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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:52:55 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18265-8.txt b/18265-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0422f5d --- /dev/null +++ b/18265-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3991 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 1178, +June 25, 1898, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 1178, June 25, 1898 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 27, 2006 [EBook #18265] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stacy Brown, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 1178 + + + + +NEW YORK, JUNE 25, 1898. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XLV., No. 1178. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHÆOLOGY.--Tombs of the First Egyptian Dynasty--By + LUDWIG BORCHARDT 18767 + +II. ANTHROPOLOGY.--The Milestones of Human Progress 18766 + +III. BIOGRAPHY.--The Queen Regent and Alfonzo XIII.--1 + illustration 18755 + +IV. BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE.--Rose Psyche--1 illustration 18768 + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--The Lock of the Dortmund-Ems Canal + at Henrichenburg.--1 illustration 18776 + +VI. ELECTRICITY.--The Development of the Central Station--By + SAMUEL INSULL 18774 + +VII. MARINE ENGINEERING.--Steering Gear of North German + Lloyd Steamers "Coblentz," "Mainz" and "Trier."--2 + illustrations 18777 + +VIII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--Sleep and the Theories of its + Cause 18768 + +IX. MISCELLANEOUS: + Engineering Notes. 18771 + Electrical Notes. 18771 + Selected Formulæ. 18771 + +X. NATURAL HISTORY--Wild and Domestic Sheep in the Berlin + Zoological Garden.--8 illustrations 18772 + +XI. PATENTS.--Patents.--By JAMES W. SEE 18773 + +XII. PHOTOGRAPHY.--Amateur Chronophotographic Apparatus.--2 + illustrations 18769 + +XIII. STEAM ENGINEERING.--Combined Steam Pumping and + Motive Power Engine.--1 illustration 18778 + +XIV. TECHNOLOGY.--The Reclaiming of Old Rubber.--By HAWTHORNE + HILL 18769 + +XV. WARFARE.--The American "Regular."--By the English + correspondent of the London Times on board the United + States transport "Gussie." 18776 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE QUEEN REGENT AND ALFONZO XIII. + + +[Illustration: THE QUEEN REGENT AND HER SON, KING ALFONSO XIII. +OF SPAIN.] + +In the present war between the United States and Spain, the Queen +Regent is an impressive figure, and it is entirely owing to her charm +and fortitude that the present dynasty of Spain is maintained. Since +his earliest youth she has constantly made efforts to fit her son to +wear the crown. The Queen Regent came from the great historic house of +Hapsburg, which has done much to shape the destinies of the world. All +the fortitude that has distinguished its members is represented in +this lady, who is the widow of Alfonzo XII. and the mother of the +present king. Her father was the late Archduke Karl Ferdinand and she +is the cousin of Emperor Franz Joseph. She has had a sad history. Her +husband died before the young king was born, and from the hour of his +birth she has watched and cared for the boy. She is the leader in all +good works in Spain, and her sympathy for the distressed is +proverbial. She gives freely from her private purse wherever there is +need, whether it be for the relief of misery or, as recently, when the +state is in peril. The young king has been carefully educated. By a +curious fate, his birth deposed from the throne his sister Maria de +las Mercedes, who as a little girl was queen for a few months. The boy +has been brought up under the influence of family life and has a warm +affection for his mother and sisters. He has never had the full +delights of childhood, for he has been educated in that false, +punctilious and thoroughly artificial atmosphere of the court of +Spain, in which every care has been taken to fit him for his royal +position. His health is far from robust, though the military education +he has received has done much to strengthen his constitution. He has +been taught to interest himself especially in the naval and military +affairs, and the study of the models of ships and military discipline +has been one of the principal occupations of his childhood. It is the +earnest wish of Spain that he should prove worthy of his mother. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MILESTONES OF HUMAN PROGRESS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A lecture delivered by Prof. Daniel G. Brinton at + the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.] + + +The subject pertains directly to the advancement of the race. Indeed, +it is to the measure of this advancement I shall ask your attention. +There is no doubt about the advancement. There are some people who +believed and believe that man began in a state of high development and +has since then degenerated into his present condition. The belief in +some period of Arcadian simplicity and human perfection is still to be +found in some remote nooks and crannies of the learned world; but +those minds who have been trained in archæological studies and in +ethnographic observations know well that when we go back to the most +ancient deposits, in which we find any sign of man at all on the +globe, we find also the proofs that man then lived in the rudest +possible condition of savagery. He has, little by little, through long +centuries and millenniums of painful struggle, survived in made his +weapons and his most effective tools for the time being would be a +good criterion to go by, because these weapons and tools enabled him +to conquer not only the wild beasts around him and his fellow man +also, but nature as well. These materials are three in number. They +particularly apply to European archæology, but, in a general way, to +the archæology of all continents. The one is stone, which gave man +material for the best cutting edge which he could make for very many +millenniums of his existence. After that, for a comparatively short +period, he availed himself of bronze--of the mixture of copper and tin +called bronze--an admixture giving a considerable degree of hardness +and therefore allowing polish and edge making. The bronze age was not +long anywhere. It was succeeded by that metal which, beyond all +others, has been of signal utility to man--iron. We live in the iron +age, and it is from iron in some of its forms and products that all +our best weapons and materials for implements, etc., are derived. We +have, therefore, the ages of stone, of bronze and of iron. These are +the measures, from an artistic source, of the advancement of human +culture; and they certainly bear a distinct relation to all man's +other conditions at the time. A tribe which had never progressed +beyond the stone age--which had no better material for its weapons and +implements than stone--could never proceed beyond a very limited point +of civilization. Bronze or any metal which can be moulded, hammered +and sharpened of course gives a nation vast superiority over one which +uses stone only; and the value of iron and steel for the same purposes +I need not dwell upon. + +To be sure, we have here several measures; and it would seem more +desirable, if we could, to obtain one single measure--one single +material or object of which we could say that the tribe that uses or +does not use that to an equal degree is certainly lower or, in the +other respects, higher than another; but I believe that there has been +no single material which has been suggested as of sufficient use and +value in this direction to serve as a criterion; but, yes! I remember +there was one and, on the whole, not a bad one. It was suggested by +Baron Liebig, the celebrated chemist, who said: "If you wish a single +material by which to judge of the amount of culture that any nation, +or, for that matter, any individual, possesses, compared to another +one, find out how much soap they use. Nothing," he said, "more than +personal cleanliness and general cleanliness differentiates the +cultured man from the savage;" and as for that purpose he probably had +in view a soap, he recognized that as the one criterion. It is not +amiss, but open, also, to serious objections; because there are tribes +who live in such conditions that they can get neither water nor soap; +and the Arabs, distinctly clean, are not by any means at the highest +pinnacle of civilization. + +The Germans, therefore, as a rule, have sought some other means than +all those above mentioned. Almost all the German writers on +ethnography divide the people and nations of the world into two great +classes--the one they call the "wild peoples," the other the "cultured +peoples"--the "Natur-Voelker" and the "Kultur-Voelker." The +distinction which they draw between these two great classes is largely +psychological. Man, they say, in the condition of the "wild +people"--of the "Natur-Voelker"--is subject to nature; therefore, they +call them "nature people." The "Kultur-Voelker," on the other hand, +have emancipated themselves, in great measure, from the control of +nature. + +Furthermore, the man in the condition of the "wild people" is +in a condition of practically unconscious life: he has not yet +arrived at self-consciousness--he does not know and recognize his +individuality--the "Ego"--"das ich;" that is a discovery which comes +with the "Kultur-Voelker"--with the "cultured people;" and just in +proportion as an individual (or a nation) achieves a completely clear +idea of his own self-existence, his self-consciousness, his +individuality, to that extent he is emancipated from the mere control +of nature around him and rises in the scale of culture. + +Again, to make this difference between the two still more apparent, it +is the conflict between the instinctive desires and the human heart +and soul and the intelligent desires--those desires which we have by +instinct, which we have by heredity and which have been inculcated +into us wholly by our surroundings, which we drink in and accept +without any internal discussion of them: those are instinctive in +character. We go about our business, we transact the daily affairs of +life, we accept our religion and politics, not from any internal +conviction of our own or positive examination, but from our +surroundings. To that extent people are acting instinctively; and, as +such, they are on a lower stage of culture than those who arrive at +such results for themselves through intelligent personal effort. This +is a real distinction also, although somewhat more subtle, perhaps, +than the ones previously given. Therefore, the differentiation made by +the German ethnographers between wild people and the cultured peoples +is, in the main, right; but it does not admit of any sharp line of +distinction between the two. We cannot draw a fixed line and say, "On +this side are the cultured people and on that the wild," because there +are many tribes and nations who are about that line, in some respects +on one side of it, in others on the other; but in a broad, general way +this distinction (which is now universally adopted by the German +writers) is one we should keep in our minds as being based upon +careful studies and real distinctions. + +Usually the writers in the English tongue prefer a different basis +than any of these which I have mentioned; they prefer the basis as to +whence is derived the food supply of a nation, or a tribe; and on the +source of that food supply they divide nations and tribes into the +more or less cultured. In earliest times (and among the rudest tribes +to-day) the food supply is furnished entirely by natural means; there +is little or no agriculture known to speak of; there is nothing in the +way of preserving domestic animals for food; hunting the wild beasts +of the forests and fishing in the streams are the two sources. +Therefore, we call that last condition the hunting and fishing stage +of human development. You will observe that when that prevails there +can be no congregation of men into large bodies. Such a thing as a +city would be unknown. The food supply is eminently precarious. It +depends upon the season and upon a thousand matters not under the +control of man in any way. Moreover, inasmuch as the supply at the +best is uncertain, it allows but a very limited population in a +district; nor does it permit any permanent or stable inhabitations. +The towns, such as they are, must be movable; they must go to one part +of the country in the summer and another in the winter; they must +follow the game and the fruits; and in that condition, therefore, of +unstable life it is not possible for a nation or a tribe to gain any +great advance. You observe, therefore, that when the food supply is +drawn from this source it does entail a general depravity of culture +everywhere. + +Above that would come the food supply which is obtained from other +sources. There is one which is not universal but still widely +extended, and that is the pastoral life. There are many tribes (as, +for instance, in southern Africa and in India and throughout the +steppes of Tartary and elsewhere) who live on their herds and drive +their herds from one pasture to another in order to obtain the best +forage. This nomadic and pastoral life extended very widely over the +old world in ancient times, but existed nowhere in the new world, for +the simple reason that they had no domesticated animals. Our own +remote ancestors--both the Aryans and the Semites--all the early +ancestors of the white race so far as known, were pastoral or nomadic; +and the Aryans of central Europe remained so until after the fall of +Rome, when, for the first time, they became practically sedentary. +This nomadic and pastoral life is a very great advance over the mere +hunting and fishing stage. It requires considerable care and attention +to domesticate the wild animals in any sufficient quantity to form a +reliable source of food. Moreover, the attention which it was +necessary to give to the rearing and training and the looking after +domestic animals was to a certain extent, humanizing. When a man found +that it was necessary to be careful about his animals, he would also +be careful about his neighbors. We would say that the same sense which +enabled him, or directed him, to look after the welfare of the herd +would justify and, in fact, impel him to look after that of man also; +so that the nomadic and pastoral life, although not stable nor +favorable to the development of cities, nor the great extension of +commerce, was nevertheless a decided advance over the ruder hunting +and fishing stage. So far as we know, neither Aryan nor Semite ever +depended upon a hunting and fishing stage. They doubtless did, but not +in the time of any history that we know. The Bedouins, etc., wandering +tribes to-day, and, among the Semitic, the Tuaregs of the Sahara, are +a purely nomadic or pastoral race; yet are very much above the negroes +of the south, who depend upon hunting and fishing. + +Above it, however, and a very great improvement upon it, is the +agricultural stage, where the main source of the food supply is the +harvests. You observe, at once, that that means a sedentary life. When +a man sows corn, he must wait thereabout and tend it and till it and +finally reap it and store it and thrash it and then preserve the grain +and build granaries for it; and it involves, in fact, the remaining in +one place all the whole year; and then the regularity of that life led +very distinctly to making men regular, generally, in their habits. +They wanted to defend their homes--defend these grain fields of +theirs, or starvation would result; therefore, they built towers and +strong-walled cities; and they took great care in the selection of the +best men among them to do the fighting, while others looked after the +crop. We find that agriculture began at a very, very early period in +both continents. In our own continent we cannot tell when agriculture +was first in use--the main crop being the maize, or Indian corn. It +was raised by the more advanced tribes from the extreme north, where +its profitable culture invited, to the extreme south, from about the +northern line of Wisconsin in North America to the latitude of +southern Chile in South--extending, therefore, over some seven to +eight thousand miles of linear distance. + +In the old world (going back to the time of the lake dwellers) we know +they had barley, rye and a species of millet; and later on they were +introduced to oats and wheat and a variety of others. Rice was of the +very earliest of our cereals, in the extreme east of the old world. +Wherever we find a very ancient civilization we also find that it is +intimately connected with some important cereal, and it has been said +that all you have to do is to study botany--the history of botany--and +you will find the history of human culture; and much there is that +could be said for that. + +Fourth, and finally, those who divide human culture according to the +food supply consider that the highest stage is reached through +commerce. Commerce brings to all the great centers of human life the +food essential to their sustenance. It would be absolutely +impossible--obviously so--to have a city like Philadelphia in +existence for a month without constant and ceaseless commerce brought +here the food for its inhabitants. It is quite likely that, were +Philadelphia shut off at once from all connection with the world, +within ten days there would be an absolute famine here--so closely do +we depend upon our commercial supplies for our subsistence. These +supplies are not drawn from any one locality; were we to draw a radius +of five hundred miles around our great city of a million inhabitants, +we should still find that the greater part of our food supply comes +from a wider distance from us than that; and there is no one of us +that will go to his table this evening but will see upon that table +food products drawn from every quarter of the world. Thus it is that +commerce enables man to reach an indefinite degree of consolidation; +and it is through consolidation--through the more and more intimate +relationship, and the closer and closer juxtaposition of man--that his +real benefit and progress may be derived. + +These, therefore, are the four stages of culture, as depending upon +food supply: the hunting and fishing stage, the nomadic or pastoral, +the agricultural and the commercial. These have been generally adopted +by English writers, and they are so adopted to-day; and you will +probably find them in many of the text books. + +The American writers have, in many instances, followed the principles +laid down and defined most clearly by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, a +distinguished ethnologist of the last generation. He divides (or +accepted the division and largely defined it) the progress of man into +a series of stages: beginning at the lowest point with savagery; then +barbarism, semi-civilization, civilization, and fifth, enlightenment. + +I may briefly refer to what he would include in these and the main +criteria which he gives for each of them. He would place the savage +condition as being that of the lowest tribes known to us. They have +little or no agriculture; their commerce is very inchoate and rude: +they have no knowledge of the metals as such; their best weapon is the +bow and arrow, or the throwing stick; and their best tool is the stone +hatchet and the stone spade. This is very much like the lowest +condition of the "wild people" to whom I referred. + +Above that he would place the condition of barbarism. In the stage of +developed barbarism he would place such inventions as, for instance, +pottery, the art of weaving (which is a very primitive art) and the +taming of a certain number of domestic animals, some for food, some +for amusement and hunting, and also the beginnings of the development +of agriculture. A type of such a nation of barbarism would be the +Indians who used to live here--the Algonkian--the Delaware Indians. +When the first Europeans came to the shores of the Delaware River they +did not find absolutely rude savages. The Delaware Indians had +moderately stationary villages surrounded by pickets, the houses being +built of strong timber; they had large fields of maize, pumpkins, +squashes and beans, which they cultivated diligently during the summer +and stored the food for their winter's supply. They depended largely, +to be sure, upon hunting and fishing also; but along with that they +had these simple arts: From the rushes which grew below Philadelphia, +in a place called the "Neck," they used to weave mats for protecting +the floors and also for building the sides of their summer houses and +for sleeping upon. They had a method of tanning and dressing buckskin +and using it for the purposes of clothing. They were by no means naked +savages; they were clothed, and tolerably well clothed; they could +make pottery, and the pottery was decorated sometimes with interesting +designs, of which we have specimens in our cabinets. Therefore, we +find among the old Delaware Indians who formerly lived on the site of +Philadelphia a fair specimen of a nation in a barbarous stage, +decidedly superior to the Australian natives of to-day or the Indians +of the Terra del Fuego or the northern part of British America, who +are in the state of complete savagery. + +Above that is the period of semi-civilization, a stage marked by the +discovery of the method of building stone walls. No Algonkian or +Iroquois Indian ever built a stone wall in his life; there is no +record of any and no signs of any throughout the United States east of +the Mississippi; there was never a stone wall built by a native tribe +that really amounted to anything more than a stone pile; but we do +find that in the southwest, among the cliff dwellers, and in various +parts of Central America and South America, the stone wall was not +only known, but it was constructed with a great deal of durability and +skill. Also, some knowledge of metals was found among most of the +semi-civilized people. The Mexicans and the Peruvians were in a state +of semi-civilization when they were discovered by the whites the first +time. They, built many extensive temples and houses, erected +frequently upon pyramids, the pyramids themselves being supported by +stone walls. They knew the dressing of stone; they were distinctly +agricultural and depended more on that than anything else for their +food supply. They had developed a system of mnemonic records which, in +the Yucatan culture, might be called picture writing, but was not +phonetic writing in our true sense of the term. The also knew +something about weighing and measuring. They had definite laws, laws +which were carried out by properly appointed individuals. Their towns +and cities would often number thousands of inhabitants; they had roads +connecting them, which roads were kept in good condition; they had a +regular army made up of men selected and trained for that purpose. In +all these respects we see nations who were semi-civilized, but they +were not yet civilized. We could call a nation civilized that had a +distinct system of phonetic writing and used it; but not all nations +having this are civilized. It is only when it is used freely and for +purposes of business that we can call them civilized. + +The wild Tuaregs of the Sahara have a system of phonetic writing used +by a few of them--the women being the literati of those tribes (the +men not knowing how to read or write); but civilization means more +than this; it means the use of iron weapons and tools; it means also +the adoption of a definite currency which is established on a fixed +basis and recognized throughout the community; it means the +establishment of commercial lines--a progress distinct above that +which is the mere barter of the lower conditions of savagery and +barbarism. In all these respects we see that civilization means a type +about such as we enjoy at present. It is such as has existed in Europe +since the Renaissance; because during the middle ages we could only +say that Europe was in a semi-civilized condition. They knew something +about writing; but at a time when Dean, the writer of the early +history of England, said that throughout the whole of England there +were not half a dozen men who could read what he had written, you can +see that writing was a very unimportant part of the culture of that +nation; so it can only be when writing becomes a common possession of +the majority that we can call it an element of civilization. + +It is not to be supposed that we ourselves have reached the type of +the highest culture. We leave something for our descendants to do. We +do not wish to relieve them of the privilege of being better than +ourselves; and we shall leave them, probably, plenty of room; because +it is supposed that the stage of enlightenment which is the highest +stage of culture--which we foresee, but do not see--that that rather +applies to the future than to ourselves. That period will come when +mankind has freed itself very much more than now from the bonds of +nature and the environment of society. It will come when the ideas of +our equality are much more perfect than they are now; when that +equality extends to the equality of women with men before the law and +in all rights; when it comes to the equality of all men of all castes +before the law and the equal opportunity of all men to obtain that +which is best in the life of all. We are very far from that yet. It +will come also when the idea of international legislation is such that +it will not be necessary, in order to cure great evils, that we should +have recourse to weapons of any material whatsoever; that time is not +yet come; and so we have much that is left for our descendants to work +out in this direction. + +It would, however, appear that all these various criteria which I have +named are somewhat unsatisfactory. They do not, it appears to me, +quite touch the question at issue. They are in a measure external +measures altogether--even that somewhat psychological one which I +quoted from the German authorities. Were I to propose a criterion, or +a series of criteria, of culture which could be applied to all +nations, it would be that which might as well and easily be applied to +each individual; and when we come to apply it in that manner it is +much more easy to understand its bearing. Herbert Spencer, in defining +what he means by culture, says: "It means the knowledge of one thing +thoroughly and a knowledge of the groundwork of all other branches of +human knowledge." He claimed that we can only understand one thing +thoroughly; but that we could and ought to understand the general +outline of all other things which are studied by mankind. This is +somewhat defective, it appears, because it bases culture entirely from +an intellectual point of view; and if man were merely a walking +intellectual machine, it would be well enough; but he is not; for the +intellectual man is but a small portion of his life. We are engaged, +most of our time, in something which is very far from purely +intellectual action. We are governed distinctly by our emotions and +our feelings--our sentiments; and culture must touch them, or it is +vague and empty. Therefore it is that I would say that we should think +with Goethe--to whom we must often recur for an insight into the +profoundest trends of human nature--must recur to him; and we find +that he lays down the principle of culture in the individual to be "A +general sympathy with all the highest ideas which have governed and +are governing the human mind." He said: "We should keep ourselves +first (each man and woman should keep himself and herself) in touch +with the highest elements of his and her own nature." He said, "It is +not so difficult, if we give but a little time to it--provided we give +that time regularly. We must remember," he says, "to cultivate our +intellect by some study, every day and our sense of the beautiful by +looking at something which is beautiful; and there is much around us +which costs us nothing to look at were we to observe it--the cloud, +the sunlight, the tree, the flower, a butterfly--anything of that kind +studied for a few minutes each day would continue to develop in man's +mind the sense of the beautiful. We should also appreciate carefully +our actions and govern them and measure them, as to whether they are +just to others--a matter which a very few minutes a day will probably +enable us to do;" and so also he would go further and seek to find, in +the idea of truth itself, as to what we ought and ought not to +believe--trying to discover some one test of truth which we can apply. + +Indeed, we may therefore formulate and apply to nations at large what +Goethe has there suggested; and we shall find it can be arranged in +what I may call a pentatonic scale of culture. You may be aware that +all musical scales of all savage and barbarous and primitive tribes +are not in the octave, as ours, but in five notes only; they all have +one musical scale only, and that is a pentatonic scale; and it is +perhaps because they feel that their own minds are based upon some +such arrangement as that (although that is an idea which I do not +subscribe to, but only suggest); but when we come to look over the +whole cycle of culture, as we find it described in the histories of +culture--in the histories of civilization--we find that they are all +efforts to develop one or the other, or several, of five primary ideas +which are in the mind of every human being; and when they are +developed, then culture is perfect, either in the individual or in the +nation or the race. These five primitive ideas, innate in every human +soul, are the ideas of the useful, of the beautiful, of the just, of +the good and of the true, and you will not find any savage (provided +he is not deficient in the ordinary mental ability of his tribe) who +does not indicate an appreciation of every one of these in his own +way. It is the idea of the useful which teaches him his utilitarian +arts; which teaches him to build his house; to chip the flint for his +weapon; to sharpen the stick to dig the place to drop the seed; and +all those we call the arts of utility, the useful arts; and yet you +will not find a savage tribe to-day but what goes somewhat above this; +because among them all they make also an effort that these tools and +weapons of theirs shall have some sign about them of the beautiful; +and you will find decoration--indeed, "the painted savage" is a name +we give to the lowest order of humanity; yet this same paint is to +make himself beautiful; and so it is throughout all his games and +amusements in life--you will find he is constantly striving at the +idea of decoration--at the idea of beauty; little by little he +develops this, until it becomes, in some nations, the joy of their +existence and the lesson of the race, as in the ancient Greeks; as in +the Italians of the time of the Renaissance. These are what we call +the æsthetic emotions, based upon an innate sense and love of the +beautiful: and we may also turn to the lowest savage--we shall not +find him deficient in justice; on the contrary, among the rudest +Australians, without shelter or clothing, you will find that the law +of the tribe is well defined and also implacable; and a man who has +sinned knows that he must meet it or flee; he knows that there is no +avail or recourse beyond the tribal council, and he knows what they +will decide in his particular case, because he knows the law and the +penalty of its infringement. And this rude notion of justice develops, +little by little, into the great edifice of jurisprudence, the law of +nation and the law of nations. Thus we find that the idea of the just, +and of what is right from man to man, is something which is found +everywhere; and as that develops culture develops; but the mere just +alone does not satisfy the human heart; the man who merely metes out +to his fellow that which the tribal law, or the law of the land, +requires of him, certainly is not up to the ideal of any man or woman +in this assembly or in this city. + +There is something beyond that, and what is that? We find that it +rests in the idea of the good--that which is often brought forward in +the beautiful forms of religion, which tells man that above justice +there is something greater and nobler than mere ethics or +morality--the mere right and wrong--the mere giving what is due. It is +not enough to do that; there must be a giving of more than is due; +because the idea of the good transcends the present life--it passes +into the future life of the species; and it is only through going +above what is needed to-day that we may endow our posterity with +something greater than we ourselves possess. It is the idea of the +good, therefore, which lifts that which is merely just into a +higher--into, I might say, an immortal sphere of activity. It has +always had an intense attraction for noble souls, which history shows +us; and it is not to be supposed that that attraction will ever +diminish; it will ever increase, although its forms may change; and +finally, along with this betterment of the emotions, and of the sense +of justice--of right and of ethics and of æsthetics--we find the +constant effort and desire of all mankind, in all stages of culture, +to find out what is true, as distinct from that which is not true. You +will not be mistaken if you seek for this in the soul of the rudest +savage; he, too, likes to know the truth. The methods by which he +arrives at it, or seeks to arrive at it, are widely different from +those which you have been taught. Nevertheless, the logical force of +his mind; the methods of thought that he has; the laws that govern his +intelligence, are exactly the same as yours: and it is only with your +enlightenment you have gained more and more acquaintance with the +methods. You know something about the great discovery which has +advanced all modern science from its mediæval condition to that of the +present--of the application of the inductive system of science and +thought; and you know that it is by constant and close mathematical +study of analogy--of probability--that we exclude error little by +little from our observations--we improve more and more our instruments +of precision--we count out the errors of our observation; and we are +constantly seeking those laws which are not transient and ephemeral +only, but which are eternal and immortal. Upon those laws, finally, +must rest all our real, certain knowledge; and it is the endeavor of +the anthropologist to apply those laws to man and his development; and +such, indeed, is the recognized and highest mission of that science. +We thus find that the idea of truth is at the summit of this scale +which I have placed before you--not separated from it. It interprets +every one of the ideas and justifies them and qualifies them and lifts +them up into their highest usefulness. Chevalier Bunsen, in describing +what he thought would be the highest condition of human enlightenment, +said, "It will be when the good will be the true and the true will be +the good;" and he might have extended that further and said, when both +those ideas were the inspiring motives of all these five great ideas +which I have stated are at the basis of the culture of every +individual and are also at the basis of the culture of the race and of +the nation. + +This, therefore, will serve as a sketch of the milestones of human +progress. The way has been long and painful; the results have been far +from satisfactory; and yet they have been enormous and wonderful, when +we compare them now with what our ancestors were when history began. +We can conclude, however, from looking back on this thorny and upward +path, that it is still going to ascend; we do not know it for certain; +progress may cease, through some unknown law, now and here; but if +there is anything that we can derive from the lesson of the past--if +we can project into the future any of the facts which history shows us +are our own now--it guides us forward to a firm belief that the +hereafter will have in its breast greater treasures for humanity, +greater glories for posterity, than any that we know or can +understand. + + * * * * * + + + + +TOMBS OF THE FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY.[1] + + [Footnote 1: The Independent.] + +By LUDWIG BORCHARDT, Ph.D., Director of the German School in +Cairo. + + +For many years various European collections of Egyptian antiquities +have contained a certain series of objects which gave archæologists +great difficulty. There were vases of a peculiar form and color, +greenish plates of slate, many of them in curious animal forms, and +other similar things. It was known, positively, that these objects had +been found in Egypt, but it was impossible to assign them a place in +the known periods of Egyptian art. The puzzle was increased in +difficulty by certain plates of slate with hunting and battle scenes +and other representations in relief in a style so strange that many +investigators considered them products of the art of Western Asia. + +The first light was thrown on the question in the winter of 1894-95 by +the excavations of Flinders Petrie in Ballas and Neggadeh, two places +on the west bank of the Nile, a little below ancient Thebes. This +persevering English investigator discovered here a very large +necropolis in which he examined about three thousand graves. They all +contained the same kinds of pottery and the same slate tablets +mentioned above, and many other objects which did not seem to be +Egyptian. It was plain that the newly found necropolis and the +puzzling objects already in the museums belonged to the same period. +Petrie assumed that they represented the art of a foreign +people--perhaps the Libyans--who had temporarily resided in Egypt in +the time between the old and the middle kingdoms. He gave this unknown +people the name "New Race." But his theory met with little approval, +least of all from German Egyptologists; and even at that time, an +opinion was expressed that this unusual art belonged before the known +beginning of Egyptian culture. However, in spite of much discussion, +the question could not then be decided. + +About the same time another riddle was presented to Egyptologists by +the results of the excavations made in Abydos by the French scholar +Amélineau; and another hot discussion was raised. Amélineau had +excavated several large tombs and had also found objects which could +not be arranged in the known development of Egyptian art. The +fortunate discoverer ascribed these to the dynasties of the demigods, +who, according to Egyptian tradition, reigned before the kings; but of +course this idea met with determined opposition, and indeed especially +among his French colleagues. The tomb of Abydos offered, however, on +quiet consideration, more material for establishing its date than +those of Ballas and Neggadeh. In Abydos a number of inscriptions had +been found which, rude as they were, showed that the people buried in +the tombs had known the hieroglyphic system of writing. The occurrence +of so-called "Horus names" in these inscriptions was especially +important. For every old Egyptian king had a long list of names and +titles, and among them a name surmounted by the picture of a hawk +(i.e., Horus), and called on that account the "Horus name." As the +name is, at the same time, written on a sort of standard, it is also +called the "Banner name." Such "Horus" or "Banner names" occur, then, +on the objects found by Amélineau. Accidentally, one of these names +occurs, also, on a statue in the Grizeh Museum which, according to its +style, is one of the oldest statues which the museum possesses. Thus +it became evident that the Abydos objects were, in any case, to be +placed in the earliest period of Egyptian history. + +The discussion stood thus when, in the spring of 1897, the fortunate +hand of De Morgan, the former Directeur-général des Services des +antiquités égyptiennes, succeeded by renewed excavations in Neggadeh +in furnishing the connections between the objects found by Petrie in +Ballas and Neggadeh and those found by Amélineau in Abydos. He +discovered, not far from the necropolis, excavated by Petrie, the tomb +of a king which, on the one hand, contained pottery and tablets like +those found by Petrie, and on the other, objects entirely like those +found by Amélineau. Thus it was proved that both Petrie's tombs and +those of Amélineau belonged to the same period, and, indeed, the +oldest period, of Egyptian history, before the third dynasty. They +were older than the most ancient objects which we had thought that we +possessed. But it was still impossible to date them exactly. + +At this point, an epoch-making discovery of Dr. Sethe, privat-docent +at the University of Berlin, placed the whole matter at a single +stroke on a comparatively sure foundation. He pointed out that the +inscriptions on a few unassuming potsherds from Abydos contained not +only Banner names of old kings, but also their ordinary names. These +names were not inclosed, as later, in cartouches, and even contained +many unusual spellings; but they were still too clear to be +misunderstood. Sethe succeeded in identifying the names of the fifth, +the sixth and the seventh kings of the first Manethonian dynasty, +called by the Greek authors Usaphais, Miebais and Semempses. Thus it +became extremely probable that all these newly discovered objects were +from the first dynasty, but still not absolutely certain; for the +three names occurred only on fragments of vases, and absolutely +nothing was known of how these fragments were found. The proof that +they belonged to the other objects was wanting. A very skeptical +investigator might still have said that the other objects were older, +that the potsherds had only fallen accidentally into ruined tombs of +an older period; or he might have said quite the contrary, that the +potsherds were older than the tombs. + +At this point occurred the possibility of finding a solution of the +question in the objects found in the royal tomb of Neggadeh. For the +report of the excavations at Neggadeh was more exact than that of the +excavations at Abydos; and the whole contents of the tomb of Neggadeh +had been kept together and preserved in a separate room in the Grizeh +Museum. The possibility became a reality. One of the principal objects +of this royal tomb was found to bear the ordinary as well as the Horus +name of the king--a fact which had escaped the fortunate discoverer. +The object is a small ivory plate with incised representations of +funerary offerings before the king. Animals are being sacrificed to +him; jars full of beer and other things are being offered. The figure +of the king, in front of a hanging mat, is not preserved; but the +upper corner still remains with the two names, which were written +above the figure. First, there is the same Horus name which occurs on +all the inscribed objects of this tomb and which may be translated +"The Warrior." Beside the Horus name in a sort of cartouche is the +title "Lord of Vulture and Serpent Crown" (Lord of Upper and Lower +Egypt), and beneath the title the sign which represents a +checkerboard, and has the syllabic value Mn. There can therefore be no +doubt that the king buried in the royal tomb of Neggadeh, of whom we +had only known the Horus name "The Warrior," had also the name Mn. +Now, there is no other known Egyptian king who could be identified +with this name Mn than the first king of the first Manethonian +dynasty, called Menes by the Greeks. It is impossible here to go into +the philological basis of the identification of Mn and Menes. The +final conclusion is this: In Neggadeh, we have before us the tomb of +the oldest king of whom the Egyptians had preserved any memory, and +whom they considered the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. + +In consideration of the importance of the questions involved, a short +description of the tomb of Menes and of the objects found in it will +certainly be of interest. The second part of De Morgan's book, +"Recherche sur les origines de l'Egypte," which has just appeared, +furnishes us with the facts concerning the tomb, and the objects found +in the tomb I will describe from the originals in the Gizeh Museum. + +The tomb consists of a large building, standing alone, measuring 54 X +27 m. (about 100 X 50 Egyptian ells), and built of burned brick. The +outside walls were ornamented, as was usual in later Egyptian +buildings, with pilasters composed of groups of smaller rectangular +pilasters. It is the same motive so often to be observed in the sham +doors in tombs of the old kingdom, and is really the most natural +facade ornamentation for brick buildings, as it may be made by simply +setting every alternate column of bricks forward or backward. The +walls were, in addition, plastered. Back of the thick outside wall on +each side lay a row of narrow rectangular rooms, formed by dividing a +corridor by means of cross walls. Inside this surrounding row of rooms +was the real tomb, a building with thick walls and five rooms in a +row. The middle one of these rooms, noticeably larger than the others, +is the real burial chamber. These five rooms were originally connected +by doors which were afterward walled up. As to the roof, we can only +make surmises, as the excavator has furnished us with no material on +this point. The walls as they now stand are at the highest point about +four meters high, and thus may form only the lower part of the +building. Whether the roof was an arch of stone or simply of wood, is +uncertain; but it seems to me probable that it was of wood. For the +tomb contained a layer of ashes in which all the objects put in the +grave with the dead man were found; and, assuming that the roof was of +wood, it is possible that the roof was set on fire at the time when +the tomb was robbed and that the ashes came from this fire. The +explanation which the excavator gives of these ashes, that the body +and the offerings were burned in the closed grave, hardly deserves +consideration. In any case, the grave has been robbed and destroyed. +That is shown by the fact that many pieces of funeral furniture, which +originally could only have been put in the central rooms, were found +partly broken in the outside rooms, or on the side toward the fields, +the side most exposed to the attack of grave robbers. + +The assumption that the grave has been robbed and intentionally +destroyed agrees entirely with the fact that all the more valuable +objects found in the grave were in fragments. But, fragmentary as they +are, they are sufficient to give us a good idea of the art of the +first period of the Egyptian kingdom, a period which is now most +generally estimated to be five and a half millenniums before the +present day (3600 B.C.) The skill with which ivory carving was done in +that early time is indeed amazing. Reclining lions, hunting dogs and +fish are so skillfully reproduced that one asks how many centuries of +development must have preceded before the art of carving reached this +perfection. A number of feet taken from the legs of small chairs and +other similar furniture, and made in imitation of bulls' legs, show +such a fixity of style and at the same time such a freedom of +execution, that no archæologist, without the report of the excavator, +would dare to proclaim them the oldest dated works of Egyptian art. +But it was not only in carving ivory, which is easy to work, that the +Egyptian artists showed their skill. They also make bowls and vases of +diorite and porphyry with the same success; and the forms presented by +the smaller ivory vases are also to be found in vases made of those +refractory stones. Further, the vases made of stone present not merely +such forms as might be made by turning or boring, but there are also +bowls with ribs which are as finely polished as the turned bowls. The +hardest material used in the objects already found is rock crystal, of +which several small flasks and bowls and a little lion are composed. +But the lion, it must be confessed, is rather rudely worked. A few +small vases of obsidian also occur--remarkable in view of the fact +that we do not know of any place in or near Egypt where this stone may +be found. Besides these vessels of hard stone, there are, of course, a +large number made of softer stone. Alabaster vases occur in every +conceivable form. Cylindrical pots, with wavy handles or simple +cordlike ornamentation, appear to have been especially favored. The +great beer jars, closed with enormous stoppers of unbaked clay, were +made of ordinary baked clay. Of course the different stone and clay +vessels, which, undoubtedly, originally contained offerings for the +dead, form the bulk of the contents of the grave. The slate tablets +for rubbing cosmetics for painting the body, and the flint weapons and +knives of all sorts, follow in point of numbers. Remarkably enough, +metal objects occur in this oldest historical period alongside the +stone implements, though, of course, in less numbers. Several objects +made of copper and a slender bead of gold have been found. Such, in +short, is all that remains of the things put in the tomb with the +king. But little as there is, it gives us an idea of the richness and +splendor with which these old royal tombs were furnished. + +It might certainly be productive of unusual emotions to know that the +few human bones found in the tomb, and now preserved in the Gizeh +Museum, once belonged to the oldest Egyptian king. But as we know +almost nothing of him, except some unfounded traditions, this sort of +relic worship deserves very little respect. The scientific value of +the proof that Menes was the king buried in the royal tomb of Neggadeh +lies rather in the fact that we have now settled the question of the +age of that culture which was presented to us by the excavations of +Ballas, Neggadeh and Abydos. The products of a whole period of +Egyptian civilization which had been misunderstood, and had been +used to support false historical conclusions, fall into their true +place; and our knowledge of the history of Egyptian culture is +carried back not merely a few centuries, but to a period presenting +characteristics different from the oldest previously known period, but +containing the germs of the later development. + +Cairo, Egypt. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROSE PSYCHE. + + +The hybrid Polyantha Rose Psyche is a seedling from the dwarf +Polyantha Rose Golden Fairy, crossed with the pollen of the Crimson +Rambler. Its growth and habit, though more delicate, much resembles +the Rambler. It is apparently quite hardy, and is very free flowering, +but we fear not perpetual. The flowers are produced in clusters of +from fifteen to twenty-five, and are 2 to 2œ inches across when +fully expanded. In the bud stage they are very pretty and well formed. +The color is white, suffused with salmon-rose and pink, with a yellow +base to the petals. It is a real companion to Crimson Rambler.--The +Gardeners' Chronicle. + +[Illustration: ROSE HYBRID POLYANTHA "PSYCHE"--COLOR, PALE PINK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +SLEEP AND THE THEORIES OF ITS CAUSE. + + +The theory of the origin of sleep which has gained the widest credence +is the one that attributes it to anæmia of the brain. It has been +shown by Mosso, and many others, that in men with defects of the +cranial wall the volume of the brain decreases during sleep. At the +same time, the volume of any limb increases as the peripheral parts of +the body become turgid with blood. In dogs, the brain has been +exposed, and the cortex of that organ has been observed to become +anæmic during sleep. It is a matter of ordinary observation that in +infants, during sleep, the volume of the brain becomes less, since the +fontanelle is found to sink in. It has been supposed, but without +sufficient evidence to justify the supposition, that this anæmia of +the brain is the cause and not the sequence of sleep. The idea behind +this supposition has been that, as the day draws to an end, the +circulatory mechanism becomes fatigued, the vasomotor center +exhausted, the tone of the blood vessels deficient, and the energy of +the heart diminished, and the circulation to the cerebral arteries +lessened. By means of a simple and accurate instrument (the +Hill-Barnard sphygmometer), with which the pressure in the arteries of +man can be easily reckoned, it has been recently determined that the +arterial pressure falls just as greatly during bodily rest as during +sleep. The ordinary pressure of the blood in the arteries of young and +healthy men averages 110-120 mm. of mercury. In sleep, the pressure +may sink to 95-100 mm.; but if the pressure be taken of the same +subject lying in bed, and quietly engaged on mental work, it will be +found to be no higher. By mental strain or muscular effort, the +pressure is, however, immediately raised, and may then reach 130-140 +mm. of mercury. It can be seen from considering these facts that the +fall of pressure is concomitant with rest, rather than with sleep. As, +moreover, it has been determined on strong evidence that the cerebral +vessels are not supplied with vasomotor nerves, and that the cerebral +circulation passively follows every change in the arterial pressure, +it becomes evident that sleep cannot be occasioned by any active +change in the cerebral vessels. This conclusion is borne out by the +fact that to produce in the dog a condition of coma like to sleep, it +is necessary to reduce, by a very great amount, the cerebral +circulation. Thus, both carotids and both vertebral arteries, can be +frequently tied at one and the same time without either producing coma +or any very marked symptoms. The circulation is, in such a case, +maintained through other channels, such as branches from the superior +intercostal arteries which enter the anterior spinal artery. While +total anæmia of the brain instantaneously abolishes consciousness, +partial anæmia is found to raise the excitability of the cortex +cerebri. By estimation of the exchange of gases in the blood which +enters and leaves the brain, it has been shown that the consumption of +oxygen and the production of carbonic acid in that organ is not large. +Further, it may be noted that the condition of anæsthesia is not in +all cases associated with cerebral anæmia. Thus, while during +chloroform anæsthesia the arterial pressure markedly falls, such is +not the case during anæsthesia produced by ether or a mixture of +nitrous oxide and oxygen. + +The arterial pressure of man is not lowered by the ordinary fatigue of +daily life. It is only in extreme states of exhaustion that the +pressure may be found decreased when the subject is in the standing +position. The fall of pressure which does occur during rest or sleep +is mainly occasioned by the diminished rate of the heart. The increase +in the volume of the limbs is to be ascribed to the cessation of +muscular movement and to the diminution in the amplitude of +respiration. The duty of the heart is to deliver the blood to the +capillaries. From the veins the blood is, for the most part, returned +to the heart by the compressive action of the muscles, the constant +change of posture and by the respiration acting both as a force and +suction pump. All of these factors are at their maximum during bodily +activity and at their minimum during rest. On exciting a sleeper by +calling his name, or in any way disturbing him, the limbs, it has been +recorded, decrease in volume while the brain expands. This is so +because the respiration changes in depth, the heart quickens, the +muscles alter in tone, as the subject stirs in his sleep in reflex +response to external stimuli. Considering all these facts, we must +regard the fall of arterial pressure, the depression of the +fontanelle, and the turgescence of the vessels of the limbs as +phenomena concomitant with bodily rest and warmth, and we have no more +right to assign the causation of sleep to cerebral anæmia than to any +other alteration in the functions of the body, such as occur during +sleep. + +We may well here summarize these other changes in function: + +(1) The respiratory movement becomes shallow and thoracic in type. + +(2) The volume of the air inspired per minute is lessened by one-half +to two-thirds. + +(3) The output of carbonic acid is diminished by the same amount. + +(4) The bodily temperature falls. + +(5) The acidity of the cortex of the brain disappears. + +(6) Reflex action persists; the knee jerk is diminished, pointing to +relaxation in tone of the muscles; consciousness is suspended. + +Analyzing more closely the conditions of the central nervous system, +it becomes evident that, in sleep, consciousness alone is in abeyance. +The nerves and the special senses continue to transmit impulses and to +produce reflex movements. If a blanket, sufficiently heavy to impede +respiration, be placed upon the face of a sleeping person, we know +that it will be immediately pushed away. More than this, complicated +movements can be carried out; the postilion can sleep on horseback; +the punkah-wallah may work his punkah and at the same time enjoy a +slumber; a weary mother may sleep, and yet automatically rock her +infant's cradle. Turning to the histories of sleep walkers, we find it +recorded that, during sleep, they perform such feats as climbing +slanting roofs or walking across dangerous narrow ledges and bridges. +The writer knew of the case of a lad who, when locked in his room at +night to prevent his wandering in his sleep, climbed a partition eight +to ten feet in height which separated his sleeping compartment from +the next, and this without waking. + +The brain can carry out not only such complicated acts as these, but +it has been found to maintain during sleep its normal inhibitory +control over the lower reflex centers in the spinal cord. + +Thus, in sleeping dogs, after the spinal cord has been divided in the +dorsal region, reflexes can be more easily evoked from the lumbar than +from the cervical cord, because the former is freed from the +inhibitory control of the brain. + +The strength of stimulus necessary to pass the threshold of +consciousness and to produce an awakening has been measured in various +ways. It has been determined that it takes a louder and louder sound +or a stronger and stronger electric shock to arouse a sleeper during +the first two or three hours of slumber; after that period, the sleep +becomes lighter and the required stimulus need be much less. + +The alternative theories which have been suggested to account for the +onset of sleep may be classed as chemical and histological. + +In relation to the first, it has been suggested that if consciousness +be regarded as dependent upon a certain rate of atomic vibration, it +is possible that this rate depends on a store of intramolecular +oxygen, which, owing to fatigue, may become exhausted; or it may be +supposed that alkaloidal substances may collect as fatigue products +within the brain, and choke the activity of that organ. Against this +theory may be submitted the facts that monotony of stimulus will +produce sleep in an unfatigued person, that over-fatigue, either +mental or bodily, will hinder the onset of sleep, that the cessation +of external stimuli by itself produces sleep. As an example of this +last, may be quoted the case recorded by Strumpel of a patient who was +completely anæsthetic save for one eye and one ear, and who fell +asleep when these were closed. Moreover, many men possess the power, +by an effort of will, of withdrawing from objective or subjective +stimuli, and of thus inducing sleep. + +The histological theories of sleep are founded on recent extraordinary +advances in the knowledge of the minute anatomy of the central nervous +system, a knowledge founded on the Golgi and methylene blue methods of +staining. It is held possible that the dendrites or branching +processes of nerve cells are contractile, and that they, by pulling +themselves apart, break the association pathways which are formed by +the interlacing or synapses of the dendrites in the brain. Ramon y +Cajal, on the other hand, believes that the neuroglia cells are +contractile, and may expand so as to interpose their branches as +insulating material between the synapses formed by the dendrites of +the nerve cells. The difficulty of accepting these theories is that +nobody can locate consciousness to any particular group of nerve +cells. Moreover, the anatomical evidence of such changes taking place +is at present of the flimsiest character. + +If these theories be true, what, it may be asked, is the agency that +causes the dendrites to contract or the neuroglia cells to expand? Is +there really a soul sitting aloof in the pineal gland, as Descartes +held? When a man like Lord Brougham can at any moment shut himself +away from the outer world and fall asleep, does his soul break the +dendritic contacts between cell and cell; and when he awakes, does it +make contacts and switch the impulses evoked by sense stimuli on to +one or other tract of the axons, or axis cylinder processes, which +form the association pathways? Such a hypothesis is no explanation; it +simply puts back the whole question a step further, and leaves it +wrapped in mystery. It cannot be fatigue that produces the +hypothetical interruptions of the dendritic synapses and then induces +sleep, for sleep can follow after fatigue of a very limited kind. A +man may sleep equally well after a day spent in scientific research as +after one spent in mountain climbing, or after another passed in +idling by the seashore. He may spend a whole day engaged in +mathematical calculation or in painting a landscape. He fatigues--if +we admit the localization of function to definite parts of the +brain--but one set of association tracts, but one group of cells, and +yet, when he falls asleep, consciousness is not partially, but totally +suspended. + +We must admit that the withdrawal of stimuli, or their monotonous +repetition, are factors which do undoubtedly stand out as primary +causes of sleep. We may suppose, if we like, that consciousness +depends upon a certain rate of vibration which takes place in the +brain structure. This vibration is maintained by the stimuli of the +present, which awaken memories of former stimuli, and are themselves +at the same time modified by these. By each impulse streaming into the +brain from the sense organs, we can imagine the structure of the +cerebral cortex to be more or less permanently altered. The impulses +of the present, as they sweep through the association pathways, arouse +memories of the past; but in what way this is brought about is outside +the range of explanation. Perhaps an impulse vibrating at a certain +rate may arouse cells or fibrils tuned by past stimuli to respond to +this particular rate of vibration. Thus may be evoked a chain of +memories, while by an impulse of a different rate quite another set of +memories may be started. Tracts of association are probably formed in +definite lines through the nervous system, as during the life of a +child repeated waves of sense impulses beat against and overcome +resistances, and make smooth pathways here and there through the brain +structure. Thus may be produced growth of axons in certain directions, +and synapses of this cell with that. If the same stimulus be often +repeated, the synapses between groups of cells may become permanent. A +memory, a definite line of action which is manifested by a certain +muscular response, may thus become structurally fixed. If the stimulus +be not repeated, the synapses may be but temporary, and the memory +fade as the group of cells is occupied by a new memory of some more +potent sense stimulus. Many association tracts and synapses are laid +down in the central nervous system when the child is born. These are +the fruits of inheritance, and by their means, we may suppose, +instinctive reflex actions are carried out. + +So long as the present stimuli are controlled by past memories and are +active in recalling them, so long does consciousness exist, and the +higher will be the consciousness, the greater the number and the more +intense the character of the memories aroused. We may suppose that +when all external stimuli are withdrawn, or the brain soothed by +monotony of gentle repetition, and when the body is placed at rest, +and the viscera are normal and give rise to no disturbing sensations, +consciousness is then suspended, and natural sleep ensues. Either +local fatigue of the muscles, or of the heart, or ennui, or exhaustion +of some brain center usually leads us to seek those conditions in +which sleep comes. The whole organism may sleep for the sake of the +part. To avoid sleeplessness, we seek monotony of stimulus, either +objective or subjective. In the latter case, we dwell on some +monotonous memory picture, such as sheep passing one by one through a +gap in the hedge. To obtain our object, we dismiss painful or exciting +thoughts, keep the viscera in health, so that they may not force +themselves upon our attention, and render the sense organs quiet by +seeking darkness, silence and warmth.--L.H., in Nature. + + * * * * * + + + + +AMATEUR CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS. + + +At the time that we described the Demeny chronophotographic apparatus +we remarked that it had the advantage of permitting of the projection +of very luminous images of large dimensions; but it is certain that +the cases are somewhat limited in which there is any need of using a +screen 24 or 25 feet square, and, as a general thing, one 6 or 10 feet +square suffices. The manufacturer of the apparatus, M. Gaumont, has, +therefore, been led to construct a small size in which the bands have +the dimensions usually employed in the French and other apparatus, +thus permitting of the use of such as are now found in abundance in +the market. + +By reducing the size, it has been possible further to simplify the +construction, and at the same time to reduce the price, thus making of +the new form a genuine amateur apparatus. + +It will be remembered that the Demeny principle consists especially in +the avoiding of traction upon the perforated part of the band, which +is the portion that always presents the most fragility. This principle +has naturally been preserved in the small model, and a preservation of +the bands for a long time is thus assured. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENSITIZED BAND IN TWO +MAGAZINES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2--ARRANGEMENT FOR TAKING VIEWS WITH SPECIAL +GEARING FOR THE WINDING OF THE BAND.] + +The apparatus is reversible, and may be used for making negatives as +well as for projecting positives. In its new form it is easily +transportable and is no more bulky than an ordinary 5 by 7 inch +apparatus. Nothing is simpler then than to carry it on a journey, if +one desires to make his own negative bands. Since the sensitized film +has to be protected against the light during its entire travel, two +magazines have been arranged (Fig. 1). One of these, A, which is fixed +upon the top of the camera, contains the clean film, while the other, +B, which is placed beneath the objective, receives the strip after it +has been acted upon by the light. A train of toothed wheels, C (Fig. +2), actuates the roller of this second magazine. This arrangement may, +moreover, be utilized also when projections are made, if one does not +desire the band to float in measure as it unwinds behind the +objective. As the upper magazine is entirely closed when it is placed +upon the apparatus, it is necessary, in order to prepare for taking a +negative, to pull out a few inches of the film, pass the latter over +the guide roller and fix the extremity to the winding roller in the +lower magazine. + +It is clear that we can have any number of magazines whatever for +carrying about, all charged, just as one carries the frames of his +ordinary camera. + +Chronophotography presents no more difficulty than ordinary +photography as regards the taking of negatives, and the amateur who +has not the proper facilities for developing and printing the latter +can have these operations performed by a professional. Animate +projections are beginning to be introduced into parlors, and some day +will entirely replace the magic lantern therein. The excitement caused +by the catastrophe at the Charity Bazar is now calmed, and it has been +ascertained that the accident was not due to the lamp of the +projector, but to a carelessly handled can of ether. So the extension +of this sort of spectacle, momentarily arrested, is taking a new +impetus, which will be further aided by the apparatus under +consideration, for the description of which and the illustrations we +are indebted to La Nature. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RECLAIMING OF OLD RUBBER. + +By HAWTHORNE HILL. + + +The complaint of high prices of India rubber is as old as the rubber +industry, one result of which has been an unceasing effort to discover +a practical substitute. Never was the secret of the transmutation of +metals sought more persistently by ancient philosophers than the +secret of an artificial rubber has been by modern chemists, but, thus +far, the one search has been hardly more successful than the other. +One discovery has been made, however, by which our rubber supplies +have been so far conserved that, for the want of it, we might be +obliged now to pay double the current prices for new rubber. This is +the reclaiming of rubber from worn-out goods, in a condition fit for +use again in almost every class of products of the rubber factory. + +Soon after the vulcanization of rubber became fully established, +attempts began to be made to "devulcanize" the scrap and cuttings of +rubber which accumulated in the factories. So extensive were these +accumulations that one company are reported to have built a road with +rubber scrap through a swamp adjacent to their factory, while most +other manufacturers were unable to find even so profitable a use for +their wastes. As time advanced there came to be large stocks, also, of +worn-out rubber goods, such as car springs and the like, all of which +appealed to a practical mind here and there as being of possible +value, since the price of new rubber kept climbing up all the while. + +No fewer than nineteen patents were granted in the United States for +"improvements in devulcanizing India rubber," or "restoring waste +vulcanized rubber," beginning in 1855, or eleven years after the date +of Goodyear's patent for the vulcanization process. In that year +Francis Baschnagel obtained a patent for restoring vulcanized rubber +to a soft, plastic, workable state, by treating it with alcohol +absolutus and carbon bisulphuratum, in a closed vessel, without the +application of heat. Later he obtained a patent for accomplishing the +same result by "boiling waste rubber in water, after it has been +reduced to a finely divided state;" and still later, one for treating +the waste to the direct action of steam. + +Patents were granted in 1858 to Hiram L. Hall, for the treatment of +waste rubber by boiling in water; also, by subjecting it to steam; and +again, by combining various resinous and other substances with it. The +two inventors named assigned their patents to the Beverly Rubber +Company, of Beverly, Mass., controlled then by the proprietors of the +New York Belting and Packing Company, and their processes became the +basis of an important business in rubber clothing. + +The low cost of the devulcanized rubber, as compared with new rubber, +alone gave them a great advantage over other manufacturers, in +addition to which they escaped the payment of a license to work under +the Goodyear patents. + +Many army blankets, made for the government during the civil war, were +waterproofed with Hall's devulcanized rubber, and from that period +little new rubber has been used in the manufacture of heavy rubber +coats. The other patents in this class do not deserve special mention. + +It having been established that rubber is rubber, no matter where +found, manufacturers gradually turned their attention beyond the +scraps and cuttings which remained after making up their goods. There +was beginning to be a good demand for ground-up rubber car springs, +wringer rolls, tubing and other rubber goods free from fiber, after it +had been so treated as to remove the sulphur contents and restore the +gum to a workable condition. But this left out of account rubber +footwear, belting, and hose, not to mention the later heavy production +of bicycle tires. There were only a few uses to which rubber waste +containing fibrous material could be put when ground up and +devulcanized without the removal of the fiber. It could be put into a +cheap grade of steam packing or mixed in a powdered form with new +rubber for the heels of rubber boots and shoes. There was an early +patent for a process for "combining fibrous materials with waste +vulcanized rubber, rendered soft and plastic." But all the other +patents which come within the scope of this article had for their +object the separation of fibers from the rubber. + +An important advance was marked by the Hayward patent (No. 40,407), +granted in 1868, for "boiling waste rags of fibrous material and +rubber in an acid or alkali, for the purpose of destroying the +tenacity of the fibers of the rags, so that the rubber may be +reground." But this process extended only to the weakening of the +fibers, and not their complete destruction. A later patent, in the +same year, provided for exposing the ground rubber waste to the direct +action of flames of gas or inflammable liquids, by which the foreign +matters would be consumed and the rubber rendered plastic and +cohesive, but it is not on record that this process received any +particular application. + +The principal activity of invention in the field of reclaiming rubber +dates from 1870, since which year 37 patents have been granted for +processes more or less distinctive from those which had for their +object only the devulcanization of rubber. Prior to that time the use +of rubber reclaimed from fibrous wastes had been confined practically +to one large factory in Boston and one near New York. One concern, for +a while, bought old rubber shoes and sent them to women in the +country, whom they paid so much a pound for the rubber stripped off--a +very expensive process. There were several claimants for priority in +the matter of reclaiming rubber by the processes which finally became +standard, and some conflicting interests were brought together under +the head of the Chemical Rubber Company. This corporation controlled +the leading patents for the "acid" process, licensing various parties +to work under them, and bringing suits against concerns who reclaimed +rubber without their license. In 1895 the United States courts decided +in favor of the defendants, practically rendering the patents invalid, +on the ground that the inventions claimed under them had been +disclosed by the Hall patents of 1858 and the Hayward patent of 1863. + +The two patents upon which the suits for infringement rested +principally were No. 249,970, granted to N.C. Mitchell, in 1881, and +No. 300,720, granted to the same, in 1884. About the same time the +Rubber Reclaiming Company, formed in 1890 by the combination of five +leading rubber reclaiming plants, and working under license from the +company above named, was resolved into the original elements. There +were about that time five other rubber reclaiming plants in the United +States, operating either the "acid" or the "mechanical" process, +besides nine general rubber factories producing their own reclaimed +rubber by the "acid" process. While several of the latter--rubber shoe +concerns controlled by the United States Rubber Company--have been +consolidated, there has been an increase in the number of rubber +manufacturers reclaiming their own rubber, since the end of the patent +litigation, so that the total number of reclaiming plants now probably +is twenty. + +The first step in any process for reclaiming rubber is the grinding of +the waste, for which purpose several machines have been designed +specially, an early patent for disintegrating rubber scrap by +"subjecting it to the abrading action of grindstones" having failed to +meet with favor. The most usual chemical treatment is a bath in a +solution of sulphuric acid in lead-lined tanks. Generally heat is +employed to hasten the process, through the medium of steam, in which +case the tanks are tightly closed. The next step is the washing of the +scrap, to free it of acid and dirt, after which it is sheeted by being +run between iron rollers and hung in drying rooms. As soon as it has +become dry it is ready for sale. + +In the extended litigation over the acid process patents, the points +at issue related to the strength of the acid named in the various +specifications and also to the methods of applying steam. Prof. +Charles F. Chandler, called as an expert in one case, testified that +the effects of acids, such as sulphuric or hydrochloric, upon rubber +and rubber compounds, under varying strength and temperature, had been +known at a period antedating all the patents then the basis of suits +for infringement; also that their effect upon cotton and woolen +fabrics had been equally well known. They had the same effect upon +fibers, whether the latter were combined with rubber or not, but very +strong acids would affect the rubber injuriously. The line of defense +in this case was that "no invention was required in selecting the +strength of acid; only the common sense of the manufacturer, aided by +his skill and experience, was necessary to bring about the proper +results." In support of this a factory superintendent testified that +varied stocks required skill and judgment in their treatment and more +or less variation as to the strength of acid, temperature, etc. + +As to the use of steam, Prof. Henry B. Cornwall, of Princeton College, +called as an expert in another case, testified that, having put to a +test the specifications in all the patents involved, he had found it +necessary in no case to inject live steam into the mixtures of acid +and rubber scrap in order to effect the decomposition and removal of +either woolen or cotton fiber. The use of the acids specified was +sufficient for this, and the various high temperatures called for were +not essential for the destruction of the fibers. He neglected to +mention, however, that the steam served an equally important purpose +in devulcanizing the rubber. + +It appeared that the practice in different factories had included the +use of sulphuric acid varying from a 2œ per cent. solution to the +full commercial strength of the acid, but one of the defendant +companies based their case upon their use of acid of the strength of +28° to 30° Baumé, whereas the patent they were charged with infringing +specified a strength of 66°. Their tanks were lead-lined and provided +on the interior with steam pipes running down the sides and along the +bottom, the sections at the bottom being perforated and the steam +admitted at a pressure of 75 to 80 pounds. The chemical treatment +lasted from 2œ to 4 hours. + +The sulphuric acid treatment, however, is confined mainly to scrap +containing cotton fiber. Where woolen fibers occur, which is much less +frequently, their disintegration is accomplished generally by the use +of caustic soda. + +In the mechanical process of reclaiming rubber, the rubber is +separated from the fiber, after the whole has been finely ground, by +means of an air blast, the method being not unlike that practiced by +furriers for separating hair and fur from bits of pelt after skins +have been finely divided. As the powdered waste comes from the blower, +the rubber falls in a heap near the machine, while the particles of +fiber, being lighter, are carried far enough away to make the +separation complete. Devulcanization in this case is effected by +exposure to live steam at a high temperature. No oil is used in the +process, the sheeting of the product being facilitated by means of hot +friction rollers. + +The cost of reclaiming rubber by the acid process is less than by +mechanical means, for which reason the former is now much more +generally used. But some manufacturers are willing to pay more per +pound for mechanically-reclaimed rubber, either (1) because it can be +"compounded" more heavily than the acid product, or (2) because of +certain inherent disadvantages of the latter. It is the testimony of +these manufacturers that the action of sulphuric acid upon whiting +(one of the most common adulterants used in rubber shoes) is to turn +it into sulphate of lime--an ingredient which is far from advantageous +in a rubber compound. Again, any acid which may remain in the +reclaimed rubber is liable to rot thin textile fabrics with which it +may be combined in manufacture. Finally, rubber recovered by the +chemical process, it is claimed, is harder than that obtained by any +other; so that it is usual to add, during vulcanization, in order to +soften the product, the residuum obtained from petroleum manufactures, +or palm or other oils. Unvulcanized rubber clippings also have been +used for this purpose. One of the most successful of our rubber +factory superintendents, who formerly made the reclaimed rubber used +by his factory, has stated that his practice was to subject the +material to an alkaline bath after the acid treatment, not only for +the better cleaning of the rubber, but to neutralize any acid which +might remain. Considering all the points involved, it was his opinion +that, when scrap rubber is cheap, the mechanical process is the more +economical, while, if it is high priced, the acid process has the +advantage. Since this expression of opinion, however, prices of rubber +scrap have ranged constantly at higher figures than before, and there +is no indication that we shall have again what was known formerly as +"cheap" scrap. It is not surprising, therefore, that the volume of +mechanical "shoddy" should be placed by the best estimates at not +above one-sixth of the total production of reclaimed rubber in the +United States. And the acid product, with all its admitted +shortcomings, is still superior to any of the so-called rubber +substitutes. + +Reclaimed rubber is not to be considered as an adulterant, except in +the same sense as fillings, like whiting, litharge or barytes, the use +of which in rubber compounds often gives to the product desirable +qualities that are unobtainable by the use of "pure gum." It lacks +some of the qualities of good native rubber, and yet it is rubber, and +fills its proper place as acceptably as any raw material of +manufacture. Rubber shoes made of new gum entirely would be too +elastic, and for that reason would draw the feet, besides being too +costly for the ordinary trade. The construction of a rubber shoe, by +the way, is well adapted for the use of different compounds for the +different parts. Rubber enters into twenty-six pieces of a rubber boot +and nine or more pieces of a rubber shoe. Consequently, as many +different compounds may be used, if desired, for the output of a +single factory for rubber footwear. The highest grades of native +rubber may be used for waterproofing the uppers of a fine overshoe, +while reclaimed rubber, of a cheap class even, may be good enough for +the heel, which requires only to be waterproof and durable, without +too much weight, and with no elasticity. Reclaimed rubber goes into +many classes of goods of high grade. The result is that such goods +have been cheapened legitimately, placing them within the reach of +immense numbers of consumers who otherwise would be obliged to do +without. + +While the extensive use of reclaimed rubber is a matter of common +knowledge to all who are familiar with the rubber industry, there are +nowhere available any statistics of either the absolute or comparative +volume of its consumption, with the single exception of the official +returns of imports into Canada. There separate accounts are kept of +crude India rubber and of recovered rubber received in each year, and +as only a consuming market exists for these commodities in the +Dominion, the figures given below may be taken to represent closely +the actual consumption by the rubber factories of Ontario and Quebec. +It is interesting to note the heavy growth of the percentage of +recovered rubber shown in the table, all the figures representing +pounds: + + Fiscal Crude Recovered Total + Year. Rubber. Rubber. Imports. + 1885-86 739,169 19,499 758,668 + 1886-87 785,040 46,508 831,548 + 1887-88 1,225,893 88,471 1,314,364 + 1888-89 1,669,014 221,674 1,890,688 + 1889-90 1,290,766 147,377 1,438,143 + 1890-91 1,602,644 8,254 1,610,898 + 1891-92 2,100,358 106,080 2,206,438 + 1892-93 2,152,855 195,281 2,348,136 + 1893-94 2,077,703 529,900 2,607,603 + 1894-95 1,402,844 611,745 2,014,589 + 1895-96 2,155,576 643,169 2,798,745 + 1896-97 2,014,936 1,061,402 3,076,338 + Percentage, 1885-86 97.5 2.5 100 + " 1896-97 65.5 34.5 100 + +If it were possible to examine the books of the several rubber +reclaiming plants on this side of the border, including rubber shoe +and mechanical goods factories producing their own reclaimed rubber, +the percentage of this material used, in comparison with the total +rubber consumption, might be found to be as great in the United States +as in Canada. The rubber manufacture in the Dominion, in its +inception, was practically an offshoot from the industry in this +country. Our manufacturers supplied the Canadian demand for rubber +goods until, under the stimulus of heavy protective duties, rubber +works were established beyond the border, since which time, to quote a +leader in the trade in the United States, "the methods of the Dominion +rubber industry have mirrored the best practice in our country." Hence +it seems not unreasonable to conclude that if the Canadians are using +so large a percentage of reclaimed rubber, they are doing no more nor +less than the older and larger concerns here. The most trustworthy +authorities place the consumption of new rubber in the United States +during 1897 at not far from 35,000,000 pounds. Assuming that the rate +of consumption of reclaimed rubber was as great as in Canada, we have +18,435,000 pounds more, or a total of 53,433,000 pounds. But there are +producers of reclaimed rubber who insist that the amount of this +material used in this country equals, pound for pound, the consumption +of new rubber. + +The use of reclaimed rubber in Europe is increasing gradually, and +especially in Great Britain. The American product is sold extensively +in that country, and some native reclaiming plants have been started. +The most extensive "galosh" factory in Russia, which is said to be the +largest in the world, is reclaiming rubber according to American +methods. But, as a rule, the Continental rubber manufacturers make +more use of "substitutes," a class of materials which has not found +favor in America. These rubber substitutes belong chiefly to the class +of oxidized oils and may be classed in three divisions: Those obtained +(1) by the action of oxygen or air on linseed oil; (2) by acting on +rape oil with chloride of sulphur; and (3) by the action of sulphur on +rape oil at a high temperature. The first class has little application +to the rubber trade, though its use is universal in the linoleum +industry. In Europe the chemist holds a more important position in the +rubber manufacture than here, one result of which has been cheaper +compounds of rubber and another the satisfactory employment of the +refractory African rubbers long before they were used extensively in +the United States. Hence the cost of raw materials in the rubber +industry has been, on the whole, cheaper abroad. The Europeans have +had an advantage, too, in respect to cheaper labor, which has offset +somewhat our own advantage from the use of reclaimed rubber as a cheap +material. + +There are numerous grades of reclaimed rubber, due to differences in +the quality of stock used, and also to the different degrees of care +used in its preparation, according to the requirements of +manufacturers. The declared value of reclaimed rubber exported from +New York during July, 1897, averaged 12.6 cents per pound, while the +value of exports for September averaged only 9.1 cents. The average +value for the eight months ending February 28, 1898, was 10.08 cents +per pound. The total declared value of such exports for the fiscal +year 1896-97 was $119,440, which, at the prices prevailing since, +would represent considerably more than 1,000,000 pounds. Some of the +material sold at home is known to bring less than any prices quoted +above. "Mechanical" stock brings about two cents per pound more than +"acid" stock of corresponding grade. + +The collection of old rubber has acquired large proportions as an +adjunct to the trade in junk or rags. Not long ago the estimated +yearly collection of rubber shoes alone amounted to 18,000 tons, and +since that time the business in bicycle tire scrap has also become +very large. During the past ten years the price of old rubber shoes +has ranged between $60 and $120 per ton in carload lots, being at +present about $90 per ton. Some 1,500 tons of rubber scrap are +imported annually by the reclaiming companies in the United States. + + * * * * * + +In the Baltic Sea there are more wrecks than in any other place in the +world. The average throughout the year is one each day. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENGINEERING NOTES. + + +THE AUSTRIAN government has ordered thirty-seven engines arranged to +burn kerosene, for use in the Arlberg tunnel, in which lack of proper +ventilation at present causes the tunnel to remain filled with +smoke.--Uhland's Wochenschrift. + +One of the first essentials to modern military enterprise is the +establishment of a military railway system for war purposes. To be in +a position to carry out efficiently and speedily what we may expect to +be called upon to do on the outbreak of serious war, previous +preparation in time of peace is an absolute requisite. In connection +with General Sherman's operations in Georgia, during the American +civil war, an army was supplied for six and a half months over a line +473 miles long. The corps of workmen was 10,000 strong, and on one +occasion replaced 35,000 sleepers and nine miles of rails in seven +days. The true defense of the line was effected by the engineers +always having men and material ready. In spite of the large and +skilled railway population on which the army could call, and of the +fact that practically the nation was in arms, it was found extremely +difficult to keep this railway construction corps together until they +were placed under a severe military discipline.--United Service +Gazette. + +A HOSPITAL car has been introduced on the Belgian railroads, says +The Engineer. It is designed for use in the event of a serious railway +accident, and can be run to the spot where the wounded may be picked +up and carried to the nearest city for treatment, instead of being +left to pass hours in some wayside station while awaiting surgical +attendance. The interior of this car is divided into a main +compartment, a corridor on one side and two small rooms at the end. +The largest compartment, the hospital proper, contains twenty-four +isolated beds on steel tubes hung upon powerful springs; each bed is +provided with a small movable table, a cord serving to hold all the +various small objects which may be needed, and each patient lies in +front of two little windows, which may be closed or opened at will. +The corridor on the outside of the hospital chamber leads to the linen +closet and the doctor's apartment; in the latter is a large cupboard, +the upper portion being used for drugs, while the lower is divided +into two sections, one serving as a case for surgical instruments and +the other as a receptacle for the doctor's folding bed. + +THE DUST collected from the smoke of some Liege furnaces, burning +coal raised from the neighboring mines, produces, when dissolved in +hydrochloric acid, a solution from which considerable quantities of +arsenic and several other metallic salts may be precipitated. +Commenting on this fact, ascertained by M.A. Jorissen, M. Francis Maur +asks whether this breathing of arsenic and other minerals in a finely +divided state may not account for the singular immunity from epidemics +enjoyed by certain industrial districts, such as that of Saint +Etienne, and hopes that some mine doctor will throw additional light +on the subject. In the meanwhile, it may be suggested that the +ventilating effect of the numerous chimneys in iron making and other +industrial centers has its due share in constantly driving off the +vitiated air and replacing it by fresh quantities of pure air. At any +rate, when pestilence was raging in the high and pleasant quarter of +Clifton, its inhabitants migrated to the low-lying and not overclean +parish of St. Philips, Bristol, where the air is black from the smoke +of numerous chimneys, but where also the mortality compared very +favorably with that in the fashionable quarter. + +A TWO-SPEED movable sidewalk, of the Blot, Guyenet and De Mocomble +type, is to be used for conveying visitors at the Paris Exposition, +says Engineering News. It differs from those of Chicago and Berlin in +the reduction of the weight of the moving platform by spacing the +driving wheels 127.5 feet apart and using electricity as a motive +power. The driving wheels are mounted in the bed of the track and +impart motion to a central rail on the under side of the platform. +Bearing wheels, spaced about 20 feet apart under this rail, also carry +the platform, and the central rail supports one-half the total weight +of the platform; small side wheels carry the other half on side +tracks. This arrangement enables the platform, which is divided into +sections and hinged, to pass around quite sharp curves. The high speed +platform, 4 feet 3 inches wide, is supposed to move at the rate of +6œ miles per hour on a 35œ-inch gage track; the slow platform is +31œ inches wide, moves at half speed and runs on a 17-3/4-inch gage +track. The whole structure will be elevated on girders carried by cast +iron columns, with stations about 656 feet apart. The high speed +platform weighs 146 pounds per lineal foot; and with passengers, +nearly 400 pounds per foot. The slow speed platform weighs about half +this. The track will be about 2œ miles long; the initial motive +power is figured at 472 H.P. and the carrying capacity at 38,880 per +hour. + +THE "SCHLAMM," or mud, thrown down from the water of coal washing +has hitherto been regarded as worthless, says The Engineering and +Mining Journal, except that sometimes a portion of the coal particles +it contained have been separated and made of value by a washing +process; but Bergassessor Haarmann, of Friedrichsthal, has invented a +new method for treating it dry and dividing it into two products, one +of which, with low ash content, is distinguished by its granular +nature, while the other contains a large proportion of ash and is of +the fineness of flour. The former of these two products is, on account +of its low ash content, useful for various purposes, and the latter +constitutes a fuel quite ready for use in coal dust firing. The method +is founded on the circumstances, hitherto lost sight of, that the +incombustible constituents of the "schlamm" chiefly consist of clay +which was formerly more or less dissolved in the wash water; and on +the mud being dried and subjected to a suitable mechanical process, +the clay falls into fine dust, while the coal particles, on the +contrary, retain their granular nature. The method is carried out by +drying the mud and a subsequent fine sifting, which effects a breaking +up of the lumps that occur in the dried "schlamm," and a separation +into the two products above named. The dust that falls through the +sieve has a high ash content, being in the nature of flour, while what +remains behind is granular and has a low ash content. It seems to us +that this game is hardly worth the candle. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICAL NOTES. + + +ELECTRICITY AT the Paris Exposition.--Electricity will play a large +part at the Paris Exposition of 1900, says the Revue Technique. No +less than 15,000 h.p. will be used for lighting and 5,000 h.p. for +furnishing electric power to the various parts of the grounds. As far +as possible all the machinery exhibited will be shown at work and for +this purpose electric conductors will be laid down to all points on +the grounds. The boiler plant will be located at the end of the Champ +de Mars, and will occupy two spaces of 130 X 390 feet each, one being +devoted to French boilers and the other to those of foreign makers. +This plant will be in itself a very interesting exhibit. It is +proposed to provide a capacity for evaporating not less than 440,000 +pounds of water per hour. + +AN INTERESTING little plant in which the rise and fall of the tides +is used as motive power for the generation of electricity is described +in L'Electricien. Near Ploumanach, on the northern coast of France, +where the tides have a daily range of 39 feet, a small fish pond +separated from the sea by a dike is arranged with gates so that at +high tide the water flows in and fills it, the gates closing +automatically when the tide recedes. The machinery of an old grist +mill is used to operate a small dynamo, which charges a storage +battery and furnishes light for the fish industry there. Another wheel +in the same mill works an ice making machine, the whole being under +the charge of one man. It is stated that the total daily expense for +generating about 2,000 horse power hours is only $2. + +PEAT BOGS as generators of electrical power are suggested by Dr. +Frank in Stahl und Eisen. He says that the great peat bogs of North +Germany may be thus utilized, and figures that one acre of bog, +averaging 10 feet in thickness, contains about 1,000 tons of dried +peat, or 313,000 tons per square mile; and 430 square miles would be +equivalent in heating power to the 80,000,000 to 85,000,000 tons of +coal annually mined in Germany. The bogs of the Ems Valley alone cover +13,000 square miles; and Dr. Frank proposes the erection in that +district of a 10,000 horse power electric station, which would yearly +consume 200,000 tons of peat, or the product of 200 acres. He would +use the electrical energy on the Dortmund and Emshaven Canal, and for +the manufacture of calcium carbide. + +THE SUCCESS attending an application of electric towing on the +Burgundy Canal was such that two new applications of electricity to +canal haulage and also for barge propulsion were made last year in the +neighborhood of Dijon, on the same canal, under the superintendence of +M. Gaillot, Ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées. In the method of +haulage, says The London Engineer, the receptor dynamo is mounted on a +tricycle, to which the name of "electric horse" has been given, and +which, running on the towing path, takes its current from an air line +consisting of two wires, mounted five meters (nearly 17 feet) above +the surface. This "horse," which weighs two tons, and is guided by a +driver mounted upon it through the front wheel, proceeds on the towing +path like a traction engine; and the boats are connected with it by a +rope, with automatic disengaging gear, in case the force of the stream +or a gust of wind should drive a boat backward. Speeds of from 1,990 +to 4,240 meters (mean 3,319 yards) were obtained with the electric +horse, towing from three to four boats, so that it is more suitable +than the electric propeller for towage in rivers or very long reaches; +but it requires a driver, while the propeller, with which speeds of +from 2,150 to 4,240 meters (mean 3,406 yards) per hour were obtained, +is worked by the bargee on board his boat. The towing path is not +worn, and there is no occasion for a tow rope, which always causes +difficulty when two boats cross one another. M. Maillet and M. +Dufourny, Belgian Ingénieurs des Ponts et Chaussées, who watched the +trials, conclude that a practical solution of the question depends +upon the cost of producing the motive power; but they also consider +that horse haulage on canals will soon be superseded by mechanical +traction, based on the use of an automotive tricycle, working with +petroleum or some other hydrocarbon, and capable of running on the tow +path without requiring any fixed plant. + +IT HAS long been known that feathers and hair are electrical bodies, +but until recently we have had little information about their +electrical properties or the conditions in which these properties are +manifested. Most of these phenomena were first observed by Exner, and +in the work of Dr. Schwarze are found collected a mass of facts that +cannot fail to interest the physician and the biologist; besides, we +find there a description of Exner's apparatus which was used by +Schwarze in most of his experiments on electrical phenomena of this +kind. By the side of gold leaf electroscopes we see a feather +electroscope, which is fastened to its support by means of a silken +thread. A feather waved through the air is positively electrified, +while the air itself seems to be charged with negative electricity.... +Two feathers rubbed together in the natural position are so +electrified that their lower surface is negative and the upper +positive.... These experiments and others still have been utilized to +study the vital relations of animals and the biological signification +of these phenomena. Most feathers stick together and remain so even +after being dried; if they then are waved through the air, the barbs +of the feather separate, owing to differences of electrification. No +bird needs to attend to its plumage at the end of a long flight, for +while the large feathers are positively electrified by friction +against the air, the white down has become negative, and so there is +attraction between it and the feathers. Another consequence of this +production of electricity during flight is that during winds, even the +most violent, the plumage does not become ruffled, but rests tightly +against the bird's body, for in this case the wing feathers, which +overlap, rub against each other and become electrified in contrary +senses. If the bird flies toward the ground, flapping its wings, it +compresses the air below them, and, supposing that the wing feathers +can bend aside, the experiments of Exner show that by the friction the +upper side of one feather and the lower side of that which is just +above are electrified oppositely, the more powerfully as the rubbing +is greater, which always causes them to resume the normal +position.--L'Electricien. + + * * * * * + + + + +SELECTED FORMULÆ. + + +REMOVAL OF INK FROM HECTOGRAPH.--It is recommended in Südd. Ap. Ztg. +to pour crude hydrochloric acid upon the hectograph, rub with a wad of +cotton, then wash off by holding under cold running water and drying +with a cloth. The hectograph may be used again immediately. + +TO CLEAN WALL PAPER.--Four ounces of pumice stone in fine powder are +thoroughly mixed with 1 quart of flour and the mass is kneaded with +water enough to form a thick dough. This dough is formed into rolls +about 2 inches in diameter and 6 or 8 inches long; each one is sewed +up in a piece of cotton cloth and then boiled in water for from 40 to +50 minutes--long enough to render the dough firm. After cooling and +allowing the rolls to stand for several hours, the outer portion is +peeled off and they are then ready for use, the paper being rubbed +with them as in the bread process.--Druggist's Circular. + +INSULATING COMPOUND.--Prof. Fessenden recommends for armature work a +compound made by boiling pure linseed oil at about 200 degrees with +1/2 per cent. of borate of manganese, the boiling being continued for +several hours, or until the oil begins to thicken. An advantage of +this borated oil is that it always retains a slight stickiness, and so +gives a good joint when wrapped around wires, etc. Many substances so +used are not sticky and let moisture in through the joints. Where a +smooth surface is required, it is readily obtained by dusting on a +little talc. It can also be given a coat of japan on the +outside.--American Electrician. + +HOW TO CLEAN DIATOMS.--As a general rule, we may say that every +specimen of diatomaceous earth or rock needs a special treatment. The +following, however, may serve as a basic treatment, from which such +departure may be taken in each case as the nature of the specimen +would indicate: Boil the material in hydrochloric acid, in a test +tube, from two to five minutes. Let settle, pour off the hydrochloric +acid, substitute nitric acid in its place, and boil again for two or +three minutes. Pour into a beaker of water, stir a moment with a glass +rod and let settle. After the material has fallen to the bottom, +decant the liquid, and fill with fresh water. Repeat the operation +until the water no longer shows an acid reaction. A portion of the +deposit may now be examined, and if not clean, boil the deposit with +tincture of soap and water in equal parts, decant, wash, first with +water, then with stronger ammonia water, and finally, with distilled +water. This usually leaves the frustules bright and sharp.--National +Druggist. + +RED INDELIBLE INK.--It is said that by proceeding according to the +following formula, an intense purple red color may be produced on +fabrics, which is indelible in the customary sense of the word. + + No. 1. + Sodium carbonate 3 drs. + Gum arabic 3 " + Water 12 " + + No. 2. + Platinic chloride 1 dr. + Distilled water 2 oz. + + No. 3. + Stannous chloride 1 dr. + Distilled water 4 " + +Moisten the place to be written upon with No. 1 and rub a warm iron +over it until dry; then write with No. 2, and, when dry, moisten with +No. 3. An intense and beautiful purple-red color is produced in this +way. The following simpler and less expensive method of obtaining an +indelible red mark on linen has been proposed by Wegler: Dilute egg +albumen with an equal weight of water, rapidly stir with a glass rod +until it foams, and then filter through linen. Mix the filtrate with a +sufficient quantity of finely levigated vermilion until a rather thick +liquid is obtained. Write with a quill, or gold pen, and then touch +the reverse side of the fabric with a hot iron, coagulating the +albumen. It is claimed that marks so made are affected by neither +soaps, acids nor alkalies. This ink, or rather paint, is said to keep +moderately well in securely stoppered bottles, but we should not rely +on it as a "stock" article. A white paint for marking dark colored +articles might be made by substituting zinc white for the red pigment +in the foregoing formula.--Druggist's Circular. + +BROWN OR BLACK DISCOLORATION OF SILVERED MIRRORS.--Generally these +spots are due to faulty manipulation, too great dilution of the silver +solution, or touching the plates with the fingers after they have been +cleaned. Sometimes, however, they are due to chemical defects in the +glass itself. In these cases, as a general thing, the discolorations +occur only after several days--a faultless mirror having been made at +first, and the browning subsequently developing slowly. The writer was +a student in the laboratory of Baron Liebig during the time that +distinguished chemist was carrying out the series of experiments which +resulted in devising a method of making silver mirrors commercially. +One of the greatest troubles with which he had to contend was this +browning--the cause for which was never fully cleared up by him. Some +years ago, the writer, having in his possession two mirrors made by +Liebig, and which had gradually become brown throughout, undertook an +examination of the deposit (which had been thoroughly protected from +extraneous influences by a strong film of varnish), and was surprised +to find that it consisted of a layer of silver sulphide. Without going +into detail, the source of the change was later found to lie within +the glass itself. In making glass to be used for mirrors, a +considerable portion of sodium sulphate is used, and in annealing, +this is partly reduced to sodium sulphide, which effloresces on the +surface of the glass. This efflorescence is, of course, removed on +cleaning the glass before silvering; but it is found that, in many +instances, on exposure of the mirror to the light for some time, a +further efflorescence occurs, and it is this which produces the +discoloration in cases such as we have cited. It has been suggested +that the tendency to subsequent efflorescence may be corrected by +boiling the plates, intended for silvering, for a couple of minutes, +in a 10 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate or bicarbonate. We have +no experience with the process, however.--National Druggist. + + * * * * * + + + + +WILD AND DOMESTIC SHEEP IN THE BERLIN ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN. + + +As a rule, domestic animals are accorded very little space in +zoological gardens, but, although it is doubtless the first duty of +these popular institutions to show visitors animals which live in a +wild state in foreign lands, it is well, where there is sufficient +space and adequate means, to extend the limits of the collection so as +to include natives of our own woods and fields, thus enabling people +of a great city who are unfamiliar with nature to form an idea of the +changes wrought in animal life by the influence of man, for domestic +animals are a great aid in the study of natural history. The +accompanying engravings are reproductions of instantaneous photographs +of occupants of the new sheep and goat house--mostly foreign breeds; +but there are a few that belong to that South European-Asiatic group +which are looked upon as the progenitors of the domestic sheep: the +mouflon, of Sardinia and Corsica (Ovis Musimon L.), which has a coat +of brownish red, flecked with darker color; and the slender, +long-legged, reddish-gray sheep of Belochistan (Ovis Blanfordi Hume). +The first glance at these creatures convinces one that they are wild, +not domestic sheep, an impression which is caused chiefly by the +monotonous coloring and the dry, short coat, which bears no +resemblance to the thick fleece of the tame sheep, although the eye is +soon attracted by other differences, such as the shape of the tail, +which is short and thick, and of the horns, which extend over the back +and then turn inward, so that when the old ram is kept in captivity, +it is necessary to cut off the points of the horns to prevent their +boring into the flesh of its neck. Horns of this shape form a strong +contrast to those with snail-like windings and points standing away +from the body. When looking at one of these sheep from the front, it +will be noticed that the left horn turns to the right and the right +horn to the left. + +[Illustration: SARDINIAN MOUFLON (OVIS MUSIMON L.)] + +[Illustration: BELOCHISTAN SHEEP (OVIS BLANFORDI HUME).] + +Former authorities have been unwilling to admit that the domestic +sheep have come from any species of wild sheep of the present time. +They hold that they are the descendants of one or more species of wild +sheep that are now extinct. Recently, however, men have thought more +deeply and freely on such subjects, and Nehring and others have traced +the modern tame sheep back to the mouflon, but not to him alone. It is +thought that in this case, as with other domestic animals, there has +been a mixture of species, and in this connection attention was +directed to the Transcaspian arkal, the argalis of the interior of +Asia and the North African species. Dr. Heck, director of the Berlin +Zoological Garden, thinks that the horns of the tame ram, which are +turned outward, the points being directed away from the body, +constitute one of the strongest proofs that the blood of the argalis +and its extinct European ancestors--which are known only by the fossil +remains--flows in the veins of all domestic sheep. + +The other characteristic marks of the domestic sheep--the wool and the +length of the tail--vary greatly. The heath sheep--the little, +contented, weather-hardened grazing sheep of the Lüneburg and other +heaths--belong to one of the oldest species, and their tails are as +short and their horns as dark as those of the moufflon. A cross +between these two breeds is not distinguishable, even in the second +generation, as has been shown by the interesting experiments in the +Düsseldorf Zoological Garden. + +[Illustration: HEATH SHEEP.] + +The little, black and red-spotted Cameroons sheep, from the western +coast of Africa, have not a trace of wool. But why should they have? +The negroes need no clothing, and, consequently, they have not bred +sheep with wool; and, besides, such an animal could not live in the +tropics, even if the black man were a much better stock raiser and +breeder than he is. The mane on the neck, and breast of the Cameroons +ram reminds one of the North American sheep; but it must be remembered +that the mouflon and arkal rams have this ornament quite clearly, +although not so strongly defined. + +[Illustration: CAMEROONS SHEEP.] + +The large, short-bodied and long-legged sheep found in the interior of +western and northern Africa are a complete contrast to the +short-legged, long-bodied little Cameroons sheep. There is a very +valuable pair of the former in the Berlin Zoological Garden--the +Haussa sheep--which are very regularly marked, the front parts of +their bodies being red and the hind parts white. They were brought +from the neighborhood of Say, on the middle Niger, by the Togo +Hinterland expedition. The ram has beautiful horns, and the ewe is +distinguished by two strange, tassel-like pendants of skin that hang +from her neck. This zoological garden also possesses a fine ram from +the interior of Tunis, which is similar in shape to the Haussa ram, +but has shorter horns and a heavier mane. Its color is grayish black. + +[Illustration: RAM FROM TUNIS.] + +[Illustration: HAUSSA RAM.] + +[Illustration: HAUSSA EWE.] + +Dr. Heck considers the long tail of the domestic sheep the chief +impediment to the adoption of the theory of its descent from the +short-tailed wild sheep. And yet, in sheep, this member is of +secondary importance, for it varies greatly in form. The short-tailed +heath sheep are just the opposite of the fat-tailed Persian sheep, +which are represented in a fabulous account as being obliged to draw +their broad tails, that weighed 40 pounds, behind them on wheels. +These are the sheep that supply the Astrakan and Persian lamb which is +so much worn now. The fur is caused to lie in peculiar waves or tight +rings by sewing the newly born lamb in a tightly fitting covering +which keeps the fur from being mussed. In the Berlin Zoological Garden +there is a very fine four-horned, fat-tailed ram, from the steppes on +the lower Volga. From this region come also the large-boned, +fat-rumped sheep, which have a large mass of fat on each side of the +stunted tail. In the illustration this peculiarity does not show well, +on account of the thick winter wool. Their color is red, with dirty +white. When Wissman and Bumiller returned from their last expedition, +they brought a fine ram of a different breed of fat-rumped sheep, +which are raised by the Kirghise, on the Altai Mountains. They are +smaller than those from the steppes of the Volga, but have finer wool, +and evidently belong to a finer breed. As mutton tallow is very +useful, and has been used even from the most ancient times by sheep +raisers in the preparation of food, they prize sheep with these masses +of fat on the tail and rump, which were purposely developed to the +greatest possible degree. + +[Illustration: FAT-TAILED SHEEP (FOUR-HORNED RAM).] + +[Illustration: FAT-RUMPED SHEEP.] + +The steinbock and the chamois, which live in the highest mountains, +are still found, but other breeds, such as the argalis, which +inhabited the foot hills and the high table lands, have disappeared, +as Europe has become more thickly populated. We know that they +formerly lived there, by the fossil remains of the oldest Pliocene in +England (Ovis Savinii Newton), of the caves of bones near Stramberg in +Moravia (Ovis argaloides Nehring), and of the diluvial strata near +Puy-de-Dôme Mountain in the south of France (Ovis antiqua Pommerol). + +For the above and the accompanying illustrations we are indebted to +Daheim. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 1172, page 18756.] + + + + +PATENTS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: To be presented at the Niagara Falls meeting (June, + 1898) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and + forming part of Vol. six of the Transactions.] + +By JAMES W. SEE, Hamilton, Ohio, Member of the Society. + + +EMPLOYERS' RIGHTS. + +An invention, to be patented, must be applied for by the actual +inventor, and in the absence of acts constituting a transfer, the +patent, and all legal ownership in it, and all rights under it, go +exclusively to the inventor. In the absence of express or implied +contract, a mere employer of the inventor has no rights under the +patent. Only contracts or assignments give to the employer, or to +anyone else, a license or a partial or entire ownership in the patent. +The equity of this may be appreciated by examples. A journeyman +carpenter invents an improvement in chronometer escapements and +patents it. The man who owns the carpenter shop has no shadow of claim +on or under this patent. Again, the carpenter invents and patents an +improvement in jack planes. The shop owner has no rights in or under +the patent. Again, the carpenter invents an improvement in window +frames, and the shop owner has no rights. He has no right even to make +the patented window frame without license. The shop owner, in merely +employing the carpenter, acquires no rights to the carpenter's +patented inventions. But there are cases in which an implied license +would go to the shop owner. For instance, if the carpenter was +employed on the mutual understanding that he was particularly +ingenious in devising carpenter work, and capable of improving upon +the products of the shop; and if in the course of his work he devised +a new and patentable window frame, and developed it in connection with +his employment and at the expense of his employer; and if the new +frames were made by the employer without protest from the carpenter, +the carpenter could, of course, patent the new frame, but he could not +oust the employer in his right to continue making the invention, for +it would be held that the employer had acquired an implied license. + +If he could not use it, then he would not be getting the very +advantage for which he employed this particular carpenter, and if he +did get that right, he would be getting all that he employed the +carpenter for, and that right would not be at all lessened by the fact +that the carpenter had a patent under which he could license other +people. The patent does not constitute the right to make or use or +sell, for such right is enjoyed without a patent. The patent +constitutes the "exclusive" right to make, sell or use, and this the +shop owner does not get unless he specially bargains for it. Implied +licenses stand on delicate ground, and where men employ people of +ingenious talent, with the understanding that the results of such +talent developed during the employment shall inure to the benefit of +the employer, there is only one safeguard, and that is to found the +employment on a contract unmistakably setting forth the understanding. + + +NEW PURPOSE. + +If an invention is old, it is old regardless of any new purpose to +which it is put. It is no invention to put a machine to a new use. If +an inventor contrives a meritorious machine for the production of +coins or medals, his invention is lacking in novelty if it should +appear that such a machine had before been designed as a soap press, +and this fact is not altered by any merely structural or formal +difference, such as difference in power or strength, due to the +difference in duty. The invention resides in the machine and not in +the use of it. If the soap press is covered by an existing patent, +that patent is infringed by a machine embodying that invention, +regardless of whether the infringing machine be used for pressing soap +or silver. And it is no invention to discover some new capacity in an +old invention. An inventor is entitled to all the capacities of his +invention. + + +COMBINATION CLAIMS. + +Many people have an erroneous notion regarding patent claims, and +consider the expression "combination" as an element of weakness. The +fact is, that all mechanical claims that are good for anything are +combination claims. No claim for an individual mechanical element has +come under my notice for many years and I doubt if a new mechanical +element has been lately invented. All claims resolve themselves into +combinations, whether so expressed or not. Combination does not +necessarily imply separateness of elements. The improved carpet tack +is after all but a peculiar combination of body and head and barbs. +The erroneous public contempt for combination claims is based upon the +legal maxim, that if you break the combination you avoid the claim and +escape infringement, and this legal maxim should be well understood in +formulating the claims. If the claim calls for five elements and the +competitor can omit one of the elements, he escapes infringement. +Therefore, the claim is good only when it recites no elements which +are not essential. + +Many inventors labor under the delusion that a claim is strong in +proportion to the extent of its array of elements. The exact opposite +is the truth, and that claim is the strongest which recites the +fewest number of elements. It is the duty of the inventor to analyze +his invention and know what is and what is not essential to its +realization. It is the duty of the patent solicitor to sift out the +essential from the non-essential, and to draft claims covering broad +combinations involving only essential elements. Sometimes the inventor +will help him in this matter, but quite as often he will, through +ignorance, hinder him and combat him. The invention having been +carefully analyzed and reduced to its prime factors, and the claim +having been provided to comprise a combination involving no element +which is not essential to a realization of the invention, a new and +more important question arises. The elements have been recited in +terms fitted to the example of the invention thus far developed. The +combination is broadly stated, but the terms of the elements are +limiting. Cannot some ingenious infringer realize the invention by a +similar combination escaping the literalism of the terms of the +elements? It is at this stage that the claim must be carefully +studied. The inventor, or some one for him, must assume the position +of a pirate, and set his wits to work to contrive an organization +realizing the invention but escaping the terms of the proposed claim. +When such an escaping device is schemed out, then the defect in the +claim is developed and the claim must be redrawn. In this way every +possible escape must be studied so as to secure to the inventor +adequate protection for his invention. Solicitors find it difficult to +get inventors to do or consider this matter properly, inventors being +too often inclined to disparage alternative constructions, the matter +being largely one of sentiment founded on the love of offspring. + +The wise inventor will recognize the fact that the patent which he +proposes to get is the deed to valuable property; that the object of +the deed is not to permit him to enter upon the property, for he can +do that without the deed, but that it is to keep strangers from +entering upon the property; that he desires to enjoy his invention +without unauthorized competition; that when the property begins to +yield profit it will invite competition; that competitors may make +machines worse than or as good as or better than his; and that he can +get adequate protection only in a claim which would bar poorer as well +as better machines embodying his invention. Briefly, then, all good +claims for mechanism are combination claims; the fewer the elements +recited, the stronger will the claim be; non-essential elements weaken +or destroy the claim; the claim should not be considered satisfactory +so long as a way is seen for the escape of the ingenious pirate. + + +COMBINATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS. + +A given association of mechanical elements may be entirely new, but it +does not follow that it forms a patentable association, for not all +new things are patentable. If the new association is a combination, it +is patentable, but if it is a mere aggregation, it is unpatentable. An +association may be new and still all of its separate elements may be +old, the act of invention lying in the fact that the elements have +been so associated with relation to each other as to bring about an +improved result, or an improved means for an old result. All new +machines are, after all, composed of old elements. The law presupposes +that the elements are old, and that the invention resides in the +peculiar association of them. If we take a given mechanical element, +recognized as having had a certain capacity, and if we then similarly +take some other mechanical element and employ it only for its +previously recognized capacity, and if we then add the third element +for its recognized capacity, we have in the end only an association of +three elements each performing its well recognized individual office, +and the entire association performing only the sum of the recognized +individual elements. Such an association is a mere aggregation, a mere +adding together of elements, without making the sum of the results any +greater in the association than it was in the individual elements. It +is simply adding two to one and getting three as a result. An +aggregation is unpatentable. As an illustration, a heavy marble statue +of Jupiter is found in the parlor and difficult to move. Ordinary +casters are put under its pedestal and it becomes easier to move. +Modern anti-friction two-wheeled casters are substituted for the +commoner casters, and the statue becomes still easier to move. Casters +were never before associated with a statue of Jupiter. Here is a new +association, but it is a mere aggregation. The statue of Jupiter has +been unmodified by the presence of the casters, and the casters +perform precisely the same under the statue of Jupiter that they did +under the bedstead. There is no combined result, and there is no +patentable combination. + +But if an inventor takes a given mechanical element for the purpose of +its well recognized capacity, and then associates with it another +mechanical element for its recognized capacity, but so associates the +two elements that one has a modifying effect upon the capacity of the +other element, then the association will be capable of a result +greater than the sum of the results for the individual elements. This +excessive result is not due to the individual elements, but to the +combination of them. One has been added to one and a sum greater than +two has been secured. The modification of result may be due merely to +the bringing of the two elements together, so that they may mutually +act upon each other, or it may be due to the manner or means by which +they are joined. In a patentable combination the separate elements +mutually act upon each other to effect a modification of their +previous individual results, and secure a conjoint result greater than +the sum of the individual results. The elements of a combination need +not act simultaneously; they may act successively, or some may act +without motion. As an illustration, assume an old watch in which there +was a stem for setting the hands, and assume another old watch with a +stem for winding the spring. If an inventor should make a watch, and +provide it with the two stems, he would have only an aggregation. But +if he employed but one stem, and so located it that it could be used +at will for setting the hands or for winding the spring, then he would +have produced a combination. The particular instance just given is not +a case of the same number of elements, producing a result in excess of +the individual results of the separate elements, but is rather a case +of a lesser number of elements, producing a combination result equal +to the sum of the previous results of a greater number of elements. A +better example would perhaps be a new watch with its two old stems so +related that either could be used for setting the hands or for winding +the spring. + + +GENERA AND SPECIES. + +An inventor, being the first to produce a given organization, and +desiring to patent it, may see at once a patentable variation on the +device. In other words, he makes two machines patentably different, +but both embodying his main invention. He drafts his broad patent +claim to cover both machines. In his patent he must illustrate his +invention, and he accordingly shows in the drawings the preferred +machine. The two machines represent two species of his generic +invention, and for illustration he selects the preferable species. He +drafts his generic claim to cover both species, and he follows this +with a specific claim relating to the selected species. The question +might be asked, If the broad generic claim covers the selected and all +other species, why bother with the specific claim, why not rest on the +generic claim? The answer is that it might in the future develop that +the genus was old, and that the generic claim was invalid, while the +specific claim would still be good. The infringer of the specific +claim may thus be held notwithstanding the generic claim becomes void. +But the inventor cannot claim his second species in his patent. He can +claim the genus, and he can claim one species under that genus, but +all other species must be covered in separate patents. It is even +unwise to illustrate alternative species in a patent for, in case, of +litigation, some one of the alternative species might prove to be old. +This would have the effect, of course, to destroy the generic claim, +but it might possibly have the effect of damaging the specific claim +if it should appear that the specific claim was after all merely for a +modification as distinguished from a distinct species. Were it not for +the danger of broad generic claims being rendered void by discovered +anticipations, there would be no need for claiming species, but in +view of such possibility it is important to claim one species in the +generic patent, and to protect alternative species by other patents. + + +COMBINATION AND SUB-COMBINATION. + +A given machine capable of a given ultimate result having been +invented, a claim may be drawn to cover the combination of elements +comprised in the machine. Such claim will cover the machine as a +whole. But, the fact being recognized that many machines are, after +all, composed of a series of sub-machines, and that these +sub-machines, in turn, are composed of certain combinations of +elements, and that within these sub-machines there are still minor +combinations of elements capable of producing useful mechanical +results, and that the sub-machines, or some of the subordinate +combinations of elements within the sub-machines, might be capable of +utilization in other situations than that comprehended by the main +machine, it becomes important that the inventor be protected regarding +the sub-machines and the minor useful combinations. Claims may be +drawn for the combination constituting the main machine, other claims +may be drawn for the combinations constituting the operative +sub-machines, and claims may be drawn covering the minor useful +combinations of elements found within the sub-machines. Each claimed +combination must be operative. But secondary claims cannot be made for +sub-machines or sub-combinations which are for divisional matter or +matter which should be made the subject of separate patents. + + +MECHANICAL EQUIVALENTS. + +Where an inventor produces a new mechanical device for the production +of a certain result, he can often see in advance that various +modifications of it can be made to bring about the same result, and +even if he does not see it he may in the future find competitors +getting at the result by a different construction. He analyzes the +competing structure, and determines that "it is the same thing only +different," and wonders what the legal doctrine of mechanical +equivalents means, and asks if he is not entitled to the benefits of +that doctrine, so that his patent may dominate the competing machine. + +An inventor may or may not be entitled to invoke the doctrine of +mechanical equivalents, and the doctrine may or may not cause his +patent to cover a given fancied infringement. If an inventor is a +pioneer in a certain field, and is the first to produce an +organization of mechanism by means of which a given result is +produced, he is entitled to a claim whose breadth of language is +commensurate with the improvement he has wrought in the art. He cannot +claim functions or performance, but must limit his claim to mechanism, +in other words, to the combination of elements which produces the new +result. His claim recites those elements by name. If the new result +cannot be produced by any other combination of elements, then, of +course, no question will arise regarding infringement. But it may be +that a competitor contrives a device having some of the elements of +the combination as called for by the claim, the remaining elements +being omitted and substitutes provided. The competing device will thus +not respond to the language of the claim. But the courts will deal +liberally with the claim of the meritorious pioneer inventor, and will +apply to it the doctrine of mechanical equivalents, and will hold the +claim to be infringed by a combination containing all of the elements +recited in the claim, or containing some of them, and mechanical +equivalents for the rest of them. Were it not for this liberal +doctrine, the pioneer inventor could gather little fruit from his +patent, for the patent could be avoided, perhaps, by the mere +substitution of a wedge for the screw or lever called for by the +claim. The court, having ascertained from the prior art that the +inventor is entitled to invoke the doctrine of equivalents, will +proceed to ascertain if the substituted elements are real equivalents. +A given omitted element will be considered in connection with its +substitute element, and if the substitute element is found to be an +element acting in substantially the same manner for the production of +substantially the same individual result, and if it be found that the +prior art has recognized the equivalency of the two individual +elements, then the court will say that the substituted element is a +mechanical equivalent of the omitted element, and that the two +combinations are substantially the same. This reasoning must be +applied to each of the omitted elements for which substitutes have +been furnished. In this way justice can be done to the pioneer +inventor. But the courts, in exercising liberality, cannot do violence +to the language of the claim. The infringer will not escape by merely +substituting equivalents for recited elements, but he will escape if +he omits a recited element and supplies no substitute, for the courts +will not read out of a claim an element which the patentee has +deliberately put into the claim, and a combination of a less number of +elements than that recited in the claim is not the combination called +for by the claim. + +It is seldom that the exemplifying device of the pioneer inventor is a +perfect one. Later developments and improvements by the original +patentee, or by others, must be depended on to bring about perfection +of structure. Those who improve the structure are as much entitled to +patents upon their specific improvements in the device as was the +original inventor entitled to his patent for the fundamental device. +These improvers are secondary inventors, and are not entitled to +invoke the doctrine of mechanical equivalents. The secondary inventor +did not bring about a new result, but his patent was for new means for +producing the old result. His patent is for this improvement in means, +and his claim will be closely scrutinized in court, and he will be +held to it, subject only to formal variations in structure. The +justice of thus restricting the claim of the secondary inventor must +be obvious, in view of the fact that if the doctrine of mechanical +equivalents were applied to his claim, then the fundamental device on +which he improved would probably infringe upon it, which would be an +absurdity. It is thus seen that the pioneer inventor may have a claim +so broad in its terms that its terms cannot be escaped; that he may +invoke the doctrine of equivalents and have his claim dominate +structures not directly responding to the terms of the claim; that the +secondary inventor, who improves only the means, is limited to the +recited means and cannot invoke the doctrine of equivalents. But +within this general view, sight is not to be lost of the fact that +secondary inventors may be pioneers within certain limits. They are +not the first to produce the broad ultimate result, but they may be +pioneers in radically improving interior or sub-results, and they may +thus reasonably ask for the application of the doctrine of equivalents +to their claims within proper limits. The matter often becomes quite +complicated, for it is sometimes difficult to determine as to what is +the result in a given machine, for many machines consist, after all, +of a combination of subordinate machines. Thus the modern +grain-harvesting machine embodies a machine for moving to the place of +attack, a machine for cutting the grain, a machine for supporting the +grain at the instant of cutting, a machine for receiving the cut +grain, a machine for conveying the cut grain to a bindery, a machine +for measuring the cut grain into gavels, a machine for compressing the +gavel, a machine for applying the band, a machine for tying the band, +a machine for discharging the bundle, a machine to receive the bundles +and carry them to a place of deposit, and a machine to deposit the +accumulated bundles. The machine would be useful with one or more of +these sub-machines omitted, and each machine may be capable of +performing its own individual results alone or in other associations. +Pioneership of invention might apply to the main machine, or to the +sub-machines, or even to the sub-organization within the sub-machines. + +(To be continued.) + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 1172, page 18764.] + + + + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CENTRAL STATION. + +By SAMUEL INSULL.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Before the Electrical Engineering Department of + Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., May 17, 1898.] + + +The success of the low-tension system was followed by the introduction +of the alternating system, using high potential primaries with the +converters at each house, reducing, as a rule, from 1,000 down to +either 50 or 100 volts. I am not familiar with the early alternating +work, and had not at my disposal sufficient time in preparing my notes +to go at any length into an investigation of this branch of the +subject; nor do I think that any particular advantage could have been +served by my doing so, as it has become generally recognized that the +early alternating work with a house-to-house converter system, while +it undoubtedly helped central station development at the time, proved +very uneconomical in operation and expensive in investment, when the +cost of converters is added to the cost of distribution. The large +alternating stations in this country have so clearly demonstrated this +that their responsible managers have, within the last few years, done +everything possible, by the adoption of block converters and +three-wire secondary circuits, to bring their system as close as they +could in practice to the low-tension direct-current distribution +system. I do not want to be understood as undervaluing the position of +the alternating current in central station work. It has its place, but +to my mind its position is a false one when it is used for +house-to-house distribution with converters for each customer. The +success of the oldest stations in this country, and the demonstration +of the possibilities of covering areas of several miles in extent by +the use of the three wire system, resulted in much capital going into +the business. One of the earliest stations of a really modern type +installed on either side of the Atlantic was built by the Berlin +Electricity Works. The engineers of that station, while recognizing +the high value of the distributing system, went back to Edison's +original scheme of a compact direct-connected steam and electric +generator, but with dynamos of the multipolar type designed and built +by Siemens & Halske, of Berlin, the engines being of vertical marine +type. + +This was followed by the projecting in New York of the present Duane +Street station, employing boilers of 200 pounds pressure, triple and +quadruple expansion engines of the marine type, and direct-connected +multipolar dynamos. Almost immediately thereafter, the station in +Atlantic Avenue, Boston, somewhat on the same general design so far as +contents is concerned, was erected. In 1891 a small station, but on +the same lines, was projected for San Francisco, and in 1892 the +present Harrison Street station of the Chicago Edison company was +designed, and, benefiting by the experience of Berlin, New York and +Boston, this station produces electric current for lighting purposes +probably cheaper than any station of a similar size anywhere in this +country. + +It is not necessary for me to go into detail in explanation of the +modern central station. You are all doubtless quite familiar with the +general design, but if you will examine the detail drawings of the +Harrison Street station, which I have brought with me, you will find +that every effort has been made to provide for the economical +production of steam, low cost of operating, good facilities for +repairs and consequently low cost, and for permanency of service. You +have but to go into any of the modern central stations in midwinter, +to see them turning out anywhere from 10,000 to 80,000 amperes with a +minimum of labor, to appreciate the fact that central station business +is of a permanent and lucrative character. + +To go back to the question of alternating currents, the work done in +connection with the two-phase and three-phase currents and the +perfection of the rotary transformer has resulted in introducing into +central station practice a further means of economizing the cost of +production--by concentration of power. According to present +experience, it is (except in some extraordinary cases) uneconomical to +distribute direct low-tension current over more than a radius of a +mile and a half from the generating point. The possibility of +transmitting it at a very high voltage, and consequently low +investment in conductors, has resulted in the adoption of a scheme, in +many of the large cities, of alternating transmission combined with +low tension distribution. The limit to which this alternating +transmission can be economically carried has not yet been definitely +settled, but it is quite possible even now to transmit economically +from the center of any of our large cities to the distant suburbs, by +means of high potential alternating currents, distributing the current +from the subcenter distribution by means either of the alternating +current itself and large transformers for a block or district or else, +if the territory is thickly settled, by means of a system of +low-tension mains and feeders, the direct current for this purpose +being obtained through the agency of rotary transformers. + +There are various methods of producing the alternating current for +transmission purposes. In some cases the generators are themselves +wound for high potential; in others they are wound for 80 volts, and +step-up transformers are used, carrying the current up to whatever +pressure is desired, from 1,000 to 10,000 volts. In other cases +dynamos are used having collector rings for alternating current on one +side and a commutator for direct current on the other side of the +armature, thus enabling you, when the peak in two districts of a city +comes at two different times, to take care of this peak by means of +the same original generating unit, furnishing direct low-tension +current to the points near the central station and alternating current +to the distant points. In other cases, where a small amount of +alternating current is required on the transmission line, it has even +been found economical to take direct current from a large unit, change +it by means of a rotary transformer into alternating current, step up +from 80 to, say, 2,000 volts, go to the distant point, and step down +again to 80 volts alternating, and then convert again by means of a +rotary transformer into low-potential direct current. + +The introduction of alternating current for transmission purposes in +large cities is probably best exemplified in the station recently +erected in Brooklyn, where alternating current is produced and carried +to distant points, and then used to operate series arc-light machines +run by synchronous motors, the low-tension direct-current network +being fed by rotary transformers, and alternating circuits arranged +with block converters, and even in some cases separate converters for +each individual customer in the scattered districts. + +It would be very interesting to go at length into the details of cost +in this, the latest development of central station transmission, but +time will not permit; nor have I the time at my disposal to go at +length into the central station business as developed by the electric +street railways now so universally in use, or another phase of the +business as exemplified by the large transmission plants, the two +greatest examples of which, in this country, are probably those at +Niagara Falls, N.Y., and Lachine Rapids, near Montreal. So far as +street railways and power transmission are concerned, I would draw +your attention to the fact that the same underlying principle of +multiple-arc mains and feeders originally conceived by Mr. Edison is +as much a necessity in their operation as it is in the electric +lighting systems, whether those systems be operated on the old +two-wire plan, the three-wire plan or by means of alternating +currents. + +Passing from a review of central station plants and distribution +system naturally bring us to the operating cost and the factors +governing profit and loss of the enterprise. In considering this +branch of the subject, I will confine my remarks to the business as +operated in Chicago by the company with which I am connected. + +Our actual maximum last winter came on December 20, our load being +approximately 12,000 horse power. A comparison of the figures of +maximum capacity and maximum load of last winter shows that we had a +margin in capacity over output of about 20 per cent. The load curves +shown this evening represent the maximum output of last winter +(December 20), an average summer load last year (June 4), and an +average spring load of this year (May 2). For our purposes we will +assume the maximum capacity of the plant and the maximum load of the +system to be identical. The maximum load last winter occurred, as I +have stated, on December 20, about 4:30 o'clock in the afternoon, and +lasted less than half an hour. It should be borne in mind that the +period of maximum load only lasts for from two to three months, and +that the investment necessary to take care of that maximum load, has +to be carried the whole year. It should not be assumed from this +statement that the whole plant as an earning factor is in use 25 per +cent. of the year. The fact is that, during the period of maximum +load, the total plant is in operation only about 100 hours out of the +8,760 hours of the year; so that you are compelled, in order to get +interest on your investment, to earn the interest for the whole of the +year in about 1œ per cent. of that period, on about 50 per cent. of +your plant. + +This statement must bring home to you a realization of the fact that +by far the most serious problem of central station management, and by +far the greatest item of cost of your product, is interest on the +investment. It may be that the use of storage batteries in connection +with large installations will modify this interest charge, but even +allowing the highest efficiency and the lowest cost of maintenance +ever claimed for a storage battery installation, the fact of high +interest cost must continue to be the most important factor in +calculating profit and loss. This brings home to us the fact that in +his efforts to show the greatest possible efficiency of his plant and +distribution system, it is quite possible that the station manager may +spend so much capital as to eat up many times over in interest charge +the saving that he makes in direct operating expenses. It is a common +mistake for the so-called expert to demonstrate to you that he has +designed for you a plant of the highest possible efficiency, and at +the same time for him to lose sight of the fact that he has saddled +you with the highest possible amount of interest on account of +excessive investment. Operating cost and interest cost should never be +separated. One is as much a part of the cost of your current as the +other. This is particularly illustrated in connection with the use of +storage batteries. Those opposed to their use will point out to you +that of the energy going into the storage battery only 70 per cent. is +available for use on your distribution system. That statement in +itself is correct; but in figuring the cost of energy for a class of +business for which the storage battery is particularly adapted, the +maximum load, that portion of your operating cost affected by the 30 +per cent. loss of energy in the battery, forms under 4œ per cent. +of your total cost, and it must be self-evident, in that case at +least, that the 30 per cent. loss in the storage battery is hardly an +appreciable factor in figuring the operating cost of your product. So +far as I have been able to ascertain, it would appear to be economical +to use storage batteries in connection with central station systems +the peak of whose load does not exceed from two to two and one-half +hours. + +In order to illustrate the important bearing which interest has on +cost, I have prepared graphical representations of the cost of +current, including interest, under conditions of varying load factors. +For the purpose of this chart I have assumed an average cost of +current, so far as operating and repairs and renewals and general +expense are concerned, extending over a period of a year, although of +course these items are more or less attested by the character of the +load factor. For the purpose of figuring interest, I have selected +seven different classes of business commonly taken by electric light +and power companies in any large city. Take, for instance, an office +building. It has a load factor of about 3.7 per cent., that is, the +average load for the whole year is 3.7 per cent. of the maximum demand +on you for current at any one time during that period; or, to put it +in another way, this load factor of 3.7 per cent. would show that your +investment is in use the equivalent of a little over 323 hours a year +on this class of business. This is by no means an extreme case. You +can find in almost every large city customers whose load factors are +not nearly as favorable to the operating company, their use of your +investment being as low as the equivalent of 75 or 100 hours a year. +Take another class of business, that of the haberdasher, or small +fancy goods store. As a rule these stores are comparatively small, +with facilities for getting a large amount of natural light and little +use for artificial light. The load factor as shown by the chart is +about 7 per cent., the use of your investment being not quite twice as +long as that of the office building. Day saloons show an average of 16 +per cent. load factor; cafetiers and small lunch counters about 20 per +cent., while the large dry goods stores, in which there is +comparatively little light, have a load factor of 25 per cent. and use +your investment seven times as long per year as the office building. +Power business naturally shows a still better load factor, say 35 per +cent., and the all-night restaurant has a load factor of 48 per cent. + +You will see from this that the great desideratum of the central +station system is, from the investors' point of view, the necessity of +getting customers for your product whose business is of such a +character as to call for a low maximum and long average use. This +question of load factor is by all means the most important one in +central station economy. If your maximum is very high and your average +consumption very low, heavy interest charges will necessarily follow. +The nearer you can bring your average to your maximum load, the closer +you approximate to the most economical conditions of production, and +the lower you can afford to sell your current. Take, for instance, the +summer and winter curves of the Chicago Edison company. The curve of +December 20, 1897, shows a load factor of about 48 per cent.; the +curve of May 2, 1898, shows a load factor of nearly 60 per cent. Now, +if we were able in Chicago to get business of such a character as +would give us a curve of the same characteristics in December as the +curve we get in May; or, in other words, if we could improve our load +factor, our interest cost would be reduced, an effect would be +produced upon the other items going to make up the cost of current, +and we probably could make more money out of our customers at a lower +price per unit than we get from them now. + +Many schemes are employed for improving the load factor, or, in other +words, to encourage a long use of central station product. Some +companies adopt a plan of allowing certain stated discounts, provided +the income per month of each lamp connected exceeds a given sum. The +objection to this is that it limits the number of lamps connected. +Other companies have what is known as the two-rate scheme, charging +one rate for electricity used during certain hours of the day and a +lower rate for electricity used during the balance of the day, using a +meter with two dials for this purpose. Other companies use an +instrument which registers the maximum demand for the month, and the +excess over the equivalent of a certain specified number of hours +monthly in use of the maximum demand is sold at greatly reduced price. +The last scheme would seem particularly equitable, as it results in +what is practically an automatic scale of discounts based on the +average load factor of the customers. It does not seem to be just that +a man who only uses your investment say 100 hours a year should be +able to buy your product at precisely the same price as the man who +uses your investment say 3,000 hours a year, when the amount of money +invested to take care of either customer is precisely the same. Surely +the customer who uses the product on an average 30 times longer than +the customer using it for only 100 hours is entitled to a much lower +unit rate, in view of the fact that the expense for interest to the +company is in one case but a fraction per unit of output of what it is +in the other. This fact is illustrated by the interest columns on the +graphic chart already referred to. Supposing that the central station +manager desired to sell his product at cost, that is, an amount +sufficient to cover his operating, repairs and renewals, general +expense, and interest and depreciation, he would have to obtain from +the customer having the poorest load factor, as shown on the load +chart, over four times as much per unit of electricity as it would be +necessary for him to collect from the customer having the largest load +factor. No one would think of going to a bank to borrow money and +expect to pay precisely the same total interest whether he required +the money for one month or for twelve; and for the same reason it +seems an absurdity to sell electricity to the customer who uses it but +a comparatively few hours a year at the same price at which you would +sell it to the customer using it ten hours a day and three hundred +days a year, when it is remembered that interest is the largest factor +in cost, and the total amount of interest is the same with the +customer using it but a few hours a year as it is with the customer +using it practically all the year around. + +I have dwelt thus at length on the question of interest cost in +operating a central station system, not alone for the purpose of +pointing out to you its importance in connection with an electrical +distribution system, but also to impress upon you its importance as a +factor in cost; in fact, the most important factor in cost in any +public service business which you may enter after leaving this +institution. Most of the businesses presenting the greatest +possibilities from the point of view of an engineering career are +those requiring very large investment and having a comparatively small +turnover or yearly income. Of necessity, in all enterprises of this +character, the main factor of cost is interest, and if you intend +following engineering as a profession, my advice to you would be to +learn first the value of money, or, to put it another way, to learn +the cost of money. + +Before leaving this question of interest and its effect upon cost, I +would draw your attention to the fact that while interest is by far +the most important factor of cost, it is a constantly reducing amount +per unit of maximum output in practically every central station +system. When a system is first installed, it is the rule to make large +enough investment in real estate and buildings to take care of many +times the output obtained in the first year or so of operation. As a +rule, the generating plant from the boilers to the switchboard is +designed with only sufficient surplus to last a year or so. In the +case of the distributing system the same course is followed as in the +case of real estate and buildings, with a view to minimizing the +ultimate investment. Mains are laid along each block facing, feeders +are put in having a capacity far beyond the necessity of the moment; +consequently interest cost is very high when a plant first starts, +except, as I have stated, in the case of the machinery forming the +generating plant itself. As the business increases from, year to year, +the item of interest per unit of maximum output consequently will +constantly decrease, owing to the fact that each additional unit of +output following an increase of connected load increases the divisor +by which the total interest is divided. The result is from year to +year the interest cost of each additional unit of maximum output is a +constantly reducing amount, and consequently the average interest cost +of each unit of maximum output should, in a well regulated plant, grow +less from year to year until the minimum interest cost per unit is +reached. This minimum interest cost is reached when the capacity of +the whole system and the total units of output at maximum load are +identical, although of course it will always be necessary to have a +certain margin of capacity over possible output, as a factor of +safety. + +This same rule, although to a less extent, applies to the operating +and general expense cost, that is, the cost other than interest. To +particularize, the manager's salary and other administrative expenses +do not increase in proportion to maximum output of station; therefore, +the cost of administration per unit of output, if the business is in a +healthy condition, must be from year to year reduced. There are a +great many other expenses that are not directly in proportion to +output, and these follow the same rule. In a well-run plant the +percentage of operating expenses to gross receipts will stand even +year after year, while the income per unit of output will be +constantly reduced. This is an excellent evidence of the fact that the +cost per unit of output is constantly being reduced, as, if it were +not, the percentage of expenses to gross receipts would be increased +in direct proportion to the reduction in price. Moreover, it should be +borne in mind that there are many difficulties in the way of universal +use of electric energy from a central station system. It is the rare +exception to find a house not piped for gas and water. In the case of +the latter it is almost invariably the rule that owners are compelled +to pipe for water, under the sanitary code of the municipality. On the +other hand, in a large residential district, it is the exception to +find a house wired for electric light; consequently the output of +current per foot of conductor is at the present time very low as +compared with the output of gas per foot of gas pipe in any of the +large cities. The expense of wiring (which must of necessity be borne +by the householder) is large, and it is often a barrier to the +adoption of electric illumination, but as the rule to wire houses +becomes more general, the output per foot of main will constantly +increase, and therefore the interest per unit of output per foot of +main will constantly decrease. This same rule will apply in the case +of expenses of taking care of and repairing the distribution system, +although to not so great an extent. + +If you will take into account these various factors constantly +operating toward a reduction of operating and general expense cost, +and interest cost, the conclusion must necessarily be forced upon you +that the price at which current can be sold at a profit to-day is in +no sense a measure of the income per unit which it will be necessary +for central station managers to obtain in the future. In 1881-82 it +was difficult to make both ends meet with an income of 25 cents per +kilowatt hour, to-day there are many stations showing a substantial +return on their investment whose average income does not exceed 7 +cents per kilowatt hour, showing 70 per cent. reduction in price in +less than two decades. How far this constant reduction in cost, +followed by a constant reduction in selling price, will go, it is +difficult to determine; but if so much has been accomplished during +the first 20 years of the existence of the industry, is it too much to +predict that in a far less time than the succeeding 20 years electric +current for all purposes will be within the reach of the smallest +householder and the poorest citizen? But few industries can parallel +the record already obtained. If you will trace the history of the +introduction of gas as an illuminant, you will find that it took a +much longer time to establish it on a commercial basis than it has +taken to establish most firmly the electric lighting industry. All the +great improvements in gas, the introduction of water gas, the +economizing in consumption by the use of the Welsbach burner, have all +been made within the time of those before me, and yet, notwithstanding +that when these gas improvements started, the electric lighting +business was hardly conceived, and certainly had not advanced to a +point where you could claim that it had passed the experimental +stage--notwithstanding this, the cost of electrical energy has +decreased so rapidly that to-day there are many large central station +plants making handsome returns on their investments at a far lower +average income per unit of light than the income obtained by the gas +company in the same community. In making my calculations which have +led me to this conclusion, I have assumed that 10,000 watts are equal +to 1,000 feet of gas. This comparison holds good, provided an +incandescent lamp of high economy is used as against the ordinary gas +burner. To make a comparison between electric illumination and +incandescent gas burners, such as the Welsbach burner, you must figure +on the use of an arc lamp in the electric circuit instead of an +incandescent lamp, which is certainly fair when it is remembered that +incandescent gas burners are, as a rule, used in places where arc +lamps should be used if electric illumination is employed. + +With such brilliant results obtained in the past, the prospects of the +central station industry are certainly most dazzling. While the growth +of the business has been phenomenal, more especially since 1890, I +think it can be conservatively stated that we have scarcely entered +upon the threshold of the development which may be expected in the +future. In very few cities in the United States can you find that +electric illumination exceeds more than 20 per cent. of the total +artificial illumination for which the citizens pay. If this be the +state of affairs in connection with the use of electricity for +illuminating purposes, and if you will bear in mind the many other +purposes to which electricity can be adapted throughout a city and +supplied to customers in small quantities, you may get some faint +conception of the possible consumption of electrical energy in the not +far distant future. Methods of producing it may change, but these +methods cannot possibly go into use unless their adoption is justified +by saving in the cost of production--a saving which must be sufficient +to show a profit above the interest and depreciation on the new plant +employed. It is within the realms of possibility that the present form +of generating station may be entirely dispensed with. It has already +been demonstrated experimentally that electrical energy may be +produced direct from the coal itself without the intervention of the +boiler, engine and dynamo machine. Whether this can be done +commercially remains to be proved. Whatever changes may take place in +generating methods, I should, were I not engaged in a business which +affords so many remarkable surprises, be inclined to question the +possibility of any further material change in the distributing system. +Improvements in the translating devices, such as lamps, may add +enormously to the capacity of the distributing system per unit of +light; but it does seem to me that the system itself, as originally +conceived, is to a large extent a permanency. Should any great +improvements take place in the medium employed for turning electrical +energy into light, the possible effect on cost, and consequently +selling price, would be enormous. + + * * * * * + +THE PROPOSAL of Gov. Black, which has now become law, to depute to +Cornell the care of a considerable tract of forest land, and the duty +of demonstrating to Americans the theory, methods and profits of +scientific forestry, has a curious appropriateness much commented on +at the university, since two-thirds of the wealth of Cornell has been +derived from the location and skillful management of forest lands, the +net receipts from this source being to date $4,112,000. In the course +of twenty years management the university has thrice sold the timber +on some pieces of land which it still holds, and received a larger +price at the third sale than at the first. The conduct of this land +business is so systematized that the treasurer of the university knows +to a dot the amount of pine, hemlock, birch, maple, basswood and oak +timber, even to the number of potential railroad ties, telegraph poles +and fence posts on each fourth part of a quarter section owned by +Cornell. Certainly, Cornell is rich in experience for the business +side of a forestry experiment such as Gov. Black proposes. The +university forest lands from which its endowment has been realized are +in Wisconsin. + + * * * * * + +Books may be called heavy when the qualifying term is not applied to +their writers, but to the paper makers. It is falsifications in the +paper that give it weight. Sulphate of baryta, the well known +adulterate of white lead, does the work. A correspondent, writing to +The London Saturday Review, gives the weight of certain books as: Miss +Kingsley's "Travels in Africa." 3 pounds 5 ounces; "Tragedy of the +Cæsars," 3 pounds; Mahan's "Nelson" (1 vol.), 2 pounds 10 ounces; +"Tennyson" (1 vol.), 2 pounds 6 ounces; "Life and Letters of Jowett" +(1 vol.), 2 pounds 1 ounce. To handle these dumb-bell books, The +Saturday Review advises that readers take lessons in athletics. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LOCK OF THE DORTMUND-EMS CANAL AT HENRICHENBURG. + + +The Dortmund-Ems Canal, destined to connect the heart of German +industry with the sea, was formally dedicated on April 1, and +partially opened to commerce. After its completion, German coal will +be transported to the harbors of the Ems at the same cost as the +English coal which has hitherto forced back the treasures of our soil; +our black diamonds will then be sold in the markets of the world, and +the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal will enable the western part of the empire to +exchange its coal and iron for the grain and wood of the East. + +Many difficulties were encountered in cutting the canal, owing partly +to the vast network of railroads in the coal region of Westphalia, but +chiefly due to the insufficiency of moisture in the highlands, the +latter not containing enough water to supply the many necessary +sluices, at which it could be easily foreseen considerable traffic +would occur. + +[Illustration: THE LOCK OF THE DORTMUND-EMS CANAL AT HENRICHENBURG.] + +For the modern engineer there are, however, no insurmountable +obstacles. Instead of a line of ordinary locks, a single structure was +erected sufficient for the needs of the entire region. This lock is +situated at Henrichenburg, near Dortmund, and our illustration +pictures it with its lock-chamber half raised. + +The lock, which serves to overcome a difference in level of fifty-nine +feet, raises vessels of 1,000 tons capacity with a velocity of 0.3 to +0.7 foot per second, and has been constructed after a new and +astonishingly simple system. + +The lock chamber, designed for the reception of the various vessels, +is 229.60 feet in length and 28.864 feet in breadth and normally +contains 8.2 feet of water. Under the sluice in a line with the long +axis are five wells filled with water in which cylindrical floats are +placed, connected to the bottom of the chamber by means of iron +trellis-work. The floats are placed so deeply that, in their highest +position, their upper edges are always submerged; they are, moreover, +of such size that by means of their upward impulsion the chamber is +held in equilibrium. Irrespective of the small differences of pressure +which arise from the varying immersion of the framework, the lock will +in all positions be in equilibrium. Since a vessel which enters the +lock displaces a volume of water whose weight is equal to the weight +of the vessel, a constant equilibrium will always be maintained and +only a minimum force required to raise or lower the chamber. In order +to move the lock-chamber up and down and to sustain it constantly in a +horizontal position, nuts have been fixed to strong crossbeams, +through which powerful screw-rods work. + +These rods are held in place by a massive framework of iron and are +turned to the left or to the right by means of a small steam engine, +placed at one side of the lock, which engine, by means of a +longitudinal shaft, drives two cross shafts to which bevel wheels are +attached. By this means the chamber is lowered and raised. The screw +rods are so powerful that they sustain the entire weight of the lock +chamber, and the pitch of the thread is such that spontaneous sliding +or slipping is impossible, the chamber being, therefore, kept +constantly in the desired position. + +It is interesting to note that the hollow space in the screw rods is +heated by steam during winter, thus preventing the formation of ice in +the machinery. + +During the eighties, locks for ships of 400 tons capacity were +erected in England and France, at Anderton, Les Fontinettes and La +Louvière. The lock at Henrichenburg, however, exceeds all its +predecessors, not only in size, but also in security. At all events, +the structure is a worthy memorial of the energy and genius of +German engineers.--Illustrirte Zeitung. + + * * * * * + +Paper hanging by machine is the latest achievement, according to a +German contemporary, says The Engineer. The arrangement used for this +purpose is provided with a rod upon which the roll of paper is placed. +A paste receptacle with a brushing arrangement is attached in such a +manner that the paste is applied automatically on the back of the +paper. The end of the wall paper is fixed at the bottom of the wall +and the implement rises on the wall and only needs to be set by one +workman. While the wall paper unrolls and, provided with paste, is +held against the wall, an elastic roller follows on the outside, which +presses it firmly to the wall. When the wall paper has reached the +top, the workman pulls a cord, whereby it is cut off from the +remainder on the roll. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE AMERICAN "REGULAR." + +BY THE ENGLISH CORRESPONDENT OF THE LONDON TIMES ON BOARD THE +UNITED STATES TRANSPORT "GUSSIE." + + +The "regular" of the United States is in many respects the least +equipped foot soldier of my acquaintance. This was my reflection as I +overhauled the kit of a private this morning on board the "Gussie." +There was not a single brush in his knapsack. I counted three in that +of a Spanish foot soldier only a few weeks ago. The American knapsack +is merely a canvas bag cut to the outward proportions of the European +knapsack, but in practical features bearing affinity with the +"rückensack" of the Tyrolean chamois hunters, or pack-sack of the +backwoodsmen of Canada and the Adirondack Mountains. This knapsack of +the American is not intended to be carried on any extended marches, +although the total weight he is ever called upon to carry, including +everything, is only 50 pounds, a good 12 pounds less than what is +carried by the private of Germany. The men of this regiment, in heavy +marching order, carry an overcoat with a cape, a blanket, the half of +a shelter tent, and one wooden tent pole in two sections. The rifle +could be used as a tent pole--so say men I talk with on the subject. +On this expedition overcoats are a superfluity, and it is absurd that +troops should be sent to the tropics in summer wearing exactly the +same uniform they would be using throughout the winter on the +frontiers of Canada. This war will, no doubt, produce a change after +English models. At present the situation here is prevented from being +painful because no marching has yet been attempted, and the commanding +officers permit the most generous construction in the definition of +what is a suitable uniform. + +On the trip of this ship to Cuba, no officer or man has ever worn a +tunic excepting at guard mounting inspection. The 50 men who went +ashore near Cabañas on May 12 and pitched into some 500 Spaniards left +their coats behind and fought in their blue flannel shirts. Of the +officers, some wore a sword, some did not, though all carried a +revolver. No orders were issued on the subject--it was left to +individual taste, I have experienced hotter days at German maneuvers +than on the coast of Cuba during the days we happened to be there, yet +I have never noticed any disposition in the army of William II. to +relax the severity of service even temporarily. My German friends +sincerely believe that the black stock and the hot tunic are what has +made Prussia a strong nation, and to disturb that superstition would +be a thankless task. + +In the way of clothing the American private carries a complete change +of under-drawers, under-shirt, socks, laced boots and uniform +trousers. My particular private was carrying a double allowance of +socks, handkerchiefs, and underwear. He had a toothbrush and comb. +That is the heavy marching order knapsack. For light marching, which +is the usual manner, the man begins by spreading on the ground his +half-tent, which is about the size of a traveling rug. On this he +spreads his blanket, rolls it up tightly into a long narrow sausage, +having first distributed along its length a pair of socks, a change of +underwear, and the two sticks of his one tent pole. Then he brings the +ends of this canvas roll together, not closely, as in the German army, +but more like the ends of a horse-shoe, held by a rope which at the +same time stops the ends of the roll tightly. When this horse shoe is +slung over the man's shoulder, it does not press uncomfortably upon +his chest. The total weight is distributed in the most convenient +manner for marching. + +The packing of the man's things is strictly according to regulation, +excepting only the single pocket in his knapsack, where he may carry +what he chooses, as he chooses. His light canvas haversack is much +like the English one, and his round, rather flat water flask is +covered with canvas. It is made of tin, and the one I inspected was +rusty inside. It would be better if of aluminum. In the haversack is a +pannikin with a hinged handle that may be used as a saucepan. Over +this fits a tin plate, and when the two are covering one another the +handle of the pannikin fits over both by way of handle. It is an +excellent arrangement, but should be of aluminum instead of a metal +liable to rust. The most valuable part of this haversack is a big tin +cup that can be used for a great variety of purposes, including +cooking coffee. It is hung loose at the strap of the haversack. Of +course each man has knife, fork and spoon, each in a leather case. + +The cartridge belt contains 100 rounds, which are distributed all the +way around the waist, there being a double row of them. The belt is +remarkably light, being woven all in one operation. It is of cotton +and partly some material which prevents shrinking or loosening. The +belts have stood admirably the test put upon them for the last six +days, when it has rained every day, on top of the ordinary heavy +moisture usual at sea in the tropics. The test is the more interesting +from their having been previously in a very dry country. Officers and +men alike unite in praise of this cartridge belt. The particular +private whom I was inspecting said he now carried 100 as easily as he +formerly carried 50. This belt rests loosely on the hips, without any +straps over the shoulders. It is eminently businesslike in appearance. +The hat is the gray felt of South Africa, Australia, and every other +part of the world where comfort and cost are consulted. No boots are +blacked on expeditions of this kind. The men who form in line for +guard duty have their tunics well brushed, but that may be due to +extraneous assistance. + +For fighting purposes, then, the United States private has nothing to +keep clean excepting his rifle and bayonet. He carries no contrivances +for polishing buttons, boots, or the dozen of bits of accouterment +deemed essential to a good soldier in Europe. In Spain, for instance, +the private, though he may have nothing in his haversack, will, +nevertheless, carry a clumsy outfit of tools for making his uniform +look imposing. + +Now, as to discipline in the American army I cannot speak at present, +for the war is yet too young. It may, however, be worth noting that in +this particular regiment, while most complete liberty was allowed the +men all the twelve days of the rail journey from San Francisco to +Tampa, not a single case of drunkenness or any other breach of +discipline was reported. Among the 105 men on this boat there has not +in the past seven days been a single case of sickness of any kind or +any occasion for punishing. The firing discipline during the three +times we have been under fire has been excellent; the obedience of +soldiers to their officers has been as prompt and intelligent as +anything I have seen in Europe; and as to coolness under fire and +accuracy of aim, what I have seen is most satisfactory. The men +evidently regard their officers as soldiers of equal courage and +superior technical knowledge. To the Yankee private "West Pointer" +means what to the soldier of Prussia is conveyed by noble rank. In my +intimate intercourse with officers and men aboard this ship I cannot +recall an instance of an officer addressing a private otherwise than +is usual when a gentleman issues an order. I have never heard an +officer or noncommissioned officer curse a man. During the engagement +of Cabañas the orders were issued as quietly as at any other time, and +the men went about their work as steadily as bluejackets on a +man-o'-war. + +All this I note, because this is the first occasion that United States +troops have been in action since the civil war, and because I have +more than once heard European officers question the possibility of +making an army out of elements different from those to which they were +accustomed. I have heard Germans insist that unless the officer +appears in uniform he cannot command the respect of his men. On this +ship it would be frequently difficult to tell officers from men when +the tunic is laid aside and shoulder straps are not seen. There are +numberless points of resemblance between Tommy Atkins and the Yankee +private; and the Sandhurst man has no difficulty in understanding the +West Pointer. But to do this we must go a little beneath the surface +and see things, not on the parade ground, but in actual war. For dress +occasions the American uniform is far and away the ugliest and most +useless of all the uniforms I know. The helmets and cocked hats are of +the pattern affected by theatrical managers, the decorations tawdry, +the swords absurd, the whole appearance indicative of a taste +unmilitary and inartistic. The parade uniform has been designed by a +lot of unsoldierly politicians and tailors about Washington. Their +notion of military glory is confused with memories of St. Patrick's +Day processions and Masonic installations. They have made the patient +United States army a victim of their vulgar designs, and to-day at +every European army maneuver one can pick out the American military +attache by merely pointing to the most unsoldierly uniform on the +field. On the battlefield, however, there are no political tailors, +and the Washington dress regulations are ruthlessly disregarded. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEERING GEAR OF NORTH GERMAN LLOYD STEAMERS "COBLENTZ," "MAINZ," +AND "TRIER." + + +The steering gear illustrated below, which has been fitted to a number +of vessels in this country as well as on the three North German Lloyd +steamers above named, is designed, primarily, to effect the +distribution of the leverage more in proportion to the resistance of +the rudder than exists in ordinary gears. The latter, as a rule, exert +a uniform and decreasing, instead of an increasing, purchase on the +rudder, in moving it from midgear to hard over. This important object +is attained in the gear under notice chiefly through the arrangement +of the quadrant and the spring buffers, which form an essential part +of it, and of the tiller crosshead. The quadrant--which, as may be +gathered from our illustration, has its main body formed of wrought +steel, flanged and riveted, making an exceptionally strong +design--works on its own center. It travels through 51 degrees in +moving the tiller crosshead through 40 degrees, and in doing so +increases the leverage over the rudder to an extent which is +equivalent to a gain of 60 per cent. upon midgear position. + +[Illustration: HAND GEAR HARD OVER.] + +[Illustration: HAND GEAR AMIDSHIPS. +CROOM & ARTHUR'S STEERING GEAR.] + +Being carried on its own center, and not, as is usual, on the rudder +stock, and with its rim supported on rollers, the quadrant does not +impose upon the rudder pintles any of its own weight, thus diminishing +the wear on these parts. This arrangement also keeps the quadrant +always in good gear with its pinion, thereby allowing the teeth of +both to be strengthened by shrouding, and rendering them exempt from +the effects of sinking and slogger of the rudder stock as the pintles +wear. The rack and pinions are of cast steel, as is also the tiller +crosshead. The spring buffers, which, as has been said, form an +essential part of the quadrant, are fitted with steel rollers at the +point of contact with the crosshead, thereby reducing the friction to +a minimum. The springs, by their compression, absorb any shock coming +on the rudder, and greatly reduce the vibration when struck by a sea. +They are made adjustable, and can be either steel or rubber. + +Our illustrations show the arrangement of the gear as worked by hand +at the rudder head, but of course gears are made having a steam +steering engine as the major portion of the arrangement--the two +cylinders being placed directly over the quadrant--thus securing the +well known advantages attaching to a direct rudder head steering +engine as compared with the engine situated amidship, with all the +friction of parts, liability to breakage, etc., thereby entailed. + +Whether with engine amidship or directly over the rudderhead, ample +provision is made for putting the hand power into gear by means of a +friction clutch within the standard upon which the hand wheels are +mounted. The clutch is of large diameter and lined with hard wood, +power and ready facility being provided by the hand lever--seen at the +top of standard--and the screw which it operates, for shifting to in +and out of gear. + +The patentees and makers of this type of gear are Messrs. Croom & +Arthur, Victoria Dock, Leith, who, in addition to fitting it to the +three North German Lloyd steamers named in the title--which are each +of 3,200 tons, having an 8-inch rudder-stock--have applied it to the +Hamburg and Australian liner Meissen of 5,200 tons and 10-inch rudder +stock, and to the steamer Carisbrook of 1,724 tons, owned in Leith. On +the latter vessel, which was the first fitted with it, the gear has +been working for over two years, giving, we are told, entire +satisfaction to the owners, who say the spring buffers undoubtedly +reduce the vibration when the rudder is struck by a sea, and the +arrangement of quadrant and tiller appears to give increase of power. +Of the installation of this gear on board the three North German Lloyd +vessels, the agents of that company say: "It has been working to our +entire satisfaction. This system, on the whole, proves to have +answered its purpose." Considering the advantages claimed for the +gear, this is satisfactory testimony. We are indebted to The London +Engineer for the cuts and description. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMBINED STEAM PUMPING AND MOTIVE POWER ENGINE. + + +We give herewith an illustration of a compact engine, designed by +Messrs. Merryweather & Sons, of London, particularly for mining work, +and already supplied to the Burma ruby mines, the Salamanca tin mines, +and several mining companies in Brazil and other parts of South +America. It is an arrangement of the Valiant steam pumping engine with +a flywheel arranged to take a belt, and is so constructed that the +pump can be readily thrown out of gear and the engine used to drive +light machinery. The smaller size weighs only 7 cwt., including +boiler, engine and pump complete, and can be run on its own wheels, or +these can be detached and the machine carried by eight or ten men on +shoulder poles passed through rings fitted on top of the boiler. Thus +it can be easily transported up country, and has for this reason been +found most useful for prospecting. For alluvial mining it will throw a +powerful jet at 100 lb. to 120 lb. pressure, or by means of a belt +will drive an experimental quartz crusher or stamp mill. The power +developed is six horses, and the boiler will burn wood or other +inferior fuel when coal is not obtainable. The pump will deliver 100 +gallons per minute, on a short length of hose or piping, and will +force water through three or four miles of piping on the level, or, on +a short length, 35 gallons per minute against a head of 210 feet. The +pump is made entirely of gun metal, with rubber valves, and has large +suction and delivery branches. Air vessels are fitted, and the motion +work is simple and strong. The boiler is Merryweather's water tube +type, and raises steam rapidly, while the fittings include feed pump, +injector, safety valve, steam blast and an arrangement for feeding the +boiler from the main pump in case of necessity. + +[Illustration: MERRYWEATHER'S PUMPING ENGINE.] + +We are indebted to The London Engineer for the engraving and +description. + + * * * * * + +Some romances and exaggerations of which the Pitch Lake, at +Trinidad, has been the subject, are corrected by Mr. Albert Cronise, +of Rochester, N.Y. Its area, height and distance from the sea have +been overestimated, and a volcanic action has been ascribed to it +which does not really exist. It is one mile from the landing place, is +138 feet above the sea level, is irregular, approximately round, and +has an area of 109 acres. Its surface is a few feet higher than the +ground immediately around it, having been lifted up by the pressure +from below. The material of the lake is solid to a depth of several +feet, except in a few spots in the center, where it remains soft, but +usually not hot or boiling. But as the condition of the softest part +varies, it may be that it boils sometimes. The surface of the lake is +marked by fissures two or three feet wide and slightly depressed +spots, all of which are filled with rainwater. In going about one has +to pick his way among the larger puddles and jump many of the smaller +connecting streams. Each of the hundreds of irregular portions +separated by this network of fissures is said to have a slow revolving +motion upon a horizontal axis at right angles to a line from the +center of the lake, the surface moving toward the circumference. This +motion is supposed to be caused by the great daily change in +temperature, often amounting to 80°, and an unequal upward motion of +the mass below, increasing toward the center of the lake. A few +patches of shallow earth lying on the pitch, and covered with bushes +and small trees, are scattered over the surface of the lake. + + * * * * * + +The Gardeners' Chronicle announces that Mr. Fetisoff, an amateur +horticulturist at Voronezh, Russia, has achieved what was believed to +be impossible, the production of jet black roses. No details of the +process have been received. + + * * * * * + + + + +Recent Books. + + * * * * * + + +ELECTRO-METALLURGY. Electric Smelting and Refining: The Extraction +and Treatment of Metals by means of the Electric Current. Being the +second edition of Elektro-Metallurgie by Dr. W. Borchers. Translated, +with additions, by Walter G. McMillan. With 3 plates and numerous +illustrations in the text. 8vo, cloth. 416 pages. London and New York, +1897 $6.50 + +ELECTRO-TECHNICAL SERIES. By Edwin J. Houston, Ph.D., and A.E. +Kennelly, D.Sc. Ten volumes: Alternating Electric Currents, Electric +Heating, Electro-Magnetism, Electricity in Electro-Therapeutics, +Electric Arc Lighting, Electric Incandescent Lighting, Electric +Motors, Electric Street Railways, Electric Telephony, Electric +Telegraphy. Each $1.00 + +ENGINEERS. The Practical Management of Engines and Boilers, +including Boiler Setting, Pumps, Injectors, Feed Water Heaters, Steam +Engine Economy, Condensers, Indicators, Slide Valves, Safety Valves, +Governors, Steam Gages, Incrustation and Corrosion, etc. A Practical +Guide for Engineers and Firemen and Steam Users generally. By William +B. Le Van. 12mo, cloth. 267 pages. 49 illustrations. 1897 $2.00 + +EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE. By George M. Hopkins. This book treats on the +various topics of Physics in a popular and practical way. It describes +the apparatus in detail, and explains the experiments in full, so that +teachers, students and others interested in Physics may readily make +the apparatus without expense and perform the experiments without +difficulty. The aim of the writer has been to render physical +experimentation so simple and attractive as to induce both old and +young to engage in it for pleasure and profit. A few simple +arithmetical problems comprise all of the mathamatics of the book. +Many new experiments are here described for the first time. It is the +most thoroughly illustrated work over published on Experimental +Physics. 840 pages. Over 790 illustrations. Seventeenth edition. +Revised and enlarged. 8vo, cloth $4.00 + +EXPLOSIVES. Lectures on Explosives. A course of Lectures prepared +especially as a Manual and Guide in the Laboratory of the United +States Artillery School. By Willoughby Walke, First Lieut. Fifth +United States Artillery. Second edition. Revised and enlarged. 8vo, +cloth. 435 pages. New York, 1897 $4.00 + +FEEDS AND FEEDING. A Handbook for the Student and Stockman. By W.A. +Henry. 8vo, cloth. 657 pages. 1898 $2.00 + + * * * * * + +Our large Catalogue of American and Foreign Scientific and Technical +Books, embracing more than Fifty different subjects, and containing +116 pages, will be mailed, free, to any address in the world. + +Any of the foregoing Books mailed, on receipt of price, to any +address. Remit by Draft, Postal Note, Check, or Money Order, to order +of + +MUNN & CO., +361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + +A COMPLETE +ELECTRICAL LIBRARY + +BY PROF. T. O'CONOR SLOANE, + +Comprising five books, as follows: + + Arithmetic of Electricity, 138 pages $1.00 + Electric Toy Making, 140 pages 1.00 + How to Become a Successful Electrician, 189 pp. 1.00 + Standard Electrical Dictionary, 682 pages 3.00 + Electricity Simplified, 158 pages 1.00 + +--The above five books by Prof. Sloane may be purchased singly at the +published prices, or the set complete, put up in a neat folding box, +will be furnished to Scientific American readers at the special +reduced price of FIVE DOLLARS. You save $2 by ordering the complete +set. FIVE VOLUMES, 1,300 PAGES, AND OVER 450 ILLUSTRATIONS. + +--Send for full table of contents of each of the books. + +--Our complete book catalogue of 116 pages, containing reference to +works of a scientific and technical character, will be sent free to +any address on application. + +_We cannot permit the receipt of Sloane's Electrical Library to pass +by without complimenting you upon the same. It is a most admirable +work. Should be in the hands of all those who are interested in +electricity._ + +_PHILLIPS, ORMONDE & CO., Engineers._ +_Melbourne, Victoria._ + +_I was highly pleased with the copy of Sloane's Electrical Library, +which arrived in good condition. It is one of the most valuable works +I possess in my library. The use of the Roentgen Rays in my profession +has stimulated my desire for electrical knowledge greatly, and I +consider Sloane's "Electrical Dictionary" a first-class book of +reference. I shall be pleased to recommend it to my colleagues in +search of such a work. Yours truly,_ + +_P.J. CLENDINNIN, M.D.,_ +_Hon. Medical Electrician to the Melbourne Hospital._ + +MUNN & CO., Publishers, New York. + + * * * * * + + +_JUST PUBLISHED._ + +Second Edition, Revised and much Enlarged. + +Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines + +By GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E. + +The only American Book on the Subject. + +This is a book designed for the general information of every one +interested in this new and popular motive power, and its adaptation to +the increasing demand for a cheap and easily managed motor requiring +no licensed engineer. + +The book treats of the theory and practice of Gas, Gasoline and Oil +Engines, as designed and manufactured in the United States. It also +contains chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Electric Lighting, Marine +Propulsion, etc. Second Edition. Illustrated by 270 engravings. +Revised and enlarged. + +LARGE OCTAVO. 365 PAGES. PRICE $2.50. + + * * * * * + +CONTENTS. + +Chapter I.--Introductory, Historical. Chapter II.--Theory of the Gas +and Gasoline Engine. Chapter III.--Utilization of Heat and Efficiency +in Gas Engines. Chapter IV.--Heat Efficiencies. Chapter V.--Retarded +Combustion and Wall Cooling. Chapter VI.--Causes of Loss and +Inefficiency in Explosive Motors. Chapter VII.--Economy of the Gas +Engine for Electric Lighting. Chapter VIII.--The Material of Power in +Explosive Engines, Gas, Petroleum Products and Acetylene Gas. Chapter +IX.--Carbureters and Vapor Gas for Explosive Motors. Chapter +X.--Cylinder Capacity of Gas and Gasoline Engines, Mufflers on Gas +Engines. Chapter XI--Governors and Valve Gear. Chapter XII.--Igniters +and Exploders, Hot, Tube and Electric. Chapter XIII.--Cylinder +Lubrication. Chapter XIV--On the Management of Explosive Motors. +Chapter XV.--The Measurement of Power by Prony Brakes, Dynamometers +and Indicators, The Measurement of Speed, The Indicator and its Work, +Vibrations of Buildings and Floors by the Running of Explosive Motors. +Chapter XVI.--Explosive Engine Testing. Chapter XVII.--Various Types +of Gas and Oil Engines, Marine and Vehicle Motors.--Chapter +XVIII.--Various Types of Gas and Oil Engines. Marine and Vehicle +Motors--Continued. Chapter XIX--United States Patents on Gas, Gasoline +and Oil Engines and their Adjuncts--1875 to 1897 inclusive--List of +the Manufacturers of Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines in the United +States, with their addresses. + + * * * * * + +A FEW EXTRACTS OF NOTICES FROM THE PRESS. + +It is a very comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date work.--_American +Machinist._ + +The subjects treated in this book are timely and interesting, as there +is no doubt as to the increasing use of Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines, +particularly for small powers. It gives such general information on +the construction, operation and care of these engines that should +prove valuable to any one in need of such motors, as well as those +already having them in use.--_Machinery._ + +_What an engineer says_: + +_I beg to acknowledge receipt of your book on Gas, Gasoline and Oil +Engines, by Hiscox, by registered mail. I am highly pleased with the +book. It is the best on Oil Engines I have ever seen, is not intricate +in the calculations, and the illustrations are excellent. Yours +truly,_ + +_S. DALRYMPLE, Chief-engineer S.S. "Talune."_ +_Melbourne, Victoria._ + +MUNN & CO., Publishers, +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE, +361 Broadway, New York. + + * * * * * + + +The +Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in +paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers. + +COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00 + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + +MUNN & CO., Publishers, +361 Broadway, New York, N.Y. + + * * * * * + + +SPECIAL NAVAL SUPPLEMENT, No. 1165, + +contains a historical review of the modern United States navy, the +classification of the various forms of war vessels and nearly one +hundred illustrations, including details of construction of such +vessels not found in any other publication. A map of Cuba printed in +five colors accompanies it. Price, 25 cents. Single copies sent by +mail in United States, Canada and Mexico. Foreign countries, 8 cents +extra. + +MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York. + + * * * * * + + +1897 Supplement Catalogue Ready! + +The publishers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN announce that an entirely +new 48 page SUPPLEMENT Catalogue is now ready for distribution, and +will be sent free to all on application. + +MUNN & CO., Publishers, +361 Broadway, New York City. + + * * * * * + + +BUILDING EDITION + +OF THE + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. + +Those who contemplate building should not fail to subscribe. + +ONLY $2.50 A YEAR. + +Semi-annual bound volumes $2.00 each, yearly bound volumes $3.50 each, +prepaid by mail. + +Each number contains elevations and plans of a variety of country +houses; also a handsome COLORED PLATE. + +MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York. + + * * * * * + + +PATENTS! + +MESSRS. 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D.C. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +1178, June 25, 1898, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + +***** This file should be named 18265-8.txt or 18265-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/2/6/18265/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stacy Brown, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 1178, June 25, 1898 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 27, 2006 [EBook #18265] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stacy Brown, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="center" style="margin-left: -10%; margin-right: -10%;"><a href="images/title.png"> +<img src="images/title-th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a> +</div> + + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 1178</h1> + + + +<h2>NEW YORK, JUNE 25, 1898.</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XLV., No. 1178.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr /> + +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="3" align="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td>PAGE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">I.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art01"> +ARCHÆOLOGY.—Tombs of the First Egyptian Dynasty—By +<span class="smcap">Ludwig Borchardt</span></a></td> +<td class="toc3">18767</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">II.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art02"> +ANTHROPOLOGY.—The Milestones of Human Progress</a></td> +<td class="toc3">18766</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">III.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art03"> +BIOGRAPHY.—The Queen Regent and Alfonzo XIII.—1 illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">18755</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">IV.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art04"> +BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE.—Rose Psyche—1 illustration </a></td> +<td class="toc3">18768</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">V.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art05"> +CIVIL ENGINEERING.—The Lock of the Dortmund-Ems Canal +at Henrichenburg.—1 illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">18776</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VI.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art06"> +ELECTRICITY.—The Development of the Central Station—By <span class="smcap">Samuel Insull</span></a></td> +<td class="toc3">18774</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art07"> +MARINE ENGINEERING.—Steering Gear of North German Lloyd Steamers "Coblentz," "Mainz" and +"Trier."—2 illustrations </a></td> +<td class="toc3">18777</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VIII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art08"> +MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.—Sleep and the Theories of its Cause</a></td> +<td class="toc3">18768</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">IX.</td> +<td class="toc2"> +MISCELLANEOUS:<br /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1"></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art09"> +Engineering Notes.</a></td> +<td class="toc3">18771</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1"></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art10"> +Electrical Notes. </a></td> +<td class="toc3">18771</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1"></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art11"> +Selected Formulæ. </a></td> +<td class="toc3">18771</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">X.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art12"> +NATURAL HISTORY—Wild and Domestic Sheep in the Berlin Zoological Garden.—8 illustrations </a></td> +<td class="toc3">18772</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XI.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art13"> +PATENTS.—Patents.—By <span class="smcap">James W. See</span></a></td> +<td class="toc3">18773</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art14"> +PHOTOGRAPHY.—Amateur Chronophotographic Apparatus.—2 illustrations</a></td> +<td class="toc3">18769</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XIII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art15"> +STEAM ENGINEERING.—Combined Steam Pumping and Motive Power Engine.—1 illustration</a></td> +<td class="toc3">18778</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XIV.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art16"> +TECHNOLOGY.—The Reclaiming of Old Rubber.—By <span class="smcap">Hawthorne Hill</span></a></td> +<td class="toc3">18769</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XV.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art17"> +WARFARE.—The American "Regular."—By the English correspondent +of the London Times on board the United States transport "Gussie." </a></td> +<td class="toc3">18776</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>THE QUEEN REGENT AND ALFONZO XIII.</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<a href="./images/cover.png"><img src="images/cover-th.png" width="450" height="577" alt="Cover" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">THE QUEEN REGENT AND HER SON, KING ALFONZO XIII. OF SPAIN.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18766" id="Page_18766"></a></span> +In the present war between the United States and Spain, the Queen +Regent is an impressive figure, and it is entirely owing to her charm +and fortitude that the present dynasty of Spain is maintained. Since +his earliest youth she has constantly made efforts to fit her son to +wear the crown. The Queen Regent came from the great historic house of +Hapsburg, which has done much to shape the destinies of the world. All +the fortitude that has distinguished its members is represented in +this lady, who is the widow of Alfonzo XII. and the mother of the +present king. Her father was the late Archduke Karl Ferdinand and she +is the cousin of Emperor Franz Joseph. She has had a sad history. Her +husband died before the young king was born, and from the hour of his +birth she has watched and cared for the boy. She is the leader in all +good works in Spain, and her sympathy for the distressed is +proverbial. She gives freely from her private purse wherever there is +need, whether it be for the relief of misery or, as recently, when the +state is in peril. The young king has been carefully educated. By a +curious fate, his birth deposed from the throne his sister Maria de +las Mercedes, who as a little girl was queen for a few months. The boy +has been brought up under the influence of family life and has a warm +affection for his mother and sisters. He has never had the full +delights of childhood, for he has been educated in that false, +punctilious and thoroughly artificial atmosphere of the court of +Spain, in which every care has been taken to fit him for his royal +position. His health is far from robust, though the military education +he has received has done much to strengthen his constitution. He has +been taught to interest himself especially in the naval and military +affairs, and the study of the models of ships and military discipline +has been one of the principal occupations of his childhood. It is the +earnest wish of Spain that he should prove worthy of his mother.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>THE MILESTONES OF HUMAN PROGRESS.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></h2> + + +<p>The subject pertains directly to the advancement of the race. Indeed, +it is to the measure of this advancement I shall ask your attention. +There is no doubt about the advancement. There are some people who +believed and believe that man began in a state of high development and +has since then degenerated into his present condition. The belief in +some period of Arcadian simplicity and human perfection is still to be +found in some remote nooks and crannies of the learned world; but +those minds who have been trained in archæological studies and in +ethnographic observations know well that when we go back to the most +ancient deposits, in which we find any sign of man at all on the +globe, we find also the proofs that man then lived in the rudest +possible condition of savagery. He has, little by little, through long +centuries and millenniums of painful struggle, survived in made his +weapons and his most effective tools for the time being would be a +good criterion to go by, because these weapons and tools enabled him +to conquer not only the wild beasts around him and his fellow man +also, but nature as well. These materials are three in number. They +particularly apply to European archæology, but, in a general way, to +the archæology of all continents. The one is stone, which gave man +material for the best cutting edge which he could make for very many +millenniums of his existence. After that, for a comparatively short +period, he availed himself of bronze—of the mixture of copper and tin +called bronze—an admixture giving a considerable degree of hardness +and therefore allowing polish and edge making. The bronze age was not +long anywhere. It was succeeded by that metal which, beyond all +others, has been of signal utility to man—iron. We live in the iron +age, and it is from iron in some of its forms and products that all +our best weapons and materials for implements, etc., are derived. We +have, therefore, the ages of stone, of bronze and of iron. These are +the measures, from an artistic source, of the advancement of human +culture; and they certainly bear a distinct relation to all man's +other conditions at the time. A tribe which had never progressed +beyond the stone age—which had no better material for its weapons and +implements than stone—could never proceed beyond a very limited point +of civilization. Bronze or any metal which can be moulded, hammered +and sharpened of course gives a nation vast superiority over one which +uses stone only; and the value of iron and steel for the same purposes +I need not dwell upon.</p> + +<p>To be sure, we have here several measures; and it would seem more +desirable, if we could, to obtain one single measure—one single +material or object of which we could say that the tribe that uses or +does not use that to an equal degree is certainly lower or, in the +other respects, higher than another; but I believe that there has been +no single material which has been suggested as of sufficient use and +value in this direction to serve as a criterion; but, yes! I remember +there was one and, on the whole, not a bad one. It was suggested by +Baron Liebig, the celebrated chemist, who said: "If you wish a single +material by which to judge of the amount of culture that any nation, +or, for that matter, any individual, possesses, compared to another +one, find out how much soap they use. Nothing," he said, "more than +personal cleanliness and general cleanliness differentiates the +cultured man from the savage;" and as for that purpose he probably had +in view a soap, he recognized that as the one criterion. It is not +amiss, but open, also, to serious objections; because there are tribes +who live in such conditions that they can get neither water nor soap; +and the Arabs, distinctly clean, are not by any means at the highest +pinnacle of civilization.</p> + +<p>The Germans, therefore, as a rule, have sought some other means than +all those above mentioned. Almost all the German writers on +ethnography divide the people and nations of the world into two great +classes—the one they call the "wild peoples," the other the "cultured +peoples"—the "Natur-Voelker" and the "Kultur-Voelker." The +distinction which they draw between these two great classes is largely +psychological. Man, they say, in the condition of the "wild +people"—of the "Natur-Voelker"—is subject to nature; therefore, they +call them "nature people." The "Kultur-Voelker," on the other hand, +have emancipated themselves, in great measure, from the control of +nature.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, the man in the condition of the "wild people" is +in a condition of practically unconscious life: he has not yet +arrived at self-consciousness—he does not know and recognize his +individuality—the "Ego"—"das ich;" that is a discovery which comes +with the "Kultur-Voelker"—with the "cultured people;" and just in +proportion as an individual (or a nation) achieves a completely clear +idea of his own self-existence, his self-consciousness, his +individuality, to that extent he is emancipated from the mere control +of nature around him and rises in the scale of culture.</p> + +<p>Again, to make this difference between the two still more apparent, it +is the conflict between the instinctive desires and the human heart +and soul and the intelligent desires—those desires which we have by +instinct, which we have by heredity and which have been inculcated +into us wholly by our surroundings, which we drink in and accept +without any internal discussion of them: those are instinctive in +character. We go about our business, we transact the daily affairs of +life, we accept our religion and politics, not from any internal +conviction of our own or positive examination, but from our +surroundings. To that extent people are acting instinctively; and, as +such, they are on a lower stage of culture than those who arrive at +such results for themselves through intelligent personal effort. This +is a real distinction also, although somewhat more subtle, perhaps, +than the ones previously given. Therefore, the differentiation made by +the German ethnographers between wild people and the cultured peoples +is, in the main, right; but it does not admit of any sharp line of +distinction between the two. We cannot draw a fixed line and say, "On +this side are the cultured people and on that the wild," because there +are many tribes and nations who are about that line, in some respects +on one side of it, in others on the other; but in a broad, general way +this distinction (which is now universally adopted by the German +writers) is one we should keep in our minds as being based upon +careful studies and real distinctions.</p> + +<p>Usually the writers in the English tongue prefer a different basis +than any of these which I have mentioned; they prefer the basis as to +whence is derived the food supply of a nation, or a tribe; and on the +source of that food supply they divide nations and tribes into the +more or less cultured. In earliest times (and among the rudest tribes +to-day) the food supply is furnished entirely by natural means; there +is little or no agriculture known to speak of; there is nothing in the +way of preserving domestic animals for food; hunting the wild beasts +of the forests and fishing in the streams are the two sources. +Therefore, we call that last condition the hunting and fishing stage +of human development. You will observe that when that prevails there +can be no congregation of men into large bodies. Such a thing as a +city would be unknown. The food supply is eminently precarious. It +depends upon the season and upon a thousand matters not under the +control of man in any way. Moreover, inasmuch as the supply at the +best is uncertain, it allows but a very limited population in a +district; nor does it permit any permanent or stable inhabitations. +The towns, such as they are, must be movable; they must go to one part +of the country in the summer and another in the winter; they must +follow the game and the fruits; and in that condition, therefore, of +unstable life it is not possible for a nation or a tribe to gain any +great advance. You observe, therefore, that when the food supply is +drawn from this source it does entail a general depravity of culture +everywhere.</p> + +<p>Above that would come the food supply which is obtained from other +sources. There is one which is not universal but still widely +extended, and that is the pastoral life. There are many tribes (as, +for instance, in southern Africa and in India and throughout the +steppes of Tartary and elsewhere) who live on their herds and drive +their herds from one pasture to another in order to obtain the best +forage. This nomadic and pastoral life extended very widely over the +old world in ancient times, but existed nowhere in the new world, for +the simple reason that they had no domesticated animals. Our own +remote ancestors—both the Aryans and the Semites—all the early +ancestors of the white race so far as known, were pastoral or nomadic; +and the Aryans of central Europe remained so until after the fall of +Rome, when, for the first time, they became practically sedentary. +This nomadic and pastoral life is a very great advance over the mere +hunting and fishing stage. It requires considerable care and attention +to domesticate the wild animals in any sufficient quantity to form a +reliable source of food. Moreover, the attention which it was +necessary to give to the rearing and training and the looking after +domestic animals was to a certain extent, humanizing. When a man found +that it was necessary to be careful about his animals, he would also +be careful about his neighbors. We would say that the same sense which +enabled him, or directed him, to look after the welfare of the herd +would justify and, in fact, impel him to look after that of man also; +so that the nomadic and pastoral life, although not stable nor +favorable to the development of cities, nor the great extension of +commerce, was nevertheless a decided advance over the ruder hunting +and fishing stage. So far as we know, neither Aryan nor Semite ever +depended upon a hunting and fishing stage. They doubtless did, but not +in the time of any history that we know. The Bedouins, etc., wandering +tribes to-day, and, among the Semitic, the Tuaregs of the Sahara, are +a purely nomadic or pastoral race; yet are very much above the negroes +of the south, who depend upon hunting and fishing.</p> + +<p>Above it, however, and a very great improvement upon it, is the +agricultural stage, where the main source of the food supply is the +harvests. You observe, at once, that that means a sedentary life. When +a man sows corn, he must wait thereabout and tend it and till it and +finally reap it and store it and thrash it and then preserve the grain +and build granaries for it; and it involves, in fact, the remaining in +one place all the whole year; and then the regularity of that life led +very distinctly to making men regular, generally, in their habits. +They wanted to defend their homes—defend these grain fields of +theirs, or starvation would result; therefore, they built towers and +strong-walled cities; and they took great care in the selection of the +best men among them to do the fighting, while others looked after the +crop. We find that agriculture began at a very, very early period in +both continents. In our own continent we cannot tell when agriculture +was first in use—the main crop being the maize, or Indian corn. It +was raised by the more advanced tribes from the extreme north, where +its profitable culture invited, to the extreme south, from about the +northern line of Wisconsin in North America to the latitude of +southern Chile in South—extending, therefore, over some seven to +eight thousand miles of linear distance.</p> + +<p>In the old world (going back to the time of the lake dwellers) we know +they had barley, rye and a species of millet; and later on they were +introduced to oats and wheat and a variety of others. Rice was of the +very earliest of our cereals, in the extreme east of the old world. +Wherever we find a very ancient civilization we also find that it is +intimately connected with some important cereal, and it has been said +that all you have to do is to study botany—the history of botany—and +you will find the history of human culture; and much there is that +could be said for that.</p> + +<p>Fourth, and finally, those who divide human culture according to the +food supply consider that the highest stage is reached through +commerce. Commerce brings to all the great centers of human life the +food essential to their sustenance. It would be absolutely +impossible—obviously so—to have a city like Philadelphia in +existence for a month without constant and ceaseless commerce brought +here the food for its inhabitants. It is quite likely that, were +Philadelphia shut off at once from all connection with the world, +within ten days there would be an absolute famine here—so closely do +we depend upon our commercial supplies for our subsistence. These +supplies are not drawn from any one locality; were we to draw a radius +of five hundred miles around our great city of a million inhabitants, +we should still find that the greater part of our food supply comes +from a wider distance from us than that; and there is no one of us +that will go to his table this evening but will see upon that table +food products drawn from every quarter of the world. Thus it is that +commerce enables man to reach an indefinite degree of consolidation; +and it is through consolidation—through the more and more intimate +relationship, and the closer and closer juxtaposition of man—that his +real benefit and progress may be derived.</p> + +<p>These, therefore, are the four stages of culture, as depending upon +food supply: the hunting and fishing stage, the nomadic or pastoral, +the agricultural and the commercial. These have been generally adopted +by English writers, and they are so adopted to-day; and you will +probably find them in many of the text books.</p> + +<p>The American writers have, in many instances, followed the principles +laid down and defined most clearly by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, a +distinguished ethnologist of the last generation. He divides (or +accepted the division and largely defined it) the progress of man into +a series of stages: beginning at the lowest point with savagery; then +barbarism, semi-civilization, civilization, and fifth, enlightenment.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_18767" id="Page_18767"></a> +I may briefly refer to what he would include in these and the main +criteria which he gives for each of them. He would place the savage +condition as being that of the lowest tribes known to us. They have +little or no agriculture; their commerce is very inchoate and rude: +they have no knowledge of the metals as such; their best weapon is the +bow and arrow, or the throwing stick; and their best tool is the stone +hatchet and the stone spade. This is very much like the lowest +condition of the "wild people" to whom I referred.</p> + +<p>Above that he would place the condition of barbarism. In the stage of +developed barbarism he would place such inventions as, for instance, +pottery, the art of weaving (which is a very primitive art) and the +taming of a certain number of domestic animals, some for food, some +for amusement and hunting, and also the beginnings of the development +of agriculture. A type of such a nation of barbarism would be the +Indians who used to live here—the Algonkian—the Delaware Indians. +When the first Europeans came to the shores of the Delaware River they +did not find absolutely rude savages. The Delaware Indians had +moderately stationary villages surrounded by pickets, the houses being +built of strong timber; they had large fields of maize, pumpkins, +squashes and beans, which they cultivated diligently during the summer +and stored the food for their winter's supply. They depended largely, +to be sure, upon hunting and fishing also; but along with that they +had these simple arts: From the rushes which grew below Philadelphia, +in a place called the "Neck," they used to weave mats for protecting +the floors and also for building the sides of their summer houses and +for sleeping upon. They had a method of tanning and dressing buckskin +and using it for the purposes of clothing. They were by no means naked +savages; they were clothed, and tolerably well clothed; they could +make pottery, and the pottery was decorated sometimes with interesting +designs, of which we have specimens in our cabinets. Therefore, we +find among the old Delaware Indians who formerly lived on the site of +Philadelphia a fair specimen of a nation in a barbarous stage, +decidedly superior to the Australian natives of to-day or the Indians +of the Terra del Fuego or the northern part of British America, who +are in the state of complete savagery.</p> + +<p>Above that is the period of semi-civilization, a stage marked by the +discovery of the method of building stone walls. No Algonkian or +Iroquois Indian ever built a stone wall in his life; there is no +record of any and no signs of any throughout the United States east of +the Mississippi; there was never a stone wall built by a native tribe +that really amounted to anything more than a stone pile; but we do +find that in the southwest, among the cliff dwellers, and in various +parts of Central America and South America, the stone wall was not +only known, but it was constructed with a great deal of durability and +skill. Also, some knowledge of metals was found among most of the +semi-civilized people. The Mexicans and the Peruvians were in a state +of semi-civilization when they were discovered by the whites the first +time. They, built many extensive temples and houses, erected +frequently upon pyramids, the pyramids themselves being supported by +stone walls. They knew the dressing of stone; they were distinctly +agricultural and depended more on that than anything else for their +food supply. They had developed a system of mnemonic records which, in +the Yucatan culture, might be called picture writing, but was not +phonetic writing in our true sense of the term. The also knew +something about weighing and measuring. They had definite laws, laws +which were carried out by properly appointed individuals. Their towns +and cities would often number thousands of inhabitants; they had roads +connecting them, which roads were kept in good condition; they had a +regular army made up of men selected and trained for that purpose. In +all these respects we see nations who were semi-civilized, but they +were not yet civilized. We could call a nation civilized that had a +distinct system of phonetic writing and used it; but not all nations +having this are civilized. It is only when it is used freely and for +purposes of business that we can call them civilized.</p> + +<p>The wild Tuaregs of the Sahara have a system of phonetic writing used +by a few of them—the women being the literati of those tribes (the +men not knowing how to read or write); but civilization means more +than this; it means the use of iron weapons and tools; it means also +the adoption of a definite currency which is established on a fixed +basis and recognized throughout the community; it means the +establishment of commercial lines—a progress distinct above that +which is the mere barter of the lower conditions of savagery and +barbarism. In all these respects we see that civilization means a type +about such as we enjoy at present. It is such as has existed in Europe +since the Renaissance; because during the middle ages we could only +say that Europe was in a semi-civilized condition. They knew something +about writing; but at a time when Dean, the writer of the early +history of England, said that throughout the whole of England there +were not half a dozen men who could read what he had written, you can +see that writing was a very unimportant part of the culture of that +nation; so it can only be when writing becomes a common possession of +the majority that we can call it an element of civilization.</p> + +<p>It is not to be supposed that we ourselves have reached the type of +the highest culture. We leave something for our descendants to do. We +do not wish to relieve them of the privilege of being better than +ourselves; and we shall leave them, probably, plenty of room; because +it is supposed that the stage of enlightenment which is the highest +stage of culture—which we foresee, but do not see—that that rather +applies to the future than to ourselves. That period will come when +mankind has freed itself very much more than now from the bonds of +nature and the environment of society. It will come when the ideas of +our equality are much more perfect than they are now; when that +equality extends to the equality of women with men before the law and +in all rights; when it comes to the equality of all men of all castes +before the law and the equal opportunity of all men to obtain that +which is best in the life of all. We are very far from that yet. It +will come also when the idea of international legislation is such that +it will not be necessary, in order to cure great evils, that we should +have recourse to weapons of any material whatsoever; that time is not +yet come; and so we have much that is left for our descendants to work +out in this direction.</p> + +<p>It would, however, appear that all these various criteria which I have +named are somewhat unsatisfactory. They do not, it appears to me, +quite touch the question at issue. They are in a measure external +measures altogether—even that somewhat psychological one which I +quoted from the German authorities. Were I to propose a criterion, or +a series of criteria, of culture which could be applied to all +nations, it would be that which might as well and easily be applied to +each individual; and when we come to apply it in that manner it is +much more easy to understand its bearing. Herbert Spencer, in defining +what he means by culture, says: "It means the knowledge of one thing +thoroughly and a knowledge of the groundwork of all other branches of +human knowledge." He claimed that we can only understand one thing +thoroughly; but that we could and ought to understand the general +outline of all other things which are studied by mankind. This is +somewhat defective, it appears, because it bases culture entirely from +an intellectual point of view; and if man were merely a walking +intellectual machine, it would be well enough; but he is not; for the +intellectual man is but a small portion of his life. We are engaged, +most of our time, in something which is very far from purely +intellectual action. We are governed distinctly by our emotions and +our feelings—our sentiments; and culture must touch them, or it is +vague and empty. Therefore it is that I would say that we should think +with Goethe—to whom we must often recur for an insight into the +profoundest trends of human nature—must recur to him; and we find +that he lays down the principle of culture in the individual to be "A +general sympathy with all the highest ideas which have governed and +are governing the human mind." He said: "We should keep ourselves +first (each man and woman should keep himself and herself) in touch +with the highest elements of his and her own nature." He said, "It is +not so difficult, if we give but a little time to it—provided we give +that time regularly. We must remember," he says, "to cultivate our +intellect by some study, every day and our sense of the beautiful by +looking at something which is beautiful; and there is much around us +which costs us nothing to look at were we to observe it—the cloud, +the sunlight, the tree, the flower, a butterfly—anything of that kind +studied for a few minutes each day would continue to develop in man's +mind the sense of the beautiful. We should also appreciate carefully +our actions and govern them and measure them, as to whether they are +just to others—a matter which a very few minutes a day will probably +enable us to do;" and so also he would go further and seek to find, in +the idea of truth itself, as to what we ought and ought not to +believe—trying to discover some one test of truth which we can apply.</p> + +<p>Indeed, we may therefore formulate and apply to nations at large what +Goethe has there suggested; and we shall find it can be arranged in +what I may call a pentatonic scale of culture. You may be aware that +all musical scales of all savage and barbarous and primitive tribes +are not in the octave, as ours, but in five notes only; they all have +one musical scale only, and that is a pentatonic scale; and it is +perhaps because they feel that their own minds are based upon some +such arrangement as that (although that is an idea which I do not +subscribe to, but only suggest); but when we come to look over the +whole cycle of culture, as we find it described in the histories of +culture—in the histories of civilization—we find that they are all +efforts to develop one or the other, or several, of five primary ideas +which are in the mind of every human being; and when they are +developed, then culture is perfect, either in the individual or in the +nation or the race. These five primitive ideas, innate in every human +soul, are the ideas of the useful, of the beautiful, of the just, of +the good and of the true, and you will not find any savage (provided +he is not deficient in the ordinary mental ability of his tribe) who +does not indicate an appreciation of every one of these in his own +way. It is the idea of the useful which teaches him his utilitarian +arts; which teaches him to build his house; to chip the flint for his +weapon; to sharpen the stick to dig the place to drop the seed; and +all those we call the arts of utility, the useful arts; and yet you +will not find a savage tribe to-day but what goes somewhat above this; +because among them all they make also an effort that these tools and +weapons of theirs shall have some sign about them of the beautiful; +and you will find decoration—indeed, "the painted savage" is a name +we give to the lowest order of humanity; yet this same paint is to +make himself beautiful; and so it is throughout all his games and +amusements in life—you will find he is constantly striving at the +idea of decoration—at the idea of beauty; little by little he +develops this, until it becomes, in some nations, the joy of their +existence and the lesson of the race, as in the ancient Greeks; as in +the Italians of the time of the Renaissance. These are what we call +the æsthetic emotions, based upon an innate sense and love of the +beautiful: and we may also turn to the lowest savage—we shall not +find him deficient in justice; on the contrary, among the rudest +Australians, without shelter or clothing, you will find that the law +of the tribe is well defined and also implacable; and a man who has +sinned knows that he must meet it or flee; he knows that there is no +avail or recourse beyond the tribal council, and he knows what they +will decide in his particular case, because he knows the law and the +penalty of its infringement. And this rude notion of justice develops, +little by little, into the great edifice of jurisprudence, the law of +nation and the law of nations. Thus we find that the idea of the just, +and of what is right from man to man, is something which is found +everywhere; and as that develops culture develops; but the mere just +alone does not satisfy the human heart; the man who merely metes out +to his fellow that which the tribal law, or the law of the land, +requires of him, certainly is not up to the ideal of any man or woman +in this assembly or in this city.</p> + +<p>There is something beyond that, and what is that? We find that it +rests in the idea of the good—that which is often brought forward in +the beautiful forms of religion, which tells man that above justice +there is something greater and nobler than mere ethics or +morality—the mere right and wrong—the mere giving what is due. It is +not enough to do that; there must be a giving of more than is due; +because the idea of the good transcends the present life—it passes +into the future life of the species; and it is only through going +above what is needed to-day that we may endow our posterity with +something greater than we ourselves possess. It is the idea of the +good, therefore, which lifts that which is merely just into a +higher—into, I might say, an immortal sphere of activity. It has +always had an intense attraction for noble souls, which history shows +us; and it is not to be supposed that that attraction will ever +diminish; it will ever increase, although its forms may change; and +finally, along with this betterment of the emotions, and of the sense +of justice—of right and of ethics and of æsthetics—we find the +constant effort and desire of all mankind, in all stages of culture, +to find out what is true, as distinct from that which is not true. You +will not be mistaken if you seek for this in the soul of the rudest +savage; he, too, likes to know the truth. The methods by which he +arrives at it, or seeks to arrive at it, are widely different from +those which you have been taught. Nevertheless, the logical force of +his mind; the methods of thought that he has; the laws that govern his +intelligence, are exactly the same as yours: and it is only with your +enlightenment you have gained more and more acquaintance with the +methods. You know something about the great discovery which has +advanced all modern science from its mediæval condition to that of the +present—of the application of the inductive system of science and +thought; and you know that it is by constant and close mathematical +study of analogy—of probability—that we exclude error little by +little from our observations—we improve more and more our instruments +of precision—we count out the errors of our observation; and we are +constantly seeking those laws which are not transient and ephemeral +only, but which are eternal and immortal. Upon those laws, finally, +must rest all our real, certain knowledge; and it is the endeavor of +the anthropologist to apply those laws to man and his development; and +such, indeed, is the recognized and highest mission of that science. +We thus find that the idea of truth is at the summit of this scale +which I have placed before you—not separated from it. It interprets +every one of the ideas and justifies them and qualifies them and lifts +them up into their highest usefulness. Chevalier Bunsen, in describing +what he thought would be the highest condition of human enlightenment, +said, "It will be when the good will be the true and the true will be +the good;" and he might have extended that further and said, when both +those ideas were the inspiring motives of all these five great ideas +which I have stated are at the basis of the culture of every +individual and are also at the basis of the culture of the race and of +the nation.</p> + +<p>This, therefore, will serve as a sketch of the milestones of human +progress. The way has been long and painful; the results have been far +from satisfactory; and yet they have been enormous and wonderful, when +we compare them now with what our ancestors were when history began. +We can conclude, however, from looking back on this thorny and upward +path, that it is still going to ascend; we do not know it for certain; +progress may cease, through some unknown law, now and here; but if +there is anything that we can derive from the lesson of the past—if +we can project into the future any of the facts which history shows us +are our own now—it guides us forward to a firm belief that the +hereafter will have in its breast greater treasures for humanity, +greater glories for posterity, than any that we know or can +understand.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>A lecture delivered by Prof. Daniel G. Brinton at +the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.</p></div> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>TOMBS OF THE FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">1</a></h2> + + +<h3>By LUDWIG BORCHARDT, Ph.D., Director of the German School in +Cairo.</h3> + + +<p>For many years various European collections of Egyptian antiquities +have contained a certain series of objects which gave archæologists +great difficulty. There were vases of a peculiar form and color, +greenish plates of slate, many of them in curious animal forms, and +other similar things. It was known, positively, that these objects had +been found in Egypt, but it was impossible to assign them a place in +the known periods of Egyptian art. The puzzle was increased in +difficulty by certain plates of slate with hunting and battle scenes +and other representations in relief in a style so strange that many +investigators considered them products of the art of Western Asia.</p> + +<p>The first light was thrown on the question in the winter of 1894-95 by +the excavations of Flinders Petrie in Ballas and Neggadeh, two places +on the west bank of the Nile, a little below ancient Thebes. This +persevering English investigator discovered here a very large +necropolis in which he examined about three thousand graves. They all +contained the same kinds of pottery and the same slate tablets +mentioned above, and many other objects which did not seem to be +Egyptian. It was plain that the newly found necropolis and the +puzzling objects already in the museums belonged to the same period. +Petrie assumed that they represented the art of a foreign +people—perhaps the Libyans—who had temporarily resided in Egypt in +the time between the old and the middle kingdoms. He gave this unknown +people the name "New Race." But his theory met with little approval, +least of all from German Egyptologists; and even at that time, an +opinion was expressed that this unusual art belonged before the known +beginning of Egyptian culture. However, in spite of much discussion, +the question could not then be decided.</p> + +<p>About the same time another riddle was presented to Egyptologists by +the results of the excavations made in Abydos by the French scholar +Amélineau; and another hot discussion was raised. Amélineau had +excavated several large tombs and had also found objects which could +not be arranged in the known development of Egyptian art. The +fortunate discoverer ascribed these to the dynasties of the demigods, +who, according to Egyptian tradition, reigned before the kings; but of +course this idea met with determined opposition, and indeed especially +among his French colleagues. The tomb of Abydos offered, however, on +quiet consideration, more material for establishing its date than +those of Ballas and Neggadeh. In Abydos a number of inscriptions had +been found which, rude as they were, showed that the people buried in +the tombs had known the hieroglyphic system of writing. The occurrence +of so-called "Horus names" in these inscriptions<a name="Page_18768" id="Page_18768"></a> was especially +important. For every old Egyptian king had a long list of names and +titles, and among them a name surmounted by the picture of a hawk +(i.e., Horus), and called on that account the "Horus name." As the +name is, at the same time, written on a sort of standard, it is also +called the "Banner name." Such "Horus" or "Banner names" occur, then, +on the objects found by Amélineau. Accidentally, one of these names +occurs, also, on a statue in the Gizeh Museum which, according to its +style, is one of the oldest statues which the museum possesses. Thus +it became evident that the Abydos objects were, in any case, to be +placed in the earliest period of Egyptian history.</p> + +<p>The discussion stood thus when, in the spring of 1897, the fortunate +hand of De Morgan, the former Directeur-général des Services des +antiquités égyptiennes, succeeded by renewed excavations in Neggadeh +in furnishing the connections between the objects found by Petrie in +Ballas and Neggadeh and those found by Amélineau in Abydos. He +discovered, not far from the necropolis, excavated by Petrie, the tomb +of a king which, on the one hand, contained pottery and tablets like +those found by Petrie, and on the other, objects entirely like those +found by Amélineau. Thus it was proved that both Petrie's tombs and +those of Amélineau belonged to the same period, and, indeed, the +oldest period, of Egyptian history, before the third dynasty. They +were older than the most ancient objects which we had thought that we +possessed. But it was still impossible to date them exactly.</p> + +<p>At this point, an epoch-making discovery of Dr. Sethe, privat-docent +at the University of Berlin, placed the whole matter at a single +stroke on a comparatively sure foundation. He pointed out that the +inscriptions on a few unassuming potsherds from Abydos contained not +only Banner names of old kings, but also their ordinary names. These +names were not inclosed, as later, in cartouches, and even contained +many unusual spellings; but they were still too clear to be +misunderstood. Sethe succeeded in identifying the names of the fifth, +the sixth and the seventh kings of the first Manethonian dynasty, +called by the Greek authors Usaphais, Miebais and Semempses. Thus it +became extremely probable that all these newly discovered objects were +from the first dynasty, but still not absolutely certain; for the +three names occurred only on fragments of vases, and absolutely +nothing was known of how these fragments were found. The proof that +they belonged to the other objects was wanting. A very skeptical +investigator might still have said that the other objects were older, +that the potsherds had only fallen accidentally into ruined tombs of +an older period; or he might have said quite the contrary, that the +potsherds were older than the tombs.</p> + +<p>At this point occurred the possibility of finding a solution of the +question in the objects found in the royal tomb of Neggadeh. For the +report of the excavations at Neggadeh was more exact than that of the +excavations at Abydos; and the whole contents of the tomb of Neggadeh +had been kept together and preserved in a separate room in the Grizeh +Museum. The possibility became a reality. One of the principal objects +of this royal tomb was found to bear the ordinary as well as the Horus +name of the king—a fact which had escaped the fortunate discoverer. +The object is a small ivory plate with incised representations of +funerary offerings before the king. Animals are being sacrificed to +him; jars full of beer and other things are being offered. The figure +of the king, in front of a hanging mat, is not preserved; but the +upper corner still remains with the two names, which were written +above the figure. First, there is the same Horus name which occurs on +all the inscribed objects of this tomb and which may be translated +"The Warrior." Beside the Horus name in a sort of cartouche is the +title "Lord of Vulture and Serpent Crown" (Lord of Upper and Lower +Egypt), and beneath the title the sign which represents a +checkerboard, and has the syllabic value Mn. There can therefore be no +doubt that the king buried in the royal tomb of Neggadeh, of whom we +had only known the Horus name "The Warrior," had also the name Mn. +Now, there is no other known Egyptian king who could be identified +with this name Mn than the first king of the first Manethonian +dynasty, called Menes by the Greeks. It is impossible here to go into +the philological basis of the identification of Mn and Menes. The +final conclusion is this: In Neggadeh, we have before us the tomb of +the oldest king of whom the Egyptians had preserved any memory, and +whom they considered the founder of the Egyptian monarchy.</p> + +<p>In consideration of the importance of the questions involved, a short +description of the tomb of Menes and of the objects found in it will +certainly be of interest. The second part of De Morgan's book, +"Recherche sur les origines de l'Egypte," which has just appeared, +furnishes us with the facts concerning the tomb, and the objects found +in the tomb I will describe from the originals in the Gizeh Museum.</p> + +<p>The tomb consists of a large building, standing alone, measuring 54 X +27 m. (about 100 X 50 Egyptian ells), and built of burned brick. The +outside walls were ornamented, as was usual in later Egyptian +buildings, with pilasters composed of groups of smaller rectangular +pilasters. It is the same motive so often to be observed in the sham +doors in tombs of the old kingdom, and is really the most natural +facade ornamentation for brick buildings, as it may be made by simply +setting every alternate column of bricks forward or backward. The +walls were, in addition, plastered. Back of the thick outside wall on +each side lay a row of narrow rectangular rooms, formed by dividing a +corridor by means of cross walls. Inside this surrounding row of rooms +was the real tomb, a building with thick walls and five rooms in a +row. The middle one of these rooms, noticeably larger than the others, +is the real burial chamber. These five rooms were originally connected +by doors which were afterward walled up. As to the roof, we can only +make surmises, as the excavator has furnished us with no material on +this point. The walls as they now stand are at the highest point about +four meters high, and thus may form only the lower part of the +building. Whether the roof was an arch of stone or simply of wood, is +uncertain; but it seems to me probable that it was of wood. For the +tomb contained a layer of ashes in which all the objects put in the +grave with the dead man were found; and, assuming that the roof was of +wood, it is possible that the roof was set on fire at the time when +the tomb was robbed and that the ashes came from this fire. The +explanation which the excavator gives of these ashes, that the body +and the offerings were burned in the closed grave, hardly deserves +consideration. In any case, the grave has been robbed and destroyed. +That is shown by the fact that many pieces of funeral furniture, which +originally could only have been put in the central rooms, were found +partly broken in the outside rooms, or on the side toward the fields, +the side most exposed to the attack of grave robbers.</p> + +<p>The assumption that the grave has been robbed and intentionally +destroyed agrees entirely with the fact that all the more valuable +objects found in the grave were in fragments. But, fragmentary as they +are, they are sufficient to give us a good idea of the art of the +first period of the Egyptian kingdom, a period which is now most +generally estimated to be five and a half millenniums before the +present day (3600 B.C.) The skill with which ivory carving was done in +that early time is indeed amazing. Reclining lions, hunting dogs and +fish are so skillfully reproduced that one asks how many centuries of +development must have preceded before the art of carving reached this +perfection. A number of feet taken from the legs of small chairs and +other similar furniture, and made in imitation of bulls' legs, show +such a fixity of style and at the same time such a freedom of +execution, that no archæologist, without the report of the excavator, +would dare to proclaim them the oldest dated works of Egyptian art. +But it was not only in carving ivory, which is easy to work, that the +Egyptian artists showed their skill. They also make bowls and vases of +diorite and porphyry with the same success; and the forms presented by +the smaller ivory vases are also to be found in vases made of those +refractory stones. Further, the vases made of stone present not merely +such forms as might be made by turning or boring, but there are also +bowls with ribs which are as finely polished as the turned bowls. The +hardest material used in the objects already found is rock crystal, of +which several small flasks and bowls and a little lion are composed. +But the lion, it must be confessed, is rather rudely worked. A few +small vases of obsidian also occur—remarkable in view of the fact +that we do not know of any place in or near Egypt where this stone may +be found. Besides these vessels of hard stone, there are, of course, a +large number made of softer stone. Alabaster vases occur in every +conceivable form. Cylindrical pots, with wavy handles or simple +cordlike ornamentation, appear to have been especially favored. The +great beer jars, closed with enormous stoppers of unbaked clay, were +made of ordinary baked clay. Of course the different stone and clay +vessels, which, undoubtedly, originally contained offerings for the +dead, form the bulk of the contents of the grave. The slate tablets +for rubbing cosmetics for painting the body, and the flint weapons and +knives of all sorts, follow in point of numbers. Remarkably enough, +metal objects occur in this oldest historical period alongside the +stone implements, though, of course, in less numbers. Several objects +made of copper and a slender bead of gold have been found. Such, in +short, is all that remains of the things put in the tomb with the +king. But little as there is, it gives us an idea of the richness and +splendor with which these old royal tombs were furnished.</p> + +<p>It might certainly be productive of unusual emotions to know that the +few human bones found in the tomb, and now preserved in the Gizeh +Museum, once belonged to the oldest Egyptian king. But as we know +almost nothing of him, except some unfounded traditions, this sort of +relic worship deserves very little respect. The scientific value of +the proof that Menes was the king buried in the royal tomb of Neggadeh +lies rather in the fact that we have now settled the question of the +age of that culture which was presented to us by the excavations of +Ballas, Neggadeh and Abydos. The products of a whole period of +Egyptian civilization which had been misunderstood, and had been +used to support false historical conclusions, fall into their true +place; and our knowledge of the history of Egyptian culture is +carried back not merely a few centuries, but to a period presenting +characteristics different from the oldest previously known period, but +containing the germs of the later development.</p> + +<p>Cairo, Egypt.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>The Independent.</p></div> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>ROSE PSYCHE.</h2> + + +<p>The hybrid Polyantha Rose Psyche is a seedling from the dwarf +Polyantha Rose Golden Fairy, crossed with the pollen of the Crimson +Rambler. Its growth and habit, though more delicate, much resembles +the Rambler. It is apparently quite hardy, and is very free flowering, +but we fear not perpetual. The flowers are produced in clusters of +from fifteen to twenty-five, and are 2 to 2½ inches across when +fully expanded. In the bud stage they are very pretty and well formed. +The color is white, suffused with salmon-rose and pink, with a yellow +base to the petals. It is a real companion to Crimson Rambler.—The +Gardeners' Chronicle.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a href="./images/i1_big.png"><img src="images/i1.png" width="500" height="468" alt="ROSE HYBRID POLYANTHA "PSYCHE"--COLOR, PALE PINK." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">ROSE HYBRID POLYANTHA "PSYCHE"—COLOR, PALE PINK.</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>SLEEP AND THE THEORIES OF ITS CAUSE.</h2> + + +<p>The theory of the origin of sleep which has gained the widest credence +is the one that attributes it to anæmia of the brain. It has been +shown by Mosso, and many others, that in men with defects of the +cranial wall the volume of the brain decreases during sleep. At the +same time, the volume of any limb increases as the peripheral parts of +the body become turgid with blood. In dogs, the brain has been +exposed, and the cortex of that organ has been observed to become +anæmic during sleep. It is a matter of ordinary observation that in +infants, during sleep, the volume of the brain becomes less, since the +fontanelle is found to sink in. It has been supposed, but without +sufficient evidence to justify the supposition, that this anæmia of +the brain is the cause and not the sequence of sleep. The idea behind +this supposition has been that, as the day draws to an end, the +circulatory mechanism becomes fatigued, the vasomotor center +exhausted, the tone of the blood vessels deficient, and the energy of +the heart diminished, and the circulation to the cerebral arteries +lessened. By means of a simple and accurate instrument (the +Hill-Barnard sphygmometer), with which the pressure in the arteries of +man can be easily reckoned, it has been recently determined that the +arterial pressure falls just as greatly during bodily rest as during +sleep. The ordinary pressure of the blood in the arteries of young and +healthy men averages 110-120 mm. of mercury. In sleep, the pressure +may sink to 95-100 mm.; but if the pressure be taken of the same +subject lying in bed, and quietly engaged on mental work, it will be +found to be no higher. By mental strain or muscular effort, the +pressure is, however, immediately raised, and may then reach 130-140 +mm. of mercury. It can be seen from considering these facts that the +fall of pressure is concomitant with rest, rather than with sleep. As, +moreover, it has been determined on strong evidence that the cerebral +vessels are not supplied with vasomotor nerves, and that the cerebral +circulation passively follows every change in the arterial pressure, +it becomes evident that sleep cannot be occasioned by any active +change in the cerebral vessels. This conclusion is borne out by the +fact that to produce in the dog a condition of coma like to sleep, it +is necessary to reduce, by a very great amount, the cerebral +circulation. Thus, both carotids and both vertebral arteries, can be +frequently tied at one and the same time without either producing coma +or any very marked symptoms. The circulation is, in such a case, +maintained through other channels, such as branches from the superior +intercostal arteries which enter the anterior spinal artery. While +total anæmia of the brain instantaneously abolishes consciousness, +partial anæmia is found to raise the excitability of the cortex +cerebri. By estimation of the exchange of gases in the blood which +enters and leaves the brain, it has been shown that the consumption of +oxygen and the production of carbonic acid in that organ is not large. +Further, it<a name="Page_18769" id="Page_18769"></a> may be noted that the condition of anæsthesia is not in +all cases associated with cerebral anæmia. Thus, while during +chloroform anæsthesia the arterial pressure markedly falls, such is +not the case during anæsthesia produced by ether or a mixture of +nitrous oxide and oxygen.</p> + +<p>The arterial pressure of man is not lowered by the ordinary fatigue of +daily life. It is only in extreme states of exhaustion that the +pressure may be found decreased when the subject is in the standing +position. The fall of pressure which does occur during rest or sleep +is mainly occasioned by the diminished rate of the heart. The increase +in the volume of the limbs is to be ascribed to the cessation of +muscular movement and to the diminution in the amplitude of +respiration. The duty of the heart is to deliver the blood to the +capillaries. From the veins the blood is, for the most part, returned +to the heart by the compressive action of the muscles, the constant +change of posture and by the respiration acting both as a force and +suction pump. All of these factors are at their maximum during bodily +activity and at their minimum during rest. On exciting a sleeper by +calling his name, or in any way disturbing him, the limbs, it has been +recorded, decrease in volume while the brain expands. This is so +because the respiration changes in depth, the heart quickens, the +muscles alter in tone, as the subject stirs in his sleep in reflex +response to external stimuli. Considering all these facts, we must +regard the fall of arterial pressure, the depression of the +fontanelle, and the turgescence of the vessels of the limbs as +phenomena concomitant with bodily rest and warmth, and we have no more +right to assign the causation of sleep to cerebral anæmia than to any +other alteration in the functions of the body, such as occur during +sleep.</p> + +<p>We may well here summarize these other changes in function:</p> + +<p>(1) The respiratory movement becomes shallow and thoracic in type.</p> + +<p>(2) The volume of the air inspired per minute is lessened by one-half +to two-thirds.</p> + +<p>(3) The output of carbonic acid is diminished by the same amount.</p> + +<p>(4) The bodily temperature falls.</p> + +<p>(5) The acidity of the cortex of the brain disappears.</p> + +<p>(6) Reflex action persists; the knee jerk is diminished, pointing to +relaxation in tone of the muscles; consciousness is suspended.</p> + +<p>Analyzing more closely the conditions of the central nervous system, +it becomes evident that, in sleep, consciousness alone is in abeyance. +The nerves and the special senses continue to transmit impulses and to +produce reflex movements. If a blanket, sufficiently heavy to impede +respiration, be placed upon the face of a sleeping person, we know +that it will be immediately pushed away. More than this, complicated +movements can be carried out; the postilion can sleep on horseback; +the punkah-wallah may work his punkah and at the same time enjoy a +slumber; a weary mother may sleep, and yet automatically rock her +infant's cradle. Turning to the histories of sleep walkers, we find it +recorded that, during sleep, they perform such feats as climbing +slanting roofs or walking across dangerous narrow ledges and bridges. +The writer knew of the case of a lad who, when locked in his room at +night to prevent his wandering in his sleep, climbed a partition eight +to ten feet in height which separated his sleeping compartment from +the next, and this without waking.</p> + +<p>The brain can carry out not only such complicated acts as these, but +it has been found to maintain during sleep its normal inhibitory +control over the lower reflex centers in the spinal cord.</p> + +<p>Thus, in sleeping dogs, after the spinal cord has been divided in the +dorsal region, reflexes can be more easily evoked from the lumbar than +from the cervical cord, because the former is freed from the +inhibitory control of the brain.</p> + +<p>The strength of stimulus necessary to pass the threshold of +consciousness and to produce an awakening has been measured in various +ways. It has been determined that it takes a louder and louder sound +or a stronger and stronger electric shock to arouse a sleeper during +the first two or three hours of slumber; after that period, the sleep +becomes lighter and the required stimulus need be much less.</p> + +<p>The alternative theories which have been suggested to account for the +onset of sleep may be classed as chemical and histological.</p> + +<p>In relation to the first, it has been suggested that if consciousness +be regarded as dependent upon a certain rate of atomic vibration, it +is possible that this rate depends on a store of intramolecular +oxygen, which, owing to fatigue, may become exhausted; or it may be +supposed that alkaloidal substances may collect as fatigue products +within the brain, and choke the activity of that organ. Against this +theory may be submitted the facts that monotony of stimulus will +produce sleep in an unfatigued person, that over-fatigue, either +mental or bodily, will hinder the onset of sleep, that the cessation +of external stimuli by itself produces sleep. As an example of this +last, may be quoted the case recorded by Strumpel of a patient who was +completely anæsthetic save for one eye and one ear, and who fell +asleep when these were closed. Moreover, many men possess the power, +by an effort of will, of withdrawing from objective or subjective +stimuli, and of thus inducing sleep.</p> + +<p>The histological theories of sleep are founded on recent extraordinary +advances in the knowledge of the minute anatomy of the central nervous +system, a knowledge founded on the Golgi and methylene blue methods of +staining. It is held possible that the dendrites or branching +processes of nerve cells are contractile, and that they, by pulling +themselves apart, break the association pathways which are formed by +the interlacing or synapses of the dendrites in the brain. Ramon y +Cajal, on the other hand, believes that the neuroglia cells are +contractile, and may expand so as to interpose their branches as +insulating material between the synapses formed by the dendrites of +the nerve cells. The difficulty of accepting these theories is that +nobody can locate consciousness to any particular group of nerve +cells. Moreover, the anatomical evidence of such changes taking place +is at present of the flimsiest character.</p> + +<p>If these theories be true, what, it may be asked, is the agency that +causes the dendrites to contract or the neuroglia cells to expand? Is +there really a soul sitting aloof in the pineal gland, as Descartes +held? When a man like Lord Brougham can at any moment shut himself +away from the outer world and fall asleep, does his soul break the +dendritic contacts between cell and cell; and when he awakes, does it +make contacts and switch the impulses evoked by sense stimuli on to +one or other tract of the axons, or axis cylinder processes, which +form the association pathways? Such a hypothesis is no explanation; it +simply puts back the whole question a step further, and leaves it +wrapped in mystery. It cannot be fatigue that produces the +hypothetical interruptions of the dendritic synapses and then induces +sleep, for sleep can follow after fatigue of a very limited kind. A +man may sleep equally well after a day spent in scientific research as +after one spent in mountain climbing, or after another passed in +idling by the seashore. He may spend a whole day engaged in +mathematical calculation or in painting a landscape. He fatigues—if +we admit the localization of function to definite parts of the +brain—but one set of association tracts, but one group of cells, and +yet, when he falls asleep, consciousness is not partially, but totally +suspended.</p> + +<p>We must admit that the withdrawal of stimuli, or their monotonous +repetition, are factors which do undoubtedly stand out as primary +causes of sleep. We may suppose, if we like, that consciousness +depends upon a certain rate of vibration which takes place in the +brain structure. This vibration is maintained by the stimuli of the +present, which awaken memories of former stimuli, and are themselves +at the same time modified by these. By each impulse streaming into the +brain from the sense organs, we can imagine the structure of the +cerebral cortex to be more or less permanently altered. The impulses +of the present, as they sweep through the association pathways, arouse +memories of the past; but in what way this is brought about is outside +the range of explanation. Perhaps an impulse vibrating at a certain +rate may arouse cells or fibrils tuned by past stimuli to respond to +this particular rate of vibration. Thus may be evoked a chain of +memories, while by an impulse of a different rate quite another set of +memories may be started. Tracts of association are probably formed in +definite lines through the nervous system, as during the life of a +child repeated waves of sense impulses beat against and overcome +resistances, and make smooth pathways here and there through the brain +structure. Thus may be produced growth of axons in certain directions, +and synapses of this cell with that. If the same stimulus be often +repeated, the synapses between groups of cells may become permanent. A +memory, a definite line of action which is manifested by a certain +muscular response, may thus become structurally fixed. If the stimulus +be not repeated, the synapses may be but temporary, and the memory +fade as the group of cells is occupied by a new memory of some more +potent sense stimulus. Many association tracts and synapses are laid +down in the central nervous system when the child is born. These are +the fruits of inheritance, and by their means, we may suppose, +instinctive reflex actions are carried out.</p> + +<p>So long as the present stimuli are controlled by past memories and are +active in recalling them, so long does consciousness exist, and the +higher will be the consciousness, the greater the number and the more +intense the character of the memories aroused. We may suppose that +when all external stimuli are withdrawn, or the brain soothed by +monotony of gentle repetition, and when the body is placed at rest, +and the viscera are normal and give rise to no disturbing sensations, +consciousness is then suspended, and natural sleep ensues. Either +local fatigue of the muscles, or of the heart, or ennui, or exhaustion +of some brain center usually leads us to seek those conditions in +which sleep comes. The whole organism may sleep for the sake of the +part. To avoid sleeplessness, we seek monotony of stimulus, either +objective or subjective. In the latter case, we dwell on some +monotonous memory picture, such as sheep passing one by one through a +gap in the hedge. To obtain our object, we dismiss painful or exciting +thoughts, keep the viscera in health, so that they may not force +themselves upon our attention, and render the sense organs quiet by +seeking darkness, silence and warmth.—L.H., in Nature.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>AMATEUR CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS.</h2> + + +<p>At the time that we described the Demeny chronophotographic apparatus +we remarked that it had the advantage of permitting of the projection +of very luminous images of large dimensions; but it is certain that +the cases are somewhat limited in which there is any need of using a +screen 24 or 25 feet square, and, as a general thing, one 6 or 10 feet +square suffices. The manufacturer of the apparatus, M. Gaumont, has, +therefore, been led to construct a small size in which the bands have +the dimensions usually employed in the French and other apparatus, +thus permitting of the use of such as are now found in abundance in +the market.</p> + +<p>By reducing the size, it has been possible further to simplify the +construction, and at the same time to reduce the price, thus making of +the new form a genuine amateur apparatus.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that the Demeny principle consists especially in +the avoiding of traction upon the perforated part of the band, which +is the portion that always presents the most fragility. This principle +has naturally been preserved in the small model, and a preservation of +the bands for a long time is thus assured.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;"> +<img src="images/i2.png" width="228" height="300" alt="Fig. 1--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENSITIZED BAND IN TWO MAGAZINES." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1—ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENSITIZED BAND IN TWO MAGAZINES.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;"> +<img src="images/i3.png" width="233" height="300" alt="Fig. 2--ARRANGEMENT FOR TAKING VIEWS WITH SPECIAL GEARING FOR THE WINDING OF THE BAND." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2—ARRANGEMENT FOR TAKING VIEWS WITH SPECIAL GEARING FOR THE WINDING OF THE BAND.</span> +</div> + +<p>The apparatus is reversible, and may be used for making negatives as +well as for projecting positives. In its new form it is easily +transportable and is no more bulky than an ordinary 5 by 7 inch +apparatus. Nothing is simpler then than to carry it on a journey, if +one desires to make his own negative bands. Since the sensitized film +has to be protected against the light during its entire travel, two +magazines have been arranged (Fig. 1). One of these, A, which is fixed +upon the top of the camera, contains the clean film, while the other, +B, which is placed beneath the objective, receives the strip after it +has been acted upon by the light. A train of toothed wheels, C (Fig. +2), actuates the roller of this second magazine. This arrangement may, +moreover, be utilized also when projections are made, if one does not +desire the band to float in measure as it unwinds behind the +objective. As the upper magazine is entirely closed when it is placed +upon the apparatus, it is necessary, in order to prepare for taking a +negative, to pull out a few inches of the film, pass the latter over +the guide roller and fix the extremity to the winding roller in the +lower magazine.</p> + +<p>It is clear that we can have any number of magazines whatever for +carrying about, all charged, just as one carries the frames of his +ordinary camera.</p> + +<p>Chronophotography presents no more difficulty than ordinary +photography as regards the taking of negatives, and the amateur who +has not the proper facilities for developing and printing the latter +can have these operations performed by a professional. Animate +projections are beginning to be introduced into parlors, and some day +will entirely replace the magic lantern therein. The excitement caused +by the catastrophe at the Charity Bazar is now calmed, and it has been +ascertained that the accident was not due to the lamp of the +projector, but to a carelessly handled can of ether. So the extension +of this sort of spectacle, momentarily arrested, is taking a new +impetus, which will be further aided by the apparatus under +consideration, for the description of which and the illustrations we +are indebted to La Nature.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>THE RECLAIMING OF OLD RUBBER.</h2> + +<h3>By HAWTHORNE HILL.</h3> + + +<p>The complaint of high prices of India rubber is as old as the rubber +industry, one result of which has been an unceasing effort to discover +a practical substitute. Never was the secret of the transmutation of +metals sought more persistently by ancient philosophers than the +secret of an artificial rubber has been by modern chemists, but, thus +far, the one search has been hardly more successful than the other. +One discovery has been made, however, by which our rubber supplies +have been so far conserved that, for the want of it, we might be +obliged now to pay double the current prices for new rubber. This is +the reclaiming of rubber from worn-out goods, in a condition fit for +use again<a name="Page_18770" id="Page_18770"></a> in almost every class of products of the rubber factory.</p> + +<p>Soon after the vulcanization of rubber became fully established, +attempts began to be made to "devulcanize" the scrap and cuttings of +rubber which accumulated in the factories. So extensive were these +accumulations that one company are reported to have built a road with +rubber scrap through a swamp adjacent to their factory, while most +other manufacturers were unable to find even so profitable a use for +their wastes. As time advanced there came to be large stocks, also, of +worn-out rubber goods, such as car springs and the like, all of which +appealed to a practical mind here and there as being of possible +value, since the price of new rubber kept climbing up all the while.</p> + +<p>No fewer than nineteen patents were granted in the United States for +"improvements in devulcanizing India rubber," or "restoring waste +vulcanized rubber," beginning in 1855, or eleven years after the date +of Goodyear's patent for the vulcanization process. In that year +Francis Baschnagel obtained a patent for restoring vulcanized rubber +to a soft, plastic, workable state, by treating it with alcohol +absolutus and carbon bisulphuratum, in a closed vessel, without the +application of heat. Later he obtained a patent for accomplishing the +same result by "boiling waste rubber in water, after it has been +reduced to a finely divided state;" and still later, one for treating +the waste to the direct action of steam.</p> + +<p>Patents were granted in 1858 to Hiram L. Hall, for the treatment of +waste rubber by boiling in water; also, by subjecting it to steam; and +again, by combining various resinous and other substances with it. The +two inventors named assigned their patents to the Beverly Rubber +Company, of Beverly, Mass., controlled then by the proprietors of the +New York Belting and Packing Company, and their processes became the +basis of an important business in rubber clothing.</p> + +<p>The low cost of the devulcanized rubber, as compared with new rubber, +alone gave them a great advantage over other manufacturers, in +addition to which they escaped the payment of a license to work under +the Goodyear patents.</p> + +<p>Many army blankets, made for the government during the civil war, were +waterproofed with Hall's devulcanized rubber, and from that period +little new rubber has been used in the manufacture of heavy rubber +coats. The other patents in this class do not deserve special mention.</p> + +<p>It having been established that rubber is rubber, no matter where +found, manufacturers gradually turned their attention beyond the +scraps and cuttings which remained after making up their goods. There +was beginning to be a good demand for ground-up rubber car springs, +wringer rolls, tubing and other rubber goods free from fiber, after it +had been so treated as to remove the sulphur contents and restore the +gum to a workable condition. But this left out of account rubber +footwear, belting, and hose, not to mention the later heavy production +of bicycle tires. There were only a few uses to which rubber waste +containing fibrous material could be put when ground up and +devulcanized without the removal of the fiber. It could be put into a +cheap grade of steam packing or mixed in a powdered form with new +rubber for the heels of rubber boots and shoes. There was an early +patent for a process for "combining fibrous materials with waste +vulcanized rubber, rendered soft and plastic." But all the other +patents which come within the scope of this article had for their +object the separation of fibers from the rubber.</p> + +<p>An important advance was marked by the Hayward patent (No. 40,407), +granted in 1868, for "boiling waste rags of fibrous material and +rubber in an acid or alkali, for the purpose of destroying the +tenacity of the fibers of the rags, so that the rubber may be +reground." But this process extended only to the weakening of the +fibers, and not their complete destruction. A later patent, in the +same year, provided for exposing the ground rubber waste to the direct +action of flames of gas or inflammable liquids, by which the foreign +matters would be consumed and the rubber rendered plastic and +cohesive, but it is not on record that this process received any +particular application.</p> + +<p>The principal activity of invention in the field of reclaiming rubber +dates from 1870, since which year 37 patents have been granted for +processes more or less distinctive from those which had for their +object only the devulcanization of rubber. Prior to that time the use +of rubber reclaimed from fibrous wastes had been confined practically +to one large factory in Boston and one near New York. One concern, for +a while, bought old rubber shoes and sent them to women in the +country, whom they paid so much a pound for the rubber stripped off—a +very expensive process. There were several claimants for priority in +the matter of reclaiming rubber by the processes which finally became +standard, and some conflicting interests were brought together under +the head of the Chemical Rubber Company. This corporation controlled +the leading patents for the "acid" process, licensing various parties +to work under them, and bringing suits against concerns who reclaimed +rubber without their license. In 1895 the United States courts decided +in favor of the defendants, practically rendering the patents invalid, +on the ground that the inventions claimed under them had been +disclosed by the Hall patents of 1858 and the Hayward patent of 1863.</p> + +<p>The two patents upon which the suits for infringement rested +principally were No. 249,970, granted to N.C. Mitchell, in 1881, and +No. 300,720, granted to the same, in 1884. About the same time the +Rubber Reclaiming Company, formed in 1890 by the combination of five +leading rubber reclaiming plants, and working under license from the +company above named, was resolved into the original elements. There +were about that time five other rubber reclaiming plants in the United +States, operating either the "acid" or the "mechanical" process, +besides nine general rubber factories producing their own reclaimed +rubber by the "acid" process. While several of the latter—rubber shoe +concerns controlled by the United States Rubber Company—have been +consolidated, there has been an increase in the number of rubber +manufacturers reclaiming their own rubber, since the end of the patent +litigation, so that the total number of reclaiming plants now probably +is twenty.</p> + +<p>The first step in any process for reclaiming rubber is the grinding of +the waste, for which purpose several machines have been designed +specially, an early patent for disintegrating rubber scrap by +"subjecting it to the abrading action of grindstones" having failed to +meet with favor. The most usual chemical treatment is a bath in a +solution of sulphuric acid in lead-lined tanks. Generally heat is +employed to hasten the process, through the medium of steam, in which +case the tanks are tightly closed. The next step is the washing of the +scrap, to free it of acid and dirt, after which it is sheeted by being +run between iron rollers and hung in drying rooms. As soon as it has +become dry it is ready for sale.</p> + +<p>In the extended litigation over the acid process patents, the points +at issue related to the strength of the acid named in the various +specifications and also to the methods of applying steam. Prof. +Charles F. Chandler, called as an expert in one case, testified that +the effects of acids, such as sulphuric or hydrochloric, upon rubber +and rubber compounds, under varying strength and temperature, had been +known at a period antedating all the patents then the basis of suits +for infringement; also that their effect upon cotton and woolen +fabrics had been equally well known. They had the same effect upon +fibers, whether the latter were combined with rubber or not, but very +strong acids would affect the rubber injuriously. The line of defense +in this case was that "no invention was required in selecting the +strength of acid; only the common sense of the manufacturer, aided by +his skill and experience, was necessary to bring about the proper +results." In support of this a factory superintendent testified that +varied stocks required skill and judgment in their treatment and more +or less variation as to the strength of acid, temperature, etc.</p> + +<p>As to the use of steam, Prof. Henry B. Cornwall, of Princeton College, +called as an expert in another case, testified that, having put to a +test the specifications in all the patents involved, he had found it +necessary in no case to inject live steam into the mixtures of acid +and rubber scrap in order to effect the decomposition and removal of +either woolen or cotton fiber. The use of the acids specified was +sufficient for this, and the various high temperatures called for were +not essential for the destruction of the fibers. He neglected to +mention, however, that the steam served an equally important purpose +in devulcanizing the rubber.</p> + +<p>It appeared that the practice in different factories had included the +use of sulphuric acid varying from a 2½ per cent. solution to the +full commercial strength of the acid, but one of the defendant +companies based their case upon their use of acid of the strength of +28° to 30° Baumé, whereas the patent they were charged with infringing +specified a strength of 66°. Their tanks were lead-lined and provided +on the interior with steam pipes running down the sides and along the +bottom, the sections at the bottom being perforated and the steam +admitted at a pressure of 75 to 80 pounds. The chemical treatment +lasted from 2½ to 4 hours.</p> + +<p>The sulphuric acid treatment, however, is confined mainly to scrap +containing cotton fiber. Where woolen fibers occur, which is much less +frequently, their disintegration is accomplished generally by the use +of caustic soda.</p> + +<p>In the mechanical process of reclaiming rubber, the rubber is +separated from the fiber, after the whole has been finely ground, by +means of an air blast, the method being not unlike that practiced by +furriers for separating hair and fur from bits of pelt after skins +have been finely divided. As the powdered waste comes from the blower, +the rubber falls in a heap near the machine, while the particles of +fiber, being lighter, are carried far enough away to make the +separation complete. Devulcanization in this case is effected by +exposure to live steam at a high temperature. No oil is used in the +process, the sheeting of the product being facilitated by means of hot +friction rollers.</p> + +<p>The cost of reclaiming rubber by the acid process is less than by +mechanical means, for which reason the former is now much more +generally used. But some manufacturers are willing to pay more per +pound for mechanically-reclaimed rubber, either (1) because it can be +"compounded" more heavily than the acid product, or (2) because of +certain inherent disadvantages of the latter. It is the testimony of +these manufacturers that the action of sulphuric acid upon whiting +(one of the most common adulterants used in rubber shoes) is to turn +it into sulphate of lime—an ingredient which is far from advantageous +in a rubber compound. Again, any acid which may remain in the +reclaimed rubber is liable to rot thin textile fabrics with which it +may be combined in manufacture. Finally, rubber recovered by the +chemical process, it is claimed, is harder than that obtained by any +other; so that it is usual to add, during vulcanization, in order to +soften the product, the residuum obtained from petroleum manufactures, +or palm or other oils. Unvulcanized rubber clippings also have been +used for this purpose. One of the most successful of our rubber +factory superintendents, who formerly made the reclaimed rubber used +by his factory, has stated that his practice was to subject the +material to an alkaline bath after the acid treatment, not only for +the better cleaning of the rubber, but to neutralize any acid which +might remain. Considering all the points involved, it was his opinion +that, when scrap rubber is cheap, the mechanical process is the more +economical, while, if it is high priced, the acid process has the +advantage. Since this expression of opinion, however, prices of rubber +scrap have ranged constantly at higher figures than before, and there +is no indication that we shall have again what was known formerly as +"cheap" scrap. It is not surprising, therefore, that the volume of +mechanical "shoddy" should be placed by the best estimates at not +above one-sixth of the total production of reclaimed rubber in the +United States. And the acid product, with all its admitted +shortcomings, is still superior to any of the so-called rubber +substitutes.</p> + +<p>Reclaimed rubber is not to be considered as an adulterant, except in +the same sense as fillings, like whiting, litharge or barytes, the use +of which in rubber compounds often gives to the product desirable +qualities that are unobtainable by the use of "pure gum." It lacks +some of the qualities of good native rubber, and yet it is rubber, and +fills its proper place as acceptably as any raw material of +manufacture. Rubber shoes made of new gum entirely would be too +elastic, and for that reason would draw the feet, besides being too +costly for the ordinary trade. The construction of a rubber shoe, by +the way, is well adapted for the use of different compounds for the +different parts. Rubber enters into twenty-six pieces of a rubber boot +and nine or more pieces of a rubber shoe. Consequently, as many +different compounds may be used, if desired, for the output of a +single factory for rubber footwear. The highest grades of native +rubber may be used for waterproofing the uppers of a fine overshoe, +while reclaimed rubber, of a cheap class even, may be good enough for +the heel, which requires only to be waterproof and durable, without +too much weight, and with no elasticity. Reclaimed rubber goes into +many classes of goods of high grade. The result is that such goods +have been cheapened legitimately, placing them within the reach of +immense numbers of consumers who otherwise would be obliged to do +without.</p> + +<p>While the extensive use of reclaimed rubber is a matter of common +knowledge to all who are familiar with the rubber industry, there are +nowhere available any statistics of either the absolute or comparative +volume of its consumption, with the single exception of the official +returns of imports into Canada. There separate accounts are kept of +crude India rubber and of recovered rubber received in each year, and +as only a consuming market exists for these commodities in the +Dominion, the figures given below may be taken to represent closely +the actual consumption by the rubber factories of Ontario and Quebec. +It is interesting to note the heavy growth of the percentage of +recovered rubber shown in the table, all the figures representing +pounds:</p> + +<table summary="rubber"><tbody> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Fiscal Year.</td> <td></td> <td class="center">Crude<br /> Rubber.</td> +<td class="center">Recovered<br /> Rubber.</td> <td class="center">Total<br /> Imports.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1885-86</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">739,169</td> <td class="tr">19,499</td> <td class="tr">758,668</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1886-87</td> <td></td> <td class="tr"> 785,040</td> <td class="tr">46,508</td> <td class="tr">831,548</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1887-88</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">1,225,893</td> <td class="tr">88,471</td> <td class="tr">1,314,364</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1888-89</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">1,669,014</td> <td class="tr">221,674</td> <td class="tr">1,890,688</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1889-90</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">1,290,766</td> <td class="tr">147,377</td> <td class="tr">1,438,143</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1890-91</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">1,602,644</td> <td class="tr">8,254</td> <td class="tr">1,610,898</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1891-92</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">2,100,358</td> <td class="tr">106,080</td> <td class="tr">2,206,438</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1892-93</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">2,152,855</td> <td class="tr">195,281</td> <td class="tr">2,348,136</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1893-94</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">2,077,703</td> <td class="tr">529,900</td> <td class="tr">2,607,603</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1894-95</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">1,402,844</td> <td class="tr">611,745</td> <td class="tr">2,014,589</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1895-96</td> <td></td> <td class="tr"> 2,155,576</td> <td class="tr">643,169</td> <td class="tr">2,798,745</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">1896-97</td> <td></td> <td class="tr">2,014,936</td> <td class="tr"> 1,061,402</td> <td class="tr"> 3,076,338</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Percentage,</td> <td class="tl">1885-86 </td> <td class="center">97.5</td> +<td class="center">2.5</td> <td class="center">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="center"> " </td> <td class="tl">1896-97</td> <td class="center">65.5</td> +<td class="center">34.5</td> <td class="center">100</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + +<p>If it were possible to examine the books of the several rubber +reclaiming plants on this side of the border, including rubber shoe +and mechanical goods factories producing their own reclaimed rubber, +the percentage of this material used, in comparison with the total +rubber consumption, might be found to be as great in the United States +as in Canada. The rubber manufacture in the Dominion, in its +inception, was practically an offshoot from the industry in this +country. Our manufacturers supplied the Canadian demand for rubber +goods until, under the stimulus of heavy protective duties, rubber +works were established beyond the border, since which time, to quote a +leader in the trade in the United States, "the methods of the Dominion +rubber industry have mirrored the best practice in our country." Hence +it seems not unreasonable to conclude that if the Canadians are using +so large a percentage of reclaimed rubber, they are doing no more nor +less than the older and larger concerns here. The most trustworthy +authorities place the consumption of new rubber in the United States +during 1897 at not far from 35,000,000 pounds. Assuming that the rate +of consumption of reclaimed rubber was as great as in Canada, we have +18,435,000 pounds more, or a total of 53,433,000 pounds. But there are +producers of reclaimed rubber who insist that the amount of this +material used in this country equals, pound for pound, the consumption +of new rubber.</p> + +<p>The use of reclaimed rubber in Europe is increasing gradually, and +especially in Great Britain. The American product is sold extensively +in that country, and some native reclaiming plants have been started. +The most extensive "galosh" factory in Russia, which is said to be the +largest in the world, is reclaiming rubber according to American +methods. But, as a rule, the Continental rubber manufacturers make +more use of "substitutes," a class of materials which has not found +favor in America. These rubber substitutes belong chiefly to the class +of oxidized oils and may be classed in three divisions: Those obtained +(1) by the action of oxygen or air on linseed oil; (2) by acting on +rape oil with chloride of sulphur; and (3) by the action of sulphur on +rape oil at a high temperature. The first class has little application +to the rubber trade, though its use is universal in the linoleum +industry. In Europe the chemist holds a more important position in the +rubber manufacture than here, one result of which has been cheaper +compounds of rubber and another the satisfactory employment of the +refractory African rubbers long before they were used extensively in +the United States. Hence the cost of raw materials in the rubber +industry has been, on the whole, cheaper abroad. The Europeans have +had an advantage, too, in respect to cheaper labor, which has offset +somewhat our own advantage from the use of reclaimed rubber as a cheap +material.</p> + +<p>There are numerous grades of reclaimed rubber, due to differences in +the quality of stock used, and also to the different degrees of care +used in its preparation, according to the requirements of +manufacturers. The declared value of reclaimed rubber exported from +New York during July, 1897, averaged 12.6 cents per pound, while the +value of exports for September averaged only 9.1 cents. The average +value for the eight months ending February 28, 1898, was 10.08 cents +per pound. The total declared value of such exports for the fiscal +year 1896-97 was $119,440, which, at the prices prevailing since, +would represent considerably more than 1,000,000 pounds. Some of the +material sold at home is known to bring less than any prices quoted +above. "Mechanical" stock brings about two cents per pound more than +"acid" stock of corresponding grade.</p> + +<p>The collection of old rubber has acquired large proportions as an +adjunct to the trade in junk or rags. Not long ago the estimated +yearly collection of rubber shoes alone amounted to 18,000 tons, and +since that time the business in bicycle tire scrap has also become +very large. During the past ten years the price of old rubber shoes +has ranged between $60 and $120 per ton in carload lots, being at +present about $90 per ton. Some 1,500 tons of rubber scrap are +imported annually by the reclaiming companies in the United States.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>In the Baltic Sea there are more wrecks than in any other place in the +world. The average throughout the year is one each day.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a><a name="Page_18771" id="Page_18771"></a>ENGINEERING NOTES.</h2> + + +<p><b>The Austrian</b> government has ordered thirty-seven engines arranged to +burn kerosene, for use in the Arlberg tunnel, in which lack of proper +ventilation at present causes the tunnel to remain filled with +smoke.—Uhland's Wochenschrift.</p> + +<p>One of the first essentials to modern military enterprise is the +establishment of a military railway system for war purposes. To be in +a position to carry out efficiently and speedily what we may expect to +be called upon to do on the outbreak of serious war, previous +preparation in time of peace is an absolute requisite. In connection +with General Sherman's operations in Georgia, during the American +civil war, an army was supplied for six and a half months over a line +473 miles long. The corps of workmen was 10,000 strong, and on one +occasion replaced 35,000 sleepers and nine miles of rails in seven +days. The true defense of the line was effected by the engineers +always having men and material ready. In spite of the large and +skilled railway population on which the army could call, and of the +fact that practically the nation was in arms, it was found extremely +difficult to keep this railway construction corps together until they +were placed under a severe military discipline.—United Service +Gazette.</p> + +<p><b>A hospital</b> car has been introduced on the Belgian railroads, says +The Engineer. It is designed for use in the event of a serious railway +accident, and can be run to the spot where the wounded may be picked +up and carried to the nearest city for treatment, instead of being +left to pass hours in some wayside station while awaiting surgical +attendance. The interior of this car is divided into a main +compartment, a corridor on one side and two small rooms at the end. +The largest compartment, the hospital proper, contains twenty-four +isolated beds on steel tubes hung upon powerful springs; each bed is +provided with a small movable table, a cord serving to hold all the +various small objects which may be needed, and each patient lies in +front of two little windows, which may be closed or opened at will. +The corridor on the outside of the hospital chamber leads to the linen +closet and the doctor's apartment; in the latter is a large cupboard, +the upper portion being used for drugs, while the lower is divided +into two sections, one serving as a case for surgical instruments and +the other as a receptacle for the doctor's folding bed.</p> + +<p><b>The dust</b> collected from the smoke of some Liege furnaces, burning +coal raised from the neighboring mines, produces, when dissolved in +hydrochloric acid, a solution from which considerable quantities of +arsenic and several other metallic salts may be precipitated. +Commenting on this fact, ascertained by M.A. Jorissen, M. Francis Maur +asks whether this breathing of arsenic and other minerals in a finely +divided state may not account for the singular immunity from epidemics +enjoyed by certain industrial districts, such as that of Saint +Etienne, and hopes that some mine doctor will throw additional light +on the subject. In the meanwhile, it may be suggested that the +ventilating effect of the numerous chimneys in iron making and other +industrial centers has its due share in constantly driving off the +vitiated air and replacing it by fresh quantities of pure air. At any +rate, when pestilence was raging in the high and pleasant quarter of +Clifton, its inhabitants migrated to the low-lying and not overclean +parish of St. Philips, Bristol, where the air is black from the smoke +of numerous chimneys, but where also the mortality compared very +favorably with that in the fashionable quarter.</p> + +<p><b>A two-speed</b> movable sidewalk, of the Blot, Guyenet and De Mocomble +type, is to be used for conveying visitors at the Paris Exposition, +says Engineering News. It differs from those of Chicago and Berlin in +the reduction of the weight of the moving platform by spacing the +driving wheels 127.5 feet apart and using electricity as a motive +power. The driving wheels are mounted in the bed of the track and +impart motion to a central rail on the under side of the platform. +Bearing wheels, spaced about 20 feet apart under this rail, also carry +the platform, and the central rail supports one-half the total weight +of the platform; small side wheels carry the other half on side +tracks. This arrangement enables the platform, which is divided into +sections and hinged, to pass around quite sharp curves. The high speed +platform, 4 feet 3 inches wide, is supposed to move at the rate of +6½ miles per hour on a 35½-inch gage track; the slow platform is +31½ inches wide, moves at half speed and runs on a 17¾-inch gage +track. The whole structure will be elevated on girders carried by cast +iron columns, with stations about 656 feet apart. The high speed +platform weighs 146 pounds per lineal foot; and with passengers, +nearly 400 pounds per foot. The slow speed platform weighs about half +this. The track will be about 2½ miles long; the initial motive +power is figured at 472 H. P. and the carrying capacity at 38,880 per +hour.</p> + +<p><b>The "schlamm,"</b> or mud, thrown down from the water of coal washing +has hitherto been regarded as worthless, says The Engineering and +Mining Journal, except that sometimes a portion of the coal particles +it contained have been separated and made of value by a washing +process; but Bergassessor Haarmann, of Friedrichsthal, has invented a +new method for treating it dry and dividing it into two products, one +of which, with low ash content, is distinguished by its granular +nature, while the other contains a large proportion of ash and is of +the fineness of flour. The former of these two products is, on account +of its low ash content, useful for various purposes, and the latter +constitutes a fuel quite ready for use in coal dust firing. The method +is founded on the circumstances, hitherto lost sight of, that the +incombustible constituents of the "schlamm" chiefly consist of clay +which was formerly more or less dissolved in the wash water; and on +the mud being dried and subjected to a suitable mechanical process, +the clay falls into fine dust, while the coal particles, on the +contrary, retain their granular nature. The method is carried out by +drying the mud and a subsequent fine sifting, which effects a breaking +up of the lumps that occur in the dried "schlamm," and a separation +into the two products above named. The dust that falls through the +sieve has a high ash content, being in the nature of flour, while what +remains behind is granular and has a low ash content. It seems to us +that this game is hardly worth the candle.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>ELECTRICAL NOTES.</h2> + + +<p><b>Electricity at</b> the Paris Exposition.—Electricity will play a large +part at the Paris Exposition of 1900, says the Revue Technique. No +less than 15,000 h.p. will be used for lighting and 5,000 h.p. for +furnishing electric power to the various parts of the grounds. As far +as possible all the machinery exhibited will be shown at work and for +this purpose electric conductors will be laid down to all points on +the grounds. The boiler plant will be located at the end of the Champ +de Mars, and will occupy two spaces of 130 X 390 feet each, one being +devoted to French boilers and the other to those of foreign makers. +This plant will be in itself a very interesting exhibit. It is +proposed to provide a capacity for evaporating not less than 440,000 +pounds of water per hour.</p> + +<p><b>An interesting</b> little plant in which the rise and fall of the tides +is used as motive power for the generation of electricity is described +in L'Electricien. Near Ploumanach, on the northern coast of France, +where the tides have a daily range of 39 feet, a small fish pond +separated from the sea by a dike is arranged with gates so that at +high tide the water flows in and fills it, the gates closing +automatically when the tide recedes. The machinery of an old grist +mill is used to operate a small dynamo, which charges a storage +battery and furnishes light for the fish industry there. Another wheel +in the same mill works an ice making machine, the whole being under +the charge of one man. It is stated that the total daily expense for +generating about 2,000 horse power hours is only $2.</p> + +<p><b>Peat bogs</b> as generators of electrical power are suggested by Dr. +Frank in Stahl und Eisen. He says that the great peat bogs of North +Germany may be thus utilized, and figures that one acre of bog, +averaging 10 feet in thickness, contains about 1,000 tons of dried +peat, or 313,000 tons per square mile; and 430 square miles would be +equivalent in heating power to the 80,000,000 to 85,000,000 tons of +coal annually mined in Germany. The bogs of the Ems Valley alone cover +13,000 square miles; and Dr. Frank proposes the erection in that +district of a 10,000 horse power electric station, which would yearly +consume 200,000 tons of peat, or the product of 200 acres. He would +use the electrical energy on the Dortmund and Emshaven Canal, and for +the manufacture of calcium carbide.</p> + +<p><b>The success</b> attending an application of electric towing on the +Burgundy Canal was such that two new applications of electricity to +canal haulage and also for barge propulsion were made last year in the +neighborhood of Dijon, on the same canal, under the superintendence of +M. Gaillot, Ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées. In the method of +haulage, says The London Engineer, the receptor dynamo is mounted on a +tricycle, to which the name of "electric horse" has been given, and +which, running on the towing path, takes its current from an air line +consisting of two wires, mounted five meters (nearly 17 feet) above +the surface. This "horse," which weighs two tons, and is guided by a +driver mounted upon it through the front wheel, proceeds on the towing +path like a traction engine; and the boats are connected with it by a +rope, with automatic disengaging gear, in case the force of the stream +or a gust of wind should drive a boat backward. Speeds of from 1,990 +to 4,240 meters (mean 3,319 yards) were obtained with the electric +horse, towing from three to four boats, so that it is more suitable +than the electric propeller for towage in rivers or very long reaches; +but it requires a driver, while the propeller, with which speeds of +from 2,150 to 4,240 meters (mean 3,406 yards) per hour were obtained, +is worked by the bargee on board his boat. The towing path is not +worn, and there is no occasion for a tow rope, which always causes +difficulty when two boats cross one another. M. Maillet and M. +Dufourny, Belgian Ingénieurs des Ponts et Chaussées, who watched the +trials, conclude that a practical solution of the question depends +upon the cost of producing the motive power; but they also consider +that horse haulage on canals will soon be superseded by mechanical +traction, based on the use of an automotive tricycle, working with +petroleum or some other hydrocarbon, and capable of running on the tow +path without requiring any fixed plant.</p> + +<p><b>It has</b> long been known that feathers and hair are electrical bodies, +but until recently we have had little information about their +electrical properties or the conditions in which these properties are +manifested. Most of these phenomena were first observed by Exner, and +in the work of Dr. Schwarze are found collected a mass of facts that +cannot fail to interest the physician and the biologist; besides, we +find there a description of Exner's apparatus which was used by +Schwarze in most of his experiments on electrical phenomena of this +kind. By the side of gold leaf electroscopes we see a feather +electroscope, which is fastened to its support by means of a silken +thread. A feather waved through the air is positively electrified, +while the air itself seems to be charged with negative electricity.... +Two feathers rubbed together in the natural position are so +electrified that their lower surface is negative and the upper +positive.... These experiments and others still have been utilized to +study the vital relations of animals and the biological signification +of these phenomena. Most feathers stick together and remain so even +after being dried; if they then are waved through the air, the barbs +of the feather separate, owing to differences of electrification. No +bird needs to attend to its plumage at the end of a long flight, for +while the large feathers are positively electrified by friction +against the air, the white down has become negative, and so there is +attraction between it and the feathers. Another consequence of this +production of electricity during flight is that during winds, even the +most violent, the plumage does not become ruffled, but rests tightly +against the bird's body, for in this case the wing feathers, which +overlap, rub against each other and become electrified in contrary +senses. If the bird flies toward the ground, flapping its wings, it +compresses the air below them, and, supposing that the wing feathers +can bend aside, the experiments of Exner show that by the friction the +upper side of one feather and the lower side of that which is just +above are electrified oppositely, the more powerfully as the rubbing +is greater, which always causes them to resume the normal +position.—L'Electricien.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>SELECTED FORMULÆ.</h2> + + +<p><b>Removal of Ink from Hectograph</b>.—It is recommended in Südd. Ap. Ztg. +to pour crude hydrochloric acid upon the hectograph, rub with a wad of +cotton, then wash off by holding under cold running water and drying +with a cloth. The hectograph may be used again immediately.</p> + +<p><b>To Clean Wall Paper</b>.—Four ounces of pumice stone in fine powder are +thoroughly mixed with 1 quart of flour and the mass is kneaded with +water enough to form a thick dough. This dough is formed into rolls +about 2 inches in diameter and 6 or 8 inches long; each one is sewed +up in a piece of cotton cloth and then boiled in water for from 40 to +50 minutes—long enough to render the dough firm. After cooling and +allowing the rolls to stand for several hours, the outer portion is +peeled off and they are then ready for use, the paper being rubbed +with them as in the bread process.—Druggist's Circular.</p> + +<p><b>Insulating Compound</b>.—Prof. Fessenden recommends for armature work a +compound made by boiling pure linseed oil at about 200 degrees with +½ per cent. of borate of manganese, the boiling being continued for +several hours, or until the oil begins to thicken. An advantage of +this borated oil is that it always retains a slight stickiness, and so +gives a good joint when wrapped around wires, etc. Many substances so +used are not sticky and let moisture in through the joints. Where a +smooth surface is required, it is readily obtained by dusting on a +little talc. It can also be given a coat of japan on the +outside.—American Electrician.</p> + +<p><b>How to Clean Diatoms</b>.—As a general rule, we may say that every +specimen of diatomaceous earth or rock needs a special treatment. The +following, however, may serve as a basic treatment, from which such +departure may be taken in each case as the nature of the specimen +would indicate: Boil the material in hydrochloric acid, in a test +tube, from two to five minutes. Let settle, pour off the hydrochloric +acid, substitute nitric acid in its place, and boil again for two or +three minutes. Pour into a beaker of water, stir a moment with a glass +rod and let settle. After the material has fallen to the bottom, +decant the liquid, and fill with fresh water. Repeat the operation +until the water no longer shows an acid reaction. A portion of the +deposit may now be examined, and if not clean, boil the deposit with +tincture of soap and water in equal parts, decant, wash, first with +water, then with stronger ammonia water, and finally, with distilled +water. This usually leaves the frustules bright and sharp.—National +Druggist.</p> + +<p><b>Red Indelible Ink</b>.—It is said that by proceeding according to the +following formula, an intense purple red color may be produced on +fabrics, which is indelible in the customary sense of the word.</p> + +<table summary="ink"><tbody> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center">No. 1.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Sodium carbonate</td> <td class="tl"> 3 drs.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Gum arabic</td> <td class="tl"> 3 "</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Water</td> <td class="tl">12 "</td> + +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center">No. 2.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Platinic chloride</td> <td class="tl"> 1 dr.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Distilled water</td> <td class="tl"> 2 oz.</td> + +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center">No. 3.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Stannous chloride</td> <td class="tl"> 1 dr.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Distilled water</td> <td class="tl"> 4 "</td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> + + +<p>Moisten the place to be written upon with No. 1 and rub a warm iron +over it until dry; then write with No. 2, and, when dry, moisten with +No. 3. An intense and beautiful purple-red color is produced in this +way. The following simpler and less expensive method of obtaining an +indelible red mark on linen has been proposed by Wegler: Dilute egg +albumen with an equal weight of water, rapidly stir with a glass rod +until it foams, and then filter through linen. Mix the filtrate with a +sufficient quantity of finely levigated vermilion until a rather thick +liquid is obtained. Write with a quill, or gold pen, and then touch +the reverse side of the fabric with a hot iron, coagulating the +albumen. It is claimed that marks so made are affected by neither +soaps, acids nor alkalies. This ink, or rather paint, is said to keep +moderately well in securely stoppered bottles, but we should not rely +on it as a "stock" article. A white paint for marking dark colored +articles might be made by substituting zinc white for the red pigment +in the foregoing formula.—Druggist's Circular.</p> + +<p><b>Brown or Black Discoloration of Silvered Mirrors</b>.—Generally these +spots are due to faulty manipulation, too great dilution of the silver +solution, or touching the plates with the fingers after they have been +cleaned. Sometimes, however, they are due to chemical defects in the +glass itself. In these cases, as a general thing, the discolorations +occur only after several days—a faultless mirror having been made at +first, and the browning subsequently developing slowly. The writer was +a student in the laboratory of Baron Liebig during the time that +distinguished chemist was carrying out the series of experiments which +resulted in devising a method of making silver mirrors commercially. +One of the greatest troubles with which he had to contend was this +browning—the cause for which was never fully cleared up by him. Some +years ago, the writer, having in his possession two mirrors made by +Liebig, and which had gradually become brown throughout, undertook an +examination of the deposit (which had been thoroughly protected from +extraneous influences by a strong film of varnish), and was surprised +to find that it consisted of a layer of silver sulphide. Without going +into detail, the source of the change was later found to lie within +the glass itself. In making glass to be used for mirrors, a +considerable portion of sodium sulphate is used, and in annealing, +this is partly reduced to sodium sulphide, which effloresces on the +surface of the glass. This efflorescence is, of course, removed on +cleaning the glass before silvering; but it is found that, in many +instances, on exposure of the mirror to the light for some time, a +further efflorescence occurs, and it is this which produces the +discoloration in cases such as we have cited. It has been suggested +that the tendency to subsequent efflorescence may be corrected by +boiling the plates, intended for silvering, for a couple of minutes, +in a 10 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate or bicarbonate. We have +no experience with the process, however.—National Druggist.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a><a name="Page_18772" id="Page_18772"></a>WILD AND DOMESTIC SHEEP IN THE BERLIN ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN.</h2> + + +<p>As a rule, domestic animals are accorded very little space in +zoological gardens, but, although it is doubtless the first duty of +these popular institutions to show visitors animals which live in a +wild state in foreign lands, it is well, where there is sufficient +space and adequate means, to extend the limits of the collection so as +to include natives of our own woods and fields, thus enabling people +of a great city who are unfamiliar with nature to form an idea of the +changes wrought in animal life by the influence of man, for domestic +animals are a great aid in the study of natural history. The +accompanying engravings are reproductions of instantaneous photographs +of occupants of the new sheep and goat house—mostly foreign breeds; +but there are a few that belong to that South European-Asiatic group +which are looked upon as the progenitors of the domestic sheep: the +mouflon, of Sardinia and Corsica (Ovis Musimon L.), which has a coat +of brownish red, flecked with darker color; and the slender, +long-legged, reddish-gray sheep of Belochistan (Ovis Blanfordi Hume). +The first glance at these creatures convinces one that they are wild, +not domestic sheep, an impression which is caused chiefly by the +monotonous coloring and the dry, short coat, which bears no +resemblance to the thick fleece of the tame sheep, although the eye is +soon attracted by other differences, such as the shape of the tail, +which is short and thick, and of the horns, which extend over the back +and then turn inward, so that when the old ram is kept in captivity, +it is necessary to cut off the points of the horns to prevent their +boring into the flesh of its neck. Horns of this shape form a strong +contrast to those with snail-like windings and points standing away +from the body. When looking at one of these sheep from the front, it +will be noticed that the left horn turns to the right and the right +horn to the left.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i4.png" width="600" height="367" alt="SARDINIAN MOUFLON (OVIS MUSIMON L.)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SARDINIAN MOUFLON (OVIS MUSIMON L.)</span> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i6.png" width="450" height="305" alt="BELOCHISTAN SHEEP (OVIS BLANFORDI HUME)." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BELOCHISTAN SHEEP (OVIS BLANFORDI HUME).</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i5.png" width="450" height="438" alt="RAM FROM TUNIS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RAM FROM TUNIS.</span> +</div> + +<p>Former authorities have been unwilling to admit that the domestic +sheep have come from any species of wild sheep of the present time. +They hold that they are the descendants of one or more species of wild +sheep that are now extinct. Recently, however, men have thought more +deeply and freely on such subjects, and Nehring and others have traced +the modern tame sheep back to the mouflon, but not to him alone. It is +thought that in this case, as with other domestic animals, there has +been a mixture of species, and in this connection attention was +directed to the Transcaspian arkal, the argalis of the interior of +Asia and the North African species. Dr. Heck, director of the Berlin +Zoological Garden, thinks that the horns of the tame ram, which are +turned outward, the points being directed away from the body, +constitute one of the strongest proofs that the blood of the argalis +and its extinct European ancestors—which are known only by the fossil +remains—flows in the veins of all domestic sheep.</p> + +<p>The other characteristic marks of the domestic sheep—the wool and the +length of the tail—vary greatly. The heath sheep—the little, +contented, weather-hardened grazing sheep of the Lüneburg and other +heaths—belong to one of the oldest species, and their tails are as +short and their horns as dark as those of the moufflon. A cross +between these two breeds is not distinguishable, even in the second +generation, as has been shown by the interesting experiments in the +Düsseldorf Zoological Garden.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i7.png" width="600" height="365" alt="HEATH SHEEP." title="" /> +<span class="caption">HEATH SHEEP.</span> +</div> + +<p>The little, black and red-spotted Cameroons sheep, from the western +coast of Africa, have not a trace of wool. But why should they have? +The negroes need no clothing, and, consequently, they have not bred +sheep with wool; and, besides, such an animal could not live in the +tropics, even if the black man were a much better stock raiser and +breeder than he is. The mane on the neck, and breast of the Cameroons +ram reminds one of the North American sheep; but it must be remembered +that the mouflon and arkal rams have this ornament quite clearly, +although not so strongly defined.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i10.png" width="600" height="314" alt="CAMEROONS SHEEP." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CAMEROONS SHEEP.</span> +</div> + +<p>The large, short-bodied and long-legged sheep found in the interior of +western and northern Africa are a complete contrast to the +short-legged, long-bodied little Cameroons sheep. There is a very +valuable pair of the former in the Berlin Zoological Garden—the +Haussa sheep—which are very regularly marked, the front parts of +their bodies being red and the hind parts white. They were brought +from the neighborhood of Say, on the middle Niger, by the Togo +Hinterland expedition. The ram has beautiful horns, and the ewe is +distinguished by two strange, tassel-like pendants of skin that hang +from her neck. This zoological garden also possesses a fine ram from +the interior of Tunis, which is similar in shape to the Haussa ram, +but has shorter horns and a heavier mane. Its color is grayish black.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i11.png" width="450" height="449" alt="HAUSSA RAM." title="" /> +<span class="caption">HAUSSA RAM.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i12.png" width="450" height="417" title="" alt="HAUSSA EWE." /> +<span class="caption">HAUSSA EWE.</span> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Heck considers the long tail of the domestic sheep the chief +impediment to the adoption of the theory of its descent from the +short-tailed wild sheep. And yet, in sheep, this member is of +secondary importance, for it varies greatly in form. The short-tailed +heath sheep are just the opposite of the fat-tailed Persian sheep, +which are represented in a fabulous account as being obliged to draw +their broad tails, that weighed 40 pounds, behind them on wheels. +These are the sheep that supply the Astrakan and Persian lamb which is +so much worn now. The fur is caused to lie in peculiar waves or tight +rings by sewing the newly born lamb in a tightly fitting covering +which keeps the fur from being mussed. In the Berlin Zoological Garden +there is a very fine four-horned, fat-tailed ram, from the steppes on +the lower Volga. From this region come also the large-boned, +fat-rumped sheep, which have a<a name="Page_18773" id="Page_18773"></a> large mass of fat on each side of the +stunted tail. In the illustration this peculiarity does not show well, +on account of the thick winter wool. Their color is red, with dirty +white. When Wissman and Bumiller returned from their last expedition, +they brought a fine ram of a different breed of fat-rumped sheep, +which are raised by the Kirghise, on the Altai Mountains. They are +smaller than those from the steppes of the Volga, but have finer wool, +and evidently belong to a finer breed. As mutton tallow is very +useful, and has been used even from the most ancient times by sheep +raisers in the preparation of food, they prize sheep with these masses +of fat on the tail and rump, which were purposely developed to the +greatest possible degree.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i8.png" width="450" height="335" alt="FAT-TAILED SHEEP (FOUR-HORNED RAM)." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FAT-TAILED SHEEP (FOUR-HORNED RAM).</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i9.png" width="500" height="404" title="" alt="FAT-RUMPED SHEEP." /> +<span class="caption">FAT-RUMPED SHEEP.</span> +</div> + +<p>The steinbock and the chamois, which live in the highest mountains, +are still found, but other breeds, such as the argalis, which +inhabited the foot hills and the high table lands, have disappeared, +as Europe has become more thickly populated. We know that they +formerly lived there, by the fossil remains of the oldest Pliocene in +England (Ovis Savinii Newton), of the caves of bones near Stramberg in +Moravia (Ovis argaloides Nehring), and of the diluvial strata near +Puy-de-Dôme Mountain in the south of France (Ovis antiqua Pommerol).</p> + +<p>For the above and the accompanying illustrations we are indebted to +Daheim.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 1172, page 18756.]</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>PATENTS.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">1</a></h2> + + +<h3>By JAMES W. SEE, Hamilton, Ohio, Member of the Society.</h3> + + +<h3>EMPLOYERS' RIGHTS.</h3> + +<p>An invention, to be patented, must be applied for by the actual +inventor, and in the absence of acts constituting a transfer, the +patent, and all legal ownership in it, and all rights under it, go +exclusively to the inventor. In the absence of express or implied +contract, a mere employer of the inventor has no rights under the +patent. Only contracts or assignments give to the employer, or to +anyone else, a license or a partial or entire ownership in the patent. +The equity of this may be appreciated by examples. A journeyman +carpenter invents an improvement in chronometer escapements and +patents it. The man who owns the carpenter shop has no shadow of claim +on or under this patent. Again, the carpenter invents and patents an +improvement in jack planes. The shop owner has no rights in or under +the patent. Again, the carpenter invents an improvement in window +frames, and the shop owner has no rights. He has no right even to make +the patented window frame without license. The shop owner, in merely +employing the carpenter, acquires no rights to the carpenter's +patented inventions. But there are cases in which an implied license +would go to the shop owner. For instance, if the carpenter was +employed on the mutual understanding that he was particularly +ingenious in devising carpenter work, and capable of improving upon +the products of the shop; and if in the course of his work he devised +a new and patentable window frame, and developed it in connection with +his employment and at the expense of his employer; and if the new +frames were made by the employer without protest from the carpenter, +the carpenter could, of course, patent the new frame, but he could not +oust the employer in his right to continue making the invention, for +it would be held that the employer had acquired an implied license.</p> + +<p>If he could not use it, then he would not be getting the very +advantage for which he employed this particular carpenter, and if he +did get that right, he would be getting all that he employed the +carpenter for, and that right would not be at all lessened by the fact +that the carpenter had a patent under which he could license other +people. The patent does not constitute the right to make or use or +sell, for such right is enjoyed without a patent. The patent +constitutes the "exclusive" right to make, sell or use, and this the +shop owner does not get unless he specially bargains for it. Implied +licenses stand on delicate ground, and where men employ people of +ingenious talent, with the understanding that the results of such +talent developed during the employment shall inure to the benefit of +the employer, there is only one safeguard, and that is to found the +employment on a contract unmistakably setting forth the understanding.</p> + + +<h3>NEW PURPOSE.</h3> + +<p>If an invention is old, it is old regardless of any new purpose to +which it is put. It is no invention to put a machine to a new use. If +an inventor contrives a meritorious machine for the production of +coins or medals, his invention is lacking in novelty if it should +appear that such a machine had before been designed as a soap press, +and this fact is not altered by any merely structural or formal +difference, such as difference in power or strength, due to the +difference in duty. The invention resides in the machine and not in +the use of it. If the soap press is covered by an existing patent, +that patent is infringed by a machine embodying that invention, +regardless of whether the infringing machine be used for pressing soap +or silver. And it is no invention to discover some new capacity in an +old invention. An inventor is entitled to all the capacities of his +invention.</p> + + +<h3>COMBINATION CLAIMS.</h3> + +<p>Many people have an erroneous notion regarding patent claims, and +consider the expression "combination" as an element of weakness. The +fact is, that all mechanical claims that are good for anything are +combination claims. No claim for an individual mechanical element has +come under my notice for many years and I doubt if a new mechanical +element has been lately invented. All claims resolve themselves into +combinations, whether so expressed or not. Combination does not +necessarily imply separateness of elements. The improved carpet tack +is after all but a peculiar combination of body and head and barbs. +The erroneous public contempt for combination claims is based upon the +legal maxim, that if you break the combination you avoid the claim and +escape infringement, and this legal maxim should be well understood in +formulating the claims. If the claim calls for five elements and the +competitor can omit one of the elements, he escapes infringement. +Therefore, the claim is good only when it recites no elements which +are not essential.</p> + +<p>Many inventors labor under the delusion that a claim is strong in +proportion to the extent of its array of elements. The exact opposite +is the truth, and that claim is the strongest which recites the +fewest number of elements. It is the duty of the inventor to analyze +his invention and know what is and what is not essential to its +realization. It is the duty of the patent solicitor to sift out the +essential from the non-essential, and to draft claims covering broad +combinations involving only essential elements. Sometimes the inventor +will help him in this matter, but quite as often he will, through +ignorance, hinder him and combat him. The invention having been +carefully analyzed and reduced to its prime factors, and the claim +having been provided to comprise a combination involving no element +which is not essential to a realization of the invention, a new and +more important question arises. The elements have been recited in +terms fitted to the example of the invention thus far developed. The +combination is broadly stated, but the terms of the elements are +limiting. Cannot some ingenious infringer realize the invention by a +similar combination escaping the literalism of the terms of the +elements? It is at this stage that the claim must be carefully +studied. The inventor, or some one for him, must assume the position +of a pirate, and set his wits to work to contrive an organization +realizing the invention but escaping the terms of the proposed claim. +When such an escaping device is schemed out, then the defect in the +claim is developed and the claim must be redrawn. In this way every +possible escape must be studied so as to secure to the inventor +adequate protection for his invention. Solicitors find it difficult to +get inventors to do or consider this matter properly, inventors being +too often inclined to disparage alternative constructions, the matter +being largely one of sentiment founded on the love of offspring.</p> + +<p>The wise inventor will recognize the fact that the patent which he +proposes to get is the deed to valuable property; that the object of +the deed is not to permit him to enter upon the property, for he can +do that without the deed, but that it is to keep strangers from +entering upon the property; that he desires to enjoy his invention +without unauthorized competition; that when the property begins to +yield profit it will invite competition; that competitors may make +machines worse than or as good as or better than his; and that he can +get adequate protection only in a claim which would bar poorer as well +as better machines embodying his invention. Briefly, then, all good +claims for mechanism are combination claims; the fewer the elements +recited, the stronger will the claim be; non-essential elements weaken +or destroy the claim; the claim should not be considered satisfactory +so long as a way is seen for the escape of the ingenious pirate.</p> + + +<h3>COMBINATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS.</h3> + +<p>A given association of mechanical elements may be entirely new, but it +does not follow that it forms a patentable association, for not all +new things are patentable. If the new association is a combination, it +is patentable, but if it is a mere aggregation, it is unpatentable. An +association may be new and still all of its separate elements may be +old, the act of invention lying in the fact that the elements have +been so associated with relation to each other as to bring about an +improved result, or an improved means for an old result. All new +machines are, after all, composed of old elements. The law presupposes +that the elements are old, and that the invention resides in the +peculiar association of them. If we take a given mechanical element, +recognized as having had a certain capacity, and if we then similarly +take some other mechanical element and employ it only for its +previously recognized capacity, and if we then add the third element +for its recognized capacity, we have in the end only an association of +three elements each performing its well recognized individual office, +and the entire association performing only the sum of the recognized +individual elements. Such an association is a mere aggregation, a mere +adding together of elements, without making the sum of the results any +greater in the association than it was in the individual elements. It +is simply adding two to one and getting three as a result. An +aggregation is unpatentable. As an illustration, a heavy marble statue +of Jupiter is found in the parlor and difficult to move. Ordinary +casters are put under its pedestal and it becomes easier to move. +Modern anti-friction two-wheeled casters are substituted for the +commoner casters, and the statue becomes still easier to move. Casters +were never before associated with a statue of Jupiter. Here is a new +association, but it is a mere aggregation. The statue of Jupiter has +been unmodified by the presence of the casters, and the casters +perform precisely the same under the statue of Jupiter that they did +under the bedstead. There is no combined result, and there is no +patentable combination.</p> + +<p>But if an inventor takes a given mechanical element for the purpose of +its well recognized capacity, and then associates with it another +mechanical element for its recognized capacity, but so associates the +two elements that one has a modifying effect upon the capacity of the +other element, then the association will be capable of a result +greater than the sum of the results for the individual elements. This +excessive result is not due to the individual elements, but to the +combination of them. One has been added to one and a sum greater than +two has been secured. The modification of result may be due merely to +the bringing of the two elements together, so that they may mutually +act upon each other, or it may be due to the manner or means by which +they are joined. In a patentable combination the separate elements +mutually act upon each other to effect a modification of their +previous individual results, and secure a conjoint result greater than +the sum of the individual results. The elements of a combination need +not act simultaneously; they may act successively, or some may act +without motion. As an illustration, assume an old watch in which there +was a stem for setting the hands, and assume another old watch with a +stem for winding the spring. If an inventor should make a watch, and +provide it with the two stems, he would have only an aggregation. But +if he employed but one stem, and so located it that it could be used +at will for setting the hands or for winding the spring, then he would +have produced a combination. The particular instance just given is not +a case of the same number of elements, producing a result in excess of +the individual results of the separate elements, but is rather a case +of a lesser number of elements, producing a combination result equal<a name="Page_18774" id="Page_18774"></a> +to the sum of the previous results of a greater number of elements. A +better example would perhaps be a new watch with its two old stems so +related that either could be used for setting the hands or for winding +the spring.</p> + + +<h3>GENERA AND SPECIES.</h3> + +<p>An inventor, being the first to produce a given organization, and +desiring to patent it, may see at once a patentable variation on the +device. In other words, he makes two machines patentably different, +but both embodying his main invention. He drafts his broad patent +claim to cover both machines. In his patent he must illustrate his +invention, and he accordingly shows in the drawings the preferred +machine. The two machines represent two species of his generic +invention, and for illustration he selects the preferable species. He +drafts his generic claim to cover both species, and he follows this +with a specific claim relating to the selected species. The question +might be asked, If the broad generic claim covers the selected and all +other species, why bother with the specific claim, why not rest on the +generic claim? The answer is that it might in the future develop that +the genus was old, and that the generic claim was invalid, while the +specific claim would still be good. The infringer of the specific +claim may thus be held notwithstanding the generic claim becomes void. +But the inventor cannot claim his second species in his patent. He can +claim the genus, and he can claim one species under that genus, but +all other species must be covered in separate patents. It is even +unwise to illustrate alternative species in a patent for, in case, of +litigation, some one of the alternative species might prove to be old. +This would have the effect, of course, to destroy the generic claim, +but it might possibly have the effect of damaging the specific claim +if it should appear that the specific claim was after all merely for a +modification as distinguished from a distinct species. Were it not for +the danger of broad generic claims being rendered void by discovered +anticipations, there would be no need for claiming species, but in +view of such possibility it is important to claim one species in the +generic patent, and to protect alternative species by other patents.</p> + + +<h3>COMBINATION AND SUB-COMBINATION.</h3> + +<p>A given machine capable of a given ultimate result having been +invented, a claim may be drawn to cover the combination of elements +comprised in the machine. Such claim will cover the machine as a +whole. But, the fact being recognized that many machines are, after +all, composed of a series of sub-machines, and that these +sub-machines, in turn, are composed of certain combinations of +elements, and that within these sub-machines there are still minor +combinations of elements capable of producing useful mechanical +results, and that the sub-machines, or some of the subordinate +combinations of elements within the sub-machines, might be capable of +utilization in other situations than that comprehended by the main +machine, it becomes important that the inventor be protected regarding +the sub-machines and the minor useful combinations. Claims may be +drawn for the combination constituting the main machine, other claims +may be drawn for the combinations constituting the operative +sub-machines, and claims may be drawn covering the minor useful +combinations of elements found within the sub-machines. Each claimed +combination must be operative. But secondary claims cannot be made for +sub-machines or sub-combinations which are for divisional matter or +matter which should be made the subject of separate patents.</p> + + +<h3>MECHANICAL EQUIVALENTS.</h3> + +<p>Where an inventor produces a new mechanical device for the production +of a certain result, he can often see in advance that various +modifications of it can be made to bring about the same result, and +even if he does not see it he may in the future find competitors +getting at the result by a different construction. He analyzes the +competing structure, and determines that "it is the same thing only +different," and wonders what the legal doctrine of mechanical +equivalents means, and asks if he is not entitled to the benefits of +that doctrine, so that his patent may dominate the competing machine.</p> + +<p>An inventor may or may not be entitled to invoke the doctrine of +mechanical equivalents, and the doctrine may or may not cause his +patent to cover a given fancied infringement. If an inventor is a +pioneer in a certain field, and is the first to produce an +organization of mechanism by means of which a given result is +produced, he is entitled to a claim whose breadth of language is +commensurate with the improvement he has wrought in the art. He cannot +claim functions or performance, but must limit his claim to mechanism, +in other words, to the combination of elements which produces the new +result. His claim recites those elements by name. If the new result +cannot be produced by any other combination of elements, then, of +course, no question will arise regarding infringement. But it may be +that a competitor contrives a device having some of the elements of +the combination as called for by the claim, the remaining elements +being omitted and substitutes provided. The competing device will thus +not respond to the language of the claim. But the courts will deal +liberally with the claim of the meritorious pioneer inventor, and will +apply to it the doctrine of mechanical equivalents, and will hold the +claim to be infringed by a combination containing all of the elements +recited in the claim, or containing some of them, and mechanical +equivalents for the rest of them. Were it not for this liberal +doctrine, the pioneer inventor could gather little fruit from his +patent, for the patent could be avoided, perhaps, by the mere +substitution of a wedge for the screw or lever called for by the +claim. The court, having ascertained from the prior art that the +inventor is entitled to invoke the doctrine of equivalents, will +proceed to ascertain if the substituted elements are real equivalents. +A given omitted element will be considered in connection with its +substitute element, and if the substitute element is found to be an +element acting in substantially the same manner for the production of +substantially the same individual result, and if it be found that the +prior art has recognized the equivalency of the two individual +elements, then the court will say that the substituted element is a +mechanical equivalent of the omitted element, and that the two +combinations are substantially the same. This reasoning must be +applied to each of the omitted elements for which substitutes have +been furnished. In this way justice can be done to the pioneer +inventor. But the courts, in exercising liberality, cannot do violence +to the language of the claim. The infringer will not escape by merely +substituting equivalents for recited elements, but he will escape if +he omits a recited element and supplies no substitute, for the courts +will not read out of a claim an element which the patentee has +deliberately put into the claim, and a combination of a less number of +elements than that recited in the claim is not the combination called +for by the claim.</p> + +<p>It is seldom that the exemplifying device of the pioneer inventor is a +perfect one. Later developments and improvements by the original +patentee, or by others, must be depended on to bring about perfection +of structure. Those who improve the structure are as much entitled to +patents upon their specific improvements in the device as was the +original inventor entitled to his patent for the fundamental device. +These improvers are secondary inventors, and are not entitled to +invoke the doctrine of mechanical equivalents. The secondary inventor +did not bring about a new result, but his patent was for new means for +producing the old result. His patent is for this improvement in means, +and his claim will be closely scrutinized in court, and he will be +held to it, subject only to formal variations in structure. The +justice of thus restricting the claim of the secondary inventor must +be obvious, in view of the fact that if the doctrine of mechanical +equivalents were applied to his claim, then the fundamental device on +which he improved would probably infringe upon it, which would be an +absurdity. It is thus seen that the pioneer inventor may have a claim +so broad in its terms that its terms cannot be escaped; that he may +invoke the doctrine of equivalents and have his claim dominate +structures not directly responding to the terms of the claim; that the +secondary inventor, who improves only the means, is limited to the +recited means and cannot invoke the doctrine of equivalents. But +within this general view, sight is not to be lost of the fact that +secondary inventors may be pioneers within certain limits. They are +not the first to produce the broad ultimate result, but they may be +pioneers in radically improving interior or sub-results, and they may +thus reasonably ask for the application of the doctrine of equivalents +to their claims within proper limits. The matter often becomes quite +complicated, for it is sometimes difficult to determine as to what is +the result in a given machine, for many machines consist, after all, +of a combination of subordinate machines. Thus the modern +grain-harvesting machine embodies a machine for moving to the place of +attack, a machine for cutting the grain, a machine for supporting the +grain at the instant of cutting, a machine for receiving the cut +grain, a machine for conveying the cut grain to a bindery, a machine +for measuring the cut grain into gavels, a machine for compressing the +gavel, a machine for applying the band, a machine for tying the band, +a machine for discharging the bundle, a machine to receive the bundles +and carry them to a place of deposit, and a machine to deposit the +accumulated bundles. The machine would be useful with one or more of +these sub-machines omitted, and each machine may be capable of +performing its own individual results alone or in other associations. +Pioneership of invention might apply to the main machine, or to the +sub-machines, or even to the sub-organization within the sub-machines.</p> + +<p class="center">(To be continued.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>To be presented at the Niagara Falls meeting (June, +1898) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and +forming part of Vol. six of the Transactions.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 1172, page 18764.]</p> + + + + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CENTRAL STATION.</h2> + +<h3>By SAMUEL INSULL.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">1</a></h3> + + +<p>The success of the low-tension system was followed by the introduction +of the alternating system, using high potential primaries with the +converters at each house, reducing, as a rule, from 1,000 down to +either 50 or 100 volts. I am not familiar with the early alternating +work, and had not at my disposal sufficient time in preparing my notes +to go at any length into an investigation of this branch of the +subject; nor do I think that any particular advantage could have been +served by my doing so, as it has become generally recognized that the +early alternating work with a house-to-house converter system, while +it undoubtedly helped central station development at the time, proved +very uneconomical in operation and expensive in investment, when the +cost of converters is added to the cost of distribution. The large +alternating stations in this country have so clearly demonstrated this +that their responsible managers have, within the last few years, done +everything possible, by the adoption of block converters and +three-wire secondary circuits, to bring their system as close as they +could in practice to the low-tension direct-current distribution +system. I do not want to be understood as undervaluing the position of +the alternating current in central station work. It has its place, but +to my mind its position is a false one when it is used for +house-to-house distribution with converters for each customer. The +success of the oldest stations in this country, and the demonstration +of the possibilities of covering areas of several miles in extent by +the use of the three wire system, resulted in much capital going into +the business. One of the earliest stations of a really modern type +installed on either side of the Atlantic was built by the Berlin +Electricity Works. The engineers of that station, while recognizing +the high value of the distributing system, went back to Edison's +original scheme of a compact direct-connected steam and electric +generator, but with dynamos of the multipolar type designed and built +by Siemens & Halske, of Berlin, the engines being of vertical marine +type.</p> + +<p>This was followed by the projecting in New York of the present Duane +Street station, employing boilers of 200 pounds pressure, triple and +quadruple expansion engines of the marine type, and direct-connected +multipolar dynamos. Almost immediately thereafter, the station in +Atlantic Avenue, Boston, somewhat on the same general design so far as +contents is concerned, was erected. In 1891 a small station, but on +the same lines, was projected for San Francisco, and in 1892 the +present Harrison Street station of the Chicago Edison company was +designed, and, benefiting by the experience of Berlin, New York and +Boston, this station produces electric current for lighting purposes +probably cheaper than any station of a similar size anywhere in this +country.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary for me to go into detail in explanation of the +modern central station. You are all doubtless quite familiar with the +general design, but if you will examine the detail drawings of the +Harrison Street station, which I have brought with me, you will find +that every effort has been made to provide for the economical +production of steam, low cost of operating, good facilities for +repairs and consequently low cost, and for permanency of service. You +have but to go into any of the modern central stations in midwinter, +to see them turning out anywhere from 10,000 to 80,000 amperes with a +minimum of labor, to appreciate the fact that central station business +is of a permanent and lucrative character.</p> + +<p>To go back to the question of alternating currents, the work done in +connection with the two-phase and three-phase currents and the +perfection of the rotary transformer has resulted in introducing into +central station practice a further means of economizing the cost of +production—by concentration of power. According to present +experience, it is (except in some extraordinary cases) uneconomical to +distribute direct low-tension current over more than a radius of a +mile and a half from the generating point. The possibility of +transmitting it at a very high voltage, and consequently low +investment in conductors, has resulted in the adoption of a scheme, in +many of the large cities, of alternating transmission combined with +low tension distribution. The limit to which this alternating +transmission can be economically carried has not yet been definitely +settled, but it is quite possible even now to transmit economically +from the center of any of our large cities to the distant suburbs, by +means of high potential alternating currents, distributing the current +from the subcenter distribution by means either of the alternating +current itself and large transformers for a block or district or else, +if the territory is thickly settled, by means of a system of +low-tension mains and feeders, the direct current for this purpose +being obtained through the agency of rotary transformers.</p> + +<p>There are various methods of producing the alternating current for +transmission purposes. In some cases the generators are themselves +wound for high potential; in others they are wound for 80 volts, and +step-up transformers are used, carrying the current up to whatever +pressure is desired, from 1,000 to 10,000 volts. In other cases +dynamos are used having collector rings for alternating current on one +side and a commutator for direct current on the other side of the +armature, thus enabling you, when the peak in two districts of a city +comes at two different times, to take care of this peak by means of +the same original generating unit, furnishing direct low-tension +current to the points near the central station and alternating current +to the distant points. In other cases, where a small amount of +alternating current is required on the transmission line, it has even +been found economical to take direct current from a large unit, change +it by means of a rotary transformer into alternating current, step up +from 80 to, say, 2,000 volts, go to the distant point, and step down +again to 80 volts alternating, and then convert again by means of a +rotary transformer into low-potential direct current.</p> + +<p>The introduction of alternating current for transmission purposes in +large cities is probably best exemplified in the station recently +erected in Brooklyn, where alternating current is produced and carried +to distant points, and then used to operate series arc-light machines +run by synchronous motors, the low-tension direct-current network +being fed by rotary transformers, and alternating circuits arranged +with block converters, and even in some cases separate converters for +each individual customer in the scattered districts.</p> + +<p>It would be very interesting to go at length into the details of cost +in this, the latest development of central station transmission, but +time will not permit; nor have I the time at my disposal to go at +length into the central station business as developed by the electric +street railways now so universally in use, or another phase of the +business as exemplified by the large transmission plants, the two +greatest examples of which, in this country, are probably those at +Niagara Falls, N. Y., and Lachine Rapids, near Montreal. So far as +street railways and power transmission are concerned, I would draw +your attention to the fact that the same underlying principle of +multiple-arc mains and feeders originally conceived by Mr. Edison is +as much a necessity in their operation as it is in the electric +lighting systems, whether those systems be operated on the old +two-wire plan, the three-wire plan or by means of alternating +currents.</p> + +<p>Passing from a review of central station plants and distribution +system naturally bring us to the operating cost and the factors +governing profit and loss of the enterprise. In considering this +branch of the subject, I will confine my remarks to the business as +operated in Chicago by the company with which I am connected.</p> + +<p>Our actual maximum last winter came on December 20, our load being +approximately 12,000 horse power. A comparison of the figures of +maximum capacity and maximum load of last winter shows that we had a +margin in capacity over output of about 20 per cent. The load curves +shown this evening represent the maximum output of last winter +(December 20), an average summer load last year (June 4), and an +average spring load of this year (May 2). For our purposes we will +assume the maximum capacity of the plant and the maximum load of the +system to be identical. The maximum load last winter occurred, as I +have stated, on December 20, about 4:30 o'clock in the afternoon, and +lasted less than half an hour. It should be borne in mind that the +period of maximum load only lasts for from two to three months, and +that the investment necessary to take care of that maximum load, has +to be carried the whole year. It should not be assumed from this +statement that the whole plant as an earning factor is in use 25 per +cent. of the year. The fact is that, during the period of maximum +load, the total plant is in operation only about 100 hours out of the<a name="Page_18775" id="Page_18775"></a> +8,760 hours of the year; so that you are compelled, in order to get +interest on your investment, to earn the interest for the whole of the +year in about 1½ per cent. of that period, on about 50 per cent. of +your plant.</p> + +<p>This statement must bring home to you a realization of the fact that +by far the most serious problem of central station management, and by +far the greatest item of cost of your product, is interest on the +investment. It may be that the use of storage batteries in connection +with large installations will modify this interest charge, but even +allowing the highest efficiency and the lowest cost of maintenance +ever claimed for a storage battery installation, the fact of high +interest cost must continue to be the most important factor in +calculating profit and loss. This brings home to us the fact that in +his efforts to show the greatest possible efficiency of his plant and +distribution system, it is quite possible that the station manager may +spend so much capital as to eat up many times over in interest charge +the saving that he makes in direct operating expenses. It is a common +mistake for the so-called expert to demonstrate to you that he has +designed for you a plant of the highest possible efficiency, and at +the same time for him to lose sight of the fact that he has saddled +you with the highest possible amount of interest on account of +excessive investment. Operating cost and interest cost should never be +separated. One is as much a part of the cost of your current as the +other. This is particularly illustrated in connection with the use of +storage batteries. Those opposed to their use will point out to you +that of the energy going into the storage battery only 70 per cent. is +available for use on your distribution system. That statement in +itself is correct; but in figuring the cost of energy for a class of +business for which the storage battery is particularly adapted, the +maximum load, that portion of your operating cost affected by the 30 +per cent. loss of energy in the battery, forms under 4½ per cent. +of your total cost, and it must be self-evident, in that case at +least, that the 30 per cent. loss in the storage battery is hardly an +appreciable factor in figuring the operating cost of your product. So +far as I have been able to ascertain, it would appear to be economical +to use storage batteries in connection with central station systems +the peak of whose load does not exceed from two to two and one-half +hours.</p> + +<p>In order to illustrate the important bearing which interest has on +cost, I have prepared graphical representations of the cost of +current, including interest, under conditions of varying load factors. +For the purpose of this chart I have assumed an average cost of +current, so far as operating and repairs and renewals and general +expense are concerned, extending over a period of a year, although of +course these items are more or less attested by the character of the +load factor. For the purpose of figuring interest, I have selected +seven different classes of business commonly taken by electric light +and power companies in any large city. Take, for instance, an office +building. It has a load factor of about 3.7 per cent., that is, the +average load for the whole year is 3.7 per cent. of the maximum demand +on you for current at any one time during that period; or, to put it +in another way, this load factor of 3.7 per cent. would show that your +investment is in use the equivalent of a little over 323 hours a year +on this class of business. This is by no means an extreme case. You +can find in almost every large city customers whose load factors are +not nearly as favorable to the operating company, their use of your +investment being as low as the equivalent of 75 or 100 hours a year. +Take another class of business, that of the haberdasher, or small +fancy goods store. As a rule these stores are comparatively small, +with facilities for getting a large amount of natural light and little +use for artificial light. The load factor as shown by the chart is +about 7 per cent., the use of your investment being not quite twice as +long as that of the office building. Day saloons show an average of 16 +per cent. load factor; cafetiers and small lunch counters about 20 per +cent., while the large dry goods stores, in which there is +comparatively little light, have a load factor of 25 per cent. and use +your investment seven times as long per year as the office building. +Power business naturally shows a still better load factor, say 35 per +cent., and the all-night restaurant has a load factor of 48 per cent.</p> + +<p>You will see from this that the great desideratum of the central +station system is, from the investors' point of view, the necessity of +getting customers for your product whose business is of such a +character as to call for a low maximum and long average use. This +question of load factor is by all means the most important one in +central station economy. If your maximum is very high and your average +consumption very low, heavy interest charges will necessarily follow. +The nearer you can bring your average to your maximum load, the closer +you approximate to the most economical conditions of production, and +the lower you can afford to sell your current. Take, for instance, the +summer and winter curves of the Chicago Edison company. The curve of +December 20, 1897, shows a load factor of about 48 per cent.; the +curve of May 2, 1898, shows a load factor of nearly 60 per cent. Now, +if we were able in Chicago to get business of such a character as +would give us a curve of the same characteristics in December as the +curve we get in May; or, in other words, if we could improve our load +factor, our interest cost would be reduced, an effect would be +produced upon the other items going to make up the cost of current, +and we probably could make more money out of our customers at a lower +price per unit than we get from them now.</p> + +<p>Many schemes are employed for improving the load factor, or, in other +words, to encourage a long use of central station product. Some +companies adopt a plan of allowing certain stated discounts, provided +the income per month of each lamp connected exceeds a given sum. The +objection to this is that it limits the number of lamps connected. +Other companies have what is known as the two-rate scheme, charging +one rate for electricity used during certain hours of the day and a +lower rate for electricity used during the balance of the day, using a +meter with two dials for this purpose. Other companies use an +instrument which registers the maximum demand for the month, and the +excess over the equivalent of a certain specified number of hours +monthly in use of the maximum demand is sold at greatly reduced price. +The last scheme would seem particularly equitable, as it results in +what is practically an automatic scale of discounts based on the +average load factor of the customers. It does not seem to be just that +a man who only uses your investment say 100 hours a year should be +able to buy your product at precisely the same price as the man who +uses your investment say 3,000 hours a year, when the amount of money +invested to take care of either customer is precisely the same. Surely +the customer who uses the product on an average 30 times longer than +the customer using it for only 100 hours is entitled to a much lower +unit rate, in view of the fact that the expense for interest to the +company is in one case but a fraction per unit of output of what it is +in the other. This fact is illustrated by the interest columns on the +graphic chart already referred to. Supposing that the central station +manager desired to sell his product at cost, that is, an amount +sufficient to cover his operating, repairs and renewals, general +expense, and interest and depreciation, he would have to obtain from +the customer having the poorest load factor, as shown on the load +chart, over four times as much per unit of electricity as it would be +necessary for him to collect from the customer having the largest load +factor. No one would think of going to a bank to borrow money and +expect to pay precisely the same total interest whether he required +the money for one month or for twelve; and for the same reason it +seems an absurdity to sell electricity to the customer who uses it but +a comparatively few hours a year at the same price at which you would +sell it to the customer using it ten hours a day and three hundred +days a year, when it is remembered that interest is the largest factor +in cost, and the total amount of interest is the same with the +customer using it but a few hours a year as it is with the customer +using it practically all the year around.</p> + +<p>I have dwelt thus at length on the question of interest cost in +operating a central station system, not alone for the purpose of +pointing out to you its importance in connection with an electrical +distribution system, but also to impress upon you its importance as a +factor in cost; in fact, the most important factor in cost in any +public service business which you may enter after leaving this +institution. Most of the businesses presenting the greatest +possibilities from the point of view of an engineering career are +those requiring very large investment and having a comparatively small +turnover or yearly income. Of necessity, in all enterprises of this +character, the main factor of cost is interest, and if you intend +following engineering as a profession, my advice to you would be to +learn first the value of money, or, to put it another way, to learn +the cost of money.</p> + +<p>Before leaving this question of interest and its effect upon cost, I +would draw your attention to the fact that while interest is by far +the most important factor of cost, it is a constantly reducing amount +per unit of maximum output in practically every central station +system. When a system is first installed, it is the rule to make large +enough investment in real estate and buildings to take care of many +times the output obtained in the first year or so of operation. As a +rule, the generating plant from the boilers to the switchboard is +designed with only sufficient surplus to last a year or so. In the +case of the distributing system the same course is followed as in the +case of real estate and buildings, with a view to minimizing the +ultimate investment. Mains are laid along each block facing, feeders +are put in having a capacity far beyond the necessity of the moment; +consequently interest cost is very high when a plant first starts, +except, as I have stated, in the case of the machinery forming the +generating plant itself. As the business increases from, year to year, +the item of interest per unit of maximum output consequently will +constantly decrease, owing to the fact that each additional unit of +output following an increase of connected load increases the divisor +by which the total interest is divided. The result is from year to +year the interest cost of each additional unit of maximum output is a +constantly reducing amount, and consequently the average interest cost +of each unit of maximum output should, in a well regulated plant, grow +less from year to year until the minimum interest cost per unit is +reached. This minimum interest cost is reached when the capacity of +the whole system and the total units of output at maximum load are +identical, although of course it will always be necessary to have a +certain margin of capacity over possible output, as a factor of +safety.</p> + +<p>This same rule, although to a less extent, applies to the operating +and general expense cost, that is, the cost other than interest. To +particularize, the manager's salary and other administrative expenses +do not increase in proportion to maximum output of station; therefore, +the cost of administration per unit of output, if the business is in a +healthy condition, must be from year to year reduced. There are a +great many other expenses that are not directly in proportion to +output, and these follow the same rule. In a well-run plant the +percentage of operating expenses to gross receipts will stand even +year after year, while the income per unit of output will be +constantly reduced. This is an excellent evidence of the fact that the +cost per unit of output is constantly being reduced, as, if it were +not, the percentage of expenses to gross receipts would be increased +in direct proportion to the reduction in price. Moreover, it should be +borne in mind that there are many difficulties in the way of universal +use of electric energy from a central station system. It is the rare +exception to find a house not piped for gas and water. In the case of +the latter it is almost invariably the rule that owners are compelled +to pipe for water, under the sanitary code of the municipality. On the +other hand, in a large residential district, it is the exception to +find a house wired for electric light; consequently the output of +current per foot of conductor is at the present time very low as +compared with the output of gas per foot of gas pipe in any of the +large cities. The expense of wiring (which must of necessity be borne +by the householder) is large, and it is often a barrier to the +adoption of electric illumination, but as the rule to wire houses +becomes more general, the output per foot of main will constantly +increase, and therefore the interest per unit of output per foot of +main will constantly decrease. This same rule will apply in the case +of expenses of taking care of and repairing the distribution system, +although to not so great an extent.</p> + +<p>If you will take into account these various factors constantly +operating toward a reduction of operating and general expense cost, +and interest cost, the conclusion must necessarily be forced upon you +that the price at which current can be sold at a profit to-day is in +no sense a measure of the income per unit which it will be necessary +for central station managers to obtain in the future. In 1881-82 it +was difficult to make both ends meet with an income of 25 cents per +kilowatt hour, to-day there are many stations showing a substantial +return on their investment whose average income does not exceed 7 +cents per kilowatt hour, showing 70 per cent. reduction in price in +less than two decades. How far this constant reduction in cost, +followed by a constant reduction in selling price, will go, it is +difficult to determine; but if so much has been accomplished during +the first 20 years of the existence of the industry, is it too much to +predict that in a far less time than the succeeding 20 years electric +current for all purposes will be within the reach of the smallest +householder and the poorest citizen? But few industries can parallel +the record already obtained. If you will trace the history of the +introduction of gas as an illuminant, you will find that it took a +much longer time to establish it on a commercial basis than it has +taken to establish most firmly the electric lighting industry. All the +great improvements in gas, the introduction of water gas, the +economizing in consumption by the use of the Welsbach burner, have all +been made within the time of those before me, and yet, notwithstanding +that when these gas improvements started, the electric lighting +business was hardly conceived, and certainly had not advanced to a +point where you could claim that it had passed the experimental +stage—notwithstanding this, the cost of electrical energy has +decreased so rapidly that to-day there are many large central station +plants making handsome returns on their investments at a far lower +average income per unit of light than the income obtained by the gas +company in the same community. In making my calculations which have +led me to this conclusion, I have assumed that 10,000 watts are equal +to 1,000 feet of gas. This comparison holds good, provided an +incandescent lamp of high economy is used as against the ordinary gas +burner. To make a comparison between electric illumination and +incandescent gas burners, such as the Welsbach burner, you must figure +on the use of an arc lamp in the electric circuit instead of an +incandescent lamp, which is certainly fair when it is remembered that +incandescent gas burners are, as a rule, used in places where arc +lamps should be used if electric illumination is employed.</p> + +<p>With such brilliant results obtained in the past, the prospects of the +central station industry are certainly most dazzling. While the growth +of the business has been phenomenal, more especially since 1890, I +think it can be conservatively stated that we have scarcely entered +upon the threshold of the development which may be expected in the +future. In very few cities in the United States can you find that +electric illumination exceeds more than 20 per cent. of the total +artificial illumination for which the citizens pay. If this be the +state of affairs in connection with the use of electricity for +illuminating purposes, and if you will bear in mind the many other +purposes to which electricity can be adapted throughout a city and +supplied to customers in small quantities, you may get some faint +conception of the possible consumption of electrical energy in the not +far distant future. Methods of producing it may change, but these +methods cannot possibly go into use unless their adoption is justified +by saving in the cost of production—a saving which must be sufficient +to show a profit above the interest and depreciation on the new plant +employed. It is within the realms of possibility that the present form +of generating station may be entirely dispensed with. It has already +been demonstrated experimentally that electrical energy may be +produced direct from the coal itself without the intervention of the +boiler, engine and dynamo machine. Whether this can be done +commercially remains to be proved. Whatever changes may take place in +generating methods, I should, were I not engaged in a business which +affords so many remarkable surprises, be inclined to question the +possibility of any further material change in the distributing system. +Improvements in the translating devices, such as lamps, may add +enormously to the capacity of the distributing system per unit of +light; but it does seem to me that the system itself, as originally +conceived, is to a large extent a permanency. Should any great +improvements take place in the medium employed for turning electrical +energy into light, the possible effect on cost, and consequently +selling price, would be enormous.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p><b>The proposal</b> of Gov. Black, which has now become law, to depute to +Cornell the care of a considerable tract of forest land, and the duty +of demonstrating to Americans the theory, methods and profits of +scientific forestry, has a curious appropriateness much commented on +at the university, since two-thirds of the wealth of Cornell has been +derived from the location and skillful management of forest lands, the +net receipts from this source being to date $4,112,000. In the course +of twenty years management the university has thrice sold the timber +on some pieces of land which it still holds, and received a larger +price at the third sale than at the first. The conduct of this land +business is so systematized that the treasurer of the university knows +to a dot the amount of pine, hemlock, birch, maple, basswood and oak +timber, even to the number of potential railroad ties, telegraph poles +and fence posts on each fourth part of a quarter section owned by +Cornell. Certainly, Cornell is rich in experience for the business +side of a forestry experiment such as Gov. Black proposes. The +university forest lands from which its endowment has been realized are +in Wisconsin.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p><b>Books may</b> be called heavy when the qualifying term is not applied to +their writers, but to the paper makers. It is falsifications in the +paper that give it weight. Sulphate of baryta, the well known +adulterate of white lead, does the work. A correspondent, writing to +The London Saturday Review, gives the weight of certain books as: Miss +Kingsley's "Travels in Africa." 3 pounds 5 ounces; "Tragedy of the +Cæsars," 3 pounds; Mahan's "Nelson" (1 vol.), 2 pounds 10 ounces; +"Tennyson" (1 vol.), 2 pounds 6 ounces; "Life and Letters of Jowett" +(1 vol.), 2 pounds 1 ounce. To handle these dumb-bell books, The +Saturday Review advises that readers take lessons in athletics.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4">[1]</a></p> +<div class="note"><p>Before the Electrical Engineering Department of +Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., May 17, 1898.</p></div> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a><a name="Page_18776" id="Page_18776"></a>THE LOCK OF THE DORTMUND-EMS CANAL AT HENRICHENBURG.</h2> + + +<p>The Dortmund-Ems Canal, destined to connect the heart of German +industry with the sea, was formally dedicated on April 1, and +partially opened to commerce. After its completion, German coal will +be transported to the harbors of the Ems at the same cost as the +English coal which has hitherto forced back the treasures of our soil; +our black diamonds will then be sold in the markets of the world, and +the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal will enable the western part of the empire to +exchange its coal and iron for the grain and wood of the East.</p> + +<p>Many difficulties were encountered in cutting the canal, owing partly +to the vast network of railroads in the coal region of Westphalia, but +chiefly due to the insufficiency of moisture in the highlands, the +latter not containing enough water to supply the many necessary +sluices, at which it could be easily foreseen considerable traffic +would occur.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/i13.png"><img src="images/i13_th.png" width="403" height="450" alt="THE LOCK OF THE DORTMUND-EMS CANAL AT HENRICHENBURG." title="" /></a> +<br /><span class="caption">THE LOCK OF THE DORTMUND-EMS CANAL AT HENRICHENBURG.</span> +</div> + +<p>For the modern engineer there are, however, no insurmountable +obstacles. Instead of a line of ordinary locks, a single structure was +erected sufficient for the needs of the entire region. This lock is +situated at Henrichenburg, near Dortmund, and our illustration +pictures it with its lock-chamber half raised.</p> + +<p>The lock, which serves to overcome a difference in level of fifty-nine +feet, raises vessels of 1,000 tons capacity with a velocity of 0.3 to +0.7 foot per second, and has been constructed after a new and +astonishingly simple system.</p> + +<p>The lock chamber, designed for the reception of the various vessels, +is 229.60 feet in length and 28.864 feet in breadth and normally +contains 8.2 feet of water. Under the sluice in a line with the long +axis are five wells filled with water in which cylindrical floats are +placed, connected to the bottom of the chamber by means of iron +trellis-work. The floats are placed so deeply that, in their highest +position, their upper edges are always submerged; they are, moreover, +of such size that by means of their upward impulsion the chamber is +held in equilibrium. Irrespective of the small differences of pressure +which arise from the varying immersion of the framework, the lock will +in all positions be in equilibrium. Since a vessel which enters the +lock displaces a volume of water whose weight is equal to the weight +of the vessel, a constant equilibrium will always be maintained and +only a minimum force required to raise or lower the chamber. In order +to move the lock-chamber up and down and to sustain it constantly in a +horizontal position, nuts have been fixed to strong crossbeams, +through which powerful screw-rods work.</p> + +<p>These rods are held in place by a massive framework of iron and are +turned to the left or to the right by means of a small steam engine, +placed at one side of the lock, which engine, by means of a +longitudinal shaft, drives two cross shafts to which bevel wheels are +attached. By this means the chamber is lowered and raised. The screw +rods are so powerful that they sustain the entire weight of the lock +chamber, and the pitch of the thread is such that spontaneous sliding +or slipping is impossible, the chamber being, therefore, kept +constantly in the desired position.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that the hollow space in the screw rods is +heated by steam during winter, thus preventing the formation of ice in +the machinery.</p> + +<p>During the eighties, locks for ships of 400 tons capacity were +erected in England and France, at Anderton, Les Fontinettes and La +Louvière. The lock at Henrichenburg, however, exceeds all its +predecessors, not only in size, but also in security. At all events, +the structure is a worthy memorial of the energy and genius of +German engineers.—Illustrirte Zeitung.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p><b>Paper hanging</b> by machine is the latest achievement, according to a +German contemporary, says The Engineer. The arrangement used for this +purpose is provided with a rod upon which the roll of paper is placed. +A paste receptacle with a brushing arrangement is attached in such a +manner that the paste is applied automatically on the back of the +paper. The end of the wall paper is fixed at the bottom of the wall +and the implement rises on the wall and only needs to be set by one +workman. While the wall paper unrolls and, provided with paste, is +held against the wall, an elastic roller follows on the outside, which +presses it firmly to the wall. When the wall paper has reached the +top, the workman pulls a cord, whereby it is cut off from the +remainder on the roll.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>THE AMERICAN "REGULAR."</h2> + +<h3>BY THE ENGLISH CORRESPONDENT OF THE LONDON TIMES ON BOARD THE +UNITED STATES TRANSPORT "GUSSIE."</h3> + + +<p>The "regular" of the United States is in many respects the least +equipped foot soldier of my acquaintance. This was my reflection as I +overhauled the kit of a private this morning on board the "Gussie." +There was not a single brush in his knapsack. I counted three in that +of a Spanish foot soldier only a few weeks ago. The American knapsack +is merely a canvas bag cut to the outward proportions of the European +knapsack, but in practical features bearing affinity with the +"rückensack" of the Tyrolean chamois hunters, or pack-sack of the +backwoodsmen of Canada and the Adirondack Mountains. This knapsack of +the American is not intended to be carried on any extended marches, +although the total weight he is ever called upon to carry, including +everything, is only 50 pounds, a good 12 pounds less than what is +carried by the private of Germany. The men of this regiment, in heavy +marching order, carry an overcoat with a cape, a blanket, the half of +a shelter tent, and one wooden tent pole in two sections. The rifle +could be used as a tent pole—so say men I talk with on the subject. +On this expedition overcoats are a superfluity, and it is absurd that +troops should be sent to the tropics in summer wearing exactly the +same uniform they would be using throughout the winter on the +frontiers of Canada. This war will, no doubt, produce a change after +English models. At present the situation here is prevented from being +painful because no marching has yet been attempted, and the commanding +officers permit the most generous construction in the definition of +what is a suitable uniform.</p> + +<p>On the trip of this ship to Cuba, no officer or man has ever worn a +tunic excepting at guard mounting inspection. The 50 men who went +ashore near Cabañas on May 12 and pitched into some 500 Spaniards left +their coats behind and fought in their blue flannel shirts. Of the +officers, some wore a sword, some did not, though all carried a +revolver. No orders were issued on the subject—it was left to +individual taste, I have experienced hotter days at German maneuvers<a name="Page_18777" id="Page_18777"></a> +than on the coast of Cuba during the days we happened to be there, yet +I have never noticed any disposition in the army of William II. to +relax the severity of service even temporarily. My German friends +sincerely believe that the black stock and the hot tunic are what has +made Prussia a strong nation, and to disturb that superstition would +be a thankless task.</p> + +<p>In the way of clothing the American private carries a complete change +of under-drawers, under-shirt, socks, laced boots and uniform +trousers. My particular private was carrying a double allowance of +socks, handkerchiefs, and underwear. He had a toothbrush and comb. +That is the heavy marching order knapsack. For light marching, which +is the usual manner, the man begins by spreading on the ground his +half-tent, which is about the size of a traveling rug. On this he +spreads his blanket, rolls it up tightly into a long narrow sausage, +having first distributed along its length a pair of socks, a change of +underwear, and the two sticks of his one tent pole. Then he brings the +ends of this canvas roll together, not closely, as in the German army, +but more like the ends of a horse-shoe, held by a rope which at the +same time stops the ends of the roll tightly. When this horse shoe is +slung over the man's shoulder, it does not press uncomfortably upon +his chest. The total weight is distributed in the most convenient +manner for marching.</p> + +<p>The packing of the man's things is strictly according to regulation, +excepting only the single pocket in his knapsack, where he may carry +what he chooses, as he chooses. His light canvas haversack is much +like the English one, and his round, rather flat water flask is +covered with canvas. It is made of tin, and the one I inspected was +rusty inside. It would be better if of aluminum. In the haversack is a +pannikin with a hinged handle that may be used as a saucepan. Over +this fits a tin plate, and when the two are covering one another the +handle of the pannikin fits over both by way of handle. It is an +excellent arrangement, but should be of aluminum instead of a metal +liable to rust. The most valuable part of this haversack is a big tin +cup that can be used for a great variety of purposes, including +cooking coffee. It is hung loose at the strap of the haversack. Of +course each man has knife, fork and spoon, each in a leather case.</p> + +<p>The cartridge belt contains 100 rounds, which are distributed all the +way around the waist, there being a double row of them. The belt is +remarkably light, being woven all in one operation. It is of cotton +and partly some material which prevents shrinking or loosening. The +belts have stood admirably the test put upon them for the last six +days, when it has rained every day, on top of the ordinary heavy +moisture usual at sea in the tropics. The test is the more interesting +from their having been previously in a very dry country. Officers and +men alike unite in praise of this cartridge belt. The particular +private whom I was inspecting said he now carried 100 as easily as he +formerly carried 50. This belt rests loosely on the hips, without any +straps over the shoulders. It is eminently businesslike in appearance. +The hat is the gray felt of South Africa, Australia, and every other +part of the world where comfort and cost are consulted. No boots are +blacked on expeditions of this kind. The men who form in line for +guard duty have their tunics well brushed, but that may be due to +extraneous assistance.</p> + +<p>For fighting purposes, then, the United States private has nothing to +keep clean excepting his rifle and bayonet. He carries no contrivances +for polishing buttons, boots, or the dozen of bits of accouterment +deemed essential to a good soldier in Europe. In Spain, for instance, +the private, though he may have nothing in his haversack, will, +nevertheless, carry a clumsy outfit of tools for making his uniform +look imposing.</p> + +<p>Now, as to discipline in the American army I cannot speak at present, +for the war is yet too young. It may, however, be worth noting that in +this particular regiment, while most complete liberty was allowed the +men all the twelve days of the rail journey from San Francisco to +Tampa, not a single case of drunkenness or any other breach of +discipline was reported. Among the 105 men on this boat there has not +in the past seven days been a single case of sickness of any kind or +any occasion for punishing. The firing discipline during the three +times we have been under fire has been excellent; the obedience of +soldiers to their officers has been as prompt and intelligent as +anything I have seen in Europe; and as to coolness under fire and +accuracy of aim, what I have seen is most satisfactory. The men +evidently regard their officers as soldiers of equal courage and +superior technical knowledge. To the Yankee private "West Pointer" +means what to the soldier of Prussia is conveyed by noble rank. In my +intimate intercourse with officers and men aboard this ship I cannot +recall an instance of an officer addressing a private otherwise than +is usual when a gentleman issues an order. I have never heard an +officer or noncommissioned officer curse a man. During the engagement +of Cabañas the orders were issued as quietly as at any other time, and +the men went about their work as steadily as bluejackets on a +man-o'-war.</p> + +<p>All this I note, because this is the first occasion that United States +troops have been in action since the civil war, and because I have +more than once heard European officers question the possibility of +making an army out of elements different from those to which they were +accustomed. I have heard Germans insist that unless the officer +appears in uniform he cannot command the respect of his men. On this +ship it would be frequently difficult to tell officers from men when +the tunic is laid aside and shoulder straps are not seen. There are +numberless points of resemblance between Tommy Atkins and the Yankee +private; and the Sandhurst man has no difficulty in understanding the +West Pointer. But to do this we must go a little beneath the surface +and see things, not on the parade ground, but in actual war. For dress +occasions the American uniform is far and away the ugliest and most +useless of all the uniforms I know. The helmets and cocked hats are of +the pattern affected by theatrical managers, the decorations tawdry, +the swords absurd, the whole appearance indicative of a taste +unmilitary and inartistic. The parade uniform has been designed by a +lot of unsoldierly politicians and tailors about Washington. Their +notion of military glory is confused with memories of St. Patrick's +Day processions and Masonic installations. They have made the patient +United States army a victim of their vulgar designs, and to-day at +every European army maneuver one can pick out the American military +attache by merely pointing to the most unsoldierly uniform on the +field. On the battlefield, however, there are no political tailors, +and the Washington dress regulations are ruthlessly disregarded.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>STEERING GEAR OF NORTH GERMAN LLOYD STEAMERS "COBLENTZ," "MAINZ," +AND "TRIER."</h2> + + +<p>The steering gear illustrated below, which has been fitted to a number +of vessels in this country as well as on the three North German Lloyd +steamers above named, is designed, primarily, to effect the +distribution of the leverage more in proportion to the resistance of +the rudder than exists in ordinary gears. The latter, as a rule, exert +a uniform and decreasing, instead of an increasing, purchase on the +rudder, in moving it from midgear to hard over. This important object +is attained in the gear under notice chiefly through the arrangement +of the quadrant and the spring buffers, which form an essential part +of it, and of the tiller crosshead. The quadrant—which, as may be +gathered from our illustration, has its main body formed of wrought +steel, flanged and riveted, making an exceptionally strong +design—works on its own center. It travels through 51 degrees in +moving the tiller crosshead through 40 degrees, and in doing so +increases the leverage over the rudder to an extent which is +equivalent to a gain of 60 per cent. upon midgear position.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 564px;"> +<a href="./images/i14.png"><img src="images/i14_th.png" width="564" height="400" alt="HAND GEAR HARD OVER." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">HAND GEAR HARD OVER.</span> +</div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 554px;"> +<a href="./images/i15.png"><img src="images/i15_th.png" width="554" height="400" alt="HAND GEAR AMIDSHIPS." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">HAND GEAR AMIDSHIPS.</span> +</div> +<p class="center"> +<span class="caption">CROOM & ARTHUR'S STEERING GEAR.</span> +</p> + +<p>Being carried on its own center, and not, as is usual, on the rudder +stock, and with its rim supported on rollers, the quadrant does not +impose upon the rudder pintles any of its own weight, thus diminishing +the wear on these parts. This arrangement also keeps the quadrant +always in good gear with its pinion, thereby allowing the teeth of +both to be strengthened by shrouding, and rendering them exempt from +the effects of sinking and slogger of the rudder stock as the pintles +wear. The rack and pinions are of cast steel, as is also the tiller +crosshead. The spring buffers, which, as has been said, form an +essential part of the quadrant, are fitted with steel rollers at the +point of contact with the crosshead, thereby reducing the friction to +a minimum. The springs, by their compression, absorb any shock coming +on the rudder, and greatly reduce the vibration when struck by a sea. +They are made adjustable, and can be either steel or rubber.</p> + +<p>Our illustrations show the arrangement of the gear as worked by hand +at the rudder head, but of course gears are made having a steam +steering engine as the major portion of the arrangement—the two +cylinders being placed directly over the quadrant—thus securing the +well known advantages attaching to a direct rudder head steering +engine as compared with the engine situated amidship, with all the +friction of parts, liability to breakage, etc., thereby entailed.</p> + +<p>Whether with engine amidship or directly over the rudderhead, ample +provision is made for putting the hand power into gear by means of a +friction clutch within the standard upon which the hand wheels are +mounted. The clutch is of large diameter and lined with hard wood, +power and ready facility being provided by the hand lever—seen at the +top of standard—and the screw which it operates, for shifting to in +and out of gear.</p> + +<p>The patentees and makers of this type of gear are Messrs. Croom & +Arthur, Victoria Dock, Leith, who, in addition to fitting it to the +three North German Lloyd steamers named in the title—which are each +of 3,200 tons, having an 8-inch rudder-stock—have applied it to the +Hamburg and Australian liner Meissen of 5,200 tons and 10-inch rudder +stock, and to the steamer Carisbrook of 1,724 tons, owned in Leith. On +the latter vessel, which was the first fitted with it, the gear has +been working for over two years, giving, we are told, entire +satisfaction to the owners, who say the spring buffers undoubtedly +reduce the vibration when the rudder is struck by a sea, and the +arrangement of quadrant and tiller appears to give increase of power. +Of the installation of this gear on board the three North German Lloyd +vessels, the agents of that company say: "It has been working to our +entire satisfaction. This system, on the whole, proves to have +answered its purpose." Considering the advantages<a name="Page_18778" id="Page_18778"></a> claimed for the +gear, this is satisfactory testimony. We are indebted to The London +Engineer for the cuts and description.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>COMBINED STEAM PUMPING AND MOTIVE POWER ENGINE.</h2> + + +<p>We give herewith an illustration of a compact engine, designed by +Messrs. Merryweather & Sons, of London, particularly for mining work, +and already supplied to the Burma ruby mines, the Salamanca tin mines, +and several mining companies in Brazil and other parts of South +America. It is an arrangement of the Valiant steam pumping engine with +a flywheel arranged to take a belt, and is so constructed that the +pump can be readily thrown out of gear and the engine used to drive +light machinery. The smaller size weighs only 7 cwt., including +boiler, engine and pump complete, and can be run on its own wheels, or +these can be detached and the machine carried by eight or ten men on +shoulder poles passed through rings fitted on top of the boiler. Thus +it can be easily transported up country, and has for this reason been +found most useful for prospecting. For alluvial mining it will throw a +powerful jet at 100 lb. to 120 lb. pressure, or by means of a belt +will drive an experimental quartz crusher or stamp mill. The power +developed is six horses, and the boiler will burn wood or other +inferior fuel when coal is not obtainable. The pump will deliver 100 +gallons per minute, on a short length of hose or piping, and will +force water through three or four miles of piping on the level, or, on +a short length, 35 gallons per minute against a head of 210 feet. The +pump is made entirely of gun metal, with rubber valves, and has large +suction and delivery branches. Air vessels are fitted, and the motion +work is simple and strong. The boiler is Merryweather's water tube +type, and raises steam rapidly, while the fittings include feed pump, +injector, safety valve, steam blast and an arrangement for feeding the +boiler from the main pump in case of necessity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/i16.png"><img src="images/i16_th.png" width="300" height="456" alt="MERRYWEATHER'S PUMPING ENGINE." title="" /></a> +<br /><span class="caption">MERRYWEATHER'S PUMPING ENGINE.</span> +</div> + +<p>We are indebted to The London Engineer for the engraving and +description.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p><b>Some romances</b> and exaggerations of which the Pitch Lake, at +Trinidad, has been the subject, are corrected by Mr. Albert Cronise, +of Rochester, N. Y. Its area, height and distance from the sea have +been overestimated, and a volcanic action has been ascribed to it +which does not really exist. It is one mile from the landing place, is +138 feet above the sea level, is irregular, approximately round, and +has an area of 109 acres. Its surface is a few feet higher than the +ground immediately around it, having been lifted up by the pressure +from below. The material of the lake is solid to a depth of several +feet, except in a few spots in the center, where it remains soft, but +usually not hot or boiling. But as the condition of the softest part +varies, it may be that it boils sometimes. The surface of the lake is +marked by fissures two or three feet wide and slightly depressed +spots, all of which are filled with rainwater. In going about one has +to pick his way among the larger puddles and jump many of the smaller +connecting streams. Each of the hundreds of irregular portions +separated by this network of fissures is said to have a slow revolving +motion upon a horizontal axis at right angles to a line from the +center of the lake, the surface moving toward the circumference. This +motion is supposed to be caused by the great daily change in +temperature, often amounting to 80°, and an unequal upward motion of +the mass below, increasing toward the center of the lake. A few +patches of shallow earth lying on the pitch, and covered with bushes +and small trees, are scattered over the surface of the lake.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>The Gardeners' Chronicle announces that Mr. Fetisoff, an amateur +horticulturist at Voronezh, Russia, has achieved what was believed to +be impossible, the production of jet black roses. No details of the +process have been received.</p> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2>Recent Books.</h2> + + +<p><b>Electro-Metallurgy.</b> Electric Smelting and Refining: The Extraction +and Treatment of Metals by means of the Electric Current. Being the +second edition of Elektro-Metallurgie by Dr. W. Borchers. Translated, +with additions, by Walter G. McMillan. With 3 plates and numerous +illustrations in the text. 8vo, cloth. 416 pages. London and New York, +1897 <b>$6.50</b></p> + +<p><b>Electro-Technical Series.</b> By Edwin J. Houston, Ph.D., and A.E. +Kennelly, D.Sc. Ten volumes: Alternating Electric Currents, Electric +Heating, Electro-Magnetism, Electricity in Electro-Therapeutics, +Electric Arc Lighting, Electric Incandescent Lighting, Electric +Motors, Electric Street Railways, Electric Telephony, Electric +Telegraphy. Each <b>$1.00</b></p> + +<p><b>Engineers</b>. The Practical Management of Engines and Boilers, +including Boiler Setting, Pumps, Injectors, Feed Water Heaters, Steam +Engine Economy, Condensers, Indicators, Slide Valves, Safety Valves, +Governors, Steam Gages, Incrustation and Corrosion, etc. A Practical +Guide for Engineers and Firemen and Steam Users generally. By William +B. Le Van. 12mo, cloth. 267 pages. 49 illustrations. 1897 <b>$2.00</b></p> + +<p><b>Experimental Science</b>. By George M. Hopkins. This book treats on the +various topics of Physics in a popular and practical way. It describes +the apparatus in detail, and explains the experiments in full, so that +teachers, students and others interested in Physics may readily make +the apparatus without expense and perform the experiments without +difficulty. The aim of the writer has been to render physical +experimentation so simple and attractive as to induce both old and +young to engage in it for pleasure and profit. A few simple +arithmetical problems comprise all of the mathematics of the book. +Many new experiments are here described for the first time. It is the +most thoroughly illustrated work over published on Experimental +Physics. 840 pages. Over 790 illustrations. Seventeenth edition. +Revised and enlarged. 8vo, cloth <b>$4.00</b></p> + +<p><b>Explosives</b>. Lectures on Explosives. A course of Lectures prepared +especially as a Manual and Guide in the Laboratory of the United +States Artillery School. By Willoughby Walke, First Lieut. Fifth +United States Artillery. Second edition. Revised and enlarged. 8vo, +cloth. 435 pages. New York, 1897 <b>$4.00</b></p> + +<p><b>Feeds and Feeding</b>. A Handbook for the Student and Stockman. By W.A. +Henry. 8vo, cloth. 657 pages. 1898 <b>$2.00</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p>Our large Catalogue of American and Foreign Scientific and Technical +Books, embracing more than Fifty different subjects, and containing +116 pages, will be mailed, free, to any address in the world.</p> + +<p>Any of the foregoing Books mailed, on receipt of price, to any +address. Remit by Draft, Postal Note, Check, or Money Order, to order +of</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO.,</b><br /> +<b>361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>A COMPLETE</h3> +<h2>ELECTRICAL LIBRARY</h2> + +<p class="center">BY PROF. T. O'CONOR SLOANE,<br /> +Comprising five books, as follows:</p> + +<table summary="electrical library" class="center" style="width: 50%;"> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Arithmetic of Electricity, 138 pages</td> <td class="tr">$1.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Electric Toy Making, 140 pages</td> <td class="tr">1.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">How to Become a Successful Electrician, 189 pp.</td> <td class="tr">1.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Standard Electrical Dictionary, 682 pages</td> <td class="tr">3.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl">Electricity Simplified, 158 pages</td> <td class="tr">1.00</td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> + +<p>The above five books by Prof. Sloane may be purchased singly at the +published prices, or the set complete, put up in a neat folding box, +will be furnished to Scientific American readers at the special +reduced price of <b>Five dollars</b>. You save $2 by ordering the complete +set. <b>Five volumes, 1,300 pages, and over 450 illustrations.</b> +Send for full table of contents of each of the books.</p> + +<p>Our complete book catalogue of 116 pages, containing reference to +works of a scientific and technical character, will be sent free to +any address on application.</p> + +<p><i>We cannot permit the receipt of Sloane's Electrical Library to pass +by without complimenting you upon the same. It is a most admirable +work. Should be in the hands of all those who are interested in +electricity.</i></p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"><i>PHILLIPS, ORMONDE & CO., Engineers.</i><br /> +<i>Melbourne, Victoria.</i></p> + +<p><i>I was highly pleased with the copy of Sloane's Electrical Library, +which arrived in good condition. It is one of the most valuable works +I possess in my library. The use of the Roentgen Rays in my profession +has stimulated my desire for electrical knowledge greatly, and I +consider Sloane's "Electrical Dictionary" a first-class book of +reference. I shall be pleased to recommend it to my colleagues in +search of such a work. Yours truly,</i></p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"><i>P.J. CLENDINNIN, M.D.,</i><br /> +<i>Hon. Medical Electrician to the Melbourne Hospital.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers, New York</b>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"><i>JUST PUBLISHED.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>Second Edition, Revised and much Enlarged.</b></p> + +<h3>Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines</h3> + +<p class="center"><b>By GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E.</b><br /> +<b>The only American Book on the Subject.</b></p> + +<p>This is a book designed for the general information of every one +interested in this new and popular motive power, and its adaptation to +the increasing demand for a cheap and easily managed motor requiring +no licensed engineer.</p> + +<p>The book treats of the theory and practice of Gas, Gasoline and Oil +Engines, as designed and manufactured in the United States. It also +contains chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Electric Lighting, Marine +Propulsion, etc. Second Edition. Illustrated by 270 engravings. +Revised and enlarged.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>LARGE OCTAVO. 365 PAGES. PRICE $2.50.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"><b>CONTENTS.</b></p> + +<p>Chapter I.—Introductory, Historical. Chapter II.—Theory of the Gas +and Gasoline Engine. Chapter III.—Utilization of Heat and Efficiency +in Gas Engines. Chapter IV.—Heat Efficiencies. Chapter V.—Retarded +Combustion and Wall Cooling. Chapter VI.—Causes of Loss and +Inefficiency in Explosive Motors. Chapter VII.—Economy of the Gas +Engine for Electric Lighting. Chapter VIII.—The Material of Power in +Explosive Engines, Gas, Petroleum Products and Acetylene Gas. Chapter +IX.—Carbureters and Vapor Gas for Explosive Motors. Chapter +X.—Cylinder Capacity of Gas and Gasoline Engines, Mufflers on Gas +Engines. Chapter XI—Governors and Valve Gear. Chapter XII.—Igniters +and Exploders, Hot, Tube and Electric. Chapter XIII.—Cylinder +Lubrication. Chapter XIV—On the Management of Explosive Motors. +Chapter XV.—The Measurement of Power by Prony Brakes, Dynamometers +and Indicators, The Measurement of Speed, The Indicator and its Work, +Vibrations of Buildings and Floors by the Running of Explosive Motors. +Chapter XVI.—Explosive Engine Testing. Chapter XVII.—Various Types +of Gas and Oil Engines, Marine and Vehicle Motors.—Chapter +XVIII.—Various Types of Gas and Oil Engines. Marine and Vehicle +Motors—Continued. Chapter XIX—United States Patents on Gas, Gasoline +and Oil Engines and their Adjuncts—1875 to 1897 inclusive—List of +the Manufacturers of Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines in the United +States, with their addresses.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"><b>A Few Extracts of Notices from the Press.</b></p> + +<p>It is a very comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date work.—<i>American +Machinist.</i></p> + +<p>The subjects treated in this book are timely and interesting, as there +is no doubt as to the increasing use of Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines, +particularly for small powers. It gives such general information on +the construction, operation and care of these engines that should +prove valuable to any one in need of such motors, as well as those +already having them in use.—<i>Machinery.</i></p> + +<p><i>What an engineer says</i>:</p> + +<p><i>I beg to acknowledge receipt of your book on Gas, Gasoline and Oil +Engines, by Hiscox, by registered mail. I am highly pleased with the +book. It is the best on Oil Engines I have ever seen, is not intricate +in the calculations, and the illustrations are excellent. Yours +truly,</i></p> + +<p style="text-align: right;"><i>S. DALRYMPLE, Chief-engineer S.S. "Talune."</i><br /> +<i>Melbourne, Victoria.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers</b>,<br /> +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE,<br /> +<b>361 Broadway, New York</b>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>The</h3> +<h2>Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<p class="center"><b>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</b></p> + +<p class="center"><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in +paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES.—One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b><br /> +<b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>SPECIAL NAVAL SUPPLEMENT, No. 1165,</h3> + +<p>contains a historical review of the modern United States navy, the +classification of the various forms of war vessels and nearly one +hundred illustrations, including details of construction of such +vessels not found in any other publication. A map of Cuba printed in +five colors accompanies it. Price, 25 cents. Single copies sent by +mail in United States, Canada and Mexico. Foreign countries, 8 cents +extra.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York</b>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>1897 Supplement Catalogue Ready!</h3> + +<p>The publishers of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN announce that an entirely +new 48 page SUPPLEMENT Catalogue is now ready for distribution, and +will be sent free to all on application.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b><br /> +<b>361 Broadway, New York City</b>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>BUILDING EDITION</h2> + +<p class="center">OF THE</p> + +<h3>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.</h3> + +<p>Those who contemplate building should not fail to subscribe.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>ONLY $2.50 A YEAR</b>.</p> + +<p>Semi-annual bound volumes $2.00 each, yearly bound volumes $3.50 each, +prepaid by mail.</p> + +<p>Each number contains elevations and plans of a variety of country +houses; also a handsome</p> + +<p class="center"><b>COLORED PLATE.</b></p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., 361 Broadway, New York</b>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>PATENTS!</h3> + +<p>MESSRS. 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All business intrusted to them is done with +special care and promptness, on very reasonable terms.</p> + +<p>A pamphlet sent free of charge, on application, containing full +information about Patents and how to procure them; directions +concerning Trade Marks Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals, +Reissues, Infringements, Assignments, Rejected Cases, Hints on the +Sale of Patents, etc.</p> + +<p>We also send, <i>free of charge</i>, a Synopsis of Foreign Patent Laws +showing the cost and method of securing patents in all the principal +countries of the world.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>MUNN & CO., Solicitors of Patents,</b><br /> +361 Broadway, New York.</p> + +<p>BRANCH OFFICES.—No. 625 F Street, Washington. D. 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of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 1178, June 25, 1898 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 27, 2006 [EBook #18265] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stacy Brown, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 1178 + + + + +NEW YORK, JUNE 25, 1898. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XLV., No. 1178. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHAEOLOGY.--Tombs of the First Egyptian Dynasty--By + LUDWIG BORCHARDT 18767 + +II. ANTHROPOLOGY.--The Milestones of Human Progress 18766 + +III. BIOGRAPHY.--The Queen Regent and Alfonzo XIII.--1 + illustration 18755 + +IV. BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE.--Rose Psyche--1 illustration 18768 + +V. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--The Lock of the Dortmund-Ems Canal + at Henrichenburg.--1 illustration 18776 + +VI. ELECTRICITY.--The Development of the Central Station--By + SAMUEL INSULL 18774 + +VII. MARINE ENGINEERING.--Steering Gear of North German + Lloyd Steamers "Coblentz," "Mainz" and "Trier."--2 + illustrations 18777 + +VIII. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--Sleep and the Theories of its + Cause 18768 + +IX. MISCELLANEOUS: + Engineering Notes. 18771 + Electrical Notes. 18771 + Selected Formulae. 18771 + +X. NATURAL HISTORY--Wild and Domestic Sheep in the Berlin + Zoological Garden.--8 illustrations 18772 + +XI. PATENTS.--Patents.--By JAMES W. SEE 18773 + +XII. PHOTOGRAPHY.--Amateur Chronophotographic Apparatus.--2 + illustrations 18769 + +XIII. STEAM ENGINEERING.--Combined Steam Pumping and + Motive Power Engine.--1 illustration 18778 + +XIV. TECHNOLOGY.--The Reclaiming of Old Rubber.--By HAWTHORNE + HILL 18769 + +XV. WARFARE.--The American "Regular."--By the English + correspondent of the London Times on board the United + States transport "Gussie." 18776 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE QUEEN REGENT AND ALFONZO XIII. + + +[Illustration: THE QUEEN REGENT AND HER SON, KING ALFONSO XIII. +OF SPAIN.] + +In the present war between the United States and Spain, the Queen +Regent is an impressive figure, and it is entirely owing to her charm +and fortitude that the present dynasty of Spain is maintained. Since +his earliest youth she has constantly made efforts to fit her son to +wear the crown. The Queen Regent came from the great historic house of +Hapsburg, which has done much to shape the destinies of the world. All +the fortitude that has distinguished its members is represented in +this lady, who is the widow of Alfonzo XII. and the mother of the +present king. Her father was the late Archduke Karl Ferdinand and she +is the cousin of Emperor Franz Joseph. She has had a sad history. Her +husband died before the young king was born, and from the hour of his +birth she has watched and cared for the boy. She is the leader in all +good works in Spain, and her sympathy for the distressed is +proverbial. She gives freely from her private purse wherever there is +need, whether it be for the relief of misery or, as recently, when the +state is in peril. The young king has been carefully educated. By a +curious fate, his birth deposed from the throne his sister Maria de +las Mercedes, who as a little girl was queen for a few months. The boy +has been brought up under the influence of family life and has a warm +affection for his mother and sisters. He has never had the full +delights of childhood, for he has been educated in that false, +punctilious and thoroughly artificial atmosphere of the court of +Spain, in which every care has been taken to fit him for his royal +position. His health is far from robust, though the military education +he has received has done much to strengthen his constitution. He has +been taught to interest himself especially in the naval and military +affairs, and the study of the models of ships and military discipline +has been one of the principal occupations of his childhood. It is the +earnest wish of Spain that he should prove worthy of his mother. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MILESTONES OF HUMAN PROGRESS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A lecture delivered by Prof. Daniel G. Brinton at + the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.] + + +The subject pertains directly to the advancement of the race. Indeed, +it is to the measure of this advancement I shall ask your attention. +There is no doubt about the advancement. There are some people who +believed and believe that man began in a state of high development and +has since then degenerated into his present condition. The belief in +some period of Arcadian simplicity and human perfection is still to be +found in some remote nooks and crannies of the learned world; but +those minds who have been trained in archaeological studies and in +ethnographic observations know well that when we go back to the most +ancient deposits, in which we find any sign of man at all on the +globe, we find also the proofs that man then lived in the rudest +possible condition of savagery. He has, little by little, through long +centuries and millenniums of painful struggle, survived in made his +weapons and his most effective tools for the time being would be a +good criterion to go by, because these weapons and tools enabled him +to conquer not only the wild beasts around him and his fellow man +also, but nature as well. These materials are three in number. They +particularly apply to European archaeology, but, in a general way, to +the archaeology of all continents. The one is stone, which gave man +material for the best cutting edge which he could make for very many +millenniums of his existence. After that, for a comparatively short +period, he availed himself of bronze--of the mixture of copper and tin +called bronze--an admixture giving a considerable degree of hardness +and therefore allowing polish and edge making. The bronze age was not +long anywhere. It was succeeded by that metal which, beyond all +others, has been of signal utility to man--iron. We live in the iron +age, and it is from iron in some of its forms and products that all +our best weapons and materials for implements, etc., are derived. We +have, therefore, the ages of stone, of bronze and of iron. These are +the measures, from an artistic source, of the advancement of human +culture; and they certainly bear a distinct relation to all man's +other conditions at the time. A tribe which had never progressed +beyond the stone age--which had no better material for its weapons and +implements than stone--could never proceed beyond a very limited point +of civilization. Bronze or any metal which can be moulded, hammered +and sharpened of course gives a nation vast superiority over one which +uses stone only; and the value of iron and steel for the same purposes +I need not dwell upon. + +To be sure, we have here several measures; and it would seem more +desirable, if we could, to obtain one single measure--one single +material or object of which we could say that the tribe that uses or +does not use that to an equal degree is certainly lower or, in the +other respects, higher than another; but I believe that there has been +no single material which has been suggested as of sufficient use and +value in this direction to serve as a criterion; but, yes! I remember +there was one and, on the whole, not a bad one. It was suggested by +Baron Liebig, the celebrated chemist, who said: "If you wish a single +material by which to judge of the amount of culture that any nation, +or, for that matter, any individual, possesses, compared to another +one, find out how much soap they use. Nothing," he said, "more than +personal cleanliness and general cleanliness differentiates the +cultured man from the savage;" and as for that purpose he probably had +in view a soap, he recognized that as the one criterion. It is not +amiss, but open, also, to serious objections; because there are tribes +who live in such conditions that they can get neither water nor soap; +and the Arabs, distinctly clean, are not by any means at the highest +pinnacle of civilization. + +The Germans, therefore, as a rule, have sought some other means than +all those above mentioned. Almost all the German writers on +ethnography divide the people and nations of the world into two great +classes--the one they call the "wild peoples," the other the "cultured +peoples"--the "Natur-Voelker" and the "Kultur-Voelker." The +distinction which they draw between these two great classes is largely +psychological. Man, they say, in the condition of the "wild +people"--of the "Natur-Voelker"--is subject to nature; therefore, they +call them "nature people." The "Kultur-Voelker," on the other hand, +have emancipated themselves, in great measure, from the control of +nature. + +Furthermore, the man in the condition of the "wild people" is +in a condition of practically unconscious life: he has not yet +arrived at self-consciousness--he does not know and recognize his +individuality--the "Ego"--"das ich;" that is a discovery which comes +with the "Kultur-Voelker"--with the "cultured people;" and just in +proportion as an individual (or a nation) achieves a completely clear +idea of his own self-existence, his self-consciousness, his +individuality, to that extent he is emancipated from the mere control +of nature around him and rises in the scale of culture. + +Again, to make this difference between the two still more apparent, it +is the conflict between the instinctive desires and the human heart +and soul and the intelligent desires--those desires which we have by +instinct, which we have by heredity and which have been inculcated +into us wholly by our surroundings, which we drink in and accept +without any internal discussion of them: those are instinctive in +character. We go about our business, we transact the daily affairs of +life, we accept our religion and politics, not from any internal +conviction of our own or positive examination, but from our +surroundings. To that extent people are acting instinctively; and, as +such, they are on a lower stage of culture than those who arrive at +such results for themselves through intelligent personal effort. This +is a real distinction also, although somewhat more subtle, perhaps, +than the ones previously given. Therefore, the differentiation made by +the German ethnographers between wild people and the cultured peoples +is, in the main, right; but it does not admit of any sharp line of +distinction between the two. We cannot draw a fixed line and say, "On +this side are the cultured people and on that the wild," because there +are many tribes and nations who are about that line, in some respects +on one side of it, in others on the other; but in a broad, general way +this distinction (which is now universally adopted by the German +writers) is one we should keep in our minds as being based upon +careful studies and real distinctions. + +Usually the writers in the English tongue prefer a different basis +than any of these which I have mentioned; they prefer the basis as to +whence is derived the food supply of a nation, or a tribe; and on the +source of that food supply they divide nations and tribes into the +more or less cultured. In earliest times (and among the rudest tribes +to-day) the food supply is furnished entirely by natural means; there +is little or no agriculture known to speak of; there is nothing in the +way of preserving domestic animals for food; hunting the wild beasts +of the forests and fishing in the streams are the two sources. +Therefore, we call that last condition the hunting and fishing stage +of human development. You will observe that when that prevails there +can be no congregation of men into large bodies. Such a thing as a +city would be unknown. The food supply is eminently precarious. It +depends upon the season and upon a thousand matters not under the +control of man in any way. Moreover, inasmuch as the supply at the +best is uncertain, it allows but a very limited population in a +district; nor does it permit any permanent or stable inhabitations. +The towns, such as they are, must be movable; they must go to one part +of the country in the summer and another in the winter; they must +follow the game and the fruits; and in that condition, therefore, of +unstable life it is not possible for a nation or a tribe to gain any +great advance. You observe, therefore, that when the food supply is +drawn from this source it does entail a general depravity of culture +everywhere. + +Above that would come the food supply which is obtained from other +sources. There is one which is not universal but still widely +extended, and that is the pastoral life. There are many tribes (as, +for instance, in southern Africa and in India and throughout the +steppes of Tartary and elsewhere) who live on their herds and drive +their herds from one pasture to another in order to obtain the best +forage. This nomadic and pastoral life extended very widely over the +old world in ancient times, but existed nowhere in the new world, for +the simple reason that they had no domesticated animals. Our own +remote ancestors--both the Aryans and the Semites--all the early +ancestors of the white race so far as known, were pastoral or nomadic; +and the Aryans of central Europe remained so until after the fall of +Rome, when, for the first time, they became practically sedentary. +This nomadic and pastoral life is a very great advance over the mere +hunting and fishing stage. It requires considerable care and attention +to domesticate the wild animals in any sufficient quantity to form a +reliable source of food. Moreover, the attention which it was +necessary to give to the rearing and training and the looking after +domestic animals was to a certain extent, humanizing. When a man found +that it was necessary to be careful about his animals, he would also +be careful about his neighbors. We would say that the same sense which +enabled him, or directed him, to look after the welfare of the herd +would justify and, in fact, impel him to look after that of man also; +so that the nomadic and pastoral life, although not stable nor +favorable to the development of cities, nor the great extension of +commerce, was nevertheless a decided advance over the ruder hunting +and fishing stage. So far as we know, neither Aryan nor Semite ever +depended upon a hunting and fishing stage. They doubtless did, but not +in the time of any history that we know. The Bedouins, etc., wandering +tribes to-day, and, among the Semitic, the Tuaregs of the Sahara, are +a purely nomadic or pastoral race; yet are very much above the negroes +of the south, who depend upon hunting and fishing. + +Above it, however, and a very great improvement upon it, is the +agricultural stage, where the main source of the food supply is the +harvests. You observe, at once, that that means a sedentary life. When +a man sows corn, he must wait thereabout and tend it and till it and +finally reap it and store it and thrash it and then preserve the grain +and build granaries for it; and it involves, in fact, the remaining in +one place all the whole year; and then the regularity of that life led +very distinctly to making men regular, generally, in their habits. +They wanted to defend their homes--defend these grain fields of +theirs, or starvation would result; therefore, they built towers and +strong-walled cities; and they took great care in the selection of the +best men among them to do the fighting, while others looked after the +crop. We find that agriculture began at a very, very early period in +both continents. In our own continent we cannot tell when agriculture +was first in use--the main crop being the maize, or Indian corn. It +was raised by the more advanced tribes from the extreme north, where +its profitable culture invited, to the extreme south, from about the +northern line of Wisconsin in North America to the latitude of +southern Chile in South--extending, therefore, over some seven to +eight thousand miles of linear distance. + +In the old world (going back to the time of the lake dwellers) we know +they had barley, rye and a species of millet; and later on they were +introduced to oats and wheat and a variety of others. Rice was of the +very earliest of our cereals, in the extreme east of the old world. +Wherever we find a very ancient civilization we also find that it is +intimately connected with some important cereal, and it has been said +that all you have to do is to study botany--the history of botany--and +you will find the history of human culture; and much there is that +could be said for that. + +Fourth, and finally, those who divide human culture according to the +food supply consider that the highest stage is reached through +commerce. Commerce brings to all the great centers of human life the +food essential to their sustenance. It would be absolutely +impossible--obviously so--to have a city like Philadelphia in +existence for a month without constant and ceaseless commerce brought +here the food for its inhabitants. It is quite likely that, were +Philadelphia shut off at once from all connection with the world, +within ten days there would be an absolute famine here--so closely do +we depend upon our commercial supplies for our subsistence. These +supplies are not drawn from any one locality; were we to draw a radius +of five hundred miles around our great city of a million inhabitants, +we should still find that the greater part of our food supply comes +from a wider distance from us than that; and there is no one of us +that will go to his table this evening but will see upon that table +food products drawn from every quarter of the world. Thus it is that +commerce enables man to reach an indefinite degree of consolidation; +and it is through consolidation--through the more and more intimate +relationship, and the closer and closer juxtaposition of man--that his +real benefit and progress may be derived. + +These, therefore, are the four stages of culture, as depending upon +food supply: the hunting and fishing stage, the nomadic or pastoral, +the agricultural and the commercial. These have been generally adopted +by English writers, and they are so adopted to-day; and you will +probably find them in many of the text books. + +The American writers have, in many instances, followed the principles +laid down and defined most clearly by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, a +distinguished ethnologist of the last generation. He divides (or +accepted the division and largely defined it) the progress of man into +a series of stages: beginning at the lowest point with savagery; then +barbarism, semi-civilization, civilization, and fifth, enlightenment. + +I may briefly refer to what he would include in these and the main +criteria which he gives for each of them. He would place the savage +condition as being that of the lowest tribes known to us. They have +little or no agriculture; their commerce is very inchoate and rude: +they have no knowledge of the metals as such; their best weapon is the +bow and arrow, or the throwing stick; and their best tool is the stone +hatchet and the stone spade. This is very much like the lowest +condition of the "wild people" to whom I referred. + +Above that he would place the condition of barbarism. In the stage of +developed barbarism he would place such inventions as, for instance, +pottery, the art of weaving (which is a very primitive art) and the +taming of a certain number of domestic animals, some for food, some +for amusement and hunting, and also the beginnings of the development +of agriculture. A type of such a nation of barbarism would be the +Indians who used to live here--the Algonkian--the Delaware Indians. +When the first Europeans came to the shores of the Delaware River they +did not find absolutely rude savages. The Delaware Indians had +moderately stationary villages surrounded by pickets, the houses being +built of strong timber; they had large fields of maize, pumpkins, +squashes and beans, which they cultivated diligently during the summer +and stored the food for their winter's supply. They depended largely, +to be sure, upon hunting and fishing also; but along with that they +had these simple arts: From the rushes which grew below Philadelphia, +in a place called the "Neck," they used to weave mats for protecting +the floors and also for building the sides of their summer houses and +for sleeping upon. They had a method of tanning and dressing buckskin +and using it for the purposes of clothing. They were by no means naked +savages; they were clothed, and tolerably well clothed; they could +make pottery, and the pottery was decorated sometimes with interesting +designs, of which we have specimens in our cabinets. Therefore, we +find among the old Delaware Indians who formerly lived on the site of +Philadelphia a fair specimen of a nation in a barbarous stage, +decidedly superior to the Australian natives of to-day or the Indians +of the Terra del Fuego or the northern part of British America, who +are in the state of complete savagery. + +Above that is the period of semi-civilization, a stage marked by the +discovery of the method of building stone walls. No Algonkian or +Iroquois Indian ever built a stone wall in his life; there is no +record of any and no signs of any throughout the United States east of +the Mississippi; there was never a stone wall built by a native tribe +that really amounted to anything more than a stone pile; but we do +find that in the southwest, among the cliff dwellers, and in various +parts of Central America and South America, the stone wall was not +only known, but it was constructed with a great deal of durability and +skill. Also, some knowledge of metals was found among most of the +semi-civilized people. The Mexicans and the Peruvians were in a state +of semi-civilization when they were discovered by the whites the first +time. They, built many extensive temples and houses, erected +frequently upon pyramids, the pyramids themselves being supported by +stone walls. They knew the dressing of stone; they were distinctly +agricultural and depended more on that than anything else for their +food supply. They had developed a system of mnemonic records which, in +the Yucatan culture, might be called picture writing, but was not +phonetic writing in our true sense of the term. The also knew +something about weighing and measuring. They had definite laws, laws +which were carried out by properly appointed individuals. Their towns +and cities would often number thousands of inhabitants; they had roads +connecting them, which roads were kept in good condition; they had a +regular army made up of men selected and trained for that purpose. In +all these respects we see nations who were semi-civilized, but they +were not yet civilized. We could call a nation civilized that had a +distinct system of phonetic writing and used it; but not all nations +having this are civilized. It is only when it is used freely and for +purposes of business that we can call them civilized. + +The wild Tuaregs of the Sahara have a system of phonetic writing used +by a few of them--the women being the literati of those tribes (the +men not knowing how to read or write); but civilization means more +than this; it means the use of iron weapons and tools; it means also +the adoption of a definite currency which is established on a fixed +basis and recognized throughout the community; it means the +establishment of commercial lines--a progress distinct above that +which is the mere barter of the lower conditions of savagery and +barbarism. In all these respects we see that civilization means a type +about such as we enjoy at present. It is such as has existed in Europe +since the Renaissance; because during the middle ages we could only +say that Europe was in a semi-civilized condition. They knew something +about writing; but at a time when Dean, the writer of the early +history of England, said that throughout the whole of England there +were not half a dozen men who could read what he had written, you can +see that writing was a very unimportant part of the culture of that +nation; so it can only be when writing becomes a common possession of +the majority that we can call it an element of civilization. + +It is not to be supposed that we ourselves have reached the type of +the highest culture. We leave something for our descendants to do. We +do not wish to relieve them of the privilege of being better than +ourselves; and we shall leave them, probably, plenty of room; because +it is supposed that the stage of enlightenment which is the highest +stage of culture--which we foresee, but do not see--that that rather +applies to the future than to ourselves. That period will come when +mankind has freed itself very much more than now from the bonds of +nature and the environment of society. It will come when the ideas of +our equality are much more perfect than they are now; when that +equality extends to the equality of women with men before the law and +in all rights; when it comes to the equality of all men of all castes +before the law and the equal opportunity of all men to obtain that +which is best in the life of all. We are very far from that yet. It +will come also when the idea of international legislation is such that +it will not be necessary, in order to cure great evils, that we should +have recourse to weapons of any material whatsoever; that time is not +yet come; and so we have much that is left for our descendants to work +out in this direction. + +It would, however, appear that all these various criteria which I have +named are somewhat unsatisfactory. They do not, it appears to me, +quite touch the question at issue. They are in a measure external +measures altogether--even that somewhat psychological one which I +quoted from the German authorities. Were I to propose a criterion, or +a series of criteria, of culture which could be applied to all +nations, it would be that which might as well and easily be applied to +each individual; and when we come to apply it in that manner it is +much more easy to understand its bearing. Herbert Spencer, in defining +what he means by culture, says: "It means the knowledge of one thing +thoroughly and a knowledge of the groundwork of all other branches of +human knowledge." He claimed that we can only understand one thing +thoroughly; but that we could and ought to understand the general +outline of all other things which are studied by mankind. This is +somewhat defective, it appears, because it bases culture entirely from +an intellectual point of view; and if man were merely a walking +intellectual machine, it would be well enough; but he is not; for the +intellectual man is but a small portion of his life. We are engaged, +most of our time, in something which is very far from purely +intellectual action. We are governed distinctly by our emotions and +our feelings--our sentiments; and culture must touch them, or it is +vague and empty. Therefore it is that I would say that we should think +with Goethe--to whom we must often recur for an insight into the +profoundest trends of human nature--must recur to him; and we find +that he lays down the principle of culture in the individual to be "A +general sympathy with all the highest ideas which have governed and +are governing the human mind." He said: "We should keep ourselves +first (each man and woman should keep himself and herself) in touch +with the highest elements of his and her own nature." He said, "It is +not so difficult, if we give but a little time to it--provided we give +that time regularly. We must remember," he says, "to cultivate our +intellect by some study, every day and our sense of the beautiful by +looking at something which is beautiful; and there is much around us +which costs us nothing to look at were we to observe it--the cloud, +the sunlight, the tree, the flower, a butterfly--anything of that kind +studied for a few minutes each day would continue to develop in man's +mind the sense of the beautiful. We should also appreciate carefully +our actions and govern them and measure them, as to whether they are +just to others--a matter which a very few minutes a day will probably +enable us to do;" and so also he would go further and seek to find, in +the idea of truth itself, as to what we ought and ought not to +believe--trying to discover some one test of truth which we can apply. + +Indeed, we may therefore formulate and apply to nations at large what +Goethe has there suggested; and we shall find it can be arranged in +what I may call a pentatonic scale of culture. You may be aware that +all musical scales of all savage and barbarous and primitive tribes +are not in the octave, as ours, but in five notes only; they all have +one musical scale only, and that is a pentatonic scale; and it is +perhaps because they feel that their own minds are based upon some +such arrangement as that (although that is an idea which I do not +subscribe to, but only suggest); but when we come to look over the +whole cycle of culture, as we find it described in the histories of +culture--in the histories of civilization--we find that they are all +efforts to develop one or the other, or several, of five primary ideas +which are in the mind of every human being; and when they are +developed, then culture is perfect, either in the individual or in the +nation or the race. These five primitive ideas, innate in every human +soul, are the ideas of the useful, of the beautiful, of the just, of +the good and of the true, and you will not find any savage (provided +he is not deficient in the ordinary mental ability of his tribe) who +does not indicate an appreciation of every one of these in his own +way. It is the idea of the useful which teaches him his utilitarian +arts; which teaches him to build his house; to chip the flint for his +weapon; to sharpen the stick to dig the place to drop the seed; and +all those we call the arts of utility, the useful arts; and yet you +will not find a savage tribe to-day but what goes somewhat above this; +because among them all they make also an effort that these tools and +weapons of theirs shall have some sign about them of the beautiful; +and you will find decoration--indeed, "the painted savage" is a name +we give to the lowest order of humanity; yet this same paint is to +make himself beautiful; and so it is throughout all his games and +amusements in life--you will find he is constantly striving at the +idea of decoration--at the idea of beauty; little by little he +develops this, until it becomes, in some nations, the joy of their +existence and the lesson of the race, as in the ancient Greeks; as in +the Italians of the time of the Renaissance. These are what we call +the aesthetic emotions, based upon an innate sense and love of the +beautiful: and we may also turn to the lowest savage--we shall not +find him deficient in justice; on the contrary, among the rudest +Australians, without shelter or clothing, you will find that the law +of the tribe is well defined and also implacable; and a man who has +sinned knows that he must meet it or flee; he knows that there is no +avail or recourse beyond the tribal council, and he knows what they +will decide in his particular case, because he knows the law and the +penalty of its infringement. And this rude notion of justice develops, +little by little, into the great edifice of jurisprudence, the law of +nation and the law of nations. Thus we find that the idea of the just, +and of what is right from man to man, is something which is found +everywhere; and as that develops culture develops; but the mere just +alone does not satisfy the human heart; the man who merely metes out +to his fellow that which the tribal law, or the law of the land, +requires of him, certainly is not up to the ideal of any man or woman +in this assembly or in this city. + +There is something beyond that, and what is that? We find that it +rests in the idea of the good--that which is often brought forward in +the beautiful forms of religion, which tells man that above justice +there is something greater and nobler than mere ethics or +morality--the mere right and wrong--the mere giving what is due. It is +not enough to do that; there must be a giving of more than is due; +because the idea of the good transcends the present life--it passes +into the future life of the species; and it is only through going +above what is needed to-day that we may endow our posterity with +something greater than we ourselves possess. It is the idea of the +good, therefore, which lifts that which is merely just into a +higher--into, I might say, an immortal sphere of activity. It has +always had an intense attraction for noble souls, which history shows +us; and it is not to be supposed that that attraction will ever +diminish; it will ever increase, although its forms may change; and +finally, along with this betterment of the emotions, and of the sense +of justice--of right and of ethics and of aesthetics--we find the +constant effort and desire of all mankind, in all stages of culture, +to find out what is true, as distinct from that which is not true. You +will not be mistaken if you seek for this in the soul of the rudest +savage; he, too, likes to know the truth. The methods by which he +arrives at it, or seeks to arrive at it, are widely different from +those which you have been taught. Nevertheless, the logical force of +his mind; the methods of thought that he has; the laws that govern his +intelligence, are exactly the same as yours: and it is only with your +enlightenment you have gained more and more acquaintance with the +methods. You know something about the great discovery which has +advanced all modern science from its mediaeval condition to that of the +present--of the application of the inductive system of science and +thought; and you know that it is by constant and close mathematical +study of analogy--of probability--that we exclude error little by +little from our observations--we improve more and more our instruments +of precision--we count out the errors of our observation; and we are +constantly seeking those laws which are not transient and ephemeral +only, but which are eternal and immortal. Upon those laws, finally, +must rest all our real, certain knowledge; and it is the endeavor of +the anthropologist to apply those laws to man and his development; and +such, indeed, is the recognized and highest mission of that science. +We thus find that the idea of truth is at the summit of this scale +which I have placed before you--not separated from it. It interprets +every one of the ideas and justifies them and qualifies them and lifts +them up into their highest usefulness. Chevalier Bunsen, in describing +what he thought would be the highest condition of human enlightenment, +said, "It will be when the good will be the true and the true will be +the good;" and he might have extended that further and said, when both +those ideas were the inspiring motives of all these five great ideas +which I have stated are at the basis of the culture of every +individual and are also at the basis of the culture of the race and of +the nation. + +This, therefore, will serve as a sketch of the milestones of human +progress. The way has been long and painful; the results have been far +from satisfactory; and yet they have been enormous and wonderful, when +we compare them now with what our ancestors were when history began. +We can conclude, however, from looking back on this thorny and upward +path, that it is still going to ascend; we do not know it for certain; +progress may cease, through some unknown law, now and here; but if +there is anything that we can derive from the lesson of the past--if +we can project into the future any of the facts which history shows us +are our own now--it guides us forward to a firm belief that the +hereafter will have in its breast greater treasures for humanity, +greater glories for posterity, than any that we know or can +understand. + + * * * * * + + + + +TOMBS OF THE FIRST EGYPTIAN DYNASTY.[1] + + [Footnote 1: The Independent.] + +By LUDWIG BORCHARDT, Ph.D., Director of the German School in +Cairo. + + +For many years various European collections of Egyptian antiquities +have contained a certain series of objects which gave archaeologists +great difficulty. There were vases of a peculiar form and color, +greenish plates of slate, many of them in curious animal forms, and +other similar things. It was known, positively, that these objects had +been found in Egypt, but it was impossible to assign them a place in +the known periods of Egyptian art. The puzzle was increased in +difficulty by certain plates of slate with hunting and battle scenes +and other representations in relief in a style so strange that many +investigators considered them products of the art of Western Asia. + +The first light was thrown on the question in the winter of 1894-95 by +the excavations of Flinders Petrie in Ballas and Neggadeh, two places +on the west bank of the Nile, a little below ancient Thebes. This +persevering English investigator discovered here a very large +necropolis in which he examined about three thousand graves. They all +contained the same kinds of pottery and the same slate tablets +mentioned above, and many other objects which did not seem to be +Egyptian. It was plain that the newly found necropolis and the +puzzling objects already in the museums belonged to the same period. +Petrie assumed that they represented the art of a foreign +people--perhaps the Libyans--who had temporarily resided in Egypt in +the time between the old and the middle kingdoms. He gave this unknown +people the name "New Race." But his theory met with little approval, +least of all from German Egyptologists; and even at that time, an +opinion was expressed that this unusual art belonged before the known +beginning of Egyptian culture. However, in spite of much discussion, +the question could not then be decided. + +About the same time another riddle was presented to Egyptologists by +the results of the excavations made in Abydos by the French scholar +Amelineau; and another hot discussion was raised. Amelineau had +excavated several large tombs and had also found objects which could +not be arranged in the known development of Egyptian art. The +fortunate discoverer ascribed these to the dynasties of the demigods, +who, according to Egyptian tradition, reigned before the kings; but of +course this idea met with determined opposition, and indeed especially +among his French colleagues. The tomb of Abydos offered, however, on +quiet consideration, more material for establishing its date than +those of Ballas and Neggadeh. In Abydos a number of inscriptions had +been found which, rude as they were, showed that the people buried in +the tombs had known the hieroglyphic system of writing. The occurrence +of so-called "Horus names" in these inscriptions was especially +important. For every old Egyptian king had a long list of names and +titles, and among them a name surmounted by the picture of a hawk +(i.e., Horus), and called on that account the "Horus name." As the +name is, at the same time, written on a sort of standard, it is also +called the "Banner name." Such "Horus" or "Banner names" occur, then, +on the objects found by Amelineau. Accidentally, one of these names +occurs, also, on a statue in the Grizeh Museum which, according to its +style, is one of the oldest statues which the museum possesses. Thus +it became evident that the Abydos objects were, in any case, to be +placed in the earliest period of Egyptian history. + +The discussion stood thus when, in the spring of 1897, the fortunate +hand of De Morgan, the former Directeur-general des Services des +antiquites egyptiennes, succeeded by renewed excavations in Neggadeh +in furnishing the connections between the objects found by Petrie in +Ballas and Neggadeh and those found by Amelineau in Abydos. He +discovered, not far from the necropolis, excavated by Petrie, the tomb +of a king which, on the one hand, contained pottery and tablets like +those found by Petrie, and on the other, objects entirely like those +found by Amelineau. Thus it was proved that both Petrie's tombs and +those of Amelineau belonged to the same period, and, indeed, the +oldest period, of Egyptian history, before the third dynasty. They +were older than the most ancient objects which we had thought that we +possessed. But it was still impossible to date them exactly. + +At this point, an epoch-making discovery of Dr. Sethe, privat-docent +at the University of Berlin, placed the whole matter at a single +stroke on a comparatively sure foundation. He pointed out that the +inscriptions on a few unassuming potsherds from Abydos contained not +only Banner names of old kings, but also their ordinary names. These +names were not inclosed, as later, in cartouches, and even contained +many unusual spellings; but they were still too clear to be +misunderstood. Sethe succeeded in identifying the names of the fifth, +the sixth and the seventh kings of the first Manethonian dynasty, +called by the Greek authors Usaphais, Miebais and Semempses. Thus it +became extremely probable that all these newly discovered objects were +from the first dynasty, but still not absolutely certain; for the +three names occurred only on fragments of vases, and absolutely +nothing was known of how these fragments were found. The proof that +they belonged to the other objects was wanting. A very skeptical +investigator might still have said that the other objects were older, +that the potsherds had only fallen accidentally into ruined tombs of +an older period; or he might have said quite the contrary, that the +potsherds were older than the tombs. + +At this point occurred the possibility of finding a solution of the +question in the objects found in the royal tomb of Neggadeh. For the +report of the excavations at Neggadeh was more exact than that of the +excavations at Abydos; and the whole contents of the tomb of Neggadeh +had been kept together and preserved in a separate room in the Grizeh +Museum. The possibility became a reality. One of the principal objects +of this royal tomb was found to bear the ordinary as well as the Horus +name of the king--a fact which had escaped the fortunate discoverer. +The object is a small ivory plate with incised representations of +funerary offerings before the king. Animals are being sacrificed to +him; jars full of beer and other things are being offered. The figure +of the king, in front of a hanging mat, is not preserved; but the +upper corner still remains with the two names, which were written +above the figure. First, there is the same Horus name which occurs on +all the inscribed objects of this tomb and which may be translated +"The Warrior." Beside the Horus name in a sort of cartouche is the +title "Lord of Vulture and Serpent Crown" (Lord of Upper and Lower +Egypt), and beneath the title the sign which represents a +checkerboard, and has the syllabic value Mn. There can therefore be no +doubt that the king buried in the royal tomb of Neggadeh, of whom we +had only known the Horus name "The Warrior," had also the name Mn. +Now, there is no other known Egyptian king who could be identified +with this name Mn than the first king of the first Manethonian +dynasty, called Menes by the Greeks. It is impossible here to go into +the philological basis of the identification of Mn and Menes. The +final conclusion is this: In Neggadeh, we have before us the tomb of +the oldest king of whom the Egyptians had preserved any memory, and +whom they considered the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. + +In consideration of the importance of the questions involved, a short +description of the tomb of Menes and of the objects found in it will +certainly be of interest. The second part of De Morgan's book, +"Recherche sur les origines de l'Egypte," which has just appeared, +furnishes us with the facts concerning the tomb, and the objects found +in the tomb I will describe from the originals in the Gizeh Museum. + +The tomb consists of a large building, standing alone, measuring 54 X +27 m. (about 100 X 50 Egyptian ells), and built of burned brick. The +outside walls were ornamented, as was usual in later Egyptian +buildings, with pilasters composed of groups of smaller rectangular +pilasters. It is the same motive so often to be observed in the sham +doors in tombs of the old kingdom, and is really the most natural +facade ornamentation for brick buildings, as it may be made by simply +setting every alternate column of bricks forward or backward. The +walls were, in addition, plastered. Back of the thick outside wall on +each side lay a row of narrow rectangular rooms, formed by dividing a +corridor by means of cross walls. Inside this surrounding row of rooms +was the real tomb, a building with thick walls and five rooms in a +row. The middle one of these rooms, noticeably larger than the others, +is the real burial chamber. These five rooms were originally connected +by doors which were afterward walled up. As to the roof, we can only +make surmises, as the excavator has furnished us with no material on +this point. The walls as they now stand are at the highest point about +four meters high, and thus may form only the lower part of the +building. Whether the roof was an arch of stone or simply of wood, is +uncertain; but it seems to me probable that it was of wood. For the +tomb contained a layer of ashes in which all the objects put in the +grave with the dead man were found; and, assuming that the roof was of +wood, it is possible that the roof was set on fire at the time when +the tomb was robbed and that the ashes came from this fire. The +explanation which the excavator gives of these ashes, that the body +and the offerings were burned in the closed grave, hardly deserves +consideration. In any case, the grave has been robbed and destroyed. +That is shown by the fact that many pieces of funeral furniture, which +originally could only have been put in the central rooms, were found +partly broken in the outside rooms, or on the side toward the fields, +the side most exposed to the attack of grave robbers. + +The assumption that the grave has been robbed and intentionally +destroyed agrees entirely with the fact that all the more valuable +objects found in the grave were in fragments. But, fragmentary as they +are, they are sufficient to give us a good idea of the art of the +first period of the Egyptian kingdom, a period which is now most +generally estimated to be five and a half millenniums before the +present day (3600 B.C.) The skill with which ivory carving was done in +that early time is indeed amazing. Reclining lions, hunting dogs and +fish are so skillfully reproduced that one asks how many centuries of +development must have preceded before the art of carving reached this +perfection. A number of feet taken from the legs of small chairs and +other similar furniture, and made in imitation of bulls' legs, show +such a fixity of style and at the same time such a freedom of +execution, that no archaeologist, without the report of the excavator, +would dare to proclaim them the oldest dated works of Egyptian art. +But it was not only in carving ivory, which is easy to work, that the +Egyptian artists showed their skill. They also make bowls and vases of +diorite and porphyry with the same success; and the forms presented by +the smaller ivory vases are also to be found in vases made of those +refractory stones. Further, the vases made of stone present not merely +such forms as might be made by turning or boring, but there are also +bowls with ribs which are as finely polished as the turned bowls. The +hardest material used in the objects already found is rock crystal, of +which several small flasks and bowls and a little lion are composed. +But the lion, it must be confessed, is rather rudely worked. A few +small vases of obsidian also occur--remarkable in view of the fact +that we do not know of any place in or near Egypt where this stone may +be found. Besides these vessels of hard stone, there are, of course, a +large number made of softer stone. Alabaster vases occur in every +conceivable form. Cylindrical pots, with wavy handles or simple +cordlike ornamentation, appear to have been especially favored. The +great beer jars, closed with enormous stoppers of unbaked clay, were +made of ordinary baked clay. Of course the different stone and clay +vessels, which, undoubtedly, originally contained offerings for the +dead, form the bulk of the contents of the grave. The slate tablets +for rubbing cosmetics for painting the body, and the flint weapons and +knives of all sorts, follow in point of numbers. Remarkably enough, +metal objects occur in this oldest historical period alongside the +stone implements, though, of course, in less numbers. Several objects +made of copper and a slender bead of gold have been found. Such, in +short, is all that remains of the things put in the tomb with the +king. But little as there is, it gives us an idea of the richness and +splendor with which these old royal tombs were furnished. + +It might certainly be productive of unusual emotions to know that the +few human bones found in the tomb, and now preserved in the Gizeh +Museum, once belonged to the oldest Egyptian king. But as we know +almost nothing of him, except some unfounded traditions, this sort of +relic worship deserves very little respect. The scientific value of +the proof that Menes was the king buried in the royal tomb of Neggadeh +lies rather in the fact that we have now settled the question of the +age of that culture which was presented to us by the excavations of +Ballas, Neggadeh and Abydos. The products of a whole period of +Egyptian civilization which had been misunderstood, and had been +used to support false historical conclusions, fall into their true +place; and our knowledge of the history of Egyptian culture is +carried back not merely a few centuries, but to a period presenting +characteristics different from the oldest previously known period, but +containing the germs of the later development. + +Cairo, Egypt. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROSE PSYCHE. + + +The hybrid Polyantha Rose Psyche is a seedling from the dwarf +Polyantha Rose Golden Fairy, crossed with the pollen of the Crimson +Rambler. Its growth and habit, though more delicate, much resembles +the Rambler. It is apparently quite hardy, and is very free flowering, +but we fear not perpetual. The flowers are produced in clusters of +from fifteen to twenty-five, and are 2 to 21/2 inches across when +fully expanded. In the bud stage they are very pretty and well formed. +The color is white, suffused with salmon-rose and pink, with a yellow +base to the petals. It is a real companion to Crimson Rambler.--The +Gardeners' Chronicle. + +[Illustration: ROSE HYBRID POLYANTHA "PSYCHE"--COLOR, PALE PINK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +SLEEP AND THE THEORIES OF ITS CAUSE. + + +The theory of the origin of sleep which has gained the widest credence +is the one that attributes it to anaemia of the brain. It has been +shown by Mosso, and many others, that in men with defects of the +cranial wall the volume of the brain decreases during sleep. At the +same time, the volume of any limb increases as the peripheral parts of +the body become turgid with blood. In dogs, the brain has been +exposed, and the cortex of that organ has been observed to become +anaemic during sleep. It is a matter of ordinary observation that in +infants, during sleep, the volume of the brain becomes less, since the +fontanelle is found to sink in. It has been supposed, but without +sufficient evidence to justify the supposition, that this anaemia of +the brain is the cause and not the sequence of sleep. The idea behind +this supposition has been that, as the day draws to an end, the +circulatory mechanism becomes fatigued, the vasomotor center +exhausted, the tone of the blood vessels deficient, and the energy of +the heart diminished, and the circulation to the cerebral arteries +lessened. By means of a simple and accurate instrument (the +Hill-Barnard sphygmometer), with which the pressure in the arteries of +man can be easily reckoned, it has been recently determined that the +arterial pressure falls just as greatly during bodily rest as during +sleep. The ordinary pressure of the blood in the arteries of young and +healthy men averages 110-120 mm. of mercury. In sleep, the pressure +may sink to 95-100 mm.; but if the pressure be taken of the same +subject lying in bed, and quietly engaged on mental work, it will be +found to be no higher. By mental strain or muscular effort, the +pressure is, however, immediately raised, and may then reach 130-140 +mm. of mercury. It can be seen from considering these facts that the +fall of pressure is concomitant with rest, rather than with sleep. As, +moreover, it has been determined on strong evidence that the cerebral +vessels are not supplied with vasomotor nerves, and that the cerebral +circulation passively follows every change in the arterial pressure, +it becomes evident that sleep cannot be occasioned by any active +change in the cerebral vessels. This conclusion is borne out by the +fact that to produce in the dog a condition of coma like to sleep, it +is necessary to reduce, by a very great amount, the cerebral +circulation. Thus, both carotids and both vertebral arteries, can be +frequently tied at one and the same time without either producing coma +or any very marked symptoms. The circulation is, in such a case, +maintained through other channels, such as branches from the superior +intercostal arteries which enter the anterior spinal artery. While +total anaemia of the brain instantaneously abolishes consciousness, +partial anaemia is found to raise the excitability of the cortex +cerebri. By estimation of the exchange of gases in the blood which +enters and leaves the brain, it has been shown that the consumption of +oxygen and the production of carbonic acid in that organ is not large. +Further, it may be noted that the condition of anaesthesia is not in +all cases associated with cerebral anaemia. Thus, while during +chloroform anaesthesia the arterial pressure markedly falls, such is +not the case during anaesthesia produced by ether or a mixture of +nitrous oxide and oxygen. + +The arterial pressure of man is not lowered by the ordinary fatigue of +daily life. It is only in extreme states of exhaustion that the +pressure may be found decreased when the subject is in the standing +position. The fall of pressure which does occur during rest or sleep +is mainly occasioned by the diminished rate of the heart. The increase +in the volume of the limbs is to be ascribed to the cessation of +muscular movement and to the diminution in the amplitude of +respiration. The duty of the heart is to deliver the blood to the +capillaries. From the veins the blood is, for the most part, returned +to the heart by the compressive action of the muscles, the constant +change of posture and by the respiration acting both as a force and +suction pump. All of these factors are at their maximum during bodily +activity and at their minimum during rest. On exciting a sleeper by +calling his name, or in any way disturbing him, the limbs, it has been +recorded, decrease in volume while the brain expands. This is so +because the respiration changes in depth, the heart quickens, the +muscles alter in tone, as the subject stirs in his sleep in reflex +response to external stimuli. Considering all these facts, we must +regard the fall of arterial pressure, the depression of the +fontanelle, and the turgescence of the vessels of the limbs as +phenomena concomitant with bodily rest and warmth, and we have no more +right to assign the causation of sleep to cerebral anaemia than to any +other alteration in the functions of the body, such as occur during +sleep. + +We may well here summarize these other changes in function: + +(1) The respiratory movement becomes shallow and thoracic in type. + +(2) The volume of the air inspired per minute is lessened by one-half +to two-thirds. + +(3) The output of carbonic acid is diminished by the same amount. + +(4) The bodily temperature falls. + +(5) The acidity of the cortex of the brain disappears. + +(6) Reflex action persists; the knee jerk is diminished, pointing to +relaxation in tone of the muscles; consciousness is suspended. + +Analyzing more closely the conditions of the central nervous system, +it becomes evident that, in sleep, consciousness alone is in abeyance. +The nerves and the special senses continue to transmit impulses and to +produce reflex movements. If a blanket, sufficiently heavy to impede +respiration, be placed upon the face of a sleeping person, we know +that it will be immediately pushed away. More than this, complicated +movements can be carried out; the postilion can sleep on horseback; +the punkah-wallah may work his punkah and at the same time enjoy a +slumber; a weary mother may sleep, and yet automatically rock her +infant's cradle. Turning to the histories of sleep walkers, we find it +recorded that, during sleep, they perform such feats as climbing +slanting roofs or walking across dangerous narrow ledges and bridges. +The writer knew of the case of a lad who, when locked in his room at +night to prevent his wandering in his sleep, climbed a partition eight +to ten feet in height which separated his sleeping compartment from +the next, and this without waking. + +The brain can carry out not only such complicated acts as these, but +it has been found to maintain during sleep its normal inhibitory +control over the lower reflex centers in the spinal cord. + +Thus, in sleeping dogs, after the spinal cord has been divided in the +dorsal region, reflexes can be more easily evoked from the lumbar than +from the cervical cord, because the former is freed from the +inhibitory control of the brain. + +The strength of stimulus necessary to pass the threshold of +consciousness and to produce an awakening has been measured in various +ways. It has been determined that it takes a louder and louder sound +or a stronger and stronger electric shock to arouse a sleeper during +the first two or three hours of slumber; after that period, the sleep +becomes lighter and the required stimulus need be much less. + +The alternative theories which have been suggested to account for the +onset of sleep may be classed as chemical and histological. + +In relation to the first, it has been suggested that if consciousness +be regarded as dependent upon a certain rate of atomic vibration, it +is possible that this rate depends on a store of intramolecular +oxygen, which, owing to fatigue, may become exhausted; or it may be +supposed that alkaloidal substances may collect as fatigue products +within the brain, and choke the activity of that organ. Against this +theory may be submitted the facts that monotony of stimulus will +produce sleep in an unfatigued person, that over-fatigue, either +mental or bodily, will hinder the onset of sleep, that the cessation +of external stimuli by itself produces sleep. As an example of this +last, may be quoted the case recorded by Strumpel of a patient who was +completely anaesthetic save for one eye and one ear, and who fell +asleep when these were closed. Moreover, many men possess the power, +by an effort of will, of withdrawing from objective or subjective +stimuli, and of thus inducing sleep. + +The histological theories of sleep are founded on recent extraordinary +advances in the knowledge of the minute anatomy of the central nervous +system, a knowledge founded on the Golgi and methylene blue methods of +staining. It is held possible that the dendrites or branching +processes of nerve cells are contractile, and that they, by pulling +themselves apart, break the association pathways which are formed by +the interlacing or synapses of the dendrites in the brain. Ramon y +Cajal, on the other hand, believes that the neuroglia cells are +contractile, and may expand so as to interpose their branches as +insulating material between the synapses formed by the dendrites of +the nerve cells. The difficulty of accepting these theories is that +nobody can locate consciousness to any particular group of nerve +cells. Moreover, the anatomical evidence of such changes taking place +is at present of the flimsiest character. + +If these theories be true, what, it may be asked, is the agency that +causes the dendrites to contract or the neuroglia cells to expand? Is +there really a soul sitting aloof in the pineal gland, as Descartes +held? When a man like Lord Brougham can at any moment shut himself +away from the outer world and fall asleep, does his soul break the +dendritic contacts between cell and cell; and when he awakes, does it +make contacts and switch the impulses evoked by sense stimuli on to +one or other tract of the axons, or axis cylinder processes, which +form the association pathways? Such a hypothesis is no explanation; it +simply puts back the whole question a step further, and leaves it +wrapped in mystery. It cannot be fatigue that produces the +hypothetical interruptions of the dendritic synapses and then induces +sleep, for sleep can follow after fatigue of a very limited kind. A +man may sleep equally well after a day spent in scientific research as +after one spent in mountain climbing, or after another passed in +idling by the seashore. He may spend a whole day engaged in +mathematical calculation or in painting a landscape. He fatigues--if +we admit the localization of function to definite parts of the +brain--but one set of association tracts, but one group of cells, and +yet, when he falls asleep, consciousness is not partially, but totally +suspended. + +We must admit that the withdrawal of stimuli, or their monotonous +repetition, are factors which do undoubtedly stand out as primary +causes of sleep. We may suppose, if we like, that consciousness +depends upon a certain rate of vibration which takes place in the +brain structure. This vibration is maintained by the stimuli of the +present, which awaken memories of former stimuli, and are themselves +at the same time modified by these. By each impulse streaming into the +brain from the sense organs, we can imagine the structure of the +cerebral cortex to be more or less permanently altered. The impulses +of the present, as they sweep through the association pathways, arouse +memories of the past; but in what way this is brought about is outside +the range of explanation. Perhaps an impulse vibrating at a certain +rate may arouse cells or fibrils tuned by past stimuli to respond to +this particular rate of vibration. Thus may be evoked a chain of +memories, while by an impulse of a different rate quite another set of +memories may be started. Tracts of association are probably formed in +definite lines through the nervous system, as during the life of a +child repeated waves of sense impulses beat against and overcome +resistances, and make smooth pathways here and there through the brain +structure. Thus may be produced growth of axons in certain directions, +and synapses of this cell with that. If the same stimulus be often +repeated, the synapses between groups of cells may become permanent. A +memory, a definite line of action which is manifested by a certain +muscular response, may thus become structurally fixed. If the stimulus +be not repeated, the synapses may be but temporary, and the memory +fade as the group of cells is occupied by a new memory of some more +potent sense stimulus. Many association tracts and synapses are laid +down in the central nervous system when the child is born. These are +the fruits of inheritance, and by their means, we may suppose, +instinctive reflex actions are carried out. + +So long as the present stimuli are controlled by past memories and are +active in recalling them, so long does consciousness exist, and the +higher will be the consciousness, the greater the number and the more +intense the character of the memories aroused. We may suppose that +when all external stimuli are withdrawn, or the brain soothed by +monotony of gentle repetition, and when the body is placed at rest, +and the viscera are normal and give rise to no disturbing sensations, +consciousness is then suspended, and natural sleep ensues. Either +local fatigue of the muscles, or of the heart, or ennui, or exhaustion +of some brain center usually leads us to seek those conditions in +which sleep comes. The whole organism may sleep for the sake of the +part. To avoid sleeplessness, we seek monotony of stimulus, either +objective or subjective. In the latter case, we dwell on some +monotonous memory picture, such as sheep passing one by one through a +gap in the hedge. To obtain our object, we dismiss painful or exciting +thoughts, keep the viscera in health, so that they may not force +themselves upon our attention, and render the sense organs quiet by +seeking darkness, silence and warmth.--L.H., in Nature. + + * * * * * + + + + +AMATEUR CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS. + + +At the time that we described the Demeny chronophotographic apparatus +we remarked that it had the advantage of permitting of the projection +of very luminous images of large dimensions; but it is certain that +the cases are somewhat limited in which there is any need of using a +screen 24 or 25 feet square, and, as a general thing, one 6 or 10 feet +square suffices. The manufacturer of the apparatus, M. Gaumont, has, +therefore, been led to construct a small size in which the bands have +the dimensions usually employed in the French and other apparatus, +thus permitting of the use of such as are now found in abundance in +the market. + +By reducing the size, it has been possible further to simplify the +construction, and at the same time to reduce the price, thus making of +the new form a genuine amateur apparatus. + +It will be remembered that the Demeny principle consists especially in +the avoiding of traction upon the perforated part of the band, which +is the portion that always presents the most fragility. This principle +has naturally been preserved in the small model, and a preservation of +the bands for a long time is thus assured. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENSITIZED BAND IN TWO +MAGAZINES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2--ARRANGEMENT FOR TAKING VIEWS WITH SPECIAL +GEARING FOR THE WINDING OF THE BAND.] + +The apparatus is reversible, and may be used for making negatives as +well as for projecting positives. In its new form it is easily +transportable and is no more bulky than an ordinary 5 by 7 inch +apparatus. Nothing is simpler then than to carry it on a journey, if +one desires to make his own negative bands. Since the sensitized film +has to be protected against the light during its entire travel, two +magazines have been arranged (Fig. 1). One of these, A, which is fixed +upon the top of the camera, contains the clean film, while the other, +B, which is placed beneath the objective, receives the strip after it +has been acted upon by the light. A train of toothed wheels, C (Fig. +2), actuates the roller of this second magazine. This arrangement may, +moreover, be utilized also when projections are made, if one does not +desire the band to float in measure as it unwinds behind the +objective. As the upper magazine is entirely closed when it is placed +upon the apparatus, it is necessary, in order to prepare for taking a +negative, to pull out a few inches of the film, pass the latter over +the guide roller and fix the extremity to the winding roller in the +lower magazine. + +It is clear that we can have any number of magazines whatever for +carrying about, all charged, just as one carries the frames of his +ordinary camera. + +Chronophotography presents no more difficulty than ordinary +photography as regards the taking of negatives, and the amateur who +has not the proper facilities for developing and printing the latter +can have these operations performed by a professional. Animate +projections are beginning to be introduced into parlors, and some day +will entirely replace the magic lantern therein. The excitement caused +by the catastrophe at the Charity Bazar is now calmed, and it has been +ascertained that the accident was not due to the lamp of the +projector, but to a carelessly handled can of ether. So the extension +of this sort of spectacle, momentarily arrested, is taking a new +impetus, which will be further aided by the apparatus under +consideration, for the description of which and the illustrations we +are indebted to La Nature. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RECLAIMING OF OLD RUBBER. + +By HAWTHORNE HILL. + + +The complaint of high prices of India rubber is as old as the rubber +industry, one result of which has been an unceasing effort to discover +a practical substitute. Never was the secret of the transmutation of +metals sought more persistently by ancient philosophers than the +secret of an artificial rubber has been by modern chemists, but, thus +far, the one search has been hardly more successful than the other. +One discovery has been made, however, by which our rubber supplies +have been so far conserved that, for the want of it, we might be +obliged now to pay double the current prices for new rubber. This is +the reclaiming of rubber from worn-out goods, in a condition fit for +use again in almost every class of products of the rubber factory. + +Soon after the vulcanization of rubber became fully established, +attempts began to be made to "devulcanize" the scrap and cuttings of +rubber which accumulated in the factories. So extensive were these +accumulations that one company are reported to have built a road with +rubber scrap through a swamp adjacent to their factory, while most +other manufacturers were unable to find even so profitable a use for +their wastes. As time advanced there came to be large stocks, also, of +worn-out rubber goods, such as car springs and the like, all of which +appealed to a practical mind here and there as being of possible +value, since the price of new rubber kept climbing up all the while. + +No fewer than nineteen patents were granted in the United States for +"improvements in devulcanizing India rubber," or "restoring waste +vulcanized rubber," beginning in 1855, or eleven years after the date +of Goodyear's patent for the vulcanization process. In that year +Francis Baschnagel obtained a patent for restoring vulcanized rubber +to a soft, plastic, workable state, by treating it with alcohol +absolutus and carbon bisulphuratum, in a closed vessel, without the +application of heat. Later he obtained a patent for accomplishing the +same result by "boiling waste rubber in water, after it has been +reduced to a finely divided state;" and still later, one for treating +the waste to the direct action of steam. + +Patents were granted in 1858 to Hiram L. Hall, for the treatment of +waste rubber by boiling in water; also, by subjecting it to steam; and +again, by combining various resinous and other substances with it. The +two inventors named assigned their patents to the Beverly Rubber +Company, of Beverly, Mass., controlled then by the proprietors of the +New York Belting and Packing Company, and their processes became the +basis of an important business in rubber clothing. + +The low cost of the devulcanized rubber, as compared with new rubber, +alone gave them a great advantage over other manufacturers, in +addition to which they escaped the payment of a license to work under +the Goodyear patents. + +Many army blankets, made for the government during the civil war, were +waterproofed with Hall's devulcanized rubber, and from that period +little new rubber has been used in the manufacture of heavy rubber +coats. The other patents in this class do not deserve special mention. + +It having been established that rubber is rubber, no matter where +found, manufacturers gradually turned their attention beyond the +scraps and cuttings which remained after making up their goods. There +was beginning to be a good demand for ground-up rubber car springs, +wringer rolls, tubing and other rubber goods free from fiber, after it +had been so treated as to remove the sulphur contents and restore the +gum to a workable condition. But this left out of account rubber +footwear, belting, and hose, not to mention the later heavy production +of bicycle tires. There were only a few uses to which rubber waste +containing fibrous material could be put when ground up and +devulcanized without the removal of the fiber. It could be put into a +cheap grade of steam packing or mixed in a powdered form with new +rubber for the heels of rubber boots and shoes. There was an early +patent for a process for "combining fibrous materials with waste +vulcanized rubber, rendered soft and plastic." But all the other +patents which come within the scope of this article had for their +object the separation of fibers from the rubber. + +An important advance was marked by the Hayward patent (No. 40,407), +granted in 1868, for "boiling waste rags of fibrous material and +rubber in an acid or alkali, for the purpose of destroying the +tenacity of the fibers of the rags, so that the rubber may be +reground." But this process extended only to the weakening of the +fibers, and not their complete destruction. A later patent, in the +same year, provided for exposing the ground rubber waste to the direct +action of flames of gas or inflammable liquids, by which the foreign +matters would be consumed and the rubber rendered plastic and +cohesive, but it is not on record that this process received any +particular application. + +The principal activity of invention in the field of reclaiming rubber +dates from 1870, since which year 37 patents have been granted for +processes more or less distinctive from those which had for their +object only the devulcanization of rubber. Prior to that time the use +of rubber reclaimed from fibrous wastes had been confined practically +to one large factory in Boston and one near New York. One concern, for +a while, bought old rubber shoes and sent them to women in the +country, whom they paid so much a pound for the rubber stripped off--a +very expensive process. There were several claimants for priority in +the matter of reclaiming rubber by the processes which finally became +standard, and some conflicting interests were brought together under +the head of the Chemical Rubber Company. This corporation controlled +the leading patents for the "acid" process, licensing various parties +to work under them, and bringing suits against concerns who reclaimed +rubber without their license. In 1895 the United States courts decided +in favor of the defendants, practically rendering the patents invalid, +on the ground that the inventions claimed under them had been +disclosed by the Hall patents of 1858 and the Hayward patent of 1863. + +The two patents upon which the suits for infringement rested +principally were No. 249,970, granted to N.C. Mitchell, in 1881, and +No. 300,720, granted to the same, in 1884. About the same time the +Rubber Reclaiming Company, formed in 1890 by the combination of five +leading rubber reclaiming plants, and working under license from the +company above named, was resolved into the original elements. There +were about that time five other rubber reclaiming plants in the United +States, operating either the "acid" or the "mechanical" process, +besides nine general rubber factories producing their own reclaimed +rubber by the "acid" process. While several of the latter--rubber shoe +concerns controlled by the United States Rubber Company--have been +consolidated, there has been an increase in the number of rubber +manufacturers reclaiming their own rubber, since the end of the patent +litigation, so that the total number of reclaiming plants now probably +is twenty. + +The first step in any process for reclaiming rubber is the grinding of +the waste, for which purpose several machines have been designed +specially, an early patent for disintegrating rubber scrap by +"subjecting it to the abrading action of grindstones" having failed to +meet with favor. The most usual chemical treatment is a bath in a +solution of sulphuric acid in lead-lined tanks. Generally heat is +employed to hasten the process, through the medium of steam, in which +case the tanks are tightly closed. The next step is the washing of the +scrap, to free it of acid and dirt, after which it is sheeted by being +run between iron rollers and hung in drying rooms. As soon as it has +become dry it is ready for sale. + +In the extended litigation over the acid process patents, the points +at issue related to the strength of the acid named in the various +specifications and also to the methods of applying steam. Prof. +Charles F. Chandler, called as an expert in one case, testified that +the effects of acids, such as sulphuric or hydrochloric, upon rubber +and rubber compounds, under varying strength and temperature, had been +known at a period antedating all the patents then the basis of suits +for infringement; also that their effect upon cotton and woolen +fabrics had been equally well known. They had the same effect upon +fibers, whether the latter were combined with rubber or not, but very +strong acids would affect the rubber injuriously. The line of defense +in this case was that "no invention was required in selecting the +strength of acid; only the common sense of the manufacturer, aided by +his skill and experience, was necessary to bring about the proper +results." In support of this a factory superintendent testified that +varied stocks required skill and judgment in their treatment and more +or less variation as to the strength of acid, temperature, etc. + +As to the use of steam, Prof. Henry B. Cornwall, of Princeton College, +called as an expert in another case, testified that, having put to a +test the specifications in all the patents involved, he had found it +necessary in no case to inject live steam into the mixtures of acid +and rubber scrap in order to effect the decomposition and removal of +either woolen or cotton fiber. The use of the acids specified was +sufficient for this, and the various high temperatures called for were +not essential for the destruction of the fibers. He neglected to +mention, however, that the steam served an equally important purpose +in devulcanizing the rubber. + +It appeared that the practice in different factories had included the +use of sulphuric acid varying from a 21/2 per cent. solution to the +full commercial strength of the acid, but one of the defendant +companies based their case upon their use of acid of the strength of +28 deg. to 30 deg. Baume, whereas the patent they were charged with infringing +specified a strength of 66 deg.. Their tanks were lead-lined and provided +on the interior with steam pipes running down the sides and along the +bottom, the sections at the bottom being perforated and the steam +admitted at a pressure of 75 to 80 pounds. The chemical treatment +lasted from 21/2 to 4 hours. + +The sulphuric acid treatment, however, is confined mainly to scrap +containing cotton fiber. Where woolen fibers occur, which is much less +frequently, their disintegration is accomplished generally by the use +of caustic soda. + +In the mechanical process of reclaiming rubber, the rubber is +separated from the fiber, after the whole has been finely ground, by +means of an air blast, the method being not unlike that practiced by +furriers for separating hair and fur from bits of pelt after skins +have been finely divided. As the powdered waste comes from the blower, +the rubber falls in a heap near the machine, while the particles of +fiber, being lighter, are carried far enough away to make the +separation complete. Devulcanization in this case is effected by +exposure to live steam at a high temperature. No oil is used in the +process, the sheeting of the product being facilitated by means of hot +friction rollers. + +The cost of reclaiming rubber by the acid process is less than by +mechanical means, for which reason the former is now much more +generally used. But some manufacturers are willing to pay more per +pound for mechanically-reclaimed rubber, either (1) because it can be +"compounded" more heavily than the acid product, or (2) because of +certain inherent disadvantages of the latter. It is the testimony of +these manufacturers that the action of sulphuric acid upon whiting +(one of the most common adulterants used in rubber shoes) is to turn +it into sulphate of lime--an ingredient which is far from advantageous +in a rubber compound. Again, any acid which may remain in the +reclaimed rubber is liable to rot thin textile fabrics with which it +may be combined in manufacture. Finally, rubber recovered by the +chemical process, it is claimed, is harder than that obtained by any +other; so that it is usual to add, during vulcanization, in order to +soften the product, the residuum obtained from petroleum manufactures, +or palm or other oils. Unvulcanized rubber clippings also have been +used for this purpose. One of the most successful of our rubber +factory superintendents, who formerly made the reclaimed rubber used +by his factory, has stated that his practice was to subject the +material to an alkaline bath after the acid treatment, not only for +the better cleaning of the rubber, but to neutralize any acid which +might remain. Considering all the points involved, it was his opinion +that, when scrap rubber is cheap, the mechanical process is the more +economical, while, if it is high priced, the acid process has the +advantage. Since this expression of opinion, however, prices of rubber +scrap have ranged constantly at higher figures than before, and there +is no indication that we shall have again what was known formerly as +"cheap" scrap. It is not surprising, therefore, that the volume of +mechanical "shoddy" should be placed by the best estimates at not +above one-sixth of the total production of reclaimed rubber in the +United States. And the acid product, with all its admitted +shortcomings, is still superior to any of the so-called rubber +substitutes. + +Reclaimed rubber is not to be considered as an adulterant, except in +the same sense as fillings, like whiting, litharge or barytes, the use +of which in rubber compounds often gives to the product desirable +qualities that are unobtainable by the use of "pure gum." It lacks +some of the qualities of good native rubber, and yet it is rubber, and +fills its proper place as acceptably as any raw material of +manufacture. Rubber shoes made of new gum entirely would be too +elastic, and for that reason would draw the feet, besides being too +costly for the ordinary trade. The construction of a rubber shoe, by +the way, is well adapted for the use of different compounds for the +different parts. Rubber enters into twenty-six pieces of a rubber boot +and nine or more pieces of a rubber shoe. Consequently, as many +different compounds may be used, if desired, for the output of a +single factory for rubber footwear. The highest grades of native +rubber may be used for waterproofing the uppers of a fine overshoe, +while reclaimed rubber, of a cheap class even, may be good enough for +the heel, which requires only to be waterproof and durable, without +too much weight, and with no elasticity. Reclaimed rubber goes into +many classes of goods of high grade. The result is that such goods +have been cheapened legitimately, placing them within the reach of +immense numbers of consumers who otherwise would be obliged to do +without. + +While the extensive use of reclaimed rubber is a matter of common +knowledge to all who are familiar with the rubber industry, there are +nowhere available any statistics of either the absolute or comparative +volume of its consumption, with the single exception of the official +returns of imports into Canada. There separate accounts are kept of +crude India rubber and of recovered rubber received in each year, and +as only a consuming market exists for these commodities in the +Dominion, the figures given below may be taken to represent closely +the actual consumption by the rubber factories of Ontario and Quebec. +It is interesting to note the heavy growth of the percentage of +recovered rubber shown in the table, all the figures representing +pounds: + + Fiscal Crude Recovered Total + Year. Rubber. Rubber. Imports. + 1885-86 739,169 19,499 758,668 + 1886-87 785,040 46,508 831,548 + 1887-88 1,225,893 88,471 1,314,364 + 1888-89 1,669,014 221,674 1,890,688 + 1889-90 1,290,766 147,377 1,438,143 + 1890-91 1,602,644 8,254 1,610,898 + 1891-92 2,100,358 106,080 2,206,438 + 1892-93 2,152,855 195,281 2,348,136 + 1893-94 2,077,703 529,900 2,607,603 + 1894-95 1,402,844 611,745 2,014,589 + 1895-96 2,155,576 643,169 2,798,745 + 1896-97 2,014,936 1,061,402 3,076,338 + Percentage, 1885-86 97.5 2.5 100 + " 1896-97 65.5 34.5 100 + +If it were possible to examine the books of the several rubber +reclaiming plants on this side of the border, including rubber shoe +and mechanical goods factories producing their own reclaimed rubber, +the percentage of this material used, in comparison with the total +rubber consumption, might be found to be as great in the United States +as in Canada. The rubber manufacture in the Dominion, in its +inception, was practically an offshoot from the industry in this +country. Our manufacturers supplied the Canadian demand for rubber +goods until, under the stimulus of heavy protective duties, rubber +works were established beyond the border, since which time, to quote a +leader in the trade in the United States, "the methods of the Dominion +rubber industry have mirrored the best practice in our country." Hence +it seems not unreasonable to conclude that if the Canadians are using +so large a percentage of reclaimed rubber, they are doing no more nor +less than the older and larger concerns here. The most trustworthy +authorities place the consumption of new rubber in the United States +during 1897 at not far from 35,000,000 pounds. Assuming that the rate +of consumption of reclaimed rubber was as great as in Canada, we have +18,435,000 pounds more, or a total of 53,433,000 pounds. But there are +producers of reclaimed rubber who insist that the amount of this +material used in this country equals, pound for pound, the consumption +of new rubber. + +The use of reclaimed rubber in Europe is increasing gradually, and +especially in Great Britain. The American product is sold extensively +in that country, and some native reclaiming plants have been started. +The most extensive "galosh" factory in Russia, which is said to be the +largest in the world, is reclaiming rubber according to American +methods. But, as a rule, the Continental rubber manufacturers make +more use of "substitutes," a class of materials which has not found +favor in America. These rubber substitutes belong chiefly to the class +of oxidized oils and may be classed in three divisions: Those obtained +(1) by the action of oxygen or air on linseed oil; (2) by acting on +rape oil with chloride of sulphur; and (3) by the action of sulphur on +rape oil at a high temperature. The first class has little application +to the rubber trade, though its use is universal in the linoleum +industry. In Europe the chemist holds a more important position in the +rubber manufacture than here, one result of which has been cheaper +compounds of rubber and another the satisfactory employment of the +refractory African rubbers long before they were used extensively in +the United States. Hence the cost of raw materials in the rubber +industry has been, on the whole, cheaper abroad. The Europeans have +had an advantage, too, in respect to cheaper labor, which has offset +somewhat our own advantage from the use of reclaimed rubber as a cheap +material. + +There are numerous grades of reclaimed rubber, due to differences in +the quality of stock used, and also to the different degrees of care +used in its preparation, according to the requirements of +manufacturers. The declared value of reclaimed rubber exported from +New York during July, 1897, averaged 12.6 cents per pound, while the +value of exports for September averaged only 9.1 cents. The average +value for the eight months ending February 28, 1898, was 10.08 cents +per pound. The total declared value of such exports for the fiscal +year 1896-97 was $119,440, which, at the prices prevailing since, +would represent considerably more than 1,000,000 pounds. Some of the +material sold at home is known to bring less than any prices quoted +above. "Mechanical" stock brings about two cents per pound more than +"acid" stock of corresponding grade. + +The collection of old rubber has acquired large proportions as an +adjunct to the trade in junk or rags. Not long ago the estimated +yearly collection of rubber shoes alone amounted to 18,000 tons, and +since that time the business in bicycle tire scrap has also become +very large. During the past ten years the price of old rubber shoes +has ranged between $60 and $120 per ton in carload lots, being at +present about $90 per ton. Some 1,500 tons of rubber scrap are +imported annually by the reclaiming companies in the United States. + + * * * * * + +In the Baltic Sea there are more wrecks than in any other place in the +world. The average throughout the year is one each day. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENGINEERING NOTES. + + +THE AUSTRIAN government has ordered thirty-seven engines arranged to +burn kerosene, for use in the Arlberg tunnel, in which lack of proper +ventilation at present causes the tunnel to remain filled with +smoke.--Uhland's Wochenschrift. + +One of the first essentials to modern military enterprise is the +establishment of a military railway system for war purposes. To be in +a position to carry out efficiently and speedily what we may expect to +be called upon to do on the outbreak of serious war, previous +preparation in time of peace is an absolute requisite. In connection +with General Sherman's operations in Georgia, during the American +civil war, an army was supplied for six and a half months over a line +473 miles long. The corps of workmen was 10,000 strong, and on one +occasion replaced 35,000 sleepers and nine miles of rails in seven +days. The true defense of the line was effected by the engineers +always having men and material ready. In spite of the large and +skilled railway population on which the army could call, and of the +fact that practically the nation was in arms, it was found extremely +difficult to keep this railway construction corps together until they +were placed under a severe military discipline.--United Service +Gazette. + +A HOSPITAL car has been introduced on the Belgian railroads, says +The Engineer. It is designed for use in the event of a serious railway +accident, and can be run to the spot where the wounded may be picked +up and carried to the nearest city for treatment, instead of being +left to pass hours in some wayside station while awaiting surgical +attendance. The interior of this car is divided into a main +compartment, a corridor on one side and two small rooms at the end. +The largest compartment, the hospital proper, contains twenty-four +isolated beds on steel tubes hung upon powerful springs; each bed is +provided with a small movable table, a cord serving to hold all the +various small objects which may be needed, and each patient lies in +front of two little windows, which may be closed or opened at will. +The corridor on the outside of the hospital chamber leads to the linen +closet and the doctor's apartment; in the latter is a large cupboard, +the upper portion being used for drugs, while the lower is divided +into two sections, one serving as a case for surgical instruments and +the other as a receptacle for the doctor's folding bed. + +THE DUST collected from the smoke of some Liege furnaces, burning +coal raised from the neighboring mines, produces, when dissolved in +hydrochloric acid, a solution from which considerable quantities of +arsenic and several other metallic salts may be precipitated. +Commenting on this fact, ascertained by M.A. Jorissen, M. Francis Maur +asks whether this breathing of arsenic and other minerals in a finely +divided state may not account for the singular immunity from epidemics +enjoyed by certain industrial districts, such as that of Saint +Etienne, and hopes that some mine doctor will throw additional light +on the subject. In the meanwhile, it may be suggested that the +ventilating effect of the numerous chimneys in iron making and other +industrial centers has its due share in constantly driving off the +vitiated air and replacing it by fresh quantities of pure air. At any +rate, when pestilence was raging in the high and pleasant quarter of +Clifton, its inhabitants migrated to the low-lying and not overclean +parish of St. Philips, Bristol, where the air is black from the smoke +of numerous chimneys, but where also the mortality compared very +favorably with that in the fashionable quarter. + +A TWO-SPEED movable sidewalk, of the Blot, Guyenet and De Mocomble +type, is to be used for conveying visitors at the Paris Exposition, +says Engineering News. It differs from those of Chicago and Berlin in +the reduction of the weight of the moving platform by spacing the +driving wheels 127.5 feet apart and using electricity as a motive +power. The driving wheels are mounted in the bed of the track and +impart motion to a central rail on the under side of the platform. +Bearing wheels, spaced about 20 feet apart under this rail, also carry +the platform, and the central rail supports one-half the total weight +of the platform; small side wheels carry the other half on side +tracks. This arrangement enables the platform, which is divided into +sections and hinged, to pass around quite sharp curves. The high speed +platform, 4 feet 3 inches wide, is supposed to move at the rate of +61/2 miles per hour on a 351/2-inch gage track; the slow platform is +311/2 inches wide, moves at half speed and runs on a 17-3/4-inch gage +track. The whole structure will be elevated on girders carried by cast +iron columns, with stations about 656 feet apart. The high speed +platform weighs 146 pounds per lineal foot; and with passengers, +nearly 400 pounds per foot. The slow speed platform weighs about half +this. The track will be about 21/2 miles long; the initial motive +power is figured at 472 H.P. and the carrying capacity at 38,880 per +hour. + +THE "SCHLAMM," or mud, thrown down from the water of coal washing +has hitherto been regarded as worthless, says The Engineering and +Mining Journal, except that sometimes a portion of the coal particles +it contained have been separated and made of value by a washing +process; but Bergassessor Haarmann, of Friedrichsthal, has invented a +new method for treating it dry and dividing it into two products, one +of which, with low ash content, is distinguished by its granular +nature, while the other contains a large proportion of ash and is of +the fineness of flour. The former of these two products is, on account +of its low ash content, useful for various purposes, and the latter +constitutes a fuel quite ready for use in coal dust firing. The method +is founded on the circumstances, hitherto lost sight of, that the +incombustible constituents of the "schlamm" chiefly consist of clay +which was formerly more or less dissolved in the wash water; and on +the mud being dried and subjected to a suitable mechanical process, +the clay falls into fine dust, while the coal particles, on the +contrary, retain their granular nature. The method is carried out by +drying the mud and a subsequent fine sifting, which effects a breaking +up of the lumps that occur in the dried "schlamm," and a separation +into the two products above named. The dust that falls through the +sieve has a high ash content, being in the nature of flour, while what +remains behind is granular and has a low ash content. It seems to us +that this game is hardly worth the candle. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICAL NOTES. + + +ELECTRICITY AT the Paris Exposition.--Electricity will play a large +part at the Paris Exposition of 1900, says the Revue Technique. No +less than 15,000 h.p. will be used for lighting and 5,000 h.p. for +furnishing electric power to the various parts of the grounds. As far +as possible all the machinery exhibited will be shown at work and for +this purpose electric conductors will be laid down to all points on +the grounds. The boiler plant will be located at the end of the Champ +de Mars, and will occupy two spaces of 130 X 390 feet each, one being +devoted to French boilers and the other to those of foreign makers. +This plant will be in itself a very interesting exhibit. It is +proposed to provide a capacity for evaporating not less than 440,000 +pounds of water per hour. + +AN INTERESTING little plant in which the rise and fall of the tides +is used as motive power for the generation of electricity is described +in L'Electricien. Near Ploumanach, on the northern coast of France, +where the tides have a daily range of 39 feet, a small fish pond +separated from the sea by a dike is arranged with gates so that at +high tide the water flows in and fills it, the gates closing +automatically when the tide recedes. The machinery of an old grist +mill is used to operate a small dynamo, which charges a storage +battery and furnishes light for the fish industry there. Another wheel +in the same mill works an ice making machine, the whole being under +the charge of one man. It is stated that the total daily expense for +generating about 2,000 horse power hours is only $2. + +PEAT BOGS as generators of electrical power are suggested by Dr. +Frank in Stahl und Eisen. He says that the great peat bogs of North +Germany may be thus utilized, and figures that one acre of bog, +averaging 10 feet in thickness, contains about 1,000 tons of dried +peat, or 313,000 tons per square mile; and 430 square miles would be +equivalent in heating power to the 80,000,000 to 85,000,000 tons of +coal annually mined in Germany. The bogs of the Ems Valley alone cover +13,000 square miles; and Dr. Frank proposes the erection in that +district of a 10,000 horse power electric station, which would yearly +consume 200,000 tons of peat, or the product of 200 acres. He would +use the electrical energy on the Dortmund and Emshaven Canal, and for +the manufacture of calcium carbide. + +THE SUCCESS attending an application of electric towing on the +Burgundy Canal was such that two new applications of electricity to +canal haulage and also for barge propulsion were made last year in the +neighborhood of Dijon, on the same canal, under the superintendence of +M. Gaillot, Ingenieur des Ponts et Chaussees. In the method of +haulage, says The London Engineer, the receptor dynamo is mounted on a +tricycle, to which the name of "electric horse" has been given, and +which, running on the towing path, takes its current from an air line +consisting of two wires, mounted five meters (nearly 17 feet) above +the surface. This "horse," which weighs two tons, and is guided by a +driver mounted upon it through the front wheel, proceeds on the towing +path like a traction engine; and the boats are connected with it by a +rope, with automatic disengaging gear, in case the force of the stream +or a gust of wind should drive a boat backward. Speeds of from 1,990 +to 4,240 meters (mean 3,319 yards) were obtained with the electric +horse, towing from three to four boats, so that it is more suitable +than the electric propeller for towage in rivers or very long reaches; +but it requires a driver, while the propeller, with which speeds of +from 2,150 to 4,240 meters (mean 3,406 yards) per hour were obtained, +is worked by the bargee on board his boat. The towing path is not +worn, and there is no occasion for a tow rope, which always causes +difficulty when two boats cross one another. M. Maillet and M. +Dufourny, Belgian Ingenieurs des Ponts et Chaussees, who watched the +trials, conclude that a practical solution of the question depends +upon the cost of producing the motive power; but they also consider +that horse haulage on canals will soon be superseded by mechanical +traction, based on the use of an automotive tricycle, working with +petroleum or some other hydrocarbon, and capable of running on the tow +path without requiring any fixed plant. + +IT HAS long been known that feathers and hair are electrical bodies, +but until recently we have had little information about their +electrical properties or the conditions in which these properties are +manifested. Most of these phenomena were first observed by Exner, and +in the work of Dr. Schwarze are found collected a mass of facts that +cannot fail to interest the physician and the biologist; besides, we +find there a description of Exner's apparatus which was used by +Schwarze in most of his experiments on electrical phenomena of this +kind. By the side of gold leaf electroscopes we see a feather +electroscope, which is fastened to its support by means of a silken +thread. A feather waved through the air is positively electrified, +while the air itself seems to be charged with negative electricity.... +Two feathers rubbed together in the natural position are so +electrified that their lower surface is negative and the upper +positive.... These experiments and others still have been utilized to +study the vital relations of animals and the biological signification +of these phenomena. Most feathers stick together and remain so even +after being dried; if they then are waved through the air, the barbs +of the feather separate, owing to differences of electrification. No +bird needs to attend to its plumage at the end of a long flight, for +while the large feathers are positively electrified by friction +against the air, the white down has become negative, and so there is +attraction between it and the feathers. Another consequence of this +production of electricity during flight is that during winds, even the +most violent, the plumage does not become ruffled, but rests tightly +against the bird's body, for in this case the wing feathers, which +overlap, rub against each other and become electrified in contrary +senses. If the bird flies toward the ground, flapping its wings, it +compresses the air below them, and, supposing that the wing feathers +can bend aside, the experiments of Exner show that by the friction the +upper side of one feather and the lower side of that which is just +above are electrified oppositely, the more powerfully as the rubbing +is greater, which always causes them to resume the normal +position.--L'Electricien. + + * * * * * + + + + +SELECTED FORMULAE. + + +REMOVAL OF INK FROM HECTOGRAPH.--It is recommended in Suedd. Ap. Ztg. +to pour crude hydrochloric acid upon the hectograph, rub with a wad of +cotton, then wash off by holding under cold running water and drying +with a cloth. The hectograph may be used again immediately. + +TO CLEAN WALL PAPER.--Four ounces of pumice stone in fine powder are +thoroughly mixed with 1 quart of flour and the mass is kneaded with +water enough to form a thick dough. This dough is formed into rolls +about 2 inches in diameter and 6 or 8 inches long; each one is sewed +up in a piece of cotton cloth and then boiled in water for from 40 to +50 minutes--long enough to render the dough firm. After cooling and +allowing the rolls to stand for several hours, the outer portion is +peeled off and they are then ready for use, the paper being rubbed +with them as in the bread process.--Druggist's Circular. + +INSULATING COMPOUND.--Prof. Fessenden recommends for armature work a +compound made by boiling pure linseed oil at about 200 degrees with +1/2 per cent. of borate of manganese, the boiling being continued for +several hours, or until the oil begins to thicken. An advantage of +this borated oil is that it always retains a slight stickiness, and so +gives a good joint when wrapped around wires, etc. Many substances so +used are not sticky and let moisture in through the joints. Where a +smooth surface is required, it is readily obtained by dusting on a +little talc. It can also be given a coat of japan on the +outside.--American Electrician. + +HOW TO CLEAN DIATOMS.--As a general rule, we may say that every +specimen of diatomaceous earth or rock needs a special treatment. The +following, however, may serve as a basic treatment, from which such +departure may be taken in each case as the nature of the specimen +would indicate: Boil the material in hydrochloric acid, in a test +tube, from two to five minutes. Let settle, pour off the hydrochloric +acid, substitute nitric acid in its place, and boil again for two or +three minutes. Pour into a beaker of water, stir a moment with a glass +rod and let settle. After the material has fallen to the bottom, +decant the liquid, and fill with fresh water. Repeat the operation +until the water no longer shows an acid reaction. A portion of the +deposit may now be examined, and if not clean, boil the deposit with +tincture of soap and water in equal parts, decant, wash, first with +water, then with stronger ammonia water, and finally, with distilled +water. This usually leaves the frustules bright and sharp.--National +Druggist. + +RED INDELIBLE INK.--It is said that by proceeding according to the +following formula, an intense purple red color may be produced on +fabrics, which is indelible in the customary sense of the word. + + No. 1. + Sodium carbonate 3 drs. + Gum arabic 3 " + Water 12 " + + No. 2. + Platinic chloride 1 dr. + Distilled water 2 oz. + + No. 3. + Stannous chloride 1 dr. + Distilled water 4 " + +Moisten the place to be written upon with No. 1 and rub a warm iron +over it until dry; then write with No. 2, and, when dry, moisten with +No. 3. An intense and beautiful purple-red color is produced in this +way. The following simpler and less expensive method of obtaining an +indelible red mark on linen has been proposed by Wegler: Dilute egg +albumen with an equal weight of water, rapidly stir with a glass rod +until it foams, and then filter through linen. Mix the filtrate with a +sufficient quantity of finely levigated vermilion until a rather thick +liquid is obtained. Write with a quill, or gold pen, and then touch +the reverse side of the fabric with a hot iron, coagulating the +albumen. It is claimed that marks so made are affected by neither +soaps, acids nor alkalies. This ink, or rather paint, is said to keep +moderately well in securely stoppered bottles, but we should not rely +on it as a "stock" article. A white paint for marking dark colored +articles might be made by substituting zinc white for the red pigment +in the foregoing formula.--Druggist's Circular. + +BROWN OR BLACK DISCOLORATION OF SILVERED MIRRORS.--Generally these +spots are due to faulty manipulation, too great dilution of the silver +solution, or touching the plates with the fingers after they have been +cleaned. Sometimes, however, they are due to chemical defects in the +glass itself. In these cases, as a general thing, the discolorations +occur only after several days--a faultless mirror having been made at +first, and the browning subsequently developing slowly. The writer was +a student in the laboratory of Baron Liebig during the time that +distinguished chemist was carrying out the series of experiments which +resulted in devising a method of making silver mirrors commercially. +One of the greatest troubles with which he had to contend was this +browning--the cause for which was never fully cleared up by him. Some +years ago, the writer, having in his possession two mirrors made by +Liebig, and which had gradually become brown throughout, undertook an +examination of the deposit (which had been thoroughly protected from +extraneous influences by a strong film of varnish), and was surprised +to find that it consisted of a layer of silver sulphide. Without going +into detail, the source of the change was later found to lie within +the glass itself. In making glass to be used for mirrors, a +considerable portion of sodium sulphate is used, and in annealing, +this is partly reduced to sodium sulphide, which effloresces on the +surface of the glass. This efflorescence is, of course, removed on +cleaning the glass before silvering; but it is found that, in many +instances, on exposure of the mirror to the light for some time, a +further efflorescence occurs, and it is this which produces the +discoloration in cases such as we have cited. It has been suggested +that the tendency to subsequent efflorescence may be corrected by +boiling the plates, intended for silvering, for a couple of minutes, +in a 10 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate or bicarbonate. We have +no experience with the process, however.--National Druggist. + + * * * * * + + + + +WILD AND DOMESTIC SHEEP IN THE BERLIN ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN. + + +As a rule, domestic animals are accorded very little space in +zoological gardens, but, although it is doubtless the first duty of +these popular institutions to show visitors animals which live in a +wild state in foreign lands, it is well, where there is sufficient +space and adequate means, to extend the limits of the collection so as +to include natives of our own woods and fields, thus enabling people +of a great city who are unfamiliar with nature to form an idea of the +changes wrought in animal life by the influence of man, for domestic +animals are a great aid in the study of natural history. The +accompanying engravings are reproductions of instantaneous photographs +of occupants of the new sheep and goat house--mostly foreign breeds; +but there are a few that belong to that South European-Asiatic group +which are looked upon as the progenitors of the domestic sheep: the +mouflon, of Sardinia and Corsica (Ovis Musimon L.), which has a coat +of brownish red, flecked with darker color; and the slender, +long-legged, reddish-gray sheep of Belochistan (Ovis Blanfordi Hume). +The first glance at these creatures convinces one that they are wild, +not domestic sheep, an impression which is caused chiefly by the +monotonous coloring and the dry, short coat, which bears no +resemblance to the thick fleece of the tame sheep, although the eye is +soon attracted by other differences, such as the shape of the tail, +which is short and thick, and of the horns, which extend over the back +and then turn inward, so that when the old ram is kept in captivity, +it is necessary to cut off the points of the horns to prevent their +boring into the flesh of its neck. Horns of this shape form a strong +contrast to those with snail-like windings and points standing away +from the body. When looking at one of these sheep from the front, it +will be noticed that the left horn turns to the right and the right +horn to the left. + +[Illustration: SARDINIAN MOUFLON (OVIS MUSIMON L.)] + +[Illustration: BELOCHISTAN SHEEP (OVIS BLANFORDI HUME).] + +Former authorities have been unwilling to admit that the domestic +sheep have come from any species of wild sheep of the present time. +They hold that they are the descendants of one or more species of wild +sheep that are now extinct. Recently, however, men have thought more +deeply and freely on such subjects, and Nehring and others have traced +the modern tame sheep back to the mouflon, but not to him alone. It is +thought that in this case, as with other domestic animals, there has +been a mixture of species, and in this connection attention was +directed to the Transcaspian arkal, the argalis of the interior of +Asia and the North African species. Dr. Heck, director of the Berlin +Zoological Garden, thinks that the horns of the tame ram, which are +turned outward, the points being directed away from the body, +constitute one of the strongest proofs that the blood of the argalis +and its extinct European ancestors--which are known only by the fossil +remains--flows in the veins of all domestic sheep. + +The other characteristic marks of the domestic sheep--the wool and the +length of the tail--vary greatly. The heath sheep--the little, +contented, weather-hardened grazing sheep of the Lueneburg and other +heaths--belong to one of the oldest species, and their tails are as +short and their horns as dark as those of the moufflon. A cross +between these two breeds is not distinguishable, even in the second +generation, as has been shown by the interesting experiments in the +Duesseldorf Zoological Garden. + +[Illustration: HEATH SHEEP.] + +The little, black and red-spotted Cameroons sheep, from the western +coast of Africa, have not a trace of wool. But why should they have? +The negroes need no clothing, and, consequently, they have not bred +sheep with wool; and, besides, such an animal could not live in the +tropics, even if the black man were a much better stock raiser and +breeder than he is. The mane on the neck, and breast of the Cameroons +ram reminds one of the North American sheep; but it must be remembered +that the mouflon and arkal rams have this ornament quite clearly, +although not so strongly defined. + +[Illustration: CAMEROONS SHEEP.] + +The large, short-bodied and long-legged sheep found in the interior of +western and northern Africa are a complete contrast to the +short-legged, long-bodied little Cameroons sheep. There is a very +valuable pair of the former in the Berlin Zoological Garden--the +Haussa sheep--which are very regularly marked, the front parts of +their bodies being red and the hind parts white. They were brought +from the neighborhood of Say, on the middle Niger, by the Togo +Hinterland expedition. The ram has beautiful horns, and the ewe is +distinguished by two strange, tassel-like pendants of skin that hang +from her neck. This zoological garden also possesses a fine ram from +the interior of Tunis, which is similar in shape to the Haussa ram, +but has shorter horns and a heavier mane. Its color is grayish black. + +[Illustration: RAM FROM TUNIS.] + +[Illustration: HAUSSA RAM.] + +[Illustration: HAUSSA EWE.] + +Dr. Heck considers the long tail of the domestic sheep the chief +impediment to the adoption of the theory of its descent from the +short-tailed wild sheep. And yet, in sheep, this member is of +secondary importance, for it varies greatly in form. The short-tailed +heath sheep are just the opposite of the fat-tailed Persian sheep, +which are represented in a fabulous account as being obliged to draw +their broad tails, that weighed 40 pounds, behind them on wheels. +These are the sheep that supply the Astrakan and Persian lamb which is +so much worn now. The fur is caused to lie in peculiar waves or tight +rings by sewing the newly born lamb in a tightly fitting covering +which keeps the fur from being mussed. In the Berlin Zoological Garden +there is a very fine four-horned, fat-tailed ram, from the steppes on +the lower Volga. From this region come also the large-boned, +fat-rumped sheep, which have a large mass of fat on each side of the +stunted tail. In the illustration this peculiarity does not show well, +on account of the thick winter wool. Their color is red, with dirty +white. When Wissman and Bumiller returned from their last expedition, +they brought a fine ram of a different breed of fat-rumped sheep, +which are raised by the Kirghise, on the Altai Mountains. They are +smaller than those from the steppes of the Volga, but have finer wool, +and evidently belong to a finer breed. As mutton tallow is very +useful, and has been used even from the most ancient times by sheep +raisers in the preparation of food, they prize sheep with these masses +of fat on the tail and rump, which were purposely developed to the +greatest possible degree. + +[Illustration: FAT-TAILED SHEEP (FOUR-HORNED RAM).] + +[Illustration: FAT-RUMPED SHEEP.] + +The steinbock and the chamois, which live in the highest mountains, +are still found, but other breeds, such as the argalis, which +inhabited the foot hills and the high table lands, have disappeared, +as Europe has become more thickly populated. We know that they +formerly lived there, by the fossil remains of the oldest Pliocene in +England (Ovis Savinii Newton), of the caves of bones near Stramberg in +Moravia (Ovis argaloides Nehring), and of the diluvial strata near +Puy-de-Dome Mountain in the south of France (Ovis antiqua Pommerol). + +For the above and the accompanying illustrations we are indebted to +Daheim. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 1172, page 18756.] + + + + +PATENTS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: To be presented at the Niagara Falls meeting (June, + 1898) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and + forming part of Vol. six of the Transactions.] + +By JAMES W. SEE, Hamilton, Ohio, Member of the Society. + + +EMPLOYERS' RIGHTS. + +An invention, to be patented, must be applied for by the actual +inventor, and in the absence of acts constituting a transfer, the +patent, and all legal ownership in it, and all rights under it, go +exclusively to the inventor. In the absence of express or implied +contract, a mere employer of the inventor has no rights under the +patent. Only contracts or assignments give to the employer, or to +anyone else, a license or a partial or entire ownership in the patent. +The equity of this may be appreciated by examples. A journeyman +carpenter invents an improvement in chronometer escapements and +patents it. The man who owns the carpenter shop has no shadow of claim +on or under this patent. Again, the carpenter invents and patents an +improvement in jack planes. The shop owner has no rights in or under +the patent. Again, the carpenter invents an improvement in window +frames, and the shop owner has no rights. He has no right even to make +the patented window frame without license. The shop owner, in merely +employing the carpenter, acquires no rights to the carpenter's +patented inventions. But there are cases in which an implied license +would go to the shop owner. For instance, if the carpenter was +employed on the mutual understanding that he was particularly +ingenious in devising carpenter work, and capable of improving upon +the products of the shop; and if in the course of his work he devised +a new and patentable window frame, and developed it in connection with +his employment and at the expense of his employer; and if the new +frames were made by the employer without protest from the carpenter, +the carpenter could, of course, patent the new frame, but he could not +oust the employer in his right to continue making the invention, for +it would be held that the employer had acquired an implied license. + +If he could not use it, then he would not be getting the very +advantage for which he employed this particular carpenter, and if he +did get that right, he would be getting all that he employed the +carpenter for, and that right would not be at all lessened by the fact +that the carpenter had a patent under which he could license other +people. The patent does not constitute the right to make or use or +sell, for such right is enjoyed without a patent. The patent +constitutes the "exclusive" right to make, sell or use, and this the +shop owner does not get unless he specially bargains for it. Implied +licenses stand on delicate ground, and where men employ people of +ingenious talent, with the understanding that the results of such +talent developed during the employment shall inure to the benefit of +the employer, there is only one safeguard, and that is to found the +employment on a contract unmistakably setting forth the understanding. + + +NEW PURPOSE. + +If an invention is old, it is old regardless of any new purpose to +which it is put. It is no invention to put a machine to a new use. If +an inventor contrives a meritorious machine for the production of +coins or medals, his invention is lacking in novelty if it should +appear that such a machine had before been designed as a soap press, +and this fact is not altered by any merely structural or formal +difference, such as difference in power or strength, due to the +difference in duty. The invention resides in the machine and not in +the use of it. If the soap press is covered by an existing patent, +that patent is infringed by a machine embodying that invention, +regardless of whether the infringing machine be used for pressing soap +or silver. And it is no invention to discover some new capacity in an +old invention. An inventor is entitled to all the capacities of his +invention. + + +COMBINATION CLAIMS. + +Many people have an erroneous notion regarding patent claims, and +consider the expression "combination" as an element of weakness. The +fact is, that all mechanical claims that are good for anything are +combination claims. No claim for an individual mechanical element has +come under my notice for many years and I doubt if a new mechanical +element has been lately invented. All claims resolve themselves into +combinations, whether so expressed or not. Combination does not +necessarily imply separateness of elements. The improved carpet tack +is after all but a peculiar combination of body and head and barbs. +The erroneous public contempt for combination claims is based upon the +legal maxim, that if you break the combination you avoid the claim and +escape infringement, and this legal maxim should be well understood in +formulating the claims. If the claim calls for five elements and the +competitor can omit one of the elements, he escapes infringement. +Therefore, the claim is good only when it recites no elements which +are not essential. + +Many inventors labor under the delusion that a claim is strong in +proportion to the extent of its array of elements. The exact opposite +is the truth, and that claim is the strongest which recites the +fewest number of elements. It is the duty of the inventor to analyze +his invention and know what is and what is not essential to its +realization. It is the duty of the patent solicitor to sift out the +essential from the non-essential, and to draft claims covering broad +combinations involving only essential elements. Sometimes the inventor +will help him in this matter, but quite as often he will, through +ignorance, hinder him and combat him. The invention having been +carefully analyzed and reduced to its prime factors, and the claim +having been provided to comprise a combination involving no element +which is not essential to a realization of the invention, a new and +more important question arises. The elements have been recited in +terms fitted to the example of the invention thus far developed. The +combination is broadly stated, but the terms of the elements are +limiting. Cannot some ingenious infringer realize the invention by a +similar combination escaping the literalism of the terms of the +elements? It is at this stage that the claim must be carefully +studied. The inventor, or some one for him, must assume the position +of a pirate, and set his wits to work to contrive an organization +realizing the invention but escaping the terms of the proposed claim. +When such an escaping device is schemed out, then the defect in the +claim is developed and the claim must be redrawn. In this way every +possible escape must be studied so as to secure to the inventor +adequate protection for his invention. Solicitors find it difficult to +get inventors to do or consider this matter properly, inventors being +too often inclined to disparage alternative constructions, the matter +being largely one of sentiment founded on the love of offspring. + +The wise inventor will recognize the fact that the patent which he +proposes to get is the deed to valuable property; that the object of +the deed is not to permit him to enter upon the property, for he can +do that without the deed, but that it is to keep strangers from +entering upon the property; that he desires to enjoy his invention +without unauthorized competition; that when the property begins to +yield profit it will invite competition; that competitors may make +machines worse than or as good as or better than his; and that he can +get adequate protection only in a claim which would bar poorer as well +as better machines embodying his invention. Briefly, then, all good +claims for mechanism are combination claims; the fewer the elements +recited, the stronger will the claim be; non-essential elements weaken +or destroy the claim; the claim should not be considered satisfactory +so long as a way is seen for the escape of the ingenious pirate. + + +COMBINATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS. + +A given association of mechanical elements may be entirely new, but it +does not follow that it forms a patentable association, for not all +new things are patentable. If the new association is a combination, it +is patentable, but if it is a mere aggregation, it is unpatentable. An +association may be new and still all of its separate elements may be +old, the act of invention lying in the fact that the elements have +been so associated with relation to each other as to bring about an +improved result, or an improved means for an old result. All new +machines are, after all, composed of old elements. The law presupposes +that the elements are old, and that the invention resides in the +peculiar association of them. If we take a given mechanical element, +recognized as having had a certain capacity, and if we then similarly +take some other mechanical element and employ it only for its +previously recognized capacity, and if we then add the third element +for its recognized capacity, we have in the end only an association of +three elements each performing its well recognized individual office, +and the entire association performing only the sum of the recognized +individual elements. Such an association is a mere aggregation, a mere +adding together of elements, without making the sum of the results any +greater in the association than it was in the individual elements. It +is simply adding two to one and getting three as a result. An +aggregation is unpatentable. As an illustration, a heavy marble statue +of Jupiter is found in the parlor and difficult to move. Ordinary +casters are put under its pedestal and it becomes easier to move. +Modern anti-friction two-wheeled casters are substituted for the +commoner casters, and the statue becomes still easier to move. Casters +were never before associated with a statue of Jupiter. Here is a new +association, but it is a mere aggregation. The statue of Jupiter has +been unmodified by the presence of the casters, and the casters +perform precisely the same under the statue of Jupiter that they did +under the bedstead. There is no combined result, and there is no +patentable combination. + +But if an inventor takes a given mechanical element for the purpose of +its well recognized capacity, and then associates with it another +mechanical element for its recognized capacity, but so associates the +two elements that one has a modifying effect upon the capacity of the +other element, then the association will be capable of a result +greater than the sum of the results for the individual elements. This +excessive result is not due to the individual elements, but to the +combination of them. One has been added to one and a sum greater than +two has been secured. The modification of result may be due merely to +the bringing of the two elements together, so that they may mutually +act upon each other, or it may be due to the manner or means by which +they are joined. In a patentable combination the separate elements +mutually act upon each other to effect a modification of their +previous individual results, and secure a conjoint result greater than +the sum of the individual results. The elements of a combination need +not act simultaneously; they may act successively, or some may act +without motion. As an illustration, assume an old watch in which there +was a stem for setting the hands, and assume another old watch with a +stem for winding the spring. If an inventor should make a watch, and +provide it with the two stems, he would have only an aggregation. But +if he employed but one stem, and so located it that it could be used +at will for setting the hands or for winding the spring, then he would +have produced a combination. The particular instance just given is not +a case of the same number of elements, producing a result in excess of +the individual results of the separate elements, but is rather a case +of a lesser number of elements, producing a combination result equal +to the sum of the previous results of a greater number of elements. A +better example would perhaps be a new watch with its two old stems so +related that either could be used for setting the hands or for winding +the spring. + + +GENERA AND SPECIES. + +An inventor, being the first to produce a given organization, and +desiring to patent it, may see at once a patentable variation on the +device. In other words, he makes two machines patentably different, +but both embodying his main invention. He drafts his broad patent +claim to cover both machines. In his patent he must illustrate his +invention, and he accordingly shows in the drawings the preferred +machine. The two machines represent two species of his generic +invention, and for illustration he selects the preferable species. He +drafts his generic claim to cover both species, and he follows this +with a specific claim relating to the selected species. The question +might be asked, If the broad generic claim covers the selected and all +other species, why bother with the specific claim, why not rest on the +generic claim? The answer is that it might in the future develop that +the genus was old, and that the generic claim was invalid, while the +specific claim would still be good. The infringer of the specific +claim may thus be held notwithstanding the generic claim becomes void. +But the inventor cannot claim his second species in his patent. He can +claim the genus, and he can claim one species under that genus, but +all other species must be covered in separate patents. It is even +unwise to illustrate alternative species in a patent for, in case, of +litigation, some one of the alternative species might prove to be old. +This would have the effect, of course, to destroy the generic claim, +but it might possibly have the effect of damaging the specific claim +if it should appear that the specific claim was after all merely for a +modification as distinguished from a distinct species. Were it not for +the danger of broad generic claims being rendered void by discovered +anticipations, there would be no need for claiming species, but in +view of such possibility it is important to claim one species in the +generic patent, and to protect alternative species by other patents. + + +COMBINATION AND SUB-COMBINATION. + +A given machine capable of a given ultimate result having been +invented, a claim may be drawn to cover the combination of elements +comprised in the machine. Such claim will cover the machine as a +whole. But, the fact being recognized that many machines are, after +all, composed of a series of sub-machines, and that these +sub-machines, in turn, are composed of certain combinations of +elements, and that within these sub-machines there are still minor +combinations of elements capable of producing useful mechanical +results, and that the sub-machines, or some of the subordinate +combinations of elements within the sub-machines, might be capable of +utilization in other situations than that comprehended by the main +machine, it becomes important that the inventor be protected regarding +the sub-machines and the minor useful combinations. Claims may be +drawn for the combination constituting the main machine, other claims +may be drawn for the combinations constituting the operative +sub-machines, and claims may be drawn covering the minor useful +combinations of elements found within the sub-machines. Each claimed +combination must be operative. But secondary claims cannot be made for +sub-machines or sub-combinations which are for divisional matter or +matter which should be made the subject of separate patents. + + +MECHANICAL EQUIVALENTS. + +Where an inventor produces a new mechanical device for the production +of a certain result, he can often see in advance that various +modifications of it can be made to bring about the same result, and +even if he does not see it he may in the future find competitors +getting at the result by a different construction. He analyzes the +competing structure, and determines that "it is the same thing only +different," and wonders what the legal doctrine of mechanical +equivalents means, and asks if he is not entitled to the benefits of +that doctrine, so that his patent may dominate the competing machine. + +An inventor may or may not be entitled to invoke the doctrine of +mechanical equivalents, and the doctrine may or may not cause his +patent to cover a given fancied infringement. If an inventor is a +pioneer in a certain field, and is the first to produce an +organization of mechanism by means of which a given result is +produced, he is entitled to a claim whose breadth of language is +commensurate with the improvement he has wrought in the art. He cannot +claim functions or performance, but must limit his claim to mechanism, +in other words, to the combination of elements which produces the new +result. His claim recites those elements by name. If the new result +cannot be produced by any other combination of elements, then, of +course, no question will arise regarding infringement. But it may be +that a competitor contrives a device having some of the elements of +the combination as called for by the claim, the remaining elements +being omitted and substitutes provided. The competing device will thus +not respond to the language of the claim. But the courts will deal +liberally with the claim of the meritorious pioneer inventor, and will +apply to it the doctrine of mechanical equivalents, and will hold the +claim to be infringed by a combination containing all of the elements +recited in the claim, or containing some of them, and mechanical +equivalents for the rest of them. Were it not for this liberal +doctrine, the pioneer inventor could gather little fruit from his +patent, for the patent could be avoided, perhaps, by the mere +substitution of a wedge for the screw or lever called for by the +claim. The court, having ascertained from the prior art that the +inventor is entitled to invoke the doctrine of equivalents, will +proceed to ascertain if the substituted elements are real equivalents. +A given omitted element will be considered in connection with its +substitute element, and if the substitute element is found to be an +element acting in substantially the same manner for the production of +substantially the same individual result, and if it be found that the +prior art has recognized the equivalency of the two individual +elements, then the court will say that the substituted element is a +mechanical equivalent of the omitted element, and that the two +combinations are substantially the same. This reasoning must be +applied to each of the omitted elements for which substitutes have +been furnished. In this way justice can be done to the pioneer +inventor. But the courts, in exercising liberality, cannot do violence +to the language of the claim. The infringer will not escape by merely +substituting equivalents for recited elements, but he will escape if +he omits a recited element and supplies no substitute, for the courts +will not read out of a claim an element which the patentee has +deliberately put into the claim, and a combination of a less number of +elements than that recited in the claim is not the combination called +for by the claim. + +It is seldom that the exemplifying device of the pioneer inventor is a +perfect one. Later developments and improvements by the original +patentee, or by others, must be depended on to bring about perfection +of structure. Those who improve the structure are as much entitled to +patents upon their specific improvements in the device as was the +original inventor entitled to his patent for the fundamental device. +These improvers are secondary inventors, and are not entitled to +invoke the doctrine of mechanical equivalents. The secondary inventor +did not bring about a new result, but his patent was for new means for +producing the old result. His patent is for this improvement in means, +and his claim will be closely scrutinized in court, and he will be +held to it, subject only to formal variations in structure. The +justice of thus restricting the claim of the secondary inventor must +be obvious, in view of the fact that if the doctrine of mechanical +equivalents were applied to his claim, then the fundamental device on +which he improved would probably infringe upon it, which would be an +absurdity. It is thus seen that the pioneer inventor may have a claim +so broad in its terms that its terms cannot be escaped; that he may +invoke the doctrine of equivalents and have his claim dominate +structures not directly responding to the terms of the claim; that the +secondary inventor, who improves only the means, is limited to the +recited means and cannot invoke the doctrine of equivalents. But +within this general view, sight is not to be lost of the fact that +secondary inventors may be pioneers within certain limits. They are +not the first to produce the broad ultimate result, but they may be +pioneers in radically improving interior or sub-results, and they may +thus reasonably ask for the application of the doctrine of equivalents +to their claims within proper limits. The matter often becomes quite +complicated, for it is sometimes difficult to determine as to what is +the result in a given machine, for many machines consist, after all, +of a combination of subordinate machines. Thus the modern +grain-harvesting machine embodies a machine for moving to the place of +attack, a machine for cutting the grain, a machine for supporting the +grain at the instant of cutting, a machine for receiving the cut +grain, a machine for conveying the cut grain to a bindery, a machine +for measuring the cut grain into gavels, a machine for compressing the +gavel, a machine for applying the band, a machine for tying the band, +a machine for discharging the bundle, a machine to receive the bundles +and carry them to a place of deposit, and a machine to deposit the +accumulated bundles. The machine would be useful with one or more of +these sub-machines omitted, and each machine may be capable of +performing its own individual results alone or in other associations. +Pioneership of invention might apply to the main machine, or to the +sub-machines, or even to the sub-organization within the sub-machines. + +(To be continued.) + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 1172, page 18764.] + + + + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CENTRAL STATION. + +By SAMUEL INSULL.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Before the Electrical Engineering Department of + Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., May 17, 1898.] + + +The success of the low-tension system was followed by the introduction +of the alternating system, using high potential primaries with the +converters at each house, reducing, as a rule, from 1,000 down to +either 50 or 100 volts. I am not familiar with the early alternating +work, and had not at my disposal sufficient time in preparing my notes +to go at any length into an investigation of this branch of the +subject; nor do I think that any particular advantage could have been +served by my doing so, as it has become generally recognized that the +early alternating work with a house-to-house converter system, while +it undoubtedly helped central station development at the time, proved +very uneconomical in operation and expensive in investment, when the +cost of converters is added to the cost of distribution. The large +alternating stations in this country have so clearly demonstrated this +that their responsible managers have, within the last few years, done +everything possible, by the adoption of block converters and +three-wire secondary circuits, to bring their system as close as they +could in practice to the low-tension direct-current distribution +system. I do not want to be understood as undervaluing the position of +the alternating current in central station work. It has its place, but +to my mind its position is a false one when it is used for +house-to-house distribution with converters for each customer. The +success of the oldest stations in this country, and the demonstration +of the possibilities of covering areas of several miles in extent by +the use of the three wire system, resulted in much capital going into +the business. One of the earliest stations of a really modern type +installed on either side of the Atlantic was built by the Berlin +Electricity Works. The engineers of that station, while recognizing +the high value of the distributing system, went back to Edison's +original scheme of a compact direct-connected steam and electric +generator, but with dynamos of the multipolar type designed and built +by Siemens & Halske, of Berlin, the engines being of vertical marine +type. + +This was followed by the projecting in New York of the present Duane +Street station, employing boilers of 200 pounds pressure, triple and +quadruple expansion engines of the marine type, and direct-connected +multipolar dynamos. Almost immediately thereafter, the station in +Atlantic Avenue, Boston, somewhat on the same general design so far as +contents is concerned, was erected. In 1891 a small station, but on +the same lines, was projected for San Francisco, and in 1892 the +present Harrison Street station of the Chicago Edison company was +designed, and, benefiting by the experience of Berlin, New York and +Boston, this station produces electric current for lighting purposes +probably cheaper than any station of a similar size anywhere in this +country. + +It is not necessary for me to go into detail in explanation of the +modern central station. You are all doubtless quite familiar with the +general design, but if you will examine the detail drawings of the +Harrison Street station, which I have brought with me, you will find +that every effort has been made to provide for the economical +production of steam, low cost of operating, good facilities for +repairs and consequently low cost, and for permanency of service. You +have but to go into any of the modern central stations in midwinter, +to see them turning out anywhere from 10,000 to 80,000 amperes with a +minimum of labor, to appreciate the fact that central station business +is of a permanent and lucrative character. + +To go back to the question of alternating currents, the work done in +connection with the two-phase and three-phase currents and the +perfection of the rotary transformer has resulted in introducing into +central station practice a further means of economizing the cost of +production--by concentration of power. According to present +experience, it is (except in some extraordinary cases) uneconomical to +distribute direct low-tension current over more than a radius of a +mile and a half from the generating point. The possibility of +transmitting it at a very high voltage, and consequently low +investment in conductors, has resulted in the adoption of a scheme, in +many of the large cities, of alternating transmission combined with +low tension distribution. The limit to which this alternating +transmission can be economically carried has not yet been definitely +settled, but it is quite possible even now to transmit economically +from the center of any of our large cities to the distant suburbs, by +means of high potential alternating currents, distributing the current +from the subcenter distribution by means either of the alternating +current itself and large transformers for a block or district or else, +if the territory is thickly settled, by means of a system of +low-tension mains and feeders, the direct current for this purpose +being obtained through the agency of rotary transformers. + +There are various methods of producing the alternating current for +transmission purposes. In some cases the generators are themselves +wound for high potential; in others they are wound for 80 volts, and +step-up transformers are used, carrying the current up to whatever +pressure is desired, from 1,000 to 10,000 volts. In other cases +dynamos are used having collector rings for alternating current on one +side and a commutator for direct current on the other side of the +armature, thus enabling you, when the peak in two districts of a city +comes at two different times, to take care of this peak by means of +the same original generating unit, furnishing direct low-tension +current to the points near the central station and alternating current +to the distant points. In other cases, where a small amount of +alternating current is required on the transmission line, it has even +been found economical to take direct current from a large unit, change +it by means of a rotary transformer into alternating current, step up +from 80 to, say, 2,000 volts, go to the distant point, and step down +again to 80 volts alternating, and then convert again by means of a +rotary transformer into low-potential direct current. + +The introduction of alternating current for transmission purposes in +large cities is probably best exemplified in the station recently +erected in Brooklyn, where alternating current is produced and carried +to distant points, and then used to operate series arc-light machines +run by synchronous motors, the low-tension direct-current network +being fed by rotary transformers, and alternating circuits arranged +with block converters, and even in some cases separate converters for +each individual customer in the scattered districts. + +It would be very interesting to go at length into the details of cost +in this, the latest development of central station transmission, but +time will not permit; nor have I the time at my disposal to go at +length into the central station business as developed by the electric +street railways now so universally in use, or another phase of the +business as exemplified by the large transmission plants, the two +greatest examples of which, in this country, are probably those at +Niagara Falls, N.Y., and Lachine Rapids, near Montreal. So far as +street railways and power transmission are concerned, I would draw +your attention to the fact that the same underlying principle of +multiple-arc mains and feeders originally conceived by Mr. Edison is +as much a necessity in their operation as it is in the electric +lighting systems, whether those systems be operated on the old +two-wire plan, the three-wire plan or by means of alternating +currents. + +Passing from a review of central station plants and distribution +system naturally bring us to the operating cost and the factors +governing profit and loss of the enterprise. In considering this +branch of the subject, I will confine my remarks to the business as +operated in Chicago by the company with which I am connected. + +Our actual maximum last winter came on December 20, our load being +approximately 12,000 horse power. A comparison of the figures of +maximum capacity and maximum load of last winter shows that we had a +margin in capacity over output of about 20 per cent. The load curves +shown this evening represent the maximum output of last winter +(December 20), an average summer load last year (June 4), and an +average spring load of this year (May 2). For our purposes we will +assume the maximum capacity of the plant and the maximum load of the +system to be identical. The maximum load last winter occurred, as I +have stated, on December 20, about 4:30 o'clock in the afternoon, and +lasted less than half an hour. It should be borne in mind that the +period of maximum load only lasts for from two to three months, and +that the investment necessary to take care of that maximum load, has +to be carried the whole year. It should not be assumed from this +statement that the whole plant as an earning factor is in use 25 per +cent. of the year. The fact is that, during the period of maximum +load, the total plant is in operation only about 100 hours out of the +8,760 hours of the year; so that you are compelled, in order to get +interest on your investment, to earn the interest for the whole of the +year in about 11/2 per cent. of that period, on about 50 per cent. of +your plant. + +This statement must bring home to you a realization of the fact that +by far the most serious problem of central station management, and by +far the greatest item of cost of your product, is interest on the +investment. It may be that the use of storage batteries in connection +with large installations will modify this interest charge, but even +allowing the highest efficiency and the lowest cost of maintenance +ever claimed for a storage battery installation, the fact of high +interest cost must continue to be the most important factor in +calculating profit and loss. This brings home to us the fact that in +his efforts to show the greatest possible efficiency of his plant and +distribution system, it is quite possible that the station manager may +spend so much capital as to eat up many times over in interest charge +the saving that he makes in direct operating expenses. It is a common +mistake for the so-called expert to demonstrate to you that he has +designed for you a plant of the highest possible efficiency, and at +the same time for him to lose sight of the fact that he has saddled +you with the highest possible amount of interest on account of +excessive investment. Operating cost and interest cost should never be +separated. One is as much a part of the cost of your current as the +other. This is particularly illustrated in connection with the use of +storage batteries. Those opposed to their use will point out to you +that of the energy going into the storage battery only 70 per cent. is +available for use on your distribution system. That statement in +itself is correct; but in figuring the cost of energy for a class of +business for which the storage battery is particularly adapted, the +maximum load, that portion of your operating cost affected by the 30 +per cent. loss of energy in the battery, forms under 41/2 per cent. +of your total cost, and it must be self-evident, in that case at +least, that the 30 per cent. loss in the storage battery is hardly an +appreciable factor in figuring the operating cost of your product. So +far as I have been able to ascertain, it would appear to be economical +to use storage batteries in connection with central station systems +the peak of whose load does not exceed from two to two and one-half +hours. + +In order to illustrate the important bearing which interest has on +cost, I have prepared graphical representations of the cost of +current, including interest, under conditions of varying load factors. +For the purpose of this chart I have assumed an average cost of +current, so far as operating and repairs and renewals and general +expense are concerned, extending over a period of a year, although of +course these items are more or less attested by the character of the +load factor. For the purpose of figuring interest, I have selected +seven different classes of business commonly taken by electric light +and power companies in any large city. Take, for instance, an office +building. It has a load factor of about 3.7 per cent., that is, the +average load for the whole year is 3.7 per cent. of the maximum demand +on you for current at any one time during that period; or, to put it +in another way, this load factor of 3.7 per cent. would show that your +investment is in use the equivalent of a little over 323 hours a year +on this class of business. This is by no means an extreme case. You +can find in almost every large city customers whose load factors are +not nearly as favorable to the operating company, their use of your +investment being as low as the equivalent of 75 or 100 hours a year. +Take another class of business, that of the haberdasher, or small +fancy goods store. As a rule these stores are comparatively small, +with facilities for getting a large amount of natural light and little +use for artificial light. The load factor as shown by the chart is +about 7 per cent., the use of your investment being not quite twice as +long as that of the office building. Day saloons show an average of 16 +per cent. load factor; cafetiers and small lunch counters about 20 per +cent., while the large dry goods stores, in which there is +comparatively little light, have a load factor of 25 per cent. and use +your investment seven times as long per year as the office building. +Power business naturally shows a still better load factor, say 35 per +cent., and the all-night restaurant has a load factor of 48 per cent. + +You will see from this that the great desideratum of the central +station system is, from the investors' point of view, the necessity of +getting customers for your product whose business is of such a +character as to call for a low maximum and long average use. This +question of load factor is by all means the most important one in +central station economy. If your maximum is very high and your average +consumption very low, heavy interest charges will necessarily follow. +The nearer you can bring your average to your maximum load, the closer +you approximate to the most economical conditions of production, and +the lower you can afford to sell your current. Take, for instance, the +summer and winter curves of the Chicago Edison company. The curve of +December 20, 1897, shows a load factor of about 48 per cent.; the +curve of May 2, 1898, shows a load factor of nearly 60 per cent. Now, +if we were able in Chicago to get business of such a character as +would give us a curve of the same characteristics in December as the +curve we get in May; or, in other words, if we could improve our load +factor, our interest cost would be reduced, an effect would be +produced upon the other items going to make up the cost of current, +and we probably could make more money out of our customers at a lower +price per unit than we get from them now. + +Many schemes are employed for improving the load factor, or, in other +words, to encourage a long use of central station product. Some +companies adopt a plan of allowing certain stated discounts, provided +the income per month of each lamp connected exceeds a given sum. The +objection to this is that it limits the number of lamps connected. +Other companies have what is known as the two-rate scheme, charging +one rate for electricity used during certain hours of the day and a +lower rate for electricity used during the balance of the day, using a +meter with two dials for this purpose. Other companies use an +instrument which registers the maximum demand for the month, and the +excess over the equivalent of a certain specified number of hours +monthly in use of the maximum demand is sold at greatly reduced price. +The last scheme would seem particularly equitable, as it results in +what is practically an automatic scale of discounts based on the +average load factor of the customers. It does not seem to be just that +a man who only uses your investment say 100 hours a year should be +able to buy your product at precisely the same price as the man who +uses your investment say 3,000 hours a year, when the amount of money +invested to take care of either customer is precisely the same. Surely +the customer who uses the product on an average 30 times longer than +the customer using it for only 100 hours is entitled to a much lower +unit rate, in view of the fact that the expense for interest to the +company is in one case but a fraction per unit of output of what it is +in the other. This fact is illustrated by the interest columns on the +graphic chart already referred to. Supposing that the central station +manager desired to sell his product at cost, that is, an amount +sufficient to cover his operating, repairs and renewals, general +expense, and interest and depreciation, he would have to obtain from +the customer having the poorest load factor, as shown on the load +chart, over four times as much per unit of electricity as it would be +necessary for him to collect from the customer having the largest load +factor. No one would think of going to a bank to borrow money and +expect to pay precisely the same total interest whether he required +the money for one month or for twelve; and for the same reason it +seems an absurdity to sell electricity to the customer who uses it but +a comparatively few hours a year at the same price at which you would +sell it to the customer using it ten hours a day and three hundred +days a year, when it is remembered that interest is the largest factor +in cost, and the total amount of interest is the same with the +customer using it but a few hours a year as it is with the customer +using it practically all the year around. + +I have dwelt thus at length on the question of interest cost in +operating a central station system, not alone for the purpose of +pointing out to you its importance in connection with an electrical +distribution system, but also to impress upon you its importance as a +factor in cost; in fact, the most important factor in cost in any +public service business which you may enter after leaving this +institution. Most of the businesses presenting the greatest +possibilities from the point of view of an engineering career are +those requiring very large investment and having a comparatively small +turnover or yearly income. Of necessity, in all enterprises of this +character, the main factor of cost is interest, and if you intend +following engineering as a profession, my advice to you would be to +learn first the value of money, or, to put it another way, to learn +the cost of money. + +Before leaving this question of interest and its effect upon cost, I +would draw your attention to the fact that while interest is by far +the most important factor of cost, it is a constantly reducing amount +per unit of maximum output in practically every central station +system. When a system is first installed, it is the rule to make large +enough investment in real estate and buildings to take care of many +times the output obtained in the first year or so of operation. As a +rule, the generating plant from the boilers to the switchboard is +designed with only sufficient surplus to last a year or so. In the +case of the distributing system the same course is followed as in the +case of real estate and buildings, with a view to minimizing the +ultimate investment. Mains are laid along each block facing, feeders +are put in having a capacity far beyond the necessity of the moment; +consequently interest cost is very high when a plant first starts, +except, as I have stated, in the case of the machinery forming the +generating plant itself. As the business increases from, year to year, +the item of interest per unit of maximum output consequently will +constantly decrease, owing to the fact that each additional unit of +output following an increase of connected load increases the divisor +by which the total interest is divided. The result is from year to +year the interest cost of each additional unit of maximum output is a +constantly reducing amount, and consequently the average interest cost +of each unit of maximum output should, in a well regulated plant, grow +less from year to year until the minimum interest cost per unit is +reached. This minimum interest cost is reached when the capacity of +the whole system and the total units of output at maximum load are +identical, although of course it will always be necessary to have a +certain margin of capacity over possible output, as a factor of +safety. + +This same rule, although to a less extent, applies to the operating +and general expense cost, that is, the cost other than interest. To +particularize, the manager's salary and other administrative expenses +do not increase in proportion to maximum output of station; therefore, +the cost of administration per unit of output, if the business is in a +healthy condition, must be from year to year reduced. There are a +great many other expenses that are not directly in proportion to +output, and these follow the same rule. In a well-run plant the +percentage of operating expenses to gross receipts will stand even +year after year, while the income per unit of output will be +constantly reduced. This is an excellent evidence of the fact that the +cost per unit of output is constantly being reduced, as, if it were +not, the percentage of expenses to gross receipts would be increased +in direct proportion to the reduction in price. Moreover, it should be +borne in mind that there are many difficulties in the way of universal +use of electric energy from a central station system. It is the rare +exception to find a house not piped for gas and water. In the case of +the latter it is almost invariably the rule that owners are compelled +to pipe for water, under the sanitary code of the municipality. On the +other hand, in a large residential district, it is the exception to +find a house wired for electric light; consequently the output of +current per foot of conductor is at the present time very low as +compared with the output of gas per foot of gas pipe in any of the +large cities. The expense of wiring (which must of necessity be borne +by the householder) is large, and it is often a barrier to the +adoption of electric illumination, but as the rule to wire houses +becomes more general, the output per foot of main will constantly +increase, and therefore the interest per unit of output per foot of +main will constantly decrease. This same rule will apply in the case +of expenses of taking care of and repairing the distribution system, +although to not so great an extent. + +If you will take into account these various factors constantly +operating toward a reduction of operating and general expense cost, +and interest cost, the conclusion must necessarily be forced upon you +that the price at which current can be sold at a profit to-day is in +no sense a measure of the income per unit which it will be necessary +for central station managers to obtain in the future. In 1881-82 it +was difficult to make both ends meet with an income of 25 cents per +kilowatt hour, to-day there are many stations showing a substantial +return on their investment whose average income does not exceed 7 +cents per kilowatt hour, showing 70 per cent. reduction in price in +less than two decades. How far this constant reduction in cost, +followed by a constant reduction in selling price, will go, it is +difficult to determine; but if so much has been accomplished during +the first 20 years of the existence of the industry, is it too much to +predict that in a far less time than the succeeding 20 years electric +current for all purposes will be within the reach of the smallest +householder and the poorest citizen? But few industries can parallel +the record already obtained. If you will trace the history of the +introduction of gas as an illuminant, you will find that it took a +much longer time to establish it on a commercial basis than it has +taken to establish most firmly the electric lighting industry. All the +great improvements in gas, the introduction of water gas, the +economizing in consumption by the use of the Welsbach burner, have all +been made within the time of those before me, and yet, notwithstanding +that when these gas improvements started, the electric lighting +business was hardly conceived, and certainly had not advanced to a +point where you could claim that it had passed the experimental +stage--notwithstanding this, the cost of electrical energy has +decreased so rapidly that to-day there are many large central station +plants making handsome returns on their investments at a far lower +average income per unit of light than the income obtained by the gas +company in the same community. In making my calculations which have +led me to this conclusion, I have assumed that 10,000 watts are equal +to 1,000 feet of gas. This comparison holds good, provided an +incandescent lamp of high economy is used as against the ordinary gas +burner. To make a comparison between electric illumination and +incandescent gas burners, such as the Welsbach burner, you must figure +on the use of an arc lamp in the electric circuit instead of an +incandescent lamp, which is certainly fair when it is remembered that +incandescent gas burners are, as a rule, used in places where arc +lamps should be used if electric illumination is employed. + +With such brilliant results obtained in the past, the prospects of the +central station industry are certainly most dazzling. While the growth +of the business has been phenomenal, more especially since 1890, I +think it can be conservatively stated that we have scarcely entered +upon the threshold of the development which may be expected in the +future. In very few cities in the United States can you find that +electric illumination exceeds more than 20 per cent. of the total +artificial illumination for which the citizens pay. If this be the +state of affairs in connection with the use of electricity for +illuminating purposes, and if you will bear in mind the many other +purposes to which electricity can be adapted throughout a city and +supplied to customers in small quantities, you may get some faint +conception of the possible consumption of electrical energy in the not +far distant future. Methods of producing it may change, but these +methods cannot possibly go into use unless their adoption is justified +by saving in the cost of production--a saving which must be sufficient +to show a profit above the interest and depreciation on the new plant +employed. It is within the realms of possibility that the present form +of generating station may be entirely dispensed with. It has already +been demonstrated experimentally that electrical energy may be +produced direct from the coal itself without the intervention of the +boiler, engine and dynamo machine. Whether this can be done +commercially remains to be proved. Whatever changes may take place in +generating methods, I should, were I not engaged in a business which +affords so many remarkable surprises, be inclined to question the +possibility of any further material change in the distributing system. +Improvements in the translating devices, such as lamps, may add +enormously to the capacity of the distributing system per unit of +light; but it does seem to me that the system itself, as originally +conceived, is to a large extent a permanency. Should any great +improvements take place in the medium employed for turning electrical +energy into light, the possible effect on cost, and consequently +selling price, would be enormous. + + * * * * * + +THE PROPOSAL of Gov. Black, which has now become law, to depute to +Cornell the care of a considerable tract of forest land, and the duty +of demonstrating to Americans the theory, methods and profits of +scientific forestry, has a curious appropriateness much commented on +at the university, since two-thirds of the wealth of Cornell has been +derived from the location and skillful management of forest lands, the +net receipts from this source being to date $4,112,000. In the course +of twenty years management the university has thrice sold the timber +on some pieces of land which it still holds, and received a larger +price at the third sale than at the first. The conduct of this land +business is so systematized that the treasurer of the university knows +to a dot the amount of pine, hemlock, birch, maple, basswood and oak +timber, even to the number of potential railroad ties, telegraph poles +and fence posts on each fourth part of a quarter section owned by +Cornell. Certainly, Cornell is rich in experience for the business +side of a forestry experiment such as Gov. Black proposes. The +university forest lands from which its endowment has been realized are +in Wisconsin. + + * * * * * + +Books may be called heavy when the qualifying term is not applied to +their writers, but to the paper makers. It is falsifications in the +paper that give it weight. Sulphate of baryta, the well known +adulterate of white lead, does the work. A correspondent, writing to +The London Saturday Review, gives the weight of certain books as: Miss +Kingsley's "Travels in Africa." 3 pounds 5 ounces; "Tragedy of the +Caesars," 3 pounds; Mahan's "Nelson" (1 vol.), 2 pounds 10 ounces; +"Tennyson" (1 vol.), 2 pounds 6 ounces; "Life and Letters of Jowett" +(1 vol.), 2 pounds 1 ounce. To handle these dumb-bell books, The +Saturday Review advises that readers take lessons in athletics. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE LOCK OF THE DORTMUND-EMS CANAL AT HENRICHENBURG. + + +The Dortmund-Ems Canal, destined to connect the heart of German +industry with the sea, was formally dedicated on April 1, and +partially opened to commerce. After its completion, German coal will +be transported to the harbors of the Ems at the same cost as the +English coal which has hitherto forced back the treasures of our soil; +our black diamonds will then be sold in the markets of the world, and +the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal will enable the western part of the empire to +exchange its coal and iron for the grain and wood of the East. + +Many difficulties were encountered in cutting the canal, owing partly +to the vast network of railroads in the coal region of Westphalia, but +chiefly due to the insufficiency of moisture in the highlands, the +latter not containing enough water to supply the many necessary +sluices, at which it could be easily foreseen considerable traffic +would occur. + +[Illustration: THE LOCK OF THE DORTMUND-EMS CANAL AT HENRICHENBURG.] + +For the modern engineer there are, however, no insurmountable +obstacles. Instead of a line of ordinary locks, a single structure was +erected sufficient for the needs of the entire region. This lock is +situated at Henrichenburg, near Dortmund, and our illustration +pictures it with its lock-chamber half raised. + +The lock, which serves to overcome a difference in level of fifty-nine +feet, raises vessels of 1,000 tons capacity with a velocity of 0.3 to +0.7 foot per second, and has been constructed after a new and +astonishingly simple system. + +The lock chamber, designed for the reception of the various vessels, +is 229.60 feet in length and 28.864 feet in breadth and normally +contains 8.2 feet of water. Under the sluice in a line with the long +axis are five wells filled with water in which cylindrical floats are +placed, connected to the bottom of the chamber by means of iron +trellis-work. The floats are placed so deeply that, in their highest +position, their upper edges are always submerged; they are, moreover, +of such size that by means of their upward impulsion the chamber is +held in equilibrium. Irrespective of the small differences of pressure +which arise from the varying immersion of the framework, the lock will +in all positions be in equilibrium. Since a vessel which enters the +lock displaces a volume of water whose weight is equal to the weight +of the vessel, a constant equilibrium will always be maintained and +only a minimum force required to raise or lower the chamber. In order +to move the lock-chamber up and down and to sustain it constantly in a +horizontal position, nuts have been fixed to strong crossbeams, +through which powerful screw-rods work. + +These rods are held in place by a massive framework of iron and are +turned to the left or to the right by means of a small steam engine, +placed at one side of the lock, which engine, by means of a +longitudinal shaft, drives two cross shafts to which bevel wheels are +attached. By this means the chamber is lowered and raised. The screw +rods are so powerful that they sustain the entire weight of the lock +chamber, and the pitch of the thread is such that spontaneous sliding +or slipping is impossible, the chamber being, therefore, kept +constantly in the desired position. + +It is interesting to note that the hollow space in the screw rods is +heated by steam during winter, thus preventing the formation of ice in +the machinery. + +During the eighties, locks for ships of 400 tons capacity were +erected in England and France, at Anderton, Les Fontinettes and La +Louviere. The lock at Henrichenburg, however, exceeds all its +predecessors, not only in size, but also in security. At all events, +the structure is a worthy memorial of the energy and genius of +German engineers.--Illustrirte Zeitung. + + * * * * * + +Paper hanging by machine is the latest achievement, according to a +German contemporary, says The Engineer. The arrangement used for this +purpose is provided with a rod upon which the roll of paper is placed. +A paste receptacle with a brushing arrangement is attached in such a +manner that the paste is applied automatically on the back of the +paper. The end of the wall paper is fixed at the bottom of the wall +and the implement rises on the wall and only needs to be set by one +workman. While the wall paper unrolls and, provided with paste, is +held against the wall, an elastic roller follows on the outside, which +presses it firmly to the wall. When the wall paper has reached the +top, the workman pulls a cord, whereby it is cut off from the +remainder on the roll. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE AMERICAN "REGULAR." + +BY THE ENGLISH CORRESPONDENT OF THE LONDON TIMES ON BOARD THE +UNITED STATES TRANSPORT "GUSSIE." + + +The "regular" of the United States is in many respects the least +equipped foot soldier of my acquaintance. This was my reflection as I +overhauled the kit of a private this morning on board the "Gussie." +There was not a single brush in his knapsack. I counted three in that +of a Spanish foot soldier only a few weeks ago. The American knapsack +is merely a canvas bag cut to the outward proportions of the European +knapsack, but in practical features bearing affinity with the +"rueckensack" of the Tyrolean chamois hunters, or pack-sack of the +backwoodsmen of Canada and the Adirondack Mountains. This knapsack of +the American is not intended to be carried on any extended marches, +although the total weight he is ever called upon to carry, including +everything, is only 50 pounds, a good 12 pounds less than what is +carried by the private of Germany. The men of this regiment, in heavy +marching order, carry an overcoat with a cape, a blanket, the half of +a shelter tent, and one wooden tent pole in two sections. The rifle +could be used as a tent pole--so say men I talk with on the subject. +On this expedition overcoats are a superfluity, and it is absurd that +troops should be sent to the tropics in summer wearing exactly the +same uniform they would be using throughout the winter on the +frontiers of Canada. This war will, no doubt, produce a change after +English models. At present the situation here is prevented from being +painful because no marching has yet been attempted, and the commanding +officers permit the most generous construction in the definition of +what is a suitable uniform. + +On the trip of this ship to Cuba, no officer or man has ever worn a +tunic excepting at guard mounting inspection. The 50 men who went +ashore near Cabanas on May 12 and pitched into some 500 Spaniards left +their coats behind and fought in their blue flannel shirts. Of the +officers, some wore a sword, some did not, though all carried a +revolver. No orders were issued on the subject--it was left to +individual taste, I have experienced hotter days at German maneuvers +than on the coast of Cuba during the days we happened to be there, yet +I have never noticed any disposition in the army of William II. to +relax the severity of service even temporarily. My German friends +sincerely believe that the black stock and the hot tunic are what has +made Prussia a strong nation, and to disturb that superstition would +be a thankless task. + +In the way of clothing the American private carries a complete change +of under-drawers, under-shirt, socks, laced boots and uniform +trousers. My particular private was carrying a double allowance of +socks, handkerchiefs, and underwear. He had a toothbrush and comb. +That is the heavy marching order knapsack. For light marching, which +is the usual manner, the man begins by spreading on the ground his +half-tent, which is about the size of a traveling rug. On this he +spreads his blanket, rolls it up tightly into a long narrow sausage, +having first distributed along its length a pair of socks, a change of +underwear, and the two sticks of his one tent pole. Then he brings the +ends of this canvas roll together, not closely, as in the German army, +but more like the ends of a horse-shoe, held by a rope which at the +same time stops the ends of the roll tightly. When this horse shoe is +slung over the man's shoulder, it does not press uncomfortably upon +his chest. The total weight is distributed in the most convenient +manner for marching. + +The packing of the man's things is strictly according to regulation, +excepting only the single pocket in his knapsack, where he may carry +what he chooses, as he chooses. His light canvas haversack is much +like the English one, and his round, rather flat water flask is +covered with canvas. It is made of tin, and the one I inspected was +rusty inside. It would be better if of aluminum. In the haversack is a +pannikin with a hinged handle that may be used as a saucepan. Over +this fits a tin plate, and when the two are covering one another the +handle of the pannikin fits over both by way of handle. It is an +excellent arrangement, but should be of aluminum instead of a metal +liable to rust. The most valuable part of this haversack is a big tin +cup that can be used for a great variety of purposes, including +cooking coffee. It is hung loose at the strap of the haversack. Of +course each man has knife, fork and spoon, each in a leather case. + +The cartridge belt contains 100 rounds, which are distributed all the +way around the waist, there being a double row of them. The belt is +remarkably light, being woven all in one operation. It is of cotton +and partly some material which prevents shrinking or loosening. The +belts have stood admirably the test put upon them for the last six +days, when it has rained every day, on top of the ordinary heavy +moisture usual at sea in the tropics. The test is the more interesting +from their having been previously in a very dry country. Officers and +men alike unite in praise of this cartridge belt. The particular +private whom I was inspecting said he now carried 100 as easily as he +formerly carried 50. This belt rests loosely on the hips, without any +straps over the shoulders. It is eminently businesslike in appearance. +The hat is the gray felt of South Africa, Australia, and every other +part of the world where comfort and cost are consulted. No boots are +blacked on expeditions of this kind. The men who form in line for +guard duty have their tunics well brushed, but that may be due to +extraneous assistance. + +For fighting purposes, then, the United States private has nothing to +keep clean excepting his rifle and bayonet. He carries no contrivances +for polishing buttons, boots, or the dozen of bits of accouterment +deemed essential to a good soldier in Europe. In Spain, for instance, +the private, though he may have nothing in his haversack, will, +nevertheless, carry a clumsy outfit of tools for making his uniform +look imposing. + +Now, as to discipline in the American army I cannot speak at present, +for the war is yet too young. It may, however, be worth noting that in +this particular regiment, while most complete liberty was allowed the +men all the twelve days of the rail journey from San Francisco to +Tampa, not a single case of drunkenness or any other breach of +discipline was reported. Among the 105 men on this boat there has not +in the past seven days been a single case of sickness of any kind or +any occasion for punishing. The firing discipline during the three +times we have been under fire has been excellent; the obedience of +soldiers to their officers has been as prompt and intelligent as +anything I have seen in Europe; and as to coolness under fire and +accuracy of aim, what I have seen is most satisfactory. The men +evidently regard their officers as soldiers of equal courage and +superior technical knowledge. To the Yankee private "West Pointer" +means what to the soldier of Prussia is conveyed by noble rank. In my +intimate intercourse with officers and men aboard this ship I cannot +recall an instance of an officer addressing a private otherwise than +is usual when a gentleman issues an order. I have never heard an +officer or noncommissioned officer curse a man. During the engagement +of Cabanas the orders were issued as quietly as at any other time, and +the men went about their work as steadily as bluejackets on a +man-o'-war. + +All this I note, because this is the first occasion that United States +troops have been in action since the civil war, and because I have +more than once heard European officers question the possibility of +making an army out of elements different from those to which they were +accustomed. I have heard Germans insist that unless the officer +appears in uniform he cannot command the respect of his men. On this +ship it would be frequently difficult to tell officers from men when +the tunic is laid aside and shoulder straps are not seen. There are +numberless points of resemblance between Tommy Atkins and the Yankee +private; and the Sandhurst man has no difficulty in understanding the +West Pointer. But to do this we must go a little beneath the surface +and see things, not on the parade ground, but in actual war. For dress +occasions the American uniform is far and away the ugliest and most +useless of all the uniforms I know. The helmets and cocked hats are of +the pattern affected by theatrical managers, the decorations tawdry, +the swords absurd, the whole appearance indicative of a taste +unmilitary and inartistic. The parade uniform has been designed by a +lot of unsoldierly politicians and tailors about Washington. Their +notion of military glory is confused with memories of St. Patrick's +Day processions and Masonic installations. They have made the patient +United States army a victim of their vulgar designs, and to-day at +every European army maneuver one can pick out the American military +attache by merely pointing to the most unsoldierly uniform on the +field. On the battlefield, however, there are no political tailors, +and the Washington dress regulations are ruthlessly disregarded. + + * * * * * + + + + +STEERING GEAR OF NORTH GERMAN LLOYD STEAMERS "COBLENTZ," "MAINZ," +AND "TRIER." + + +The steering gear illustrated below, which has been fitted to a number +of vessels in this country as well as on the three North German Lloyd +steamers above named, is designed, primarily, to effect the +distribution of the leverage more in proportion to the resistance of +the rudder than exists in ordinary gears. The latter, as a rule, exert +a uniform and decreasing, instead of an increasing, purchase on the +rudder, in moving it from midgear to hard over. This important object +is attained in the gear under notice chiefly through the arrangement +of the quadrant and the spring buffers, which form an essential part +of it, and of the tiller crosshead. The quadrant--which, as may be +gathered from our illustration, has its main body formed of wrought +steel, flanged and riveted, making an exceptionally strong +design--works on its own center. It travels through 51 degrees in +moving the tiller crosshead through 40 degrees, and in doing so +increases the leverage over the rudder to an extent which is +equivalent to a gain of 60 per cent. upon midgear position. + +[Illustration: HAND GEAR HARD OVER.] + +[Illustration: HAND GEAR AMIDSHIPS. +CROOM & ARTHUR'S STEERING GEAR.] + +Being carried on its own center, and not, as is usual, on the rudder +stock, and with its rim supported on rollers, the quadrant does not +impose upon the rudder pintles any of its own weight, thus diminishing +the wear on these parts. This arrangement also keeps the quadrant +always in good gear with its pinion, thereby allowing the teeth of +both to be strengthened by shrouding, and rendering them exempt from +the effects of sinking and slogger of the rudder stock as the pintles +wear. The rack and pinions are of cast steel, as is also the tiller +crosshead. The spring buffers, which, as has been said, form an +essential part of the quadrant, are fitted with steel rollers at the +point of contact with the crosshead, thereby reducing the friction to +a minimum. The springs, by their compression, absorb any shock coming +on the rudder, and greatly reduce the vibration when struck by a sea. +They are made adjustable, and can be either steel or rubber. + +Our illustrations show the arrangement of the gear as worked by hand +at the rudder head, but of course gears are made having a steam +steering engine as the major portion of the arrangement--the two +cylinders being placed directly over the quadrant--thus securing the +well known advantages attaching to a direct rudder head steering +engine as compared with the engine situated amidship, with all the +friction of parts, liability to breakage, etc., thereby entailed. + +Whether with engine amidship or directly over the rudderhead, ample +provision is made for putting the hand power into gear by means of a +friction clutch within the standard upon which the hand wheels are +mounted. The clutch is of large diameter and lined with hard wood, +power and ready facility being provided by the hand lever--seen at the +top of standard--and the screw which it operates, for shifting to in +and out of gear. + +The patentees and makers of this type of gear are Messrs. Croom & +Arthur, Victoria Dock, Leith, who, in addition to fitting it to the +three North German Lloyd steamers named in the title--which are each +of 3,200 tons, having an 8-inch rudder-stock--have applied it to the +Hamburg and Australian liner Meissen of 5,200 tons and 10-inch rudder +stock, and to the steamer Carisbrook of 1,724 tons, owned in Leith. On +the latter vessel, which was the first fitted with it, the gear has +been working for over two years, giving, we are told, entire +satisfaction to the owners, who say the spring buffers undoubtedly +reduce the vibration when the rudder is struck by a sea, and the +arrangement of quadrant and tiller appears to give increase of power. +Of the installation of this gear on board the three North German Lloyd +vessels, the agents of that company say: "It has been working to our +entire satisfaction. This system, on the whole, proves to have +answered its purpose." Considering the advantages claimed for the +gear, this is satisfactory testimony. We are indebted to The London +Engineer for the cuts and description. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMBINED STEAM PUMPING AND MOTIVE POWER ENGINE. + + +We give herewith an illustration of a compact engine, designed by +Messrs. Merryweather & Sons, of London, particularly for mining work, +and already supplied to the Burma ruby mines, the Salamanca tin mines, +and several mining companies in Brazil and other parts of South +America. It is an arrangement of the Valiant steam pumping engine with +a flywheel arranged to take a belt, and is so constructed that the +pump can be readily thrown out of gear and the engine used to drive +light machinery. The smaller size weighs only 7 cwt., including +boiler, engine and pump complete, and can be run on its own wheels, or +these can be detached and the machine carried by eight or ten men on +shoulder poles passed through rings fitted on top of the boiler. Thus +it can be easily transported up country, and has for this reason been +found most useful for prospecting. For alluvial mining it will throw a +powerful jet at 100 lb. to 120 lb. pressure, or by means of a belt +will drive an experimental quartz crusher or stamp mill. The power +developed is six horses, and the boiler will burn wood or other +inferior fuel when coal is not obtainable. The pump will deliver 100 +gallons per minute, on a short length of hose or piping, and will +force water through three or four miles of piping on the level, or, on +a short length, 35 gallons per minute against a head of 210 feet. The +pump is made entirely of gun metal, with rubber valves, and has large +suction and delivery branches. Air vessels are fitted, and the motion +work is simple and strong. The boiler is Merryweather's water tube +type, and raises steam rapidly, while the fittings include feed pump, +injector, safety valve, steam blast and an arrangement for feeding the +boiler from the main pump in case of necessity. + +[Illustration: MERRYWEATHER'S PUMPING ENGINE.] + +We are indebted to The London Engineer for the engraving and +description. + + * * * * * + +Some romances and exaggerations of which the Pitch Lake, at +Trinidad, has been the subject, are corrected by Mr. Albert Cronise, +of Rochester, N.Y. Its area, height and distance from the sea have +been overestimated, and a volcanic action has been ascribed to it +which does not really exist. It is one mile from the landing place, is +138 feet above the sea level, is irregular, approximately round, and +has an area of 109 acres. Its surface is a few feet higher than the +ground immediately around it, having been lifted up by the pressure +from below. The material of the lake is solid to a depth of several +feet, except in a few spots in the center, where it remains soft, but +usually not hot or boiling. But as the condition of the softest part +varies, it may be that it boils sometimes. The surface of the lake is +marked by fissures two or three feet wide and slightly depressed +spots, all of which are filled with rainwater. In going about one has +to pick his way among the larger puddles and jump many of the smaller +connecting streams. Each of the hundreds of irregular portions +separated by this network of fissures is said to have a slow revolving +motion upon a horizontal axis at right angles to a line from the +center of the lake, the surface moving toward the circumference. This +motion is supposed to be caused by the great daily change in +temperature, often amounting to 80 deg., and an unequal upward motion of +the mass below, increasing toward the center of the lake. A few +patches of shallow earth lying on the pitch, and covered with bushes +and small trees, are scattered over the surface of the lake. + + * * * * * + +The Gardeners' Chronicle announces that Mr. Fetisoff, an amateur +horticulturist at Voronezh, Russia, has achieved what was believed to +be impossible, the production of jet black roses. No details of the +process have been received. + + * * * * * + + + + +Recent Books. + + * * * * * + + +ELECTRO-METALLURGY. Electric Smelting and Refining: The Extraction +and Treatment of Metals by means of the Electric Current. Being the +second edition of Elektro-Metallurgie by Dr. W. Borchers. Translated, +with additions, by Walter G. McMillan. With 3 plates and numerous +illustrations in the text. 8vo, cloth. 416 pages. London and New York, +1897 $6.50 + +ELECTRO-TECHNICAL SERIES. By Edwin J. Houston, Ph.D., and A.E. +Kennelly, D.Sc. Ten volumes: Alternating Electric Currents, Electric +Heating, Electro-Magnetism, Electricity in Electro-Therapeutics, +Electric Arc Lighting, Electric Incandescent Lighting, Electric +Motors, Electric Street Railways, Electric Telephony, Electric +Telegraphy. Each $1.00 + +ENGINEERS. The Practical Management of Engines and Boilers, +including Boiler Setting, Pumps, Injectors, Feed Water Heaters, Steam +Engine Economy, Condensers, Indicators, Slide Valves, Safety Valves, +Governors, Steam Gages, Incrustation and Corrosion, etc. A Practical +Guide for Engineers and Firemen and Steam Users generally. By William +B. Le Van. 12mo, cloth. 267 pages. 49 illustrations. 1897 $2.00 + +EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE. By George M. Hopkins. This book treats on the +various topics of Physics in a popular and practical way. It describes +the apparatus in detail, and explains the experiments in full, so that +teachers, students and others interested in Physics may readily make +the apparatus without expense and perform the experiments without +difficulty. The aim of the writer has been to render physical +experimentation so simple and attractive as to induce both old and +young to engage in it for pleasure and profit. A few simple +arithmetical problems comprise all of the mathamatics of the book. +Many new experiments are here described for the first time. It is the +most thoroughly illustrated work over published on Experimental +Physics. 840 pages. Over 790 illustrations. Seventeenth edition. +Revised and enlarged. 8vo, cloth $4.00 + +EXPLOSIVES. Lectures on Explosives. A course of Lectures prepared +especially as a Manual and Guide in the Laboratory of the United +States Artillery School. By Willoughby Walke, First Lieut. Fifth +United States Artillery. Second edition. Revised and enlarged. 8vo, +cloth. 435 pages. New York, 1897 $4.00 + +FEEDS AND FEEDING. A Handbook for the Student and Stockman. By W.A. +Henry. 8vo, cloth. 657 pages. 1898 $2.00 + + * * * * * + +Our large Catalogue of American and Foreign Scientific and Technical +Books, embracing more than Fifty different subjects, and containing +116 pages, will be mailed, free, to any address in the world. + +Any of the foregoing Books mailed, on receipt of price, to any +address. Remit by Draft, Postal Note, Check, or Money Order, to order +of + +MUNN & CO., +361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + + * * * * * + + +A COMPLETE +ELECTRICAL LIBRARY + +BY PROF. T. O'CONOR SLOANE, + +Comprising five books, as follows: + + Arithmetic of Electricity, 138 pages $1.00 + Electric Toy Making, 140 pages 1.00 + How to Become a Successful Electrician, 189 pp. 1.00 + Standard Electrical Dictionary, 682 pages 3.00 + Electricity Simplified, 158 pages 1.00 + +--The above five books by Prof. Sloane may be purchased singly at the +published prices, or the set complete, put up in a neat folding box, +will be furnished to Scientific American readers at the special +reduced price of FIVE DOLLARS. You save $2 by ordering the complete +set. FIVE VOLUMES, 1,300 PAGES, AND OVER 450 ILLUSTRATIONS. + +--Send for full table of contents of each of the books. + +--Our complete book catalogue of 116 pages, containing reference to +works of a scientific and technical character, will be sent free to +any address on application. + +_We cannot permit the receipt of Sloane's Electrical Library to pass +by without complimenting you upon the same. It is a most admirable +work. Should be in the hands of all those who are interested in +electricity._ + +_PHILLIPS, ORMONDE & CO., Engineers._ +_Melbourne, Victoria._ + +_I was highly pleased with the copy of Sloane's Electrical Library, +which arrived in good condition. It is one of the most valuable works +I possess in my library. The use of the Roentgen Rays in my profession +has stimulated my desire for electrical knowledge greatly, and I +consider Sloane's "Electrical Dictionary" a first-class book of +reference. I shall be pleased to recommend it to my colleagues in +search of such a work. Yours truly,_ + +_P.J. CLENDINNIN, M.D.,_ +_Hon. Medical Electrician to the Melbourne Hospital._ + +MUNN & CO., Publishers, New York. + + * * * * * + + +_JUST PUBLISHED._ + +Second Edition, Revised and much Enlarged. + +Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines + +By GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E. + +The only American Book on the Subject. + +This is a book designed for the general information of every one +interested in this new and popular motive power, and its adaptation to +the increasing demand for a cheap and easily managed motor requiring +no licensed engineer. + +The book treats of the theory and practice of Gas, Gasoline and Oil +Engines, as designed and manufactured in the United States. It also +contains chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Electric Lighting, Marine +Propulsion, etc. Second Edition. Illustrated by 270 engravings. +Revised and enlarged. + +LARGE OCTAVO. 365 PAGES. PRICE $2.50. + + * * * * * + +CONTENTS. + +Chapter I.--Introductory, Historical. Chapter II.--Theory of the Gas +and Gasoline Engine. Chapter III.--Utilization of Heat and Efficiency +in Gas Engines. Chapter IV.--Heat Efficiencies. Chapter V.--Retarded +Combustion and Wall Cooling. Chapter VI.--Causes of Loss and +Inefficiency in Explosive Motors. Chapter VII.--Economy of the Gas +Engine for Electric Lighting. Chapter VIII.--The Material of Power in +Explosive Engines, Gas, Petroleum Products and Acetylene Gas. Chapter +IX.--Carbureters and Vapor Gas for Explosive Motors. Chapter +X.--Cylinder Capacity of Gas and Gasoline Engines, Mufflers on Gas +Engines. Chapter XI--Governors and Valve Gear. Chapter XII.--Igniters +and Exploders, Hot, Tube and Electric. Chapter XIII.--Cylinder +Lubrication. Chapter XIV--On the Management of Explosive Motors. +Chapter XV.--The Measurement of Power by Prony Brakes, Dynamometers +and Indicators, The Measurement of Speed, The Indicator and its Work, +Vibrations of Buildings and Floors by the Running of Explosive Motors. +Chapter XVI.--Explosive Engine Testing. Chapter XVII.--Various Types +of Gas and Oil Engines, Marine and Vehicle Motors.--Chapter +XVIII.--Various Types of Gas and Oil Engines. Marine and Vehicle +Motors--Continued. Chapter XIX--United States Patents on Gas, Gasoline +and Oil Engines and their Adjuncts--1875 to 1897 inclusive--List of +the Manufacturers of Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines in the United +States, with their addresses. + + * * * * * + +A FEW EXTRACTS OF NOTICES FROM THE PRESS. + +It is a very comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date work.--_American +Machinist._ + +The subjects treated in this book are timely and interesting, as there +is no doubt as to the increasing use of Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines, +particularly for small powers. It gives such general information on +the construction, operation and care of these engines that should +prove valuable to any one in need of such motors, as well as those +already having them in use.--_Machinery._ + +_What an engineer says_: + +_I beg to acknowledge receipt of your book on Gas, Gasoline and Oil +Engines, by Hiscox, by registered mail. I am highly pleased with the +book. 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