foregoing account shows that the Kagan and Tagakaolo living on the +hemp plantations differ very little from their neighbors, whom we have +previously described. It may be that an investigation, carried on in +peaceful times, far back in the mountains, will show that more radical +differences exist in the great body of the tribe. + + + +V. ATA. + +The people classed under this name are the least known of any of the +wild inhabitants of Mindanao. They probably receive their name from the +word _atas_ which signifies "those up above" or "the dwellers in the +uplands." It does not appear that they form a single tribe, or that they +are even of uniform type. + +The writer did no intensive work with them, and the following notes make +no pretense of being first-hand knowledge. I have drawn on all possible +sources for this scanty information, but am mostly indebted to the +letters and reports of the late Governor Bolton, who, without doubt, +knew more of this people than any other white man. + +I am thus compelled to make my descriptions vague; indeed, my one excuse +for dealing with the Ata is to bring together such information as we +possess in the hope that it may be of value to some other worker who may +later take up the task of studying this little known people. + +According to Governor Bolton, the Ata inhabit the regions west and +northwest of Mt. Apo, the headwaters of the Davao river--north and west +of the Guianga--as well as the headwaters of the Lasan, Tuganay, and +Libagawan rivers. In all these regions they extend over the watershed, +converging toward the center of the island at the headwaters of the +Pulangi river. + +It should be noted at the outset that the Eto or Ata, living between the +Guianga and Bagobo, should not be included in this division. + +In the region about Mt. Apo they are closely allied to the Obo and +Tigdapaya,[95] while in the region adjoining the Guianga they have +intermarried with that people and have adopted many of their customs as +well as dress. On the headwaters of the Lasan river we are told that +they are known as Dugbatang or Dugbatung; that they are a timid +degenerate branch having no fixed habitations and very little clothing; +they are small, with crispy hair, and often decorate their bodies with +tattooed designs. About twenty miles up the Tuganay river Governor +Bolton encountered a similar group of Ata whom he describes as being +very wild. From the headwaters of this river he crossed over near to the +source of the river Libagawan where he discovered a hitherto unknown +people--the Tugauanum. These he believed were mixed Malay and Negrito, +with crispy or curly hair and sharp features. + +[95] See p. 128. + +While in the central part of Mindanao, on the headwaters of the Pulangi +river, the writer saw about fifty people known as Tugauanum who came +over the mountains to trade. They were certainly of mixed ancestry, +showing a distinct infusion of Negrito blood, and in other respects +conforming to the description of Governor Bolton. Among articles of +barter carried by them were the typical knives and hemp cloth of the +west side of the Davao gulf region, showing that they are at least in +the line of trade with the tribes we have already studied. + +According to their own stories, the original home of the tribe was along +the river Mapula which flows into the Tuganay near its source. Governor +Bolton tells of hearing, while in this section, of a people called +Dedaanum "who were small and black and had curly hair," but who had all +been killed by the Tugauanum. He was also informed that a numerous tribe +of very small black people called Tugniah lived on the headwaters of the +river Omiern, which flows north of the Libagawan. They were said to live +in trees, to plant nothing, and to subsist on sago flour. "Their bolos +are like sabers and they use lances, bows, and arrows." + +The Governor classes the Tugauanum as Ata "since they speak the same +language" but he adds "they are probably the same race as the +Libabaoan." This latter people are elsewhere in his notes referred to as +Guibabauon or Dibabaoan. They live along the headwaters of the Tagum +river and are, he believes, a mixture of Ata and Mandaya.[96] + +[96] The writer believes that the Libabaoan are probably the same as the +Divavaoan who are classed as a branch of the Mandaya. See p. 165. + +From one source we learn that the Ata are small, in many respects +resembling the Negrito; that they are timid and are either nomads or +build their houses high in the branches of trees. Another writer tells +us that they are a superior type, with aquiline noses, thick beards, and +are tall. "They are very brave and hold their own with the Moro." We are +also told that they cultivate the soil and build good houses. + +The estimates concerning their numbers are equally conflicting. Governor +Bolton gives the population as six thousand; the report of the +Philippine Commission for 1900 credits them with eight thousand, while +Father Gisbert believed that they aggregated "not less than twenty +thousand souls." + +The divergent reports are due to the fact that up to the year 1886 only +one village of this people had been visited,[97] and since that time +only a few hasty trips have been made into their territory. + +[97] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 242-3. + +From our present information it seems probable that the Ata are +descendants of an early invading people who intermarried first with the +early Negrito inhabitants, and later with other tribes with which they +came in contact. They have been free borrowers from their neighbors in +all respects, and hence we find them occupying all the steps from the +nomad condition of the pygmy blacks to the highly specialized life of +the Guianga. + +The following account of their beliefs was extracted from letters +written by Governor Bolton. He fails to designate the section from which +the information was gathered, but its similarity to Bagobo and Guianga +makes it probable that the account comes from the Ata dwelling near +those people. Considerable variation will doubtless be found in other +districts. + +"The greatest of all the spirits is Manama[98] who made the first men +from blades of grass, weaving them together until they resembled a human +form. In this manner he made eight persons--male and female--who later +became the ancestors of the Ata and all the neighboring tribes. Long +after this the water covered the whole earth and all the Ata were +drowned except two men and a woman. The waters carried them far away and +they would have perished had not a large eagle come to their aid. This +bird offered to carry them to their homes on its back. One man refused, +but the other two accepted its help and returned to Mapula. + +[98] See page 106. + +"The other deities are Mandarangan, Malalayug, god of agriculture; +Mabalian, the spirit who presides over childbirth; Tarasyub and +Taratuan, the guardian spirits of the brass and iron workers; +Boypandi--the spirit who guards over the weavers." + +While in the Ata country the Governor observed certain customs of the +people. As his party approached the palisaded house of Madundun they +stopped for twenty minutes to perform a ceremony called _anting-anting_. +"An old man waved his shield and a cloth, meanwhile repeating mysterious +words. Then each man was given a chew of betel-nut and was well rubbed +with a charm." "At Tuli a swarm of bees passed over the house just as +the party was ready to start. This was taken as a sign that some of the +party would be killed by the arrows of the enemy, hence they refused to +go." "Likewise, if the dove _limokan_ calls on the left side of the +trail the party will refuse to proceed, unless another _limokan_ answers +the call from the right side of the path." + + + +VI. MANDAYA. + +("Inhabitants of the Uplands"). + +SYNONYMS. + +(a) MANSAKA ("Inhabitants of the mountain clearings"). This name is +applied to those Mandaya who formerly dwelt far back in the mountains. +Many of this division have recently emigrated to the coast and are now +found at the north and east part of Davao Gulf. + +(b) PAGSUPAN. The appellation by which the members of this tribe, living +near the Tagum and Hijo rivers, are known. + +(c) MANGWANGA or MANGRANGAN ("Dwellers in the forests"). A name by which +are designated those Mandaya who live in the heavily forested mountains +skirting the coast. + +(d) MANAGOSAN or MAGOSAN. The members of the tribe living on the +headwaters of the Agusan river bear this name. + +(e) DIVAVAOAN. A division which inhabits a small district to the south +and west of Compostela. Very little is known of this people, but from +the information now at hand it seems that they should be classed as a +branch of the Mandaya. + +HABITAT. + +This tribe occupies both slopes of the mountain range which borders the +Pacific ocean, from about 9 degrees of North latitude south nearly to +Cape San Agustin. Its members are also found in considerable numbers +from the head of the Agusan drainage nearly to the town of Compostela, +and several settlements of this people are to be found along the Hijo +and Tagum rivers, while in recent years a number have established +themselves on the eastern side of Davao Gulf. + +Generally speaking, this whole region is extremely mountainous and at +the same time heavily wooded. It is only when the Agusan, Hijo, and +Tagum rivers are approached that the country becomes more open. On the +Pacific coast there are few harbors, for the mountains extend down +almost to the water's edge forming high sheer cliffs. Aside from the +three rivers mentioned the water courses are, for the greater part, +small and unnavigable and a short distance back from the coast appear as +tiny rivulets at the bottom of deep canyons. + +There is no organization of the tribe as a whole, since each district +has its local ruler who is subject to no other authority. These +divisions I are seldom on good terms, and are frequently in open warfare +with one another or with neighboring tribes. + +Despite this lack of unity and the great area they inhabit, their +dialects are mutually intelligible, and in other respects they are so +similar that I believe we are justified in regarding them as one group +linguistically, physically, and culturally. + +DESCRIPTION. + +Measurements made on fifteen men and five women gave the following +results: + +Height--Men: Maximum 161.3 cm., minimum 145.1 cm., average 153.9 cm. + +Women: Maximum 152.3 cm., minimum 144.1 cm., average 146.8 cm. + +Cephalic index--Men: Maximum 89.1, minimum 76.3, average 84.6. + +Women: Maximum 84.8, minimum 75.2, average 81.3. + +Length-height index--Men: maximum 78.7, minimum 64.5, average 74.2. + +Women: Maximum 81.8, minimum 75.0, average 77.4. + +From these figures it appears that there is considerable variation +between individuals, but a closer study of the charts shows that the +majority of those measured come closer to the averages than do the +members of any other group here mentioned (Plates LXIV-LXIX). + +Both sexes wear the hair long and comb it to a knot at the back of the +head. The women generally bang the hair over the forehead, while the men +allow a lock to fall in front of each ear. The hair is brown-black and +generally slightly wavy, although four individuals with straight hair +were seen. + +The forehead is high, and in about half the persons observed somewhat +retreating; however, full, vaulted foreheads are by no means uncommon. +The distance from the vertex to the tragus is uniformly great. + +The cheek bones are quite prominent, while the whole face tapers from +above so as to be somewhat angular. In twenty per cent of the men the +root of the nose seemed to be continuous with the supra-orbital ridge, +which, in such cases, was strongly marked. In general the root of the +nose is broad, low, and depressed, and there is a tendency for the ridge +to be somewhat concave. The lips are thick and bowed, but there is +little or no prognathism. + +The skin of the body is not tattooed or mutilated in any other way, but +the eyebrows are often shaved to a thin line, and the teeth are filed +and blackened. Filing was formerly done with small stones but imported +files are now used for this purpose. The coloring is effected by chewing +the roots of the _anmon_ vine and applying to the teeth the "sweat" +caught on a steel blade, held above burning bark of the _magawan_ tree. +This practice seems to have no significance other than that of +beautifying the person and saving the youth from the ridicule of his +fellows. To keep the teeth black, tobacco treated with lemon juice which +has stood on rusty iron is chewed frequently. + +Despite constant statements to the effect that the members of this tribe +are light-colored and the assertion of one writer[99] that at least one +division is white, observations made with the V. Luschan color table on +more than fifty individuals showed that while certain persons are +somewhat lighter than their fellows, as was also the case in other +tribes, there is not an appreciable difference in color between this +tribe and the others of the Gulf region. + +[99] LANDOR, The Gems of the East. It should be noted that the district +from which the white tribe was reported is now fairly well known and +there seems to be no reason to believe that the people residing there +differ materially in color from the other natives of the island. + +CLOTHING. + +The ordinary man of the tribe wears a loosely fitting shirt and wide +trousers made of white or blue cotton cloth. (Plate LXIX-LXX). These +garments are frequently decorated with embroidered designs and are +finished at the shoulders and knees with a cotton fringe. The trousers +are supported at the waist by means of a belt, and below reach nearly to +the ankles.[100] An incised silver disk is attached to the front of the +jacket, while ornaments of beads, seeds, and alligators' teeth encircle +the neck. + +[100] Along the coast this type of garment is now seldom seen, for the +men are adopting the close-fitting dress of the Moro. + +When on the trail the man covers his head with a little palm bark hat +(Fig. 47). This is sometimes conical, but more frequently is narrow and +turned up at the front and back. Painted designs, betel wings, and +chicken feathers make the hat a striking decoration which compensates +for its lack of utility. + +FIG. 47. MEN'S HATS. + +A class of warriors known as _bagam_[101] dress in red and wear turbans +of the same hue, while women mediums, _ballyan_,[102] may also make use +of red cloth. + +[101] See p. 180. [Transcriber's note: This is page 167.] + +[102] See p. 174. + +Other women wear blue cotton jackets, in the fronts and back of which +are many artistic embroidered designs. Their hemp cloth skirts, like +those of the Bagobo, are made tube-like and are held at the waist by +means of belts. They are very careless about the hang of these garments +and one side may be above the calf of the leg while the other drags on +the ground (Plate LXVII). No head coverings are worn, but quite +elaborate combs (Fig. 48) are thrust into the knots of hair at the back +of the head. Wooden ear plugs (Fig. 49) ornamented with incised silver +plates and with bead and silver pendants fit into openings in the lobes +of the ears. Like the men they wear necklaces of beads, sweet smelling +herbs, and seeds. Many of the latter are considered to have medicinal +value and are eaten to cure pains in the stomach. One or more silver +disks are worn on the chest or over the breasts, while anklets, such as +are used by the women of the other tribes, are frequently seen. Both +sexes are fond of bracelets of brass, shell, or vines, as well as of +finger rings of tortoise shell and silver (Plate LXXI). + +FIG. 48. WOMAN'S COMB. + +FIG. 49. FAR PLUGS WITH BELL PENDANTS. + +None of the garments contain pockets, and in order to make up for this +deficiency the men carry bags (Plate LXX) suspended on their backs by +means of bands which pass over the shoulders. In these they carry their +betel-nut outfits, tobacco, and the like. Small covered waterproof +baskets (Plate LXVIII) serve the same purpose for the women and are +carried at the back or at the side. + +HISTORY. + +Probably no wild tribe in Mindanao has received so much mention in +histories, reports, and books of travel as have the Mandaya, but these +references have been, in the main, so vague and often so misleading that +they are of little value for our purposes. Quite in contrast with this +mass of material are the excellent reports of the late Governor Bolton, +and Mr. Melbourne A. Maxey,[103] who for a number of years has been +closely associated with the members of the tribe residing in the +vicinity of Cateel. In the preparation of this paper frequent use has +been made of the notes gathered by these two gentlemen. + +[103] Published in the Mindanao Herald. + +When the first white men visited the tribe they found that the +neighboring Moro were making frequent raids on their villages and were +carrying away women and children whom they sold to the Bagobo and other +tribes of the Gulf.[104] At the same time it was learned that they, in +turn, were slave holders and were eager to purchase captives from the +Mohammedan raiders. The great distances traveled by the Moro in their +raids make it possible that slaves from distant islands may thus have +been introduced into the tribe. Later we shall see that it was difficult +for a slave or a descendant of a slave to become a freeman, yet it was +by no means impossible, and it is likely that a considerable part of the +tribe are descendants of people brought to the district through purchase +and capture. Another possible source of outside blood is suggested by +well verified stories of castaways on the east coast of Mindanao and +adjacent islands.[105] While working with the Mandaya in the region of +Mayo bay the writer was frequently told that three times, in the memory +of the present inhabitants, strange boats filled with strange people had +been driven to their coasts by storms. The informants insisted that +these newcomers were not put to death but that such of them as survived +were taken into the tribe. These stories are given strong substantiation +by the fact that only a few months prior to my visit a boat load of +people from the Carolines was driven to the shores of Mayo bay and that +their boat, as well as one survivor, was then at the village of Mali. +(Plate LXXII). I am indebted to Mr. Henry Hubbel for the following +explicit account of these castaways: "One native banca of castaways +arrived at Lucatan, N. E. corner of Mayo Bay, Mindanao, on January 2nd, +1909. The banca left the Island of Uluthi for the Island of Yap, two +days' journey, on December 10th, 1908. They were blown out of their +course and never sighted land until January 2nd, twenty-two days after +setting sail. There were nine persons aboard, six men, two boys, and one +woman, all natives of Yap except one man who was a Visayan from Capiz, +Panay, P. I., who settled on the Island of Yap in 1889. These people +were nineteen days without food or water except what water could be +caught during rain storms. The Visayan, Victor Valenamo, died soon after +his arrival, as a result of starvation. The natives recovered at once +and all traces of their starvation disappeared within two weeks. The men +were powerfully built, nearly six feet high. Their bodies were all +covered with tattoo work. The woman was decorated even more than the +men. Fever soon took hold of these castaways and in a year's time all +died except one small boy who seems to have become acclimated and will +become identified with the natives in Mati. I took care of these people +until they died. + +[104] BLAIR and ROBERTSON. The Philippine Islands, Vol. XLIII, p. 203. + +[105] FOREMAN. The Philippine Islands, pp. 257-9. JAGOR. Travels in the +Philippines, Ch. XX. + +"The clothing worn by the men and woman was nothing but the 'lavalava,' +a scarf of sea-grass fiber about 18 inches wide and five feet long. This +was worn around the loins. + +"The banca, which was of very curious construction, was taken to +Zamboanga last year by General Pershing, to be placed in Moro Province +Museum." + +After the advent of the Spaniards into their territory a considerable +number of this people were converted to the Christian faith and were +induced to settle in villages. There they met and intermarried with +Visayan and other emigrants who had followed the Spaniards to the South. +During the time of the Spanish rule these settlements were partially +destroyed by Moro raiders, and following the Spanish-American war these +attacks became so frequent that many of the inhabitants deserted their +homes and returning to their mountain kinsmen again took up the old +life. The effect of this return is especially noticeable in the vicinity +of Caraga where as late as 1885 there were 596 Mandaya converts. + +Several attempts were also made to colonize the Mandaya near the mouths +of the Tagum and Hijo rivers, but the restlessness of the natives or the +hostility of the Moro was always sufficient to cause the early break up +of the new settlements. + +The last great influence on this tribe has come through American +planters who have prevailed upon the more venturesome members to come +down to the coast plantations and there adopt the life of the +Christianized natives. Many of these adventurers have returned to their +mountain homes, carrying with them new ideas and artifacts and, in some +cases, wives from other tribes. With all these influences at work there +has been considerable modification of the life in many districts, +particularly along the Pacific coast. This description will attempt to +give the old life of the tribe as it still exists in the more isolated +districts, or as it was related by older people of the coast +settlements. + +MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION. + +In order to enter into a full understanding of the social, economic, and +aesthetic life we must have some knowledge of the mythology and +religious beliefs, for these pervade every activity. + +Several stories accounting for natural phenomena and the origin of the +tribe were heard. One of these relates that the sun and moon were +married and lived happily together until many children had been born to +them. At last they quarreled and the moon ran away from her husband who +has since been pursuing her through the heavens. After the separation of +their parents the children died, and the moon gathering up their bodies +cut them into small pieces and threw them into space. Those fragments +which fell into water became fish, those which fell on land were +converted into snakes and animals, while "those which fell upward" +remained in the sky as stars. + +A somewhat different version of this tale agrees that the quarrel and +subsequent chase occurred, but denies that the children died and were +cut up. It states that it is true that the offspring were animals, but +they were so from the time of their birth. One of these children is a +giant crab named _tambanokaua_ who lives in the sea. When he moves about +he causes the tides and high waves; when he opens his eyes lightning +appears. For some unknown reason this animal frequently seeks to devour +his mother, the moon, and when he nearly succeeds an eclipse occurs. At +such a time the people shout, beat on gongs, and in other ways try to +frighten the monster so that he can not accomplish his purpose.[106] The +phases of the moon are caused by her putting on or taking off her +garments. When the moon is full she is thought to be entirely naked. + +[106] The writer found almost identical beliefs and practices among the +Batak and Tagbanua of Palawan. + +According to this tale the stars had quite a different origin than that +just related, "In the beginning of things there was only one great star, +who was like a man in appearance. He sought to usurp the place of of the +sun and the result was a conflict in which the latter was victorious. He +cut his rival into small bits and scattered him over the whole sky as a +woman sows rice." + +The earth was once entirely flat but was pressed up into mountains by a +mythical woman, Agusanan. It has always rested on the back of a great +eel whose movements cause earthquakes. Sometimes crabs or other small +animals annoy him until, in his rage, he attempts to reach them, then +the earth is shaken so violently that whole mountains are thrown into +the sea. + +A great lake exists in the sky and it is the spray from its waves which +fall to the earth as rain. When angered the spirits sometimes break the +banks of this lake and allow torrents of water to fall on the earth +below. + +According to Mr. Maxey, the Mandaya of Cateel believe that many +generations ago a great flood occurred which caused the death of all the +inhabitants of the world except one pregnant woman. She prayed that her +child might be a boy. Her prayer was answered and she gave birth to a +son whose name was Uacatan. He, when he had grown up, took his mother +for his wife and from this union have sprung all the Mandaya. + +Quite a different account is current among the people of Mayo. From them +we learn that formerly the _limokon_,[107] although a bird, could talk +like a man. At one time it laid two eggs, one at the mouth and one at +the source of the Mayo river. These hatched and from the one at the +headwaters of the river came a woman named Mag,[108] while a man named +BEgenday[109] emerged from the one near the sea. For many years the man +dwelt alone on the bank of the river, but one day, being lonely and +dissatisfied with his location, he started to cross the stream. While he +was in deep water a long hair was swept against his legs and held him so +tightly that he narrowly escaped drowning. When he succeeded in reaching +the shore he examined the hair and at once determined to find its owner. +After wandering many days he met the woman and induced her to be his +wife. From this union came all the Mandaya. + +[107] See p. 63 note. + +[108] Also known as Manway. + +[109] Also known as Samay. + +A variant of this tale says that both eggs were laid up stream and that +one hatched a woman, the other a snake. The snake went down the current +until it arrived at the place where the sea and the river meet. There it +blew up and a man emerged from its carcass. The balance of the tale is +as just related. This close relationship of the _limokon_ to the Mandaya +is given as the reason why its calls are given such heed. A traveler on +the trail hearing the cooing of this bird at once doubles his fist and +points it in the direction from whence the sound came. If this causes +the hand to point to the right side it is a sign that success will +attend the journey.[110] If, however, it points to the left, in front, +or in back, the Mandaya knows that the omen bird is warning him of +danger or failure, and he delays or gives up his mission. The writer was +once watching some Mandaya as they were clearing a piece of land, +preparatory to the planting. They had labored about two hours when the +call of the _limokon_ was heard to the left of the owner. Without +hesitation the men gathered up their tools and left the plot, explaining +that it was useless for them to plant there for the _limokon_ had warned +them that rats would eat any crop they might try to grow in that spot. + +[110] Maxey states exactly the opposite, for the Mandaya of Cateel, _i. +e._, the right side is bad, the left good. + +The people do not make offerings to this bird, neither do they regard it +as a spirit, but rather as a messenger from the spirit world. The old +men were certain that anyone who molested one of these birds would die. + +Another bird known as _wak-wak_ "which looks like a crow but is larger +and only calls at night" foretells ill-fortune. Sneezing is also a bad +omen, particularly if it occurs at the beginning of an undertaking. +Certain words, accompanied by small offerings, may be sufficient to +overcome the dangers foretold by these warnings. It is also possible to +thwart the designs of ill-disposed spirits or human enemies by wearing a +sash or charm which contains bits of fungus growth, peculiarly shaped +stones, or the root of a plant called _gam_. These charms not only ward +off ill-fortune and sickness, but give positive aid in battle and keep +the dogs on the trail of the game.[111] + +[111] The use of these magic sashes, known as _anting-anting_, is +widespread throughout the southern Philippines both with the pagan and +Mohammedan tribes. + +There is in each community one or more persons, generally women, who are +known as _ballyan_. These priestesses, or mediums, are versed in all the +ceremonies and dances which the ancestors have found effectual in +overcoming evil influences, and in retaining the favor of the spirits. +They, better than all others, understand the omens, and often through +them the higher beings make known their desires. So far as could be +learned the _ballyan_ is not at any time possessed, but when in a trance +sees and converses with the most powerful spirits as well as with the +shades of the departed. This power to communicate with supernatural +beings and to control the forces of nature, is not voluntarily sought by +the future _ballyan_, but comes to the candidate either through one +already occupying such a position or by her being unexpectedly seized +with a fainting or trembling fit, in which condition she finds that she +is able to communicate with the inhabitants of the spirit world. Having +been thus chosen she at once becomes the pupil of some experienced +_ballyan_ from whom she learns all the secrets of the profession and the +details of ceremonies to be made. + +At the time of planting or reaping, at a birth or death, when a great +celebration is held, or when the spirits are to be invoked for the cure +of the sick, one or more of these women take charge of the ceremonies +and for the time being are the religious heads of the community. At such +a time the _ballyan_ wears a blood-red waist,[112] but on other +occasions her dress is the same as that of the other women, and her life +does not differ from their's in any respect. + +[112] PEDRO ROSELL, writing in 1885, says that the _ballyan_ then +dressed entirely in red. BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 217. + +When about to converse with the spirits the _ballyan_ places an offering +before her and begins to chant and wail. A distant stare comes into her +eyes, her body begins to twitch convulsively until she is shivering and +trembling as if seized with the ague. In this condition she receives the +messages of the spirits and under their direction conducts the ceremony. + +Rosell gives the following description of the possession of a +_ballyan_.[113] Nothing of this nature was seen by the writer. + +[113] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 218. + +"They erect a sort of small altar on which they place the _manaugs_ or +images of the said gods which are made of the special wood of the +_bayog_ tree, which they destine exclusively for this use. When the +unfortunate hog which is to serve as a sacrifice is placed above the +said altar, the chief _bailana_ approaches with _balarao_ or dagger in +hand which she brandishes and drives into the poor animal, which will +surely be grunting in spite of the gods and the religious solemnity, as +it is fearful of what is going to happen to it; and leaves the victim +weltering in its blood. Then immediately all the _bailanas_ drink of the +blood in order to attract the prophetic spirit to themselves and to give +their auguries or the supposed inspirations of their gods. Scarcely have +they drunk the blood, when they become as though possessed by an +infernal spirit which agitates them and makes them tremble as does the +body of a person with the ague or like one who shivers with the cold." + +SPIRITS. + +The following spirits are known to the _ballyan_ of the Mayo district: + +I. DIWATA. A good spirit who is besought for aid against the +machinations of evil beings. The people of Mayo claim that they do not +now, nor have they at any time made images of their gods, but in the +vicinity of Cateel Maxey has seen wooden images called _manaog_, which +were said to represent Diwata on earth. According to his account "the +_ballyan_ dances for three consecutive nights before the _manaog_, +invoking his aid and also holding conversation with the spirits. This is +invariably done while the others are asleep." He further states that +with the aid of Diwata the _ballyan_ is able to foretell the future by +the reading of palms. "If she should fail to read the future the first +time, she dances for one night before the _manaog_ and the following day +is able to read it clearly, the Diwata having revealed the hidden +meaning to her during the night conference."[114] + +[114] In the Mayo district palmistry is practiced by several old people +who make no claim of having the aid of the spirits. Bagani Paglambayon +read the palms of the writer and one of his assistants, but all his +predictions were of an exceedingly general nature and on the safe side. + +Spanish writers make frequent mention of these idols,[115] and in his +reports[116] Governor Bolton describes the image of a crocodile seen by +him in the Mandaya country "which was carved of wood and painted black, +was five feet long, and life-like. The people said it was the likeness +of their god." Lieutenant J. R. Youngblood, when near the headwaters of +the Agusan River, saw in front of a chief's house "a rude wooden image +of a man which seemed to be treated with some religious awe and +respect." Mr. Robert F. Black, a missionary residing in Davao, writes +that "the Mandaya have in their homes wooden dolls which may be idols." + +[115] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XII, 269, XLIII, p. 217, etc. + +[116] Filed in the office of the Governor of Davao. + +From this testimony it appears that in a part of the Mandaya territory +the spirit Diwata, at least, is represented by images. + +2. Asuang. This name is applied to a class of malevolent spirits who +inhabit certain trees, cliffs and streams. They delight to trouble or +injure the living, and sickness is usually caused by them. For this +reason, when a person falls ill, a _ballyan_ offers a live chicken to +these spirits bidding them "to take and kill this chicken in place of +this man, so that he need not die." If the patient recovers it is +understood that the _asuang_ have agreed to the exchange and the bird is +released in the jungle. + +There are many spirits who are known as _asuang_ but the five most +powerful are here given according to their rank, (a) Tagbanua, (b) +Tagamaling, (c) Sigbinan, (d) Lumaman, (e) Bigwa. The first two are of +equal importance and are only a little less powerful than Diwata. They +sometimes inhabit caves but generally reside in the _bud-bud_ (baliti) +trees. The ground beneath these trees is generally free from undergrowth +and thus it is known that "a spirit who keeps his yard clean resides +there." In clearing ground for a new field it sometimes becomes +necessary to cut down one of these trees, but before it is disturbed an +offering of betel-nut, food, and a white chicken is carried to the plot. +The throat of the fowl is cut and its blood is allowed to fall in the +roots of the tree. Meanwhile one of the older men calls the attention of +the spirits to the offerings and begs that they be accepted in payment +for the dwelling which they are about to destroy. This food is never +eaten, as is customary with offerings made to other spirits. After a +lapse of two or three days it is thought that the occupant of the tree +has had time to move and the plot is cleared. + +In former times it was the custom for a victorious war party to place +the corpses of their dead, together with their weapons, at the roots of +a _baliti_ tree. The reason for this custom seems now to be lost. + +3. Busau. Among the Mandaya at the north end of Davao Gulf this spirit +is also known as Tuglinsau, Tagbusau, or Mandangum. He looks after the +welfare of the _bagani_, or warriors, and is in many respects similar to +Mandarangan of the Bagobo.[117] He is described as a gigantic man who +always shows his teeth and is otherwise of ferocious aspect. A warrior +seeing him is at once filled with a desire to kill. By making occasional +offerings of pigs and rice it is usually possible to keep him from doing +injury to a settlement, but at times these gifts fail of their purpose +and many people are slain by those who serve him. + +[117] p. 106. + +4. OMAYAN, OR KALALOA NANG OMAY, is the spirit of the rice. He resides +in the rice fields, and there offerings are made to him before the time +of planting and reaping. + +5. MUNTIANAK is the spirit of a child whose mother died while pregnant, +and who for this reason was born in the ground. It wanders through the +forest frightening people but seldom assailing them.[118] + +[118] The belief in a similar spirit known as Mantianak is widespread +throughout the southern Philippines. + +6. Magbabaya. Some informants stated that this is the name given to the +first man and woman, who emerged from the _limokon_ eggs. They are now +true spirits who exercise considerable influence over worldly affairs. +Other informants, including two _ballyan_ denied any knowledge of such +spirits, while still others said _magbabaya_ is a single spirit who was +made known to them at the time of the _Tungud_ movement.[119] Among the +Bukidnon who inhabit the central portion of the island the _magbabaya_ +are the most powerful of all spirits. + +[119] p. 179. + +7. Kalaloa. Each person has one spirit which is known by this name. If +this _kalaloa_ leaves the body it decays, but the spirit goes to +Dagkotanan--"a good place, probably in the sky." Such a spirit can return +to its former haunts for a time and may aid or injure the living, but it +never returns to dwell in any other form. + +In addition to those just mentioned Governor Bolton gives the following +list of spirits known to the Mandaya of the Tagum river valley. None of +these were accepted by the people of Mayo district. According to rank +they are Mangkokiman, Mongungyahn, Mibucha Andepit, Mibuohn, and Ebu--who +made all people from the hairs of his head. + +For the neighboring Mangwanga he gives, Likedanum as the creator and +chief spirit, Dagpudanum and Macguliput as gods of agriculture, and +Manamoan--a female spirit who works the soil and presides over +childbirth. All of these are unknown to the Mandaya of the Pacific +coast. + +While in the Salug river valley Governor Bolton witnessed a most +interesting ceremony which, so far as the writer is aware, is quite +unknown to the balance of the tribe. His quotation follows: "One +religious dance contained a sleight of hand performance, considered by +the people as a miracle, but the chiefs were evidently initiated. A man +dressed himself as a woman, and with the gongs and drums beaten rapidly +he danced, whirling round and round upon a mat until weak and dizzy, so +that he had to lean on a post. For a time he appeared to be in a trance. +After resting a few minutes he stalked majestically around the edge of +the mat, exaggerating the lifting and placing of his feet and putting on +an arrogant manner. After walking a minute or two he picked up a red +handkerchief, doubled it in his hand so that the middle of the kerchief +projected in a bunch above his thumb and forefinger; then he thrust this +into the flame of an _almaciga_ torch. The music started anew and he +resumed his frantic dance until the flame reached his hand when he +slapped it out with his left hand, and stopped dancing; then catching +the kerchief by two corners he shook it out showing it untouched by +fire. The daughter of Bankiaoan next went into a trance lying down and +singing the message of Tagbusau and other gods to the assemblage. The +singing was done in a small inclosed room, the singer slipping in and +out without my seeing her." + +The letters of Pedro Rosell written at Caraga in 1885 contain many +references to the duties of the _ballyan_. In one account he records the +following song which he says is sung by the priestesses when they invoke +their gods Mansilatan and Badla.[120] + +[120] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 217-21, and Vol. XII, p. 270. + +"Miminsad, miminsad si Mansilatan + +Opod si Badla nga magadayao nang dumia + +Bailan, managunsayao, + +Bailan, managunliguit." + +This means: + +"Mansilatan has come down, has come down. + +Later (will come) Badla, who will preserve the earth. + +Bailanas, dance; bailanas, turn ye round about." + +This Rosell takes as "a confirmation of the most transcendental +questions of our true religion," for in Mansilatan he finds the +principal god and father of Balda, "who descended from the heavens where +he dwells, in order to create the world. Afterwards his only son Badla +came down also to preserve and protect the world--that is men and +things--against the power and trickery of the evil spirits Pudaugnon and +Malimbung." The writer made persistent inquiry among the Mandaya to the +south of Caraga, but could not find a trace of a belief in any one of +the four spirits named; neither are these spirits mentioned in the notes +of Governor Bolton, nor in the excellent description of the people about +Cateel, furnished by such a careful observer as Mr. Maxey. It seems that +this account, together with the song and its translation, must have been +gathered from other than Mandayan sources. Long before 1885 the town of +Caraga had become one of the strongholds of the church on the east coast +of Mindanao, and Christianized settlers from all the southern islands +had come to the vicinity.[121] It is probable that Rosell's information +was secured from Christianized or Moro emigrants, and the first spirits +named refer to Badhala--Bathala, or Batala--"the all powerful," and Dian +Mansalanta--"the patron of lovers and generation."[122] + +[121] They are often referred to as _Caragas_ in the early writings. + +[122] Further information regarding these spirits will be found in the +Relations of Loarca, 1582 (BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. V, p. 171), and the +Relation of Juan de Plasencia, 1589 (_ibid_, Vol. VII, pp. 189-96, Vol. +XII, p. 265). It is worthy of note that the Bagobo spirit Toglat, who is +one of the pair responsible for marriages and births, is sometimes +addressed as Maniladan. + +THE TUNGUD MOVEMENT + +In 1908 a religious movement known as _tungud_ started among the +Manobo[123] at the source of the Rio Libaganon. Soon it had spread over +practically the whole southeastern portion of Mindanao, and finally +reached the Mandaya of the Pacific Coast. According to Mr. J. M. Garvan, +of the Philippine Bureau of Science, the movement was instigated by a +Manobo named Mapakla. This man was taken ill, probably with cholera, and +was left for dead by his kinsmen. Three days later he appeared among the +terrified people and explained, that a powerful spirit named Magbabaya +had entered his body and cured him. He further stated that the world was +about to be destroyed and that only those persons who gave heed to his +instructions would survive. These instructions bade all to cease +planting and to kill their animals for, he said, "if they survive to the +end they will eat you." A religious house or shrine was to be built in +every settlement, and was to be looked after by divinely appointed +ministers. Those persons who were at first inclined to be skeptical as +to the truth of the message, were soon convinced by seeing the Magbabaya +enter the bodies of the ministers, causing them to perform new, frantic +dances, interrupted only by trembling fits during which their eyes +protruded and gave them the semblance of dead men. + +[123] Not the Kulaman. + +By the time the _tungud_ had reached the Mayo district it had lost most +of its striking features, but was still powerful enough to cause many of +the Mandaya to kill their animals and hold religious dances. The coast +Moro, who at that time were restless, took advantage of the movement to +further a plan to drive American planters and Christianized natives from +the district. The leading Mandaya were invited to the house of the Moro +_pandita_[124] "to see the spirit Diwata." During several nights the son +of the _pandita_ impersonated the spirit and appeared in the darkened +room. Over his chest and forehead he had stretched thin gauze and +beneath this had placed many fire-flies, which to the imaginative people +made him appear superhuman. His entrance into the room was attended by a +vigorous shaking of the house, caused by a younger brother stationed +below. A weird dance followed and then the spirit advised the people to +rise and wipe out the whole Christianized population. The Mandaya had +become so impressed by the nightly appearance of Diwata that it is more +than probable they would have joined the Moro in their project had not +an American planter at Mayo learned of the plot. He imprisoned the +leaders, thus ending a scheme which, if successful, would have given new +attributes to at least one of the spirits. + +[124] The religious head of the settlement. + +SOCIAL ORGANIZATION + +The before-mentioned _ballyan_ direct the religious observances of the +tribe. Their mysterious powers give them great influence among their +fellows but, nevertheless, they are subservient to the local ruler. + +The tribe is divided into many small groups, each of which is governed +by a _bagani_. To reach this coveted position a man must have +distinguished himself as a warrior and have killed at least ten persons +with his own hand.[125] The victims need not be killed in warfare and +may be of any sex or age so long as they come from a hostile village. +When the required number of lives has been taken, the aspirant appeals +to the neighboring _bagani_ for the right to be numbered in their select +company. They will assemble to partake of a feast prepared by the +candidate and then solemnly discuss the merits of his case. The petition +may be disregarded entirely, or it may be decided that the exploits +related are sufficient only to allow the warrior to be known as a half +_bagani_. In this case he may wear trousers of red cloth, but if he is +granted the full title he is permitted to don a blood-red suit and to +wear a turban of the same hue. This distinction is eagerly sought by the +more vigorous men of the tribe and, as a result, many lives are taken +each year. + +[125] At Mayo it was said that it is necessary to kill only six, but the +two _bagani_ living there had each killed more than twice that number. +Among the Mansaka the number required is often as high as thirty. + +A short time ago a candidate entered the district of Bungalung on the +east coast of Davao and killed thirty-two persons. In that same section +are now living five _bagani_ who have gained this title by similar +exploits.[126] Whole communities become involved in feuds as a result of +these individual raids, for it is the duty of a murdered man's family to +seek revenge for his death. It is not necessary that they kill the +offender, as any member of his family or settlement will suffice. In +some districts the unmarried relatives of a murdered person are not +allowed to wed until the death is avenged. + +[126] These are Maclingtong at Pandisan; Pankard at Tagauanan; +Kasicknan, Lewanan, and Malangit, in the mountains between Taguanan and +Piso. + +Instances are known where the old men have conferred the title of +_bagani_ upon the son of some deceased warrior. In such a case the +recipient of the honor starts at once to fulfil the requirements of +election, for otherwise he brings disgrace to himself and family. In his +own settlement the oldest of the _bagani_ becomes supreme ruler, and if +powerful enough he may extend his influence to a considerable distance. +In a few cases on the East coast the holders of the title have so +instilled fear of themselves into the neighboring districts that they +have been able to levy blackmail, even on the Christianized natives. War +parties are led by these wearers of the red garments, and they also +enforce the laws handed down from their forefathers. + +The day a warrior is elevated to this order he is in a large measure cut +away from his fellows. He no longer associates with them as equals but +eats his meals alone, unless it happens that other _bagani_ are present. + +Below the _bagani_ in rank come the warriors, a class which includes +practically all the able-bodied free men; and still below them are the +slaves. Slavery was an ancient institution with this people when the +Spaniards first visited their country, and it has continued to flourish +up to the present, in all districts a little removed from the influence +of the white man. The great majority of slaves are secured by capture, +but until recent years the Moro of the coast have carried on a lucrative +slave trade with this tribe. Girls and women become members of their +master's household, but their children are treated as slaves. Captive +boys and men aid their masters in the chase and in the fields, and in +most cases it would be hard indeed for a stranger to pick servant from +master. Sometimes the people of a neighboring village ransom one of +their fellows and in such a case the freed slave may return to his old +home or he may become a free member of the community in which he has +been serving. + +DWELLINGS + +The insecurity of life resulting from the conditions described has +caused the people to build their homes high in the branches of trees, +often so situated on the edge of cliffs that they can be approached only +from one direction (Plates LXXIII-LXXIV). + +Two sorts of dwellings are commonly seen. Of these, the rudest rest on +the limbs of trees, and conform in size and shape to the nature of the +supporting branches. Some few houses of this kind have horizontal sides +and sloping roofs, but more frequently a roof which slopes directly from +a central ridge pole to the edges of the platform does away with the +necessity of side walls. + +The second and more common type of house is shown in Plate LXXIV. Here +the top of the tree has been cut off some fifteen or twenty feet above +the ground leaving a stump to serve as a part of the foundation. Many +smaller poles help support the floor and then extend upward to form the +wall and roof stays. The upper flooring of beaten bark rests on +cross-beams which have been lashed to the uprights. Above it are +occasional horizontal poles, forming a skeleton to which the walls of +_nipa_ palm are fastened. In some houses two or three of the foundation +poles extend above the floor to such a height that they are used as the +supports for the ridge pole. In others true king posts rest on the +beams, which in turn are supported by the corner poles. From the ridge a +number of smaller rods extend to or project out over the side walls, and +on them rests the roofing of _nipa_ palm. A space of several inches +often intervenes between the roof and the side walls. The whole +structure is so firmly lashed together with rattan that it is capable of +withstanding severe storms, despite the fact that it gives and creaks +with every wind. During violent storms the house is further secured by +anchoring it with rattan lines to nearby trees. + +Entrance to the dwelling is gained by means of bamboo or rattan ladders. +These are drawn up at night, and with all means of access thus removed +the inhabitants need have little fear of a surprise attack. If enemies +do attempt to dislodge them the defenders have the advantage of their +elevated position in the use of their weapons. + +Generally, each house contains only one room which varies in size +according to the number of inhabitants. Frequently two or three families +are found living in one house, for it is the custom for the suitors, and +often for the husbands of the married daughters, to live with the girls' +people. + +Near the door, or in one comer of the room, is a small box of earth in +which several stones are imbedded. This constitutes the hearth, about +which is found a miscellany of pots, jars, and other kitchen vessels. +The smoke finds its way out through a small opening at each end of the +roof, or through the narrow space under the eaves. There is no +recognized arrangement of the room. Utensils[127] are scattered +promiscuously about and when the inhabitants are ready to sleep they +occupy such parts of the floor as are free or can be most easily +cleared. + +[127] These consist of baskets, rice mortars, and winnowers, weaving +outfits, bark dye vats, as well as traps and weapons, nearly all of +which are so similar to those already described for the Bagobo that they +do not call for special notice here. + +The people of a community build their houses within a short distance of +one another, yet seldom so close together as to form a village. However, +village life is not entirely unknown, for in the vicinity of Cateel +Governor Bolton found six houses, partially surrounded by palisades, +perched on the top of a conical hill. + +Lieutenant Youngblood gives the following description of the people and +dwellings seen by him near the upper waters of the Agusan river: + +"The people seemed to be living in an atmosphere of fear as far as +intercourse with the world outside their crater-like valley was +concerned. They believed it was death to look upon the sea, of which +they had heard disjointed tales, but which none of them had ever seen. +They feared the coast people with a mortal fear, justified perhaps by +the experiences of occasional meetings in times gone by. They fear each +other to a certain extent, especially men who live further north of the +headwaters of the Agusan. This ever-present state of fear gives coloring +to their whole life. They take to the brush at the least unwonted sound. +They make their clearings on the steep mountainsides and in these build +two or three of their houses in strategic positions. In the very +construction of their dwellings the idea of security in case of attack +is predominant. + +"The houses in this section are generally built in clearings on the +sawn-off trunk of some giant tree and placed from the ground some forty +or fifty feet. Numerous posts help support the structure, entrance to +which is gained by a notched pole firmly set in the ground and held in +place by tightly wound bejuca. Oftentimes this stair pole is bowed +outwards slightly, which gives it a peculiar appearance and requires a +considerable amount of skill in climbing. The front and only door to +these houses consists of a section of the floor composed of hewn plank, +hinged at one end. One end of this is raised by a bejuca rope during the +day, while at night it is let down forming a solid floor throughout the +house. + +"The roof is of shingles made from mountain cane; the floor and sides of +hand-hewn logs and planks; the roof is at no place more than seven feet +from the floor and is blackened on the inside from smoke. The largest +house visited in this locality was that of Chief Leuanan, and this was +some twenty feet square. These houses consist of one room and are +inhabited by two or more families." + +AGRICULTURE + +About the settlements are the fields in which rice, corn, camotes, +sugar-cane, and a small amount of tobacco, cotton and hemp are raised. +However, the crops are usually so small that even with the addition of +game and forest products there is, each year, a period closely bordering +on starvation. New clearings are frequently made near to the old, for +the primitive tools[128] with which the people work are ill-fitted to +combat the incursion into the open land of the rank cogon grass. Only +the exhaustion of suitable timber land for a new clearing, the +prevalence of an epidemic, or the near approach of a powerful enemy will +cause the people to move their homes from one district to another. + +[128] These consist of a mall axe, working knife, and planting stick. + +We have already referred to the important part the _limokon_ plays in +the selection and clearing of a new plot of ground,[129] and to the +offerings made to the spirits when it becomes necessary to cut down +certain trees.[130] The crops, aside from the rice, are planted and +harvested without further reference to the spirit world, but the +cultivation and care of this cereal can only be carried on according to +certain fixed conditions. + +[129] See pages 173 and 177. + +[130] Near Cateel the wishes of the spirits are learned by means of +cords. A number of strings are tied together in the center and the knot +is buried. The loose ends are then joined and if it happens that the two +ends of a cord have been tied together it is taken as a sign that the +spirits give their consent to the proposed clearing. + +About November first, when a group of seven stars called _poyo poyo_ +appears in the west, it is a signal for all who expect to clear new land +to begin their labors. By December first this constellation rises +straight above and it is then time to plant. This is further confirmed +by the appearance of a star known as _sabak_. If any have delayed their +planting until the middle of December they are given a last warning when +the stars forming _Bayatik_[131] appear. + +[131] This is the same as _balatik_, page 62. + +As soon as the land has been cleared a pole is placed in the center of +the field and is surrounded by a fence. This is known as _tagbinian_ and +seems to be erected in honor of the spirit Omayan, although by some it +is insisted that it is intended for his residence. The seed rice is +deposited inside the enclosure[132] and the men begin to prepare the +soil about it. This they do by thrusting sharpened sticks into the +ground, thus making holes an inch or two in depth. Taking rice from the +_tagbinian_ the women follow, dropping seeds into the holes. + +[132] Maxey relates that at planting and harvest tune the Mandaya of +Cateel carry offerings to the _baliti_ trees and there offer it to +Diwata, in supplication or thanks for an abundant crop. + +When the harvest time is near at hand the men repair the old granaries +or build new and then, when all is ready for the crop, an old man or +woman goes alone, in the middle of the night, to the fields and there +cuts a few stalks of the rice. Should this be neglected the crop is sure +to be small and will vanish quickly. This grain is not used as an +offering, nor are any gifts made to the spirits until the crop has been +harvested and the people are ready to eat of the new rice. At that time +a little of the recently harvested grain is placed on a dish, together +with other food and betel-nut, and is carried to the granary, where it +is presented to the spirit "in order that the granary may always be +full." When the grain is needed for use it is removed from the straw by +pounding it with wooden pestles, it is then placed in a wooden mortar +and is again pounded until the husks are loosened. This accomplished, +the grain is freed from chaff by tossing it in a winnower. If a greater +amount has been cleared than is needed it is stored in gourds or +water-proof baskets (Fig. 50). A month or two after the harvest a great +celebration is held, the principal features of which are a feast and +dance but no offerings are then made to the spirits. + +FIG. 50. GOURD RICE HOLDER. + +The small crop of sugar-cane is made into an alcoholic drink, which is +sometimes indulged in at meal time but is generally reserved for festive +occasions. The juice is boiled with a plant called _palba_, similar to +ginger, and is stored away in bamboo tubes until it has reached a +suitable stage of fermentation. Another drink is made by boiling +strained honey with the _palba_ and allowing it to ferment. + +HUNTING AND FISHING + +A considerable portion of the food supply is secured by hunting and +fishing. Small birds are captured by placing a sticky substance on bare +limbs of fruit-bearing trees, or by fastening gummed sticks in places +frequented by birds. When a victim alights on this it is held securely +until captured by the hunter. Fig. 51 shows another method of securing +such small game. A cord with a noose at one end is attached to a bent +limb. In the center of this cord is tied a short stick which acts as a +trigger. This trigger is placed with the top end pressing against an +arched twig _a_, while the other end draws _b_ against the sides of the +arch. Other sticks rest on _b_ and on them is a covering of leaves on +which is placed bait and the open noose. The weight of a bird or small +animal on the cross-piece is sufficient to release the trigger and then +the bent limb draws the noose taut. + +FIG. 51. BIRD SNARE. + +The series of slip nooses attached to a central cord which surrounds a +tame decoy is also found in use here, and boys frequently secure birds +by means of blow-guns. The latter do not differ from those already +described on p. 73, but with this tribe they are regarded only as a +boy's plaything. + +Deer and pig are sometimes hunted by large parties with the aid of dogs. +In such cases an attempt is made to drive the animals past concealed +hunters, or to dispatch them with spears when brought to bay by the +dogs. The more successful method, however, is by means of traps several +types of which were seen by the writer. The first and most common is a +dead fall consisting of a heavy log so arranged in the runway of the +game that a passing animal will cause it to fall. Next in favor with the +hunters is the _bayatik_. One end of a sapling is tied horizontally to a +tree and is then bent back like a spring. It is held in place by means +of a trigger which is released when an animal disturbs a vine stretched +across the runway. Against the free end of the spring a long bamboo +spear or arrow is placed in such a manner that it is thrown with great +force against the animal which has released the trigger. This trap is +frequently used in warfare to protect the retreat of a war party, or to +surprise an enemy. + +Sharpened bamboo sticks, two or three feet long, planted at points where +animals are accustomed to jump or run down steep inclines, are +wonderfully efficient in securing game. Sticks and leaves cover pits in +which sharpened poles are planted and into these unsuspecting animals or +members of a hostile party often fall. All these last named devices are +exceedingly dangerous and it is unadvisable for a traveler in the jungle +to try to penetrate a strange region unless accompanied by a native who +knows the position of the traps and pits. + +Fish are secured by means of bamboo traps through which a part of the +water of a stream is diverted. These traps do not differ in any respect +from those shown in Fig. 19. Along the coast metal fishhooks and dip and +throw nets are in common use, but these are at present largely obtained +from the Moro. The easiest and hence the most popular method of securing +fish is to mash together the poisonous roots of the _tobli_ tree and the +fruit of the _oliskEb_. The pulp is then sunk into still pools of water +and in a short time, the stupified[sic] fish begin to float to the +surface, where they are quickly seized by the fishermen. + +WARFARE + +Mention has already been made of the use of pits and traps in warfare. +In addition to these it is customary for a returning war party to +conceal in the trail many _sao~nag_, small stiletto-shaped bamboo sticks, +which pierce the feet of those in pursuit. A night camp is effectively +protected in the same manner against barefooted enemies. + +The arms used are spears, fighting knives with wide bellied blades, +daggers, narrow shields with which weapons are defected (Fig. 52), and +in some sections bows and arrows. The fighting knives and daggers +(Plates LXXV-LXXVI) deserve more than casual notice. The heavy bellied +blades of the knives are highly tempered, and not infrequently are bored +through and inlaid with silver, in which instances they are known as +_binuta_,--blind (Plate LXXVa). The sheaths, with their sharply upturned +ends, are made of light wood on which are carved decorations, attached +or inlaid bands of silver, or stained designs. The handles of the +weapons are also decorated with incised silver bands. + +FIG. 52. WOODEN SHIELDS. + +Much as the fighting knives are prized, the dagger, _bayadau_ or +_badau_, is in even greater favor. It is worn on the front left-hand +part of the body in ready reach of the right hand, and is never removed +unless the owner is in the company of trusted relatives. A light thread, +easily broken, holds the dagger in its sheath and the slightest +disturbance is enough to cause the owner to draw his weapon. + +The older warriors claim that it formerly was their custom to protect +themselves with strips of hemp cloth, _limbotung_, which they wound many +times around their bodies in order to ward off knife thrusts, but this +method of protection seems to have fallen into disuse.[133] + +[133] This type of protective armor is still used by the Bukidnon of +Central Mindanao. + +Individual warriors lie in ambush for their foes, but when a great raid +is planned the party is under the command of a _bagani_. These attacks +are arranged to take place during the full moon and the warriors usually +assault a settlement which they think can be taken by surprise, and +hence unprepared. It is very seldom that these people fight in the open, +and invaders do not attempt a combat unless they feel sure of the +outcome. If they find a house well protected they may attempt to fire it +by attaching a torch to an arrow and shooting it into the grass roof, +the occupants being slaughtered as they rush out. If one of the enemy +puts up an especially good fight his body is opened and the warriors eat +a portion of his heart and liver, thinking thus to gain in valor. + +Mr. Maxey mentions the use of poisoned weapons in the neighborhood of +Cateel, but the Mandaya of the south seem to be entirely ignorant of +this custom, Maxey's account of the preparation of the poison is as +follows: + +"The poison is, according to the writer's informant, prepared as +follows: A long bamboo is cut and carried to a tree called +_camandag_.[134] The bamboo must be long enough to reach to the limit of +the shadow cast by the tree to the trunk of the same, as the tree is so +poisonous that it even affects those who stand beneath it. The bamboo +has a sharp point which is stuck into the tree and receives the milk +which exudes from the cut. After several days the bamboo is removed and +the contents emptied into another bamboo which serves for a sheath or +quiver for the arrows, these being placed in it point down. The +slightest scratch will cause death. A peculiar thing about the tree from +which the poison is extracted, is that the person extracting must not +only not get under the tree, but must approach it from the windward, as +the effects of even the odor are unpleasant and dangerous." + +[134] _Croton tiglium L_. + +INDUSTRIES + +In the description of the tribe up to this point we have touched upon +those pursuits which engross the greater part of the time. In addition +to these, it falls to the lot of the women to manufacture and decorate +all the clothing worn by members of the tribe. Some cotton is grown and +is used in the manufacture of jackets, but the bulk of the garments are +of hemp. In the description of the Decorative Art we shall deal with the +decoration of the hemp cloth skirts worn by the women. Here it is only +necessary for us to observe that this cloth is produced and colored by +exactly the same process as is employed by the Bagobo women.[135] + +[135] See p. 79. + +A very little brass casting is done by the Mandaya of one district, but +it is evidently a crude copy of Moro work. By far the greater part of +the brass betel boxes, and ornaments of that metal, as well as spear +heads, are purchased from the coast Mohammedans. + +Iron working is an ancient art with this people and the beauty and +temper of their knives and daggers is not excelled by the output of any +other Philippine tribe. In the manufacture of these weapons they employ +the same methods as their neighbors to the south and west. + +No wild tribe in the archipelago has made so much use of silver in the +production of ornaments as has the Mandaya. Thin silver plates are +rolled into small tubes and are attached to the woman's ear plugs (Fig. +49), finger rings of the same metal are produced in great numbers, but +the finest work appears in the large silver ornaments worn on the +breasts by both sexes (Fig. 53). Silver coins are beaten into thin +disks, in the center of which a hole is cut. About this opening appear +beautiful intricate designs, some engraved, others stamped with metal +dies. + +FIG. 53. SILVER BREAST ORNAMENTS. + +All work in metal is limited to a few skilled men, but many lesser +industries, such as shaping tortoise shell rings and shell bracelets, +carving of spoons, and making baskets, are carried on by other members +of the tribe during their leisure hours. + +BIRTH + +In each district there are one or two mid wives, known as _managamon_. +They are women past middle life who are versed in the medicines and +rites which should be employed at the time of birth. They are not +considered as _ballyan_, yet they talk to the spirits upon certain +occasions. + +When a pregnant woman is about to be delivered the midwife crushes the +bark of the _dap-dap_ tree and makes a medicine called _tagaumo_, which +she gives to the patient. It is claimed that this causes the muscles to +relax so that they allow an easy delivery. The umbilical cord is cut +with a bamboo knife and as soon as the child has been bathed it is given +to the mother. The afterbirth is placed in a specially prepared basket +and is either hung against the side of the house or in a nearby tree. +For a few days the midwife assists about the house and then, if all is +well with the child, she takes her payment of rice, chicken, and fish, +and returns to her home. Should the child be ailing she will return, and +having placed rice and betel-nut on banana leaves she carries these to +the top of the house and there offers them to the _asuang_,[136] +meanwhile asking those spirits to accept the offering and to cease +troubling the child. No ceremony takes place at the time of naming or at +the age of puberty, but at the latter period the teeth are filed and +blackened so that the young person may be more beautiful and, therefore, +able to contract a suitable marriage. + +[136] See p. 176. [Transcriber's note: This is page 192.] + +MARRIAGE + +Frequently parents arrange matches for their children while they are +still very young, but in the majority of cases the matter is left until +after the age of puberty when the wishes of the young people are taken +into consideration. The youth or his father having chosen a suitable +girl takes or sends a spear, knife, or other acceptable present to her +father. If this offering is accepted it indicates approval of the match, +and soon thereafter a feast is prepared to which friends of both +families are invited. At this feast the price to be paid for the girl +and the time of marriage are agreed upon, and at least partial payment +is made. As is the case with the neighboring tribes, a part of the value +of this gift is returned. Following the agreement the boy enters the +service of his fiancee's father and for a year or more lives as a member +of the family. Even after the marriage a considerable amount of service +is expected from him at the time of planting, harvesting, or building. + +The marriage ceremony proper follows a feast, and consists of the young +couple feeding each other with rice and drinking from a common cup. + +Should anything occur to prevent the marriage, after the payment for the +girl has been made, the gifts must be returned or service equal to their +value must be rendered. + +Unfaithfulness on the part of the woman seems to be the one cause for a +separation and this is uncommon, for unless her admirer purchases her +for a sum equal to the amount her husband spent in obtaining her, the +divorced woman remains as a slave in the home of her former husband. + +Polygamy is permitted and is quite common, but a man may not take a +second wife until a child has been born to the first. In addition to his +wives a man may have as many concubines as he can afford to purchase. + +It is said to be a grave offense for a man to embrace a married woman, +or even to touch the breasts, elbows, or heels of any woman he does not +intend to marry. An unmarried woman who permits such familiarities is +considered as good as married. Despite this assertion, the writer knows +of several cases where young people openly lived together without being +considered married, and later the parents arranged marriages between +these girls and other suitors. + +According to several informants, incest is punished by the sacrifice of +the guilty parties. They are tied to a tree with their hands drawn +backward around the trunks and are then speared to death. This seems to +be the one and only occasion when human sacrifice is practiced by +members of this tribe. + +SICKNESS AND DEATH. + +When a person is seriously ill a _ballyan_ is summoned and she, after +securing prepared rice, betel-nuts, and a live chicken, enters into +communication with the spirits. First she converses with the dead father +or other deceased relative of the sick person and requests his aid in +effecting a cure, next she presents food to Diwata and implores his aid, +and finally calls upon the _asuang_ to whom she offers the live fowl on +the condition that they will cease trying to injure the patient. Having +thus done all in her power to influence the spirits she may administer +some simple remedy, after which she begins to dance contra-clockwise, +around a bamboo pole on which leaves and betel-nut have been hung.[137] + +[137] This ceremony usually takes place in the house, but if the man was +taken ill in the forest or in his field it may be conducted there. + +If this treatment proves to be of no avail and the patient dies his body +is placed in the center of the house and for two days and nights is +guarded by relatives and friends. During the time that the body remains +in the dwelling the family is required to fast and all the people of the +settlement are prohibited from playing on agongs, from singing or +indulging in other signs of merriment. Finally, the body is wrapped in a +mat and is buried in the forest.[138] + +[138] Maxey gives the following account of burial near Cateel: "The dead +person is dressed in his best clothes, wrapped in a piece of _abaca_ +cloth, and placed in a coffin of bamboo poles, or one hewn from a solid +log, if the person was one of means, and buried. If of the poorer class +he is merely wrapped in a piece of matting-, and either buried or +covered over with stones, sticks, and the like. If of high rank, the +body is not buried, but after preparation is taken into the forest and +placed in a small hut under a _balete_ tree. Food, spears, bolos, hats, +shields, and some articles of furniture are placed on the graves to +placate the spirits who might otherwise bring harm to the surviving +members of the clan or family. There is no fixed period of mourning, but +the members of the family must wear black for some time after the death. +The sick are never abandoned prior to death, but slaves nearing death +are sometimes killed to stop their sufferings. The owner, however, must +first consult with others of the clan." + +Returning from the burial all the people partake of a feast and then set +fire to the dwelling "because we do not like the _asuang_ which killed +the man in that house." During the ensuing nine days the spouse of the +dead dresses in black and for a month following, or until they can +purchase a slave, the whole family is barred from merry-making. Two +reasons for the purchase of this slave were advanced by members of the +tribe. One was that the family could be happy if they were still rich +enough to purchase a slave. The second, that they thus replaced the dead +man with another, "for the slaves are like members of our own family." + +DECORATIVE ART. + +The decorative art of the Mandaya is similar in many respects to that of +the Bagobo and Bila-an, yet in part it differs greatly from both. As is +true with the other tribes, the weavers make use of many figures which +they do not associate with any living forms, but which, nevertheless, +strongly suggest that they may have been derived from realistic designs. +In addition to such patterns they frequently employ figures which are +intentional copies of human or animal forms. Of these the most common +are those representing a man and a crocodile; these sometimes appear +together, sometimes alone. The requirements of the space to be filled, +as well as readiness of the worker to alter any part in order to give a +more pleasing effect to the design have resulted in many distorted and +conventionalized figures which can only be explained by the artist. The +accompanying drawings are taken from articles collected by the writer +and now in the Field Museum of Natural History. + +Patterns _A_ to _H_ in Fig. 54 appear in hemp cloth skirts. These show +the steps in the conventionalization of the human figure,[139] as +explained by the weavers. In the first four the forms are so realistic +that they need no explanation, but _E_ is more complicated. Here two +greatly conventionalized figures have been used, one erect, the other +with head down. The size of the head has been increased while the body +is represented by a small diamond-shaped pattern with outstretched arms +attached. The legs and feet of both figures help to form a pattern +similar to a head, except that it lacks the "hair" shown in the end +designs. _F_ resembles the preceding quite closely. In it the central +head-like pattern does not appear and the legs and feet of one figure +help to form the head of the other. This design has been doubled, thus +necessitating some alteration of the figures at the points of union. In +_G_ and _H_ nearly all the realistic elements have vanished, yet certain +resemblance to _D_ and _E_ can be discerned. + +[139] One weaver insisted that this figure represents a frog, because of +its webbed feet, but none of the others agreed with her. + +FIG. 54A TO H. DESIGNS REPRESENTING THE HUMAN FORM. + +We have already learned that the crocodile is held in great regard and +in some sections there is evidence of its more or less sacred character. +Its importance in the minds of the people is well shown by the frequency +with which it appears in their decorative designs. Fig. 55_A_ shows one +of these animals which has just eaten a man. Both figures are so +realistic that the intention of the weaver is apparent. In _B_, _D_, +_E_, and _F_, the animal is still realistic, but the man disappears, and +in his place is a formless object or straight lines which are identified +as "something eaten." + +FIG. 55A TO H. CROCODILE DESIGNS. + +The pattern _G_ is given as the next step in the conventionalization. +Here the legs, feet, and "something eaten" have assumed undue +proportions, while nearly every trace of likeness has vanished. This +figure is multiplied five times to obtain the highly conventionalized +form shown in _H_. + +By referring to _G_ it is possible to see how the complicated designs in +_I_ and _J_ have been derived, although they bear little resemblance to +the original crocodile form. + +Fig. 56 was identified as a crocodile but was not regarded as a step in +the conventionalization shown. Many other figures such as 57 appear so +closely related to the designs just described that it seems certain they +must have had a common origin, yet this was denied by all the weavers, +who insisted that such decorations were added only to make the garments +pretty. + +FIG. 56. CROCODILE DESIGN. + +FIG. 57. DESIGN USED IN WEAVING. + +Going from weaving to designs cut in wood, something of the same state +of affairs is encountered. Pattern _a_ on the bamboo comb (Fig. 48) is +identified as the crocodile, yet the very similar figures shown on a +bamboo lime holder (Fig. 58) and on a wooden clothes-hanger (Fig. 59) +are not so recognized. + +FIG. 58. INCISED DESIGNS ON A BAMBOO LIME HOLDER. + +FIG. 59. CLOTHES HANGER. + +Figs. 60 and 61 show characteristic designs which are embroidered on +jackets or carrying bags. All these are added with the one idea of +beautifying the garment, without any thought of copying some living +form. This is true also of the incised zigzag lines, scrolls, and +meander patterns seen on the silver breast disks (Fig. 53), and those +stained on palm bark hats (Fig. 47). + +FIGS. 60 AND 61. EMBROIDERED DESIGNS ON JACKTES[sic] AND CARRYING BAGS. + +Tobacco pouches (Fig. 62) are often completely covered with bright +colored geometrical designs embroidered in trade yarn. This work, which +is quite unlike the other decoration used by this people, was probably +introduced along with trade yarn and analine[sic] dyes. + +FIG. 62. TOBACCO POUCHES. + + + +CONCLUSION + +From the material now at our disposal certain general conclusions can be +drawn. + +A comparison of the physical measurements indicates that no group is of +pure race. There are significant variations between members of different +tribes, but these occur also between individuals of the same village. +The average person in each group is short-headed, yet long-headed +individuals are found in every tribe and variations just as great as +this appear in the other measurements and observations. + +We have previously noted the evidences of an aboriginal pygmy +population, that has been partially absorbed by intermarriage with the +later comers.[140] In all the groups, except the Bila-an, the percentage +of individuals showing evidences of Negrito blood increases as we go +from the coasts toward the interior, until in such divisions as the Obo +and Tigdapaya of the Bagobo, and the Tugauanum of the Ata, practically +all the people show traces of this admixture. + +[140] Negrito are reported from the Samal Islands in the Gulf of Davao. + +In addition to the types already described there are found in each tribe +individuals who in all but color might readily pass as white men. These +persons freely intermarry with the rest of the population, and it is no +uncommon thing to find in one family children of this sort as well as +those showing Negrito characteristics or those conforming to the average +type.[141] + +[141] This will be discussed in a forthcoming publication on Physical +Types. That paper will present a full series of measurements accompanied +by photographs, including the Bukidnon of North Central Mindanao in +which tribe this type is more frequently seen than in Davao District. + +The facts indicate that the tribes now found in Davao District did not +reach the coasts of Mindanao at the same time, but rather that they +represent several periods of migration, of which the Kulaman is the +last. This tribe, which only a few generations ago seems to have been +made up of seafarers, has not yet entirely adapted itself to a settled +existence and it is only within the lifetime of the present generation +that its members have taken seriously to agriculture. + +It appears that the Bila-an once inhabited the district about Lake +Buluan, but the pressure of the Moro has forced most of them from that +region toward the mountains to the south and east. They have taken +possession of both sides of this mountain range, except for the lower +eastern slopes where they have encountered the Tagakaolo. + +The other tribes probably landed on the southern or southeastern coast +of the Island, from whence they have gradually moved to their present +habitats. + +Intermarriage between the tribes, Moro raids, warfare with the +accompanying capture of slaves, and the possible influence of boat-loads +of castaways, all have to be considered in dealing with the types found +in Davao District. We have already seen that the physical measurements +indicate a complex racial history. + +After giving full credit to all these influences, however, it does not +appear to the writer that such radical differences exist between the +tribes as will justify us in assigning to them different ancestry or +places of origin. The summarized description of the Bagobo given on page +56 would, with only, slight modification, apply to all the other tribes, +with the exception of certain groups of the Ata in which the Negrito +element is very pronounced. In brief, the various influences that have +been at work on one group have influenced all the others, since their +arrival on the island of Mindanao. + +This conclusion is further justified by the language in which a large +per cent of the words in daily use are common to all the groups. Even +the Bila-an dialect, which differs more from all the others than do any +of those from one another, has so many words in common with the coast +tongues and is so similar in structure that one of my native boys, who +never before had seen a Bila-an, was able freely to carry on a +conversation within a few days after his arrival in one of their most +isolated settlements. + +Similar as are the people and their dialects, the cultural agreements +are even more noticeable. Taking the Bagobo as a starting point, we find +a highly developed culture which, with a few minor changes, holds good +for the tribes immediately surrounding. These in turn differ little from +their neighbors, although from time to time some new forms appear. The +Cibolan type of dwelling, with its raised platform at one end and +box-like enclosures along the side walls, is met with until the Mandaya +territory is approached, while, with little variation, the house +furnishings and utensils in daily use are the same throughout the +District. The same complicated method of overtying, dyeing, and weaving +of hemp employed in the manufacture of women's skirts is in use from +Cateel in the north to Sarangani Bay in the south, while in the +manufacture of weapons the iron worker in Cibolan differs not at all +from his fellow-craftsman among the Mandaya. Here we are confronted by +the objection that, so far as is known, no iron work is done by the +Bila-an and Ata, but this is a condition which is encountered throughout +the archipelago. In the interior of Luzon are found isolated villages, +the inhabitants of which are expert workers in iron and steel, while +their neighbors seem to be ignorant of the process.[142] The writer +holds to the opinion that iron working is an ancient art throughout the +Philippine archipelago and that its use for various reasons, such as +lack of material, has died out in certain sections. Brass workers are +found among most of the tribes, but, as was observed earlier in this +paper, there is sufficient evidence that the industry is of recent +introduction, and the amount and excellence of the work done by the +brass casters is governed by the nearness or remoteness of Moro +settlements. + +[142] The process used in Northern Luzon is very similar to that +employed in Southern Mindanao. + +Except for the cotton garments recently adopted by the Kagan branch of +the Tagakaolo, and the suits worn by the Mandaya men, the clothing seen +throughout the District is very similar. A few ornaments, such as the +silver rings and breast disks of the Mandaya, have only a limited +distribution, but for the most part the decorations worn by the +different tribes differ only in the number of beads, bells, and shell +disks used in their manufacture. + +In the ornamentation of their garments certain groups have specialized +until the bead work of the Bagobo excels all such work found in the +Philippines. The same can be said of the intricate and beautifully +embroidered designs seen in the garments of the Bila-an or the oversewed +fabrics of the Kulaman, while the crudely embroidered patterns of the +Mandaya are wonderfully effective. Yet, despite apparent +dissimilarities, there is such a likeness in many forms of +ornamentation, as well as in the technique of the methods of production, +that there seems to be ample proof of free borrowing, or of a common +origin. + +On the non-material side the similarities between the groups are even +more marked. In each tribe the warriors gain distinction among their +fellows, the protection of certain spirits, and the privilege of wearing +red garments, by killing a certain number of persons. Except among the +Kulaman, mediums much like the _mabalian_ of the Bagobo make known the +wishes of the superior beings and direct the ceremonies. The people are +instructed when to plant by the spirits who place certain constellations +in the skies. These are the same for all the groups, although often +known by different names. The _limokon_ warns or encourages the +traveler, while certain acts of the individual, such as sneezing, are +looked upon as warnings from unseen beings. Many of these beings having +like attributes, although often bearing different names, are known to +each group. The idea of one or more spirits dwelling in different parts +of a man's body is widespread, while the belief that the right side of +the body is under the care of good influences and the left subject to +the bad, is well nigh universal in the District. + +In conclusion note should be made of oft repeated assertions to the +effect that a part of the people of Davao District are white, and that +they are also cannibals and headhunters. The first can be dismissed with +the statement that so far as the writer has been able to observe or to +learn from trustworthy sources, there is no justification for such a +story. It can be just as positively stated that neither the Mandaya nor +any other tribe here described practice cannabalism[sic]. Warriors do +eat a part of the livers and hearts of men who have shown great valor, +the eaters thus securing some of the good qualities of the victims. The +Kulaman warriors always taste of the liver of the slain "in order to +become like Mandalangan," but they expressed the greatest disgust when +it was suggested that the balance of the body might make good food. + +While it is true that the Kulaman take the heads, and some times the +arms,[143] of slain foes, and that the same custom is some times +followed by individual warriors of the other tribes, head-hunting for +the sake of the trophy is not practiced here, as is the case in Northern +Luzon. The skull or other portions of the body are kept only long enough +to prove the murder, or until they can be mutilated by the women and +children, "who thus become brave." + +[143] This is also the custom of the Bukidnon. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WILD TRIBES OF DAVAO DISTRICT, +MINDANAO*** + + +******* This file should be named 18273.txt or 18273.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/8/2/7/18273 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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