diff options
Diffstat (limited to '18240.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 18240.txt | 14055 |
1 files changed, 14055 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/18240.txt b/18240.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e2520b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/18240.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14055 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Roumania Past and Present, by James Samuelson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Roumania Past and Present + +Author: James Samuelson + +Release Date: April 24, 2006 [EBook #18240] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUMANIA PAST AND PRESENT *** + + + + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. (This file was made using scans of +public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital +Libraries.) + + + + + + + +[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF CURTEA D'ARDGES.] + + + + +ROUMANIA +PAST AND PRESENT + +BY + +JAMES SAMUELSON + +_Of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law_ + + +ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS (BY E. WELLER), PORTRAITS, AUTOTYPE + AND OTHER FULL-PAGE PLATES, AND NUMEROUS PLANS + AND WOODCUTS (BY G. PEARSON), CHIEFLY FROM + PHOTOGRAPHS BY F. DUSCHEK, BUCAREST + + +_Post Tenebras Lux_ + + +LONDON +LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. +1882 + +_All rights reserved_ + + + + +PREFACE. + + +There is no country in Europe which at the present time possesses +greater interest for Englishmen than does the Kingdom of Roumania, and +there is none with whose present state and past history, nay, with whose +very geographical position, they are less familiar. + +Only about nine years since Consul-General Green, the British +representative there, reported to his Government as follows: 'Ignorance +seems to extend even to the geographical position of Bucharest. It is +not surprising that letters directed to the Roumanian capital should +sometimes travel to India in search of Bokhara, but there can be no +excuse for the issue of a writ of summons by one of the superior law +courts of the British metropolis, directed to Bucharest in the Kingdom +of Egypt, as I have known to happen.' The reader may perhaps attribute +such mistakes as these to our insular ignorance of geography, or to the +fact that the proverbial blindness of justice prevented her from +consulting the map before issuing her process; but the fact remains, +that notwithstanding the occurrence of a great war subsequent to the +date above specified, which completely changed the map of Europe, +wherein Roumania took a very prominent part and England assisted at the +settlement, there are few intelligent readers in this country who could +say off-hand where precisely Roumania is situated. + +And yet, as already remarked, the country possesses an absorbing +interest for us as a nation. Placed, to a large extent through English +instrumentality, as an independent kingdom, of daily increasing +influence, between Russia and Turkey, for whom she served for centuries +as a bone of contention, she is now a formidable barrier against the +aggressions of the stronger power upon her weaker neighbour, and it is +satisfactory to reflect that, so far, the blood and money of England +have not flowed in vain. Then, again, the question of the free +navigation of the great stream that serves as her southern boundary is +at present occupying the serious consideration of many leading European +statesmen, and the solution of the Danubian difficulty will materially +affect our trade with the whole of Eastern Europe; whilst the peaceable +creation of a peasant proprietary in Roumania about sixteen years since, +and the advantages which have accrued to her from this social and +political reform, present features of peculiar interest for those who +favour the establishment of a similar class of landholders in Ireland. + +In treating of these two questions, I have laboured under the great +disadvantage of not being able to follow current events. It is +understood that the Danubian difficulty will be settled on the plan, +referred to in the text, suggested by Austria for her own advantage, +with certain modifications, having for their object the limitation of +her preponderance. My readers will be able to judge for themselves, +after reading the brief review of the question, and the references to +our own commercial relations with the countries bordering on the Danube +in the third and fifth chapters, whether such a settlement is likely to +be final. For myself I cannot believe that any solution will be +permanently satisfactory which interferes with the jurisdiction of +Roumania in her own waters. + +As to the land question, it calls up some awkward reflections when its +history is contrasted with recent and passing events in Ireland. So long +as the conquerors in Roumania endeavoured to solve the problem, their +efforts were unavailing. At the Convention of Balta-Liman between +Russia and Turkey, where 'coercion' was coupled with 'remedial +measures,' an ineffectual attempt was made to ameliorate the wretched +condition of the peasantry on the old lines of feudalism; but it was not +until the country became autonomous and the legitimate representatives +of the people took the matter in hand, that an efficient remedy was +applied. Then, as the reader will find detailed in the following +pages,[1] more than four hundred thousand heads of families amongst the +peasantry came into peaceful possession of a large proportion of the +land on equitable terms; and whilst the industrious agriculturist is now +daily acquiring a more considerable interest in the soil, the landlords, +who were merely drawing a revenue from the labour expended upon it by +others, are gradually disappearing. That the prosperity and stability of +the country have increased through the change is shown in many ways, but +more especially by the enhanced value of Roumanian Government +securities, of which I have been able to append a short statement in +contrast with those of Russia and Turkey.[2] + +What has occurred and is passing in Ireland the reader need not be told +here. Possibly the consideration of the Roumanian land question may have +given a bias to my views on the whole subject, and the excited state of +the public mind causes me to hesitate in the expression of an opinion +which may appear to be dogmatic. Still, looking at all the +circumstances--at the partial resemblance between the former condition +of Roumania and the present state of Ireland, at the past history of +Irish reforms (such as the abolition of the Irish Church), at the rising +land agitation on this side of the Channel, and at the recent +recommendation of the Canadian Parliament that autonomy should be +extended to Ireland--I have been able to arrive at no other conclusion +than that the measures at present before Parliament may bring temporary +relief to the peasantry, and temporary, nay let us hope permanent +pacification, but that the question will be reopened, coupled probably +with that of 'Home Rule,' and that at no distant period. + +There are many other circumstances which warrant us in seeking to obtain +a better knowledge of Roumania, but these were the chief considerations +which induced me last year to visit the country and some of its leading +institutions, and to collect the materials which I now venture in the +following pages to lay before my readers. + +No one knows so well as I do how imperfectly my task has been performed, +nor the difficulties with which it has been surrounded, and there are +one or two matters of which I should like to unburden myself to the +reader. He will probably enquire why I have put the cart before the +horse, giving a sketch of the present condition of the country before +treating of its past history. The answer is that it was not originally +my intention to deal with the latter at any length; but when I came to +read and study the works which have appeared on the subject in French +and German (of which a tolerably full list is appended to this +treatise), so many topics of interest presented themselves for the +historical student that I determined to publish a connected history of +the country, however imperfect it might be, from the earliest times down +to the present day. And in this I was further encouraged by the fact +that the attempt has not yet been made in English, excepting in a very +perfunctory manner in Consul Wilkinson's work, published by Longmans in +1820, which is now quite out of date. That such a review of Roumanian +history, condensed as it necessarily is, was sure to be considered very +dry by many readers, seemed to be certain; I therefore placed it after +the description of the country as it exists to-day, and for those +readers the perusal of the last chapter of that part of the work, +dealing with the notabilities of the day, will probably suffice. But I +believe that some matters relating to the Roman conquest of Dacia, the +character and movements of the barbarians (of which I have prepared and +appended a tabular statement), the subsequent history of the country, +its struggles for freedom, and the condition of the inhabitants at +various periods, will be new to the general student of history and +sociology, and if my share has been badly done, it need not prevent him +from prosecuting enquiries, for which he will find ample materials in +the works of the continental writers to whom I have referred. As regards +the controverted questions of the descent of the modern Roumanians and +the foundation of the Principalities, I would direct his attention more +especially to the recent publications of Roesler and Pic, the first an +Austrian and the second a Slav writer, where he will find those subjects +fully and warmly debated. + +The only other matter on which I desire to give an explanation is my +reason for not entering more minutely into what is called 'the Eastern +Question,' nor attempting, as other authors have done, to predict the +future relations of Roumania in regard to it. An American humourist has +said, 'Never prophesy unless you know,' and many a writer on Roumania +must wish that he had refrained from dealing with probabilities, or from +prognosticating the coining events of history. The future of the East +depends upon a variety of divergent considerations: upon the relations +of the Government of Russia with its people; the course of events in the +newly acquired provinces of Austria, and the delicate relations between +Austria and Hungary; the future action of the Prince and people of +Bulgaria, the former of whom is at present under Russian influence; upon +the growing power and influence of Greece; and, lastly, upon the +possible, but not probable, regeneration of Turkey. And without speaking +for others, I should feel it presumptuous, under the circumstances, to +deal in prophecies. + +As to the best policy for Great Britain, however, that is perfectly +clear, and may be summed up in a short sentence. It is to facilitate, by +pacific means, the solution of every difficulty and problem as it +arises, and wherever it is possible, through our influence, to support +and encourage constitutional government against autocracy and despotism. +This we can do with great advantage in our relations with Roumania, and +it will be a source of much gratification to me if the information which +I have here attempted to disseminate should have the slightest tendency +in that direction. + +JAMES SAMUELSON. + +CLAUGHTON, BIRKENHEAD: + _April 20, 1882._ + +[Footnote 1: Chapter vi. and Appendix IV.] + +[Footnote 2: P. 270, _note_.] + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PART I. + + _ROUMANIA, TO-DAY._ + +CHAPTER PAGE + + I. GEOGRAPHICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE 3 + + II. GEOGRAPHICAL--ARCHAEOLOGICAL 20 + + III. THE NAVIGATION OF THE DANUBE 30 + + IV. TOPOGRAPHICAL, ETC. 36 + + V. TOPOGRAPHICAL--COMMERCIAL 67 + + VI. AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL--THE PEASANT PROPRIETARY 74 + + VII. EDUCATIONAL--ETHNOGRAPHICAL 88 + + VIII. JUDICIAL AND PENAL 100 + + + PART II. + + _HISTORICAL._ + + IX. FROM THE GETAE (ABOUT 335 B.C.) TO THE CLOSE OF THE ROMAN + DOMINATION IN DACIA (ABOUT A.D. 274) 115 + + X. FROM THE EVACUATION OF DACIA BY AURELIAN (ABOUT 274 + A.D.) TO THE END OF THE BARBARIAN RULE (ABOUT THE + CLOSE OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY) 138 + + XI. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE PRINCIPALITIES, BETWEEN + THE MIDDLE OF THE THIRTEENTH AND OF THE FOURTEENTH + CENTURIES, TO THE ACCESSION OF MICHAEL THE BRAVE, + A.D. 1593 161 + + XII. THE TIMES AND CAREER OF MICHAEL THE BRAVE 170 + + XIII. FROM THE DEATH OF MICHAEL THE BRAVE (A.D. 1601) TO + THE DEPOSITION OF PRINCE COUZA (A.D. 1866) 199 + + XIV. FROM THE DEPOSITION OF PRINCE COUZA (1866) TO THE + CORONATION OF KING CHARLES (1881) 233 + + XV. PRESENT ROUMANIAN LEADERS AND THEIR POLICY 258 + + + APPENDICES. + +APPENDIX + + I. MOVEMENTS AND SETTLEMENTS OF NATIONALITIES AND + BARBARIAN TRIBES 272-3 + + II. THE 'CAPITULATIONS' 274 + + III. THE ROUMANIAN CONSTITUTION 275 + + IV. THE PEASANT PROPRIETARY OF ROUMANIA 277 + + V. LIST OF WORKS (WITH REFERENCES TO TEXT) 278 + + + CLASSIFIED INDEX 281 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + _AUTOTYPE PLATES._ + +CATHEDRAL OF CURTEA D'ARDGES _Photograph by Duschek_ _Frontispiece_ + +VIEW OF BUCAREST " " _To face p. 40_ + +PORTRAIT OF QUEEN ELISABETH OF ROUMANIA IN _After Duschek_ " 258 +THE NATIONAL COSTUME + + + _WOODCUTS IN TEXT._ + + [Engraved by G. PEARSON.] + + PAGE + +ROUMANIAN PEASANTS IN WORKING DRESS _Photograph by Duschek_ 7 + +PEASANTS AT A WELL " " " 8 + +SUBTERRANEAN DWELLINGS WITH PEASANTS " " " 10 + +ENTRANCE TO CARPATHIAN VILLAGE " " " 12 + +MEN AND WOMEN ROAD-MAKING " " " 13 + +TERMINAL PIER OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE ON _Sketch by Author_ 21 +ROUMANIAN SHORE + +TERMINAL PIER OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE ON SERVIAN SIDE " " " 24 + +PLAN OF BUCAREST _Reduced from Original by Prof. Zamphirolu_ 37 + +MONK AND NUN _After Duschek_ 39 + +FRUITSELLER OF BUCAREST " " 48 + +GIPSY FLOWER-SELLER " " 49 + +GIPSY MUSICIANS " " 52 + +ROUMANIAN GIRL " " 53 + +GIPSY WOMAN " " 53 + +TRACERY ON SHIELD ON THE EXTERIOR OF _Copied from Reissenberger_ 60 +THE CATHEDRAL OF CURTEA D'ARDGES + +THE SAME--ANOTHER PATTERN " " " 61 + +AT THE CABARET ON A HOLIDAY _After Duschek_ 73 + +ROUMANIAN PLOUGHSHARE _Sketch by Author_ 75 + +THE HORA, NATIONAL DANCE OF ROUMANIA _After Duschek_ 98 + +SECTION OF THE TELEGA PENAL SALT MINE _Reduced by Author from Plan 107 + of M. d'Istrati, Engineer of + the Mine_ + +SALT MOUND IN FLOOR OF MINE _Sketch by Author_ 110 + +DACIAN WARRIOR (_initial letter_) _From Piranese's Etchings of 115 + reliefs on Trojan's Column_ + +TRAJAN ADDRESSING HIS ARMY " " " 126 + +DACIANS SETTING FIRE TO THEIR CAPITAL " " " 129 + +DACIAN TROPHIES " " " 137 + +EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MICHAEL THE BRAVE AT BUCAREST _After Duschek_ 177 + +STATUE OF MICHAEL CANTACUZENE IN THE COLTZA HOSPITAL " " 200 +(_initial letter_) + +DEFENCES OF PLEVNA 244 + +PRINCE (NOW KING) CHARLES _Photograph by Duschek 251 +COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, BEFORE PLEVNA taken on the spot_ + +PORTRAIT, WITH AUTOGRAPH, OF M.C.A. ROSETTI _After Duschek_ 264 + +PORTRAIT OF M. BRATIANO " " 265 + + + _MAPS._ + +[Drawn and lithographed, with aid of Author's notes, by E. WELLER.] + +GEOGRAPHICAL MAP OF ROUMANIA _To face p. 3_ + +HISTORICAL MAP OF ROUMANIA _After Kiepert, &c._ 115 + + + + + _Errata._ + + +Page 45, note, _for_ p. 202 _read_ initial letter, p. 200. + + " 64, note 1, " 7209 " 7029. + + " 162, line 19, " west " east. + + " 165, " 22, " Bajazet II. " Bajazet I. + + + + +PART I. + +ROUMANIA, TO-DAY. + + + We love + The king who loves the law, respects his bounds, + And reigns content within them; him we serve + Truly and with delight who leaves us free. + + COWPER. + + There virtue reigns as queen in royal throne, + And giveth laws alone. + The which the base affections do obey, + And yield their services unto her will. + + SPENSER. + + + + +[Illustration: Physical Map of ROUMANIA] + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. + + Limits, dimensions, and population of Roumania--Comparison with + England--Configuration of the surface--Altitudes of + towns--Mountains--Appearance of the country--The region of the + plains--Plants and agricultural condition--The peasantry--Female + navvies--Costumes--Wells--Subterranean dwellings--Marsh + fever--Travelling, past and present--Zone of the hills--Plants, + flowers, fruits, and cereals--Cheap fruits--Improved + dwellings--Wages of labourers--Petroleum + wells--Rock-salt--Mines--The Carpathians--Character of the + scenery--Alpine trees and plants--Sinaia--The King's summer + residence--The monastery--Conveniences for visitors, baths, + &c.--Occupations of visitors--Beautiful scenery--The new + palace--The King and Queen--Geology of Roumania--Scanty + details--The chief deposits and their + localities--Minerals--Salt--Petroleum--Lignite--Ozokerit-- + Haematite--Undeveloped mineral wealth. + + +I. + +The kingdom of Roumania is situated between 22 deg. 29' and 29 deg. 42' east of +Greenwich, and between 43 deg. 37' and 48 deg. 13' north of the equator. Its +general boundaries are, on the _east_ and _south_, the Pruth and the +Danube, with the exception of the Dobrudscha south of the latter river, +at its embouchures, and on the _west_ and _north_ by the Carpathian +mountains, along whose heights the boundary line runs. The limit which +separates it from Bulgaria, on the south-east leaves the Danube just +east of Silistria, and runs irregularly in a south-easterly direction +until it reaches the Black Sea, about nine miles and a half south of +Mangalia. (North-east of this line runs the Roumanian Railway from +Cernavoda to Constanta or Kustendjie, and south-west of it the Bulgarian +line from Rustchuk to Varna.) The kingdom presents the form of an +irregular blunted crescent, and it is very difficult to speak of its +'length' and 'breadth;' but so far as we are able to estimate its +dimensions they are as follows:--A straight line drawn from Verciorova, +the boundary on the west at the 'Iron Gates' of the Danube, to the +Sulina mouth of the same river on the east, is about 358 miles; and +another from the boundary near Predeal in the Carpathians, on the line +of railway from Ploiesti to Kronstadt, Transylvania, to the southernmost +limit below Mangalia on the Black Sea, is about 188 miles.[3] + +The approximate area of Roumania is 49,250 square miles, and when it is +added that the area of England and Wales is nearly 51,000 square miles, +the reader will be able to form an estimate of the extent of the +country.[4] But having made this comparison, let us carry it a step +further. According to the latest estimates of the population there are +about 5,376,000 inhabitants in Roumania against 25,968,286 (according to +last year's census) in England and Wales; in other words, with an area +equal to that of England, Roumania has about one-fifth of its +population, or about the same as Ireland.[5] + +The general configuration of the surface of the country may be described +as an irregular inclined plane sloping down from the summits of the +Carpathians to the northern or left bank of the Danube, and it is +traversed by numerous watercourses taking their rise in the mountains +and falling into the great river, which render it well adapted for every +kind of agricultural industry. The character of the gradients will be +best understood by a reference to the map, with the aid of the following +few figures. The towns of Galatz and Braila or Ibrail, situated on the +Danube, are fifteen metres above the sea-level, a metre being, as the +reader doubtless knows, equal to 1.095, or as nearly as possible 1-1/10 +yard. At Bucarest, the capital, which is thirty or forty miles inland, +the land rises to a height of seventy-seven metres;[6] still further +inland, where the elevation from the plain to the hill country becomes +perceptible, the town of Ploiesti is 141 metres above the sea, whilst +Tirgovistea and Iasi (Jassy), each receding further into the hills, +stand respectively at altitudes of 262 and 318 metres, the last-named +city (the former capital of Moldavia) reaching therefore a height of +over 1,000 feet above the sea-level. Or again, the plain which stretches +along the whole extent of the southern part of the country may be said +to occupy, roughly speaking, about a third; then comes a region of hills +rising to a height of about 1,500 feet; and beyond these the Carpathian +range, forming, as it were, a great rampart to the north and east, +reckons amongst its eight or nine hundred peaks many that rise to a +height of 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea-level. The highest of those +summits is either Pionul (in Moldavia) or Caraiman, near Sinaia +(Wallachia), the summer residence of the Court, which are nearly 9,000 +feet high; the latter is easily accessible, even to ladies if they are +fair climbers, and affords a magnificent view of the surrounding +scenery.[7] The aspect of the country, as the traveller moves inland +from the Danube to the heights of the Carpathians, is very striking; and +as the writer travelled at one time or another along the greater part +of the river, both by land and water, and from the bank at Giurgevo to +the frontier in the mountains, a brief account of his impressions and +observations may be found more interesting than a mere dry geographical +description of the different zones.[8] + +[Footnote 3: The mode in which we ascertained these measurements was by +comparing four, independently made. One was by Mr. Weller, the artist of +our maps; the second by the author, being the average of four or five +maps; the third by an English official friend in Roumania, who has all +the best maps at his disposal; and the fourth from Baedeker. Designating +these respectively as _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, we obtained the following +very approximate results:-- + +From Verciorova to the Sulina From Predeal to boundary S. of + mouth. Mangalia. + +_a_ 355 miles _a_ 185 miles +_b_ 356 " _b_ 188 " +_c_ 358 " _c_ 189 " +_d_ 360 " _d_ 190 " + +From Fife-Cookson's map, in his work _With the Armies of the Balkans_, +the measurements respectively are 355 and 186 miles.] + +[Footnote 4: The area is obtained by a somewhat similar process to the +linear measurements, excepting that here we have been obliged to employ +figures from various works (notably that of M. Aurelian and the Reports +of Consul Vivian and of the Roumanian Geographical Society), and to take +into consideration the exchange of Bessarabia for the Dobrudscha, which +has not been done by Roumanian writers since that alteration was made. +The _Gotha Almanack_ of 1881 gives the area as 129,947 square kilos.] + +[Footnote 5: There has been no census in Roumania since 1859-60, when +the population is said to have been 4,424,961; now it is set down as +above, and efforts have been made to analyse this estimate and to +classify the population according to nationalities and religion. It is, +however, quite impossible to do so with accuracy; indeed the census of +Galatz taken last year shows that the whole can hardly be regarded as +approximate. What we know is that _about_ 4,600,000 of the population +are Roumanians and of the Orthodox Greek faith; probably 400,000 are +Jews, 200,000 gipsies, and the rest Germans, Szeklers, Servians and +Bulgarians, Hungarians, Armenians, Russians, Greeks, Turks, French, +English, Swiss, &c.] + +[Footnote 6: Prince Jon Ghika says 87 metres.] + +[Footnote 7: According to various works and maps, the heights of the +mountain summits differ. In his work, _Terra Nostra_, edition of 1880, +M. Aurelian gives the height of Pionul as 2,720.1 metres, or about 8,934 +English feet, and that of Caraiman as 2,650.2 metres, or 8,705 feet; but +some of the maps give measurements differing from these.] + +[Footnote 8: Fuller details concerning the soil and agricultural +productions will be found in the chapter devoted to those subjects.] + + +II. + +The appearance of the plain on leaving the flat monotonous banks of the +Danube is anything but prepossessing. Although the land begins to rise +almost immediately, the surrounding scenery is flat and arid. The soil, +which is black or dark grey, is chiefly argillo-siliceous, and the plain +is overrun with coarse grass, weeds, and stunted shrubs, diversified by +fields of maize, patches of yellow gourds, and kitchen vegetables. Here +and there the railway runs through or skirts plantations. The chief +plants in this region (and this applies to the plains generally) are +willows, alders, poplars, and tamarinds, but chiefly willows and poplars +amongst the trees and larger plants; maize, wheat, millet, and other +cereals, and a variety of fruits and vegetables which will be spoken of +in connection with the more elevated regions. The first impression which +is made upon the traveller coming from our own beautiful hedgerows and +pastures, or from the richly cultivated plains of Transylvania, is that +agriculture is slovenly and neglected, and that impression is never +wholly lost in whatever direction he may travel; although, as we shall +see presently, the higher zones are much more carefully cultivated.[9] + +[Illustration: ROUMANIAN PEASANTS IN WORKING DRESS.] + +The peasantry at work in the fields present a novel and interesting +appearance to the stranger, and still more striking are some of their +habitations. The men generally wear a long white coarse linen blouse +with trousers of the same material. The blouse is drawn in at the waist +by a coil of cords or by a belt, and frequently sandals are worn, in +which case the cords fastening them are wound some distance up the leg. +Hats of common felt, cheap cloth, or high cylindrical caps of sheepskin, +complete the external attire. In winter sheepskins take the place of the +coarse linen tunic. There are two types of face to be met with amongst +them, both of which are here depicted. The one has long moustaches and +shaven face; the other type, which is said to resemble the Dacians of +Trajan's Column, has the hair growing all over the face. The latter +appeared to the author to resemble the generality of Russian peasants, +and this view was confirmed by one or two lending observers in the +country.[10] + +[Illustration: PEASANTS AT A WELL.] + +The women, as in many other continental countries, are the chief workers +in the fields, and they are said to be much more industrious than the +men. They are not alone engaged in agricultural pursuits, but perform +the work of navvies, making roads, and along with the men digging +railway embankments. They usually wear a kerchief rather gracefully +folded over the head and under the chin; the upper part of the body is +clothed in a loose-fitting jacket or bodice, sometimes white, but often +of very bright showy material, and the lower limbs are covered with a +skirt which is usually of a darker colour than the jacket; but this is +also frequently made of a bright-coloured fabric. This is their +every-day dress, and thus habited the men work with square-bladed spades +resembling our own, whilst those of the women have handles as long as a +broomstick and bent spade-or heart-shaped blades. The gala or holiday +dresses of the peasantry are very handsome, each district having its +own peculiar costume, but of these we will say a few words hereafter. +Sometimes, as one walks or drives through the country, he may see the +peasants gossiping at the well, which is a hole dug in the ground and +fenced in with planks, the bucket being raised and lowered by means of a +very primitive contrivance. This consists of a horizontal tree-trunk +swinging upon another tall vertical one forked at the top; a chain +depends from one end of the horizontal beam or bar, to which the bucket +is attached, whilst the other end is counterpoised by means of stones. +Some of the wells are worked with a windlass and fly-wheel, but the one +just described frequently attracts the traveller's notice. + +More primitive even than the wells are some of the peasants' houses in +the plains, if the hovels which serve as habitations can be so +dignified. A large hole, somewhat resembling in shape an old-fashioned +saw-pit, but of course of greater dimensions, is dug deep into the +ground. This is lined with clay, if necessary, and from the ground or +immediately above it a roof is formed of branches and twigs, in the +centre of which a hole is left for the issue of smoke. Sometimes a +primitive doorway forms the entrance, and the people descend either by +steps or an inclined plane, whilst at the opposite end a window is +inserted. Occasionally, but not always, a small drain is cut round these +semi-subterranean dwellings, which, as already stated, are chiefly to be +found on the plains, for the purpose of carrying off surface water. It +is hardly necessary to say that in these underground cells men, women, +and children live together higgledy-piggledy, and that the result of +such an existence is widespread disease. Marsh fever is one of the most +prevalent and malignant maladies of the plains; there is hardly a family +(and the families of the peasantry are very numerous) in which one or +more children have not been carried off by this fever. Still there are +those who maintain that the subterranean houses are not unhealthy, and +they are not necessarily an indication of poverty. Such hovels, it is +said, were first constructed in order that they might escape the +observation of those bands of marauders, first of one nation, then of +another, who have at various times overrun and pillaged the fair +Danubian territory; that they were originally surrounded by trees which +have been cut down for firewood; and that the spirit of conservatism, +causes many peasants, otherwise well-to-do, to prefer these underground +dwellings to the cottages of modern construction which constitute the +villages of the higher lands. This seems a plausible explanation of +their presence; but in a country which is largely cultivated, as we +shall hear, by a peasant proprietary, such a primitive mode of +existence, worthy of the days when the barbarians ravaged Roumanian +territory, is not likely long to continue. + +[Illustration: SUBTERRANEAN DWELLINGS WITH PEASANTS.] + +So far as the peasantry are concerned, they are a fine healthy body of +men and women, and we shall have an opportunity further on of enquiring +into their habits and condition. + +After travelling inland in imagination for the best part of a day--for a +Roumanian railway train does not emulate the 'Flying Dutchman' in +rapidity, although it is a considerable advance upon the old mode of +progression when a dozen horses were often requisite to drag a single +carriage along the muddy roads--and having left the city of Bucarest +with its many cupolas and spires behind us for the present, we approach +the second, more elevated tract of country.[11] + +As the distance from the Danube increases, we enter upon a much more +diversified and smiling landscape, and almost every plant growth of the +sub-tropical and temperate zones is to be found there. Amongst trees the +oak, elm, and beech are the most conspicuous; but besides these the +maple, sycamore, mountain ash, lime, horse-chestnut, acacia; and of +fruit trees, the walnut, hazel nut, plum, medlar, cherry, apple, pear, +and vine are frequent. Fields of maize are interspersed with beds of +bright yellow gourds. Wheat, oats, millet, and other cereals are common, +and, in the gardens, roses, geraniums, verbenas, asters, mignonette, and +a great variety of other well-known flowers of the temperate zone, add +beauty and variety to the scene. Indeed, so far as natural productions +are concerned, this part of Roumania leaves nothing to be desired, and +that these blessings of the soil are as plentiful as they are good is to +be found in the cheapness of the fruits offered for sale. Little baskets +containing twenty or thirty fine purple plums may be had for a penny, +and beautiful peaches or large bunches of fine grapes, of natural growth +of course, are purchasable at a proportionately low price. Neither of +the latter fruits is equal to those forced in our houses, but they are +well-flavoured and tender. + +And so, too, the peasantry and their habitations wear the appearance of +comfort and prosperity. No more subterranean dwellings, but, in place +thereof, villages consisting of habitations which resemble more or less +the cottages and chalets of Switzerland and the Tyrol, although they are +not generally so well built nor yet so picturesque. They are usually +constructed of wood, bricks, and plaster, and are well whitewashed, +their roofs consisting of little wooden or baked clay tiles or slates, +and they have every convenience belonging to such dwellings. The +roadside cabarets, or public-houses, are often very picturesque, the +roof being frequently ornamented with festoons of vines indicative of +the creature comforts dispensed within. + +[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO CARPATHIAN VILLAGE.] + +As we enter into the hill country, groups of peasants, men and women, +may be seen on the roads and railways, keeping them in order, cutting +banks and repairing bridges, and the women working with the +peculiar-shaped long spades of which mention has already been made. + +[Illustration: MEN AND WOMEN ROAD-MAKING.] + +The wages of such labourers, it may be remarked in passing, are, for +men, 2f. 50c., and for women 1f. 50c., respectively per day. Here, too, +we begin to have indications of something besides agricultural industry. +The smell of petroleum assails the olfactory organs, and we often see +carts drawn by oxen or buffaloes, containing one or more barrels of the +mineral oil; whilst on the hills are to be seen the rude wooden +structures which cover the wells, and roads or tramways along which the +oil is carried into the valley below. As we advance further into the +mountains, evidences of another mineral treasure present themselves. +This is rock-salt, of which cartloads may be seen moving to the railway +stations or piled up in various places. This valuable mineral in no way +resembles our rock-salt, and the large blocks might easily be mistaken +for granite or rough unpolished marble. The appearance and mode of +working one of the great mines of the country will be described +hereafter; and the chief localities in which salt and petroleum are +raised will be found on our geographical map. The principal salt mines +are the _Doftana_ (Prahova) near Campina, _Poiana_, and _Slanic_ +(Prahova), _Ocnele_ Mari (Ramnicu), _Targu Ocna_ (Bacau). The chief +petroleum wells are also near Campina, at _Colibasu_, _Pacuri_, +_Doftanet_, _Telega_ &c., _Moineste_, &c., (Bacau). There are refineries +at Tirgovistea, Peatra. Ploiesti, &c. + +[Footnote 9: The Roumanians recognise that a great part of the country +is much neglected, and that weeds are allowed to grow to the detriment +of agriculture. The _Independance Roumaine_, September 13 [25], 1881, +had a strong article on the subject.] + +[Footnote 10: We do not intend to discuss this question, which is so +interesting to Roumanians, but we cannot help drawing attention to +Paget's remarks on the subject. He says, in one of his headings, +'Wallacks of Dacian, not Roman origin;' then (p. 112) lie gives woodcuts +of two heads with moustache only (sketched without any reference to the +question), and somewhat resembling our cut, and leaves his readers to +compare them with the figures on Trajan's Column. He says that he feels +satisfied they will agree with his view. They do not, however, in the +least resemble either the Romans with bare, or the Dacians with bearded +faces, on the column, and throw no light whatever upon the vexed +question. The general opinion of persons who have observed the peasantry +is that those of the mountain districts afford, in their type of face, +habits, and some words, the best illustrations in support of the +Daco-Roman hypothesis.] + +[Footnote 11: Wilkinson's account of travelling in his day (1820) is +worth quoting. 'The mode of travelling,' he says, 'in the two +principalities is so expeditious that in this respect it is not equalled +in any other country. Their post establishments are well organised; +there are post-houses in all directions, and they are abundantly +provided with horses. Every idea of comfort must, however, be set aside +by those who are willing to conform themselves to the common method of +riding post. A kind of vehicle is given which is not unlike a very small +crate of earthenware fastened to four small wheels by means of wooden +pegs, and altogether not higher than a common wheelbarrow. It is filled +with straw, and the traveller sits in the middle of it, keeping the +upper part of his body in an erect position, and finding great +difficulty to cram his legs within. Four horses are attached to it by +cords, which form the whole harness, and driven by one postilion on +horseback, they set off at full speed and neither stop nor slacken their +pace until they reach the next post-house. Within the distance of half a +mile from it, the postilion gives warning of his approach by a repeated +and great cracking of his whip, so that by the time of arrival another +cart is got ready to receive the traveller' (p. 93). (This is still the +system in practice in some parts of Russia, and the author travelled in +this fashion, in the winter of 1849-50, from St. Petersburg to the +Prussian frontier.) Fifty years later matters seem to have retrograded +in Roumania, for Kunisch, an amusing German writer, describes his +journey from Giurgevo to Bucarest, now effected in two or three hours by +rail, which it then took him twenty-four hours to accomplish, at first +with sixteen horses and four postilions, and during the later stages +with eighteen and twenty-two horses. (_Reisebilder_, pp. 73-81. Berlin: +Effert and Lindtner.)] + + +III. + +But we must dwell no longer in this realm of fruitfulness, and must pass +on to the alpine regions beyond. In so doing we change our altitude much +more rapidly than heretofore, and as we travel through the ascending +valleys into the pine-clad rocks and mountains it is difficult to know +with what European highlands to draw a comparison. 'Is it Wales?' the +English reader will naturally enquire. 'No, for the mountains are too +sharp and rocky, and yet not nearly so barren as those of our +principality.' 'Are we in the Pyrenees?' Certainly not; the vegetation +is not so rich, few waterfalls are visible, and there is a slovenly +appearance about the clayey or sandy surface, reddened here and there by +ferruginous streamlets, and covered with weedy-looking brushwood which +is quite at variance with the sloping gardens of the sunny south of +France. Is the scenery Dolomitic? In a sense it is. The summits of the +mountains are often very jagged, Rosszaehne or horses' teeth, as they are +called, but they are dark grey and not white or yellow as the Dolomites. +The trees are the same as in other alpine lands, firs, pines, larch, and +birch growing thickly to a height of about 5,000 or 6,000 feet above the +sea-level; then come grass and alpine flowers, and finally the rough +jagged summit. Whatever region it may resemble, and perhaps its nearest +analogues are the wilder portions of the Bavarian Alps or the less +rugged parts of the Tyrol, it is lovely and romantic, and needs only to +be visited by a few Western tourists to become an extension of the +playground of Europe; for, in combination with beautiful scenery, there +are charming costumes, primitive manners, and some interesting phases +of Oriental life. And should his way lead him to Sinaia, the summer +residence of the Court, and the sanatorium to which the people of +Bucarest resort, not as yet in too great numbers, the visitor will +readily admit that there are few spots in Europe better calculated to +afford rest and refreshment to the wearied mind.[12] + +Sinaia presents many attractions for the tourist. Nestling on the slopes +of hills at the junction of three valleys, and immediately surrounded by +mountains which vary in height from 3,000 to 8,000 or 9,000 feet above +the sea-level, and are easily accessible to an ordinary mountaineer, it +consists of a fine old monastery, the temporary residence of the Court, +two good old-fashioned hotels, and a large number of pretty villas, the +property of wealthy landed proprietors, officials, and merchants of +Bucarest. There is a casino, or reading-room, and small concert hall, a +beautiful bathing establishment, and a garden in which a military band +discourses lively and lovely music every evening within hearing of the +guests whilst they are at dinner under verandahs in front of the hotels. +The monastery is situated upon a high hill approached from the valley +below by sloping walks and drives, and it consists of two large +curtilages surrounded by low dwellings, which were formerly (and are +still to some extent) occupied by monks, and now serve as the residences +of the Court and its attendants. The two curtilages are really one +divided across the centre, and in each division is a small Byzantine +church, in which the service of the Orthodox Greek faith is conducted. +At the further extremity of the convent are the apartments of the King +and Queen, and it is hardly necessary to add that everything is done to +render this old building suitable for the abode of royalty.[13] At the +side of the monastery is a verdant plateau, from which there is a +beautiful view, and whereon the peasantry, as well as many officers and +ladies of the Court, may be seen, usually on Sunday afternoon, dancing +the national dances of the country, and more particularly the national +dance, the 'Hora,' of which some account will be given hereafter. Behind +the monastery a small valley penetrates into the mountains. This valley +is, in reality, an extensive wood, containing some magnificent forest +trees and replete with ferns and wild flowers, whilst through the centre +of it a river rushes headlong, forming, as it descends, three beautiful +cascades, the last or highest being surmounted by a towering rock, to +ascend which, alone, is a good morning's healthful enjoyment. Behind +this rock rise the Carpathian peaks, Caraiman, Verful, &c., and from the +summits of these, which may be reached in two or three hours, it is said +that on a clear day the distant Balkans are visible across the Danube. + +But if Sinaia, with its surroundings, is beautiful to-day, what will it +be in the future? Close to the railway station, on a conspicuous +eminence, a magnificent hotel is in course of erection to meet the wants +of the increasing number of visitors. At present the King only +possesses, besides his temporary residence in the monastery, a small +chalet known as the 'Pavilion de Chasse,' situated in the woods behind +the monastery. Although this is externally an unassuming little villa, +the interior is beautifully decorated with carved oak, and is furnished +with exquisite articles of the same material, and generally with a taste +for which the first lady of the land is so widely reputed. But the King +is also erecting, in a favoured situation close at hand, a beautiful +summer palace, which will command a magnificent view of the surrounding +scenery; and there he and his Queen will no doubt continue, as they do +in their temporary residence, to dispense a generous hospitality to +visitors, and to secure goodwill and popularity amongst their +subjects.[14] + +But we must apologise for this digression, and return to our general +survey. + +[Footnote 12: Sinaia may be visited either from Bucarest or +Transylvania. If from Bucarest, the traveller may go by the railway from +Vienna to that city in about thirty hours, and forward to Sinaia in +about four hours more, or he may land at Giurgevo either on his way from +Constantinople by Varna and Rustchuk, or from the steamer down the +Danube from Pesth. If he approaches by Transylvania, it is from +Kronstadt, which is only a couple of hours from Sinaia. Although a visit +to Sinaia only is here described, as being the most easily accessible to +ordinary travellers, there are many beautiful tours to be made in the +Carpathians, and some of the more hardy of the young Roumanians who have +visited Western Europe assured the author that the outlying districts of +the Carpathians afford features of interest to pedestrians which are not +to be found in any of our known mountain districts.] + +[Footnote 13: The monastery of Sinaia was founded by the Grand Spathar +Michael Cantacuzene, brother of Voivode Sherban Cantacuzene, in the year +1695.] + +[Footnote 14: It is curious to note, in passing, that of about 400 men +who were at work on this palace last year, 150 were Germans, and nearly +all the rest were Italians.] + + +IV. + +In speaking of the appearance of the surface it has been mentioned that +it is sandy or clayey, and it may be useful now to say a few words +concerning the geological formations of the country. Little has been +done by the native geologists in this direction, and the knowledge which +we possess is derived from the observations of a few foreigners who have +published works dealing incidentally with this region.[15] The whole of +Roumania may be said to form the northern portion of the basin of the +Lower Danube. In Bulgaria, on the southern side of the river, where the +banks often rise to a height of 300 or 400 feet, there are distinct +traces of the miocene formation; but there, as on the northern banks, +before the hills are reached, there is a wide plain of loess, tertiary +alluvial deposit. On the northern or Roumanian bank, beginning close to +the Iron Gates in the west, and extending to the eastern embouchures of +the Danube, in fact over the whole zone of the plain already referred +to, this alluvial deposit is found, and at the foot of the Carpathians +it sometimes attains the depth of from 150 to 300 feet, and imparts to +the country a neglected desert appearance where the surface is not +richly wooded or agriculturally clothed in green. The second zone--that +is to say, the lower hills and mountains--is chiefly of miocene +formation; but beneath this, and showing itself at the surface in +various parts, are strata of what Lyell calls 'a subordinate member of +that vast deposit of sandstone and shale which is provincially called +"flysch," and which is believed to form part of the Eocene series.'[16] +In this region, which is called by the Roumanians the region of vines, +are to be found marl, sandstone, chalk, and gypsum, with rock-salt, +petroleum, and lignite. The last-named is an important product of the +country, being used along with wood on the railways, and in brick and +lime kilns. + +The southern slopes of the Carpathians consist of various older +strata--secondary, primary, and metamorphic--and the rocks of which they +are composed are limestone, marble, schist (mica-schist and slate), and +gneiss. On the summits are found conglomerates formed of quartz, +limestone, and sandstone. + +To this meagre and superficial outline of the geological formations of +the country we have only to add that the inclination of the strata is +generally downwards in the direction of the Danube, and that they are +often contorted in a very remarkable manner.[17] + +We have already spoken of the deposits of salt, petroleum, and lignite, +and in association with the second is found the substance known as +ozokerit or fossil wax. This is a brownish-yellow translucent +crystalline hydrocarbon, which softens with the warmth of the hand, and +burns with a bright light. It has never been industrially applied, +excepting in small quantities by the peasantry, who themselves fabricate +rude candles from it; but this is owing rather to want of enterprise +than to scarcity of the deposit. Anthracite, too, is present in various +places, but it is not worked. Of the existence of iron there is no doubt +whatever. Not only are there indications of it in the ferruginous +brooks and springs, but it has been found in association with coal in +various parts of the country.[18] Specimens of haematite have several +times been submitted to analysis, but the results were very +unsatisfactory. One sample tested by M. Hanon gave only 35.5 per cent., +and another by Dr. Bernath yielded 40 per cent., of metallic iron. That +gold has been found and was worked in the Carpathians as far back as the +Dacian age is well known; and, according to modern writers, cobalt, +sulphur, arsenic, copper,[19] and lead are also present in different +districts, but the workable minerals of Roumania are at present limited +to salt, petroleum, and lignite; and, looking to the importance of the +subject, it is much to be regretted that the Government does not take +the same means to instruct the population in practical geology and +mineralogy as are employed to disseminate agricultural knowledge at the +excellent institution to which reference will be made hereafter. If the +people are only allowed to develop their industries in peace, it will no +doubt soon become apparent that the strata are charged with considerable +stores of mineral wealth. + +[Footnote 15: The chief are R.F. Peters (_Die Donau und ihr Gebiet_. +Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1876. Cap. xii. p. 313), Fuchs, Bernath, and D.T. +Ansted. There have also been isolated memoirs published by Roumanians, +but, so far as we could ascertain, no systematic work is extant. The +best general works, touching also on geology, are those of Aurelian and +Obedenare.] + +[Footnote 16: _Principles of Geology_, vol. i. p. 209.] + +[Footnote 17: We believe this is really all that is known of the general +stratification, and although little that is positive has been revealed, +writers have made up for the deficiency by any amount of negative +description. Such writers as Aurelian and Obedenare simply deplore the +paucity of information, whilst Fuchs, an able and industrious geologist, +says: 'It is difficult to describe the country because there are such +vast tracts which have a character of despairing monotony; because +fossils are rare and badly preserved, if not entirely wanting; and the +different elevations present exactly similar petrographic appearances;' +in fact, he says that the prominent data are wanting to enable a +geologist to make a classification of the various strata.] + +[Footnote 18: See Obedenare, 16-19. Also Cantacuzeno, _Cenni sulla +Romania_, Bucarest, 1875; and Ansted.] + +[Footnote 19: Copper exists at Baia d'Arana.] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +GEOGRAPHICAL--ARCHAEOLOGICAL. + + The river system of Roumania--The 'beautiful blue + Danube'--Appearance of the Lower Danube comparable to the Humber or + Mississippi--Floating mills--The Danube in the Kazan Pass--Grand + scenery--The 'Iron Gates,' misconceptions concerning them--Their + true character--Archaeological remains--Trajan's road--His + tablet--His bridge at Turnu-Severin--Its construction and + history--The tributaries of the Danube and towns upon them--The + fishes of the Roumanian rivers--Lakes--Mineral waters of Balta + Alba--Roman roads--Bridge of Constantine--Roman streets, houses, + temples--Statue of Commodus--Gothic and prehistoric + remains--Climate--Great extremes of heat and cold--Beautiful + autumn--Rainfall-Comparison with other countries--Russian + winds--Sudden daily alternations--Comparison of the country + generally with other European states--Resume of its productions, + resources, and attractions for visitors. + + +I. + +The river system of Roumania constitutes one of the most remarkable +features in its geography, has played an important part in its past +history, and promises to exercise a powerful influence on its industrial +and political future. This system comprises the great main artery, the +Danube, with numerous confluents which take their rise in the +Carpathians, and, rushing at first in torrents, then How as sluggish, +often as half-dry streams, across the country before they empty +themselves into the parent river. + +The 'beautiful blue Danube' has been so bepraised that to a traveller +who visits it for its scenic attractions it is likely to prove a bitter +disappointment. It is not blue, although during certain seasons it is +said to have a blue tinge, but a great part of the way from Vienna to +the defile of Kazan, and the whole distance from Orsova to the Black +Sea, it resembles in colour and appearance our river Humber, and we have +heard American travellers compare it to the Mississippi. For hours and +hours at a time it flows between perfectly flat banks, on which nothing +is visible but reeds and willow bushes. The surface of the river is +enlivened by innumerable floating water-mills, which lie at anchor +either in midstream or close to the banks, and obtain their motive power +from the rapidly flowing current. These are used for grinding the maize +and other cereals of the country. Here and there a small town or +fortification presents itself on either bank. On the Bulgarian side are +the towns of Vidin, Nicopolis, Sistova, and Rustchuk, with their domes +and minarets, and idle laughing crowds of gazers, either men +picturesquely clad, or women sitting perched, on the rocks, and looking +like so many sacks of floor all in a row. These certainly break the +monotony of the great stream, but the general appearance of the river +from Verciorova, where it begins to bathe the Roumanian shore, to its +mouth at Sulina is one long flat reach, higher, as we have already said, +on the Bulgarian than on the Roumanian side. + +[Illustration: TERMINAL PIER OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE ON ROUMANIAN SHORE. +(FROM A SKETCH BY THE AUTHOR.)] + +But although that is the stretch of the river which comes strictly +within the scope of our survey, there is another portion, lying +immediately above it, that well merits a passing notice, more especially +as we know that it played an important part in the Roman conquest and +the subsequent colonisation of ancient Roumania. There is perhaps no +river scenery in Europe to equal, and certainly none which excels, that +part of the Danube stretching for about seventy-five miles from +Bazias--the terminus of a branch of the railway from Vienna to +Verciorova--to the so-called 'Iron Gates.' It is here that the river +cuts its way through the Carpathians, and whilst along its general +course it varies in width from half a mile to three miles or more, in +the Kazan Pass, a defile having on either side perpendicular rocks of +1,000 to 2,000 feet in height, it narrows in some parts to about 116 +yards, and possesses a depth of thirty fathoms. The banks closely +resemble those of a fine Norwegian fiord, rising more or less +precipitously, and being covered with pines and other alpine trees, and +occasionally, as in Norway or even in Scotland, the steamer appears to +be crossing a long mountain-locked lake. At the lower end of this reach +of the Danube are what the metaphor-loving Ottomans first called the +'Iron Gates,' and they no doubt found them an insurmountable barrier to +their western progress up the river. Considerable misapprehension, +however--which is certainly not removed by the accounts of modern +writers, who have apparently copied from one another without visiting +them--exists concerning these same 'Iron Gates.' Some of the writers +referred to speak of 'rocks which form cascades 140 metres' (or about +460 feet) high, 'and which present serious obstacles to navigation.' +Where these cascades are we were not able to discover. The fact is that +the whole descent of the river throughout this portion does not exceed +twenty feet, and where it issues from the outliers of the Carpathians +the banks slope more gently than higher up, and the summits are simply +high hills. The 'Iron Gates' themselves consist of innumerable rocks in +the bed of the river. Here and there they appear above the surface, but +generally they are a little below it, and they break up the whole +surface for a considerable distance into waves and eddies, through which +only narrow passages admit of navigation, insomuch that in certain +states of the river the passengers and cargoes of the large steamers +have to be transferred to smaller boats above, and retransferred to the +larger class of steamers below, the 'Iron Gates.' + + +II. + +But by far the most distinctive, and for us the most interesting, +features of the Danube about here, are its historical reminiscences. +Almost the whole way from Golubatz (Rom. Cuppae) to Orsova, there are +traces on the right (southern) bank of the remarkable road constructed +by Trajan (and probably his predecessors) for his expedition into Dacia, +and at one place opposite to Gradina is a noted tablet inserted in the +rock to commemorate the completion of the road. This tablet has been the +subject of much controversy, and it bears the following inscription:-- + + IMP. CAESAR. DIVI. NERVAE. F. NERVA. TRAJANUS. AUG. GERM. PONTIE. + MAXIMUS. TRIB. POT. IIII. PATER. PATRIAE.[20] + +The Servian peasants, however, have little respect for heroes--at least, +for ancient ones--and the barbarians of seventeen or eighteen centuries +appear to have lighted their fires and cooked their 'mamaliga'[21] +against the tablet until it presents the appearance of a blackened mass. +Of the road itself we shall speak hereafter at some length in connection +with Trajan's expedition, but a few words concerning his bridge at +Turnu-Severin may still be added. All that remains visible to the +traveller to-day are the two terminal piers, of which sketches are here +given; but between those piers the bridge spanned the river, and a very +low state of the water discloses the tops of several other piers still +standing. In speaking of one bridge we have taken rather a liberty with +the facts, for it is now pretty generally admitted that there were +really two structures. Further down the river is a small island which, +in former times, is said to have extended to where the remains of the +bridge are found, and upon this tongue of land the ends of the sections +starting from either shore rested. The land is supposed either to have +sunk or to have been washed away by the current.[22] The bridge, to +which further reference will be made in our historical sketch, was built +after the plans of Apollodorus, the architect of Trajan's Column at +Rome. It was commenced about 103 A.D., and probably consisted of twenty +piers, each 150 Roman feet high and 60 feet broad, and the distance +between the two terminal piers on the banks is about 3,900 English feet. +The piers were of stone, but the upper part of the bridge was wood. In +the northern pier the stone consists of rubble, or artificial +conglomerate composed of small roundish stones and cement, and this was +probably cast into blocks, but the one on the right (southern) bank is +of hewn stone. On the northern side there is an old wall running up +from the pier to the ruins of a tower which was evidently connected with +the bridge. + +[Illustration: TERMINAL PIER ON SERVIAN SIDE. (FROM A SKETCH BY THE +AUTHOR.)] + +But it would be better that we should reserve any further remarks +concerning the archaeological relics of Roumania, and also some +observations of immediate interest in connection with the Danube, until +we have completed a brief account of the water system of the country. + +Between the 'Iron Gates' and its three embouchures, namely, the Khilia, +Sulina, and St. George's mouths, of which only the second is navigable +by large vessels, the Danube stretches fora distance of about 650 +miles,[23] and receives in its course numerous tributaries, whereof the +following are the principal on the Roumanian side. The Pruth is the most +important. It forms the boundary between Roumania and Bessarabia +(Russia), and is navigable by small grain-carrying vessels. Next in +importance historically is the _Sereth_, which divided Moldavia from +Wallachia, and the remaining rivers of any moment are the _Oltu_, on +which are situated the towns of Rimnic and Slatina; the _Jalomitza_, +watering Tirgovistea, one of the ancient capitals, and receiving as an +affluent the _Prahova_, which takes its rise near Sinaia. The last-named +is a very interesting river, for in the vicinity of either bank are to +be found the petroleum wells or salt mines. Then there is the _Ardges_, +which flows past the little city of the same name and the town of +Pitesti, and receives the _Dambovitza_, on which the capital, Bucarest, +is situated. In these rivers are to be found in their due seasons many +species of fish, and as fishing is but little preserved they furnish +good sport. The most important kinds used for the table in Roumania are +two or three varieties of sturgeon, trout (small but sweet), herrings, +salmon, shad, pike, and carp, also perch, roach, barbel, tench, &c. +Roumania is not a lake country, and the largest lakes, called Baltas, +are found in the plains near the Danube, whilst amongst the inland +lakes, which are few in number and importance, that of Balta Alba, in +the district of Romnicu Sarat, possesses strong mineral properties, in +which chloride of sodium and carbonate and sulphate of soda +preponderate. Its waters are used for baths, and are said to cure +certain forms of scrofula, rheumatism, neuralgia, and other germane +maladies. Besides Balta Alba, Roumania possesses several other sources +of mineral waters. + +[Footnote 20: Paget, vol. ii. p. 44. Dierauer, p. 73, who adds several +more disjointed or isolated letters.] + +[Footnote 21: A dish made from maize.] + +[Footnote 22: Paget, vol. ii. p. 58. Tocilesco, Plate VII. In the +illustrations there given the number of piers varies, but in both cases +the intermediate island is shown.] + +[Footnote 23: The estimates vary from 630 to 650, but these do not make +full allowance for all the windings of the river.] + + +III. + +Returning now to the 'Iron Gates' of the Danube, the portal, as it were, +by which we enter the country, we find in connection with the great +bridge, and also starting from other parts of the Danube, remains of +Roman roads, to one or two of which reference has already been made; and +in the neighbourhood of these, again, evidences of permanent Roman +occupation. One road, west of the Iron Gates, has been named in +connection with Trajan's route. It commenced at Uj Palanka, and ran in a +north-easterly direction to Temeswar (Rom. Tibiscum), and thence to the +ancient capital of Dacia, Sarmizegethusa (modern Varhely), whence it is +believed to have been continued to the Transylvanian slopes of the +Carpathians bordering on Moldavia. This road, which, along with all the +other remains here referred to, will be found in our historical map, was +not situated in what is now Roumania. It was joined by another starting +from Orsova, which followed the valley of the Czerna, passed the modern +baths of Mehadia (Rom. Ad Mediam), and joined the first road at +Temeswar. A third, still more to the eastward, commenced at the Bridge +of Trajan at Turnu-Severin, and traces have been found which lead to the +belief that it must have crossed Wallachia in more than one direction +and have passed through the 'Rothenthurm' pass in the Carpathians, +whilst a fourth road, with which it was probably connected, started from +the vicinity of the bridge of Constantine, near Turnu-Magurele, and is +traceable in a north-westerly direction towards the Carpathians. Other +roads have been distinctly made out in these mountains connecting +Hermannstadt, Karlsburg, Schaessburg, &c. The road on the southern bank +of the lower Danube ran along the whole course of the river, and has +been followed to the neighbourhood of Galatz; whilst in the Dobrudscha +there are still the remains of two Roman walls, one on either side of +the line of railway from Cernavoda on the Danube to Constanta (formerly +Kustendjie) on the Black Sea. As to the other archaeological remains, +they are even more numerous and better defined than the roads. At +Turnu-Magurele, close by, there are traces of a second bridge across the +Danube, known as that of Constantine, and believed to have been +constructed by that emperor. In the same neighbourhood, at Celeiu, there +have been found several interesting Roman remains, ruins of buildings in +which the colouring is still visible on the walls, and a statue of +Commodus with an inscription. At Recika, near the modern town of +Caracal, close to the river Oltu in the district of Romanati, there are +also remains of streets and houses with inscriptions; and at Slaveni, +close by, are the remains of a temple of Mithras. Again, at Ciglena or +Tiglina, near Galatz, there is an old Roman encampment; at Vodastra, not +far from Celeiu (already referred to), still older prehistoric remains +have been found, whilst at Petrosa and Buzeu, on the line of railway +between Bucarest and Galatz, Gothic and other antiquities have been +discovered.[24] Interesting but more recent relics are to be seen at +Campu-Lung, the first capital of Wallachia. At Curtea d'Ardges, the +second (that is subsequent) capital, is a beautiful cathedral, which +will be more fully described hereafter; and Tirgovistea, the third +capital, from which the seat of government was removed to Bucarest, also +presents some interesting historical remains. + +[Footnote 24: We are indebted for many of those details to M. Tocilesco, +whose beautifully illustrated work, _Dacia_, &c. (Bucarest: Tipografia +Academiei Romane, 1880), contains a vast amount of information +concerning Dacian and other antiquities.] + + +IV. + +Before proceeding to deal with a subject in connection with the +geographical position of Roumania, which has special interest for +Englishmen, a few words may be found interesting in regard to its +exceptional and variable climate. + +Both the winters and summers are very trying and severe; spring is so +short as to be almost non-existent, but this is compensated for by the +long autumn, a genial season which often lasts from the middle of +September to the end of November. In summer the thermometer often +reaches 90 deg. to 95 deg. Fahrenheit in the shade, whilst in winter it +frequently falls to zero, but the annual average is about 57 deg. +Fahrenheit. Bain is not nearly so frequent as with us, and it seldom +lasts long. Comparisons have been made between Roumania and other +countries which show that whilst in England we have on the average 172 +rainy days in the year, there are in Western France 152, in Germany 141, +and in Roumania only 74. Snowstorms are not frequent, there being on the +average only twelve days of snow in the year. The most trying +characteristic of the climate, however, is the cold cutting easterly +wind which sweeps over the steppes of Asiatic Russia, and often causes +life to be almost intolerable in the Roumanian plains; and another +unpleasant feature is the sudden change from heat to cold between noon +and evening during the later months of the year. + +Looking generally at the physiography of Roumania, however, it will be +seen that whilst it covers an extent of country considerably in excess +of some of the small but prosperous independent States of Europe, it has +great advantages which they do not possess. Less rugged and mountainous +than Switzerland, and not so uniformly flat as Holland, its scenery +partakes of the character of both these countries. Guarded on the north +and west by the Carpathian range, and commanding the whole length of the +Danube in the south, its political position (to which further reference +will be made presently) renders it safer than Belgium, or perhaps even +than Denmark. Its soil is capable of producing, either spontaneously or +with a slight expenditure of labour, every requirement of the human +race, whether of necessity or of luxury. The grape, the peach, the +tobacco plant thrive in the open air. Its extensive forests contain most +descriptions of timber, whilst very fine salt and petroleum amongst its +mineral treasures are already worked, and there is little doubt from +the researches of chemists and metallurgists that coal, iron, sulphur, +copper, and even the precious metals are safely stored beneath the +surface. All these valuable natural productions may be readily conveyed +down the slopes of its mountains or across the plains, by short and easy +routes by land and water, to the larger watercourse which places it in +communication with the outer world; and as to the obstacles offered by +the 'Iron Gates' to the navigation of the upper Danube, these are soon +likely to disappear in an age when dynamite effects such vast +revolutions in the industrial history of nations. Add to these facts +that Roumania offers a rich field for the fisherman, that its alpine +districts are beautiful and easy of access, and that its antiquities +cannot fail to attract the attention of archaeologists; and we see +already from this brief and very superficial geographical survey that it +encloses within its boundaries the promise of a brilliant future. And +now let us turn from the natural capacities of the country to the works +and ways of man. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE NAVIGATION OF THE DANUBE. + + The Danube--Its importance to Roumania--To Great + Britain--Statistics of British and foreign vessels trading + there--Nature of the freight--Cereals--Our imports thence compared + with those from other states--Importance of Roumania as a + maize-grower--Effect of the Russo-Turkish war on Danubian + trade--The Danubian Commission--Its history--Austria and + Roumania--The Callimaki-Catargi despatches--Alleged pretensions and + designs of Austria--Necessity for the neutrality of the + Danube--Pending negotiations. + + +There is perhaps no question of greater real moment to the newly erected +kingdom than the free navigation of the Danube; for whether its +possessions are limited on the southern boundary by that river, or +whether at some future time they should extend beyond it, the reader +cannot fail to see from what has preceded that the Danube is the great +artery through which, so to speak, the industrial life-blood of the +nation circulates. But if it be a matter of primary importance to +Roumania, it is hardly less so to ourselves. The greater part of the +external trade of the countries bordering on the Danube which passes in +and out of the Sulina mouth, the only navigable embouchure, is carried +on in British bottoms, as the following figures will show:-- + +_Tonnage entering and leaving the Danube in 1880._ +____________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | | | +| |Steamers|Tonnage| Sailing |Tonnage|Total| Total | +| | | | Ships | |Ships|Tonnage| +| |________|_______|________ |_______|_____|_______| +| | | | | | | | +|British flag | 479 |408,492| 15 | 4,214| 494|412,706| +|All other nations| 242 |150,536|1,526[25]|238,312|1,768|384,848| +| |________|_______|_________|_______|_____|_______| +| | | | | | | | +| Total | 721 |559,028| 1,541 |238,526|2,262|797,554| +|_________________|________|_______|_________|_______|_____|_______| + +Thus it will be seen that the carrying trade of Great Britain to and +from the Danube amounts to nearly 30,000 tons more than that of all +other nations put together. And now as regards the nature of the goods +carried. They consist outwards (from Roumania, &c.) of cereals, and +inwards of a great variety of manufactured goods. Of the former +5,394,729 quarters were exported in 1879; and it may be said generally +that Roumania receives in return almost every article of consumption in +the way of manufactured productions, and notably from this country +cottons and cotton yarn, woollens, coals, and iron. + +In any year of scarcity our importations of feeding stuffs from the +Danube would become a most important factor, for in 1881 the Board of +Trade returns show the following comparative importations:-- + +_Imports of Cereals in 1880._ + + Cwts. +From United States 68,138,992 + " Russia 12,830,851 + " Canada 9,455,076 + " India 6,458,100 + " Roumania 4,355,344 + +All other countries, including Egypt, which is considered by no means +unimportant as a grain-producing country, sent us less cereals than +Roumania; and when we look at one species of grain, namely, maize, which +is considered equal to what is known as American mixed, and is capable +of being much more largely cultivated than at present, we find Roumania +third on the list; indeed, for some reason or other, her exports fell +off very materially last year, for in 1879 she ranked second:-- + +_Imports of Maize in 1880._ + + Cwts. +From United States 31,087,773 + " Canada 3,322,327 + " Roumania 1,764,482 + +We shall have to touch on this branch of the subject again; but if the +reader wishes to satisfy himself of the great importance to this country +of unrestricted trade on the Danube, he has only to refer to the annual +returns of the Board of Trade, and he will find that in 1876, when the +ports were closed in consequence of the last Russo-Turkish war, our +trade practically ceased, and that it has hardly yet recovered from the +effects of the stoppage. + +Indeed, the question of Danubian navigation has been for some time past +recognised as one of European importance, and after the Crimean war, +when the great Powers took away from Russia a small portion of +Bessarabia abutting upon the embouchures of the Danube, an International +Commission was appointed, consisting of representatives of those Powers +and of Roumania, whose duty it was to maintain the neutrality and the +free navigation of the Danube at its entrance, for which purpose they +were authorised to levy tolls and construct works. Subsequently the term +of this commission was renewed for twelve years from 1871 (until next +year therefore), and the neutrality of works existing at the expiration +of the treaty was declared permanent. By the Treaty of San Stefano (Art. +xii.) and the subsequent Congress of Berlin, 1878, all fortresses on the +Danube were ordered to be dismantled, and men-of-war, with the exception +of guard-ships, were excluded. The rights, obligations, and prerogatives +of the International Commission were maintained intact, and (at the +Berlin Congress) its jurisdiction was extended to the Iron Gates. + +This is everything of historical note that has, until quite recently, +been published with authority on the subject, but to those who are +interested either commercially or politically it has been well known +that the commission was not working smoothly, and that differences had +arisen between Austria and Roumania concerning their respective +jurisdiction. This first found public utterance in the Roumanian speech +from the throne last year, when the King said that his Government was +prepared to defend its rights to control the navigation of the Danube in +Roumanian waters, or words to that effect. What followed is contemporary +history. Austria, regarding this as an affront intended for herself, +threatened to withdraw her ambassador, and Roumania apologised. In the +meantime, however, M. Callimaki-Catargi, a former Minister of Roumania +in Paris and London, published in an unauthorised manner a long +correspondence between the Roumanian Foreign Secretary and himself, +which contained a statement of the Danubian difficulty that had been +handed to Lord Granville. It was circulated largely in France and +Roumania, and is interesting in relation to future events.[26] According +to M. Catargi, Austria has endeavoured, almost since the establishment +of the commission, to resist its action where she supposed such action +trenched upon _her_ interests and jurisdiction, whilst, on the other +hand, she has been aggressive upon the rights of her neighbours. It +appears from his statement that when it was attempted to form a +'Riverside Commission' to take the place of the original European +Commission, and keep the whole course of the Danube clear (a very +desirable object, as the reader will have seen from our description of +the Iron Gates), Austria objected to any interference with her +jurisdiction over that part of the Danube which flowed through her +territory. But when more recently the commission appointed a +sub-committee to study the lower Danube, and to report to it with such +recommendations as would ensure the carrying out of the project in its +integrity, it was found that some unseen influence had been at work to +change and pervert the entire constitution and objects of the +commission. + +The report was made, but it was found quite inappropriate to the desired +end, as it ignored the freedom of the navigation, the question of the +coasting trade, &c.; whilst, on the other hand, it proposed a 'mixed +commission, which was to be an executive committee, not at all +contemplated by the Treaty of Berlin, and which brought to light +pretensions of a new order.' + +Those pretensions were an attempt on the part of one power, namely, +Austria, to dominate the whole course of the river. The Executive +Commission was to consist of four members, representing Austria, Servia, +Roumania, and Bulgaria, and the Austrian commissioner was to preside and +to have a casting vote. Servia has a very small interest in the river, +as her territory extends only a few miles below the Iron Gates, and it +is essential to her very existence to remain on friendly terms with her +powerful neighbour, so that 'it results that Austria, who is already +mistress of the upper Danube, would obtain further privileges and a +veritable supremacy over the remainder of its course.' + +M. Catargi goes on to tell Earl Granville 'that if Austria succeeded in +securing her domination she would throw every obstacle in the way of the +importation of the products of the Western nations into the great basin +of the Danube in order to secure the monopoly of her own.'[27] + +This is the present condition of the Danubian question, and we have +reason to believe that negotiations are proceeding which are intended to +pave the way for a settlement next year. From what we know of those who +represent British interests in the matter, we feel satisfied that those +interests will be carefully guarded; but this must not prevent us from +bearing in mind international principles and rights everywhere +recognised as equitable, and which we feel confident will not be lost +sight of in the negotiations. Roumania is the most deeply interested; +she has a perfect right to the executive control of the navigation of +the Danube in her own waters, subject to her engagements with the +Powers. The contention put forward more or less officially by Austria, +that if this right were conceded to Roumania the other riparian Powers +might claim the same privilege, is answered by the simple statement that +such right is theirs already, as much as it is the right of Austria to +control the navigation of the Danube at Pesth or Vienna, of Germany to +regulate that of the Rhine at Cologne, or Belgium at Rotterdam. So far +as England is concerned, it needed not the revelations of M. Catargi to +acquaint us with the fact that Austria will do as she has done, namely, +attempted to limit our trade in the basin of the Danube; and our +interests and those of Roumania are therefore identical. + +But it is to be hoped that passing events in that part of Europe will +cure Austria of her aggressive tendencies, and that she will not assume +the same attitude towards the Powers as she did towards her weaker +neighbour. She will gain more by co-operating loyally with her to +improve the navigation of the lower Danube than by striving either +openly or secretly to secure a predominance which she could not +permanently maintain even if her present efforts were successful. + +[Footnote 25: Chiefly Greek and Turkish.] + +[Footnote 26: The correspondence, which extends from June 23 to +September 5, 1880, and is chiefly telegraphic, was published in the +supplement to the _Independance Roumaine_, Bucarest, December 6 [18], +1881.] + +[Footnote 27: After this despatch follows one from M. Bratiano, the +Roumanian Secretary of State, finding fault with M. Calargi for his +unfriendly tone towards Austria, and here is his edifying reply on that +point. 'Let me satisfy you (_vous rassurer_) as to the consequences that +might arise from the handing in of this document. Written on paper +without any mark, deprived of every official or individual character, +bearing no signature, this historical _resume_ of the phases through +which the question has passed cannot compromise anyone.' This is one of +the men who make history, and to whom the lives and interests of the +million are confided!] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +TOPOGRAPHICAL, ETC. + + The chief cities of Roumania--The capital, Bucarest--Ignorance + concerning it--Conflicting accounts--Its true character--The 'sweet + waters of the Dambovitza'--Dimensions of Bucarest--External + aspect--The Chaussee, the ladies' mile of Bucarest--Streets, shops, + and houses--The Academy--Its collections--Coins--Dacian, Roman, and + other antiquities--Excellent physical laboratory--Professor + Bacologlu--The Coltza laboratory--Dr. Bernath--The Cismegiu + Garden--Shabby courts of justice--Other + buildings--Churches--Railway stations--Fine hospitals--Dr. + Davila--The Colentina Hospital--The 'police des moeurs' and the + morality of Bucarest--The 'Philanthropic' Hospital--The + 'Coltza'--Its museums--Life in Bucarest--Hotels--The upper + classes--Places of amusement--Cost of land and houses for different + classes--Wages of artisans; of gipsies--Habits of the + working-classes--Cost of living, food, clothing, &c.--Native + costumes made by the peasantry--Their beauty and variety--The + poorest class--Mamaliga--The gipsies--Their origin and + history--Their slavery--Wilkinson's account of them in his + day--Their emancipation and present condition--Laoutari or + musicians--Their other occupations--Their religion--Fusion with the + native Roumanians--Striking contrast between gipsies and + natives--Lipovans--Roumanian love of bright colours--Pictorial + advertisements--Amusing signboards--Absence of intellectual + entertainments and occupations--Want of exchange and market + buildings--Great advances since 1857--Edgar Quinet's account of + Roumania in his day--'The Roumanian Company for erecting Public + Edifices'--Funerals--Octroi duties--Their onerous character--A few + words on the Jews--Bitter journalistic attacks upon them--Curtea + d'Ardges--Its beautiful cathedral--The exterior--Fine tracery and + ornaments--The interior--Legendary history--Negru Voda and + Manole--Poem of Manole--Entombs his wife alive in the + foundation--His fate--True history--Neagu Bassarab, its + founder--John Radul--Quaint and interesting tablets concerning its + history down to 1804--Subsequent history and present + condition--(Note: Brief history of Christianity in + Roumania--Atheism and indifference to religion). + + +I. + +The chief cities or towns in Roumania are Bucarest, the capital, in the +district of Ilfovu; Jassy or Iasi, the old capital of Moldavia, in that +of the same name; Galatz or Galati, in Covurluiu; Curtea d'Ardges, in +the district of that name; Braila or Ibrail, Craiova, Botosani, +Ploiesti, and Pitesti. We have not named them exactly in the order of +their size, as it is our intention to give some details of the first +four only. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF BUCAREST, WITH THE MAIN STREETS AND BUILDINGS. + +(_Reduced from Plan by Professor Zamphirolu._) + +1. Filaret Railway Station. + +2. Tirgovistea Railway Station. + +3. Metropolitan Cathedral. + +4. Palace. + +5. National Theatre. + +6. Council of Ministers. + +7. Academy. + +8. British Embassy. + +9. Post and Telegraph Offices. + +10. Church, Radu Voda. + +11. Ministry of Finance. + +12. Summer Palace (Cotroceni). + +13. Asyle Helene. + +14. Coltza Hospital. + +15. Colentina Hospital. + +16. Bank of Roumania.] + +Of the capital, Bucarest, the reader will here find a general plan, in +case he should at any time visit the city. To give any lengthened +account of it, however, would be a mistake; for such a description would +certainly be inaccurate a few years hence, as the city is undergoing +great change and improvement from day to day. Still it is the heart of +Roumania, the centre from which all progress emanates; and whilst we +shall refer to some of its more valuable institutions when we come to +deal with national and social questions of general importance, we +propose to dwell upon it for a brief space. + +Some of the questions that are asked concerning Bucarest, even by +persons who believe themselves well-informed, are highly amusing. One +friend, who is really a well-read man, asked us shortly after our visit +whether it was not a great continuous 'Mabille,' and he looked very +incredulous when we told him that, although we had walked through and +through it, and had carefully looked at all the posters announcing +amusements in various places, we had no recollection of seeing a +dancing-garden amongst them, and that we believed none existed. Another +friend, a highly educated professional man, was not quite sure whether +Bucarest was north or south of the Danube; but it was a place, he knew, +where the chief occupation was gambling. There may be some little truth +in the latter statement, but gaming-tables are forbidden, and he need +not go so far from home as that to see the law evaded. + +But it is no wonder that strangers are puzzled to form a correct +conception of Bucarest, and their perplexity is not likely to be +relieved if they read the descriptions that have been given of the city +and its inhabitants from time to time. Some writers have described it as +an assemblage of dilapidated houses standing in unpaved streets. Its +upper classes are represented as very polite depraved ladies and +gentlemen, including a large proportion of the former who have been +divorced three or four times, and are in the habit of entertaining +simultaneously all their _ci-devant_ husbands in the presence and with +the sanction of the 'man in possession.' The lower classes comprise +half-naked gipsies of both sexes, with a considerable sprinkling of +priests or 'popes,' eating bread and onions or mamaliga (the maize +pudding of the masses), or lounging on the doorsteps of the houses, or +sauntering along the unpaved streets in charge of a lean pig. According +to such writers the chief occupation of the Bucarester is getting +divorced or being buried in state. Then there is the romantic school of +authors who represent it as a city of palaces standing in their own +grounds, with numerous beautiful Byzantine churches, pleasure-gardens in +which plays are performed, or where the Laoutari or minstrels (gipsy +bands) play wild and stirring music all day long. There are charming +Roumanian belles, with flashing eyes and the sweetest of voices; +dark-eyed gipsies, chaste as Diana and as fleet of foot; grave boyards, +stately Turks (of whom, by the way, we never saw one whilst we were on +Roumanian ground, although there were plenty, very much married indeed, +on the Danube steamers); reverend abbots, with long black robes and +flowing white beards; and nuns in unique costumes of dark cloth, with +caps and hoods resembling a crusader's helmet. The truth, as usual, lies +between these two opposite extremes. + +[Illustration: MONK AND NUN.] + +Bucarest, or Bucuresci, 'the city of joy,' as it is called by the +Roumanians, is a large, irregular, straggling city of about 175,000 +inhabitants, situated on a dirty little stream called the Dambovitza (as +already stated, a tributary of the Ardges), concerning which some very +famous verses have been written, proclaiming its waters to be so sweet +that any one who drinks of them never desires to leave Bucarest. What +its retentive properties may have been in former times we are not able +to say, but we can quite imagine any person who ventures to drink of +the water being incapable of leaving the city for ever afterwards. +However, the prosaic authorities are not greatly impressed by their +national poetry in this instance. The river is being 'canalised,' or +confined within stone embankments, and there is a plentiful supply of +_apa dulce_ from another source, which exercises no controlling +influence whatever upon the movements of the drinker. The greatest +length of the city as the crow flies is about 3-1/10 miles, and its +greatest breadth somewhat less, but many of the outlying parts resemble +country roads rather than streets. Viewed from a distance, or from the +hill upon which the metropolitan church stands, it has a most +picturesque appearance, consisting of a vast number of churches, chiefly +Byzantine, only a few of which are visible in our photograph, and many +good-sized buildings. But what gives a peculiar charm to the city is +that all these buildings appear to be placed in one vast garden, for +there is hardly a single one without some trees in its immediate +vicinity, and many of the larger houses really stand in gardens of +considerable extent. This, too, is the cause of the city covering so +large a space in proportion to the number of its inhabitants. It is +built with perplexing irregularity, as will be seen even from our +superficial plan, where only the main streets are given; but the +intermediate spaces are filled with narrow, crooked, and ill-paved +streets and lanes, their most disagreeable feature being that, in +consequence of the soft yielding nature of the subsoil, the pavement +gives way, and soon becomes inconveniently undulating. There are, +however, several broad well-paved streets,[28] the chief being the Podu +Mogosoi, as it is still called, although after the fall of Plevna it +received the more dignified appellation of the Strada Victoriei; it runs +through the centre of the city from an incipient boulevard--which +promises one of these days to metamorphose the whole place--to a park or +garden of considerable extent, where it is further continued through an +alley of trees known as the Chaussee. This is the favourite drive of +the Bucaresters, and at stated hours a rapid succession of vehicles +pours out from various parts of the city to see and to be seen. These +birjas, as the little open carriages (resembling a small _caleche_) are +called, contain the moat motley assemblage of sight-seers--ambassadors, +state officials, and well-to-do citizens of both sexes in European +dress; ladies of more humble rank in the national costume;[29] gipsies +and poor workmen and women, who, one might imagine, would be better on +foot, half-clad, and very considerably unwashed. In or about the Strada +Victoriei are many of the principal buildings--the national theatre, the +King's palace (a very modest structure at present undergoing +improvements), the Ministry of Finance, and some fine hotels. The shops, +which are mostly kept by Germans and French-men, are of a fair kind, +though not equal to those of Vienna, Paris, or indeed of many smaller +continental capitals.[30] The houses here, and everywhere in Bucarest, +are built of brick, plastered white, and often very tastefully decorated +externally with figures or foliage in terra cotta; but it is the +cracking and falling off of this external coating, which occurs more +readily in a place subject to great changes of temperature than in more +equable temperate climes, that imparts to Bucarest the dilapidated +appearance so often referred to by writers. This blemish is, however, +likely soon to disappear; for the rise of a wealthy middle and trading +class, and the general increase of prosperity, will lead to the +substitution of stone buildings for what can only be regarded as +temporary structures. + +[Illustration: BUCAREST. + +(FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ DUSCHEK.)] + +Besides the 'Victoriei,' there are several other very good streets, one +of which is the Lipscanii, which derives its name from the Leipzig +traders who formerly lived there, and it is still only a shop street. +There are some small squares with central gardens, but the finest +thoroughfare promises to be the Boulevard, which it is intended to carry +round the city by connecting it with the wider roads. On this boulevard +stands the Academy, a large classical building with a fine facade of +columns; and in a square opposite is the bronze equestrian statue of +Michael the Brave, engraved in the second part of this treatise. + +[Footnote 28: The middle pavement is composed of a very hard kind of +brick called 'basalt,' which is very solid and durable.] + +[Footnote 29: The national costume is worn by Indies of high position in +the country, and on state occasions, but not as ordinary citizens' +dress; see the Queen's portrait, Chap. XV.] + +[Footnote 30: It may be mentioned for the reader's guidance that French +or German will serve him almost anywhere in Roumania.] + + +II. + +The Academy is the centre of intellectual life in Bucarest. Temporarily +the Senate meets there, but it also harbours many other institutions. +First there is the National Library, with a collection of 30,000 +volumes, most ably managed by M. Tocilesco, who is at the same time a +well-known author, and professor of ancient history at the University. +Through his acquaintance with the literature of most European nations, +his own historical and ethnological attainments, and his readiness to +put these as well as the treasures of the library at the disposal of +strangers, this gentleman cannot fail to raise his country in the +estimation of those who pay it a visit. He is also the curator of the +fine Archaeological Museum in the same building, which is very valuable +to historians. It contains a complete series of Roumanian coins +presented to the Academy by M. Stourdza; many Dacian, Roman, Greek, +Egyptian, and Syrian relics; along with a smaller collection from the +bronze, stone, and iron ages. Some of the Daco-Roman monuments and +sarcophagi, found near the Oltu, have a special historical interest, and +many of the more valuable objects, such as arms and ornaments of gold, +bear runic inscriptions. Coming down to a later period, there are +Albanian arms and costumes, mediaeval vestments and ornaments of the +clergy, a magnificent carved oak screen of the seventeenth century, +probably one of the finest in existence, and numerous other objects of +interest to the antiquary.[31] + +The natural history collection is poor, although local types are well +represented; the gallery of paintings is small and good, the subjects +being chiefly historical, with the addition of portraits of Heliade and +other national heroes. The classes of the University meet here, but, +with one exception, the appliances for higher scientific education are +very inferior. That exception is the physical laboratory, which would +reflect credit upon any public institution. It is contained in three or +four large rooms, and comprises every modern physical appliance +carefully protected from injury. Most of the instruments, which are of +the first order, are made by Secretau of Paris, and a small engine and a +Siemens-Halske magneto-electric machine were in course of erection +during our visit. The selection of instruments and the order which +pervades the whole bear practical testimony to the accomplishments of +Professor M. Emanuel Bacologlu, of whose teaching power and wide-spread +knowledge we heard nothing but praise on every side. The chemical +laboratory is nothing more than a popular lecture hall, poor and +disorderly in its arrangements, and quite unworthy of a national +institution. On the other hand there is a small but perfect chemical +laboratory in the Coltza Hospital close by, where the lecturers, Dr. +Davila and his able assistant Dr. Bernath, give excellent instruction to +the young medical students of the city. This is, however, far too small +for its object, and we hope that the 'era of peace,' referred to in the +speech from the throne last year, will enable the State to give greater +efficiency to the instruction and appliances of the city. In any case, +there is one practicable means of attaining this end which wilt be +pointed out when we come to speak of the general education of the +people. + +[Footnote 31: Engravings of most of the objects here referred to will be +found in M. Tocilesco's book, which, through his kindness, the writer +has been enabled to deposit in the British Museum Library.] + + +III. + +Under the same roof the geographical and other learned societies meet. +But we have said enough of this building, and must now pass on to a few +more prominent edifices in the city. Besides the Chaussee and its +surroundings, there is another large park or pleasure-garden in the +centre of the city, called the Cismegiu, which contains ornamental +waters, flower-beds, and fine alleys of trees, and is a favourite resort +of the humbler classes. In the immediate vicinity of this garden stand +the Courts of Justice, and the greatest service we can render to the +people of Bucarest is to advise visitors to give them a wide berth, or +at least to content themselves with a look at the exterior. The interior +of some portions at least vies, in filth and disorder, with the meanest +of our police courts. The Government buildings are of a much higher +order, and that of the Ministerial Council is very spacious and well +furnished. None of the numerous churches of Bucarest are really fine, +excepting in their external appearance, which is often very picturesque. +They are all built of brick and plastered, many roofed with metal, and +the paintings in them are very inferior, however interesting some of +them may be historically. The finest is the cathedral, or metropolitan +church, which stands upon a commanding eminence not far from the +boulevard, and beside it are two poor buildings, in one of which the +metropolitan resides, whilst in the other the Chamber of Deputies meets. +The church is comparatively recent, having been erected in 1656 and +restored in 1859. + +Bucarest has two railway stations, both situated at some distance from +the centre of the city. One is the terminus of the railway from +Giurgevo, situated on the Danube about two hours' ride distant; the +other of the lines to Verciorova, Pesth, and Vienna, westward; Predeal +and Kronstadt, Transylvania, to the north; and Galatz, Jassy, and Odessa +to the north-east and east. Passengers going to Constantinople travel by +rail to Giurgevo, where they cross the Danube to Rustchuk, and thence +proceed again by rail through Bulgaria to Varna, and on by steamer to +Constantinople; but a line is in progress from Bucarest which will take +them to the Black Sea through the Dobrudscha, namely, from Cernavoda to +Constanta (Kustendjie), thence to the capital of Turkey by steamer. + +Returning once more to the consideration of the public buildings, we +have to refer to the hospitals, which are admirably managed by the +'Eforia Spitalelor,' the hospital board, as we should call it, and by +its Director-General, Dr. Davila, whose work one encounters continually +in Bucarest. There are seven hospitals or infirmaries, of which three +at least are well worth a visit. The Colentina hospital makes up 200 +beds, 130 for women and 70 for men. The wards are roomy, well ventilated +and warmed, and the beds and bedding clean and comfortable. (The same +cannot, however, be said of certain other arrangements.) There are ten +women nurses, and we heard complaints of a want of volunteers there and +elsewhere, which detracts from the humanitarian character of the work. +To the hospital a dispensary is attached, where from January 1 to +September 8 last year, 10,791 persons had been relieved. A very +repulsive feature in this hospital is the ward containing forty or fifty +unfortunate women under the surveillance of the so-called 'Police des +Moeurs,' who are very solicitous about the health of a few of these +miserable creatures that live in a wretched lane in the city, whilst +they allow the traffic to be carried on in some places as openly as it +is in the Strand or Haymarket. Another hospital, which to the +uninitiated is far more attractive than the Colentina, is the +Philanthropic, a beautiful building of recent construction, containing +wide passages and very fine wards, and admirably fitted up with baths +and all modern conveniences. The third is situated close to the academy, +and is called the Coltza hospital. This was originally a monastery, at +the entrance of which a statue, already referred to, has been erected to +Michael Cantacuzene, the founder,[32] and it is said to have been +converted into a hospital in 1715. + +This may be called the students' hospital, for here is not only the +little chemical laboratory of Dr. Bernath, but also dissecting rooms, +amphitheatre, and anatomical museum. Of the latter, indeed, there are +several, osteological, physiological, &c., and they reflect great credit +upon the gentlemen who have formed them under almost insuperable +difficulties. There are several other important buildings in or near +Bucarest. Two of these, the Agricultural College and the Asyle Helene in +the outskirts, will receive a special description hereafter; but in the +city itself there are, besides those already named, the National Bank, +some of the monasteries devoted to philanthropic purposes, and three or +four hotels, where travellers may live with great comfort and luxury at +an extravagant cost.[33] + +[Footnote 32: See p. 202. A high tower attached to it is said to have +been built by the soldiers of Charles XII. of Sweden.] + +[Footnote 33: The principal hotels are the 'Grand Hotel du Boulevard' +(on the boulevard), the Hotel 'Brofft,' 'Hugues,' 'Imperial,' 'Mano,' +&c. The cost of a room varies from six to ten francs per day, and of +board about the same. Wine is very dear, varying from three francs for +the native wines up to twenty francs for fine French descriptions. All +these matters are, however, undergoing change from year to year.] + + +IV. + +Whilst we are speaking on this subject it may not be uninteresting to +add a few words on the mode and cost of living generally. The upper +classes, and such middle classes as exist, are remarkably hospitable and +social; they live in great comfort, and some of them in luxury, which we +fear is not always warranted by their revenues. The style of living is +Franco-German, in fact pretty much the same as in St. Petersburg. Many +people dine regularly at the large hotels, especially in those which +have open-air conveniences for that purpose during the summer months. +The theatres are well frequented, and in summer the favourite resort is +an open-air theatre of varieties near the St. George's Garden, where +native as well as French plays are performed, and where the songs of +'Erin and Albion,' sung by natives of these shores, are well +appreciated. Here may be seen grave diplomats sitting side by side with +the _bourgeoisie_, and the only objectionable feature is the doubtful +character of certain of the plays, which resemble some that are from +time to time performed at our English theatres; both have a common +origin, and would be better left in the place of their conception, that +boasted centre of civilisation, Paris. + +Whilst the upper and middle classes in Bucarest live in the style of +many large continental cities, and often in great luxury, the poorer +population are by no means so badly circumstanced as some writers have +represented. A great many of the higher class of artisans occupy their +own houses. Land is comparatively cheap, and a workman may procure a +cottage with a couple of parlours, a small kitchen, and a little garden, +for about 3,000 francs, or 125L. The cost of a residence in the best +part of the city where land is comparatively dear, with six rooms, +stable, and garden, averages 80,000 francs, or 3,200L., land varying in +value in the city from two to twelve francs per square yard. + +Much of the rougher work is done by gipsies, but the better class of +Roumanian artisans, such as carpenters, joiners, painters, tin workers +(who cover the roofs of buildings), receive from five to seven francs +per day, working from sunrise to sunset, with two hours for meals, or on +an average twelve hours per day. Italians and Germans, of whom many are +employed, receive one or two francs more than natives, whilst engineers +and fitters are paid eight to ten francs per day. A great deal of time +is lost in Roumania through feasts and holidays, of which there are, +including Sundays, over a hundred in the year. During this time not only +is there no production, but time spent in idleness leads to the same +demoralising waste there as elsewhere. The working classes are seen +hanging about wine-shops, as they congregate about public-houses here; +and, although it is a very rare thing to see people drunk in the +streets, many are heavy drinkers, consuming large quantities of rachin +(grain-spirit) and sour wine.[34] + +The cost of living is moderate. Dark bread varies from 1_d._ to +1-1/2_d._ per lb., white from 1-1/2_d._ to 2_d._, almost as dear, +therefore, as with us. Roumania is essentially a stock breeding country, +and whilst butcher's meat varies from 4_d._ to 5_d._, mutton costs 3_d._ +to 3-1/2_d._ per lb. Common wine is 3_d._ to 4_d._ per pint; fruits of +all kinds are very cheap, and afford an article of luxury to almost +every class of the population. Tobacco is dear, owing to the monopoly. +We believe there was an attempted revolution over the tobacco question +in 1805, which, had to be put down by military force. All kinds of +clothing for the poorer classes are imported, and a suit of best clothes +costs about thirty francs, a pair of boots eleven to twelve francs. This +does not, however, apply to the country. There the women, besides doing +field work and managing the household, make _all_ the clothes, the men's +as well as their own; and by that is meant that they spin, weave, and +make up the garments. The custom, already referred to, of wearing the +national costume by ladies in the country and on state occasions in +Bucarest, gives very lucrative employment to the native women, and such +costumes are exposed for sale in the shops of the capital at prices +varying from 6_l._ or 7_l._ to anything the wearer likes to pay. Many of +these costumes testify to the exquisite taste of the females by whom +they are made; for the combination of silk, wool, and thread, and the +beautiful lace-work, the effect of which is heightened by diminutive +spangles of gilt and silver, cannot fail to challenge admiration. These +costumes are, however, better adapted for young girls than for ladies of +a maturer age. + +[Illustration: FRUIT-SELLER OF BUCAREST.] + +Not only the women, but the men also, wear much livelier descriptions of +dress than we are accustomed to in the west of Europe; and whilst the +frilled unmentionables of some of them would excite ridicule amongst our +hardy operatives, the brocaded vests of others would perhaps be regarded +by them with envy. + +[Illustration: GIPSY FLOWER-SELLER.] + +The preceding remarks concerning the working classes do not, however, +apply to common labourers. These are chiefly gipsies, hundreds of whom, +men, women, and children, may be seen carrying bricks and mortar, and +performing every kind of drudgery, for which they receive about one or +two francs per day. If they are engaged upon the erection of a building, +they work, cook, and sleep in it; otherwise they find shelter where they +are able. They are frequently half-naked, the children sometimes +completely so; and their chief, if not their only food, which they eat +in common with all the poorest classes, is mamaliga, or maize-meal +boiled and flavoured with a little salt. This is sold at about 2_d._ for +3 lbs., but its price depends upon the maize crop. + +[Footnote 34: It is not so much a question in Roumania of time actually +lost; for if we add the longer working hours on the one hand, and deduct +the Saturday half-holiday of our operatives, probably there will not be +found to be much difference; but it is the recurrence of feast-days and +holidays at irregular intervals, as is the case in those trades in +England where men go off 'on the spree' for a day or two at slated or +unstated periods. In Romania this is, in its way universal.] + + +V. + +As to the gipsies themselves, concerning whom our readers will no doubt +have heard a great deal in connection with this country, they formed, +until recently, a nation within a nation, and even now they speak a +language of their own, and to some extent stand aloof from the remaining +population. They are the same people variously named Bohemians by the +French, Zigenner by the Germans, Gitanos in Spain, Tschinghenneh by the +Turks, and Tsigani by the Roumanians, who look upon them pretty much as +the white man regards the negro, between whose nature and that of the +Roumanian gipsy there is much that is analogous. That they are of Hindoo +origin few doubt, for their language has great affinity to the Sanscrit; +and when they first entered Roumania, probably early in the fifteenth +century, they were simply a race of wandering barbarians, a later +arrival, who were soon enslaved by the boyards. Many of them followed +the occupation of gold-washers in the Carpathians, and part if not all +the product of their labour fell to the portion of the wives of the +Voivodes; indeed, according to some writers, a considerable number were +slaves, whom the princess or her officials did not hesitate to sell, +maltreat, or even put to death with impunity. + +[Illustration: GIPSY MUSICIANS.] + +Wilkinson has given us anything but a flattering description of them in +his day (1820). The Principalities, he says, contained about 150,000 of +them, and 'they make a more profitable use of them than other countries +do by keeping them in a state of regular slavery.' They were able to +undergo constant exposure to the rigours of the weather, and were fit +for any labour or fatigue, but their natural indolence caused them to +prefer all the miseries of indigence to the enjoyment of comforts that +are to be reaped from industry. They were thieves from choice, but 'not +with a view of enriching themselves, and their thefts never extend +beyond trifles.'[35] The women were well-shaped before they began to +have children; both sexes slovenly and dirty in the extreme. An account +of their habits in the coarse language of the historian would be unfit +for our readers' perusal. There was no regular traffic in them, 'both +purchases and sales being conducted in private, and the usual price for +one of either sex was from five to six hundred piastres.' He says the +Government owned 80,000, consequently more than one-half of them, and +they were 'suffered to stroll about the country, provided they bound +themselves not to leave it, and to pay an annual tribute of the value of +forty piastres each man above the age of fifteen.' They lived in tents +near the large towns, and seem only to have worked as much as was +requisite to keep body and soul together. But, he adds, 'they possess a +natural facility and quickness in acquiring the knowledge of the arts,' +and musical performance was their forte. They were also employed as +slaves in the households of the boyards, especially in the kitchens, +which they made 'not less disgusting than the receptacles of swine.' +They were bastinadoed, often in the presence of the master or mistress, +and 'the ladies of quality, however young and beautiful, do not show +much delicate reluctance in similar instances of authority.' Other +punishments, some very inhuman, were inflicted; and although the owners +had no power of life or death over them, if the latter were the result +of too severe beating 'neither the Government nor the public took notice +of the circumstance.' Not only was it 'under the care of these depraved +servants that the boyards were brought up,' but as the women of the +higher classes were not in the habit of nursing their infants, they +placed them in the hands of gipsy wet-nurses, who imparted to them their +diseases, and no doubt influenced the morals of their after-life.[36] +Although the gipsies were nominally freed in 1848, their condition +remained unchanged after the revolution was suppressed, and it was not +until 1854 that they were permanently liberated. To-day there are +nominally 200,000 of them in Roumania, and until recently they were +divided, or divided themselves, into distinct castes following various +occupations. The highest of these were the Laoutari, or musicians, who +generally perform in bands consisting of four or five men each. These +usually play upon one or two violins, a mandoline, and the Pandean +pipes. Their music is wild and plaintive, giving the impression from a +distance that two or three bagpipes are being played. They have the +credit of being very good musicians, and of being able to perform +national airs from the ear alone. Some of them have risen to the +position of acknowledged composers, and indeed, for that matter, many +individuals amongst the gipsy race occupy comparatively high posts in +other departments of human intelligence. + +[Illustration: ROUMANIAN GIRL.] + +[Illustration: GIPSY.] + +Another section are workers in metal, such as tinkers and +brass-founders; a third work in wood, and perform various duties +connected with the building trade; but a large proportion are still +vagabonds and thieves, who infest the country, and are a nuisance to the +honest peasants and labourers. The last-named class profess no religion +and obey no law, excepting the criminal law when they are forced. The +settled part of the gipsy community belong to the national Church; the +women are chaste as against the Roumanians, but their morality is said +to be very lax amongst themselves. It is, however, hardly fair to speak +in these general terms of the gipsy race at present. As already stated, +many of them occupy very honourable positions in society; and some years +since a German writer predicted what is now taking place, namely, a +fusion of the gipsies with the Roumanians.[37] We were informed by a +learned philologist in Bucarest that this process is rapidly going on; +the castes are not so clearly defined; intermarriages with Roumanians +are of daily occurrence; many of the gipsies do not even know their own +language; and their number is rapidly diminishing. Intellectually they +are talented, but lazy. Many of the men, and still more of the women, +are very handsome. Although every gradation of shade is to be found +amongst their faces, pretty much as one sees in the negro race in the +United States, the features of the Roumanian gipsies are generally +well-formed Indo-European. Nothing is more striking than to see two +women pass each other, or walking side by side: the one a Roumanian, +fair, florid, and blue-eyed, the other a gipsy with a skin as black as a +sloe, jet-black hair, and black eyes, and yet the features similar in +both cases, and each woman in her way handsome.[38] + +Many stories have been related concerning the gipsies, and their +character has often been invested with romance; but we cannot afford +them more space, and we are loth to give _any_ to another class of +beings whom one sees in Roumania, namely, the self-mutilated sect of +Lipovans, well known to persons who are, or rather were formerly, +acquainted with Russia, out of which country they were driven when they +took up their abode in Roumania. They are chiefly hackney-carriage +drivers, and wear the Russian dress, consisting of a long cloth coat +bound at the waist by a belt, and a round peaked cap. We were informed +that the police are making efforts to get hold of the leaders of this +sect, which is undoubtedly a blot upon the civilisation of any country +in which its members are to be found. + +[Footnote 35: Raicewich gives a similar account of them in 1789.] + +[Footnote 36: Wilkinson, pp. 168-176.] + +[Footnote 37: 'Und da sie ein sehr schoener Volksstamm sind, und +andrerseits die uebrige Bevoelkerung sie darchans nicht zurueckstoesst, so +sicht nichts entgegen dass sie in einer ziemlich nahen Zukunft mit der +Masse der roumaenischen Bevoelkerung verschmelzen.'--Petermann's +Mittheilungen, Ergaenzungsheft 4, 8. 12. Gotha: J. Perthes.] + +[Footnote 38: There are two types of gipsies, the one Indo-European, the +other of an African cast.] + + +VI. + +The Roumanians are very fond of bright colours, and one of the +peculiarities which strike the visitor to Bucarest is the hues of the +women's dresses, sometimes, but not always, as tasteful as they are +brilliant. Another feature is the love of the pictorial art in +connection with the advertisements of tradespeople. Amongst many +examples of this, in various vocations, is the frequent recurrence of +signboards, representing a lady reposing in her bed after an interesting +event, whilst the nurse (who thus advertises her profession) is holding +up a beautiful infant in her arms for the admiration of its parent and +the general public. The amusements of the working classes, and for that +matter of all classes, are by no means of the highest order. The +Roumanians love music, and many are accomplished musicians. The national +theatre is well attended by the middle classes during the season, so are +the _cafes chantants_ by the lower orders; but there is no intellectual +enjoyment as in Western countries, no popular lectures nor +entertainments, no societies for mutual improvement for any class of the +community. If one enquires what learned societies there are, he may +probably receive, as we did, a long list of them, bearing imposing +names, and many said to publish 'Transactions' (_Zeitschrift_); but +enquire a little further, and you will find that this society has been +defunct for so many years, and that one never met--that this +'Zeitschrift' was published once, but not a second time, and so on. The +Geographical Society has done some good work. In 1875 they published a +report through their secretary, M. Cantacuzeno, which contains a great +deal of valuable information concerning Roumania; but unfortunately, as +in the case of all Roumanian statistical records, this differs in many +cases from the statements of other 'authorities,' and cannot be accepted +as entirely trustworthy. + +These remarks, however, are not applicable to the researches and +publications, in transactions and reviews, by savants such as Hasdeu, +Aurelian, Tocilesco, Bacologlu, Prince Jon Ghika, Cogalniceanu, and many +others. These are, however, entirely out of the reach of the multitude, +who stand greatly in need of popular instruction, a fact which has been +recognised by the Queen, who is not only doing all in her power to +popularise information by means of simple publications, but we believe +made an effort, hitherto ineffectual, to introduce a system of popular +lectures. + +In another respect the city is behind the age, and that is in its +commercial arrangements. Although there are large transactions in raw +produce, in the manufactures of all nations, in stocks and shares, there +is no public Exchange, no Stock Market, no Corn Exchange, all the +business being transacted by ambulating brokers. But if the reader knew +in what condition the country was before the Crimean war, he would +marvel, not at the absence of such institutions, but that there should +be any need of them. In his work on the Roumanians published in 1857, +Edgar Quinet suggests as the means of their regeneration after so many +years of oppression 'a bank,' 'an institution of credit,' and railways, +of which there were at that time none in existence.[39] Now there are +banks, credit institutions, railways between most of the important +centres, and others in progress. In fact, it is no exaggeration to say +that the progress which has been effected in this country in twenty-five +years has in other European States necessitated one or two centuries; +and this is a circumstance of which most writers on the country have +lost sight in their criticisms. For the purpose of erecting suitable +buildings for trade, and for public bodies generally, a corporation has +recently been started which calls itself the 'Roumanian Company for +building Public Works.' Its capital is ten millions of francs, and +Prince Demetrius Ghika, President of the Senate, is the chairman, with +an unexceptionable board of directors, and no doubt the next five or ten +years will witness changes and improvements as rapid as those which have +occurred in the immediate past. + +Much, perhaps too much, has been written concerning Roumanian funerals. +That they are showy, almost to irreverence, and that the exposure of the +face of the corpse in its glazed coffin is repulsive, there can be no +doubt, but they are not one whit worse than the lugubrious processions +with their 'arrangements' in black and feathers which are still to be +seen in England; and there, as here, it is to be hoped that with +improving national taste these exhibitions will be discontinued. + +Very different, however, is the old-fashioned system of octroi, of which +the poorer classes complain bitterly, still in vogue not only in +Bucarest but in all the other large towns of Roumania, and the still +more iniquitous poll-tax. The latter amounts to eighteen francs per +head, and is levied on rich and poor alike. It is, however, needless to +say more on that subject; for the 'Romanul,' a daily journal, owned by +M. Rosetti, and published by him whilst he was Home Secretary (August +27, 1881), contained a most effective leading article against the tax, +from which it is clear that its injustice is recognised in the highest +quarters. As to the octroi system, it is bad beyond all conception. A +municipal tax, sometimes of so much per 100 kilos (4 to 44 francs), at +others _ad valorem_, or again upon each article, is levied upon almost +everything required by the inhabitants as it is brought into the city, +from food, clothing, and the necessaries of life, to such luxuries as +wine, artificial flowers, and carriages. And what aggravates the evils +of the system is that the municipality farms these duties to men +(usually Jews) who evade the authorised schedule by giving credit to +needy persons and then compelling them to pay exorbitant rates of +interest (if it can be so called) for the accommodation they receive. It +is for such practices as these, resulting in part from the want of good +government combined with the improvidence of the people, and from the +readiness of the Jews to turn these and similar circumstances to +favourable account, that the latter have been subjected to persecution +which formerly took the shape of violence and outrage, and which is now +confined to bitter invective and national ill-will. + +The Jews, said 'Romania Libera' (a very inappropriate title for the +exponent of such views), are masters of the trade of the country and +poison everything economically. Joint-stock establishments are +recommended by it for the sale of clothes, shoes, and linen. The +Government must regard it as its sacred duty to foster this movement +with all its influence. 'The Jews need have no apprehensions. We will +not pitch them into the Danube, nor requite them with a Sicilian Vesper +as they deserve. Preventive economical regulations are much more +effective than the above-named measures.'[40] It is needless to remark +what a pernicious influence such an article as this would have upon an +excitable people who had been the victims of usury and oppression; and +whilst no language is sufficiently strong to apply to the perpetrators +of such outrages upon the Jews as have disgraced the Eastern nations who +have been guilty of them, Englishmen should hesitate before they fix the +blame upon the government of any country in which they occur. The Jews +are the chief traders in Roumania, and if they are exorbitant and +usurious the way to meet them is by competition and enterprise on the +part of the native traders, not by invective and abuse. + +[Footnote 39: _Oeuvres completes_, vol. vii. p. 97.] + +[Footnote 40: This article appeared in, and the extract was copied from, +the journal in question by the writer whilst he was in Bucarest, but he +omitted to copy the date.] + + +VII. + +Before passing to the consideration of one or two other Roumanian towns +which will necessitate a reference to the trade of the country, we will +devote a few pages to the description of one of the most interesting +localities, or rather of a building therein, which is generally +considered its most noteworthy historical relic, and that is the church +or cathedral of Curtea d'Ardges. + +The small city of Curtea d'Ardges, which contains one or two good old +churches, is situated on the river of the same name, a few hours' drive +from the station of Pitesti on the Bucarest and Verciorova (Vienna) +Railway; it is the seat of a bishop, and is one of the oldest towns in +Roumania. It is said to have been founded by Radu Negru, which is +tantamount to saying that its foundation is lost in obscurity. In its +immediate vicinity is a monastery containing a most beautiful cathedral, +around which cluster many interesting historical associations, and +whereof we propose to give a brief description.[41] It is of the +Byzantine order, but the architect has employed in its decoration a +large amount of Moorish or arabesque ornament, and the whole building +resembles a beautiful large mausoleum. The stone with which the +cathedral is faced has usually been called marble, but it is a whitish +grey limestone somewhat resembling lithographic stone,[42] which is very +easily workable with the chisel, but hardens on exposure to the air. We +have said it is faced with this stone, that is externally, for the +internal face of the building is of brick plastered for the reception of +paintings. The church is of an irregular form, being composed of a +square block, behind which is a large polygonal annexe; the whole is +raised upon a pediment seven feet in height, and the portal, which is +Moorish, is approached by twelve marble steps, said to symbolise the +twelve tribes of Israel. From the square main portion of the church a +large dome rises in the centre, and two smaller cupolas in front, whilst +a secondary dome which is larger and higher than the central one +surmounts the annexe behind. The domes and cupolas constitute the +summits of what are called by architects 'tambours;' the tambours of the +cupolas are round, that of the central dome octagonal, and that of the +hinder secondary one pentagonal. From all the domes alike there spring +inverted pear-shaped stones, each bearing a cross which consists of an +upright rod traversed horizontally by three smaller ones; the crosses +bear balls and chains, and symbolise the Trinity. On the ground, +opposite the portal, and within the stone balustrade which surrounds the +church, there is an exquisite little open structure resembling a shrine. +This consists of four plain Arabic pillars supporting a series of +mouldings which form a square cornice, and crowned with a dome, +pear-shaped ornament, and cross, precisely as in the cupolas of the +church itself. The windows in the body of the church and on the tambours +of the domes are very narrow, and those on the tambours or cylinders of +the smaller cupolas are curved and slope obliquely at an angle of +seventy degrees, which gives the spectator the impression that they are +leaning, somewhat in the same manner as the well-known spire at +Chesterfield. The ornamentation on the outside surpasses all powers of +description. It comprises a large corded moulding, about halfway +between the pediment and the cornice, passing right round the main +building; and circular shields above this moulding, which, along with +the windows, are decorated with the most exquisite tracery, wherein +flowers (chiefly lilies), leaves, and convoluted bands play a +conspicuous part. Everywhere, on the cornices, tambours, and balconies, +chaste wreaths and crowns of lilies add beauty and lightness to the +fabric, and give to the whole the appearance of a fairy structure. + +[Illustration: TRACERY ON EXTERNAL SHIELD.] + +Within, the building is less interesting; it is dimly lighted by the +narrow windows, artificial light being furnished by means of numerous +candelabra during divine service. The secondary dome is supported by +twelve Arabic pillars, and the walls and domes are decorated with +frescoes of the orthodox kind--the Saviour, Virgin, and Apostles, with +scenes from the Old and New Testament, also with portraits of princes +and bishops of the See. The length of the building inside is about 76 +Vienna feet, the greatest breadth 41 feet. The height of the two domes +is 86 feet and 81 feet respectively, and of the smaller cupolas 66 feet. + +If the architecture and ornamentation of the cathedral are beautiful, +the historical records which it contains are even more interesting. It +is true that great uncertainty hangs over these, as over all other +Roumanian chronicles, but certain facts in connection with the building +and its history are well established. + +[Illustration: TRACERY ON EXTERNAL SHIELD.] + +Its archives have been carried off by the invaders who, from time to +time, sacked and plundered its valuable treasures; but several +inscriptions inside and outside of the church, some of which are in the +Servian and old Slavonian language, and others in Roumanian, throw light +upon its history and construction. + +First, however, we must inflict upon our readers a little legendary +lore, which, although it illustrates the uncertainty of the early +history of the country, will give them a glimpse of the national thought +and feeling in the past. According to tradition the cathedral was +founded by 'Neagu Voda,' of whom we shall speak hereafter; and it is +said that whilst he was a hostage at Constantinople he built a +magnificent mosque for the Sultan, who allowed him to take away to his +own country the surplus materials, and that from these he constructed +the cathedral after his own designs. A still wilder legend makes one +Manoll or Manole the architect, and it is said that he had several +master-masons associated with him in the work, but that the efforts of +the combined masons failed to raise the building. Neagu Voda had +commanded them on pain of death to proceed with it, when Manole, to save +their lives, proposed that they should follow the old custom (legendary +let us hope) of building up a woman in the foundation; and it was +decided that the woman who first made her appearance with the provisions +for her husband on the following day should be the victim. They all +swore to keep the fact secret from their wives; but Manole was the only +one who kept his word, and consequently his wife Utza was the first to +appear. + + 'He took her by the hand at once + And led her to the building, + Then pointed out where she should stand, + And he began to build: + "Be, my beloved, without fear." + She did not interrupt his discourse. + + 'The other masons in astonishment + All look at him with terror, + And all stand at a distance, + For they dare not venture near; + When he softly speaks to her, + And with haste builds her up. + + '"This joke is not good, + Manole, my beloved; + Reflect that I am a mother, + And that I am bringing up your son." + But Manole still jokes + And hastens as much as he can. + + 'Up to her breast he had built up, + And she sweetly sings to him; + The strong wall bruised her, + And she swims in tears, + But when he had finished, + The wall more than overtopped her. + + 'This was the remedy: + And the wall was able to stand; + And after this the monastery + Ceased to fall any more; + The wind, the earthquake do not shake it. + Utza within the wall upholds it.' + +Thus far the poet;[43] but the legend does not end there. The boasts of +the masons were so arrogant after the cathedral was completed that +Radul, or Neagu (for he is called by both names), gave orders for the +scaffolding to be removed, and left them to die of hunger on the roof. +Manole and his companions sought to save themselves by constructing +parachutes of light wood, but as each attempted to descend he was dashed +to the ground and turned into stone. Manole himself was the last to make +the attempt, but when he approached the parapet he was horror-struck at +hearing the plaint of his wife as he had heard it when he was building +her up in the foundation, and, losing all sense and power, he fell to +the ground. From the spot where he fell dead a spring of clear water +gushed forth, and a fountain which was erected there is still known as +Manoll's. + +And now to pass from fiction to fact. According to the inscription upon +a tablet outside of the church, it was founded by Neagu Bassarab, a +prince of Wallachia, to whom we shall refer hereafter in our historical +sketch. He is reported to have been very pious and patriotic, to have +founded many monasteries and restored the cathedral of Tirgovistea. He +died about A.D. 1520, and was buried in the church at Ardges.[44] He +did not, however, live to complete the cathedral, for another tablet +within the church says that John Radul, or Radul d'Affumaz, to whom +reference will also be made in our historical summary, caused the +paintings to be executed in 1526.[45] + +During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the church was desecrated +and plundered by ruthless invaders, Christians (Hungarians) as well as +Mohammedans, who carried off its treasures, which are said to have been +of great value. In 1681, however, Prince Serban Cantacuzene, of whose +good deeds we shall speak hereafter, completely restored the cathedral, +as appears from the Roumanian inscription on a tablet outside near the +portal. This inscription is quaint and interesting, and deserves a place +in any work professing to deal with the history of the country. After a +number of deeply pious and moral reflections it goes on to say:-- + + 'Therefore Nyagoe Voivode Beserab, of happy memory, the great + grandfather of my wife on the mother's side, who was a pious and + God-fearing man, when he was invested with the government of + Wallachia, did, amongst many other good deeds, cause to be erected + a large and splendid monastery in this town of Argesia, along with + the other cloister buildings in the vicinity, for the worship of + God and in honour of his sainted mother; which monastery, as it may + readily lie imagined from the high wages paid to the workmen + engaged in its erection, must have been a very costly undertaking. + After a considerable period the foundation and steps began to give + way, either through some error of the builders or owing to the damp + caused by long-continued rains which loosened the stones. About + that time I, Johann Scherban Kantakosino Beserab Voivode, in the + name of God, was entrusted with the government of my ancestors. As + soon as I became acquainted with the dilapidation of the monastery, + I at once resolved to restore the building of my ancestors in order + that the memory of that famous prince (Nyagoe) might not be + forgotten, and I sent our boyard Dona Pepano as superintendent with + numerous workmen, and thereupon restored the whole building where + it had suffered damage, and bolted with iron the stones which had + loosened, that they might thus continue to hold together, and then + I further determined to endow the sacred monastery with the income + from the hill[46] of Menesti, near Ardges, to hold and enjoy its + entire revenues. These shall be in support of the holy monastery + and in eternal remembrance of us and our ancestors. + + 'In the year 7190, the 26th August. + + 'This happened under the Metropolitan Kyr Theodosius.' + +At the close of the eighteenth century Ardges was constituted a +bishopric, and at the beginning of the present, Bishop Joseph was at +great pains to renew and restore several portions of the cathedral. The +inscription commemorating this event is brief:-- + + 'To the glory of the Holy Trinity, to the glory and praise of the + Holy Virgin Mary the Mother of God, this church was restored where + it was injured by the rain. Where, however, the colour was only + obliterated, it was repainted; at the instigation of Joseph the + first Bishop of Ardges, in whose time also other work was done, + under the Metropolitan Dositheos and Prince Constantine Ypsilanti. + The superintendent of the work was Meletin (of the Monastery). In + the year 1804, 25th October.' + +Besides having suffered at the hands of barbarians of various nations, +this beautiful fabric has from time to time been injured by earthquakes; +but it has survived all these calamities, and has been frequently +repaired, restored, and beautified since the beginning of this century. +The property and incomes of monasteries have been largely applied to +secular purposes, and amongst those whose resources have been much +curtailed is that of Ardges. It is to be hoped, however, that, either +through State support or private benevolence, this beautiful monument of +mediaeval art and valuable historical record may not again be allowed to +fall into decay, but may long remain what it is at present, undoubtedly +the gem of Roumania.[47] + +[Footnote 41: An excellent monograph, beautifully illustrated, of this +cathedral was published by Ludwig Reissenberger (Braumueller, Vienna, +1860), to which we refer the reader for further details concerning it. +Our two woodcuts showing the tracery are copied from that work, but the +autotype plate is from a photograph by Duschek.] + +[Footnote 42: Reissenberger calls it 'Grobkalk.' Similar stone is found +in the neighbourhood.] + +[Footnote 43: There are several versions of the legend. In some the +prince is called Negru Voda, in others Negoije Voda, and in others again +Radu Negru. The poem has been translated by Hon. H. Stanley, _Roumanian +Anthology_, p. 215 (Hertford: Stephen Austin), an expensive and +beautifully illuminated drawing-room book, containing some Roumanian +poems in the vernacular, and others translated into English.] + +[Footnote 44: The date on the tablet is 7209. This is Anno Mundi, +according to the chronology of at least a section of the Byzantine +Church, Christ having been born, after that reckoning, 5509 years after +the creation of the world. (See Brown's _Vulgar Errors_ and Smith's +_Dictionary of the Bible_.) Engel says Neagu reigned from 1511 to 1520. +Vaillant says he died in 1518.] + +[Footnote 45: 7035 (A.M.) is the date on the tablet.] + +[Footnote 46: Vineyard?] + +[Footnote 47: As reference has been made from time to time to Roumanian +ecclesiastics, the following brief particulars may not be uninteresting. +Christianity was introduced into the provinces bordering on the Danube +at a very early date. According to A. de Gerando (_Siebenbuergen und +seine Einwohner_, p. 211, Lorck, Leipzig, 1845), a MS. was found in +Hungary, bearing a cross and the date 274 A.D.; and in 325 +A.D. a Bishop Theophilus was spoken of amongst the Goths. In +370 A.D. Athanaric, the Gothic king, persecuted and put many +Christians to death. In 527 A.D. the Christian churches of +Roumania (as then constituted) were taken in charge by the metropolitan +of the Greek Church. But it was not until 865 A.D. that the +Bulgarians and the native population associated with them were actually +converted to Christianity (Lauriani, p. 29). About that time intrigues +existed between the heads of the Eastern and Western Churches for the +possession of the headship in these countries, but the influence of the +former predominated. About 860 A.D. a Slavonian liturgy was +introduced into the churches, and, notwithstanding the denunciations and +embassies of the Roman Pontiff, a separation occurred about 880 A.D., +and the Roumanians joined the Orthodox Greek Church. Of the negotiations +between Innocent III. and Johannitz, King of the Second +Wallacho-Bulgarian monarchy, we shall speak hereafter, and although +after that time the Papal power was in the ascendant in Wallachia and +Moldavia amongst the princes and nobles, the people always leaned to the +Greek rite, and at length, in 1440, the metropolitan of Moldavia +succeeded (Romish writers say by a religious _coup d'etat_) in making +the Greek Church dominant. In the middle of the seventeenth century the +most important Roman Catholic bishopries were suppressed, and down to +the present time the Greek Church has been the state religion, and it is +professed by nearly the whole nation; even the King, who was formerly a +Roman Catholic, now conforms to the faith. Of the secularisation of the +monasteries and other religious movements we shall speak in Part II, and +it is only necessary to add that at present there are two metropolitans +or archbishops, six bishops with dioceses and several without; in 1876 +there were 9,800 secular priests, 1,700 monks and 2,270 nuns, 6,550 +churches and 173 monasteries and nunneries. The priests or 'popes' marry +and follow secular occupations in the country; in the towns they are +'non-productive' so far as labour is concerned. The services of the +Greek Church are not impressive; but although much has been written +concerning their superstition, the Roumanians do not differ greatly from +the people of other Catholic countries in that respect. There is great +indifference to religion, if not absolute atheism, amongst the higher +classes, which no doubt results from the great ignorance of the +priesthood. The thing most to be regretted, however, is that whilst +there are thousands of 'religieuses,' as they are called, in the +country, all the nurses in its excellent hospitals should be paid +servants, and the Church does nothing whatever towards maintaining the +efficiency of those institutions.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +TOPOGRAPHICAL--COMMERCIAL. + + Tramways in Bucarest--Other efforts at improvement--Galatz--Its + position on the Danube--Quays, streets, buildings, &c.--Importance + as a seaport--Languages requisite for trading there--Almost entire + absence of English firms--Reports of the Consul-General, Mr. Percy + Sanderson--The quality of British manufactures--(Note: The author's + experience)--Causes of preference for foreign over British + manufactures--Commercial treaties--Austrian pressure to the + detriment of Great Britain--Statistics of our import and export + trade with Roumania--Infancy of her manufacturing + industries--Difficulties hitherto existing--War and uncertainty of + investments--The new port of Constanta (Kustendjie)--Other + Roumanian towns--Jassy--Its position and institutions--(Note: + Conflicting estimates of its population)--Ibrail, Craiova, + Ploiesti, &c. + + +If many of the streets of Bucarest are badly paved and the city +imperfectly sewered, it is at least striving hard to keep pace with +other European towns in regard to modern conveniences. Its main streets +are well lighted with gas, and it boasts a good line of tramways round +and through various parts of the city. But when we come to consider what +is now the second town of importance in Roumania, Galatz, we have to +step back a few decades before we can realise its condition. It is +situated on the left bank of the Danube about ninety miles from the +Sulina mouth, and to the east of it is Lake Bratish, which is only +separated from the great river by a strip of marshy land. On the whole +it is more regularly built than Bucarest, and for about a mile along the +river's bank the business portion extends, with its quays for ships +discharging, ships loading, foreign agencies, timber yards, and railway +loading and discharging berths. In the town itself there is nothing of +interest to strangers. The streets are in a condition alternating +between mud over your knees and dust over your ankles, imperfectly if at +all drained, and lighted with oil lamps, of which one in every three is +usually put into requisition. There are some good-sized public +buildings, including the Prefecture, some hospitals, two of which, one +called St. Spiridion, and another built during the Russo-Turkish war, +were a great boon to the wounded of all the armies. There is also a +cathedral, such as it is, and several Greek churches, one of which is +said to contain the remains of Mazeppa; a synagogue or two, and a few +other places of worship. Then there is a 'park' and a garden, and +altogether Galatz resembles Bucarest on a small scale, and without its +improvements. The chief boast of the place seems to be a constant +water-supply, which is, however, so regulated that whilst one +householder is watering his garden his neighbour cannot perform the same +operation, but must wait patiently until he has finished; and finally +there are, as a matter of course, a good many brick houses, some of one +story and some of two, in which dwell a very kindly and hospitable set +of inmates. + +The importance of Galatz as a seaport is, however, quite another matter. +Although this country transacts a very considerable trade with it, there +are very few English houses or agencies there, the chief business being +carried on by German, Italian, Greek, and French firms; and not only +those languages, but also Turkish and Bulgarian, are requisite for +trading purposes. + +The chief commodities exported to England are, as already stated, maize +and barley, and the chief importations from this country are cotton +yarn, cottons, woollens, machinery, hardware, cutlery, dry stuffs, +spices, tea and sugar, but besides those there is hardly an article used +by a civilised community which is not supplied to Roumania from this +country. In two admirable reports published in 1877 and 1878, our +Consul-General in Roumania, Mr. Percy Sanderson, has reviewed the trade +between the two nations, and he gives some rather significant hints to +'fair traders,' that is to say not in the refined sense in which the +term has been recently employed, but in its good old-fashioned +signification of honest dealers. 'It cannot be said,' he remarks, 'that +the bulk of the goods imported from Great Britain forms by any means a +fair sample of its produce and manufactures,' and 'there is already a +tendency amongst the well-to-do classes to purchase French or Austrian +manufactures when they are prepared to pay a high price for a really +good article, although the same goods might possibly be furnished them +from Great Britain at a lower rate.'[48] But Consul Sanderson gives +another reason for the preference shown for foreign as distinguished +from English manufactures. It is that the local trade is chiefly carried +on by natives of those countries from which the articles preferred are +imported, 'whilst there is not a single shop in Galatz kept by an +Englishman--it seems doubtful whether there be one in the whole of +Roumania.' And there is still a third reason, to which he only refers +incidentally, but we question whether it is not the most cogent of all. +Whilst continental states, and especially Austria, have shown little +delicacy in exacting favourable treaties of commerce from the Roumanian +Government, England has been at a disadvantage in that respect. We may +be told that we are placed on the most favoured nation footing, but we +were informed at Bucarest by persons occupying high positions, and whose +statements may be trusted implicitly, that, although this is apparently +and nominally the case, it is not so in reality, as the commercial +treaties have been initiated by Austria, and so framed as to give a +preference to her manufactures.[49] + +Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, our exports to Roumania are on +the whole increasing, as witness the following statistics (Board of +Trade, 1881), although there has been a slight falling off in cotton +stuffs on which the tariff is high, and in manufactured iron. + + +_Total Exports from Great Britain to Roumania._ + ++----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ +| | 1878. | 1879. | 1880. | ++----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ +| | | | | +|British manufactures | L887,488 | L997,078 |L1,112,761| +|Foreign and colonial produce| 112,987 | 100,354 | 86,501| +| and manufactures | | | | ++----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ +|Total |L1,000,475|L1,097,432|L1,199,262| ++----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+ + + +_Total Imports into Great Britain from Roumania._ + ++--------------+---------+-----------+-----------+ +| | 1878. | 1879. | 1880. | ++--------------+---------+-----------+-----------+ +|Maize |L587,635 | L805,788 | L558,745 | +|Barley | 316,402 | 462,622 | 796,808 | +|Other produce | 66,518 | 104,592 | 106,283 | ++--------------+---------+-----------+-----------+ +|Total |L970,555 |L1,373,002 |L1,461,836 | ++--------------+---------+-----------+-----------+ + +The manufacturing industries of Roumania generally are hardly in their +infancy, but at Galatz are to be found a wood factory and sawmills of a +very superior order, owned by Messrs. P. Goetz & Co. They are lighted +with the electric light, and are doing a large and increasing export +trade; indeed last year (1881), as we are informed, a cargo of deals &c. +was shipped from this factory to the Panama Canal Works. There is a very +large flour mill, and also the 'Galatz Soap and Candle Company;' but +this last has not proved a success, inasmuch as the raw products, +including stearine (which is found in Roumania as ozokerit), are all +imported at a cost which interferes with their profitable employment. +Whilst we are dealing with the question of manufactures, we may mention +that besides the petroleum refineries referred to in a former chapter, +there are in Roumania sugar factories at Chitilla and Jassy, match +factories in Bucarest and Jassy, and one cloth factory. Steam mills for +grinding flour abound, and there are water mills for assisting in the +preparation of flannel. + +This seems a small beginning, but there is much hope in the future. The +same causes that militated against the prosperity of Roumania in other +respects have rendered the prosecution of national industries an +absolute impossibility. Wilkinson referred at considerable length to +this matter sixty years since. Who would have ventured to invest capital +in mills and factories which were liable to be burned or plundered by +Turks or Russians for strategical or other warlike purposes, or would be +taxed beyond endurance by a suzerain master for the maintenance of his +Constantinople harem and of his needy officials? The soil indeed could +not be carried off, or there would not have been even an agricultural +industry. But the time is not far distant when the advantages of +Roumania as a manufacturing country will become apparent, and when her +native products, coupled with her proximity to the Danube and Black Sea, +will enable her to compete successfully with other nations, especially +with those near neighbours from whom she is at present compelled to draw +her supplies of manufactured commodities. + +Her statesmen already recognise these facts, and they are taking steps +accordingly. A new seaport is in course of formation at Constanta +(Kustendjie), which will be connected with Bucarest and the whole of +Roumania through the existing line to Cernavoda, and one in progress to +Bucarest.[50] Besides being useful as a defensive maritime station, this +new port will give an impetus to trade, which will be further stimulated +by the establishment of _entrepots_, hitherto confined to the seaports, +at Bucarest and elsewhere. + +But we have devoted sufficient space to Galatz and the nascent +commercial and manufacturing industries of the country, and before +treating of what is by far the most important source of her wealth, +namely, her agricultural resources, we must say a word or two about the +old Moldavian capital, Jassy. This is picturesquely situated at an +altitude of more than 1,000 feet above the sea-level, on the railway +from Pascani (Galatz-Cernowitz) to Kischeneff in Russia. The number of +its inhabitants is uncertain, probably about 75,000, and includes a very +large proportion of Jews, who monopolise the trade and banking business +of the place.[51] It stands upon three eminences, and its principal +streets have been paved by contract with a London firm at a cost of +200,000L.[52] It is lighted with petroleum lamps, and is badly drained +and sewered, but possesses some important buildings, and contains many +fine residences belonging to the landed gentry. Besides a university +where there are some men of considerable attainments, it has a museum, +school of art, various secondary educational establishments, and law +courts, including a court of appeal. A noteworthy circumstance connected +with the inhabitants of Jassy, and which applies equally to the whole of +Roumania, is that the death-rate is persistently lower and the +birth-rate higher amongst the Jews than the Christians, and in fact +there have been periods when the Jewish population was increasing whilst +the remainder was at a standstill.[53] When Jassy ceased to be the +capital of Moldavia, it claimed and was awarded compensation by the +legislature; but, according to the authority just quoted, 'no payment +has ever been or appears likely to be made.' + +Next in importance to Galatz as a port is Ibrail, or Braila, also near +the mouth of the Danube; indeed, according to Consul Sanderson, the +exports of the latter exceed those of the former, whilst Galatz imports +much more largely owing to its nearer proximity to the embouchure and to +the fact that the steamers first touch there. The same writer believes +it probable that some day Ibrail will be a more considerable port than +Galatz, but both are likely to be interfered with by the new port of +Constanta. The other large towns, Craiova, the former capital of Little +Wallachia; Ploiesti, a considerable town, with many picturesque +churches, on the line from Bucarest to Kronstadt, and the junction from +whence the railway branches off to Galatz, &c.; Tirgovistea, a former +capital of Wallachia, not situated on the railway; Pitesti, &c., are all +interesting in their way, but not sufficiently so to detain us, and we +must now direct our attention to other phases of Roumanian progress. + +[Illustration: AT THE CABARET ON A HOLIDAY.] + +[Footnote 48: Consular Reports, Roumania, 1878, pp. 965-966. This +statement applies, we believe, to what was formerly Moldavia rather than +to Wallachia. When we were in Bucarest we saw stalls in the street at +which English note-paper and writing materials (if they were genuine) +were sold; and one day having occasion to buy a pair of scissors we +entered a shop for the purpose, and some very dear ones were shown to +us. On complaining of the price we were told they were English, but that +we could obtain cheap ones of Austrian manufacture at another shop close +by. This we did, and although the scissors were doubtless inferior, it +shows that English goods are liked and command higher prices.] + +[Footnote 49: See Consular Report, Roumania, 1878, pp. 966, 968, where +these statements are practically confirmed.] + +[Footnote 50: Purchased by the State whilst these remarks were being +written.] + +[Footnote 51: Several authors, copying one another as usual without +enquiry, have estimated the population at 90,000, Aurelian having fixed +it at 90,236 in 1866; but when in 1877 our Vice-Consul Bonham enquired +of the Mayor of Jassy, he was told that, although no satisfactory data +exist, 70,000 was nearer the mark. In like manner the population of +Galatz has been set down until lately at 80,000, although an English +gentleman residing there maintained that it should be about 50,000. That +gentleman told us that according to a recent census there turned out to +be only 40,000, but he questioned that result also, inasmuch as the +people do not know the object of such a proceeding and fear to make +returns, and moreover the census was taken at a time when many labourers +and others had left the city for a season.] + +[Footnote 52: Vice-Consul Bonham's report, 1877, p. 720.] + +[Footnote 53: Ibid. p. 721.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL--THE PEASANT PROPRIETARY OF ROUMANIA. + + Cultivated acreage of Roumania--Comparative estimates of + agricultural products; waste lands, &c.--Nature of soil--Rotation + of crops--Agricultural implements--Old-fashioned ploughs--Improved + machinery--Yield of cereals--Maize, wheat, rye, barley, &c.--(Note: + Report of M. Jooris)--Uncertainty as to yield per + acre--Estimates--Quality and value of Roumanian cereals--Slovenly + cultivation--Cost of raising cereals--Uncertainty of + estimates--Present position of agriculture--Discouragement of + immigration--Competition of the United States--Cattle--Oxen and + buffaloes--Sheep--Wool--Cheese, butter, &c.--Capabilities of the + soil--Tobacco--Cotton--Agricultural education--The Agricultural and + Sylvicultural College of Ferestreu--M. Aurelian--The grounds and + buildings--External arrangements--Experimental growth of trees, + fruits, cereals, &c.--Number of professors and pupils--Internal + arrangements for board--Cost of education--Laboratory and excellent + collections--History of the plough illustrated by models--'Ecole + des Arts et Metiers'--Manufacture of farm requisites--School of + design--The peasantry--Their history--Varieties of tenure prior to + 1864--Creation of a peasant proprietary by forced sales of + land--Success of the reform--Subsequent allotment of state + lands--The 'obligations rurales'--The dark side--Fate of + improvident peasants--Forced to sell their + labour--Quasi-servitude--The boyards or landed gentry--Improvidence + and involved condition of many--Pledged + estates--'Fermage'--Purchase of their lands by industrious peasants + and others--Decline of the boyards--Excellent qualities of the + peasantry--Great endurance--Industry of women--Education in + progress--Bright future for the peasantry--Importance of their + prosperity to the State--(Note: Comparative numbers of agricultural + and other classes). + + +I. + +The area of Roumania, as already stated elsewhere, is about 49,252 +square miles, and estimates have been made of the cultivated and +uncultivated acreage, which approximate sufficiently to give us a fair +idea of the agricultural condition of the country. According to those +estimates, which were probably made at the period (1864) when the +peasant proprietary was created, about one-fifth is employed for the +growth of cereals, garden products, and vines; rather under one-third +is pasturage and hay; one-sixth forest; and the remaining +nine-thirtieths, or nearly a third of the whole, still remains +uncultivated.[54] + +[Illustration: ROUMANIAN PLOUGHSHARE.] + +The soil of the country is rarely less than three to four feet in depth, +is easily turned, and, as already stated, it is usually a dark +argillo-siliceous earth, which is so greatly charged with humus +(decaying organic matter) that manure is rarely found necessary. The +rotation of crops is largely practised, usually maize, wheat, then +fallow; but very poor soil, capable of producing only rye, is often +allowed to lie fallow for many years together. Much of the cultivation +is performed with very primitive implements, the ordinary old-fashioned +plough being furnished with a share resembling the broad flattened +lance-head of a harpoon, which penetrates the earth horizontally. Of +late years, however, a constantly increasing number of improved ploughs, +reaping, mowing, and steam threshing machines have come into use. In +1873, according to Consul Vivian's report, there were about 185,000 +native ploughs against about 38,000 imported ones; but even then already +there were nearly three times as many steam as there were horse +threshing machines in use, and since that time the employment of all +kinds of improved machinery has been greatly on the increase, and +several large English and American implement makers have agencies in +Roumania.[55] There is little doubt that in the course of a few years +the old-fashioned agricultural implements will disappear altogether; for +the configuration of the surface, which in the plains somewhat resembles +the rolling prairie of the far West, is peculiarly adapted for the use +of modern machinery of every description. + +The agricultural industry of the country may be said at present to be +practically confined to the growth of cereals, especially maize, barley, +and wheat, and the rearing of sheep and cattle. The total yield of +cereals of all kinds has been roughly estimated at 15,000,000 quarters, +which is but a very small part of what might be produced; and when we +seek for information concerning the proportions of the different species +of grain, we find nothing but statistics long out of date, and at +variance with each other. The probable proportions are, however (subject +to annual variations), one-half maize, one-third wheat, and the +remaining sixth barley, rye, and millet, whereof the last named is +increasing rapidly.[56] As to the yield per acre, although we have +gathered together all the information that could be obtained, we find it +impossible to fix anything definite; nor is this to be wondered at if we +look at the great differences which exist even in the United States of +America, where the people are ravenous for statistics. On some farms in +Roumania the yield is as low as eight bushels per acre, and if it were +not that the peasants own the soil and perform their own labour, it +would not pay for cultivation; but, on the other hand, we hear of very +large yields on good farms, and notwithstanding these remarks, which +might lead to the opposite conclusion, we are told on good authority +that since the creation of the peasant proprietary the average yield per +acre has considerably increased. + + (Although it is impossible to fix anything like a definite yield, + the following figures may serve as a basis of calculation, and they + will at least allow how material has been the general increase in + the production of cereals:--In 1869-70, Vivian gives the yield + (which exceeds that of following years) as 31,264,953 hectolitres. + In 1881 M. Jooris gives it as 45,000,000 hectolitres (one + hectolitre = 2.75 bushels). Taking M. Jooris's estimate as 15-1/2 + million quarters and the quantity of land under cultivation _for + cereals_ only as 6,000,000 acres, this would make the average yield + of _all_ cereals a little over twenty bushels per acre; and, + looking at the very large preponderance of maize, barley, oats, and + rye over wheat, that does not appear to be an unreasonable + estimate. Beyond this we shall not venture to go, and if the reader + desires to prosecute the enquiry further he will find ample + materials in the consular reports, the works of various writers on + Roumania, and a series of letters which appeared in the 'Times' + last year from the pen of their Bucarest correspondent; but we must + give him the very judicious and needful counsel which we ourselves + received from a leading statesman of the country who favoured us + with statistics: 'Il faut controler'--check everything.) + +Owing to the rough and ready system of cultivation in Roumania, the +maize, which needs no special care, is far better and more highly prized +in this country than the wheat. The latter is worth, on the average, +5_s._ per quarter less than Western States spring wheat, and this is +owing largely to the dirty condition of the seed-wheat used in Roumania; +whilst, on the other hand, the maize is quite equal in quality and value +to American mixed. + +If it be difficult to calculate the yield per acre, it is impossible to +give a trustworthy estimate of the cost of raising the various cereals. +Attempts have been made to do so, and so far as they go they are no +doubt accurate. For example, in an article on 'Farming in Roumania,' +which appeared in the 'Times' of July 14, 1881, from the pen of its able +correspondent, there are estimates of the cost of raising and carrying +to market wheat, barley, oats, maize, &c.; but when we state that the +yield of wheat is put down at 18.8 bushels, maize at 22.6 bushels, and +barley at 37.7 bushels per acre, it will be seen by anyone acquainted +with the agriculture of the country that this cannot be used to estimate +the average cost per quarter. However, as it stands, the calculation of +the total cost per _acre_ is as follows:--Wheat, 66.35 francs, or (at +25.10 per 1_l._) 52_s._ 10_d._; barley, 59.70 francs, or 47_s._ 7_d._; +oats, 55.09 francs, or 44_s._ 4_d._; maize, 59.29 francs, or 47_s._ +2_d._; and the farmer, who is a large landed proprietor and employs +labour, had evidently devoted more attention to the production of wheat +than to maize, which is not usually the case. We obtained several +estimates whilst in the country, but they differed so widely that it +would not have been fair to strike an average, and all that can be +safely said on the subject is that the conditions of cultivation are +such as to point to constantly increasing production at a diminished +cost per quarter for some time to come, inasmuch as the introduction of +improved machinery will more than compensate for the gradual application +of manure to the soil. There are, however, many obstacles to progress. +For political reasons the Government discourages immigration from other +countries, and therefore the untilled lands will have to be idle until +there is a sufficiently large population to cultivate them. The +Roumanian peasant is very conservative and slow to move, but improved +communication, modern implements, the encouragement given to +agricultural training, and last, but not least, the competition of the +Western States of America, cannot fail to act as impulses to spur him on +to increased exertions. + +Next in importance to the growth of cereals comes the rearing of sheep +and cattle; but this is of consequence to the country itself rather than +to Western nations, as the export is comparatively small. The number of +cattle bred in the country does not appear to increase materially.[57] +There are three varieties of oxen, and one peculiar kind of buffalo, of +which there appear to be about one hundred thousand in the country. The +buffaloes are very dark, almost black, with horns lying back upon the +animal's neck, but in other respects they are hardly distinguishable +from ordinary horned cattle. The value of cattle naturally varies in +different parts; oxen are worth from 3_l._ to 10_l._ each, according to +their size and capacity for draught, the greater part of the field +labour being performed by those animals or by buffaloes. Sheep, goats, +and pigs are also reared in large quantities. The wool of the +first-named is used for spinning and weaving, and sheepskins with the +wool left on are worn as winter garments. Cheese is also manufactured +from sheep's milk, and a curious custom in Roumania is to make the +cheese in the form of a long thin cylinder, wrapping bark tightly round +it in the manufacture. From this slices are cut, bark and all, and +served to the guest; this gives the cheese a slight, but not +disagreeable, flavour of bark. Of cheese, wool, butter, and lard, +considerable quantities are exported annually to Transylvania, Bulgaria, +and Turkey.[58] So far as England is concerned, the only other products +besides cereals, which we receive, are small quantities of linseed and +rapeseed; but Roumania produces millet, which is coming into increased +consumption, rye, beans, beetroot, which is converted into sugar in two +existing factories, flax, hemp, and, as we have already said, vines and +every kind of fruit and garden produce. Her soil is capable of growing, +and formerly did produce, very good tobacco; but in this matter she has +shared the fate of Ireland, for the necessity of levying a tax on the +article led to the suppression of its growth in the country; and, +lastly, we were assured by able agriculturists that there is no reason +why there should not also be raised in Roumania a plant which, of all +others, ministers most largely to the comfort of man and the prosperity +of the land of its production, namely, cotton. + +[Footnote 54: If the reader refers to various works on the subject, +Aurelian, Obedenare, Consul Vivian's report, &c., he will find what +appear to be distinct though approximate estimates, but they are really +one and the same, in hectares (2.47 acres), pogones (1-1/4 acres), and +acres; and in none of them is the territorial change of 1878 considered. +We received a set of statistics on the subject as relating to 1880, +whilst at Bucarest, but on comparing them with Aurelian's work published +in 1866 we found the same figures there. The following is the +approximate proportion of cultivated land in pogones (1-1/4 acre):-- + +Cereals, gardens, vines 4,945,708 +Pasture and hay 7,693,910 +Forests 4,029,947 +Uncultivated 7,574,336 + __________ +Total 25,243,901 +] + +[Footnote 55: Any of our readers who desire detailed information +concerning the condition of Roumanian agriculture and manufactures will +find it in a report which was furnished to his government last year by +M.J. Jooris, the Belgian Minister at Bucarest. No doubt the Belgian +Government, has published it in pamphlet form; if not it will be found +_in extenso_ in _La Bourse_, Bucarest, July 27, August 2, 9, and 23, +1881.] + +[Footnote 56: See Vivian's report, 1875, Obedenare's table (p. 99), and +M. Jooris's report. The last named gives the ratio as--maize 22, wheat +15, barley 7, rye and oats 1.] + +[Footnote 57: The _Gotha Almanack_ of 1882 (p. 904), which receives its +information from official sources, gives the exports of cereals and +cattle in 1880 in the proportion of 167 to 12; whilst the _Times_ +correspondent (_loc. cit._) gives the proportions for 1872 respectively +as 117 (cereals) against (animals) 19. Obedenare (p. 147) gives the +number of horned cattle in 1860 as 2,751,168 as against 1,886,990 in +1873, a great falling off; but the _Times_ correspondent says there are +now 3,000,000 head in the country.] + +[Footnote 58: In 1875 we imported a considerable quantity of wool from +Roumania, but for the last few years the imports are returned as _nil_. +For further details on all these matters the reader is referred to +Aurelian, _Notices_ (chap. v.), Obedenare (chap. v.), British Consular +Reports, Report of M. Jooris, _Times_ correspondence. The figures would +not sufficiently interest our readers to justify their insertion here.] + + +II. + +No doubt the recent appointment of a Minister of Agriculture in Roumania +will impart a considerable stimulus to the most important branch of +national industry, but that is a question of the future. At present the +only important aids to progress are the agricultural schools; for +although there are small autumnal shows of grain and farm products, +there has been only one agricultural exhibition, and that, we believe, +was far from being a success. Committees are, however, formed in fifteen +different districts on a somewhat similar basis to those of our science +and art classes, to provide instruction in farming, and the +fountain-head and centre of those is now the Agricultural and +Sylvicultural College at Ferestreu, about two miles from Bucarest. This +institution is well worth a visit, and the stranger is sure of a cordial +reception from the director, M. Aurelian, to whose published works we +have already made frequent reference. The work is carried on in a +handsome building, which stands in extensive grounds not far from the +termination of the Chaussee, or promenade, mentioned in our description +of Bucarest, and the arrangements and appliances are admirable. + +First as to the grounds. These are divided into sections, in which +experiments are proceeding in the growth of every tree or plant which +the Roumanian soil is capable, or is believed to be capable, of +supporting. Besides extensive plots for all kinds of cereals there are +small beds and plantations for named plants, flowers, and vegetables. +Considerable space is devoted to vine-culture, where, besides many other +kinds, we found Californian grapes flourishing; and in addition there +are numerous orchards and collections of fruit trees, the variety of +which testifies to the richness and productiveness of the soil. Apiaries +are not wanting, but no cattle is reared on the grounds. + +In the building instruction is given to about 120 pupils living on the +premises, of whom one half devote their time to the study of practical +farming, and the other to the manufacture of implements, for which +there are workshops (_ateliers_) close at hand. There are ten teachers, +of whom six rank as professors. The pupils are nearly all peasants and +_bourgeois_; instruction is gratuitous, and the cost to the State is +about 450 francs per head annually. The admission is by competitive +examination, and for twenty vacancies in the agricultural section there +were last year sixty applicants, whilst in the mechanical school the +number of applications is still greater. + +The arrangements for tuition in the interior of the building are quite +on a par with the external ones. There are collections of dried plants, +seeds, sections of wood, &c., and a smaller collection of geological and +zoological examples. In one place the history of the plough is +illustrated by means of models, beginning with the Egyptian, 2000 years +B.C., and going through a long succession; the Greek, 490 +B.C., the Roman, the Gallic, the Chinese, the Siamese, the +primitive Roumanian (already noticed), with many others of ancient or +mediaeval times, and ending with a great variety of improved modern +construction. Models of fruits, various products of hemp, and other +vegetable fibres and tissues, and many other objects of interest to tho +agriculturist, are to be found there. The laboratory is good, and the +instruction imparted is of a useful and practical kind. In the 'Ecole +des Arts et Metiers,' the neighbouring workshops, everything is taught +that is requisite for conducting the mechanical part of farm labour. +Implements, wine and cheese presses, maize-separating machines, carts, +and even tables and chairs for the homestead are made by the students +with the aid of excellent machinery. Nor is theoretical training +neglected. Besides being instructed in chemistry, plans and elevations +of stables, granaries, cottages, &c., have to be drawn by the students, +and their work is very ably executed. In fact the parent institution and +its branches are exercising a most important influence on the +agriculture of the country, and no one who has visited the college of +Ferestreu will for a moment feel any doubt as to the great future in +store for Roumania. The only matter of regret is that the funds of the +institution do not fully suffice to meet its requirements; but it is to +be hoped that these will be more liberally supplied than they have been +hitherto by wealthy members of the community, such as the larger landed +proprietors, and that dependence will not have to be placed on State aid +alone. It is through the medium of these institutions that the peasant +will have to acquire such instruction in improved agricultural methods +as shall cause him to discard his old-fashioned notions, and enable him +to secure an adequate return for his labour. + + +III. + +When we come to consider the past history of Roumania, we shall find +that in the earlier periods the peasants were first independent tillers +of the soil; that later on they were enslaved by the boyards, or sold +themselves and their families to secure sustenance; that they were +nominally emancipated from the ownership of the native boyards, only to +be transferred as _scutelnici_ to officials and other favoured nobles; +and that eventually a democratic government and the increasing power of +the people secured for them not only actual liberty but a real ownership +of the soil which they had for centuries tilled for landlords who lived +in idleness. + +It will be interesting, especially during the present attempted land +reforms in Great Britain and Ireland, to state here what has occurred in +Roumania during the last few years, and to consider what further changes +are likely to result from the conversion there of a large portion of the +soil into peasant holdings. Previous to the year 1864 there were three +kinds of tenure in Roumania in which the peasantry were interested. The +soil of the country was practically divided between the boyards and the +State, the former holding by far the larger share. The peasants owned a +small patch of land contiguous to their huts or hovels (many of which +are, as we have already stated, to this day semi-subterranean), and so +much was their undoubted property. But they cultivated the soil on three +different conditions or principles. In Moldavia the boyard allotted a +certain portion of the estate to his peasants for cultivation for their +own use, and in return the latter rendered stipulated services to their +landlord. In Wallachia a portion of the fruits of the soil was given to +the boyard for the right to cultivate a definite quantity of land; and +in the neighbourhood of Bucarest a kind of mixed system prevailed. In +1864, however, the Government practically said to the boyards, 'The +peasantry have been deprived of their right to the soil, but you, having +inherited it, have also a vested interest in it, and your respective +ownerships must now be equitably adjusted.' The peasantry were therefore +put in possession of about one-third of the landed estates at prices, +fixed by the Government, to be paid to the landlords. Those prices were +not always equitable. Table-land which was cultivable was assessed at +the same value as hill-country to the disadvantage of the former. +However, such as it was, the arrangement was carried out. The peasants +of course had no money; therefore the Government paid the boyards, +taking the titles of the land in pledge, and the peasants were bound to +repay the amount to the State in annual instalments. The Government in +turn created a loan, the 'Obligations Rurales,' which were to have been +paid off in 1880, but they were not quite extinguished a year after they +should have been, and a portion of the remaining debt was converted into +a new loan which will expire in 1924. It was, however, only a small +proportion of the original debt, and this fact speaks volumes for the +industry of the peasants.[59] The change did not, however, end there. +About five or six years since _State_ lands were allotted to about +50,000 of the peasants who were too young in 1864 to profit by the +emancipation; and this was done on still more favourable terms, the land +being sold at the old prices of 1864, although it had risen greatly in +value, and the purchase-money repayable in fifteen years. Now, to all +intents and purposes, every peasant is the proprietor of his holding, +and one of the wisest things done by the Roumanian Government was to +pass an act before the expiration of the 'obligations rurales,' which +prevented the alienation of their holdings by the peasantry for a period +of thirty years; otherwise a portion of the land would have fallen to +usurers and harpies who were speculating on being able to secure it when +it came into possession of the nominal proprietor, by advancing loans +upon it, as they do upon that of the improvident landlords. + +But this leads us to the dark side of the picture. The industrious +peasantry, who form the large majority, have paid for their allotted +lands, and a great many continue to buy from the indigent boyards. Many +are, however, still embarrassed, and some even in virtual servitude, +this being the result of their own indolence and misconduct. For a large +number of idle or destitute peasant holders, being unable to pledge +their land in consequence of the act just named, are forced to sell +their labour for one, two, or more years in consideration of money +payments by their landlords, such contracts being permitted by the State +and enforced by the local authorities and by custom and public opinion; +that is to say, the breach by a peasant would reduce him to starvation, +as no one would supply him with the necessaries of life. As nearly as we +have been able to ascertain, about one-third of the whole peasantry are +owners of their holdings without hypothecation, are doing well, and +buying up additional land; about the same proportion are in possession +of their holdings, but find it necessary to pledge their labour for one +year, or perhaps a somewhat longer period, whilst the remaining third +are practically serfs on their own farms.[60] + +[Footnote 59: For exact particulars of peasant tenure see Appendix IV.] + +[Footnote 60: Comparing this statement with the fact that the +'obligations rurales' were almost extinguished in 1880, it is clear that +the embarrassed and idle peasants must be only small holders. The +information was given to us by the gentleman best acquainted with the +history and effect of the land emancipation.] + + +IV. + +Now as to the boyards, or old landed aristocracy. There are many wealthy +landowners, and those who manage their own estates are the most +prosperous. A large proportion, however, contract with sub-tenants to +farm the land for a fixed sum (_fermage_). Amongst these many are poor +and involved. When we were at Bucarest the 'Credit Foncier' held titles +of land to the extent of fifty millions of francs, and that probably +represented about one-third of the whole known mortgages of the country. +Since about 1870, when the rate of wages began to rise in consequence of +the formation of railways and the resulting increase in the demand for +labour, a momentous change has taken place. Improvidence and _fermage_ +have sounded the knell of the old landed gentry. Their estates have in +many cases been bought up by the _fermiers_, their sub-tenants; the +peasantry have purchased considerable quantities of land in addition to +that allotted them by the State, and merchants and traders have also +obtained possession of a portion by purchase, thus laying the foundation +of an influential middle class, which at the present time can hardly be +said to exist in the country. The consequences of this change cannot +fail to be the development of agriculture, provident landowners, and the +general prosperity of the entire nation. + +We hesitate somewhat to draw any further comparisons between the past +land reforms of Roumania and those in progress in Ireland or impending +in Great Britain; but certain striking contrasts force themselves upon +our attention. In Roumania a _portion_ of the soil was taken from the +boyard at a fixed price and sold to the peasant, without delay or +litigation: the results being, first, an immediate improvement in the +condition of the peasant, and his ultimate independence and prosperity; +secondly, an exposure of the uselessness and helplessness of the +indolent boyard landlord so soon as he was forced to attend to his +duties and pay for his labour; in many cases his rapid decadence and +extinction. For Ireland, under similar conditions, an Act is passed by +which, to some extent in the direct interest of the Irish landlords, and +indirectly for the protection of those in Great Britain, the old +conditions of landlord and tenant are sought to be retained and amended, +or the land to be transferred by sale, involving what are practically +lawsuits with their appeals and all their delays, or an interminable +period (about thirty-five years as against fifteen) for repayment. In +Roumania the _people_, through their parliament, fixed the conditions of +transfer, and the boyards were forced to submit after centuries of +exaction and tyranny; in Britain the Parliament, consisting largely of +landowners and persons opposed to all reforms, and from which the +representatives of the aggrieved parties were almost entirely excluded, +has groped about for a remedy, thwarted and threatened at every step by +an irresponsible body of legislators, who have for the time being +resolved themselves into a trades union of landowners; and masses of the +peasantry have been driven into the roads. What the future result of the +Irish land reform will be it is impossible to predict. We can only hope +for the best. + +We have already said that the Roumanian peasant is old-fashioned and +slow to move, but he has also excellent qualities. He possesses great +hardihood and endurance, and will work, not very constantly it is true, +during the hottest weather from five a.m. to eight p.m. with a couple of +hours for meals and rest during the heat of the day. On the other hand +he will face the keenest cold with a bared breast, and is satisfied with +mamaliga as his daily food. As we have already said, the women work +harder even than the men, besides doing a great deal of work at home, +which only Roumanian women are able to perform.[61] The children work +also, beginning often at five years of age, but they attend school +during the winter from October to April. As we shall see presently, the +progress of education is slow; for although there is supposed to be a +school in every village, many of them are closed, and there is a great +want of teachers. Education is, however, progressing steadily, but it +will be a generation or two before every peasant is able to read and +write. As in the town, so in the country, there are a great many fast +days, which the peasants do not, however, always observe. During the +week days they are abstemious, but, although they do not get drunk, they +spend their Sunday in drinking, and one of the greatest curses of the +country has been the substitution of alcohol prepared from grain for the +old plum-spirit which was formerly drunk and which was much less +injurious in its after-effects. All things considered, however, the +future of the peasant is not dark. If he is at all industrious, he owns +his farm, and by sobriety and diligence his possessions are increasing +annually; the gradual spread of elementary and technical instruction, of +which the foundations are firmly laid in the country, will open his eyes +to the advantages which he enjoys; and soon he will appreciate the fact, +already known to all enlightened persons in Roumania, that upon the +labours and exertions of the peasantry depend not only their own +fortunes, but the future progress and prosperity of the fatherland.[62] + +[Footnote 61: Besides making clothes for their families, and costumes +for the ladies of the cities, &c., the Roumanian women make beautiful +rugs, mats, and even Carpets of variegated wool.] + +[Footnote 62: Nothing shows the importance of the agricultural interest +in Roumania so effectively as an analysis of the occupations of the +people. This is thoroughly trustworthy, as it is computed from the +number of taxpayers, and the following is a table condensed from the +data supplied to us by the authorities at Bucarest:-- + +Agriculturists 684,168 heads of families +Artisans and labourers 83,061 +Traders 30,117 +Officials (_fonctionnaires_) 22,811 +Professors and teachers 6,066 +Medical and legal professions and druggists 995 +Artists (meaning probably persons engaged +in the arts) 2,156 +Priests, monks, and _religieuses_ 18,452 +Various 125,815 + ------- + Of the total heads of families 973,941, seventy per cent. +therefore are agriculturists. +] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +EDUCATIONAL--ETHNOGRAPHICAL. + + Educational laws--Statistics--Cost of instruction to the + State--(Note: Comparison with Great Britain)--- Backward condition + of education--Imperfect state of university instruction--Roumanian + youth in Paris and elsewhere--Impolicy of the system--Pecuniary + loss to the country--Moral drawbacks--Edgar Quinet's + views--Conflicting opinions in Roumania--Need for the encouragement + of home instruction--The Asyle Helene--A remarkable institution for + girls--Its foundation and history--Dr. Davila again--Princess + Elena--Constitution of the school--Classes and subjects + taught--High standard for the training of teachers--Proficiency of + the higher pupils--Marriages from the Asyle--How + negotiated--Wretched payment of state teachers--Other schools and + institutions--A few ethnographical considerations--Descent + illustrated philologically--Latin roots in the Roumanian + language--Examples--Their significance--Magyar roots, indicative of + foreign domination--Examples--Roumanian music, perpetuates the old + days of oppression--Dances--Gerando's description of an historical + dance--(Note: Reference to works on the subject). + + +I. + +Theoretically education in Roumania is everything that can be desired; +practically it is still far otherwise. The Constitution of 1866, article +23, declares that primary instruction shall be compulsory and +gratuitous, and that primary schools shall, by degrees, be established +in every commune. + +In 1877-8 there were two universities (Bucarest and Jassy), 96 private +schools, 55 secondary and normal, 26 technical and special; 1,242 boys', +265 girls', and 628 mixed primary schools. The total number of scholars +set down as attending all these institutions was 119,015 (95,765 boys +and 23,250 girls), and the total number of teachers 4,486. The whole +amount of money expended on education in that year, from State, +religious, municipal, district, and commercial sources, was rather over +260,000_l._ In 1881 the total amount set aside by the State for all +purposes of education and _public worship_ during 1882 was 450,000_l._ +These figures show, in a population exceeding five millions, 2,412 +schools with an average attendance of nearly 50 scholars each, who were +being educated at a cost of about 2_l._ 3_s._ per head, including those +in universities, training, and all schools of every description; but the +actual cost of the children taught in primary schools only was about +1_l._ 8_s._ per head.[63] + +We refrain from criticising these figures, for they do not represent the +present state of education. Many of the village schools, we were told on +undoubted authority, are closed, and the attendance at others is largely +increased. Besides collecting the most authentic information, we visited +schools of every kind, some more than once, sometimes alone and +unexpectedly, at others accompanied by persons in authority, normal, +primary, secondary, commercial, and district schools, and the conclusion +arrived at was by no means favourable to the _present_ general state of +education, although there is no doubt that there are many schools, well +conducted by able and zealous teachers, and that the system will become +developed and improved in the course of time. A few facts will suffice +to confirm this statement. In regard to higher education, there are said +to have been in 1878 in the two universities 61 teachers and 508 +students. The Roumanian youth do not, however, as a rule receive their +higher education in their own country, and it is computed that from +seven hundred to a thousand of them are always being educated abroad, +and chiefly in Paris. This is not to be wondered at, for there are no +suitable facilities at home, and amongst thoughtful men it is a source +of great anxiety for the future welfare of the country. Looking at the +matter first in a pecuniary light, and taking the lowest estimate, the +cost of educating seven hundred young men such as those who are sent +abroad must be at the least 80,000_l._ or 90,000_l._ annually--we are +sure this is considerably below the mark--whilst the total expenditure +of the two universities in Roumania was, in 1878, about 22,000_l._! If, +instead of sending this large sum of money to Paris and other +educational centres, it were expended at home, it would be the means of +attracting to Roumania a class of teachers very different from many of +those who are at present dignified with the title of professors. This +was the opinion expressed to us by men of sound judgment and +discrimination in the country, and we are not prepared to differ from +them. But there is another and a still graver danger to the country +arising out of the system. To send a youth from home, withdrawing him +from the watchful care of his parents at the most dangerous period of +his life, namely, between the ages of seventeen and twenty-one, is of +itself a doubtful proceeding; to send him to Paris is in many cases +certain ruin. This is not a mere hastily formed opinion, and probably +the expression of it may not find a welcome in every quarter. But it is +historically true. No one has written a more flattering account of the +Roumanians than Edgar Quinet.[64] Writing in 1857, he touches with as +much delicacy as possible upon their defects and shortcomings, and hints +that their vices are copied from the French; and he goes on to say:[65] +'The sons of the boyards come to complete their education with us.... +The danger for these young minds, which are exposed without control to +so great a fascination, is that even our vices appear to them to be +sanctioned' (_consacres_). It is true he does not discountenance a +system which brings grist to the mill of the French academical +institutions, but warning them against the pitfalls of Paris life he +says: 'Let them continue to visit us.' Well, they have continued to +visit them for twenty-five years longer, and if the reader would know +the result he must enquire of the Roumanians themselves. No doubt +opinions differ. There are persons whose views are entitled to great +respect, and who approve of this sending of the youth abroad in +preference to letting them obtain an imperfect education at home, +speaking with satisfaction of sacrifices which are made by persons with +straitened means to secure a polite education for their children. On the +other hand the views of professional men and of men of the world largely +predominate in the opposite direction. Omitting what were doubtless +exaggerations, such as that 80 per cent. of the youths who go to Paris +return with a perfect acquaintance with the French language, the +_cancan_, and nothing more, we are assured that a large proportion fail +to derive such an amount of benefit as to justify the outlay; that they +acquire French vices and luxurious habits; and that on their return they +do not hesitate to express their distaste for home and home +occupations.[66] Education abroad, we were told, is incompatible with +true patriotism. As already stated, these views may be exaggerated; but +when the drain upon the country which necessarily results from the +system is borne in mind, and the way in which it militates against the +engagement of suitable instructors in Roumania, it is well worth the +consideration of all true patriots (and the Roumanians pride themselves +upon being so) whether they should not in future encourage their own +educational institutions in preference to those of other countries; and +this we say, notwithstanding the fact that of late years youths have in +some cases been sent to our English universities and public schools +rather than to those of the gay city. In England these considerations +weigh so seriously with the heads of families that the movement is +progressing rapidly for bringing the highest form of education as +closely as possible to the doors of the parents, as witness the recent +establishment of universities and colleges in Manchester, Leeds, +Liverpool, and Wales. And should there be any doubt as to the +feasibility of such a reform, it can be solved without going beyond the +limits of the Roumanian capital, where there is an educational +establishment for girls which is as unique as it is well conducted. + +[Footnote 63: _Statistica din Romania_, Ministeriu de Interne, +Bucuresci, 1881 (State Printing Office); and _Gotha Almanack_, 1882. It +may be interesting to compare the outlay in Roumania with that of Great +Britain. Last year our State expenditure was 2,683,958_l._ against about +110,000_l._ in Roumania, for primary instruction only. (See +_Statistica_, pp. 13 and 22: the amount in lei or francs is 3,650,698.) +The population of the United Kingdom is about seven times that of +Roumania, and the average attendance of children in 1880 was 3,155,534. +This gives about 17_s._ per head for _State_ aid, without reference to +school rates, which brings the total cost for each child in Great +Britain to 2_l._ 2_s._ In Roumania it is 1_l._ 8_s._ as above.] + +[Footnote 64: _Oeuvres completes_, vol. vi.] + +[Footnote 65: Pp. 103 _et seq._] + +[Footnote 66: We heard similar complaints in Transylvania.] + + +II. + +The 'Asyle Helene' at Bucarest, although it is nominally a foundling +institution, really presents many educational advantages which are only +to be found in the ladies' colleges of England and the United States. A +large proportion of the scholars are foundlings or orphans; but many pay +for their instruction, and some of the girls are the daughters of +parents of acknowledged position in society. The school was originally +what it still professes to be, an asylum for foundlings, which was +conducted in a private house belonging to Dr. Davila, who is still the +active spirit in the institution. At that time only forty children were +educated in it. In 1862 the Princess Elene Cuza, a lady of great virtue +and benevolence, placed herself at the head of the institution, and in +1869 the present building was erected. If the Agricultural College with +its grounds is to be admired, much more so is the Asyle Helene. It is a +palatial building which stands upon an eminence, is surrounded by +beautiful plantations, and approached by fine avenues, whilst its +educational arrangements are as excellent as the institution is +beneficent. The Queen is its patroness, and she takes great interest in +its success. It accommodates 230 girls from nine to nineteen years of +age, most if not all of whom live in the institution, and twenty little +children who are educated on the 'Froebel system.' The pupils attend +four primary classes, and then proceed either to the five higher girls' +classes, or to a technical school (_atelier_), also in the same +building, whilst a good many are trained as teachers. The ordinary +course of instruction lasts five years, to which one year is added for +the last-named class of scholars. The subjects taught in the four +primary classes are Roumanian language and history, writing, arithmetic, +drawing, music, the elements of physical science, sewing, and +embroidery, whilst the instruction advances further and further until in +the fifth girls' class (the ninth in the school) the girls are taught +Roumanian, French and German literature, universal history and +geography, drawing from nature and models, designs for embroidery, +geometry and perspective, natural history, mineralogy, chemistry, vocal +music, needlework, bookkeeping, &c., and in the highest class of all +(that for teachers) there are added geology, physiology, cosmography, +and Italian, in addition to French and German. The collections and +appliances to facilitate instruction in these subjects are excellent, +consisting of chemical and physical laboratories, a small museum of +natural history, geology, &c., a library, workrooms, an artists' studio, +a theatre where the children give performances and recitations, and a +simple gymnastic apparatus. No doubt many of the pupils limit the range +of subjects in which they try to excel, but what we can vouch for after +twice visiting the school with Dr. Davila, and seeing the pupils at the +Asyle as well as in their summer quarters, a convent in the Carpathians, +is that they are well taught, and that some of them would be a credit to +the most advanced students in any school we have visited. The readiness +with which they answer all questions, whether of a practical or +theoretical nature, in a language which is not their own, is as +surprising as it is creditable. Many of course belong to a humble rank +in life, and their limited intelligence renders them fit only to become +domestic servants, the avocation for which therefore they are trained; +others go out as teachers in State and other schools, whilst several +already referred to become ornaments to the society in which they +afterwards move. All are well fed and clothed, and appeared to be happy +and grateful for their benefits. Many of the girls are married from the +institution, the mode of proceeding being one which is not quite +consonant with our English notions on the subject. A teacher or some +other young man applies to the committee for an introduction to a +suitable girl, and if they are satisfied with his respectability and his +means of maintaining a wife, they ascertain which of the girls desires +to be married, and after the young couple have met twice or three times, +if they like each other a marriage is negotiated (just as in the case of +the royal families of Europe)! The marriage takes place in the Asyle, +the bride receiving her trousseau and a very respectable little dowry, +and the event is always the occasion of great rejoicing, in which Dr. +Davila does not fail to take a prominent part. These marriages, he told +us, have in nearly every case turned out happy ones, far more frequently +in proportion to their number than similar events outside of the +institution. + +The teachers in the Asyle Helene are fairly well paid, the higher class +receiving about 50_l._ per annum, board and lodging; but this is by no +means the case with school-teachers generally in Roumania. We closed our +ears to a great many things that savoured of scandal during our visit to +the country, but this was one thing which it was impossible to ignore. +So wretched indeed is the pay of the State teachers that they push on +the children of those parents who give them employment as private tutors +in order to eke out a livelihood, to the neglect of the other scholars. + +The Asyle Helene is supported partly by endowments and partly by State +aid, and is managed by a committee. In connection therewith is also a +boys' school at Penteleimon, founded by the Ghika family, and remodelled +by King Charles in 1868, to which a hospital of invalids is attached. + +The girls' training school of the State at Bucarest is an admirable +institution, presided over by an accomplished and energetic lady, who +expressed great regret that the want of sufficient funds prevented them +from competing with the Asyle Helene, which is acknowledged to be of a +higher order. + +There is also a German 'Realschule' in Bucarest, founded by a benevolent +German, at which the teaching is all that can be desired; but as to the +State normal school for young men intended as country teachers--well, we +refrain from expressing any opinion of our own. A learned friend hinted +something about the application of dynamite to the whole concern; and if +it could be done without injury to human life, perhaps that would be the +best course to adopt. + +The one fact in connection with the state of education in Roumania, +however, which forces itself upon our notice, is the question of +teaching the youth of the country at home. + +Primary instruction is sure to progress; it rests to a large extent with +the Government, and in the course of time teachers will be forthcoming +to carry out the excellent system in its integrity; but as to applied +science and higher education generally, that depends upon parents +themselves; and, modifying a well-known saying, it resolves itself into +the question of 'Roumanians for Roumania, or Roumanians for France?' + + +III. + +And this reminds us of a matter to which we must make a brief reference, +though it will be more fully treated hereafter, namely, the +ethnographical character of the people of Roumania; for whilst it is +unfortunate that in practical everyday life and in politics they do not +at present rely sufficiently upon their own internal resources, there is +no doubt that theoretically they are very sensitive and proud of their +nationality. To a stranger visiting the country for a brief period this +is the most perplexing question of all; but the perusal of its history, +and a careful consideration of the opinions of well-known writers, bring +into prominence certain facts which cannot fail to be interesting. From +the number of tribes and nationalities by which the country has at +various times been overrun, it is impossible for an unprejudiced thinker +to come to any other conclusion than that, like ourselves, the +Roumanians are a mixed race, although the Latin undoubtedly +predominates; and to the evidence of history may be added that of the +language and customs of the country. The language not only presents a +variety arising out of the domination of the various races, but in some +respects indicates the nature of that domination, and the customs have a +like significance. As a general rule the Roumanian language is derived +from the Latin, but there are many words of Turkish, modern Greek, +Polish, and Hungarian or Magyar origin. Amongst the Latin words are the +names of many localities and towns which have evidently existed since +the Roman period, as witness:-- + + Latin Roumanian English +Danubius Dunarea Danube +Porata Prutu Pruth +Ardiscus Argesu Ardges +Alutus Oltu Olto +Turris Severi Turnu-Severinu Turn Severin +Nicopolis Nicopolu Nicopolis +Caracalla Caracalu Caracal +Dravus Drava Drave +Carpates Carpati Carpathians + +Then, again, amongst common names of things and qualities there are +objects which could not change, such as parts of the body, well-known +animals of all ages, &c., as for example:-- + + Latin Roumanian English[67] +Aqua Apa Water +Aurum Auru Gold +Ferrum Fer Iron +Barbatus Barbatu A (bearded) man +Caput Cap Head +Manus Mana Hand +Nasus Nas Nose +Vena Vina Vein +Os Os Bone +Oculus Ochiu Eye +Digitus Deget Finger +Pes Picior Foot +Pectus Pept Breast +Canis Cane Dog +Piscis Pesce Fish +Dominus Domnu Lord +Umbra Umbra Shade +Frigidus Frigu Cold +Calidus Caldu Warm +Albus Alb White +Niger Negru Black +Casa Casa A cottage + +and so on through the whole vocabulary of common things and attributes. + +On the other hand, when we come to examine the words of barbarian +origin, we find that they relate to the character of the dominant race +and their rule over the natives. If we take, for example, the words of +Magyar or Hungarian origin, we find them to denote war, conquest, +mining, taxation, punishment, &c., such as _baia_, mine; _banui_, +repent, rue; _bereu_, a wood; _bicao_, fetters (on the feet); *_bir_, +poll-tax; _birau_, a judge; _bitangu_, wandering about; _bucni_, to +strike; _buzdugany_, war-club; _catanie_, soldiers, soldiers' habits; +_cheltui_, to give or spend lavishly; _fagadau_, drink-shop; _giulus_, +the Reichstag, or national assembly; _hodnogiu_, lieutenant (from _had_, +war); _hotar_, boundary; *_lantiu_, chain; _odorbireu_, headsman; +*_tabara_, camp, war, army; _varda_, watch-house; and so on.[68] + +Besides these words and phrases derived from the Latin and barbarian +languages, there are others relating to ecclesiastical matters imported +from the Greek; indeed, an examination of the language is itself an +interesting historical study, and if now we turn to the arts and customs +of the Roumanians, we find the same interesting relations with her past +history. + +Of the music of the Laoutari we have already spoken. It is weird and +plaintive, and no one who has listened attentively to the airs played by +some of those bands can have failed to be struck with their 'telling' +character, how they give vent alternately to feelings of joy and sorrow, +of mourning and rejoicing, and, like the music of Poland, &c., call to +mind the conquered condition of the people in the past. As with the +music, so with the dances. A writer, to whom we shall refer later on, M. +Opitz, described the 'Hora,' the national dance of the Roumanians, as +being illustrative of their conquered condition, and a recent acute +observer has left us his impressions on the same subject. + + 'I remember one dance (says he) of which I forget the name, but + which pleased me exceedingly. After the dancers had gone one or two + paces in pairs in a circle, the men separated from the women. The + latter moved singly round the men, as though they were seeking some + object dear to them. The men then drew together and moved their + feet like marching soldiers; next using their long sticks, they + made irregular springs and uttered loud cries, as though they were + engaged in battle. The women wandered about like shadows. At last + the men with joyful gestures rushed towards them as though they had + found them after great danger, led them back into the circle, and + danced with joy and animation. Here we see how mighty is tradition. + This dance is a complete poem! Who knows of what long-forgotten + incursion of the barbarians it is a reminiscence?'[69] + +[Illustration: THE 'HORA,' NATIONAL DANCE OF ROUMANIA.] + +From those few illustrations it will be seen how the language and +customs of Roumania are interwoven with her past history. We have but +touched the fringe of the subject; but that it is a fertile source of +interesting study and research we are convinced, and therefore +recommend those who are able to follow it up to give it their +attention.[70] + +[Footnote 67: It may be interesting to philologists to consider the +derivations of the English names of these common things, and compare +them with the Roumanian; the preponderance of the Anglo-Saxon element in +the one and the Latin in the other is very apparent.] + +[Footnote 68: _Das Magyarische im Romaenischen_, Roesler, Appendix, p. +346. We have been compelled to translate Roesler's German into English +for the significations, and the sense may thus have been changed or +lost; he is therefore not responsible for such errors. The words marked +with an asterisk are the most striking for our purpose, and they are in +constant use in Roumania.] + +[Footnote 69: A. de Gerando, _Siebenbuergen und seine Bewohner_, p. 213. +Lorck, Leipsig, 1845.] + +[Footnote 70: Most of the works on Roumania deal with the question. +Ozanne (cap. xi.) has a few remarks on the subject; Wilkinson (appendix +iv. p. 201) gives along list of words derived from Latin, Italian, +modern Greek, and Turkish roots, but the Roumanian words are since +changed; Vaillant, Obedenare, Neigebaur, Henke, Pic, Roesler, all treat +the subject more or less fully. The chief authorities in Roumanian are +Hasdeu, Ubicini, and Lauriani.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +JUDICIAL AND PENAL. + + The jurisprudence of the Constitution--Roumanian courts--The Code + Napoleon--Complaints of patronage--The penal system--Capital + punishment abolished--History and effect of the + abolition--Statistics--The prison system--Abuses--Enumeration of + prisons--Employment of convicts--Ornamental art amongst + them--Objects made by them--Absence of educational + measures--Criminal statistics (and note)--Visit to the + 'intermediate' prison of Vakareschti--An old monastery--Description + of the prison--Scene in the court-yard--Untried prisoners in + fetters--Promiscuous intercourse of prisoners--Mischievous + effects--Views of a 'juge d'instruction' concerning the + system--Various classes of prisoners--Lenient treatment of + them--Partial employment--Safeguards against mutiny--Visit to the + penal salt mine of Doftana (or Telega)--Former treatment of + prisoners--A lingering death--Present treatment--Conditions of + penal servitude--Compared with work of our + colliers--Abuses--Descent into the mine--Its condition--Unearthly + sounds and sights--Enormous salt cave--Floor of the cave--Convicts + at work in chains--Mode of excavating and raising salt--Lighting + the mine for visitors--Return to the surface--Visit to the + penitentiary--Its discreditable condition--Alleged frauds upon + convicts--General mild treatment of criminals in + Roumania--Utilisation of convict labour--Comparison of cost and + results of systems in Roumania and England--Favourable to Roumania. + + +I. + +As in the case of education, so, too, in regard to its judicial and +penal system, the Constitution of Roumania contains many admirable +provisions (articles 13, 18, 104, 105, &c.) for the maintenance of right +and the suppression of wrong-doing. Equal rights, ordinary tribunals, +speedy trial by jury, abolition of death punishment, these are the +excellent principles upon which the judicial system is based; but +neither there, nor for that matter in any country, are they completely +put into practice. There is one Court of Cassation with sections, and a +Court of Accounts at Bucarest, Courts of Appeal at Bucarest, Jassy, +Craiova, and Focsany, and minor tribunals in the chief town of each +district. The French Code of Jurisprudence is adopted, with +modifications which would not interest our readers; but the penal +system is somewhat unique, and is well worthy of a closer study and +consideration. Of the miserable accommodation for the exercise of +judicial authority in Bucarest we have already spoken in describing the +capital. Lawsuits are very tedious; whether more so than in England we +are unable to say. Great complaint exists of patronage in the +appointment of judges, most of whom are comparatively young men and +political partisans. This it is proposed to remedy by what would +practically be popular election; whether the cure would be any better +than the disease is questionable. The penal system, as we found it +carried out in Roumania, is mild, utilitarian, and slovenly; and if all +that was told us be true, we fear we must add that it is by no means +free from corruption. + +The chief points of interest to Englishmen are the absence of capital +punishment and the substitution of forced labour for life, or for a long +term of years, and the utilisation of penal labour in the salt mines and +elsewhere. Capital punishment ceased _de facto_ in 1852; for although it +was not legally abolished, neither the then ruler, Prince Stirbey, nor +his successor, Prince Couza, who governed the joint Principalities, +would sign a death-warrant. It was legally abrogated in 1865, and the +Constitution of 1866 declares that it cannot be re-established, +excepting for military offences. No increase, but rather a diminution, +of capital crimes has taken place since the change was effected; for +although the population has doubled in the towns, where homicidal crime +is most frequent, the number of offences has not materially increased. +The following figures[71] prove this statement:-- + +_Total Committals and Convictions for Homicide._ + ++------+------------+-------------+------+------------+-------------+ +| Year | Committals | Convictions | Year | Committals | Convictions | ++------+------------+-------------+------+------------+-------------+ +| 1869 | 248 | 185 | 1874 | 258 | 167 | +| 1870 | 249 | 154 | 1875 | 236 | 169 | +| 1871 | 267 | 140 | 1876 | 386 | 250 | +| 1872 | 327 | 204 | 1877 | 307 | 187 | +| 1873 | 455 | 258 | | | | ++------+------------+-------------+------+------------+-------------+ + +The punishment for murder with malice aforethought is now penal +servitude for life, other phases of homicide five to twenty years, in +both cases mine labour. In cases of infanticide, if the offspring is +illegitimate it ranks as manslaughter. The following is a condensed +summary, with brief comments of our own in parenthesis, of a report on +the prison system which was kindly furnished to us by the Roumanian +Inspector of Prisons, a zealous, well-meaning, and most courteous +official, as are all Roumanian officials. + +[Footnote 71: Reports on Laws of Foreign Countries, presented to the +House of Commons, 1881.] + + +II. + +The penitentiaries are divided into two classes, 'preventive' and +'central.' In the central prisons three kinds of punishment exist, +forced labour, confinement called 'reclusion,' and correction. The men +condemned to forced labour work in the mines (in what manner we shall +see presently) during the daytime, and at night they sleep above ground +in the prison. On Sundays and fete-days they do no work. The product of +the labour of the convicts belongs of right to the State, but in order +to encourage the prisoners three-tenths is given to them. (We may at +once say that this is not faithfully carried into practice, as we know +from personal enquiry that many of them are compelled to expend their +earning to secure the common necessaries of life.) Aged and feeble +persons are transferred to the prison of Cozia, where they weave, &c. +The prisoners condemned to 'reclusion' work in tanneries and ropewalks, +as for example in the prison of Margineni, and they are entitled to +four-tenths of the products of their labour. In the correctional prisons +the convicts cultivate the soil, make bricks, &c., and are entitled to +half their wages. In all the prisons the convicts are permitted to +employ their leisure time in making articles of use or ornament from +materials furnished to them by the authorities, which are sold to +visitors, and the State gives them a proportion of the fruits of their +industry. (These articles we found to be beautifully made. They consist +of egg-cups, paper-knives, forks, spoons, &c., carved in wood and +resembling similar objects made in Switzerland and the Black Forest. +One prisoner had made a tobacco-box of dough, painted and decorated it +with artificial flowers of the same material, so that it was not +distinguishable from porcelain; another had forged an axe-blade of +steel, etched the surface and fixed it upon a polished ebony rod with a +terminal spike, forming a miniature ice-axe, and so forth.) + +Religious service is provided for the convicts, but so far as we could +learn no educational means whatever, although, according to various +reports which were handed to us, by far the larger proportion of the +prisoners are Roumanians who can neither read nor write.[72] + +The total number of persons, men and women, confined in the sixteen +State prisons in Roumania in 1880, _including untried offenders_, was +5,252, or about one per thousand of the whole population. Of these 850 +were undergoing forced labour in the mines, and 2,491 were imprisoned +for less serious offences. Only 265 were minors, and about 100 or 150 +women. A strange contrast to our criminal statistics. Besides the +inmates of State prisons there were 1,665 persons confined in the +district prisons on January 1, 1881, who had been convicted of minor +offences. + +[Footnote 72: In 1874 the Assize Courts had judged in all 1,493 persons +(1,441 men and 52 women). Of these there were: + +|Peasants 961|Roumanians 1,394|Above twenty years of age 1,303| +|Artisans 186|All other nations 99|Above sixteen and under twenty 153| +|Traders 54| |Under sixteen 11| +|Officials 60| |Age unknown 26| +|Sundries 232| | | +| | | | +| _____| _____| _____| +| 1,493| 1,493| 1,493| + +In looking over the statistics given to us (by authorities) we found +several small errors. In the main, however, they appear to be correct.] + + +III. + +One of the most remarkable phenomena in the eyes of a stranger visiting +Roumania is the application of monastic edifices to lay uses. The +monastery of Sinaia is, for the present at least, a royal palace; the +Coltza Hospital at Bucarest is an old convent. At Brebu (or Bredu), near +Campina, is a monastery apportioned to the Asyle Helene as a holiday +residence for the girls; the State archives are deposited in the +monastery of Prince Michael in Bucarest, which has been set aside as the +residence of the learned philologist Professor Hasdeu, in whose charge +they are placed; and so, too, the 'intermediate' prison of Vakareschti +is a large monastery close to Bucarest, of which the towers are +conspicuously visible as one enters the city by rail from Giurgevo. On +approaching this building, which stands upon a considerable eminence, by +road from the capital, the only feature which attracts attention, and +shows that it is not an ordinary monastery, is the sentinel pacing to +and fro outside, but the moment you enter through the portal its real +character becomes apparent. You find yourself in a large square +curtilage, or, more correctly speaking, an extensive quadrilateral, in +the centre of which stands a church of the usual Byzantine order, the +four sides of the quadrilateral being the old monastery buildings, two +stories high, converted into prisoners' cells and dormitories, kitchen, +a workshop for making paper-backed books (_cartons_), and the quarters +of the prison officials. The scene as one enters the place is a strange +one indeed, and resembles what the Fleet Prison must have been in its +palmy days, with certain very significant modifications. It is the +receptacle of various kinds of prisoners, men and women awaiting trial +and others undergoing short sentences. All those were, on the occasion +of our visit, at large in the court, and some of the first-named who +were accused of homicide were chained at the ankles by order of the +'Juge d'Instruction.' There were about a dozen of them so manacled, and +before we left (the Chief Inspector of Prisons being our guide) these +men complained bitterly of the hardship of being chained when, as they +asserted, they were innocent. All classes of prisoners seemed to +associate without restraint, and although perfect order prevailed, this +freedom of association and conversation must be, and indeed is, most +inexpedient and injurious. Young men new to crime herd together with +hardened criminals, and we were told by a Juge d'Instruction, to whom we +subsequently spoke on the matter, that the free intercourse is greatly +provocative of crime. 'Young fellows,' he said, 'who, when they are +first arraigned, are disposed to admit their guilt and repent, come +before us, after a temporary adjournment of their cases, with quite +another story, evidently prompted by some hardened criminal whom they +have met in the intermediate prison.' + +Every class was represented there, from the comparatively well-dressed +swindler and forger to the peasant and half-naked gipsy. The prisoners +appear to be leniently treated, and those who are unconvicted are +permitted to purchase such food as they please. The cells and +dormitories are not very clean, but they are comfortable compared with +those in another prison, to be referred to presently; the ventilation +within doors is good, and the open court has all the advantages of a +healthy convalescent institution. The food appeared very good; certainly +the soup was so, and altogether there could be no complaint on the score +of harsh treatment, although some men were, on sufficient grounds, +placed in solitary confinement. The chief defects are free intercourse +amongst the prisoners, want of cleanliness, the absence of educational +means, and only partial employment of the prisoners, some of whom are +engaged in the book manufactory, whilst the greater proportion lounge +about in idleness. Our guide, the Chief Inspector, expressed great +anxiety for an improved system, and pleaded, as usual, the want of +necessary funds. Although there appeared to be an amount of liberty +inconsistent, as it seemed to us, with prison discipline, all attempts +at mutiny would be easily suppressed if they should arise; for there are +always about ninety soldiers in the barracks, attached to the prison, +and the prisoners are well aware that insubordination would be +immediately quelled and punished. But we have said enough of this rough +and ready mode of dealing with the lighter forms of crime, and must now +ask our readers to accompany us on a somewhat unpleasant though +interesting excursion to one of the establishments where the worst class +of convicts expiate their offences against society--a penal salt mine. + + +IV. + +There are five salt mines in Roumania,[73] two of which are worked by +convicts, and the one we propose to visit is that of Doftana, generally +known as the Telega mine, which is situated at a short distance from +Campina, a station on the railway line, about halfway between Ploiesti +and Sinaia. Before descending into the mine, however, a few particulars +concerning the treatment of the prisoners maybe of interest. These are +men (never women nor young persons) sentenced to penal servitude for a +period of ten years or more, and until the year 1848 they lived, or +rather died a slow death, entirely in the mine. They were compelled to +sleep in their clothes on the floor of rock salt; never saw the light of +day after they had once entered the mine; and whatever might have been +the nominal term of their sentence, disease and their unnatural +surroundings invariably cut short their miserable existence after about +four years' confinement. Now they work in the mine from 8 A.M. +to 4 P.M. in winter, and from 6 A.M. to 6.30 +P.M. in summer, and then leaving it, they march to the +penitentiary, about a mile distant. They work in gangs of about six or +seven, and each man is obliged to raise at least 700 kilogrammes (about +14 cwt.) of salt per day. For that quantity they receive, or at least +_they are credited_ with, 30 per cent, of their wages, which are fixed +by tariff, and for all above 700 kilos they get half their wages. These +are reckoned at fourteen centimes per 100 kilos up to 600, and eighteen +centimes per 100 for all above. So far as the actual labour is +concerned, we have no hesitation in saying that it is not nearly so +exhaustive nor painful as that of thousands of our English colliers, +besides being free from the dangers which constantly impend over our +poor miners, but there are some serious and quite unnecessary hardships +inflicted upon the men. One of these is that they get nothing to eat +until noon, and therefore, unless they buy food with their earnings, +they must walk to and from their work and labour for several hours +upon an empty stomach; another is that the benevolent intentions of the +State in regard to the stimulus of remuneration are defeated by the +neglect or dishonesty of certain of the officials. The prisoners now +rarely work out their term. Either their sentences are shortened for +good conduct, or on some special occasions a certain number are pardoned +by royal grace, and we were informed that they rarely die in penal +servitude. And now let us descend into the mine, a proceeding which will +be facilitated in the reader's thoughts if he will kindly take before +him our little plan, which is reduced from the engineer's drawing of a +section actually in use on the spot. + +[Illustration: SECTION OF THE TELEGA PENAL SALT MINE.] + +The descent is effected on foot through a vertical cylindrical shaft +used for that purpose only, and divided at intervals by platforms which +communicate with one another by good broad wooden staircases. The +visitor is provided with a lighted candle attached to the end of a +stick, which serves at the same time as an excellent test of the purity +or impurity of the air in the mine, for the lower he descends, the more +frequently he will find his light to be extinguished by carbonic acid +gas, arising chiefly from the exhalations of the convicts. There are no +inflammable gases in the mine, and the men work with naked lights. As he +descends ladder or staircase after staircase, the visitor becomes +conscious of the presence of human beings in the mine, for strange +unearthly sounds greet his ear more and more plainly as he approaches +the long gallery which traverses the mine at about 110 feet below the +surface; and this effect is rendered still more weird through the +surrounding darkness, relieved only by the faint light of his candle and +those of his companions. From moment to moment he hears hollow echoes of +the human voice uttered in snatches and accompanied by a continuous +clanking of chains, which makes his blood creep until he has become to +some extent accustomed to the sound. The shaft through which he is +descending is cut and rounded with great precision, first through a +mixture of clay and rock-salt, and then in the solid rock-salt itself. +To render it impervious to water he will find the wall here and there +lined with buffalo hides.[74] + +Arrived at the horizontal gallery the visitor passes along it until he +comes to a platform guarded by a fence or railing, and then he finds +himself near the roof of an enormous cave which is probably unlike +anything to be seen elsewhere. + +We have been in a good many strange localities, and have witnessed many +impressive scenes both on and under the earth's surface, but we confess +that none has ever been comparable to this one. All is dark excepting +where our candles cast a faint glimmer about our immediate +neighbourhood, and far below we now hear the voices, as well as the +rattling of the convicts' chains, more continuously and distinctly, and +see numerous lights dancing about fitfully in small clusters. Those are +the candles of the convicts who are cutting rock-salt in gangs on the +floor of the cave.[75] Continuing our descent down another flight, or +rather series of flights, of stairs, we at length arrive at that floor +which is about 200 feet from the surface, and there we find ourselves +surrounded by homicides, burglars, and the very dregs of the criminal +ranks of Roumania. There is no guard with us; and, indeed, of what use +would even a small escort be against about two hundred and fifty +desperate ruffians armed with pickaxes if they thought fit to unite in +an assault upon our little party? They have no such intention, however, +and the feeling of the visitor is rather one of pain and sorrow to see +so many able-bodied fellows manacled than of fear in their presence.[76] +The mode in which they get the salt is by cutting an oblong figure in +the floor, deepening this until it resembles a mound, and then cutting +the block thus formed transversely into smaller ones and breaking the +salt out in lumps. + +Their work, which is little if at all impeded by their light chains, is +performed with pickaxes; and, as already stated, they raise in this +manner from 700 to 1,400 kilos (14 to 28 cwt.) per day, which is +conveyed to the surface through a special shaft. + +[Illustration: SALT MOUND IN FLOOR OF MINE PRIOR TO BREAKING UP.] + +The cave is 80 feet high and 400 feet long, and there is another smaller +one at right angles with it, shown by a dotted line upon the plan, and +every part of it, floor, roof, and walls, is of solid rock-salt. A +curious effect is produced by the officials of the mine causing a mass +of lighted tow to be dropped through the shaft used for raising the +salt, whilst the visitors stand below; this partially illuminates the +cave in its descent, and shows its vast proportions. But there is +nothing further to detain us in this great chamber of crime, so we will +again mount the ladders and seek the genial air and sunshine above +ground. The penitentiary in which the convicts are confined after they +leave the mine is about a mile distant, and as we drive thither we pass +small bodies of them trudging along in the same direction and manacled +at their feet. It is a large barrack-like structure, with dirty +dormitories, where the men lie in long rows upon wretched pallets. The +air of these dormitories is foul, and burning resin is used to fumigate +them. One of our companions, a young Roumanian, remarked that during +the day the convicts breathe an atmosphere vitiated by their own +exhalations, whilst at night they are suffocated by the fumes of resin. +Their food is wholesome enough, consisting of mamaliga and soup. For +making the latter the prisoners receive, _theoretically_, meat at the +rate of 100 grammes (3-1/2 ounces) per head; but when we instituted a +diligent search for some, bones only were the result, and one of the +gentlemen observed that the meat was consumed a mile off, meaning at the +quarters of certain officials, whilst the bones fell to the prisoners' +share. However this may be, one fact was admitted, namely, that by some +process of conversion, known only to the initiated, the convict rarely +sees his share of his wages, and certainly receives no more nourishment +than is necessary to keep body and soul together. It is said that they +spend their earnings in luxuries, and probably some may do so; but that +the officials are poorly paid, and that it is difficult to find an +honest one, these are statements we heard on authority which it was +impossible to discredit. + +As we have said, however, the rules of the prison are framed with a view +to the welfare of the convicts, with the exception that nothing is done +to educate them. But there are no harsh punishments; if a man misbehaves +himself, his chains are shortened, and very bad conduct is punished with +solitary confinement. The prisoners, we were told, are never whipped nor +otherwise ill-treated; and if it be true that men who are sent there for +robbery are themselves often the victims of plunder at the hands of +officials, the minister who is at the head of the department involved +will no doubt take measures to prevent the continuance of such an +iniquitous example. + +And after all there is another phase of this question which must not be +lost sight of when we criticise the institutions of a young nation which +has only just achieved its independence, and whose first step was to +abolish the vindictive capital sentence of 'a life for a life.' The +first law of nature is self-preservation, and Roumania is still obliged +to economise in all departments of the State in order to place her +national police--her army--on a sound footing. It is wonderful how she +is able to conduct her department of justice even as she does. Her +convict labour is so well utilised that it leaves her a handsome profit. +Her total expenditure on all judicial and penal matters in 1880 was +under 170,000_l._ with a population of 5,000,000, whilst with only seven +times that number of inhabitants the Government outlay of Great Britain +in the same year amounted to the enormous sum of 5,922,443_l._, without +reckoning the heavy local burdens for the protection of life and +property. And yet both life and property are certainly as secure in +Roumania as in England, without the halter or the cat, two of the +barbarous expedients for the prevention of crime which are still +employed in our boasted Western civilisation. + +[Footnote 73: Obedenare names four, but we believe he has coupled two +neighbouring mines together as one.] + +[Footnote 74: This does not, however, keep the water effectually out of +the mine, for, from whatever source, one portion of it was partially +flooded whilst we were there. Some of the prisoners had struck and +refused to enter the shaft, and the chief inspector who had come from +Bucarest to enquire into the cause of the _emeute_ said the men were +justified in their refusal to work, considering the condition of that +part of the mine.] + +[Footnote 75: We understand that the mine is to be lighted with the +electric light this year.] + +[Footnote 76: A touch of the ludicrous intervened to relieve the painful +feelings we experienced on this occasion. We were standing with the +engineer of the mine watching the men hewing salt, when the latter said +(in German) 'Here are the worst criminals'--meaning in that mine. Not +quite understanding him, we got the undeserved credit of making a joke +by asking,' Here, where we stand?'--meaning in that part of the mine. +The engineer burst into a laugh, which sounded very hollow there, and +then we noticed the _double entendre_, and mutual explanations ensued.] + + + + +PART II. + +HISTORICAL. + + + And now + The arena swims around him; he is gone + Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won. + + He heard it, but he heeded not; his eyes + Were with his heart, and that was far away: + He recked not of the life he lost nor prize, + But where his rude hut by the Danube lay, + _There_ were his young barbarians all at play, + _There_ was their Dacian mother--be their sire, + Butchered to make a Roman holiday. + All this rushed with his blood. Shall he expire, + And unavenged? Arise, ye Goths, and glut your ire! + + CHILDE HAROLD'S PILGRIMAGE, iv. 140. + + He was more + Than a mere Alexander, and, unstained + With household blood and wine, serenely wore + His sovereign virtues--still we Trajan's name adore. + + CHILDE HAROLD'S PILGRIMAGE, iv. 111. + + + + +[Illustration: HISTORICAL MAP] + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +FROM THE GETAE (ABOUT 335 B.C.) TO THE CLOSE OF THE ROMAN DOMINATION IN +DACIA TRAJANA (ABOUT A.D. 274). + + The Getae; their supposed origin and history--The Dacians; their + origin and migrations--Their incursions into the Roman + provinces--Their King, 'Decebalus'--His contests with Cornelius + Fuscus and Tertius Julianus--Legends regarding him--Domitian pays + him tribute--Trajan--His first expedition against the Dacians--His + supposed route--The engineering works of the Romans--Defeat and + submission of Decebalus--Trajan's triumphal return to Rome--The + bas-reliefs on Trajan's Column--Description of the first expedition + therefrom--Decebalus breaks the treaty--Trajan's second + expedition--Capture and suicide of Longinus--Defeats of the + Dacians--Arrival of the Romans before Sarmizegethusa and its + destruction by the Dacians--Suicide of Decebalus and his + chiefs--Dacia a Roman province--Approximate boundaries--Carra's + opinion of the colonists--Hadrian destroys Trajan's + bridge--Duration and decline of the Roman power in Dacia--The Goths + and Vandals defeat the Emperor Decius--They are beaten by Marcus + Aurelius Claudius (called Gothicus)--Permanent withdrawal from + Dacia by Aurelian--Conflicting opinions of historians regarding the + evacuation--Gibbon's views probably correct--Character of the + colonists who remained in Dacia. + + +I. + +Although the earliest authentic records of Roumania or, more correctly +speaking, of Dacia, the Roman province which embraced Roumania, +Transylvania, and some adjoining territories of to-day, do not reach +further back than about the century immediately preceding the Christian +era, a good deal of information is to be gathered from the writings of +Herodotus, Dion Cassius, and other early historians regarding the +_Getae_, the race from whom the Dacians sprang. The Getae were in all +probability a branch of the Thracians, who were amongst the earliest +immigrants from the East; and for some time before they appeared in +Dacia, which was situated on the northern side of the Danube (or Ister, +as it was called by the Romans), they had settled between the south bank +of that river and the Balkans (Mount Haemus of the Romans). About the +fourth century B.C., however, the Getae had crossed the river, +either driven north by an inimical neighbouring tribe, the Triballi, or +in consequence of the growth of the nation itself. When they were first +encountered by the Greeks, they occupied the eastern part of Dacia, +reaching probably to one portion of the Black Sea; and some account of +them is given by Ovid, who was exiled to their vicinity, but little is +known of them until they came in contact with the Roman armies. The Getae +have little direct interest for us, but as we find associated with them +the names of Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great, and Lysimachus, a +few words concerning their connection with those heroes may not be out +of place, and will at least serve to fix a period in the history of the +people. Whilst they were still seated on the southern side of the +Danube, they are said to have been the allies of Philip in his +expedition against the Scythians, and in his contest with the Triballi; +but Alexander the Great found them on the northern bank of the river +when he undertook the conquest of the Thracian tribes prior to his +expedition into Persia. He is said to have crossed the Danube at a place +not clearly defined (B.C. 335), and to have defeated about +10,000 foot and 4,000 horsemen. These took refuge with their families in +a wooden town, from which they were also dislodged, and fleeing to the +steppes they escaped from the victorious Greeks. Now it is that we find +the name Getae changed into that of Dacians,[77] and in the events which +followed during the reign of Lysimachus they are known by both +designations. After the death of Alexander the Great, Lysimachus +inherited Thrace, and subsequently acquired Macedonia and Asia Minor; +but in order to secure the first-named territory he found it necessary +to cope with barbarian tribes, who formed a coalition against him. These +he defeated; but inasmuch as the Getae or Dacians, under their king +(hellenised) Dromichaetes, had co-operated with the barbarians, he +undertook an expedition into their country north of the Danube shortly +afterwards. Penetrating to their barren plains, he sustained a defeat, +and was captured along with his whole army. According to certain Greek +writers he was treated with great magnanimity by the Dacian king; but +all are agreed that the latter only liberated him for a ransom of some +kind, either in money or territory. Paget thinks he secured a large +treasure, as many thousands of gold coins have been found, some of them +bearing the name of Lysimachus. 'I am in possession of some of these +coins,' he says, 'and though many were melted down by the Jews in +Wallachia, to whom they were conveyed across the frontier in loaves of +bread, they are still [1850] very common, and are frequently used by the +Transylvanians for signet rings and other ornaments.'[78] + +From the time of Lysimachus until about that of Augustus Caesar we hear +little or nothing of the Getae or Dacians, and we will therefore pass on +to what may be called the Roman period. + +[Footnote 77: Full accounts of the relations, or supposed relations, +between the Thracians, the Getae, and the Dacians will be found in Smith, +_Geog. Dict._, articles 'Dacia,' Geography; 'Thracia,' p. 325; 'Moesia,' +p. 677; and 'Dacia,' p. 679. In Dierauer (pp. 63-4 and note 1) and +Roesler (chap, i.) everything of interest from the Greek and Roman +historians is fully discussed, but the other German, French, and English +writers treat the matter with more or less brevity, in some instances +dismissing it in a few words.] + +[Footnote 78: Vol. ii. pp. 105-106. The whole question is involved in +obscurity.] + + +II. + +Some modern writers are of opinion that when the Romans first became +acquainted with the country north of the Danube, they found two allied +or germane tribes, the Getae in the eastern, and the Dacians in the +western part of the territory; but according to Dion Cassius the Romans +called all the inhabitants north of the Ister '_Dacians_,' no matter +whether they were Thracians, Getae, or Dacians, and the probability is +that the Getae had spread themselves gradually over the plains westward, +then acquired possession of the Carpathian mountains, and descended into +the plains of Transylvania.[79] Their fastnesses, called forts or +cities, were built of wood, and were situated in the mountains, and +there it was that their fiercest contests with the Roman arms took place +previous to their complete subjugation. + +The first we hear of them is that under a powerful chief Burvista or +Boerebestes, they conquered their neighbours, the Boii, Jasyges, and +probably other tribes, at the eastern boundary of their territory, +driving them from their possessions, and from that time they appear as a +distinct nation constantly threatening the safety of the Roman provinces +in their vicinity. Julius Caesar, it is said, proposed to attack them +shortly before his death, as they made periodical inroads into the +Empire, more especially into Moesia, the country lying between the +Danube and the Balkan mountains, of which the Romans had secured the +possession. Every winter, as soon as the Danube was frozen over or +blocked with ice, they descended from their mountain fastnesses, crossed +the broad stream, and carried fire and sword into the Roman territory. +Before the latter people had time to gather their forces, their +barbarous enemy had retreated, and, the river being once more open, the +Dacians endeavoured to prevent the landing of the Roman troops, or, +failing that, they made good their retreat to the mountains, whither the +Romans feared to follow them. Nor were the Dacians by any means +despicable opponents. Although many of them fought bareheaded and +clothed in a light tunic, they were well acquainted with the use of +armour, and possessed standards, shields, helmets, breast-plates, and +even chain and plate mail, fighting with bows and arrows, spears, +javelins, and a short curved sword somewhat resembling a sickle.[80] + +They fought on horseback as well as on foot, and it is said that they +sent showers of poisoned arrows into the ranks of their enemies. Of +their further proceedings in war as well as in peace we shall have +occasion to speak hereafter. About the year 10 B.C. the Emperor +Augustus sent one of his generals, Cn. Lentulus, to punish them for +having entered and devastated Pannonia under a chief Kotiso, but the +expedition was ineffectual, and for a long series of years they +continued to harass the Empire, often threatening to overrun whole +provinces. One such enterprise is mentioned by Tacitus:-- + + 'Commotions about the same time broke out amongst the Dacians, a + people never to be relied on, and since the legions were withdrawn + from Moesia there was no force to awe them. They, however, watched + in silence the first movements of affairs. But when they heard that + Italy was in a blaze of war, and that all the inhabitants were in + arms against each other, they stormed the winter quarters of the + cohorts and the cavalry, and made themselves masters of both banks + of the Danube. They then prepared to raze the camp of the legions, + when Mucianus sent the sixth legion to check them, having heard of + the victory at Cremona, and lest a formidable foreign force should + invade Italy on both sides, the Dacians and the Germans making + irruptions in opposite quarters. On this, as on many other + occasions, fortune favoured the Romans in bringing Mucianus and the + forces of the East into that quarter, and also in that we had + settled matters at Cremona in the very nick of time.'[81] + +It was in the reign of the Emperor Domitian, however, that the inroads +of the Dacians assumed their most formidable proportions. About this +time it is probable that the Dacians were divided into several tribes, +and that one leader more powerful than the rest had secured the +chieftainship of the whole nation. Thia chief is known to historians as +'Decebalus,' although there is great difference of opinion as to whether +that was his name or his title.[82] In the year 86 A.D., he +gathered together a great host, and, crossing the Danube into Moesia, +defeated and killed the praetor Oppius or Appius Sabinus, seizing several +of the Roman fortresses and driving their army to the foot of Mount +Haemus. As soon as the defeat and the position of the Roman forces became +known, Domitian collected an army in Illyria and placed it under the +command of Cornelius Fuscus, a general of more bravery than experience, +who entered Moesia, and, finding that Decebalus, according to precedent, +had retired across the Danube, followed him into his own country, only, +however, in his turn to be defeated and slain. Upon this the Romans +again recrossed the river, leaving behind them their baggage and many +prisoners. Tacitus writes in great indignation concerning these +reverses:-- + + 'So many armies in Moesia, Dacia, Germany, and Pannonia, lost + through the temerity or cowardice of their generals; so many men of + military character with numerous cohorts defeated and taken + prisoners; whilst a dubious contest was maintained, not for the + boundaries of the Empire and the banks of the bordering rivers, but + for the winter quarters of the legions and the possession of our + territories.'[83] + +Whilst these events were occurring, Domitian is said to have been making +progresses and indulging in all kinds of excesses, but; fortunately for +him and for the honour of the Roman arms, another general succeeded in +stemming the tide of invasion, and eventually (A.D. 89) in +assuming the offensive. This was Tertius Julianus, who had already +distinguished himself in Moesia under Otho and Vespasian. Following +Decebalus into his own dominions, he was not content to remain in the +plains, but pursued him into his mountain retreats, where he completely +overthrew him in a pitched battle and compelled him to sue for peace. It +is in the accounts of this expedition that mention is first made of +regular roads in Dacia, and two passes, the Vulcan and Rothenthurm (or +Red Tower), are referred to. A place called Tapae is also named, near to +which Julianus is said to have overthrown Decebalus, and where +subsequently Trajan obtained a victory over the same prince; but so much +doubt attaches to the movements of Julianus that it will be better for +the present to defer any reference to those localities. The whole +account of Julianus's campaign in Dacia is mixed up with legendary +tradition. It is said that he threatened the capital of Dacia, +Sarmizegethusa, and that he would have succeeded in capturing it and in +reducing the whole country but for a stratagem of Decebalus, who caused +trees to be cut down to a man's height in the woods through which the +Romans had to pass, and clothed them in armour, which so terrified the +soldiers as to stay their progress. According to another account he cut +the trees through their trunks but allowed them to stand, and when the +Romans attempted to force their way through with their engines of war, +the trees fell on them and killed them. Whether it was the difficulty +encountered by the Roman general in attempting to cope with his warlike +enemy in his mountains and forests, where the arts of war as practised +by the former were not so readily applicable as in the plains, or the +more probable circumstance that Domitian had been unsuccessful in an +expedition against two other tribes, the Quadi and Marcomanni, and +needed the support of Julianus, certain it is that the overtures of +Decebalus were at length received favourably, and a peace was concluded +with him in the year 90, which was less favourable to the victors than +to the conquered. Decebalus refused to treat in person with the Roman +general, but sent one of his chiefs (some historians say his brother), +with whom the conditions were arranged. According to Roman accounts +Decebalus restored the Roman prisoners, acknowledged the supremacy of +Domitian, and accepted sovereignty at his hands. It subsequently +transpired, however, that this was not the whole treaty, and that +Domitian agreed to pay the Dacian king an annual tribute, and to send +him a number of skilled artificers to teach him the art of constructing +works and fabricating arms upon the Roman model. Domitian then +celebrated a triumph, which was however made a subject of ridicule by +those who were aware of the actual result of the expedition. + +We now approach a crisis in the history of Dacia. During the short reign +of Nerva nothing was undertaken against the country, and Decebalus +continued to harass and annoy the Romans in Moesia until Trajan (who had +been adopted by Nerva) ascended the throne (A.D. 98). + +This emperor at once began preparations for putting an end to his +humiliating relations with Decebalus and his people, and although there +have been many conjectures concerning his motives and intentions, there +can be little doubt that his object was eventually, if not immediately, +to incorporate Dacia with his empire. Already in the reign of some of +his predecessors the construction of a military road along the right or +south bank of the Danube had been proceeding, and the first operation of +Trajan was to hasten the completion of this road for the passage of his +troops.[84] With this object he is said to have reconnoitred in 98 and +99, and the road probably attained completion as far as the bank +opposite Orsova, about A.D. 100, as the tablet at Gradina, to +which reference has already been made, indicates. It is impossible for +us to estimate the difficulties which must have attended this +undertaking. Possessing as we do explosives and rock-borers with which +to break a passage through mountains and to blast rocky embankments, we +can hardly understand how a people, with such limited mechanical +appliances as then existed, can have surmounted the obstacles that +presented themselves to their progress. In one place the way was a plank +road resting on beams, which were driven into the perpendicular face of +the solid rock a few feet above the water's edge, whilst a little +further on it is seen to wind along terraces cut artificially, high up +on the hillsides. Hundreds if not thousands of lives must have been +sacrificed in the work, for it must be remembered that the Roman +generals and artificers had not only to combat natural difficulties, and +to overcome the same obstacles as those which our modern engineers have +to face, but that they were harassed by the savage but skilled enemy +from the heights above, or from the opposite bank of the river, which +here and there narrows itself into defiles 150 or 200 yards wide. + +As soon as the road was sufficiently advanced for the passage of his +army, A.D. 101, Trajan commenced his first expedition into +Dacia. The constitution and number of his forces are not accurately +known.[85] They varied, according to different accounts, from 60,000 to +80,000 Romans, with a considerable number of allies, Germans, +Sarmatians, Mauritanian cavalry, &c., the last-named under Lucius +Quietus; and these Trajan is said to have assembled at a place somewhere +south of Viminacium, which subsequently served as the base of his +operations.[86] + +Pages upon pages have been devoted by ancient and modern historians to +surmises concerning the routes taken by Trajan in his expedition and the +localities where his encounters with the Dacians took place, but in +every case the ascertained facts have been few in number. The best +history of the campaigns is delineated in the bas-reliefs on Trajan's +Column[87] at Rome, and many details have been collected from +fragmentary writings of Dion Cassius and other old historians. + +For the convenience of crossing the Danube the army was divided into two +parts, and the river was crossed by bridges of boats at two points, one +near Viminacium and the other opposite Orsova. The first section then +skirted the western slopes of the Carpathians through the valley of the +Theiss, and so entered the Dacian highlands; the other marched up the +valley of the Tierna (Czerna), past the baths of Mehadia, which already +existed in the Roman period, and the two divisions of the army formed a +junction at Karansebes,[88] or at Tibiscum close by, where two Roman +roads met; Trajan is known to have accompanied and led the eastern +division until the junction was completed. It is probable that in that +year (101 A.D.) no serious encounter took place between Trajan +and Decebalus, who had been occupied for some time in preparing for his +defence, and had now received reinforcements from many of the +neighbouring tribes. One of these in the name of the allied tribes sent +a threatening message to Trajan, written or scratched upon a fungus, +warning him to withdraw his troops, but he heeded neither this +admonition nor overtures of peace proceeding from Decebalus himself. His +army went into winter quarters, and early in 102 A.D. he +commenced operations by forcing the Iron Gate pass in the +Carpathians,[89] and encountered the enemy, it is said, at the same +place where Julianus had previously defeated Decebalus, namely, +Tapae.[90] Here the Dacians again met with a sanguinary defeat, but the +Romans also sustained severe losses, and Trajan secured himself in the +affections of his soldiers by tearing up his garments to make bandages +for the wounded.[91] After this reverse Decebalus sought to reopen +negotiations with Trajan, but on his refusal to receive the emissaries +of the emperor, who declined to meet him in person, hostilities were +renewed, and the war was prosecuted by the Dacians with great fierceness +and barbarity. The discipline and warlike resources of Rome, however, +maintained the ascendency for her arms. Decebalus was pressed from +stronghold to stronghold, and defeated in one encounter after another, +until at length his capital Sarmizegethusa was threatened by his +triumphant enemy. Then it was that he sued earnestly for peace, and +accepted the unfavourable conditions offered him by Trajan. He was +compelled to give up all his war material and artificers, to raze his +fortresses, to deliver up all Roman prisoners and deserters, to conclude +a treaty defensive and offensive with Rome, and to appear before and do +homage to the emperor. Dacia thus became a vassal but autonomous +province of the Empire, and, content with his victory, Trajan returned +to the capital, taking with him certain Dacian chiefs, who repeated the +act of homage in the senate. He then celebrated a triumph, and received +the distinctive title of 'Dacicus.'[92] + +[Illustration: TRAJAN ADDRESSING HIS ARMY.] + +As we have already stated, the story of Trajan's expeditions into Dacia +is recorded in the bas-reliefs of the column bearing his name and still +existing in Rome. These bas-reliefs have been subject to various +readings and interpretations, but we have so far avoided referring to +them under the impression that they can only be taken in a general sense +to represent the exploits of Trajan, and that any attempt to extract +from them the names of localities is at best a hazardous experiment. +With these reservations, however, it is safe to say that they vividly +represent incidents of the campaign and bring us face to face with the +warlike character and customs of the contending nations. The progress of +the expedition, as shown on the column, is divided into sections, placed +one above another, and separated by stems of trees which coil round the +column; in the first of these sections we see the passage of the army +across the Danube over two bridges of boats. The Roman soldiers are +chiefly bareheaded, carrying their shields and helmets, and many bearing +standards with eagles, images of the gods, and other devices. Some of +the objects carried are supposed to be lanterns, from which it is +inferred that the passage took place at night. In advance are the +trumpeters bearing long curved horns, and the led horses of Trajan and +his generals. The last-named have already crossed the river, and Trajan +is seated on a platform surrounded by his officers, haranguing his men. +Next we find ourselves in the enemy's country, although there are no +signs as yet of the Dacians, and the two succeeding sections of the +column are occupied by the progress of the Roman arms. The soldiers are +felling timber, removing obstructions, and building forts and bridges, +over all of which operations Trajan is seen to preside in person. In the +fourth division the Dacians appear, suing for peace; the emissaries are +clad in long robes, and Trajan meets them outside a fort. Then follow +further incidents in the campaign; encounters take place between the +opposing forces, in which the Dacians are defeated and their dead lie +scattered on the ground. They are then seen retreating with their women +and children, devastating the country and slaying their cattle which are +heaped up in piles. Trajan is again present, sparing the old men, women, +and children, and making prisoners. Now the Dacians are the attacking +party, and the Romans defend themselves behind forts; and then again the +army is in motion with Trajan at its head, crossing rivers, and erecting +fortifications. In the next section the Dacians have made a stand, and +the scene represents a pitched battle in which they are again defeated +with great slaughter. All the incidents of the fight are vividly +depicted: Romans fighting from their chariots, Dacians and their allies +mounted and on foot, prisoners brought in, and a man, apparently a spy, +bound before Trajan himself. Then follows a further advance, which +occupies some of the succeeding scenes of the panorama. Here the Romans +fall into an ambuscade, from which they extricate themselves; there +they pass a post of danger, apparently a wooden stronghold of the +Dacians, under cover of a wall of shields held aloft by the soldiers; +and at length they arrive before a fortified town, where Trajan is again +seen seated upon a platform, surrounded by his generals, whilst the +Dacians, one of whom is supposed to be Decebalus himself, kneel round +about, suing for peace. In this scene the attire, emblems, and +accoutrements of the two contending nations are presented in marked +contrast. The Roman standards and eagles have already been mentioned; +those of the Dacians generally represent serpentine monsters at the end +of a long pole.[93] Whilst the Romans carry their tall, curved, oblong +shield, the oval ones of the Dacians ornamented with floral devices lie +heaped in confusion. Most of the Dacians are bareheaded, but some, +supposed to be chiefs, wear a head-dress resembling a cap of liberty. +Another section completes the panorama of the first expedition, +representing the embarkation and landing of Trajan; the sacrifices, +triumph, and rejoicings in the capital. + +But Decebalus had no more intention of abiding by the terms of his +treaty with the Roman emperor than had Trajan with that of his +predecessor. The Dacian king had no sooner seen his enemy's back than he +repaired his fortresses, armed his people afresh, sought new alliances +with his neighbours, and commenced depredations upon the territories of +Rome and her allies. Then it was that Trajan prepared to chastise the +barbarians, and this time he determined to crush the Dacian power +completely, and to annex the conquered country as a Roman province. +Although he is said to have been in Moesia in A.D. 104, the actual +movements against Dacia only commenced the following year, and in this +as in the preceding expedition the routes pursued by the Roman army have +not been clearly defined. The bridge across the Danube from Gladowa to +Turnu-Severin was most likely completed, and part, if not the whole, of +Trajan's army crossed there. Those writers who believe that in the first +expedition a portion of the forces entered from Pannonia, say that, +knowing the geography of the country better, Trajan now sent a division +up the valley of the Theiss, crossing the Danube at Viminacium; whilst +there is little doubt that a portion of the army continued the march +eastward along the Moesian bank of the Danube, crossed at a station +opposite the mouth of the Alutus (now Oltu), landed near the modern +Celeiu, and, crossing the plain, entered the mountain fastnesses through +the Rothenthurm pass.[94] + +By whatever routes Trajan's army invaded the dominions of the doomed +king, it is known that his advance was prompt and successful, and that +this time the fame of the Roman arms prevented Decebalus from securing +many allies. He once more sued for peace; but Trajan's terms being a +virtual relinquishment of his independence, he prepared himself for a +supreme and desperate effort for the defence of his kingdom. At first it +is said that he attempted to remove Trajan by assassination, but that +his emissaries were detected and put to death. Another expedient seems +to have been temporarily successful. He managed to decoy into his power +Longinus, a Roman general, said to have been a great favourite of +Trajan, and, holding him as a hostage, Decebalus demanded extravagant +terms of peace. To this proposal Trajan gave an evasive reply, in order, +if possible, to save the life of his officer. The last-named, however, +with true Roman patriotism, had a message conveyed to Trajan by his +freedman, advising him to proceed with his operations, and at the same +time he himself took a dose of poison in order to relieve his master +from further perplexity on his account. Decebalus then offered to give +up the body of the Roman general and certain other captives in return +for the escaped freedman, but Trajan returned no answer to his proposal. +Very little is known of the incidents of this campaign, excepting that +Trajan forced the passes of the Carpathians, and, taking one defended +post after another, drove the enemy into the vicinity of his capital; +that the tribes who had allied themselves with the Dacians, amongst whom +the Sarmatians, Jasyges, and Burri are named, deserted them one by one, +and that the Romans at length laid siege to Sarmizegethusa, where +Decebalus had taken refuge. After a brave but ineffectual defence the +king, rather than yield himself a prisoner, committed suicide with his +sword; whilst his followers, after setting fire to the town, imitated +the example of their leader by taking poison. The head of Decebalus was +cut off and sent to Rome by Trajan, who discovered and divided amongst +his soldiers vast spoils and treasures which the Dacians had endeavoured +to conceal, and then returned to Rome, where (A.D. 106) a +triumph was celebrated on even a grander scale than after the conclusion +of his first expedition.[95] + +[Illustration: DACIANS SETTING FIRE TO THEIR CAPITAL. (FROM TRAJAN'S +COLUMN.)] + +Before drawing to a close this hasty survey of the rise and fall of the +Dacian monarchy, let us turn again for a moment to the bas-reliefs upon +Trajan's Column, the indelible and, after all, the most trustworthy +record of his second expedition.[96] Passing hastily over the first +scenes, which comprise tho landing of his troops, the assault and +capture of a fortified place, the defeat of the Dacians, and what +appears to be a refusal on the part of Trajan to grant them peace, we +have a very faithful and circumstantial picture of a halt, where the +emperor is present at the offering of a bull as sacrifice. Then there is +a continuance of the march inland, followed by fierce contests between +the two armies. At length the Romans arrive before a walled city +(probably Sarmizegethusa) where all the incidents of a siege, including +personal adventures, are portrayed. A Roman soldier, standing at the top +of a scaling ladder, has struck off the head of one of the Dacians on +the wall, whilst the latter are seen hurling stones and other missiles +at those engaged in the assault. Then comes another application for +peace, a Dacian prince kneeling at the feet of Trajan; whilst in the +same section, separated only by a couple of thin trees, we have the +scene of the Dacians setting fire to their city, and in close contiguity +is their dying leader. The remaining scenes depict the Roman soldiers +dividing the spoil. Trajan is addressing them, distributing rewards, and +bidding them adieu. Then follow secondary incidents; the building of +fortresses by the Romans; one or two more contests in which Trajan's +generals defeat the Dacians, driving them into the mountains, whither +they are seen fleeing with their flocks, women, and children. One of the +last scenes represents the second triumph of Trajan, with soldiers who +arrive bearing the head of Decebalus. Some of the minor incidents in the +panorama are intended to exhibit the barbarity of the Dacians, one being +the exhibition of a row of heads stuck upon spears on the walls of a +town or fortress; another the burning and torturing of naked Roman +prisoners by Dacian women. Altogether these bas-reliefs, which are said +to be the work of several artists, present anything but an edifying +spectacle of the ancient mode of warfare. + +[Footnote 79: Dion Cassius (Cocceianus), the Roman historian, was born +155 A.D. at Nicaea in Bithynia, where he also probably died in +retirement after a long and eventful political life; the date of his +death is unknown. He was governor of Pannonia under Severus, and had +opportunities of learning about Trajan's expeditions into Dacia. He +wrote a history of Rome, including one of Trajan, but of the latter +there is only an abridgment by Xiphilinus made in the eleventh century; +our extracts are from the French version referred to in the Appendix.] + +[Footnote 80: See initial letter, and vignette at the end of this +chapter.] + +[Footnote 81: Bohn's _Tacitus_, vol. ii. p. 164. This occurred 70 +A.D. under Vespasian. Moesia had been formally constituted a +Roman province 9 A.D. (or 2 B.C., Merivale).] + +[Footnote 82: According to Merivale, vol. vii. p. 103 note (Longmans, +1862), it was a title: 'interpreted by some writers "The Strength of the +Dacians," by others "Dakhi-Valhus," the Scythian for the Day Falcon.' +Smith (_Biography_, article 'Decebalus') says it was probably a title of +honour amongst the Dacians equivalent to chief or king, since we find +that it was borne by more than one of their rulers, and that the +individual best known to history as the Decebalus of Dion Cassius is +named Diurpanus by Orosius, and Dorphaneus by Jornandes. Roesler and +Dierauer expend a large amount of research and learning upon the name. +The former (p. 35) believes that 'the Dierpaneus of Jordanes' is a king +Duras from whom Decebalus received his crown, and he leaves the question +an open one. Dierauer says (p. 67) that Decebalus was his name, and +quotes an inscription in which he is spoken of as 'Regem Decebalum.'] + +[Footnote 83: Bohn's _Agricola_, p. 382.] + +[Footnote 84: See historical map.] + +[Footnote 85: The fullest account of the probable number and +constitution of his army, his generals, &c., is to be found in Dierauer, +pp. 76 _et seq._ and the numerous notes appended.] + +[Footnote 86: See map.] + +[Footnote 87: Erected after the final subjugation of Dacia, probably +upon the designs of Apollodorus, who also designed the bridge across the +Danube.] + +[Footnote 88: This is by no means the unanimous view as to the course +which was taken by the army, although most are agreed that it was +divided into two sections.] + +[Footnote 89: This must not be confounded with the Iron Gates (sunken +rocks) in the Danube. The reader will find all the leading places +referred to in our historical map.] + +[Footnote 90: Nothing certain is known as to the position of Tapae. By +some writers it is said to be identical with Crossfeldt near Thorda; but +this hardly agrees with the account of the operations against Decebalus +after his first defeat.] + +[Footnote 91: Dion Cassius, lxviii. 8.] + +[Footnote 92: Dion Cassius, lxviii. 9.] + +[Footnote 93: See vignette at the end of this chapter.] + +[Footnote 94: All these places, along with the lines indicating existing +remains of Roman roads, will be found on our map.] + +[Footnote 95: Full details of games, gladiatorial fights, coins struck, +&c., in Dierauer, pp. 105 _et seq._] + +[Footnote 96: Those of our readers who desire to follow these +superficial outlines of the story, as represented on the column, will do +well to inspect the beautiful line engravings of Piranese, without +however accepting his interpretations as conclusive.] + + +III. + +Whatever uncertainty attaches to the details of Trajan's expeditions, +there is none as to their ultimate result, nor concerning the chief +operations of the conqueror and his successors in the newly-acquired +territory, which was formally annexed as a province of the Empire. Some +historians have attempted to define with great minuteness the boundaries +of the new province, but more cautious writers content themselves with +naming approximate limits; and these have done wisely, as there is no +doubt that the movements of the neighbouring tribes and even of the +conquered Dacians (for it is a mistake to suppose, as some do, that they +went out of existence) prevented any strict line of demarcation. The +nominal boundaries of Roman Dacia were the river Theiss on the west, the +Pruth on the east, 'barbarians' on the north, and the river Danube on +the south. The country actually colonised embraced the Banate of +Temesvar, Transylvania (Siebenbuergen), and Roumania as they exist +to-day. There were several centres of colonisation, of which the chief +was Ulpia Trajana, including the old capital of Decebalus, +Sarmizegethusa (now Varhely), and other important centres were Apulum +and Cerna or Tierna.[97] + +Trajan and his successors built fortifications, walls, and towns; and, +attracted partly by the fertility of the plains and partly by the gold +mines of the Carpathians, the Roman colonies soon swelled in numbers +and importance.[98] Different opinions have been expressed concerning +the character of these colonists. One modern writer, Carra, who is +considered an authority in Roumanian history, says that the Romans +regarded Dacia as the French, Cayenne, and sent thither a colony +consisting of the scum of the principal towns of Greece and the Roman +Empire. Their descendants, he adds, who inherited their vices and +cowardice, were turn by turn conquered and enslaved by the Sarmatians, +Huns, and Tartars.[99] This is a statement which rather affects the +feelings of modern Roumanians than the current of historical events, and +it brings us face to face with an enquiry which we shall have to handle +with great circumspection, namely, the descent of the modern Roumanians +from the old Daco-Roman colonists, lest we find ourselves involved in a +controversy that would fill volumes. So far as the records of Roman +history enable us to judge, Carra has done great injustice to the +colonists of Dacia. It is true that the Romans banished some of their +malefactors, and especially political offenders, to their colonies, as +Ovid was expatriated; and that Trajan colonised Dacia from various parts +of the Empire; but the custom of the Roman generals, which Trajan would +doubtless have followed, was to divide the most fertile districts +amongst their veteran soldiers,[100] and therefore, if the charges of +cowardice and debauchery made by Carra were true, they would apply to +the bravest in the legions who had conquered the almost indomitable +Decebalus. But Carra lived and wrote at a time (A.D. 1777) when +cool judgment could hardly be expected in a writer on Roumania, and if +he were alive to-day he would be surprised to hear that there is a +school of modern historians who, using his very authorities, deny that +the descendants of the Daco-Roman colonists were ever to be found on +Dacian ground during the incursions of the eastern barbarians. But of +that more hereafter.[101] + +The history of the Roman occupation of Dacia, which lasted from the time +of Trajan until it was evacuated by Aurelian,[102] affords little to +interest the reader. Dacia was, so to speak, the outwork of the Empire +which served to hold the barbarians at bay during its 'decline and +fall;' and the country was more prosperous than during the period of its +independence, when the tribes were constantly at war with one another +and there was no settled government. That the attitude of the barbarians +was threatening even a few years after the death of Trajan is, however, +more than probable, for his immediate successor, Hadrian, contemplated +withdrawing his legions, and destroyed the bridge across the Danube, 118 +or 120 A.D. Some writers, indeed, attribute this act to his +jealousy of Trajan, others to his hatred of Apollodorus, the architect; +but most probably the cause assigned by Dion Cassius, that it was to +prevent its being used by the barbarians for making inroads into Moesia, +was the true one.[103] During the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus +Aurelius for about half a century, the barbarians were kept in check, +although even during that period they had managed to encroach upon the +Roman territory. + +At the beginning of the third century, however, the Roman hold on Dacia +began to be very precarious, and we approach the time when the dark veil +of the so-called barbarian ages is drawn over the history of Europe. +That the Roman emperors had to contend, with very varying fortunes, with +barbarous tribes is certain, and that their arms were still frequently +successful is proved by the erection of fortresses and towns, named +after their emperors, on the borders of their possessions. For example, +Caracalla defeated certain barbarous hordes about A.D. 212, and +assumed the name of 'Geticus,' but whether the conquered tribes were +Dacians or Goths is uncertain. + +A few years later the Quadi and Marcomanni made inroads into Western +Dacia, but they were held in check by the proconsul Varus, who built a +tower or fort in close proximity to Trajan's bridge, of which the ruins +are still visible to travellers on the Danube, and which has given its +name to the modern town of Turnu-Severin. But the Goths, a people of +Scandinavian origin, had been for some time previously drawing nearer to +the borders of the Roman Empire. Between the beginning of our era and +the end of the second century they had spread themselves, associated +with the Vandals, in the direction of the Carpathians and the Ukraine, +and in the reign of the Emperor Philip (243-249) they made irruptions +into Moesia. In that of Decius they invaded the Roman territory a second +time under a chief, Cniva, and, after defeating the Romans and +compelling the emperor to flee, they took and sacked Philippopolis. +Shortly afterwards Decius met them again, but he was again defeated and +slain. The barbarians then retired with their plunder. + +The next event of importance was the defeat of the Goths (about 268 or +269[104]) by Marcus Aurelius Claudius. They had once more entered Roman +territory, had overrun Moesia and Illyria, and were approaching the +capital; it was therefore found necessary to raise a powerful army and +drive them over the frontier. This time they were defeated with great +slaughter at Naissos in the Balkans and elsewhere, and were then driven +across the Danube. Marcus Aurelius, who took the name of 'Gothicus,' +describes the fate of the enemy in these terms: 'We have annihilated +320,000 Goths, and have sunk two thousand of their ships. Everywhere +rivers are covered with their shields, all the banks with their swords +and spears, whilst the fields are sown with their bones. The roads are +indistinguishable; much baggage is taken. We have captured so many women +that every soldier is able to possess two or three of them.'[105] And +yet, notwithstanding this decisive victory of Marcus Aurelius, his +successor Aurelian found himself very shortly afterwards in deadly +conflict with these same Goths, and his contests were so doubtful in +their results that he was glad to make a treaty of peace with them and +leave them in undisturbed possession of Trajan's Dacia. That he decided +to withdraw the Roman legions (about 270 or 275 A.D.) from +Dacian territory, that he offered protection to all colonists who were +prepared to follow them across the Danube, and that a new colony, called +Dacia Aureliani, was founded along the south bank of the Danube: these +are uncontradicted facts. But when we come to enquire into the details +of the withdrawal and the composition of the remaining population, we +find such a conflict of authorities that it is impossible to come to a +definite conclusion. Nay, not only do the historians differ from one +another in regard to the conditions under which Aurelian evacuated Dacia +Trajana, or Dacia north of the Danube, but in some cases they even +contradict themselves, and, after a careful perusal and comparison of +the statements of many of them, we are quite disposed to accept the +opinion expressed by our own historian Gibbon, who, after saying that +Aurelian withdrew the Roman legions from Dacia and offered the +alternative of leaving to those colonists who were disposed to follow +him, adds:-- + + 'The old country of that name (Dacia) detained, however, a + considerable number of its inhabitants who dreaded exile more than + a Gothic master. These degenerate Romana continued to serve the + Empire whose allegiance they had renounced by introducing amongst + their conquerors the first notions of agriculture, the useful arts, + and the convenience of civilisation. An intercourse of commerce and + language was gradually established between the opposite banks of + the Danube, and after Dacia became an independent State it often + proved the firmest barrier of the Empire against the invasions of + the savages of the north. A sense of interest attached these more + settled barbarians to the alliance of Rome, and a permanent + interest very frequently ripens into sincere and useful + friendship.'[106] + +And Gibbon, who had read and studied the works of Eutropius and his +successor Vopiscus, as well as other more recent historians, gives us +further details of the negotiations that took place between Aurelian and +the Goths, which remove any doubts as to the accuracy of his views. +Aurelian treated with the barbarians after a battle had been fought +which was by no means adverse to the Roman arms, and he stipulated with +the Goths that they should contribute an auxiliary force of 2,000 men to +the Roman army. He moreover secured a large number of hostages, being +the sons and daughters of Gothic chiefs, whom he sent to Rome to be +educated. He adds, concerning the constitution of the province north of +the Danube: 'This various colony which filled the ancient province, and +was insensibly blended into one great nation, still acknowledged the +superior renown and authority of the Gothic tribe, and claimed the +fancied honour of Scandinavian origin.'[107] + +But this is not all. The great historian, whose views can only be +rejected on what we may call a political or partisan theory, believed +the Roman colonists to have been industrious agriculturists; for when he +speaks, in another place, of the temptations which led the wandering +Goths in the first instance to cast longing eyes upon Dacia, he says: +'But the prospects of the Roman territory were far more alluring, and +the fields of Dacia were covered with a rich harvest, sown by the hands +of an _industrious_, and exposed to be gathered by a warlike +people.'[108] + +In bringing the history of the Roman occupation of Dacia to a close, we +have therefore to acknowledge that, far from being inhabited by the scum +of the earth as Carra supposed, the country was at first in the hands of +an industrious, though probably a sparse peasantry, and, as Gibbon has +said, 'only those who had nothing to lose accompanied the Roman army,' +leaving the remainder, a large body of industrious Daco-Roman +agriculturists, ruled over by a tribe of warlike barbarians. What these +and their posterity suffered, will be seen from the narrative in our +next chapter. + +[Illustration: DACIAN TROPHIES. (FROM TRAJAN'S COLUMN.)] + +[Footnote 97: According to certain writers, Transylvania was _Dacia +mediterranca_; the Banate, _D. ripensis_; and Roumania, _D. +transalpina_; but Smith (_Geography_, 'Dacia') gives those names to +divisions of Moesia after the withdrawal of the Romans from Dacia; and +later historians mate no reference to the divisions. Dicrauer (p. 103) +only refers to one or two leading colonies, and Roesler (p. 45) says +that Trajan did not subdivide his conquest at all, but that under +Antoninus Pius (168 A.D.) there existed three non-political +divisions: _D. Apulensis_, _D. Porolissensis_, and _D. malvensis._ +Gibbon (chap. i. pp. 7 and 8) gives what he calls 'the natural +boundaries,' and says the province was about 1,300 miles in +circumference.] + +[Footnote 98: Neigebaur (p. 43) gives a list of twenty-eight towns known +(and many doubtful ones) in Trajan's Dacia, built during the Roman +occupation. Of these the ruins of some still remain, and on the site of +others modern towns have been built, whose names vary but little from +the Roman appellations, _e.g._ Zernes, now Cernetz; Caracalla, Karakal; +Castra Severum, Turnu Severunul (where there is an old Roman tower); +Ardeiscus, Ardeish or Ardges; Pallada, Berlad; Kallatia, Galatz; Thermae +ad Medias, Mehadia.] + +[Footnote 99: Carra, p. 3.] + +[Footnote 100: As in the case of Britain; see Smith, _Geography_, +article 'Colonia.'] + +[Footnote 101: Carra takes his account from Eutropius, who says (Book +VIII. cap. 6): 'Trajan, when he conquered Dacia, transferred thither +from all parts of the Roman Empire considerable numbers of men to till +the fields and live in the towns. For by its long war under Decebalus +Dacia had been exhausted of its men.' he says nothing of the 'scum of +the towns.' But in Book IX. cap. 15, Eutropius, in speaking of the Roman +withdrawal from Dacia under Aurelian, says: 'He took the Romans away +from the cities and fields of Dacia, and planted them in the middle of +Moesia.'] + +[Footnote 102: Smith (Dacia) says it was evacuated between 270 and 275 +A.D. Neigebaur and other German as well as French writers name +years between these two, the edict of Aurelian being dated, it is said, +274 A.D.; whilst Roesler (pp. 60-51) believes that the actual +withdrawal of the Roman army did not take place until 280 A.D.] + +[Footnote 103: lxviii. 13. He says (after describing the bridge in +glowing terms): 'Trajan, fearing lest, when the Ister was frozen, the +Romans on the farther bank should be attacked, built it in order to +afford an easy passage for the troops; Adrian, on the other hand, +apprehensive that the barbarians, after having overcome those who +guarded it, would find it an easy means of penetrating into Moesia, +demolished the upper portion of it.'] + +[Footnote 104: Freeman (_General Sketch of European History_) says +269-270 A.D.] + +[Footnote 105: Trebellius Pollio. Gibbon sets down the number of Goths +slain at 50,000.] + +[Footnote 106: Vol. ii. p. 17. The other writers here referred to are +Pic, Roesler, Paget, Petermann, &c.] + +[Footnote 107: Ibid.] + +[Footnote 108: Vol. i. p. 330.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +FROM THE EVACUATION OF DACIA BY AURELIAN (ABOUT 274 A.D.) TO THE END OF +THE BARBARIAN RULE (ABOUT THE CLOSE OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY). + + The 'Barbarians'--Brief mention of them by Roumanian + historians--The Goths--Their settlement in Dacia--Defeat by + Theodosius and disappearance--The Huns--Their ferocity--Attila--His + successes--Deserted and overthrown by the Gepidae--His death, and + expulsion of the Huns--The Sarmatians--The Gepidae ally themselves + with the Byzantines--Defeated by the Lombards under Alboin--The + Avari--Settle in Dacia--Are defeated and dispersed by Priscus and + Heraclius--The Bulgari--Their origin and that of the + Slavonians--Their cruelty--Warlike habits--Severe punishment of + criminals--Superstitions--Their 'Chagan,' or chief + rider--Conversion to Christianity--Their chieftains--Improved + habits--Curious superstitions--Career of the Bulgari--Invasion of + the Eastern Empire and defeat by Belisarius--Supreme in Dacia, + Moesia, and Servia--Vicissitudes--Story of Krumus--Daco-Roman + princes--The Bulgarian territories annexed by Basilius to the Greek + Empire--The Ungri, or Hungarians--Their supposed origin--Their + cruelty and ferocity--Hallam's description of them--German account + of their savage mode of warfare--Ravage Europe--Settle in Hungary + and found a kingdom--Are driven over the Carpathians by the + Bulgari--(Note: Story of their contests with the chiefs Gellius, + Gladius, Mariotus, &c,--The anonymous notary of King Bela)--The + Patzinakitai--Scanty records concerning them--The + Wallachs--Controversy regarding their origin--Daco-Roman + descendants--Mediaeval accounts of their origin and character--Anna + Comnena--Bonfinius--AEneas Sylvius--M. Opitz--Their career in the + Danubian territories--Revolt in alliance with the + Bulgari--Foundation of the Wallacho-Bulgarian Empire by Peter, + Asan, and John--The historical _soufflet_--Recognition of the new + empire--Its duration--The Kumani--Their domination--The Teutonic + Knights and Knights of St. John--Interesting correspondence between + King Joannitz and Pope Innocent III.--Temporary conversion of the + Bulgarians to Rome--Downfall of the Wallacho-Bulgarian + Empire--Irruptions and retirement of the Tartars--End of the + barbarian age. + + +I. + +If the reader will imagine a country somewhat larger than the United +Kingdom situated in a part of the European continent which renders it +accessible from almost every side, and can conceive of eight or nine +great hordes of armed savages tens or hundreds of thousands strong, with +many smaller ones, pouring intermittently, and even simultaneously in +some instances, into that devoted territory, and there alternately +burning and plundering or making slaves of each other or of the original +settlers, during a continuous period of more than a thousand years, then +he will have formed some idea of poor Roumania (or perhaps it would be +more correct to say of the territories north and south of the lower +Danube) as it existed between the end of the third and of the thirteenth +centuries. + +It is not surprising that some of the historians of Roumania, who have +managed to fill volumes, should have slurred over what really +constitutes half the period of her national existence in a few pages, +nay even in some instances in a few lines; and that they should have +substituted what one writer has called 'brilliant declamatory +evolutions' for the conclusions of careful research. For the last method +sometimes leads to the discovery of discrepancies between standard +authors of fifty or a hundred years in the chronicle of events. For us +the history of the so-called dark ages in that part of Europe is full of +interest, inasmuch as the Danubian plains constituted the highway over +which the barbarians wandered who were the ancestors of a large +proportion of the existing population of Europe; and we have sought, in +the table appended to this work, to bring some kind of order out of the +chaos of events narrated by historians.[109] Beyond this, it is true, we +cannot do much to serve the student of history, and it is a matter of +regret that the character of this work necessitates our treating the +subject with such inconvenient brevity; but we must appeal to the +patience and good nature of our readers whilst we seek to give as much +interest as possible to a necessarily dry and tedious narrative. + +For about a century after the withdrawal of the Roman legions, the +_Goths_, a people of whose origin and exploits we have already spoken, +ruled in Trajan's Dacia, except during a brief interval (327 +A.D.) when Constantine, having built a bridge across the +Danube at or near Nicopolis on the southern, and Turnu-Magurele on the +northern bank, overran the country and once more incorporated it with +the Empire. This occupation was, however, of short duration. Finding +that he could not maintain his supremacy north of the Danube, and that +the Goths were even settling on the right bank, Constantine is said to +have established Roman colonies south of the Balkans, and, according to +some historians, it was from those settlers that the country has derived +its present name of Roumelia. That the Goths must have founded permanent +settlements in various parts of Dacia is obvious from the traces they +have loft behind them, notably in the neighbourhood of Buseu.[110] +Moreover, in the middle of the century (361 A.D.) they are said +to have embraced Christianity, although we hear shortly afterwards (370 +A.D.) that their king Athanaric subjected the Christians to the +most cruel persecutions. At that time they were probably on more +neighbourly terms with the Romans, for when a new enemy, the Huns, +appeared in the east and threatened them with annihilation, many of them +were allowed by the Emperor Valens to cross the Danube and settle +peaceably on the right or southern bank. Shortly afterwards, however, we +find them first defeating and slaying Valens and then fighting in +alliance with the Huns (378) against the Emperor Theodosius, who +attacked them in Dacia. This is the last we hear of the Goths as such, +but a branch, the Gepidae, afterwards rose again and for a considerable +period dominated in Dacia. + +[Footnote 109: See Appendix I.] + +[Footnote 110: The reader will find most of the chief places named in +the course of this historical sketch indicated on the historical map, +but we have purposely refrained from making repeated references to it, +and even, in many cases, to authorities on history, where that would +interfere unnecessarily with the continuity of the narrative.] + + +II. + +The _Huns_ who drove out the Goths and followed them in the occupation +of the country, are supposed by some to be of Scythian, by others even +of Chinese origin, and Gibbon has very graphically described their first +appearance and movements. 'The numbers,' he says, 'the strength, the +rapid motions, and the implacable cruelty of the Huns were felt, and +dreaded and magnified by the astonished Goths, who beheld their fields +and villages consumed with flames and deluged with indiscriminate +slaughter. To these real terrors were added the surprise and abhorrence +which were excited by the shrill voice, the uncouth gestures, and the +strange deformity of the Huns. These savages of Scythia were compared +(and the picture had some resemblance) to the animals who walked very +awkwardly on two legs, and to the misshapen figures, the Termini, which +were often placed on the bridges of antiquity. They were distinguished +from the rest of the human species by their broad shoulders, flat noses, +and small black eyes deeply buried in the head, and as they were almost +destitute of beards they never enjoyed either the manly graces of youth +or the venerable aspect of age.'[111] These were the beings who +devastated and dominated in Dacia for three-fourths of a century (375 to +about 453 A.D.), and others such as these, we may add, were +still harrying the peacefully disposed population six or seven hundred +years subsequently, when the ultra-barbarian _regime_ was about drawing +to a close. + +But the rule of the Huns was not uninterrupted. Shortly after they +obtained possession of the Gothic kingdom in Dacia they were defeated by +the Emperor Theodosius I. (about 378), but from that time until the +reign of their King Attila ('the scourge of God') nothing of importance +is noted in their history. This monarch not only brought the whole of +Dacia under the yoke, but (about 443) he conquered Moesia, and pressed +the Romans so hard that Theodosius II. (408-450), as well as the Eastern +Emperor, were glad to make peace with him, by which he retained the +greater part of his conquests north of the Danube. It is impossible, nor +would it be legitimate here, to follow Attila through his victorious +career. All we need to mention is that when the tide was turning against +him, the vassal tribes, whom he had dragged through Europe as allies, +deserted him, and the Gepidae, a branch of the great Gothic nation, +helped to hasten his downfall; for, revolting under their chief Ardaric, +they not only defeated his army, but became masters of the whole of +Dacia. At the conclusion of the reign of Attila, who died or was +murdered about A.D. 453, the Huns were driven back into Asia, +whence they once more invaded Europe a few years later; but, although we +hear of them casually, in union with other tribes, more than a century +afterwards (about 564), they never recovered their power in Dacia, and +are of no further interest to us in this connection. + +[Footnote 111: Vol. iv. pp. 258-262.] + + +III. + +The reader will remember that even in the wars between the Romans and +Dacians other barbarian tribes took part. Of these the Quadi, +Marcomanni, and Sarmatians continued to harass the successors of the +first-named, and even to make irruptions into the Empire. The +_Sarmatians_ especially were very formidable, and from time to time they +settled in Dacia during the occupation of the Goths, giving both them +and the Romans much trouble. They were encountered by more than one +Roman army, and were driven back into and through Dacian territory; but +at length, about A.D. 375, Valentinian defeated them with great +slaughter, and we cease to hear of them in connection with Roumanian +history. + +With the _Gepidae_, that branch of the Goths who defeated Attila, it was +otherwise. After the withdrawal of the Huns[112] they took possession of +Northern Dacia, and managed to obtain such a firm hold on the country, +that it was actually known to some of the older historians as 'Gepidia.' +There is, however, nothing of interest in their history. Sometimes they +were at war with their more powerful southern neighbours; anon they +formed alliances with them on advantageous terms, and aided them to keep +other tribes in check. The Roman Empire was now split into its Eastern +and Western divisions, and it was with the Byzantines that the Gepidae +made their treaties. These, however, were capable of rendering them +little effectual service at periods of grave danger, and when (about 550 +A.D.) the Lombards, a warlike tribe who are believed to have +migrated southwards from the shores of the Baltic, in combination with +an Asiatic horde, the Avari, made inroads into their territory, the +Gepidae were quite incapable of making head against them. We have said +that the latter nation contracted treaties, offensive and defensive, +with the Eastern Empire, but it must not be supposed that either the +emperors or the barbarians were very constant in their attachments. At +one time we find some particular tribe in alliance with the emperors of +the East, assisting them to keep back new assailants; at another they +entered the armies of the Eastern emperors, to help them in their +attacks upon their Western rivals; then, again, it is two tribes +associated to root out and exterminate a horde in possession; and +shortly afterwards it may be that the tribes who were allied are arrayed +against each other. About the time named, the _Lombards_ and Avari, as +we have said, made inroads into the territories of the Gepidae, the +first-named being under the lead of a brave and fierce leader, Alboin, +and in a very short period (between 550 and 567 A.D.) they +managed not only to defeat the Gepidae, but so completely to break their +power, that some writers speak of them as being annihilated. Then it was +that the Emperor Justinian (527-565), fearing them as opponents, and +desiring them as allies, tempted the Lombards to enter his service; and, +bent upon conquest rather than upon becoming settlers in the land which +they had already acquired, these crossed over the Danube and left their +associates, the Avari, in undisturbed possession. The _Avari_ ruled +intermittently in Dacia from about A.D. 564 to 610-640, when, +venturing to cope with the Byzantine power, they were first encountered +and defeated by Priscus, a Greek general, and later on by the Emperor +Heraclius (610-641), and from that time their nation was gradually +dispersed. + +[Footnote 112: Between 453 and 469 A.D. according to different +writers.] + + +IV. + +But now we arrive at a period when there was some little interval in the +successive inroads of barbarians, and a breathing time for the peaceably +disposed inhabitants of Dacia; for the next race of wanderers who +entered upon the fertile plains of the Danube succeeded in holding their +ground almost as undisputed masters for three centuries. Later on, as we +shall find, they founded a second dynasty in combination with the +Wallachs; and, although their rule was troubled by the incursions of +other barbarians, and by wars first with the Byzantines and afterwards +with the Hungarians or Magyars, yet they managed with some intermission +to remain the governing power, and their descendants have ruled in +various localities even down to the present day. + +But what makes the history of this tribe, the _Bulgari_, so interesting, +is not so much the domination which they exercised in the Danubian +provinces, as the insight which it gives us into the condition of the +people during the dark ages; and although we must content ourselves with +a brief sketch of their career and a few incidents selected from it, we +can confidently recommend our readers to prosecute the enquiry for +themselves, with the certainty of being repaid for their labour and +research. The origin of the Bulgari, or Bulgarians, like that of most of +the so-called barbarians, is more or less clouded in mystery. According +to some writers they were of Scythian origin, and comprised numerous +tribes, amongst whom the Wallachs, the Croats, and the Moravians are the +best known.[113] Gibbon says[114] that the Bulgarians and Slavonians +were a wild people who dwelt, or rather wandered, on the plains of +Russia, Lithuania, and Poland. They were bold and dexterous archers, who +drank the milk and feasted on the flesh of their indefatigable +horses.[115] Their flocks followed, or rather guided, their movements, +as it was in search of pasture for these that they roamed about from +place to place. They were practised in flight and incapable of fear. +Roesler is of opinion that they were an offshoot of the Huns, and in the +earlier period of their career, he says, they adopted the costume of all +the Ural races, and notably of the Avari. The hair of the head was shorn +off with the exception of a tuft. Their war-standards were horses' +tails; before a battle there was a muster, at which arms and horses were +inspected, and if any defects were discovered, the warrior who was +guilty was at once put to death. The day and hour of combat were fixed +by soothsayers, propitious signs were sought, and war-ditties chanted. +It was a custom to make a drinking-vessel of the skull of some famous +chieftain amongst the enemy when he was killed in battle. (We shall have +a notable example of this presently.) Any freeman or slave who strayed +beyond the boundaries of the territory was killed by the border-guard if +he was detected. Dogs and even human beings were offered as sacrifices. +Their sentences for the expiation of crime were as barbarous as the +people themselves. Noses and ears were cut off as the most ordinary +punishment. Polygamy was practised, and eunuchs protected the harem. The +ruler, who was called the 'Chagan,' had power of life and death over his +subjects. He alone sat at table during his meals; his 'court,' including +even his spouse, squatted around and fed upon the floor. In the seventh +century their religion was a mixture of heathenism and Mohammedanism, +and they were only converted to Christianity by slow degrees after they +had settled on the Danube and come into close contact with the Eastern +Empire.[116] Even then we find (about the middle of the ninth century) +that although the kings embraced Christianity, the great mass of the +people remained unconverted, and even resented the change of religion in +their rulers. + +There is much more that is interesting in the customs of the Bulgarians, +especially when they had come under something like a settled government. +The nobles seem to have resembled our 'ealdormen' in the very earliest +phase of our history, and to have exercised considerable influence, +notwithstanding the absolutism of the ruling head. From living only in +tents of skins, a practice still adhered to in the warmer months, they +built wooden huts in winter. They clothed themselves in long robes, and +wore caps which were doffed reverentially in the presence of their +rulers. They fed on millet and on horseflesh, and drank mead and a +liquor extracted from the birch tree. Their punishments continued to be +most barbarous, quartering alive being a common practice. Their +superstitions were interesting. Serpents were 'taboo,' so was a hut +which had been struck by lightning, whilst the howlings of dogs and +wolves were good omens, significant of success or plenty. + +We first hear of the Bulgari towards the close of the fifth century when +they were situated near the mouth of the Volga, from whence they moved +into Dacia. Meeting with little opposition and joined by other tribes, +they soon became formidable invaders of the Eastern Empire, and are said +to have carried their arms time after time through Thrace, Epirus, +Thessaly, as far as Peloponnesus in Europe, and into Asia Minor, until +at length they were met by Belisarius, one of the generals of Justinian, +probably about 538-540 A.D., who defeated and drove them back +over the Danube. Meantime they had come under the yoke of the Avari, and +it was not until the middle of the seventh century (about 678-680), when +that warlike tribe had been broken up by Heraclius, that the Bulgari, +under the leadership of a powerful chief Kuvrat, obtained the ascendency +in Dacia. This chieftain formed an alliance with Heraclius, and he and +his successor Asparich succeeded by their prowess in bringing not only +Trajan's Dacia, but also Moesia, and what is now Servia, under the +Bulgarian rule, and in founding a State which subsisted to the +beginning of the eleventh century. + +Of the condition of the people under this _regime_ we have already +spoken, and there is too much similarity between its incidents and those +which preceded and followed, to justify our dwelling upon it at any +length. It consists of a series of victories over, or defeats by, the +Byzantine emperors. At one time we find the Bulgarians losing battle +after battle and their power on the wane; then we hear of a Bulgarian +chief going to Constantinople, embracing Christianity, and forming a +marriage alliance with a niece of the empress (Irene, 780-802). Next a +powerful and savage king, Krum or Krumus, comes to the throne (probably +reigning 807 to 820 A.D.), and commences hostilities against +the Emperor Nicephorus (802-811). Having defeated and slain him, he is +said to have illustrated the custom already referred to by making a +goblet of his skull. The succeeding emperor (Michael, 811-813) fared +little better, having suffered an ignominious defeat at the hands of +Krum, who pressed forward to the very gates of Constantinople. Thence, +after dictating terms of peace, he withdrew into his own territories, +taking with him, it is said, 50,000 Daco-Romans who had been made slaves +by the Byzantines, and settling them on the north bank of the Danube. +Krum died A.D. 820 or thereabouts. + +Another feature in the history of the country, to which we shall refer +more fully hereafter, is the part taken by the dominant race for the +time being in the obstruction or promotion of Christianity, and in the +schism in the Catholic Church. At first we hear of little else than +persecution of Christians, and the successor of Krum is said to have +martyred one Bishop Emanuel, who was preaching the Gospel in his +dominions. Other Bulgarian chiefs or kings, however, courted the favour +of the Christian emperors and adopted their creed, until the country was +annexed to the Greek Empire in 1014 A.D. + +A word or two more concerning the prominent events preceding the first +fall of the Bulgarians. About the end of the ninth century the +descendants of the Daco-Romans, recovering from the repeated blows they +had received by the successive barbarian irruptions and conquests, are +said once more to have rallied to power; and several chiefs or kings are +believed to have been of Daco-Roman origin. Of these Simeon (about 887), +Peter (? A.D.), and Samuel (about 976 A.D.), are +conspicuous. The first-named we find at war, first with the Grecian +Emperor Leo (893 A.D.), whom he defeated; then with the same +ruler and his allies the Ungri, under Arpad, their king. Finding himself +hard pressed, Simeon made peace with Leo, and turned his arms against +the Ungri, whom he defeated with great bloodshed and drove out of his +territories. (To the Ungri and their career we shall return presently.) +These feuds continued for a long period, and about 970 A.D. the +Bulgarians crossed the Balkans, but were beaten by the Greeks, whilst +two or three years afterwards the Greek emperor (or rather one of them, +for there were several pretenders to the throne), John Zimisces (? 972), +attacked Marcianopolis, the Bulgarian capital, and took the king, Boris, +prisoner. Before the end of the century another Bulgarian king, Simeon, +had fought the Greeks with varying success, but ultimately the Emperor +Basilius II. (1014 A.D.) completely annihilated the Bulgarian +army, and annexed the whole country as a province of the Greek Empire. +Thus ended the first rule of the Bulgarians. + +[Footnote 113: Le Sage, Table 8.] + +[Footnote 114: Gibbon, vol. vii. p. 104.] + +[Footnote 115: This character is by some writers given to the Wallachs +or Roumanians, and Bonfinius (Book IV.) says that their name is derived +from certain Greek words indicating their skill in archery.] + +[Footnote 116: Roesler, p. 234 _et seq._ It is necessary to add that +Roesler derives much of his information from Turkish sources. (Appendix, +pp. 359-361.) According to one writer, Abu-Ali-Ahmed Ben Omar Ibn-Dasta, +the _settled_ Bulgarians were an agricultural people cultivating +cereals, in whose villages were mosques, elementary schools, &c. Many, +however, were heathens, who prostrated themselves whenever they met an +acquaintance.] + + +V. + +Of all the tribes or hordes of the East who made the devoted plains of +the Danube their highway into Europe, there were none who have earned a +character so notorious for rapine and cruelty as the _Ungri_, or +Hungarians. Their origin is doubtful in the extreme, but it is probable +that they were a Turanian race, and Roesler has found them an aboriginal +home in Ugria, a country situated eastward of the Ural mountains and the +river Obi.[117] Their savage nature, which long survived their advent +into Europe, has been graphically described by several writers. +Roesler, who has carefully studied their early history, says that they +were mare-milking nomads living in tents, that they ate the half-raw +meat of game or fish without knives. Mare's milk appears to have been +what we may call their temperance beverage; whilst stronger drinks were +the blood of wild animals or of their enemies on the field of battle; +and the hearts of the latter were considered a sovereign remedy for +diseases.[118] Our own Hallam, in describing their appearance and +ravages in Europe, calls them a 'Tartarian tribe' who moved forward in +great numbers as a vast wave. Their ferocity, he says, was untamed; they +fought with cavalry and light armour, trusting to their showers of +arrows, against which the swords and lances of the European armies could +not avail. 'The memory of Attila,' he adds, 'was renewed in the +devastations of these savages, who, if they were not his compatriots, +resembled them both in countenance and customs.'[119] + +But the nation who suffered the most severely from their irruptions, and +whose history reflects their ferocity the most faithfully, were the +Germans. Fortresses were erected to check their inroads, but 'exultingly +and with scorn these wild horsemen brushed past them, and as though they +were in pursuit of game they picked off the peasant at the plough, or +the soldier mounting guard upon the walls. Men, women, and children were +captured wherever they were found; were coupled by the hair of their +heads and driven in herds, like cattle, into Hungary. If a regular army +moved out against them, they dispersed like the winds of heaven, and the +joyful cry went up, "God be praised, they are gone;" but soon they +reappeared to harass the retreating soldiery. The horrors of desolation +and rapine were the condition most congenial to them; in these they +revelled and rejoiced; and most happy were they when they could anoint +their beards with German blood, or, casting their firebrands into the +houses of God, could witness the devouring flames as they rose up into +the skies.'[120] + +Although in after times the Hungarians claimed the suzerainty over part +or the whole of Wallachia (and we shall have occasion hereafter to refer +to their relations with that country), their domination during the ninth +and tenth centuries was of a very partial and transient character. They +probably moved westward from the Ukraine at the beginning of the ninth +century, and between the years 839 and 860 they were actively aggressive +in Eastern Wallachia. They are said to have attacked Constantine, the +Christian missionary, on his way through the district they occupied, but +his venerable mien prevented them from doing him any injury. He is said +not even to have allowed their cries to disturb him during prayer, in +which he was engaged when they made their appearance. Towards the close +of the century, as we have already said, they sustained a defeat at the +hands of the Bulgarians, when, under their chief Arpad, they had formed +an alliance with the Emperor Leo, who is said to have made peace with +the enemy and left them in the lurch. After this they were driven into +the Carpathians, A.D. 894, and, having first overrun the +greater part of Transylvania, they commenced those aggressions into +Germany, France, and Italy, which for a considerable period rendered +them the terror of all Europe. At the end of the tenth century, having +met with severe reverses and been compelled to withdraw into Hungary, +they at length settled down under an established government. The first +king was undoubtedly Stephen (997 or 1008 A.D.), and they +annexed Transylvania, which up to that time had been a debatable +territory, either about 1002 according to some writers, or, as others +affirm, not until the time of Ladislaus the Holy (1078-1095 +A.D.).[121] + +[Footnote 117: Roesler, p. 156 _et seq._] + +[Footnote 118: Roesler, p. 164 _et seq._] + +[Footnote 119: Vol. i. p. 20. Hallam says, in a note _loc. cit._: 'In +Italy they inspired such terror that a mass was composed especially +deprecating this calamity, "Ab Ungarorum nos defendas jaculis."'] + +[Footnote 120: E. Duller, _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes_, p. 108. +Leipzig: Wigand. 1840.] + +[Footnote 121: During their passage across the Carpathians the +Hungarians are said to have encountered and reduced to submission a +number of petty chiefs and tribes, believed by certain writers to have +been the descendants of Daco-Romans who had settled in those mountains +many centuries previously. Amongst them 'Dukes' Gellius or Julius, +Claudius, and Mariotus are mentioned. The chronicler of these events is +known as the 'Anonymous Notary of King Bela' of Hungary, and his +narrative is adopted by those modern writers who hold the view that the +early princes of Wallachia descended from the Carpathians, whilst other +writers, and notably Roesler, who denies that theory, throw discredit +upon the whole story, and consider the writings of the 'anonymous +notary' a fabrication. The bias exhibited by the different historians +makes it impossible to arrive at any just conclusion on the subject.] + + +VI. + +In studying the historical records of this time, the reader will +frequently encounter the names of two tribes which will cause him +considerable perplexity, namely, the _Patzinakitai_,[122] as they were +called by the Greeks, and the _Wallachs_, who were variously called +'Vlaci,' 'Blaci,' 'Valachi,' 'Olachi,' &c. Of the former little can and +need be said. They are sometimes called Romans; were dominant in certain +parts of the country in the tenth, and probably also the eleventh, +century; assisted the Bulgari to drive the Hungarians over the +Carpathians, and were even strong enough to make war upon the Eastern +Empire about the end of the eleventh century. About that time +ineffectual attempts were made to christianise them, and the last we +hear of them is at the close of the thirteenth century, when they were +associated with the Wallachs in the Carpathians, and probably gave their +name to a district in which they were settled. They are believed, later +on, to have migrated into Hungary, and cease to be named as a distinct +people. + +Concerning the Wallachs, however, who have played a most important part +in Roumanian history, a good deal is known, but much is still obscure +and the subject of heated controversy. First as to their origin. Some +writers believe them to have been a branch of the Slaves; others think +they were the Daco-Roman colonists of Moesia, who, joining the Slaves, +crossed the Danube with them, and that subsequently the fused races were +known as Wallachs, who gradually spread themselves northward to the +Carpathians. Other historians are silent about them until the foundation +of the 'Wallacho-Bulgarian Empire,' and then they simply mention that +the two races joined for the purpose of gaining their +independence.[123] There are, however, certain historians of the middle +agea who accord to them a direct Roman origin and say they were the +descendants of the Roman colonists who managed to retain their language +and their hold upon the soil throughout the dark ages, and in spite of +the irruptions and passage of the barbarian tribes of the north and +east. This is now the view generally accepted. + +As we have freely quoted the opinions of modern writers, many of whom, +along with the authorities on which their views are based, are entirely +unknown to the bulk of our readers, it is only fair that they should be +made acquainted with the views of well-known historians who flourished +nearer the time of which we are writing. + +Anna Comnena says (between 1081 and 1118 A.D.): 'The Emperor +Alexius commanded Caesar Nicephorus to enlist as many soldiers as +possible by conscription; but not veterans; new men who had not yet been +in campaigns. He instructed him as to the tribes from which he was to +select his recruits, namely, from the Bulgarians and from amongst those +youths who had become hardened by a pastoral life; who possess no +settled habitations, but wander about from place to place; those who, in +the vulgar tongue, are called "Wallachs" ("Blachos").' + +Bonfinius enters into details of their history. He tells how Trajan +conquered the Dacians; how the province was evacuated; but that the +colonists had multiplied to such an extent that the repeated incursions +of barbarians failed to exterminate them; and he adds that they adhere +so tenaciously to their language that one would imagine they had fought +for that rather than for their lives. 'Who would not be astonished,' he +says. 'when he considers the deluges of Sarmatians and Goths, the +irruptions of Huns, Vandals, and Gepidae, the incursions of Germans and +Lombards, to find that traces of the Latin tongue should be met with +amongst the Dacians and Getae, whom we now call Wallachs, because they +are such good marksmen? The Roumanians are descended from the legions +and colonists who were led into Dacia by Trajan and other emperors: they +were called Wallachs from Pius of Flaccus (after a German +pronunciation), but by us, because they are such good marksmen.' + +AEneas Sylvius (Pope Pius II., 1458) is still more explicit. In a few +pithy sentences he gives the geography of Wallachia and Transylvania; +the history of Dacia from the time of the Persian and Greek wars to the +Roman conquest; the fall of the colony; the derivation of the name from +Flaccus; and then he adds: 'The people even now speak the Roman +language, but so mutilated that an Italian can hardly understand them.' + +And not only did learned writers recognise the descent of the Wallachs +from the old Roman colonists, but crowned heads referred to it in their +communications with the Bulgarian chiefs and with one another, as we +shall see presently. Lauriani, from whose work we have made these +extracts, says that the Hungarian writers were nearly always silent on +the subject, or spoke of it with the utmost bitterness. He, however, +quotes two who, in treating of the various nationalities, admit that +Moldavia and Wallachia contain the descendants of the Roman colonists +who speak a perverted Latin. One of them gives an extract from a poem by +Martin Opitz (1621), who describes the national dance of Wallachia, the +Hora, or 'Chora' as he calls it. After speaking of the vicissitudes +through which the people have passed, he says of their language that the +Roman tongue is still in vogue; and of the people who are dancing he +says: 'The men, who are almost made (? clothed) upon the Roman model, +are bad, but witty, think much and say little.'[124] + +We have already made a brief reference to the influence of the barbarian +rule upon the language and habits of the modern Roumanians, and it is +very interesting to find that in the seventeenth century, when Opitz +lived, this fact had already been noticed. Although it concerns chiefly +the national sentiment of the Roumanians of to-day and is no doubt very +fascinating for them, the enquiry still presents some interesting +problems for readers of every nationality. + +[Footnote 122: Modern French and German writers called them +Petschenigues and Petschenegen.] + +[Footnote 123: For further details concerning the Patzinakitai and +Wallachs the student must consult the pages of Roesler, Pic, Engel, +Lauriani, &c.] + +[Footnote 124: + + 'Die Menschen, die noch jetzt fast roemisch Muster tragen, + Zwar schlecht, doch witzig sind, viel denken, wenig sagen.' +] + + +VII. + +As the reader is already aware, the first domination of the Bulgarians +in the Danubian provinces was followed by that of the Eastern Empire +after the victories of Basilius at the commencement of the eleventh +century, and as a change of rulers in those days usually meant a change +of oppressors, it is not surprising to find, about a century and a half +later, that all the populations were ready for revolt. Amongst these, +the most numerous and influential were still the conquered Bulgarians +and the Wallachs. The Wallachs are first distinctly mentioned in the +time of Basilius, in whose armies they fought as allies or mercenaries. +Towards the end of the eleventh century they had spread widely; for +mention is made of them as having settled all over the Balkan peninsula +as far as Macedonia in the south, in Wallachia in the north, and in +Moldavia, and perhaps even Bessarabia, in the north-east.[125] That is +to say, they had either spread into those countries, or their ancestors +had been there from the Daco-Roman period, and, having become +amalgamated with successive tribes of barbarians, were now once more the +dominant race. They must always have been great warriors, for we find +them at one time making irruptions on their own account into the +neighbouring territories, at others in alliance with the Eastern +emperors against the Bulgari or the Hungarians; or, associated with +neighbouring tribes, warring against the last-named ruthless invaders. + +And when, from about 1180 to 1200, the Greek power was approaching its +dissolution, the people of the Danubian provinces were ripe for +insurrection, and there were not wanting brave leaders to assist them +in striking the blow for their independence. From the conflicting +accounts of historians, neither the names nor number of those leaders, +nor yet the precise events which led to the establishment of the new +empire, are ascertainable with exactitude. Either there were two +Wallachian brothers, Peter and Asan, to whom a near relative of the +Greek emperor Isaac Angelos (1185-1195) treacherously allied himself, or +three brothers, Peter, Asan, and John. The origin of the revolt is +undoubted; it arose from the levying of what the people deemed an unjust +tax upon them, and probably the refusal of the emperor to admit them +into his army as paid mercenaries, as in the case of other tribes. In +order to obtain redress for these grievances, an embassy, comprising the +two brothers Peter and Asan, went to Constantinople. They were admitted +to the emperor's presence, but their requests were refused, and one of +the brothers, having displayed too much warmth on the occasion, received +a box on the ear, which may be said to have laid the foundation of the +Wallacho-Bulgarian Empire, and expedited the fall of the Greek dynasty. + +At first the revolt was unsuccessful, and the Wallachs and Bulgarians in +alliance were obliged to retreat across the Danube (1187); but soon +returning with a powerful army, in which a new tribe, the Kumani, were +also represented, they succeeded in inflicting a defeat upon the Emperor +Isaac (about 1193), who narrowly escaped with his life. Pressing on to +Adrianople, the allies threatened to overwhelm the Eastern Empire, and +the Emperor Alexius Comnenus was only too glad to conclude a peace with +them (about 1199) and to recognise their independence. + +[Footnote 125: Pic (p. 64) says the Roumanian Wallachs were first +referred to in 970, and (p. 113) first mentioned north of the Danube in +1222.] + + +VIII. + +The _Wallacho-Bulgarian_ Empire lasted, according to different authors, +from sixty to one hundred years, and contemporaneously with it the +_Kumani_ were also dominant in part of ancient Dacia; indeed, according +to some writers, Trajan's Dacia was called the land of the Kumani. The +information concerning the latter is very scanty. One writer says that +as the 'Uzi' they were found on the banks of the Danube at the end of +the eleventh century; others say they entered Moldo-Wallachia about +1046. About 1089 they are spoken of as in Transylvania, and the period +of their domination is variously stated as between these dates and +1220-1246. They were probably converted to Christianity about 1220-1223. +About that time the tribe was broken up, and part of them wandered into +Hungary, where they are said to have been guilty of great cruelties, and +to have subsisted down to the fifteenth century. + +During the same period also (1200) the order of _Teutonic Knights_ had +lands allotted to them in Transylvania by Andreas II. of Hungary, as +well as in part of Wallachia, over which he claimed the sovereignty; but +they sought to free themselves from his control, and the gift was soon +withdrawn, and in 1224 they were compelled to leave the territory over +which they had exercised jurisdiction. About 1247--1250 the _Knights of +St. John_ also enjoyed a brief authority in some parts of Transylvania +and Wallachia. + +The most interesting incident, of which the account has been handed down +to us, in the Wallacho-Bulgarian _regime_ was the negotiation between +King Joannitz, one of the first rulers (to whom reference has already +been made), and Pope Innocent III. (1198-1216). + +Lauriani published the whole correspondence, which is so interesting +that a brief epitome of it will not be out of place here. It not only +throws light upon the historical events of the period, but also gives us +a glimpse of the proceedings connected with the schism in the Catholic +Church. It is only necessary to premise that in the separation between +the Roman and Greek Catholics which took place in the latter half of the +ninth century, the Danubian provinces followed the eastern section, that +the union was complete under Basilius, but that, when the brothers Asan +shook off the Byzantine yoke, there was a national feeling of antagonism +in religion arising out of the political rupture. Of this Innocent took +advantage, and in sending a nuncio to Joannitz he wrote him that God had +seen the humility with which he had deported himself towards the Roman +Church, and in the turmoil and dangers of warfare He had not alone +mightily protected him, but also in his mercy had greatly enlarged him +(_dilatavit_). 'We, however,' he said, 'when we heard that thy +forefathers sprang from the noble city of Rome, and that thou didst not +only inherit the nobility of their race, but also true humility towards +the Apostolic chair, had contemplated ere this to address thee in +writing as well as by word of mouth through our nuncios, but the cares +of the Church have prevented us hitherto from carrying out our design.' +He then goes on to tell him that he has sent him 'our beloved son +Dominicus,' a Greek archpriest of Brundus, and he commends his nuncio to +Joannitz, requiring that he should receive him with humility, treat him +kindly, and through him communicate his further submission more +explicitly. Should he (the Pope) be satisfied concerning his intentions +and submission, he proposes to send him higher nuncios, or rather +legates, to assure him and his (subjects) in the true faith.' + +Joannitz evidently did not at first receive or treat the holy emissary +quite so deferentially as he might have done; but at length he answers, +beginning his epistle as follows:--'To the venerable and most holy +Father, highest priest, I, Johannes, Emperor of the Wallachs and +Bulgarians, send thee joy and health.'[126] He acknowledges the letter, +which he says is dearer to him than gold or any jewels, and thanks God +for having remembered him, his race, and the Fatherland from which they +originated. + +Then he recites what the Holy Father said about his benevolent +intentions, and adds that he, too, had attempted once, twice, and indeed +three times to communicate with him, but was debarred from doing so by +the number of his enemies; but now, knowing what are the Holy Father's +feelings towards him, he sends, along with the nuncio whom the Pope had +commissioned, also 'our pious and trusty priest Blasius,' to convey his +thanks, friendship, and service to him, as his Holy Father and highest +priest. Then, with an eye to business (which, by the way, pervades the +whole correspondence), he adds that as by his sacred writing his +Holiness had asked him to explain what he desired from the Holy Roman +Church (which, however, was not the case), his Imperial Majesty desires +of the Apostolic chair that he and his subjects should be fortified as +children in the bosom of the Mother Church, and particularly he asks +from the Roman Church, his mother, the crown and honour which his +forefathers the old emperors received. 'One was Peter, another Samuel, +and others, who preceded us in the government.' If his Holiness will do +this, his every desire in regard to the demeanour of his Empire towards +the Church shall be fulfilled. + +'But,' he adds, rather significantly, 'you must not be surprised that +your nuncio did not come back sooner, for we suspected him. Many persons +have come and tried to mislead us, but we were proof against their +machinations.' (False prophets he means.) 'But in this case, however, +the praetext' (white robe) 'was convincing proof, and we were satisfied.' +(But he was _not_ satisfied.) 'But, most Holy Father, if it please thee, +please send us the higher nuncios, and send this one with them, and then +we shall be convinced that both the first and the second mission were +from thee. May the Lord grant thee a long life!' + +Then follows another letter from the Pope, which might have been drawn +up by a modern conveyancer. It recites the whole of the previous +correspondence, and, referring to Joannitz's request for a crown, his +Holiness says he has had the registers carefully searched, and finds +that it is true many kings were crowned, and, moreover, that in the time +of his predecessor, Pope Nicolas, the King of the Bulgarians, who had +often sought his advice, had been baptized with his whole nation. +Afterwards, he says, at the request of Michael of Bulgaria, Pope Adrian +sent a subdeacon and some priests, but, in consequence of the bribes and +promises of the Greeks, the Bulgarians cast them out and took Greek +priests in their stead. In consequence of this 'light behaviour,' +therefore, he could not see his way clear to send any of his brothers +the cardinals. Still he had decided to send his chaplain Johannes as a +nuncio of the Apostolic chair, and, commending him to his good offices +(in the usual terms), he wished him to understand that he was fully +empowered to improve everything of a spiritual character in the realm. +He also sent by him a robe (_pallium_) for the archbishop of his +country, and a bull announcing the form and nature of the investiture. +In fact this nuncio was authorised to ordain bishops and priests, and +generally to substitute the Roman Catholic for the Greek faith. As to +the crown there seems still to have been a hitch. The nuncio was to look +up the older books and documents and learn all about the ancient manner +of proceeding, so that 'we [the Pope] may with greater celerity make the +needful arrangements.' And he bids him warn his 'nobles' also to treat +the nuncio with proper deference. + +Joannitz did his utmost to comply with the Papal behest. An +archbishopric and two bishoprics were founded, and the 'Golden Bull' was +promulgated, in which it was announced that Joannitz intended to receive +his crown and investiture at the hands of the Universal Priest, Innocent +III., and that certain ecclesiastical functionaries (naming them) had +been established by the Church of Rome, and thereby received his +(Joannitz's) sanction, which had previously been accorded to them by his +ancestors.[127] He also sent presents to the Pope as a token of +submission; and all these matters having been duly weighed and +considered by his Holiness, he at length nominated Joannitz King of the +Wallachs and Bulgarians, and sent him the much-coveted crown and sceptre +by the hands of Leo, a cardinal of the Order of the Holy Cross, &c., +who was commissioned on his behalf to perform the ceremony of +coronation. Lauriani concludes the correspondence and narrative by +saying that 'this Empire of the Roumanians flourished from the year of +our Lord 1186, in which it was restored by the brothers Peter and Asan, +under the best and bravest kings of the family of Asanidae, until the +year 1285, when it was disturbed, but not destroyed, by the inroads of +the Tartars. After the Turks had begun to make irruptions into the +European provinces, in the fourteenth century, it was brought under the +yoke by the Sultan Bajazet towards the close of that century, and wholly +annihilated in the year 1392.' + +Down to this period (the middle of the fourteenth century) we have been +necessarily compelled to speak loosely of the territories which were +overrun and held by the various barbarian races, for there is no clear +information concerning the limits of their occupation; but henceforward +our record will deal chiefly with Roumania as at present constituted. +The Wallacho-Bulgarian monarchy, whatever may have been its limits, was +annihilated by a horde of Tartars about A.D. 1250. The same +race committed great havoc in Hungary, conquered the Kumani, overran +Moldavia, Transylvania, &c., and held their ground there until about the +middle of the fourteenth century, when they were driven northward by the +Hungarian, Saxon, and other settlers in Transylvania; and with their +exit we have done with the barbarians. + +[Footnote 126: He calls himself 'Calojohannes Imperator Blacorum et +Bulgarorum,' which Lauriani translates 'Kaiser der _Romaenen_ und +Bulgaren,' Emperor of the Roumanians, &c. In this and the preceding +letter the reader has illustrations of the bias which weakens the +evidence of alleged facts in Roumanian history. Those writers who are +unwilling to concede Roman descent to the people make no mention of such +expressions as that used by Innocent concerning their ancestry, whilst +the patriotic native historians use license in translation in order to +improve their position.] + +[Footnote 127: In the Bull they are called 'Imperatores totius +Bulgariae,' which Lauriani (p. 56) unfairly translates 'Die Kaiser von +ganz Bulgarien und Romaenien' (Emperors of all Bulgaria _and +Roumania!_).] + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE PRINCIPALITIES, BETWEEN THE MIDDLE OF THE +THIRTEENTH AND OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURIES TO THE ACCESSION OF MICHAEL +THE BRAVE, A.D. 1593. + + State of the country at, the close of the barbarian era--Foundation + of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia--Traditions of Radu + Negru and Bogdan Dragosch--Historical evidence--Description of the + various rulerships in Wallachia in the thirteenth century--The + clans Liteanu and Bassarab--Mircea the Old--His history--The First + Capitulation (1393)--Character of Mircea--- Verses in his memory by + Bolentineanu (1826-1872)--John Corvin von Hunniad, Prince of + Transylvania--His history, character, and exploits--Vlad 'the + Impaler'--His cruelties--Capitulates to the Turks (1460 + A.D.)--Moldavia--Its founders--Obscurity of + records--Stephen the Great--His history--His flight to + Niamtz--Verses by Bolentineanu--Recommends his son to capitulate to + the Turks--His character--Neagu Bassarab, founder of the Cathedral + of Curtea d'Ardges--His peaceful reign and works--- Radul + d'Affumati completes the cathedral--His death--Turkish + encroachments--Michael the Brave. + + +I. + +When the title of barbarian immigration was ebbing in the Danubian +Principalities, it is natural to suppose that there must have remained a +very mixed population; and that, owing to the necessity for defence +against such ruthless invaders as we have described in our last chapter, +the inhabitants would congregate in various places under their ablest +leaders, and would fortify themselves in the best manner possible. This +was indeed the case, but until recently the historians of Roumania have +had little to guide them concerning the events of the period beyond +traditions which, though very interesting, are now gradually giving +place to recorded and authenticated facts. + +Almost any history of the country which it is possible to find to-day, +narrates the rise of the Principalities after the following fashion: The +Daco-Roman colonists, historians say, fled into the Carpathian mountains +before the Goths and Huns, and for nearly a thousand years they retained +their nationality, from time to time making descents into the plains +from one or other colony which they had established, always, however, to +find new hordes of barbarians in possession. At length, when the great +wave of barbarism had subsided, one Radu Negru, whose name is translated +Rudolph the Black, the chief of the Daco-Roman colony of Fogaras in the +Carpathians, descended into the plains with his followers, according to +some writers in 1240 A.D., whilst others say in 1290, and, +first fixing his capital at Campu-Lung, and then moving it to Curtea +d'Ardges, where he built a beautiful cathedral, drove out the barbarians +who remained in Wallachia, and became the first Voivode of that +province. This is the tradition of the foundation of Wallachia. + +About the same time, we are told, there dwelt in another part of the +mountains, to the west of Fogaras, a colony of Daco-Roman descendants, +namely, that of Marmaros or Maramurish, ruled over by one Bogdan, or +Dragosch. This chief, as the story runs, was once out hunting the +aurochs with a large following, accompanied by his dog Molda, and being +arrived in a beautiful country through which flowed a pretty stream, he +determined to settle there, called the river the Moldava, built a city +which he named Roman, reduced the inhabitants and their chiefs to +submission, and became the first Voivode of Moldavia. + +Of late years these traditions have been subjected to the searching +light of criticism, sharpened in some cases by national or political +tendencies, and whilst the story of Radu Negru has fallen into +discredit, that of Bogdan has undergone considerable modification. The +very names of the heroes have been canvassed, and Radu, instead of +Rudolph, has been shown to mean 'joy' (as Bogdan Dragosch was the +God-given'), so that, instead of Radu Negru, we now sometimes meet with +the name of Negru Voda, or 'the Black Prince,' who, according to the +traditions of some parts of the country, is still believed to have +descended from the Carpathians, and to have freed the land from the +Tartar hordes. + + +II. + +Thus far tradition. Roumania possesses no historical records of the +period, but the discovery of manuscripts in Hungary, Poland, and +elsewhere, has established certain facts that are beginning to serve as +a solid foundation upon which the early history of the country is being +based. + +First, it is admitted that the plains and the slopes of the Carpathians +were inhabited by communities ruled over by chieftains of varying power +and influence. Some were banates, as that of Craiova, which long +remained a semi-independent State; then there were petty voivodes or +princes, as the Princes of Zevrin or Severin, Farcas, Seneslas, &c.; and +besides these there were khanates, called in French _kinezats_, and in +German _knesenschaften_ (from the Slav. _kniaz_, a prince), some of +which were petty principalities, whilst others were merely the +governorships of villages or groups of them. These are only a few of the +small rulerships, which are every day multiplied as the State records of +the neighbouring countries are being more and more carefully +investigated. + +The names of prominent chieftains, too, are becoming clearer in the +obscurity of the period. In or about 1285 a Prince Liteanu conquered and +united three Wallachian principalities, and declared himself independent +of the crown of Hungary, which claimed suzerainty over the western part +of Wallachia. He was attacked by the Magyars under George Sowar, and +slain in battle, while his brother was taken prisoner and executed. Some +of the successors of this prince were more fortunate, and one of them, +Tugomir, succeeded for a time in securing his independence. The clan +_Bassarab_ was mentioned at even an earlier period, a ban of that name +having resisted the Tartars. Much confusion exists as to the origin of +this clan, and whilst some writers call Tugomir (just referred to) by +that name, others confound him with the Negru Voda of tradition. +Whatever may be the obscurity, however, in which their rise is buried, +it is certain that the Bassarab family gave many princes and rulers to +Wallachia, and, after intermarrying with other members of the ruling +classes, only became extinct about the year 1685. + +In the mountains the state of affairs was somewhat different. There, no +doubt from their greater proximity to the centre of Magyar rule, the tie +between the petty princes and the Hungarian crown seems to have been +closer, and whilst some writers affirm that the Wallachs (or Roumanians, +as their countrymen like to call them) enjoyed privileges amounting to a +quasi-independence, the Austrian chroniclers maintain that they were +mere vassal retainers of the Court of Hungary. So, for example, they say +that Bogdan, ruler of Marmaros, broke his allegiance to the King Louis +of Hungary, and about 1359 descended, with a largo body of Wallachian +followers, amongst whom were his sons, into the lower lands of what was +already called Moldavia, and took possession of the country.[128] + +Shaking ourselves free as far as possible from controversial questions, +we may state with safety, in regard to Wallachia, that for more than a +century after the wave of barbarian immigration had ceased to flow over +it, it resembled the condition of Independent Tartary of to-day; that +the number of its petty princes gradually diminished, one of them, +Vladislav Bassarab, having at length secured a great portion of the +country under his rule, and almost, if not completely, shaken off the +Hungarian yoke (1350-1376), until, under the reign of Mircea the Old +(1386-1418), a new enemy, the Turks, so far obtained the ascendency over +the country as to acquire permanent rights of suzerainty. + +[Footnote 128: For the details of this controversy the reader is +referred to the recently published pages of Roesler and Pic, the first +an Austrian and the second a Slav writer.] + + +III. + +Mircea, one of the heroes of Roumanian history, not only secured the +independent sovereignty, and called himself Voivode of Wallachia 'by +the grace of God,' but in 1389 he formed an alliance with Poland, and +assumed other titles by the right of conquest.[129] This alliance was +offensive and defensive with Vladislav Jagello, the reigning king, and +had for its objects the extension of his dominions, as well as +protection against Hungary on the one hand, and the Ottoman power on the +other; for the Turks, who during the fourteenth century had been waging +war with varying success against the Eastern Empire, were now rapidly +approaching Wallachian territory. Although Constantinople did not come +into their possession until the following century, Adrianople had +already fallen, the Turkish armies had overrun Bulgaria, and about the +year 1391 they first made their appearance north of the Danube. + +At first the bravery of Mircea was successful in stemming the tide of +invasion. The reigning Sultan was Amaruth II., who sent an army against +him under the command of Sisman, Prince of Bulgaria, a renegade who had +married the daughter of the Sultan, and had taken the offensive against +the Christians; but he was signally defeated, and for a brief period +Wallachia continued to enjoy her independence. A year or two afterwards +Bajazet II., the successor of Amaruth, resumed the offensive, and this +time, finding himself between two powerful enemies, the King of Hungary +and the Sultan, Mircea elected to form an alliance with the latter, and +concluded a treaty with him at Nicopolis (1393), known as the 'First +Capitulation,' by which Wallachia retained its autonomy, but agreed to +pay an annual tribute and to acknowledge the suzerainty of the +Sultan.[130] This treaty is dated 1392; but according to several +historians Mircea did not adhere to it long, for he is said to have been +in command of a contingent in the army of the crusaders, and to have +been present at the battle of Nicopolis (1396), in which the flower of +the French nobility fell, and, when he found their cause to be hopeless, +once more to have deserted them and joined the victorious arms of +Bajazet. + +Of the continued wars and dissensions in Wallachia, during the reign of +Mircea it is unnecessary to speak. He ruled with varying fortunes until +1418 A.D., and there is no doubt that the State was much better +organised for defence, although his wars entailed great misery upon the +peasantry. It is clear, not only from the Treaty of Nicopolis, but from +other records, that the general condition of the country somewhat +resembled that of England in the Saxon period. The prince was elected by +the boyards,[131] or barons spiritual and temporal, and by the nation +(probably through representatives), and there was a general Council of +State. There were probably freemen and serfs, although some writers +maintain that there was perfect equality until after Mircea's wars +commenced; then it is universally admitted that absolute slavery +existed. + +It has been said that Mircea kept a standing army of about 18,000 foot +and 17,000 cavalry; but whether that was so or not, he certainly +maintained a force sufficiently well organised to cope with his powerful +adversaries the Turks and the Hungarians.[132] That these latter were +still a fierce and untamed race is very probable, as were, no doubt, the +followers of Mircea, and they committed ravages by their inroads, which +have caused modern writers to class them with the barbarians whose rule +had ceased. Whatever may have been his faults and vices (and his +desertion of the Christians at Nicopolis, and the number of illegitimate +children left by him, prove that he had both), his patriotism and +courage endeared him to posterity, and his deeds are commemorated in +the national poems of the present century. Here is a graphic picture of + + MIRCEA IN BATTLE. + By D. BOLENTINEANU (1826-1872). + + Countless hosts of Magyars desolate the lands, + E'en the sun in terror sees their roving bands; + + But the aged Mircea, firm and undismayed, + With his braves, a handful, meets the furious raid. + + Knows, full well, to save the homestead's all but vain, + Calmly still determines duty to maintain. + + Ah! the days of heroes surely now are fled, + When, at duty's summons, Roumains nobly bled! + + Speaks the hoary chieftain: 'Hearken, brothers all, + 'Tis the will of God, as Roumain I should fall.' + + Dedicate thy life-blood, saviour of a nation; + 'Tis a puny flamelet in a conflagration. + + What is one poor lifetime in th' eternal day? + 'Tis a single blossom in a gorgeous May. + + Ere the noble falcon to the Jaeger yields, + Casts he nest and offspring down into the fields. + + Ere our arms or ankles should be locked in chains, + Lot us fall as heroes, die as free Roumains. + + Ah! the days of heroes surely now are fled, + When, at duty's summons, Roumains nobly bled. + +[Footnote 129: His full title was 'Mircea, D.G. Voivode of Wallachia, +Duke of Fogaras and Omlas, Count of Severin, Despot of the lands of +Dobrudscha and Silistria,' and, making allowance for the exaggerations +of a conqueror, it is clear that he must have ruled over an extended +territory.] + +[Footnote 130: The substance of this treaty, which was reaffirmed in +later ones, will be found in Appendix II., with some data concerning its +history, for which, along with much other valuable information, we are +indebted to Prince Jon Ghika, the Roumanian Ambassador at St. James's, +and to Mr. White, our own Minister at Bucarest.] + +[Footnote 131: The word 'boyard' originally meant soldier or warrior.] + +[Footnote 132: One of his corps of cavalry were called 'Scutelnici' (or +substitutes), a term which we shall find applied to government serfs +later on; and Vaillant (vol. i. p. 185) says the term 'scutage' in +England was derived from the same source (_scutum_, a shield).] + + +IV. + +Before referring to the events which were passing in Moldavia during the +period, it may not be out of place to say a few words here concerning +another hero, who, although he ruled in Transylvania, was a Wallachian +by birth, led the Wallachian armies against the Turks, and for a time +succeeded in checking their advance in Europe. This was John Corvinus, +as he is known to English readers, or, more correctly, Johann Corvin von +Hunniad, Prince of Siebenbuergen, who was born about the year 1368 in the +village of Corvin, in the Wallachian Carpathians. His father was a +Wallachian, some say of ancient family, and his mother a Greek, to whom +also a high ancestry is attributed. As his history was written by +flatterers in order to gain the favour of his son and successor, these +statements as to his high ancestry must be taken _cum grano salis_. +Johann was at first the captain of a small party of adventurers, having +served, as was the custom in those days, with a troop of twelve horse, +first under Demetrius, Bishop of Agram, and then for two years in Italy +under Philip, Duke of Milan. There he met Sigismund, King of Hungary, +who induced him to join his standard, and, as a reward for his services, +conferred upon him the estate of Hunnyades, from which he took his name. +Subsequently he rose from post to post, until he was appointed Viceroy +of Siebenbuergen (Transylvania), and eventually Regent of Hungary. In the +former capacity he formed an alliance against the Turks (about 1443) +with Vladislaus, King of Poland and Hungary,[133] and Vlad, Voivode of +Wallachia, and under his leadership the Christian armies frequently +encountered the Ottomans, notably on three occasions--at Varna under +Amaruth II. (1444) and Cossova (1448), in both of which encounters the +allies were defeated, and finally at Belgrade (1456), where the Turks +were completely routed. Various and conflicting accounts have been given +of these battles, and of Hunniades's conduct during the encounters. At +Varna, where Vladislaus was killed, the Poles charged Hunniades with +cowardice; but the facts are probably that he defeated the right wing of +the Turks, but that the temerity of Vladislaus caused the defeat of the +army and his own death. The same charge was brought against him by the +Poles in regard to the defeat at Cossova, but from his known bravery it +was no doubt equally groundless. At Belgrade the city was completely +invested by the Turks; but at the head of an undisciplined army +Hunniades forced his way into the city, and by a subsequent sally, in +which the Sultan Mohammed was wounded, he compelled the Turks to raise +the siege and withdraw in confusion. John Hunniades died in the same +year, and his son Matthias was elected to the crown of Hungary, over +which country he ruled for more than thirty years. + +The character of John Hunniades is well worth a brief consideration. As +we have said, he was charged with cowardice by his Polish allies, but by +the Turks he was so dreaded that they gave him the name of the Devil, +and used it to frighten their children when they misbehaved themselves. +Many anecdotes, of which the following is one, are related of his +personal courage. After the battle of Cossova, whilst fleeing alone +through the Carpathians, he was captured by two brigands, who deprived +him of his arms. The cupidity of these men was aroused by a splendid +gold chain which he wore, and one of them snatched it from his neck. +Presently, however, forgetting the maxim that there is honour even +amongst thieves, the two bandits began wrangling for the possession of +the booty, and whilst they were so occupied Hunniades managed to recover +his sword, and, engaging them in fight, he ran one through the body, +whereupon the other fled. + +If his biographers are to be believed, he must have been a remarkable +man. 'As fishes are used to the water,' says one, 'as the deer to the +forest glade, so was he adapted for the bearing of arms, a born leader +of warriors, and the field of battle was his life-element.' The nobility +of his bearing, another says, and his winning manner enabled him to +secure the affection of his soldiers, whilst his readiness to serve, his +piety and benevolence, and his shrewd policy, gained for him the +confidence of his superiors, the leadership of armies, and the highest +offices of the State. At his death he was universally mourned. Pope +Nicholas ordered the cardinals to perform a magnificent _requiem_ in his +memory, as the pious and successful defender of the Christian religion. +Even the Sultan Mohammed, whom he had just defeated--when George, Despot +of Servia, brought him what he thought would be the gratifying news of +the prince's death--lowered his head, and, after a long silence, +exclaimed, 'There never was, under any ruler, such a man since the +beginning of the world.' + +As we have said, the Turks were so much afraid of Hunniades that they +are said to have given him the name of 'the Devil;' but the same +designation, as well as that of the Impaler, has also been bestowed upon +Vlad, a voivode of Wallachia, who was probably the ally of Hunniades, +and who, if one-tenth of what has been related of him be true, has a +much better claim to the title. He is represented to have been one of +the most atrocious and cruel tyrants who ever disgraced even those dark +ages. One day he massacred 500 boyards who were dissatisfied with his +rule. The torture of men, women, and children, seems to have been his +delight. Certain Turkish envoys, when admitted into his presence, +refused to remove their turbans, whereupon he had them nailed to their +heads. He burned 400 missionaries and impaled 500 gipsies to secure +their property. In order to strike terror into Mohammed II. he crossed +over into Bulgaria, defeated the Turks, and brought back with him 25,000 +prisoners, men, women, and children, whom he is said to have impaled +upon a large plain called Praelatu. Notwithstanding his successes, +however, Vlad was at length compelled to submit to the Turkish rule, and +he concluded the 'Second Capitulation' at Adrianople (1460), in which +the tribute to the Porte was increased, but no other important change +was made in the terms of suzerainty.[134] + +[Footnote 133: The two crowns had been united under him.] + +[Footnote 134: To show what uncertainty hangs over the history of this +man, and in fact of the whole period, it may be mentioned that Neigebaur +and other writers make this treaty to have been signed between Vlad II. +and Mohammed III., who reigned 135 years later, whilst French writers +state that it was between Vlad V. and Mohammed II.; but they all agreed +as to the date 1460. Henke calls him Vlad III. He was universally named +the Impaler in consequence of a practice which is well known to our +readers through the so-called Bulgarian atrocities. A sharpened pole was +forced into the body of the victim, and the other end was then driven +into the earth, the unfortunate man, woman, or child being left to +writhe in agony until relieved by death.] + + +V. + + +For a century after the foundation of _Moldavia_, or, as it was at first +called, 'Bogdania,' by Bogdan Dragosch, the history of the country is +shrouded in darkness. Kings or princes are named, one or more of whom +were Lithuanians; two or three Bogdans, Theodor Laseu, Jurgo +Kuriotovich, Peter, Stephen, Roman, Alexander, &c., and some of them are +said to have been dethroned and to have reigned twice and even three +times, until at length a prince more powerful than the rest ascended the +throne, and by the prowess of his arms succeeded in establishing his +name and fame in history. This was Stephen, sometimes called the 'Great' +or 'Good,' but whether he deserved the latter title the reader will be +best able to judge for himself. + +He came to the throne about 1456 or 1458, and reigned until 1504, and +his whole life was spent in wars against Transylvania, Wallachia (which +he at one time overran and annexed to Moldavia), the Turks, and Tartars. +Considered in conjunction with the acts of Hunniades and Vlad the +Impaler, those of Stephen present a tolerably faithful picture of the +condition of Roumania in the fifteenth century. We shall therefore ask +the reader to bear with us whilst we hurry through the leading events of +his life. Five years after he came to the throne, Stephen overran +Transylvania. In 1465 he married Eudoxia, a Byzantine princess, and two +years afterwards we find him at war with Matthias of Hungary (the son of +John Corvinus), by whom he was defeated at Baja. Between that time and +1473 he once, if not twice, defeated Radu (the brother of Vlad the +Impaler), King of Wallachia, and in 1475 he was at war with the Turks, +whom he defeated on the river Birlad, between Barnaba, and Racovica. +This battle he is said to have won by stratagem. He concealed a number +of men in a neighbouring wood, and when the battle was at its height +they were ordered to commence playing various instruments as though +another force were approaching, and this created such a panic amongst +the Ottomans that they gave way and fled precipitately, followed by +Stephen, who put many to the sword. In that year also Stephen again +defeated Radu and completely overran Wallachia. Having reduced it to +submission, he placed a native boyard on the throne as his viceroy, who +showed his gratitude to Stephen by rebelling and liberating the country +from his rule; but he was in his turn murdered by his Wallachian +subjects. In 1476 Stephen sustained a terrible defeat at the hands of +the Ottomans at Valea Alba (the White Valley), but eight years +afterwards, allied with the Poles, he again encountered this terrible +enemy. His army was at first forced to give way, and he is said to have +fled for refuge to Niamtz, where he had a castle, but his mother refused +him admission and bade him return to his army. Here is the story, with +its sequel, as it is told by the poet who has already once been quoted +(Bolentineanu):-- + + 'Blows are heard resounding at the outer gate. + 'Tis the hour of midnight; whose the voice so late? + "Hasten, dearest mother"--ha! that well-known sound-- + "From the host I'm driven, bleed at every wound! + Fearful was our fortune, terrible the fray, + Scattered all my army, fled they in dismay. + Mother, open quickly; infidels pursue, + Icy is the night wind, purple blood their cue." + "Ha! what say'st thou, stranger? Stephen's far away, + Dealing death, strong-handed, where he stands at bay. + Of him the mother I; such my son is he. + Be thou who thou may'st, my son thou canst not be. + (Yet can Heaven have fated, dealt this fearful blow? + Can his soul be craven, quail before the foe?) + If in truth thou'rt Stephen, faint returning home, + Not within these portals shalt thou ever come. + Hasten to thy brave ones; for thy country fall; + Then maternal love with wreaths shall deck thy pall!" + Once more Stephen rallies; lusty sounds his horn; + Heroes flock around him on the battle morn. + Fierce and dire the slaughter; on that glorious day + Falls the Moslem chivalry like the new-mown hay.' + +Notwithstanding the great victory which he obtained, the Moslem power +was too strong for him, and he is found, before the century's close, +allied with them against Poland, to whose sovereign he had but a few +years previously sworn fealty, and into which he now made a raid. In +1504 he died a natural death, and it is said that before his decease, +either from fear of the Turks, or distrusting the power of his son +Bogdan, he advised the latter to make a permanent treaty with the Porte, +which he did shortly after his death.[135] The most favourable traits +in Stephen's character seem to have been his courage and patriotism, +notwithstanding the story which is told of his flight to Niamtz. Like +Mircea, he organised an army which is estimated at about the same +strength, with the addition of irregular troops. That he was pious after +a fashion is most likely, but that he also practised the tyrannic +cruelties of his age is undoubted. Shortly after his advent to the +throne, the Tartars entered his dominions, carrying fire and sword +everywhere, but they were eventually repulsed and driven out by Stephen. +In the course of this campaign he took a son of the Tartar chief +prisoner, and when envoys came to treat for his liberation he ordered +the prince to be decapitated in their presence, a deed which may have +been justified as a lesson to the ruthless tribe who had invaded his +country. Not content with this, however, he impaled all the envoys but +one, whose nose and ears he cut off, and sent him back to his master in +that dreadful condition. 'But,' adds the chronicler, 'Stephen, who was a +man of his period, only regarded this act as a manifestation of zeal in +the faith. Shortly afterwards he built the monastery of Putna, dedicated +it to Jesus and the Virgin, and caused to be transported thither the +wooden chapel which Dragosch had constructed at Volovitz.' 'These were +the ordinary practices of the age,' remarks another commentator; 'and if +such treatment was reserved for the high and noble, one may guess what +was the fate of the humble.' + +[Footnote 135: For the terms of this treaty see Appendix II.] + + +VI. + +What that fate was may easily be imagined by anyone who follows the +narrative of the wars which devastated the land. But, before treating of +the condition of the country and the customs of the period, we must +refer to one or two voivodes whose rule was pacific, and whose energies +were directed to the promotion of civilising influences. Concerning +these, too, we have the trustworthy records already cited in our +description of the cathedral of Curtea d'Ardges. One of them was Neagu +Bassarab,[136] the other John Radul, known as Radul d'Affumati, and both +were voivodes of Wallachia. + +The first-named, Neagu, came to the throne either in 1511 or 1513, and +died a natural death in 1520, a rare event in those days. He was +conspicuously a man of peace in a country and age of war and bloodshed, +and was eminently pious and benevolent. He repaired several churches, +restored the cathedral of Tirgovistea, roofed other churches with lead, +both in and out of Wallachia, and built the beautiful cathedral of +Curtea d'Ardges, the erection of which, as we have heard, was attributed +by tradition to Radu Negru, the reputed founder of Wallachia. The tablet +in his memory has already been referred to elsewhere. In war he never +took any personal part, and, as we have already remarked, he died +peacefully in his bed. + +He was followed on the throne by 'Radu the Monk,' who met with the usual +fate, having been slain by the Turks; and this prince was succeeded by +the Radu d'Affumati above named, a nephew of Nyagu (1522), who occupied +the throne for seven years. + +War, war was still the cry; he had numerous vicissitudes during his +short reign; participated in the defeat of the Hungarians and Poles in +the battle of Mohacs, 'which witnessed the slaughter of a king, seven +bishops, five hundred nobles, and twenty thousand soldiers; not only +laid open the whole country to the inroads of the Turks and established +them for nearly a century and a half in its capital, but changed the +reigning dynasty of Hungary and introduced for the first time a German +sovereign to the Hungarian throne.'[137] Radu was dethroned, and in his +attempt to leave the country he was seized by two of his nobles and +decapitated. During part of his reign, however, Wallachia enjoyed some +tranquillity, and Radu continued the works begun by his uncle; amongst +others, as we know, he completed the cathedral of Ardges. + +After the battle of Mohacs the Turks began to encroach more openly upon +Roumanian (Moldo-Wallachian) territory. They occupied and fortified +Braila, Giurgevo, and Galatz; interfered in the election of the princes, +in one or two instances securing the appointment for men whose sole +claim to the crown was their willingness to pay a heavy bribe. One of +those was a Saxon Lutheran of Transylvania, who was, however, a +favourable example of the princely race. He was elected Voivode of +Moldavia about 1580, and built a church for the Lutherans. In addition +to the intrigues for the voivodeship, internecine wars broke out between +the two Principalities, and the boyards made lawless raids upon one +another. In these civil broils the Turks intervened, adding to their own +influence, and rendering the princes more and more subservient to their +will. This state of things lasted until the end of the sixteenth +century, when another hero, Michael the Brave of Wallachia, restored +tranquillity and independence to the Principalities, and raised them for +a season in the esteem of surrounding nations. As his victories were +solid, and the heroic age in the early history of Roumania may be said +to have closed with his death, we feel justified in making more than a +passing reference to his exploits and career, more especially as in so +doing we shall also be able to present a trustworthy account of the +condition of society in his day. + +[Footnote 136: Called also Nyagor, Negoje, Nyagoe.] + +[Footnote 137: Paget, vol. ii. p. 8.] + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE TIMES AND CAREER OF MICHAEL THE BRAVE. + + The state of society--Greater and lesser boyards--Taxation and + oppression of the peasantry--Immorality of the boyards--The + priesthood--Officers of State--Classes of peasantry--Rise of the + towns--The soldiery--Aggressions of Turks and Tartars--Michael the + Brave--His rise to power--Accession to the throne + (1594)--Remonstrances with the Porte--Alliance with Hungary and + Poland--Massacre of the Turks--Anecdote--Conspiracy against Michael + quelled--The Turks attacked and routed on the Danube--Invasion of + Wallachia by Achmed Pasha--His defeat--Michael swears fealty to + Sigismund of Transylvania--Second Turkish invasion by Sinan + Pasha--Determined stand of Michael at Giurgevo--Retreat of Michael + and battle of Kalugereni--Defeat of Sinan--Retreat of + Michael--Occupation of Wallachia by Sinan--Michael and his allies + take the offensive--Flight of Sinan and slaughter of the Turks at + Giurgevo--The Turks expelled--Peace in Wallachia--Intrigues of + Michael--Accession of Andreas Bathori--Invasion and conquest of + Transylvania by Michael--His triumph--Michael, Prince of + Transylvania--Further intrigues--Invasion and conquest of + Moldavia--Michael in the zenith of his power--Feud with the + nobles--Michael encounters them at Miriszlo--Their Austrian ally, + General Basta--Defeat and flight of Michael--Anecdote--Continued + misfortunes of Michael--Petitions the Emperor--Is permitted to + visit him--Recall of Sigismund Bathori--Michael reinstated by the + Emperor--Invades Transylvania in alliance with Basta--Defeat of the + nobles at Gorozlo--Quarrels of the victorious generals--Basta + determines to remove Michael--Employs a Walloon officer to + assassinate him--Michael murdered in his tent (1601)--Flight of his + boyards--The German Court refuses to reward Basta's treachery. + + +I. + +As the state of the northern Danubian territories before the foundation +of the Principalities has been compared by us to the present condition +of what is called Independent Tartary, and at a subsequent period to +that of the early Saxons, so in the reign of Michael the Brave +(1593-1601 A.D.) the state of society resembled that of England +under the Norman kings; indeed, there is a remarkably interesting +agreement in some of its phases. As in England there were greater and +lessor barons, so in Moldo-Wallachia there were greater and lesser +boyards. These seem to have possessed all the rapacity of our robber +barons, with but little of their _reputed_ chivalry. They oppressed the +peasantry, who since the time of Vlad the Impaler were to a large extent +serfs, with unbearable taxes, and endeavoured on all occasions to shift +the burdens of the State upon those whose shoulders were the least able +to bear them. One of these imposts was the poll-tax, similar to that +which gave rise to Wat. Tyler's riots in the time of Richard II., but +which, strange to say, still survives in Roumania, to the +dissatisfaction of all her right-minded citizens. + +[Illustration: EQUESTRIAN STATUE MICHAEL THE BRAVE AT BUCAREST. + +(FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ DUSCHEK.)] + +Besides the poll-tax, there was the 'Standard gift' (Poklon), which was +levied at the installation of the Voivode; the Easter present; the extra +tax (_ajutorita_), which was raised when the other taxes ran short. +Moreover, there were taxes in kind on malt, salt, fish, cattle, and +horses, payable to the prince. The landlord (boyard) was entitled to +land and pasturage tax, the tenth of the earth's productions, feudal +service, bee, pig, and sheep taxes, and in addition to these a rate was +levied upon bees, pigs, tobacco, wine, and sheep, for the benefit of the +prince.[138] Whilst these imposts and the extraordinary levies and +ravages of war often reduced the whole of the peasantry to the most +abject poverty, bordering on starvation, the boyards lived in +comparative ease, and led a life of immorality and self-indulgence. +Concubinage widely prevailed, and many boyards had, besides their +legitimate wife, ten or a dozen mistresses. They appear to have been +gradually growing in influence, and the greater boyards filled all the +chief offices of State as well as the leading military posts in the +districts. Personal distinctions existed also, the leading boyards being +allowed to wear long beards, a practice which was forbidden to the +lesser boyards. + +Besides the boyards and their serfs there was hardly any native +population worth speaking of, and no middle class whatever; all trade +being in the hands of Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. There was, however, a +priesthood, who were as ignorant as the peasantry; indeed many of them +followed both occupations, the only exceptions being the metropolitan +and the higher clerics, who possessed considerable influence there as +elsewhere in the middle ages. The power of the prince had no definite +limits, and, with the exception of the counteracting influence of the +boyards, it was practically absolute. There was a council of twelve +boyards, whose signatures along with that of the prince were visually +appended to all important State documents. + +In the time of Stephen (some writers say, at an earlier period), the +various offices of State were established, which were maintained down to +a recent date, both in Wallachia and Moldavia; and as it is impossible +for the reader to interest himself in any question bearing upon the past +history of the country without finding some mention made of one or other +of them, it may be useful here to enumerate a few of their titles. + +1. The Ban of Craiova was Viceroy of Little Wallachia, and his authority +reached back, in all probability, to the foundation of the principality. +2. The Vel-Vornic, or Minister of the Interior, was Governor of the +Carpathians and of the neighbouring districts. 3. The Great Vornic was +governor of the lowlands. 4. The Logothet, or Chancellor, was Minister +of Justice. 5. The Great Spathar was Minister of War. 6. The Great +Vestiar, Treasurer and Master of the Robes. 7. The Great Postelnik, +Master of the Post. 8. The Paharnic, chief butler and cup-bearer (this +was a title of Hungarian origin). 9. The Great Stolnik, chief cook. 10. +The Great Comis, Master of the Horse. 11. The Aga, Chief of Police. 12. +Great Pitar, Inspector of Commissariat. 13. Serdar, general of infantry +of three districts (3,000 men). In Moldavia the Spathar was called the +Hettman; in both principalities there were minor offices, and in +Stephen's time the first six only formed the Council of Ministers.[139] + +Although, as we have said, the peasantry were chiefly serfs, there were +differences in their condition. The chief body were called Scutelnici, +and the peasantry generally were divided into two classes, those who +possessed land of their own, and those who worked on the estates of the +prince, the boyards, or the monasteries. Part of the latter were free to +move about in search of employment, and the rest were absolutely serfs +attached to the soil; the term of service in every case was fixed at +forty-eight days in the year. The towns were growing in importance, the +capital being Tirgovistea, but Bucarest (to which place Constantine +Brancovano transferred his capital about a century later) was already an +important place, owing chiefly to its situation. Another town or large +village was Curtea d'Ardges. But the Wallachian Voivodes shifted their +'capital' as it suited their pleasure, and the removal in those days was +probably not a very onerous undertaking. It appears that Vlad Dracul +(the Devil) preferred Tirgovistea, whilst another Voivode, Michna, +favoured Ardges.[140] Other towns of note Craiova, Ploiesti, Buzeu, and +two or three ports on the Danube. In Moldavia, Iasi, Suceava, and Roman +were the chief towns. The government of the towns was carried on by a +burgomaster, or mayor, a prefect, and a council of twelve citizens. + +The army was very heterogeneous both as regarded its nationalities and +its armament. It was then, or perhaps at a somewhat later period, +divided into three sections, the regular army,[141] the militia, and the +landsturm, the last-named being without pay and only called out in times +of great danger, and it consisted mainly of the servants and slaves of +the boyards. The arms of the regular soldiers were originally, as in +this country, bows and arrows and lances, but in Michael's time there +were already musketeers and primitive artillery. Besides the native +soldiery there were mercenaries, namely, Hungarians, Szeklers, Poles, +Cossacks, Servians, Bulgarians, Albanians, cavalry as well as infantry. +The whole country was at that time divided into military districts +answering to the present Judeztu or departments, each district being +under the control of a captain who united military, administrative, and +judicial power in his own person. The names of most of the districts +remain unchanged to the present day. + +To this account of the state of Moldo-Wallachia it is only necessary to +add that in time of war, and that was the normal condition, the people +were subjected to terrible privations. When an army advanced, the +peasantry were laid under contributions for the troops; when it fled +before the enemy, everything was burned or destroyed in its retreat, so +that the pursuing force might be checked for want of supplies. + +Schools for the people there were none, and all the knowledge that +existed was confined within the walls of the monasteries, which were, +however, numerous and well endowed. At no period of its history was +Wallachia in such a deplorable condition as when Michael ascended the +throne. Besides possessing the suzerainty of the principality the Turks +completely occupied the whole southern bank of the Danube, along with +some posts and what is known as Temesvar, on the northern side. The +Transylvanian slopes of the Carpathians and the country beyond were a +fief of the German, or, as it was called, the Roman Empire, over which +at that time Rudolph II. reigned, whilst the territory north of Moldavia +formed part of Poland. But although Wallachia was nominally autonomous, +and was allowed to choose its own rulers, it was in reality an oppressed +province of Turkey. The treaties had been completely set at defiance. +Mosques had been erected and houses built by Turkish residents, contrary +to the stipulations of the Treaty of Nicopolis, with the connivance of +the voivodes, who, as we have said, were raised up and deposed as it +suited the greed or policy of the Porte. Their fortresses and garrisons +on the Danube served as centres from which the Ottomans made raids into +Wallachian territory, spreading desolation far and wide, and in addition +to this scourge the suffering inhabitants had from time to time hostile +visits from the Tartars. Hordes of these savages were in alliance with +the Turks against Hungary, and it was not unusual for them to deviate +from their route, fall into the plains of Wallachia, and renew the +scenes of rapine and outrage which had characterised the passage of the +Eastern barbarians. + +Michael, who was probably the posthumous son of a former voivode of +Wallachia called Petraschko, was born about the year 1558, and in 1583 +he married the widow of a boyard, by whom he had at least one, if not +two sons, and a daughter. He occupied several honourable positions in +the State, and was Ban of Craiova before he ascended the throne of +Wallachia. This step he accomplished through intrigues at Constantinople +with the aid of his father-in-law, whereby he succeeded in deposing his +predecessor Alexander. Some marvellous tales are told concerning the +hairbreadth escapes of Michael in his struggles for the ascendency, one +being that, when he was captured by Alexander and ordered for execution, +the headsman was so terrified at the majesty of his countenance that he +dropped the axe and fled, and no one else was to be found willing to +undertake the odious duty. Be that as it may, he succeeded eventually in +removing his rival, and mounted the throne of Wallachia in 1593. For +some time after his accession Michael addressed remonstrances to his +suzerain at Constantinople concerning the lawless proceedings of the +Turkish and Tartar soldiery, but, finding these to be of no avail, he +sought the alliance of Sigismund, Prince of Siebenbuergen[142] +(Transylvania), and Aaron, Voivode of Moldavia, and determined to rid +his country of the oppressors. Aaron of Moldavia, it should be added, +was a feeble prince, who would not have joined Michael but for the +circumstance that, having been attacked and defeated by the Poles, he +was compelled to seek refuge at Michael's court. After the alliance +between the three princes was completed the first blow was struck for +independence, and on November 12 or 13, 1594, all Turks who were found +in Bucarest or Jassy were slaughtered without mercy. Michael is said to +have invited a large number of true believers, who were pressing for the +settlement of unlawful claims, to meet him in a khan in Bucarest, and +when they were assembled he had them all put to the sword, and this was +the signal for a massacre throughout the Principalities. A few Turks +escaped through the humanity or friendship of private individuals, and +one instance of this is specially recorded. The Cadi of Giurgevo, who +happened to be at Bucarest, was walking out on the morning of November +13, when he was stopped by a Wallachian friend who said, +'Ali-Gian-Hogea, how many years have I eaten of thy bread and salt?' +'About twenty years,' answered the Turk. 'Well, then,' said his friend, +'out of gratitude I will give thee a word of counsel.' 'Speak,' said +Ali. 'Do not stay in this city until three or four o'clock; neither +remain in Giurgevo, but hasten thee as speedily as possible to Rustchuk' +(on the opposite bank of the Danube). 'But wherefore?' enquired the +Turk. The Wallachian walked away, but, turning round and seeing his +friend still undecided, he called out: 'Forget not what I have told +thee!' Wandering on in the city, the Turk could not help noticing +greater activity than usual in the streets; suspecting mischief, but +without saying a word to any person, he ordered his horses to be +harnessed and fled to Giurgevo. The interior of Wallachia having been +thus cleared of the Turks, Michael proceeded to attack their positions +on the Danube. First he stormed Giurgevo and compelled the Turks to +leave it, some crossing over the Danube, and others taking refuge in the +fortress which was situated on an island in the river; but this latter +he was unable to capture, as troops, ammunition, and provisions were +sent into it from the Bulgarian side. Content, therefore, with his +victory, he retired to Bucarest. + +[Footnote 138: Teutschlaender, from whose excellent little treatise, +_Michael der Tapfere_ (Wien, C. Graeser, 1879), these details are taken, +mentions many customs as existing in the time of Michael which were in +all probability only introduced at a later period. The tobacco-tax is +clearly one of them.] + +[Footnote 139: The reader will find full accounts of the officials and +their various duties, as well as a description of the investiture of the +princes, in Raicevich, p. 62. In Wilkinson, p. 55, he will find that in +his day there had been a great multiplication of the offices; there were +second and third Logothets, second and third Vestiars, &c.] + +[Footnote 140: Reissenberger, p. 39, in part quoting Engel.] + +[Footnote 141: Some modern Roumanian historians affirm that Mircea +already had a regular army, but Roesler and others treat the assertion +with ridicule. As to Michael, the reader will judge for himself whether +or not it would have been possible to accomplish what he did without a +disciplined force.] + +[Footnote 142: Siebenbuergen was so called from seven forts erected +there.] + + +II. + +Shortly afterwards a conspiracy against Michael was set on foot by +adherents of the Turks, and under the pretence of desiring simply to +march through the country, a Turkish Emir, with two thousand men, +entered Bucarest. Michael, who know of the conspiracy, made a pretence +of acquiescence in this movement, but shortly afterwards withdrew +quietly to the camp of the allies, and returning with a sufficient force +surrounded the house of the chief conspirator, in which the Emir and his +escort were quartered, and put them to the sword. The fury of his troops +was unbridled, and no quarter was given, the last of the enemy being +put to death. But Michael did not stop here. In order to protect +Wallachia from Turkish inroads, he determined to clear both banks of the +Danube of their garrisons. With this view he sent the noted and +successful Transylvanian general, Albert Kiraly, with a sufficient +force, who took, plundered, and burned the Turkish town at the mouth of +the Jalomitza, where it falls into the Danube. The fortress, however, he +was obliged to leave in the hands of the Turks. Michael, following with +the remainder of the army, crossed the river itself and besieged +Oroschik (now Hirschova). This place was strongly reinforced by the +Turks, but after an obstinate battle, which was fought partly on the +frozen waters of the Danube, the allies were victorious, and retired +across the river with an immense booty. + +Shortly afterwards he moved up the river to Silistria, where he a second +time encountered the Turks, gained a victory, and reduced the place to +ashes. These victories of Michael struck terror into the rulers at +Constantinople, and an Ottoman army, under Achmed Pasha, was sent to +Rustchuk, whilst the Khan of the Crimea, an ally of the Turks, was +ordered to enter Wallachia from the east, the Porte hoping by these +vigorous measures to reduce its rebellious vassal to submission. The +Turks did not, however, know of what material Michael was made. Dividing +his army into two parts, he succeeded, by the rapidity of his movements, +not only in keeping the allies asunder, but in completely routing both. +The Tartars were twice defeated, and their fugitives spread terror +amongst the Ottoman forces. Michael next gave the Turks battle at +Rustchuk with his whole force, defeated and dispersed them, and slew +their general. After these exploits he returned in triumph and with +great booty to Bucarest. + +Without, however, resting long under his laurels, he once more divided +his army into several detachments, which, under different generals, +marched once more to the Danube, the result being that the allied +princes of Wallachia and Moldavia were soon able to report to Prince +Sigismund that both banks of the Danube eastward to the Black Sea had +been swept clear of the Ottoman forces. + + +III. + +But Michael's troubles were far from terminated by these victories. +Before securing the co-operation of the Prince of Siebenbuergen, he had, +with a duplicity which characterised his whole career, agreed to +acknowledge Sigismund as his suzerain, his object being to free himself +from Turkish rule and then assume independent power. But the +Transylvanians were not to be so easily disposed of, and after the +victories over the Turks they in their turn demanded homage from the two +Voivodes, and backed their claim by an irresistible force. The Voivode +of Moldavia was seized and imprisoned, and Michael, deeming prudence the +better part of valour, submitted to the terms which were dictated to +him. These were in appearance worse even than the Turkish +'capitulations,' but, as they were never kept, it is unnecessary to +mention them. Sigismund assumed the title 'By the grace of God, Prince +of Siebenbuergen, of Moldavia and Wallachia, and of the Holy Roman +Empire, &c.' (he in his turn being the vassal of the German Emperor), +whilst Michael was denied the claim to divine right, was restricted in +his princely powers, and was addressed as 'Dominus Michael Voivoda regni +nostri Transalpinensis.' He was not permitted to employ the national +seal, but was allowed the use of red wax. + +Perhaps it was well for Michael that he submitted to these humiliating +conditions at the hands of his ally, or his reign might have been even +shorter than it was, for the Turk was again at his gates with an +overwhelming army. The Sultan Murad III. was dead, January 1595, and was +succeeded by Mahommed III.; nineteen brothers, we are told, having been +slaughtered to obviate dissensions, a custom which is still followed, as +the reader is doubtless aware, in certain oriental realms. Shortly after +his accession, the Porte again proceeded to assume the sovereignty of +the Principalities, and an army variously estimated from 100,000 to +180,000 men, under Sinan Pasha, was concentrated at Rustchuk to take +possession of the provinces. Michael was at the time able to collect +only 8,000 men, for the Transylvanian troops had been withdrawn, but his +encounter with the overwhelming Turkish force arrayed against him on +this occasion undoubtedly presents the most brilliant phase of his +remarkable career. Marching rapidly to Giurgevo with his handful of men, +he managed to detain the Turkish army for weeks on the south side of the +Danube, destroying their bridges and preventing them from crossing the +river. Turned at length by a Turkish detachment, which had succeeded in +crossing at a point above Giurgevo, he was compelled to withdraw to a +village about halfway towards Bucarest. His little army had been +strengthened by an accession of Transylvanian and Moldavian troops, the +former under brave Albert Kiraly, but even then it barely numbered +16,000, whilst the army of Sinan Pasha must have been at least six times +as strong. Kalugereni, the village at which this stand was made, is +still to be found on the maps, on the line of railway from Giurgevo to +Bucarest; and it only differed from Thermopylae in the fact that the +enemy was not alone checked in his career, but for the time the little +army of Roumanians and their allies were completely victorious. + +Nothing could have exceeded the astonishment of Sinan Pasha when he +found Michael ready to give him battle with his handful of patriots; but +as he proceeded to make his dispositions for the onslaught, he found +that his adversary possessed in his favourable position much to +compensate him for his inferior numbers. The nature of the ground was +such that Sinan could not employ the whole, nor even the major part, of +his forces, and Michael and his allies were protected by a morass and +river, which rendered it necessary for the Turks to concentrate their +whole attack upon a single road and bridge crossing the latter. At this +bridge the battle was practically fought. Michael and his forces for a +long time sustained the attack of the Ottomans, who had posted their +guns so as to commit havoc in the ranks of the allies, until these, +fighting hand to hand, were obliged to retreat. The Turks followed and +had made sure of their victory, when Albert Kiraly succeeded in bringing +two guns into a favourable position, and by a flank fire threw the enemy +into confusion. Of this circumstance Michael availed himself once more +to renew the attack, this time with the most happy results. The enemy +retreated in disorder over the bridge, and by the furious onslaught of +the allies his hosts were driven helter-skelter into the morass. On the +one hand Michael is said to have performed prodigies of valour, whilst +on the other Sinan Pasha, who fought with equal bravery, was unhorsed +and thrown into the bog, from which he only escaped with his life +through the fidelity of one of his followers, who was afterwards known +as the 'Marsher.' Michael recovered his own guns, which had been +captured early in the fight, as well as many of the enemy's, along with +a great booty comprising many Turkish standards, and including the +sacred standard of Mohammed, which was believed to be invincible. Thus +ended a struggle of which to this day Roumanians are proud, and which +they associate with the memory of their greatest hero. This battle was +fought and won at some indefinite date between August 13 and 26, 1595. +The rest of the campaign may be dismissed in a few sentences. + +That Michael with his small force could draw no advantage from his +victory may be readily imagined; and, a council of war being held during +the night, a retreat was decided upon. Passing rapidly through Bucarest, +which was sacked by the Transylvanian troops in order that the Turks +might not profit by its treasures, the allies retired to Tirgovistea, +followed by the inhabitants on their route; and after a few days' rest +they proceeded to a village at the foot of the Carpathians to await +succour from Siebenbuergen. The Turkish commander, meanwhile, instead of +following them promptly, entered Bucarest at leisure, where he divided +his army into numerous detachments, to take possession of various parts +of the country and garrison fortresses, and spent his time in turning +churches into mosques and substituting the crescent for the cross. Then +he marched on, took possession of Tirgovistea, and sent a large force +to occupy Braila. + +Meanwhile Sigismund had collected a powerful and well-disciplined army, +consisting of imperial troops and Transylvanians, and numbering 20,000 +horse and 30,000 foot with 53 guns. With these he crossed the +Carpathians, and, joining Michael and Albert Kiraly, he resumed the +offensive against the Turks, driving them before him wherever he +encountered them. Sinan took fright, and retired to Bucarest. +Tirgovistea was recovered by the allies after three days' fighting, and +many guns were captured. Sinan continued to retire before the advancing +foe. Having set fire to the city and burned many churches, he hastily +withdrew to Giurgevo; and, thinking that the allies would enter +Bucarest, he is said to have left it mined ready for explosion. In this, +however, he was mistaken. Sigismund and Michael passed by Bucarest and +pursued him in all haste, arriving at Giurgevo whilst the Turkish army +was still crossing the river. Sinan had managed to reach the Bulgarian +side with a portion of his troops, but the rearguard was still at +Giurgevo, and a fight ensued in which the greater part of the Turkish +force was cut to pieces either on land or in their attempt to traverse +the stream. The Danube was reddened with the blood; 5,000 Turks are said +to have fallen, and 4,000 to 5,000 Christians to have been liberated +from their chains. The whole campaign is said to have cost the Turks +30,000 men and 150 large and small guns. + + +IV. + +Having, with the aid of his allies, effectually freed his country from +external enemies, Michael had now a brief space of time for improving +its internal condition, for it is hardly necessary to say that these +desolating wars had reduced it to the very lowest stage of misery. +Fields were tilled, cattle imported from Transylvania, seed corn +distributed amongst the peasantry, and soon the face of the land assumed +a smiling aspect, and new towns and villages sprang from the ruins of +the old. Minor wars he had with the Tartars, and conspiracies were +formed against him and quelled. He was even accused of treachery against +his suzerain, whom, however, he managed to satisfy during a visit to +Weissenburg; and well would it have been for Michael and his country if +his ambition had not prompted him to over-estimate his powers, and if he +had been content to reign in peace over his own principality. But this +was not his policy. His victories had given him a high rank amongst the +powers of the Orient; and the changes which were taking place brought +him into communication with one and another, and favoured a scheme of +aggrandisement which, though it was for a time successful, eventuated in +his downfall and death. + +Sigismund Bathori, weary of government, had abdicated in favour of his +brother, the Cardinal Andreas, with whom Michael had nothing in common, +and then it was (if not previously) that the latter began to nurse the +design of becoming the independent ruler over what had been ancient +Dacia, namely, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Siebenbuergen. With this view he +commenced negotiations with the Porte, which were eagerly welcomed; and +he also approached the German emperor, from whom he needed money to pay +his mercenary troops. Indeed, for the purpose of accomplishing his ends, +he at one and the same time did homage and acknowledged himself the +vassal of both powers. For a long time he temporised and contented +himself with strengthening and drilling his forces. At length taking +advantage of unfriendly relations which subsisted between Andreas +Bathori and the emperor, from whom he had succeeded in obtaining a +subsidy on the plea that he required it for his operations against the +Turks, who constantly threatened the Empire, Michael hastily assembled +his forces, and, against the warnings and wishes of his wife and some of +his more discreet counsellors, he crossed the Boza Pass in the +Carpathians in 1599, and proceeded to overrun Siebenbuergen, as he +professed, in the name and interests of his suzerain, the German +emperor. + +After striking terror into the inhabitants of Transylvania by the +excesses of his troops, Michael's first step of any consequence on +entering the country was to appear before Kronstadt with his army and +demand its surrender. This was granted, and Michael deemed it politic +not to enter the city, but to march forward and get possession of other +towns, which yielded to him one after the other in rapid succession. + +Andreas Bathori was staggered and perplexed by this sudden inroad into +his dominions, but when he became fully alive to the danger the whole +country was roused by the carrying round of the 'bloody sword.' He also +sent emissaries to induce Michael to return to his own country, but the +latter kept these in confinement until the conclusion of the campaign. +What made the matter more serious for Andreas was that a vast number of +discontented inhabitants and freebooters, lusting after plunder, had +joined the army of Michael, and had swelled it to the number of 25,000 +men. A council of war was hastily called by Andreas, and after +considerable delay the Transylvanian army was collected at Hermanstadt. +Michael, not expecting serious opposition so soon, had recourse to +stratagem in order to gain time and deceive his enemy. To his shame be +it said that he sent emissaries to Andreas who were instructed to +represent the whole proceeding as an unfortunate mistake, and to express +Michael's regret at the excesses of his troops. All he wished, he said, +was a free passage through Siebenbuergen into Hungary, where he desired +to join his forces with those of the Empire against the Turks. And when +the cardinal sent him word that he must return to Wallachia with his +forces before he could consider their old friendship restored, Michael +carried his duplicity so far as to conclude a truce with the emissaries +and make a proposal to exchange hostages. The negotiations were, +however, in all probability insincere on both sides; and, after further +delay, the emissaries returned to their respective camps, and the +opposing armies met in hostile array upon a plain between Hermanstadt +and Schellenberg. Here each prince addressed his troops previous to the +encounter. Cardinal Andreas, divested of his clerical robes and fully +equipped and mounted, denounced Michael in the bitterest terms. His +brethren, he said, still herded sheep and pigs in Wallachia. He had +associated himself with robbers and with a miscellaneous rabble +collected from all parts to ruin the country. 'Be not afraid,' he added, +'of this nation of Sclaves, who, from time immemorial, have been +conquered subjects of the Hungarians, and who should be punished rather +with rods and blows than with the sword.' Thus, and much more in the +same strain, spake Andreas. Michael, on the other hand, spoke of his +enemy with contemptuous jocularity, as a mounted and perjured priest who +had allied himself with the Turks, the enemies of Christendom, whilst he +himself claimed to represent fidelity to Christianity and the Empire. +Moreover, he held out to his troops tho prospect of great booty if they +were victorious. + +We shall not attempt to describe the engagement which followed. At the +very outset it declared itself to some extent in Michael's favour +through the desertion of one of the most influential leaders in +Andreas's army. It was chiefly a series of encounters between isolated +detachments of troops, and in many cases not only were men of the same +nation arrayed against each other, but the opposing forces were under +the leadership of near relatives. The first to yield, after a fierce and +protracted contest, was Andreas, who fled from the field believing the +battle to be lost. His brave generals, however, rallied his men, and to +a great extent retrieved the fortunes of the day. In fact they fought so +successfully that a portion of the Wallachian army, where Michael +himself was in command, took to flight, and for a time dragged its +leader along with it. The cowardice of Andreas prevented the +Transylvanian leaders from taking advantage of this turn in their +favour; and Michael, seeing that all was not lost, made strenuous +efforts to rally his troops. By threats, blows, and angry exclamations, +he at length succeeded in arresting the stampede, but it was not until +he had with his own sword run two fugitive captains through the body +that he was once more successful in leading his followers into the +field, and this time in effectually routing the enemy. This end was +facilitated by an event similar to the one which commenced the fight. +The Poles in Transylvanian service, seeing their leader flee, and +regarding his cause as lost, deserted in a body in order that they might +not lose their share of the booty. + +This battle, which is called by some the battle of Schellenberg, and by +others of Hermanstadt, laid Transylvania at the feet of Michael. +Hermanstadt would have opened its gates to him, but instead of entering +it he marched onwards, and on November 1, 1599, he entered the capital, +Weissenburg, in triumph. On that occasion the magnificence of his +apparel and surroundings scarcely seems to have been consistent with his +reputation as a hardy warrior. We read of a white silk mantle +embroidered with gold lace; of buttons of precious stones; of a girdle, +in which was carried a scimetar rich in gold and rubies; and of his wife +and children being in similar state. One other feature is worthy of +mention. With booming of cannon, tolling of bells, sound of fife and +drum, and tramp of richly-caparisoned steeds was associated the +Wallachian national music performed by gipsies (Laoutari), an incident +which enables one who has even to-day heard their wild music to picture +to himself a vivid representation of the scene. + + +V. + +Michael now assumed the direction of affairs in Transylvania, +notwithstanding that the German general, Basta, who had hoped to acquire +the government for himself, was present with an army to control his +action. Soon he heard of the capture and murder of Andreas Bathori, on +whose head he had set a price, by the peasantry of the mountains; and, +calling an assembly of the notables, he succeeded in securing their +adhesion to his viceroyalty. After long-protracted negotiations the +emperor, seeing that Michael was firmly installed in his government with +the consent of the Assembly of States, and finding him willing to submit +as a vassal of the German crown, accepted the situation, and permitted +him to do homage. This was done with great reluctance and in spite of +Papal remonstrances, as the murder of Cardinal Bathori had caused great +bitterness against Michael at Rome. As soon as the latter felt or deemed +his position in Siebenbuergen secure, he turned his arms against +Moldavia, with a view to depose Jeremiah Mogila, the reigning voivode, +and complete his incorporation of that country with the two over which +he already ruled. The manoeuvres of Michael were questionable previous +to his contest with Andreas; but now he excelled himself. In order to +obtain his ends, he threatened the emperor with an alliance with the +Turks, unless he gave him further supplies of money. The Porte he +pacified by receiving its envoys and doing homage. To the Pope he turned +for support against the infidel, but his only response was that Michael +should first adopt the true faith--he being, of course, a member of the +schismatic Greek Church; and just before entering Moldavia with his army +he had the effrontery, in order to throw Mogila off his guard, to +propose a marriage between his daughter and Mogila's son. Finally, in +order to secure the obedience of his subjects in Siebenbuergen during his +absence in Moldavia, he sent a large number of Transylvanian nobles to +his son in Wallachia, to be detained there as hostages until he had +accomplished his ends. + +The King of Poland, who was in alliance with Moldavia, was aware of +Michael's schemes, and appealed to the emperor to check them; but +Michael, little heeding, collected a heterogeneous army, and in May, +A.D. 1600, he commenced his march into Moldavia, announcing it +as his intention to avenge the death of the late Voivode Stephen, who +had been murdered by Jeremiah Mogila. His passage across the Carpathians +was beset with difficulties, his army being often almost bare of +supplies; but, once in Moldavia, all yielded before his arms. Jeremiah +was at a wedding in fancied security, and had barely time to collect a +small army when Michael was upon him. A battle was fought near the +capital Suczava, which decided the fate of the principality. A great +part of Jeremiah's army deserted to Michael, who defeated his enemy +without difficulty, and obtained possession of Suczava. After remaining +for a short time in Moldavia, Jeremiah escaped to Poland, and succeeded +in raising the Poles in his support. These, however, were so terrified +at the successes of Michael's arms that they contented themselves with +sending an army to the frontier, and there standing on the defensive. +Michael won over the Moldavians by exempting them from taxation, and, +having placed the government in the hands of a military commission, he +turned his face towards Transylvania, and re-entered Weissenburg in +triumph, within two months of the day on which he had departed on his +mission of conquest. + + +VI. + +The authority of Michael was readily recognised by the Transylvanian +States General, and with great misgiving by the Emperor Rudolph. He was +now at the pinnacle of his fame, styling himself, modestly enough, +Viceroy, but acting with the authority of a despotic ruler. Gold and +silver medals were struck in his honour, some of which are extant; +emissaries waited upon him from the German and other courts, and were +received in royal state. + +From his effigy upon these medals, and from a portrait of him which was +painted subsequently, he appears to have been a man of striking presence +and somewhat stern aspect. His face was characterised by an aquiline +nose, a beard and moustache, and it is said to have been full of +expression. + +Would that we could leave him at this triumphant stage of his career; +but that is impossible, for rapid and remarkable as was his ascent, his +fall and ruin were still more precipitate. Scarcely was he installed in +his threefold authority when his troubles commenced. He had never been +heartily accepted by his nobles, many of whom were ambitious and +self-seeking, and considered him in the light of a usurper. The nation +itself was composed of antagonistic races, Szeklers, Saxons, Hungarians, +&c., and where he pleased one race he displeased the other. The Poles, +too, were only watching their opportunity to disturb his government in +Moldavia. A rising at home, which Michael endeavoured to quell by the +execution of some of the leaders, soon became very formidable, and the +nobles assembled a considerable army of retainers and encamped at +Thorda. Michael endeavoured by various stratagems to get them into his +power, but failed to do so. General Basta, who was eager to be revenged +upon him for having kept him out of the viceroyalty of Siebenbuergen, +joined the Transylvanian army; and Michael, finding all his efforts at +pacification unavailing, at length encountered General Basta and the +nobles at Miriszlo, a village which the reader will still find marked on +the railway, between Karlsburg and Klausenburg. The position of Michael +was a very strong one, and, had he awaited the attack of his enemies, +the probability is that he would again have been victorious. But in +Basta he had a wily adversary. Finding it impossible to attack Michael +where he was encamped, he feigned a retreat, whereupon Michael, asking +contemptuously of his generals 'whither the Italian hound was fleeing,' +allowed his army to follow in disorderly pursuit. They were, however, +soon checked, and Michael was then obliged to give battle under far less +favourable conditions. His army was more numerous than that of his +enemy; but not only was the latter composed of seasoned troops, but it +was far better officered. The encounter was a fierce one, and it was +decided against Michael by a clever manoeuvre of Basta. One of his +generals noticed that Michael's artillery, which was so posted as to +harass the army of the allies, might be seized by a flank movement. He +sent three hundred musketeers, who succeeded in capturing the guns and +turning them upon Michael's forces. All was soon lost, and after vain +attempts to rally his men he at length yielded to the solicitations of +his officers and prepared to fly. His conduct on this occasion is +characteristic of the man. 'So he ordered the national flag to be +brought, which was made of white silk, and bore a device consisting of a +raven with a red cross in its beak upon a green field. This was torn +from the staff, and Michael hid it in his bosom. The officers followed +his example with the remaining ensigns. Then he gave spurs to his +horse, and with loosened rein, accompanied by his officers and some +Polish and other cavalry, took to flight. Had he waited a few minutes +longer, he would surely have been made prisoner.'[143] With the enemy at +his heels Michael reached the banks of the Naros river, and instead of +allowing himself to be ferried across he sprang into the waves on +horseback, and his faithful horse, which was of Turkish breed, landed +him safely on the other side. Here, filled with gratitude and affection +for the animal, and knowing that it was unable to carry him further, he +patted it on the neck, stroked its mane, kissed it, and let it run free +into the fields. To follow Michael's adventures after this terrible +defeat would be impossible. At first he took refuge in the Carpathians, +in the Fogaras mountains as they are called; he then returned, and, +joined by his son, succeeded for a short time in maintaining a foothold +in Transylvania. But threatened by Rudolph and by the Poles, he was glad +to escape into Wallachia. + +Here he was again followed by the Poles, and, to complete his +perplexities, the Turks commenced making raids into his country. Once +more he was defeated by the former on the Telega river, near Ploiesti. A +brother of Jeremiah Mogila having been put upon the throne of Wallachia, +Michael found it necessary to take refuge in the Banate of Craiova, his +first seat of government. Then it was that he appealed for protection to +the German emperor, expressing his desire to present himself before him +to plead his own cause. Rudolph granted him a safe-conduct for himself +and a moderate following through Siebenbuergen, and Michael proceeded to +the German Court. Notwithstanding the safe-conduct, however, his journey +was fraught with peril. He was fired upon from castles, was followed by +hostile bands, and was at last only allowed to cross the river Theiss at +Tokay with a hundred men. He reached Vienna in safety on January 12, +1601, and was there prevented from proceeding to Prague, where the +Emperor was, by orders from the imperial court. + +Shortly after this, however, the Transylvanian nobles, as faithless to +Rudolph, to whom they had sworn fealty, as they had been to Michael, +recalled Sigismund Bathori, and, without the sanction of the Emperor, +placed him on the throne of Siebenbuergen. Then it was that Rudolph found +it convenient to allow Michael to approach his person. The latter, on +his arrival, presented a petition embodying his defence which might have +been drawn by a special pleader, and which was accepted by the Emperor +as a justification of his proceedings. A complete reconciliation took +place between them, and Michael was formally re-appointed vicegerent of +Transylvania. A sufficiently well-appointed army and a large sum of +money were placed at his disposal, and he was requested to join with his +old enemy, General Basta, in dethroning Sigismund. An apparent +reconciliation took place between the two chiefs, Michael and Basta, and +they marched as allies into Siebenbuergen. Sigismund, finding that his +case with the Emperor was hopeless, and after, it is said, vainly +endeavouring by foul means to prevent the junction of Michael and Basta, +sought and obtained the aid of the Turks and Moldavians. That is to say, +the former would have sent him a contingent of troops had not Michael, +by means of forged letters, purporting to be signed by Sigismund, kept +them at a distance. The opposing forces met at Goroszlo near +Klausenburg, and after a hotly contested battle the Transylvanians were +defeated with terrible slaughter. Hardly, however, was the victory won +when jealousies and recriminations between the two generals followed. + +Michael considered himself, as viceroy of Siebenbuergen, called upon to +manage the affairs of the country. Basta, smarting under the +disappointment of having failed to secure the viceroyalty, continued to +assume the position of commander-in-chief of the forces, and not only +interfered with the orders and wishes of Michael, but charged him with +various offences, the chief one being that he was again usurping the +supreme power. Believing that he would be safe in using this charge as a +justification for his acts, and that his removal would pave the way for +his own accession to the viceroyalty, Basta then determined to have +Michael assassinated. Knowing that it was his intention to proceed to +the Carpathians and liberate his family which had been kept there in +confinement, Basta sent a captain with three hundred Walloons to effect +his purpose. This man applied at Michael's tent for permission to +accompany him on his journey, and asked him to obtain the necessary +permission from Basta. Michael assented, whereupon the officer entered +the tent hastily, and, approaching the prince who was reposing, +addressed him as his prisoner. Michael exclaimed that he would not yield +himself alive, but before he could obtain possession of his sword to +defend himself, the officer had ran him through the body with his +halberd.[144] This foul deed was perpetrated between August 17 and +September 1, 1601, and it is said that the assassins struck off his head +and sword-hand with Michael's own sword. Afterwards they tortured and +assassinated his minister, a veteran of eighty years of age, and spread +such terror amongst the troops who had remained faithful to their +murdered prince, that his boyards and their followers took to flight and +sought refuge in Wallachia. + +Thus fell Michael the Brave, rash, courageous, false, ambitious, +patriotic, the central figure in the past history of Roumania. Basta +sought to justify his act of treachery in a letter to the Emperor; but +whilst on the one hand the German court dared not quarrel with him in +the then condition of Transylvania, on the other hand they refused to +reward him for a deed of blood which has sent down his name with +execration to posterity. + +[Footnote 143: Teutschlaender, p. 201.] + +[Footnote 144: According to Vaillant and others there were two officers +each with 300 men, and Michael ran his sword through one of the +officers, but before he could withdraw it the other, called Bory, struck +him down with his halberd.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +FROM THE DEATH OF MICHAEL THE BRAVE (A.D. 1601) TO THE DEPOSITION OF +PRINCE COUZA (A.D. 1866). + + Turkish exactions after Michael's fall--Transition from native to + Greek Voivodes--Matthew Bassarab (Wallachia) and Basilius Lupus + (Moldavia)--Their severe criminal codes--Serban II. + (Cantacuzene)--His good deeds--Betrays the Turks before + Vienna--Growing power of Russia--Treaty of Carlowitz--Brancovano + (Wallachia) and Cantemir (Moldavia) negotiate with Peter the + Great--First Russian invasion of the Principalities--Repelled by + the Turks--Flight of Cantemir--(Note: Anecdote of Russian + cupidity)--Arrest and execution of Brancovano and his family--His + great treasures--The Phanariotes--Their origin and rise--Massacred + in Wallachia--Second appearance--Extortions and + expulsion--Panaiotaki, Dragoman of the Porte--The + Mavrocordatos--Nicholas, first Phanariote Hospodar--Suppresses the + boyards' retainers--Constantine modifies slavery--Mode of + appointing hospodars--The Caimakam--Homage and servility of + boyards--Conduct of Phanariote rulers at home--Court + customs--Reputed effeminacy--Rapacity and exactions--Extortions of + officials--Extravagance of princesses--Treatment of + peasantry--Princes encourage brigandage--Usually deposed and + executed--Corruption of clergy--Other baneful effects of Phanariote + rule--(Note: Divorces in Roumania to-day)--Another view of + Phanariote princes--Their good works--Ypsilanti, Gregory + Ghika--Nicholas Mavrojeni and his cowardly boyards--Ennobles his + horses--Russo-Turkish wars--Treaty of Belgrade--Russian successes + and Austrian interference--Treaty of Kainardji--Russian + protectorate--Cession of Bucovine to Austria--Treaty of + Jassy--Amelioration of state of the Principalities, 1802--French + and English consuls appointed--Russo-Turkish war and + occupation--Treaty of Bucarest--Hetairia or Greek rising--Rebellion + in the Principalities--Career and fate of the patriots Vladimiresco + and Ypsilanti--End of Phanariote rule--Russian intervention and + occupation--Treaty of Adrianople and restoration of native + rulers--Patriotic efforts of Heliade and others--Rise of Roumanian + learning and art--The year of revolutions, 1848--Partial success of + the rising in Roumania--Suppression by Russia and Turkey--Escape of + the patriots--Review of the benefits of Russian interference in the + Principalities--Renewed Russian aggression--Brief history of the + war of 1854-1856 between Russia and the Western Powers and + Turkey--Treaty of Paris--Return of the patriots--Union of the + Principalities under Prince Couza--Incidents of his reign--His + deposition--How planned and effected--The provisional + government--Evil influence of Couza's conduct. + + +I. + +The history of Moldo-Wallachia during the seventeenth century--that is +to say, from the fall of Michael to the dispossession of the native +voivodes at the beginning of the eighteenth century--possesses little +interest for English readers. Some of the more important incidents will +be referred to in connection with the subsequent _regime_ of the Greek, +or, as they are called, the Phanariote rulers appointed by the Porte, +and it will only be necessary to make a few brief comments upon the +condition of the country, and the character of two or three of the +Voivodes who reigned during the century. + +It may well be imagined that the humiliating defeats inflicted by +Michael upon the Turkish armies would not tend to mollify the severity +of their subsequent rule, and that the chief aim of the Porte would be +to extort as large a revenue as possible from the conquered provinces, +without regard to the sufferings of any class, This was effected by +taking advantage of the jealousies and intrigues of the boyards who +aspired to the rulership to obtain an increase of the tribute, and +bribes; and a reference to the records of the time shows that whilst in +Wallachia the rule of only three voivodes, and in Moldavia that of two +only, exceeded five years, there were often two new princes appointed in +the same year.[145] A noteworthy circumstance in connection with these +voivodes is their gradual transition from native to Greek families. Here +and there we have an Italian appellative, such as Quatiani or Rosetti, +but in the main there is a change from the Bassarabs, the Bogdans, and +the Radus, to the Ghikas, Cantacuzenes, Brancovanos, and eventually to +the Mavrocordatos.[146] The explanation of this change will be given +presently, but amongst the native rulers we may select two or three for +brief comment. Between 1627 or 1633 and 1654 Matthew Baasarab ruled over +Wallachia to the advantage of the nation. He drove out the Tartars who +had overrun the country, and afterwards devoted himself to the welfare +of his subjects. Bucarest was not yet the acknowledged capital, but he +established a printing-press there, and also reformed the administration +of justice. At the same time Basilius (known as Basil the Wolf), Prince +of Moldavia, between whom and Matthew there had been great jealousy, +followed his example in his own country, and a criminal code was +introduced into both principalities, which, amongst its other +provisions, legalised slavery in some of its most iniquitous forms. A +few extracts from this code may be of interest, as showing the condition +of the people at that time. + + Anyone guilty of arson was burned alive. + + Anyone harbouring a fugitive serf was liable to a fine of twelve + silver lions into court and twenty-four to the seigneur.[147] + + If the gipsy of a boyard or his children stole some such trifle as + a chicken or an egg twice or three times, he was to be pardoned, + but if he stole anything more considerable he should be punished as + a thief. If he committed a theft to ward off starvation, he was + pardoned, and also if he stole from the enemy. + + A treasure discovered by means of sorcery became the property of + the prince. + + Besides the very severe punishments directed against other forms of + murder, poisoning, which must therefore have been frequent, has two + clauses provided for it. One is that, in addition to the punishment + of a murderer, his children shall be declared infamous. + + If a man gave another a box on the ear, and was stabbed in return, + no punishment was inflicted, even if death ensued; and the whole + code of honour is of a like savage nature. + + Doctors are to be believed in matters of hygiene before barbers or + sorcerers. + + Bigamy was punished by the culprit being whipped through the town, + riding naked on a donkey. + + If a person to whom the training of young girls was confided + corrupted and betrayed them to licentious men, hot lead was to be + poured down his (or her) throat until it reached his heart (_sic_), + 'for it was from thence that the seductive counsels had proceeded.' + + A slave or paid serf who committed rape was not put to death as + were others, but he was burned alive. + + Torture was evidently quite common, for judges are forbidden to + torture innocent persons even by order of the prince. + + Nobility clearly gave immunity to crime--at least it mitigated the + punishment; for 'neither nobles nor boyards nor their sons could be + condemned to the galleys nor to the mines, but they might be + banished for a longer or shorter period; they might not be hung, + nor impaled, nor dragged through the streets like ordinary + malefactors, but they should be decapitated.' + +A wise and good Prince of Wallachia was Serban II. (Cantacuzene), +1679-1688, who built and improved churches and monasteries, and erected +factories and workshops for the people. He also encouraged education and +literature, founded the first Roumanian seminary, translated the Bible +into Roumanian, and, so far as it was possible in the unfortunate +condition of the country, he diminished the taxes of the poor.[148] He +was compelled to join the Turks in their wars against Germany, but, +summoning courage at a critical moment, he turned his arms against--or +perhaps it would be more honest to say he betrayed--those of whom he was +the unwilling ally. This happened during the siege of Vienna in 1683, +where Serban was at the head of a contingent of four thousand +Wallachians in the army of Cara Mustapha, and the duty was entrusted to +him of constructing bridges and works. He took advantage of his position +to communicate with the Germans, facilitated the destruction of the +works which he himself had raised, and it is said that he loaded his +guns with straw. He is said also to have erected a high cross opposite +his tent, on which an inscription was graven capable of bearing a double +interpretation, and which gave courage to the besieged. After the defeat +of the Turks before Vienna through its relief by Sobieski, King of +Poland, Serban fostered the idea of asserting his independence of +Turkish rule; but before he was able to carry his plans into execution, +he died (1688), it is said, poisoned by his brother and nephew.[149] + +[Footnote 145: Vaillant (chronological table, vol. ii. p. 444) gives +nineteen distinct princes, some of whom reigned twice in Wallachia, and +twenty-eight, of whom one reigned three times in Moldavia, between 1601 +and 1714. His dates and names must not, however, be regarded as +authoritative.] + +[Footnote 146: The reader who is interested in this subject will find a +concise history of the following families in Carra, namely, Cantemir +(said by some to be of Tartar origin), Ghika, Petreczeicus, Duca, +Cantacuzene, Brancovano, Mavrocordato.] + +[Footnote 147: A lion, crown, or ecu, of gold was worth about 4_s._ +8_d._, of silver 2_s._ 8_d._] + +[Footnote 148: An interesting reference to his good deeds will be found +in the description of the cathedral of Curtea d'Ardges in the first part +of this work.] + +[Footnote 149: The carelessness of the Roumanian chroniclers is simply +intolerable. Vaillant, vol. ii. p. 88, says that Serban was poisoned on +October 19, 1688; at p. 91 he says Constantine Preda, his successor, +began to reign 1687; and in his chronology, p. 445, he says 1688. Such +discrepancies constantly recur. Wilkinson makes the successor of Serban, +Constantine Brancovano, the Voivode who secretly aided the Germans at +Vienna, and places the event after 1695. He says the Voivode was +probably bribed by the German Emperor to remain neutral. The siege of +Vienna was in 1693.] + + +II. + +But another great Power was drawing nearer and nearer to Roumania, which +was eventually to exercise a grave influence upon her destiny. Already +the Muscovites had taken part with the Christian Powers in their +struggles with the Ottoman Empire, and in 1699 the Treaty of Karlowitz +was concluded, which gave Transylvania to Austria and Azov to the +Russian Empire. The position of the Principalities as vassal states of +Turkey remained unaffected, but the indirect influence of the growing +power of Russia soon became manifest. In the beginning of the eighteenth +century there ruled two voivodes, Constantine Brancovano in +Wallachia,[150] and Demetrius Cantemir in Moldavia, both of whom had +been appointed in the usual manner under the suzerainty of the Porte; +but these princes, independently of each other, had entered into +negotiations with Peter the Great after the defeat of Charles XII. at +Pultawa (1709) to assist them against the Sultan, their suzerain, +stipulating for their own independence under the protection of the Czar. +Encouraged by these advances Peter approached the Pruth with his army; +but the Moldavian boyards were generally opposed to the alliance, and +Cantemir found himself supported only by three or four of his ministers. +Notwithstanding this, the Russian army crossed the Pruth, and pitched +their camp near Jassy. A general massacre of the Turks throughout +Moldavia followed, but no advantage accrued to the Russian arms, as the +Moldavian prince was unable to furnish the Czar with the promised +supplies for his army. It is even said that one of the boyards, who +enjoyed the confidence of Cantemir, appropriated certain funds which he +had received for the supply of the army to his own use, and placed +himself in communication with the Grand Vizier. The Porte, aided by its +allies, raised a powerful army, which crossed the Danube; and although +one of Peter's generals is said to have obtained some temporary +advantage, the Czar soon found himself so hard pressed by the superior +forces of the Ottomans that he was glad to conclude a treaty with the +Porte and make the best of his way home, harassed on his return by +fierce Tartar hordes. + +At Stephanesti the Czar was met by Cantemir, who sought and obtained his +protection, and returned with him into Russia, where it is said that his +representations inflamed the desire of Peter to possess the +Principalities, if not Constantinople, and led to those subsequent wars +of which Roumania afterwards became the seat and the victim.[151] + +Brancovano, Prince of Wallachia, who had not taken any active part in +the war, met with the fate which his neighbour had escaped. His secret +correspondence and alliance with Peter the Great were betrayed to the +Porte by a member of his own family, and after the conclusion of peace +steps were taken to depose him. With this view the Kapidgi Mustapha was +sent with a small escort to arrest and bring him to Constantinople with +his whole family. The story of his deposition is narrated with great +dramatic effect: how the Kapidgi with twelve janissaries entered the +throne-room where Brancovano awaited him unconscious of his impending +fate; and how the former, refusing to take a seat by his side, drew a +long crape shawl from his breast and, throwing it over the shoulders of +the prince, pronounced the terrible word 'deposed.' He then called the +boyards together, read the decree of the Sultan, and threatened them +with an invasion if they resisted. The cowardly boyards allowed their +prince and his family to be carried off to Constantinople without an +effort to save them. On his arrival at Constantinople, Brancovano was +declared a traitor, and, having refused to embrace Islamism, he and four +of his sons and his son-in-law were decapitated (A.D. 1714) in +the Sultan's presence. Satiated with their blood, it is said that the +Sultan Achmet III. spared the last member of his family, a young +grandchild, and that this one, with the widow, were permitted to retire +into Wallachia.[152] + +One of the temptations to put an end to the life as well as the reign of +Constantine Brancovano was undoubtedly his great wealth. Along with his +person his papers were seized, and his property was confiscated, an +inventory having been made of the latter, in which the following are +said to have been included:--A service of gold plate; the ancient crown +of the voivodes, valued at 37,000_l._; a gold belt and a rich collar set +with jewels; the effigy of the hospodar in gold pieces of ten ducats; +harnesses embroidered with gold and precious stones; a vast sum of money +in coinages of different countries; and deposit-receipts for sums lodged +in his name in Vienna, Venice, &c. Also landed property in various +places, making an estimated total of three and a half millions sterling. +The immense value of his treasures, and the sums of money which he +possessed in various coinages and countries, led to the charge against +him of having betrayed the interests of the Porte for bribes, received +from Austria, Poland, and Venice, and, what was more unfortunate for +him, to the suspicion that still larger treasures were secreted. +Previous to his execution he and his eldest son are said to have been +tortured for five days, to compel them to make discovery of further +possessions, but without result. After the deposition of Brancovano, +Stephen Cantacuzene, the son of one of his accusers, was made Voivode of +Wallachia, but like his predecessors he only enjoyed the honour for a +brief term, and two years afterwards he was deposed, ordered to +Constantinople, imprisoned, and decapitated; and with him terminated the +rule of the native princes, who were followed, both in Wallachia and +Moldavia, by the so-called Phanariote governors or farmers-general of +the Porte. + +[Footnote 150: Brancovano is also called Constantine Bassarab and +Constantine Preda.] + +[Footnote 151: The following story is related of the conduct of the +Russians whilst they were encamped before Jassy, during the early part +of the campaign. It appears that Peter and his generals were invited to +a banquet by the Prince, and, having drunk freely, hosts and guests lay +scattered promiscuously about the floor. The Russians were the first to +recover consciousness, and when their eyes fell upon the gold-laced +boots of the boyards, the desire to possess them was so irresistible +that they took advantage of the helpless condition of their hosts to +perpetrate a common theft. Drawing them from their feet, they made off +with the boots to their tents, leaving their own weather-worn chaussure +in exchange.] + +[Footnote 152: Wilkinson (p. 40) says that in his day a descendant of +the grandson of Brancovano was living in Wallachia in great state, and +was considered one of the wealthiest boyards; and there is still a +family assuming the title of Prince Bassaraba de Brancovan. See _Gotha +Almanack_, 1881, p. 225.] + + +III. + +But who and what were the Phanariotes? the reader may enquire; and in +order fully to answer the question we must revert to the beginning of +the seventeenth century, and hastily review a series of events which, +during that century, laid the foundation of their subsequent rule. About +the commencement of the century many Greeks, coming chiefly from the +islands of the Archipelago and from Asia Minor, sought refuge in +Constantinople, where in the course of time they founded a colony in a +parish or district known as the 'Phanar:' hence their name of +Phanariotes. Being more learned, or at least better instructed, than the +people amongst whom they resided, and moreover well acquainted with +trade, they assumed similar functions to those performed by the Jews of +the west of Europe, and like the latter they at once became the objects +of cordial dislike, and indispensable factors in society. Not content +with settling in Constantinople, they spread themselves into the Turkish +pashaliks and dependencies, amongst others into the Danubian +Principalities, where, too, owing to their extortionate practices, they +became thoroughly detested; and it is said that Michael the Brave issued +an edict excluding them from all public offices of trust. About the year +1617 they had so greatly increased in numbers, and excited such hatred, +that the native population could no longer be restrained; a second +edition of the Sicilian Vespers was enacted, and they were massacred, +men, women, and children, a deed for which their successors took ample +vengeance. For a time we hear nothing more about them, but about half a +century afterwards (1665) they returned in great numbers in the suite of +two Voivodes, who had purchased the thrones of the Principalities, and +once more sought to establish themselves. Two of these seem to have +played the part for the reigning prince that Empson and Dudley filled +for our Henry VII., namely, that of extortioners, but with far greater +tyranny and cruelty. They were at length cut in pieces by the populace, +and the Greeks were once more expelled from the country. Meanwhile, +however, they had grown in favour in Constantinople, where, through +their learning and intelligence, they began to fill confidential offices +under the Porte. To their ordinary avocations some added the practice of +medicine, in which they were adepts; and one of them, Panaiotaki +Nicosias, a medical attendant of the Grand Vizier, managed to ingratiate +himself with his patron, and then, having exerted his influence in +favour of his fellow-countrymen, he succeeded in obtaining minor offices +for some, and toleration for all. He was appointed Dragoman or +interpreter to the Porte, and, proving an able and faithful servant, he +was permitted to nominate as his successor Alexander Mavrocordato, who +is said by some to have been a common labourer and to have married a +butcher's daughter, whilst others call him a silk-dealer of +Constantinople or of Chio. Be that as it may, he made himself so useful +to his employers, especially during the negotiation of the Treaty of +Carlowitz, that after the execution of Brancovano he managed to secure +the succession to the throne of Wallachia (1716) for his son Nicholas +Mavrocordato, and became the ancestor of a long line of rulers in both +principalities.[153] + +[Footnote 153: Although Nicholas Mavrocordato is chiefly referred to as +the first Phanariote Prince of Wallachia, in 1716, a comparison of the +authorities (Engel, Wilkinson, Neigebaur, &c.) shows that he had already +ruled in Moldavia since 1712. Vaillant is, as usual, vague, and supplies +the place of precise facts by abundant rhetoric.] + + +IV. + +The selection of Greek princes, or, as they are often called, +'farmers-general,' by the Porte, was probably the result of the distrust +which the native voivodes and boyards had engendered, as much as the +respect entertained for its faithful dragomans; and if Nicholas +Mavrocordato did not receive explicit instructions on the subject, he +knew that the most welcome change he could make in the interests of his +patrons would be to introduce an entirely new _regime_ into his +dominions. The most important step taken by him was to suppress the +guards of the native boyards, which made them as dangerous to the ruler +as the retainers of our barons had been to the Crown until they were +suppressed by the Act of Henry VII.[154] He established new tribunals +and disbanded the militia. His successor, Constantine (about 1731), was +superior in his views and aspirations to almost any of the princes who +had ruled over Wallachia. He abolished the old form of slavery, but +unfortunately political considerations still caused the retention of the +peasantry in servitude; for, in order to weaken the native boyards, a +large number of serfs, it is said 60,000 in all, were transferred as +labourers from their old masters to the Crown, and to the newly created +Greek boyards. Whilst their bodies were nominally freed, these poor +creatures were required to render such an amount of feudal service to +their new masters, that their wretched condition was rather aggravated +than improved. The Greek or Phanariote boyards who were created, found +it politic to intermarry with the native boyard families in order to +improve their position in the land of their adoption, and the servile +Wallachian nobles deemed it to their interest to encourage such +alliances; indeed it was necessary to save themselves from extinction. +New officers of State were appointed in the supposed interests of the +Porte, but, as we shall see presently, the ruling prince, or, as the +reader will find him called, voivode or hospodar,[155] managed to turn +these changes to account and make them serve for his own aggrandisement. + +The new hospodar was always appointed by the Porte with great ceremony. +'The kukka or military crest,' says Wilkinson, 'is put on their heads by +the Muzhur Aga; the robe of honour is put on them by the Vizir himself. +They are honoured with standards and military music, and take the oath +of allegiance in the presence of the Sultan, to whom they are introduced +with the ceremonies usual at a public audience.'[156] They were +appointed by 'Beratt,' an imperial diploma, of which Wilkinson gives a +formula, and wherein the Sultan commands the Wallachian and Moldavian +peoples to acknowledge and obey the bearers of it, as the sole +depositaries of the sovereign authority. As soon as the prince was +appointed, he at once sent an _avant-courrier_, a Kaimakam, to make +preparations for his arrival; and this one, who was practically the +chief of the State for a period of two months, generally managed, whilst +he was carrying out his mission, to do a little profitable business on +his own account. The prince followed in great state, accompanied by a +number of dependants and hangers-on who had succeeded, by means of +presents or otherwise, in ingratiating themselves in his favour. The +bribes, flatteries, and meanness of which these sycophants were guilty, +either before the departure of the prince from Constantinople or after +his arrival in Bucarest (which had been the capital of Wallachia since +the close of the seventeenth century) or Jassy, have been described in +vivid colours by modern historians, some of whom have drawn pretty +freely upon their imagination for the purpose. It is a fact, however, +that the boyards sent presents to the prince before his departure, and +even lodged sums of money in Constantinople for the purpose--money which +had been wrung from the unfortunate peasantry. The new hospodar, who had +paid pretty dearly for his post, submitted to all this homage, accepted +everything, and then acted as it seemed most politic, often punishing +and exiling those who had stooped the lowest or bribed the highest. +Arrived at the principality he generally made a complete change in the +_personnel_ of the court and government, giving the most lucrative +offices to his own relatives, honorary appointments to some, and +pecuniary ones to a few of his best supporters. To Mahommedans he took +care to assign posts of little or no influence, so that it might not be +in their power to expedite his downfall, which took place, at farthest, +at the end of three years, and was usually effected by intrigues at +Constantinople.[157] His dispositions thus gave him almost absolute +power, which he took care to use in such a manner as to enrich himself +and his family during the brief term of his dearly-bought hospodarship. + +After their arrival at the capital, the princes delivered an address to +the assembled boyards, promising happiness and prosperity to the people; +but as soon as the first ceremonies were concluded, the greater number +gave themselves up to self-indulgence, exacted servile attentions from +all about them, and practised every kind of unlawful extortion upon all +those who were able to furnish supplies to the treasury. + +'It was the custom that the prince never asked for anything at table. +All is prepared for him; even his bread is cut into small pieces. He +refuses food which does not please him. Wine is served to him in carafes +of crystal. The cup-bearer (Paharnik), who is always a near relative, +stands up before him holding a glass half filled.'[158] When he has +finished his dinner, coffee is handed to him, and when, subsequently, he +withdraws to sleep, silence is enforced, not only in the palace, but +throughout the city, so that his rest (which he does not, however, +always take) shall not be disturbed. At a fixed hour, when he is +supposed to have risen, the bells of the city are tolled, and all is +again activity. All kinds of stories, more or less authentic, are +narrated concerning the effeminacy of the Phanariote rulers, such as +that they were lifted about by attendants, who supported them under the +armpits, so that there might be no need for them to place their feet on +the ground; but although such statements may be correct in regard to +some of them, there were undoubtedly princes with whose character and +actions such practices were quite inconsistent. + +[Footnote 154: 3 Henry VII. cap. 1, and 21 Henry VIII. cap. 20.] + +[Footnote 155: Voda, or Domnu (Dominus), was the Roumanian designation +for the prince, and Hospodar was a title of Slavonic or Russian origin +(Russian, Gospodin = Lord).] + +[Footnote 156: P. 46.] + +[Footnote 157: The most authentic work on the Phanariotes is that of +Marc. Philippe Zallony (Marseilles, Ant. Ricard, April 1824). That +author calls himself 'the medical attendant, of several Fanariote +hospodars,' and his account of the princes and their rule is +sufficiently humiliating without the exaggerations and embellishments of +one or two subsequent French writers. Wilkinson, whose work we have +quoted, and who was 'British Consul Resident,' in 1820, at 'Bukorest,' +as it was then called (he says, after one Bukor who owned the village +four hundred years previously), gives a good deal of information on the +same subject.] + +[Footnote 158: Zallony.] + + +V. + +It may, however, be readily believed, that various devices were resorted +to by the princes to enrich themselves as speedily as possible. Their +regular income was augmented by the granting of monopolies, the +depreciation of the currency, and frauds in collecting the revenue and +in providing supplies for the Porte. A poll or capitation tax was levied +upon the nomadic and stationary gipsies, and money was even exacted +under all kinds of pretences from the heads of the religious orders. The +annual income of the princes is said to have exceeded 40,000_l._ in +addition to the tribute payable to the Porte.[159] Nor must it be +supposed that this was the whole amount that was extorted from the +unfortunate inhabitants. It was 'like master like man,' and every +official and underling followed the prince's example, each being aware +that a change of rulers meant dismissal for himself. The princess, too, +had special sources of income, which were usually squandered in rivalry +with the boyardesses, in jewellery, dress, and other luxuries.[160] It +is said that one of the princesses, being offended with a lady of rank +for excelling her in the ostentatious richness of her dress and personal +adornments, caused her to be exiled; and that when she had secured a +sufficiently large sum to purchase a more magnificent apparel than her +rival, she allowed her to return to court, in order that she might enjoy +her humiliation. The complaints of the oppressed peasantry were at best +unheeded, and when these were driven to desperation and ventured to +appeal in person to the prince, a number of them were seized and cast +into prison, 'pour encourager les autres.' The result was that many +turned brigands, and united to form bands; but even these, it is said, +ministered to the rapacity of some of the Phanariote rulers. The prince +secretly encouraged or winked at their misdeeds, until he thought they +had amassed a considerable treasure by free-booting. Then, making a raid +upon them with a strong military force, he deprived them of their +plunder and decapitated or imprisoned them. The greater number were sent +to work in the salt-mines, where (as already stated elsewhere) they +usually died after the expiration of about four years. + +This system of extortion and tyranny usually continued until the Porte +could no longer refuse to listen to the call for redress, and in such +cases intriguers for the succession were only too ready to take up the +cry, and even to exaggerate the crimes of the reigning prince. The +result was that one by one they were deposed, and often recalled to +Constantinople, only to be disgraced, exiled, or executed. According to +the historical records, there were eleven distinct hospodars in each +principality between 1716 and 1768; in Wallachia the government was +changed twenty-one, and in Moldavia seventeen times. In one year (1731) +Constantine Mavrocordato ruled twice, and Michael Racovica once; the +former is noted as having reigned six times; the latter was re-elected +in 1741, and was eventually exiled to Mitylene. Charles Ghika (1758) was +exiled to Cyprus; Stephen Racovica (1765) was strangled by order of the +Porte; and so on. + +But although the rulers were changed so frequently, the system not only +continued, but became more and more demoralising to the whole nation. +For a time the clergy were content to bleed without drawing blood in +their turn, but at length they, too, began to extort money from rich and +poor alike, in order to meet the demands upon them, and prostituted the +sacred offices of religion to gain their ends. Another terrible result +of the Phanariote rule was the seizure by the officials of the Porte of +Roumanian men and women, the former to replace those who had fallen in +the wars between the Turks and Russians; and the best blood of the +country was sacrificed in a cause in which it had no interest. The moral +degradation of the boyards also became deeper and deeper. Many turned +renegades, and adopted the Mussulman faith, partly from servility, often +to save themselves from being condemned to death. Others pursued that +course that they might not be harassed by the Turkish officials, and +others again because the oriental dress pleased them, and they desired +to indulge in the practice of polygamy. Fathers educated their sons in +every kind of deceit and hypocrisy to minister to their advancement in +life, teaching them how to approach the dominant seigneurs and +ingratiate themselves in their favour, whilst, in the eyes of the common +people, the boyards had sunk so low that they had earned for themselves +the name of 'sleeping dogs.' The women were even worse than the men. The +height of their ambition was to form advantageous alliances without +reference to their happiness in after life; the marriage tie was treated +with the utmost indifference, and the clergy were often compelled, much +against their will, to grant divorces in order to retain their offices +and influence.[161] + +So much for the dark side of the Phanariote rule; and it is much to be +regretted that all modern historians have contented themselves with +looking at its unfavourable aspect, and have sought to shift all the +sins and errors of the period upon the shoulders of the Greek princes. +It is not our intention to follow their example, for we believe that the +government of the Greek hospodars was by no means an unmixed evil. The +modern descendants of those men still occupy honourable positions in +Roumania, but these have little to say in their defence; indeed we have +heard Greeks express the opinion that it would be more creditable to +them if they were to lay bare the exaggerations of evil, and bring into +prominence the better traits in the character of their ancestry.[162] +That they were not all tyrants and extortioners is certain, although +many, especially the earlier ones, were only too faithful servants of +the Porte who may have played their part _con amore_ in remembrance of +the massacre of their ancestors, and in conformity with the customs of +the period. But amongst them were brave, religious, charitable, and +learned men, who contributed to raise the Roumanians from a condition of +barbarism to one of comparative civilisation. Of this we have evidence +in the law reforms, imperfect as they were, introduced by Constantine +Mavrocordato; in the buildings and charitable foundations of Ypsilanti +and Gregory Ghika in both Principalities (between 1768-1778); in the +courage of the latter, who paid with his life the penalty of serving his +adopted country; and of Nicholas Mavrojeni (1786-1790), whose boyards +were too cowardly to follow him in the defence of their country against +a Russian invasion. + +The last-named is rather a notorious incident in Roumanian history, and +some writers have devoted pages to the narrative. It appears that +Nicholas had received instructions from the Porte to raise a force and +set himself in motion against the combined Russians and Austrians who +menaced Wallachia. He thereupon assembled the boyards and called upon +them to take up arms. Too cowardly, in the opinion of certain writers, +or distrusting the prince, according to others, each excused himself on +some flimsy pretext, whereupon Nicholas, indignant and furious, called +upon one of his attendants to bring forth thirty horses, which were soon +standing caparisoned in the court-yard. The prince invited his boyards +to descend, and when they were arrived below, 'Now,' he cried, 'to +horse!' They maintained a sullen silence, however, and no one moved. +Casting a look of contempt upon them, he turned round to the horses, +and, addressing one after the other, he cried, 'I make you Ban; you, +Grand Vornic; you, Grand Logothet;' and so on, until he had exhausted +all the offices of the State. Then, turning again to his cowardly +boyards, he reminded them of the deeds of their ancestors, of Mircea, +Vlad, and Michael, and denounced them as women, puppets, worse than +eunuchs. Several he ordered into exile; while others, stung with shame +by his taunts, mounted and followed him to victory. + +This is the story of how Nicholas Mavrojeni is said to have ennobled his +horses; but, if the reader wishes to hear how, after disputing every +yard of ground with the invaders, he was rewarded by the Porte with an +ignominious death, we must refer him to the pages of the historian. + +[Footnote 159: Vaillant, at vol. ii, pp. 219-220 and 224-226, gives some +interesting details of receipts and expenditure. In one place (p. 225) +he gives a list of 'presents paid by the principality of Moldavia.' The +amounts arc stated in piastres, which he says were then worth 2 fr. 50 +c. One item is 'secret presents at Constantinople 250,000 piastres,' +whereas the tribute was only 65,000! The list appears to include the +whole expenses of the prince and princess and some military and State +expenditure, the total being 1,162,267 piastres, or, according to +Vaillant, about 116,200_l._, an enormous sum in those days (1769).] + +[Footnote 160: In Vaillant's list referred to, the charge for the +dresses of the princess is put down at 22,908 piastres, or 2,290_l._, +against 36,000 piastres, or 3,600_l._, the entire expenses of the +palace. The list shows that the prince kept many Turkish soldiers, +musicians, &c., in his service, and had borrowed large sums in +Constantinople before acquiring the hospodarship, as there is an item of +68,620 piastres for interest thereon.] + +[Footnote 161: This phase in the Phanariote rule still rests as a blight +upon Roumanian society, and the causes of the laxity of the marriage tie +and of divorces are to a large extent the same as formerly. Young men of +the upper classes who have been nurtured in affluence find themselves +unable to indulge in the luxuries to which they have been accustomed +upon their limited incomes. They therefore frequently marry women who +are much older than themselves, but are possessed of large pecuniary +means. Neither cares for the other; they go their own ways, with the +usual unfortunate results. If the reader refers to the statistics of the +country, he will find that in 1880 there were 3,891 divorce causes set +down for trial, and that the number of divorces legally granted or +judged for the six years previously varied from 760 to 929 annually.] + +[Footnote 162: Zallony tells us that amongst the modern Greek families +the Mavrocordatos and Mavrojeni originally came from the Isle of Miconos +(Archipelago); Ghika is of Albanian origin; Racovica and Manolvoda, Asia +Minor; Ypsilanti and Morousy, Trebizonde; Soutzo, Bulgaria; Caragia, +Ragusa Canzerli, Constantinople, &c.] + + +VI. + +Nothing can be more dreary and wearisome than to wade through an account +of the wars between Russia and the Sublime Porte from the accession of +the Phanariote rulers down to the Crimean campaign of 1853-6, and yet, +for any but Roumanian readers, the history of the country contains +little else of interest during that period. There are two aspects of +these struggles, however, which devastated the unfortunate +Principalities almost as much as the incursions of the barbarians, that +are well worthy of our consideration. The first is the tenacity and +perseverance with which the Czars, one after the other, sought to +tighten their grasp upon the Principalities, with ultimate aims upon +Constantinople; the second, the occasional efforts which were made by a +few patriots, backed up not so much by the boyards as by the common +people, to relieve the country from foreign domination, whether +Mussulman, Russian, or Austrian--for the last-named nation also sought +to gain a foothold in the land. + +Let us briefly review the leading events of the period referred to, and +consider their bearing upon Roumania of to-day. After the unsuccessful +campaign of Peter the Great in which the voivodes, Cantemir and +Brancovano, were enlisted on the side of the Russians, the latter made +no serious attempt to interfere with the government of the +Principalities until about the year 1735, when, under the Empress Anne, +and in alliance with the German Emperor Charles VI., they endeavoured to +expel the Turks, and partially succeeded in doing so. After two +campaigns, however, the allies were ingloriously defeated at Belgrade; +and by the treaty of that name (1739 A.D.) they were not only +compelled to restore all their conquests, but even to relinquish some of +the territory of which the Porte had been deprived in the seventeenth +century. The hospodars who ruled at that time in Wallachia and Moldavia +were Constantine Mavrocordato and Gregory Ghika.[163] + +About twenty-five years later the Russians returned to the charge under +Catherine IV., and this time with better success. Their operations +extended over about six years, and the war commenced in 1768 by an act +of hostility on the part of the Sultan, provoked by a Russian +propaganda. In 1769-70 the Muscovites overran Moldavia and Wallachia; +the former, it is said by some, with the connivance of the reigning +prince, Constantine Mavrocordato III.; and, having defeated the Turks in +several pitched battles, and even penetrated into Bulgaria, they +actually ruled in the country until 1774 A.D., and introduced +many useful reforms. Then, however, owing to the interference of Maria +Theresa, Empress of Germany, who, as Queen of Hungary, herself claimed +rights of suzerainty over Wallachia, and largely also in consequence of +the passive resistance of the Porte, the Czarina agreed to the Treaty of +Kainardji, by which, under conditions favourable to the Principalities, +they were once more restored to the Porte. Amongst the conditions were a +complete amnesty; the restitution of lands and goods to their rightful +owners; freedom of worship for Christians, and liberty to build or +restore places of worship; the privilege of sending two _charges +d'affaires_ (one from each principality) to Constantinople; and the +right on the part of the Court of St. Petersburg to speak in favour of +the Principalities in cases of complaint, with the further provision +that such remonstrances should be treated with the respect due from one +friendly power to another. + +In 1777 the Porte ceded Bucovine to Austria. The signature of the ruling +Hospodar of Moldavia, Gregory Ghika, was necessary to validate the +cession, but that patriotic 'Phanariote' refused to append it, whereupon +he was deposed and cruelly murdered by the creatures of the Porte. We +have already referred to his patriotism and its results. + +In 1781-2, by an arrangement with the Porte, Catherine II. secured the +right to send consuls to Bucarest and Jassy, who were maintained and +served in great state at the cost and provision of the Principalities, +and were authorised to exercise a certain control over their public +income and expenditure for the protection of the inhabitants. This new +influence was secured by Russia through the complaints of the Roumanians +in regard to the rapacity of the Turkish rulers; through her growing +influence; and, last but not least, her threatening attitude on the +Turkish frontiers. In 1788 an alliance was again formed between Russia +and Austria, having for its object the dispossession of the Porte in the +Principalities. This was the occasion on which Nicholas Mavrojeni is +said to have ennobled his horses. He was afterwards defeated at Calafat, +and after several reverses the Porte was glad to conclude treaties of +peace, first with the Austrians and then (1792) with Russia at Jassy. By +this treaty the Russians gained territory and secured the promise from +the Porte of a more merciful government in Moldo-Wallachia, the +condition of which at that time is represented to have been desperate, +owing to the Phanariote exactions and the frequent change of hospodars. + +Consequent upon the bitter complaints of the inhabitants the Russians +again interfered in 1802, forcing the Porte to extend the duration of +the rulership to seven years and to repress other abuses. About this +time the first English Consul was appointed. Vaillant refers to him as +'Sir Francis,' and charges the English Government with having sent him +to co-operate with Russia against Turkey.[164] A French diplomatist also +appeared at Bucarest, and, whatever part these representatives may have +played in the matter, it is certain that in 1806 another Russo-Turkish +war broke out. The Russians under General Michaelson overran the +Principalities, held possession of the country until 1812, and then only +restored it after the peace of Bucarest, by which the Russians gained +the whole of Bessarabia (the river Pruth being fixed as the boundary), +with the ports of Ismail, Khilia, and other places at the embouchure of +the Danube. + +[Footnote 163: This is not the Gregory Ghika already referred to. +Members of the different families were distinguished by the affix I. II. +III. &c.] + +[Footnote 164: Who this 'Sir Francis' was, we have not been able to +ascertain.] + + +VII. + +Shortly after this time, the Hellenic regeneration, or the Hetaerie as it +was called, commenced in the south-east of Europe. This movement, which +liberated Greece from the Ottoman yoke, brought much misery but ultimate +gain to Roumania. In 1821 there reigned in Wallachia Alexander Soutzo +III., and in Moldavia Michael Soutzo III., two Phanariotes who, true to +their traditions, had pressed upon the people with their exactions until +they were ripe for a revolt. This took place in Wallachia under Theodor +(or, as he is sometimes called, Tudor) Vladimiresco, an ex-officer in +the Russian army (indeed, Russia is said to have fomented the Greek +revolt everywhere); whilst in Moldavia a Greek called Alexander +Ypsilanti joined with the reigning hospodar to drive the Turks out of +that principality. Vladimiresco soon succeeded in establishing himself +in Bucarest, where he ruled supreme for a short time, and whence he sent +representations to the Porte complaining of the conduct of the +Phanariotes, requiring their recall and the reinstatement of the native +hospodars, as well as a restitution of the rights of the people under +the old 'capitulations.' The reply to this was the entrance into +Wallachia of a considerable army under the Pasha of Silistria, whereupon +Vladimiresco withdrew towards the mountains and stationed himself at +Pitesti. Ypsilanti, meanwhile, had also approached Bucarest with his +forces, but was unable to come to an understanding with his companion in +revolt. When he heard of the withdrawal of Vladimiresco and the march of +the Turkish Pasha, he believed, or professed to believe, that the former +was about to betray him, and the scene of Basta and Michael was acted +over again. Ypsilanti sent one of his lieutenants with a strong escort +who decoyed Vladimiresco out of his tent by vain promises, carried him +off by force, and then murdered him with great barbarity. + +After the assassination of his rival, Ypsilanti, who claimed to +represent the movement for Greek regeneration, found himself face to +face with a well-organised Turkish army, whilst his own, consisting of +enthusiastic Greeks and volunteers from various countries, was inferior +in numbers and comparatively undisciplined. Holding discretion to be the +better part of valour, he retired before the enemy, who, however, +brought him to bay and offered him battle at Dragosani on the river +Oltu. Here enthusiasm and devotion to their cause inspired the 'sacred +battalion,' as the Greeks called themselves, with unwonted courage, and +at first the Turks were unable to resist their impetuous charge with +the bayonet. Ypsilanti was, however, no general, and, failing to profit +by the bravery of his troops, the advantage was lost; the Turks rallied, +a rout ensued, and Ypsilanti fled, leaving his lieutenants to resist for +a time and then to die gloriously in defence of their liberties. He +escaped across the Carpathians into Austria, was seized by order of the +Government, imprisoned in the fortress of Munkacs, and some writers say +he was afterwards executed. + + +VIII. + +Two important results for Roumania resulted from the Greek rising. The +first was the termination of the Phanariote rule and the restoration of +the native princes, Gregory Ghika being appointed Prince of Wallachia, +and John Stourdza of Moldavia. The reason of this change was that the +Greek hospodars had made common cause with the insurgents; and we cannot +do better than close this eventful period in the history of the country +than by summarising the Phanariote rule in the words of Consul +Wilkinson, who says: 'From the period at which this system was +introduced to the beginning of the present century, being a space of +ninety years, Wallachia alone has passed through the hands of forty +different princes independently of the time when it was occupied by the +Russians from 1770 to 1774, by the Austrians and Russians from 1789 to +1792, and by the Russians again from 1806 to 1812.' 'Few of them died of +natural death, and the Turkish scimetar was perhaps frequently employed +with justice amongst them. In a political point of view, the short +reigns of most of these princes offer nothing of importance or interest +to deserve a place in history.'[165] From this brief judgment of one who +lived at the time of their extinction, our readers will see that we have +not dealt uncharitably with the _regime_ of the Phanariotes. + +Another of the results of the Greek insurrection was the inevitable +Russo-Turkish war. Then followed the occupation of the country by the +Russians; what Carlyle might have called the hand-shaking of +incompatible tyrannies; and eventually the Peace of Adrianople, to which +city the Russian arms had penetrated (1829). The stipulations of that +treaty may be summed up in a few words. A large indemnity to Russia, +with continued occupation until it should be liquidated, and a Muscovite +protectorate of the Principalities; the suzerainty and an annual tribute +for the Porte, and complete autonomy with the appointment of life-long +hospodars for the Principalities. By a subsequent ukase known as the +'Reglement Organique,' the Court of St. Petersburg further expressed its +wishes in regard to the internal government of the Principalities; and +this document having been confirmed by the Porte after great +procrastination, the Russian forces were withdrawn from the +Principalities in 1834, and two princes of the houses of Stourdza and +Ghika were again appointed hospodars. + +[Footnote 165: P. 44.] + + +IX. + +We have said that two phases in the history of this period are +interesting to the historian--the gradual encroachments of Russia on the +one hand, and on the other the patriotic efforts of the nationalists to +secure independence. With the Greek rising of 1821-2, and the prospect +of complete liberty, a new spirit was awakened, which took the form +first of a national intellectual regeneration, and then of what proved +to be an unsuccessful struggle for independence. With both these +movements the name of John Heliad Radulesco (known in history as Heliade +or Eliad) is inseparably connected as _litterateur_ and patriot. His +name first appears conspicuously about the year 1826, when, in +conjunction with Constantine Golesco, a returned exile and friend of the +unfortunate Vladimiresco, and with the concurrence and support of the +reigning hospodar, Gregory Ghika, he endeavoured to revive the national +language, which had been displaced by Greek in consequence of the +long-continued Phanariote rule. He was himself a poet of no mean order, +and by his national songs he stirred the hearts of the people. But +poetry did not absorb his whole attention. An able man of science, for +that day, he himself imparted instruction in geography, logic, and +mathematics, in the colleges of which he promoted the +establishment.[166] Of these one was founded on the remains of an +ancient convent at St. Sava, the other at Craiova, and concurrently with +this effort, to promote collegiate education primary and normal schools +were also established. But the march of enlightenment did not end here; +national journals and a national theatre were included in the scheme of +the patriots. The hospodars, too, performed their share of the general +advancement. They founded hospitals, promoted agriculture, welcomed back +those who had emigrated before the scourge of war, and sought by every +means in their power to give security to the national industry. + +But the unfortunate geographical position of the Principalities, which +made them the battle-field of the two contending powers of the Orient, +still militated against the complete liberation of Roumania, and her +efforts at regeneration were watched with jealousy by both her powerful +semi-barbarous neighbours. The period soon arrived, however, when, for a +time at least, the intrigues of emperors, sultans, and courts were +unavailing, and when crowns were at a decided discount--the great +European convulsion of 1848. Then, when the French monarchy fell and the +rulers of other European States fled from their dominions into a more or +less abiding exile, the awakening of nationalities extended to +Moldo-Wallachia, and caused a patriotic rising far more hopeful and for +a time more successful than the revolt of 1821; and the Principalities +would no doubt have been permanently freed from foreign domination had +not disunion amongst the national leaders once more prevented such a +desirable issue. In the year of revolution, Nicholas I. being the Czar, +and Abdul Medjid (the 'Sick Man') Sultan, simultaneous risings took +place in the Principalities. The one in Moldavia was headed by a number +of leading boyards, who at first contented themselves with petitioning +for the restoration of their liberties. They were seized by order of the +hospodar, Michael Stourdza, and sent into confinement, but most of them +escaped and returned to reorganise the revolt. In the same year, +however, as we shall hear presently, the Russians invaded the +principality, entered Jassy, and quelled the revolution. + +In Wallachia the rising assumed more serious proportions. It was led by +Heliad and the brothers Golesco, George Maghiero, a Greek by descent, +Tell, Chapka, a priest, and by three young men, two of whom will +hereafter be spoken of in connection with the Roumania, of +to-day--Demetrius and John Bratiano and C. Rosetti. Although all these +men were united in the desire to liberate their fatherland from the +heavy burdens with which it was oppressed, they disagreed as to the best +mode of proceeding. Long experience had taught them that between the two +fires of St. Petersburg and Constantinople there was little hope of +escape, and some leaned to the former, others to the latter power, +whilst the younger men, the Bratianos and Rosetti, looked anxiously to +Western Europe and its advanced civilisation for succour. The hospodar +Bibesco soon yielded before the storm, and fled to Kronstadt in +Transylvania. A provisional government was formed, dissolved, and formed +again.[167] Great assemblages of the people took place at Bucarest; +proclamations were issued and oaths administered and taken; but the +whole thing eventually resolved itself into a 'Princely Lieutenancy,' +under the suzerainty of the Porte. This was at first recognised by the +Turkish general, Suleiman Pasha, who along with Omar Pasha had entered +Wallachia with Turkish armies; for it suited the policy of the Porte to +look favourably upon a rising which was chiefly directed against Russian +influence in the Principalities. But the Muscovite Cabinet was not +easily outwitted. Nicholas witnessed the rising with equal satisfaction, +for it justified a new intervention in the affairs of Moldo-Wallachia. +He issued a proclamation, calling the revolution the work of a turbulent +minority whose ideas of government were plagiarised from the socialistic +and democratic propaganda of Europe. This proclamation was followed by a +march of the Russians into the disturbed provinces as 'liberators.' The +nationalist leaders were glad to escape to France, Omar Pasha having +occupied and plundered Bucarest on the Russian approach, and a +convention--that of Balta-Liman--was entered into between Russia and +Turkey, which deprived the Principalities of all their electoral rights, +substituted a divan, or council of ministers, and reserved to the two +contracting powers the nomination of hospodars. Russia, however, managed +to get the lion's share even in this negotiation, for, contrary to the +understanding, she succeeded in appointing both hospodars, Stirbei in +Wallachia, and Alexander Ghika in Moldavia, thus largely increasing her +influence in both Principalities. + +[Footnote 166: Neigebaur (pp. 327 et seq.) gives a long list of +important works published in the Principalities up to his time (1854), +and amongst them will be found a large number either composed or +published by Heliad on various subjects in theology, philology, grammar, +history, mathematics, and medicine, besides original poems, +translations, and dramas.] + +[Footnote 167: Regnault says (p. 437): 'Twice in three weeks the +provisional government had fallen, first through an audacious _coup de +main_, then through a spontaneous act of weakness. Twice the people had +reinstated it, setting a resolute example for the conduct of their +leaders. It is worth noting that this nation, new to political life of +which the birth is manifested by courage and wisdom, retired before its +leaders when they triumphed, raised them when they fell, giving +alternate evidences of energy and moderation.'] + + +X. + +Much has been said here, and a great deal more in the works of those +French writers who were unfriendly towards Russia, concerning her +intrigues and encroachments in the Principalities, but it is only fair +to admit that her interference invariably resulted in the ameliorating +of their condition. This the French writers sometimes grudgingly admit, +and the facts of history clearly prove. In nearly every instance Russian +interference meant relief to the peasantry and enforced moderation in +the rulers. In 1710, when Cantemir III. of Moldavia sought the aid of +Peter the Great, it was 'to put an end to the spoliations of the Porte.' +In 1769 Constantine Mavrocordato entered into secret relations with +Catherine II., and after the Russian invasion the Porte was compelled by +the Treaty of Kainardji to grant autonomy to the Principalities, and to +diminish its exactions; in 1802, through Russian remonstrances, abuses +were suppressed and the evil-doers punished. In 1812 the chicanery of +the rulers and the exactions of the Porte had brought the people to the +brink of starvation; the Russians interfered, and put a limit to the +demands of the Porte; but after their departure, we are told, the +current value of agricultural produce again fell so low that it was +impossible for the cultivator to live, and this circumstance, along with +the renewed exactions of the rulers and officials, once more brought +ruin upon the peasantry. In 1820 Wilkinson, who, it must be remembered, +was Consul at Bucarest, and who was far from being enamoured of Russia, +says: 'During my residence in the Principalities several instances have +occurred within my observation of very active exertion on the part of +Russia to keep the accustomed system of extortion in restraint, and to +relieve the inhabitants from oppression, and such exertion has certainly +on many occasions prevented the condition of the inhabitants from +becoming worse.'[168] + +But that the ultimate design of Russia was to secure and incorporate the +Principalities as part of her general scheme of aggression, there can be +no doubt in the mind of anyone who has followed her operations previous +to the Crimean campaign. That and subsequent events may be said to +belong to contemporary history; but we must briefly refer to such +incidents of the war as affected the Danubian Principalities and laid +the foundation of Roumanian freedom. The Emperor Nicholas had picked a +wolf-and-lamb quarrel with the Porte, of which the ostensible ground was +the protection of subjects professing the Greek Catholic faith in the +'holy places;' and little expecting, perhaps little caring, that he +would arouse the jealousy of France and England, he had sent an +ultimatum to the Porte, demanding the right of intervention in +conformity with the Treaty of Kainardji, threatening the invasion and +occupation of the Danubian Principalities in default of immediate +acquiescence. Not having received the satisfaction he required, he +ordered General Gortschakoff to cross the Pruth and to take possession +of and hold the Principalities. This was done in the month of July 1853. +In September the Turkish Commander-in-Chief on the Danube demanded an +immediate evacuation of those territories, and, failing compliance, war +was declared. For some time the Russians, fearing the enmity of Austria, +which had massed troops on the Wallachian frontier, remained on the +defensive, but in October Omar Pasha assumed the aggressive, sending a +small force across the Danube at Vidin, and it was thought that the +straggle between the contending forces would take place in 'Lesser +Wallachia.' Omar Pasha, however, either intended this as a feint, or +changed his plan, for he soon afterwards occupied strong positions on +the Danube at Turtukai and Oltenitza, between Silistria and Rustchuk, +and was there attacked by a Russian force, which he succeeded in +repulsing. No results followed this encounter; the Russians retreated +towards Bucarest, and the Turks fell back across the Danube into +Bulgaria. + +In February 1854 the French and English Governments sent an ultimatum to +Russia, requiring her to evacuate the Principalities, and in March they +declared war against her. In June Austria followed suit, so far as +demanding the evacuation of Moldo-Wallachia, and received permission +from the Porte to drive the Russians out of the Principalities, and +occupy them with her troops. She, however, contented herself during the +continuance of the war with accumulating forces on her frontiers, and no +doubt it was this threatening attitude which at length compelled Russia +to evacuate them. Meanwhile active hostilities were proceeding between +Omar Pasha and Gortschakoff. In the early part of 1854, the Russians +having met with a reverse at Cetate, near Calafat, the Russian army was +ordered to invade Turkey, and, having succeeded in crossing into the +Dobrudscha at Galatz, Braila, and Ismail, it was deemed necessary to +capture Silistria as a strategic post, in order to ensure the safety of +the advancing army. In May 1854 the Russians attacked that fortress +unsuccessfully, and after they had attempted to storm it four times, the +Turks (in June) assumed the offensive, and made a sally, during which +one of the Russian generals was slain. In the same month Nicholas, +finding himself threatened by the Western allies in the Black Sea, and +fearing to make an open enemy of Austria, whose forces were constantly +increasing on her frontier, gave orders for raising the siege of +Silistria, and subsequently for the entire withdrawal of his troops from +the Principalities. This was not, however, effected until July, nor +before the Russians had sustained another defeat from the Turks at +Giurgevo. + +Then it was that the army was completely withdrawn, the Turkish vanguard +entered Bucarest, and, says one of the historians of the war, 'the +Wallachian nobles celebrated a Te Deum in the metropolitan church to +commemorate the restoration of Turkish supremacy--the same boyards who, +in 1829, kissed the hands of the Russians who had freed them from the +Turkish yoke.' + +As for the hospodars. Stirbei of Wallachia, and Alexander Ghika of +Moldavia, they had retired for safety to Vienna shortly after the +outbreak of hostilities, and remained there until September, when the +Austrians occupied the country with the approval of the Porte. They then +returned for a short period, but Stirbei again abdicated permanently a +month afterwards. The Roumanians wore compelled by the Russians to serve +in their armies as long as they occupied the country, but a Turkish +amnesty relieved them from the consequences of this procedure. + +The military operations of the contending Powers external to the +Principalities have an interest for us only in their results. After the +termination of the Crimean campaign, when Russia was compelled to sue +for peace, the Treaty of Paris was concluded, and it contained +stipulations of vital consequence to Moldo-Wallachia. + +These stipulations may be summarised as follows:--The neutralisation of +the navigation of the Danube, which was placed under the control of a +European Commission; the cession by Russia to Turkey (and thus to +Moldavia) of a portion of Bessarabia at the embouchure of the Danube; +and the re-organisation, on an entirely autonomic basis, but still under +the suzerainty of the Porte, of the Danubian Principalities. In the year +1857, before the deliberations of the European Powers had given +permanent effect to the stipulations of the Treaty of Paris, a movement +was actively proceeding in both Principalities, the object of which was +to effect their union under one governing head. + +The exiles of 1848, who had fled to Paris, and there endeavoured by +their published works to keep alive the spirit of independence in +Roumania, now returned to their native country and renewed an active +agitation at home. Amongst those who then and thereafter strove for the +liberties of their country were John Bratiano, C.A. Rosetti, two members +of the family of Ghika, Demetrius Stourdza, John Cantacuzene, and other +laymen, and Golesco and others of the military profession. These so far +attained their end that, after a great deal of idle intervention on the +part of Turkey and the other European Powers, most of whom were +intriguing for their own hands rather than for the welfare of the +Principalities, they succeeded in obtaining from a conference of the +Powers at Paris, in 1858, a kind of agreement, which, whilst it insisted +upon the retention in each Principality of a separate prince or +hospodar, gave to each an elective parliament, and admitted of a partial +fusion, under a kind of central commission, for the 'united +Principalities.' This was a species of compromise which was no doubt +satisfactory to the guaranteeing Powers, with their conflicting +interests, but was not at all to the taste of the young nation +struggling for union and independence. By a clever and perfectly +justifiable manoeuvre the people of Moldavia and Wallachia proceeded to +supplement the deliberations and decisions of the Powers, by each +choosing the same ruler, Captain John Couza, and, in spite of +protestations from the Porte, which refused to recognise this as a +lawful proceeding, Couza, under the title of Alexander John I., mounted +the united throne as _Prince of Roumania_. In 1861, chiefly in +consequence of the recommendation of the guaranteeing Powers, the Porte +assented to the union. + +[Footnote 168: P. 183.] + + +XI. + +Prince Couza was born at Galatz in 1820. He was of an old boyard family, +and was educated at Jassy, Athens, and Paris. In 1845 he married Helena, +the daughter of another boyard, Rosetti, and subsequently held high +offices in the State. His princess was a patriotic lady who founded and +supported many charitable institutions, amongst others the orphan asylum +known as the Asyle Helene, of which we have already spoken; and had her +husband recognised her virtues, and remembered his own obligations to +her; he would probably have still sat upon the throne of Roumania. For +there is no doubt that during the earlier part of his reign, which +lasted from 1859 to 1866, he enjoyed the cordial support of all parties +in the State; but he soon endeavoured to render himself absolute, and in +1864 he effected a _coup d'etat_, very similar to the one which has +recently been perpetrated by the Prince of Bulgaria, in all probability +under the same tutelage. In his case, however, the nation refused to +submit to such an arbitrary proceeding, and although it succeeded for a +time, that, coupled with his avarice, gross immorality, and general +misgovernment, led to his ultimate downfall. In 1864 the monasteries +were secularised, that is to say, they were claimed as State property, a +proceeding which was sanctioned by the guaranteeing Powers against +payment of an indemnity. In 1865 a complete reform took place in the +relations between the landed proprietors and the peasantry, who were +freed from feudal obligations and became part owners of the soil. Of +this reform we have already spoken at length. As we have said, however, +the personal actions of the Prince, who enriched himself at the expense +of a still suffering country, sought by every means in his power to +obtain absolute rule, and led an openly immoral life, against which his +advisers protested and warned him in vain, led to what some have called +a conspiracy, but which was an uprising of all the leading +representatives of the people, lay and military, who united to drive him +from the throne. + +The so-called abdication, but really the deposition, of Prince Couza, as +it was narrated at the time, was effected as follows. The conspiracy +being ripe, on February 11 [23], 1866, a sufficiently strong body of +military, acting under the orders of General Golesco and others, +surrounded the palace in which the Prince was lodged, and a number of +officers then forced their way inside. On entering the palace they +proceeded to the room of the Prince, arresting on their way thither M. +L----[169] and two officers of the body-guard. Before they forced the +door the Prince, it seems, had a presentiment of some danger, and cried +from within, 'Don't enter, for I shall fire.' Before the sentence was +finished, however, the door was burst open, and he saw before him the +conspirators with revolvers in their hands. He was cowardly enough (says +the narrative) not to fire once. It is possible that if he had known +that they had an order not to fire, whatever might happen, he would have +killed one or other of them.[170] Or, perhaps, the presence of Madame +----[171] prevented him from offering resistance, for she was there +undressed. + +'What do you want?' he asked, trembling. + +'We have brought your Highness's abdication,' said Captain C----. 'Will +you sign it?' + +'I have neither pen nor ink,' he answered. + +'We thought of that,' said one of the conspirators. + +'I have no table.' + +'For this once, I offer myself as such,' said Captain P----. + +Having no alternative, the Prince then signed the following act of +abdication, as it lay on the shoulders of the stooping officer who had +condescended to serve as a desk for the occasion. + +'We, Alexander, according to the will of the whole nation, and the oath +we took on ascending the throne, this day, February 11 [23], 1866, lay +down the reins of government and relegate the same to a princely +_locum-tenens_ and to the ministry chosen by the people. + +(Signed) 'ALEXANDER JOHN.' + +'This has been my wish for a long time,' said the Prince after having +signed; 'but circumstances not dependent upon myself have caused me to +postpone. Spite of all this, I was willing to do it in May.' + + * * * * * + +After he had signed the act of abdication the conspirators made him +dress, and led him to a carriage where Ch----, in the dress of a +coachman, received him and drove him to the house of M. Ciocarlanu. +Madame ----, on the other hand, was taken home to her own house after +she had habited herself. Immediately after Couza's arrest the bells rang +out a merry peal, a band of music struck up before the theatre, and +masses of people collected before the palace where the Provisional +Government had installed itself, and shortly afterwards issued the +following proclamation:-- + + 'Roumanians, + + During seven years you have shown Europe what can be effected by + patriotism and civic virtue. Unhappily you were mistaken in your + selection of the prince whom you called to lead the nation. Anarchy + and corruption, violation of the laws, squandering of the national + finances, degradation of the country at home and abroad, these have + characterised the conduct of this culpable Government. Roumanians, + the princely _locum-tenens_ will maintain the constitutional + government in its integrity. It will uphold public order, and + remove personal ambition from the altar of the Fatherland. + + 'Roumanians, by the election of a foreigner as Prince of Roumania, + the votes of the Divan will become an accomplished fact.' + +Let us add a few words concerning this proceeding. We have heard blame +attributed to the revolutionists, who, as already stated, comprised the +leading statesmen of the country, for using force in order to ensure +Couza's abdication, and so far as the mere legality of the document is +concerned, his signature, thus obtained, was of course valueless. But in +order to be able to form a correct opinion on the crisis and the acts of +the revolutionists, it would be necessary to understand not only the +character of the prince (which would alone have justified extreme +measures, if one half be true that has been written concerning him), but +also to estimate the effect of any delay that might have arisen from a +more pacific and deliberate course of action. The popular leaders had +not forgotten the lessons of 1848, and it was not likely they would be +so insensate as to give time for Russian or Turkish intrigues once more +to break down the barriers of their hardly-won liberties. That the +nation was satisfied is proved by the sequel. No one troubled himself +about Couza, who was allowed to withdraw from Roumania laden with the +spoils of his reign; and when afterwards the name of the present ruler +was placed before the people it was accepted with joy and acclamation. + +But we have had another reason for dwelling at greater length than has +been customary with historians upon this incident in Roumanian annals. +It was to show the kind of example in morality, or rather immorality and +faithlessness, which was set by one of the princes of the country so +recently as fifteen or sixteen years since. Such conduct may be treated +with contempt in countries having a well-established and settled +constitution, but in a new-born nationality it could not fail to work +great mischief, which has not yet been fully remedied despite the +example of an unblemished Court. + +[Footnote 169: As the event is comparatively recent, we have considered +it desirable to suppress two or three names of persons who may be still +living, and whose connection with the revolution is of no moment.] + +[Footnote 170: That _would_ have been cowardly.--AUTHOR.] + +[Footnote 171: One of his mistresses, who was with him.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +FROM THE DEPOSITION OF PRINCE COUZA (1866) TO THE CORONATION OF KING +CHARLES (1881). + + Accession of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern--Signs the + Constitution--Former differences between the Prince and the + Parliament--(Note: State of parties with leaders in 1881)--Action + of Russia prior to the war of 1877--Turkish incapacity and + obstinacy--Perplexing position of Roumania--Reluctance of the + nation to interfere--First attitude of neutrality--The Porte + declares the Prince an enemy--The Prince and army + organisation--Value of Roumanian co-operation to Russia--The + Russian army of operations--Crosses the Danube and occupies Sistova + and the Shipka Pass--Repeated defeats at Plevna and + elsewhere--Gloomy outlook for the Russians--The Roumanians cross + the Danube--First estimates of them--Contemptuous criticisms and + anecdotes--Changing views regarding them--Prince Charles appointed + Commander-in-Chief of the allies before Plevna--Defences of + Plevna--The Grivitza redoubt--Strength and composition of the + armies--Commencement of the attack (August 31, 1877)--Capture of + Loftcha by Skobeleff--Russian operations against Plevna--Great + assault of September 11--Defeat of the Russians--Ineffectual + bravery of Skobeleff--His appearance after the repulse--The + Roumanians--The 'indomitable' Grivitza redoubt--Roumanian + approaches (September 7 to 10)--Assaults and final capture and + retention of the redoubt by the Roumanians (11th)--Carnage in the + redoubt--Unsuccessful attempt to capture a second + redoubt--Flattering criticisms upon their bravery--Further + Roumanian victories and services in the war--Failure of Osman Pasha + to break the lines of the allies--His submission--Interview between + Osman, the Grand Duke, and Prince Charles--Russian ingratitude to + Roumania--'Exchange' of Bessarabia for the Dobrudscha--Treaty of + San Stephano and Berlin Conference--Roumania + independent--Coronation of the King and Queen--Conclusion of + historical review. + + +I. + +After the fall of Couza the two Chambers elected the Count of Flanders, +a younger brother of the King of Belgium, as his successor, but, owing +probably to the threatening attitude of the Porte, that Prince declined +the honour. Their choice then fell upon the reigning sovereign, Prince +Charles of Hohenzollern (son of Prince Charles Anton, of +Hohenzollern-Siegmaringen), who accepted the nomination, and was +proclaimed Prince of Roumania on the anniversary of his birthday, April +20, 1866, and was received with great joy on his arrival at the capital. +The Sublime Porte protested as usual, but this time the Roumanians +threatened--at least, they determined to uphold their choice, and +collected a strong force with that object. After vainly endeavouring to +enlist the Powers on his side, the Sultan gave his assent to the +nomination, and the Prince was invested with the sovereignty for himself +and his heirs. + +Meanwhile the national leaders had prepared the draft of the +constitution under which Roumania is now governed, of which the leading +stipulations, along with the names of its framers, will be found in the +Appendix (III.), and on June 30 [July 12] it was approved and signed by +the Prince, who at the same time took the qualifying oath, first at +Bucarest, and shortly afterwards at Jassy, where he was received with +equal enthusiasm by the Moldavians. + +Few rulers have had the obstacles to contend with that greeted Prince +Charles on his accession to the throne of Roumania, and few indeed have +managed so completely to overcome their difficulties and to win the +affections of their subjects--a task which has, however, been materially +lightened in his case by the co-operation of his talented consort, whom, +as Princess Elizabeth of Wied, he espoused in November 1869. The +liberties of Roumania had not been of slow growth, and the people who +for sixteen centuries had been the downtrodden vassals, first of this +and then of that dominant race of barbarians, were naturally, a little +awkward when they were called upon to assume the responsibilities, as +well as to enjoy the privileges, of emancipation. We will not dwell upon +the party dissensions which for a series of years militated against the +smooth working of the new Constitution, nor upon the known fact that the +Prince well-nigh relinquished the reins of power in consequence of the +repeated changes of ministry and the unworthy jealousies of those who, +having first selected him as a foreigner, subsequently charged this +against him as a disqualification. Nor must we examine too narrowly all +the causes of this restlessness in the people. They had been so often +betrayed by their rulers, and were so jealous of their newly-won +liberties, that, it may be, the acts of a prince of the house of +Hohenzollern were not always in accord with the tastes of a +semi-republican legislature. This friction, through the devotion of the +ruler and the good sense and patriotism of his advisers, has ceased to +exist; and, far from there being now a bitter strife of parties, one of +the Roumanian leaders deplores that there is not a more active and +powerful opposition to the ministry, which was last elected in 1875, and +has for more than six years guided the destinies of the nation.[172] + +[Footnote 172: The Conservatives were overthrown in 1875, and although +there are at present nominally three parties in the State there can +hardly be said to be an opposition. When the author was in Roumania, in +the autumn of 1881, the two Liberal chiefs were John Bratiano, President +of the Council, and C.A. Rosetti, who has held more than one portfolio. +We shall speak of these statesmen in the sequel. The Liberal party in +the Chamber of Deputies numbers about one hundred and twenty; whilst the +Conservatives, led by MM. Catargi, Labovari, and Maiorescu, and the +Radicals, with MM. Vernesco and Nicolas Jonesco, number together only +about thirty-five members. In the Senate, out of seventy-six members +only about sixteen or eighteen are in opposition. This is not altogether +to be regretted; such disparities do not last long, and whilst on the +one hand criticism of the mistakes or misconduct of Government officials +(and more particularly against sub-officials, who are often charged with +grave offences) is now confined chiefly to the press, on the other hand +a little constitutional despotism is very much needed, not only to +correct such abuses promptly, but also to hasten the necessary reforms +and to ameliorate the condition of the country. This is the result of +personal observation and contact with official life, and not a mere +speculative opinion.] + + +II. + +Let us now consider the circumstances which lately enabled Roumania to +throw off the last traces of her vassalage, and to take her place in the +comity of European nations; and with a brief narrative of those events +we must bring this imperfect outline of her past history to a close. The +story of the last Russo-Turkish war must be within the memory of all our +readers who take the slightest interest in Oriental politics. How +Russia, chafing under the restrictions which had been put upon her by +the Treaty of Paris, had succeeded in obtaining a modification of that +treaty, which gave her once more the right of entrance into the Black +Sea; how, resuming her favourite _role_ of protectress of the Christian +inhabitants of Turkey, she intervened in the affairs of those nations +who stood between her and Constantinople; how the Servians and +Montenegrins, incited by her, rose in revolt, and the Bulgarians +followed suit; how the European Powers, sympathising with Turkey on the +one hand, in consequence of the renewed machinations and transparent +designs of her powerful northern enemy, and on the other despairing of +her on account of the barbarities with which she endeavoured to quell +the rising in her vassal provinces, the inherent weakness of her rule, +and the bankrupt condition of her finances, they were compelled at +length to leave her at the mercy of her foe. To repeat the narrative of +these would be telling an oft-told tale. But when, after the final +break-up of the Conference of Constantinople in January 1877, the Cross +and the Crescent were once more opposed to each other, and when the +Russian forces were massed on the eastern bank of the Pruth, then came +the moment at which it behoved the newly-liberated nation, which had so +often been the victim of the 'holy' strife, to decide on which side it +would array itself. Indeed, Roumania had little choice in the matter; +the critics who have censured her policy, and have charged her with +breach of faith towards her suzerain the Porte (and we know there are +many such in this country), cannot have carefully considered her past +history; nor have reflected upon the position in which she was +placed.[173] As a matter of preference, the young nation which was about +being dragged into this ruthless strife could have none, and might with +justice have exclaimed, 'A plague on both your houses!' What cared they, +on the one hand (and this was the popular sentiment), for the +hypocritical crusade undertaken for purposes of aggrandisement; or, on +the other, what sympathy could they have with the moribund State which +had ever been to them as the daughters of the horseleech, and whose +atrocities were identical with those that were perpetrated in the days +when Huns and Vandals devastated their own fair plains? If Roumania in +her then condition (now it would be different) had opposed the passage +of the Russian forces, they would have entered her territory as enemies, +the war would have been carried on once more within her borders, and, +beggared and prostrate, she might at best have reckoned upon retaining +her political independence through the intervention of the European +Powers; though, looking at the fact that these had recognised Russia as +their executioner in Turkey, it is very questionable whether they would +have interfered for the protection of Roumania, and whether she would +not have fallen to Russia along with Bessarabia. On the other hand, if +she had actively sided with either Power, her national independence and +the happiness of her people would have been staked upon the result. She +chose the wise, and indeed the only course, namely, that of allowing her +powerful neighbour to pass through her dominions, stipulating that, so +far as Russia could help it, she should be spared the desolation and +horrors of war within her frontiers. But what course did the Porte +adopt? Not recognising the _force majeure_ which had driven Roumania to +this decision, she was suicidal enough to declare her an enemy, and to +threaten to depose the Prince, thus giving to her bitterest foe an ally +who, at a critical period, in self-defence, turned the scale against +her, and caused her to lose some of her fairest provinces. For the +Roumanians well knew, after the declared enmity of the Porte, that the +defeat of the Russians and their withdrawal into their own territories +would at once have been followed by all the incidents of Turkish rule, +of which for centuries they had had such a bitter experience. + +Amongst the valuable services which Prince Charles had rendered to his +adopted country before the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish war was the +organisation of a national army on the German model. Under Prince Couza +the whole standing army of the two Principalities was at first 8,400 +men, but he raised it to 25,000 strong, and officered it on the French +system. When Prince Charles received the investiture at the hands of +the Sultan in 1867, the army was limited to 30,000 men of all ranks; but +he substituted German for French officers, and sent young Roumanians to +Germany to study military tactics. In 1874 the standing army numbered +18,542 men of all arms, and the territorial forces 43,744, making a +total of 62,286 men and 14,353 horses; these were armed with 52 steel +Krupp guns, besides about 200 of an inferior description; 25,000 Peabody +rifles, and 20,000 Prussian needle-guns, raised in 1875 to 100,000 +rifles of the best description.[174] The sanitary services and the +military hospitals had been organised by General Dr. Davila, a French +physician, of whom we have frequently spoken elsewhere, and who still +occupies the post of Director of Hospitals, &c., and of the Medical +School at Bucarest.[175] + +[Footnote 173: The critics of her conduct during and immediately after +the close of the war were more bitter than at the present day, charging +her with perfidy of the worst kind, and predicting that she would become +a vassal state of Russia. See, amongst others, Ollier, _History of +Russo-Turkish War_, vol. i. p. 537.] + +[Footnote 174: These details are from Von Wittinghausen's work on +Roumania, from a military point of view (Vienna: Carl Gerold's Sohn).] + +[Footnote 175: The army organization has progressed rapidly since the +war of complete liberation, and it is estimated that in 1884 the total +forces of Roumania, regular militia, and Landsturm, will exceed 215,000 +men. Full information will be found in Von Wittinghausen, Obedenare and +in the _Gotha Almanack_, 1881, p. 903, where the present state of the +forces is given in detail.] + + +III. + +With an army thus constituted and disciplined, Prince Charles went into +the Russo-Turkish war as an ally of the Russians, although, at first, +not as an active one; and as the success of that terrible war relieved +Roumania from the last vestiges of her dependence upon Turkey, we will +endeavour to collect within as narrow limits as possible a few of the +leading events wherein she participated, and which affected her claim to +European attention. + +That the Roumanians rendered valuable services to the Russians before +they co-operated actively in arms is well known, and also that the +latter had pressing need for such assistance. In May 1877 every facility +was given for the passage of troops over the Roumanian railways, +hospital equipments taking the precedence, and the Roumanian civil and +military hospitals opened their doors to receive the Russian sick; in +fact, disastrous as were the Russian reverses throughout the war, they +would have entailed far greater misery upon their wounded soldiers if it +had not been for the systematic aid which they received from the +Roumanians. Then, in preparing for the defence of their own bank of the +Danube, the latter were diverting the attention of the Turks, whose +gunboats amused themselves in making harmless excursions up and down the +river, pretty much as our fleet did between Besika Bay and the +Dardanelles, and they were making a line of defence for the Russians in +case they should have been obliged to recross tho Danube. Here it is +that we first make the acquaintance of Prince Charles, who travelled +from post to post on the river inspecting the defences. 'Born a +Hohenzollern, and reared an officer in the Prussian army,' says a writer +who accompanied him on this tour, 'it is little wonder that Prince +Charles of Roumania is above all things a soldier. Since his election to +the headship of the Principalities he has sedulously devoted a large +share of his energies to the improvement, or rather, in the first +instance, to the creation of a Roumanian army, and that his labour has +not been lost is apparent to any man having any conversance with +military matters, who has spent the last few weeks in the territory over +which Prince Charles holds sway.'[176] The prince had at his disposal +two army corps, each numbering 28,000 men, fully equipped, whilst the +militia, whose strength was about 100,000, was ready for mobilisation at +the shortest notice. As to the fighting qualities of these troops +writers differ, and we shall refer presently to the changes that took +place in the estimation in which they were held as the war progressed; +but even at the commencement there were those who lauded their coolness, +and said that they did not exhibit any of that tremor under fire which +is not wholly unnatural in young soldiers. + +Before these men were called into action, however, their powerful allies +had suffered terrible defeats at the hands of the enemy. Dealing only +with that division of the Russian army which was engaged in Bulgaria, +we have to note the following events. On June 27, 1877, the main body of +Russians, or the 'army of operations,' as it was called, which was under +the command of the Grand Duke Nicholas, crossed the Danube in floating +ferries from Simnitza to Sistova, feints having been made to concentrate +and pass over in other places at the same time, so as to mislead the +Turks as to the intended point of crossing. Although some efforts were +made by the latter to prevent the landing on the Bulgarian shore, which +resulted in many being killed and wounded on either side, the Russians +effected the passage in safety and occupied Sistova, where they found +all the houses of the inhabitants sacked and plundered by the Turks, who +had beaten a retreat. The Emperor and the Grand Duke Nicholas were +either on the spot or in the immediate vicinity at the time of the +crossing, the headquarters being then at Ploiesti, on the Bucarest and +Orsova, railway, and from that time forward they sustained a series of +terrible reverses.[177] + +As soon as a sufficient force was landed, they divided the army into +three sections, one of which, under General Ghourko, pressed on to the +famous Shipka Pass in the Balkans, where he encountered the brave enemy; +he occupied the pass on July 19. Another section under the Grand Duke +himself--part of the 9th Army Corps--marched onwards to the equally +well-known position of Plevna, where Osman Pasha was in command of the +Turkish forces, and where the Russians met with their first check. +General Kruedener, who commanded the attacking force, was not only +repulsed, but, being assailed in his turn by the Turks, he was badly +beaten. Two days afterwards, having been reinforced, he, in conjunction +with General Schahofskoy, commanding a force of 32,000 men, made a +second assault on Plevna, but they were again defeated with terrible +loss. On July 31 Ghourko met with a still more serious defeat. He had +penetrated with a Russo-Bulgarian force as far as Eski-Zagra (or Zara), +where he met the Turks under Suleiman Pasha, and, after a sanguinary +encounter, he was not only repulsed, but compelled to withdraw to the +Shipka Pass. Suleiman Pasha followed him and succeeded in occupying the +village of Shipka, but his attempts to drive the Russians from the pass +were unsuccessful, and on August 27 he discontinued his operations and +telegraphed for reinforcements, the Russians having in the meantime also +received theirs. Suleiman Pasha did not renew the attempt until +September 17; and, although at one time he had so far discounted his +success as to telegraph a victory to Constantinople, he was finally +repulsed.[178] + +Added to these and other reverses in Europe, there came tale after tale +of disaster in Asia. Kars, which had been besieged by the Russians, was +successfully relieved by the Turks under Muktar Pasha, just as, a few +months later, Erzeroum was twice attacked by the Russians, who were as +many times repulsed. Then it was, when the skies were lowering on all +sides, that the Russian emperor and his princes and generals began to +look eagerly for aid from their ally north of the Danube; and then, for +the safety of his own country, Prince Charles entered the field with his +brave little army of Roumanians, and, recalling the days of Stephen and +of Michael, and emulating the prowess of the field of Kalugereni, he +succeeded in turning the tide of victory, and in saving the honour of +that ally, from whom lie subsequently received such poor acknowledgment. + +[Footnote 176: _Daily News War Correspondence_, vol. i. p. 73.] + +[Footnote 177: There are two monuments, one at Simnitza and the other at +Sistova, which are visible to the traveller as he passes up or down the +river. The first indicates the spot where the Russians embarked, whilst +the last is a handsome memorial to the slain.] + +[Footnote 178: These operations are graphically described in the +interesting work of Col. Fife Cookson, _With the Armies of the Balkans_, +Cassell, 1880; in the _Daily News War Correspondence, Macmillan_, 1878; +and in Ollier's _History of the Russo-Turkish War_, Cassell.] + + +IV. + +Up to August 25 we hear little or nothing of the movements of the +Roumanians, and in every case the fighting was done by the Russians, +either alone or in conjunction with their ruthless allies the +Bulgarians,[179] the operations being then spoken of as those of the +'Russo-Bulgarian' forces; but on the date named, or thereabouts, the +main portion of the Roumanian army crossed the Danube, and thenceforward +the Bulgarians are seldom mentioned, and the contest is prosecuted by +the 'allies,' or the 'Russo-Roumanian' army. At first the Roumanian +soldiers receive scant regard at the hands of the chroniclers: indeed, +on one or two occasions they are referred to with marked contempt. +Writing from Giurgevo on June 5 (that was before the Russians had +crossed the Danube at Simnitza), one of the correspondents +says:--'Whilst eating and talking, I heard one or two curious incidents +that occurred here when the Cossacks first came. In the course of +reconnoitring the country, five Cossacks, with an under-officer, came +upon a post of twenty Roumanian soldiers, likewise under the command of +an under-officer. The five Cossacks immediately arrested the twenty +Roumanians, brought them in to headquarters, and reported them to +General Skobeleff as prisoners of some unknown army. The Cossacks were +not quite sure, apparently, whether they were Turks or not, so they +thought that they had better bring them in, an operation to which the +Roumanians, although vastly superior in numbers, consented with not a +little murmuring.'[180] + +This anecdote, it must be understood, was told by a party of Russian +officers, and is unworthy of critical examination, but it shows in what +estimation they held the men who were afterwards to be their +indispensable helpmates, and in a sense their leaders and preservers. +Other writers represented the Roumanian soldiers in a more favourable +light from the beginning of the war. Their coolness under fire has +already been mentioned, and the same correspondent, in describing the +defensive operations at Kalafat, says: 'I was struck with the admirable +conduct at this time of the Roumanian gunners, who never flinched in the +slightest degree under the trying ordeal.'[181] After their defeats +before Plevna and elsewhere, the Russians, too, began to estimate their +allies at something nearer their real value. + +'The Russian authorities,' writes the same correspondent in the month of +August, 'are greatly pleased with the appearance and apparent efficiency +of the Roumanian artillery. Indeed, the Roumanian troops are everywhere +now spoken of with a consideration not previously evinced.'[182] + +No more talk now of five Russians running in twenty Roumanians; and we +shall hear quite a different story presently. And not alone had the +soldiers risen in Muscovite esteem, but the Russians were beginning to +understand that there might be some virtue in the commanders also; for +about September 1, or a day or two previously, they so far admitted +their superiority as to invite Prince Charles to take the +command-in-chief of the whole Russo-Roumanian army before Plevna, which +he did, with the Russian general Zotoff as chief of his staff and second +in command. + +On this occasion he issued an address to the Roumanian soldiers, +reminding them that success for the Turks would mean pillage and +desolation in their fatherland, assuring them that, although their +numbers were few, he had confidence in their courage, and in their +ability to retain for Roumania the good opinion which she deserved and +enjoyed amongst the nations of Europe. He concluded by announcing, in +modest terms, his own appointment as Commander-in-chief of the allied +armies. + +[Footnote 179: According to Col. Fife Cookson the Bulgarians, during +this war, were guilty of atrocities as deep-dyed as any that had +previously caused such indignation in Europe; but he also says (p. 23), +'In this war armed Bulgarians resisting the Turks were looked upon as +rebels, and received no quarter.'] + +[Footnote 180: _War Correspondence_, vol. i. pp. 131-132.] + +[Footnote 181: _War Correspondence_, p. 82.] + +[Footnote 182: _Ibid._ p. 390.] + + +V. + +On August 31, Osman Pasha had made a sortie against the besiegers, in +which he was eventually repulsed with heavy loss, and then it was that +under the new command a fresh attack on Plevna was decided upon. In +order, however, to understand the events which followed, and the part +taken therein by the Roumanians, it is necessary that we should briefly +describe the position and constitution of the forces engaged, and refer +to the operations which preceded the assault. + +[Illustration: DEFENCES OF PLEVNA.] + +The scene of the long-continued struggle is an undulating country, and +Plevna, the centre of attack and defence, is in the hollow of a valley +running in a northerly and southerly direction. The ground adjacent to +this valley was described by one of the war correspondents as consisting +of great solid waves with their faces set edgeways to the valley of +Plevna. To describe it in detail here would be impossible, but the +positions of the attacking and defending armies were very simple. The +Turkish positions were, roughly speaking, 'a horseshoe, with its +convexity pointing east, and the town of Plevna standing about the +centre of the base.' Another writer compares it to 'a reaping-hook, with +the point opposite Bukova, the middle of the curve opposite Grivica, +the junction of the handle close on to Plevna, and the end of the +handle at Krishine.' + +The Russians had been surrounding this horseshoe, leaving the base open, +and the form of their attack on this occasion was in the line of their +environment straight to their front. The main point of interest in the +struggle, so far as we are concerned, is the Turkish redoubt of +_Grivica_ or _Grivitza_, the strongest of all the positions of defence: +this was situated on the toe, if we may so call it, of the horseshoe, +and directly opposite was the Russo-Roumanian centre. + +The Russo-Roumanian army numbered about 80,000 infantry, of whom 28,000 +were Roumanians, in two corps, under Colonels George and Alexander +Angelescu, and 10,000 cavalry, whereof 4,000 were Roumanians. The whole +Roumanian division was commanded by General Cernat; the Russians by +Baron Kruedener, General Kriloff, Prince Meretinsky, and the brave but +erratic General Skobeleff; and this army of 90,000 men was provided with +250 field and 20 siege guns. The number of the defenders under Osman +Pasha is estimated at about 70,000 men. + +Here is a concise account of the attack. After the unsuccessful sortie +of Osman Pasha on August 31, in which the Russians recovered all the +positions temporarily occupied by the enemy, there was a partial +cessation of hostilities before Plevna until September 6. Meanwhile, on +the 3rd, a force of 22,000 Russians under Meretinsky, including a +brigade of Cossacks commanded by Skobeleff, succeeded, after a +sanguinary conflict, in driving 7,000 Turks from the village of Loftcha +and a defensive position west of it, which they permanently +occupied.[183] This operation had the effect of cutting off the supplies +of Osman Pasha from the south. An artillery duel then followed between +the whole of the attacking and defending armies, which lasted until the +11th, and, judging from the long and careful accounts of the +correspondents, the firing seems to have had little effect on either +side. In the interim the Roumanians were posted opposite the Grivitza +Redoubt, which, as we have already said, was the most formidable of all +the Turkish defences. Meretinsky and Skobeleff were in the vicinity of +the Loftcha road; and Kriloff and Kruedener were moving about in +co-operation, the former having posted himself on the Radisovo height +with the forces under his command.[184] Of the Grivitza and the +Roumanian operations we shall speak more fully hereafter. At the other +points of attack nothing serious happened until the 11th, when, a +general assault being ordered, the attack of Kriloff and Kruedener was +directed against a position known as the 'Mamelon,' south of Plevna, +whilst Skobeleff made a vigorous assault upon a double redoubt on the +south-east, the object being to carry these positions which were +believed to be the most vulnerable, whilst the Roumanians were 'holding' +the Turks at their strongest redoubt--the Grivitza. Supported by +Roumanian artillery, Kriloff attacked the 'Mamelon' three times during +the day, each time with fresh forces; but he was as often repulsed with +terrible loss, the third attack and defeat lasting only twenty minutes. +In fact, Kriloff and Kruedener were repulsed all along the line. +Skobeleff was somewhat more fortunate, having begun his attack after +Kriloff's second reverse. With a loss of 2,000 men he succeeded in +carrying the Turkish position; and at a further sacrifice of 3,000 he +held it for a time only, for it was commanded by the Krishine redoubt +(which was the ultimate object of his operations) on his left, and by +Plevna on the north. The Turks attempted in vain five times to dislodge +him. Skobeleff supplicated time after time for support, but it only +arrived when, after the sixth Turkish attack--this time successful--he +had been forced to withdraw, and was retreating to his old ground. The +closing scene of his day's operations has been frequently described, but +as his recent escapade gives fresh interest to anything concerning him, +it will lose nothing by repetition: 'It was just after this that I met +General Skobeleff the first time that day. He was in a fearful state of +excitement and fury. His uniform was covered with mud and filth, his +sword broken, his cross of St. George twisted round on his shoulder, his +face black with powder and smoke, his eyes haggard and bloodshot, and +his voice quite gone. He spoke in a, hoarse whisper. I never before saw +such a picture of battle as he presented. I saw him again in his tent at +night. He was quite calm and collected. He said, "I have done my best. I +could do no more. My detachment is half destroyed; my regiments do not +exist. I have no officers left. They sent me no reinforcements, and I +have lost three guns." They were three of the four guns which he placed +in the redoubt upon taking it, only one of which his retreating troops +had been able to carry off. "Why did they refuse you reinforcements?" I +asked. "Who was to blame?" "I blame nobody," he replied; "it is the will +of God!"'[185] + +[Footnote 183: _War Correspondence_, vol. i. pp. 441-442. Cassell +(Ollier), pp. 404-405, where a plan of the Loftcha struggle is given.] + +[Footnote 184: It is not clear what these were; probably the tenth and +thirtieth divisions, composing the fourth corps. Compare _Daily News War +Correspondence_, vol. i. pp. 443 and 444.] + +[Footnote 185: _War Correspondence_, vol. i. pp. 482-483.] + + +VI. + +We have thus loosely described how the Turks had effectually disposed of +the whole Russian attack excepting that of the Roumanians, and now we +must turn for a moment to enquire what was occurring at Grivitza. This +redoubt is constantly referred to by the correspondents as the most +formidable of all the Turkish positions. It is called 'the indomitable +Grivica redoubt;' 'the dreaded redoubt;' 'they' (the Russians) 'may +bombard it for a week, sacrifice a brigade of infantry, and not succeed +in taking it.' 'The Turkish positions,' says one writer, 'opposite to +the Roumanian section, are the stronger both by nature and art. But +there are but 28,000 Roumanians to 50,000 Russians. It seems logically +to follow that the function of the Roumanians is intended to be chiefly +of a demonstrative character.'[186] How 'demonstrative' it was we shall +see presently. + +Already on the 7th and 8th, the Russian siege guns had been pushed +forward in closer proximity to the Grivitza, and on the 9th the +Roumanians worked their batteries nearer to it; whilst on the 10th their +infantry occupied a natural shelter-trench, from which they were picking +off the Turkish gunners in the redoubt. On the same day a couple of +companies of Russians, thinking the redoubt was evacuated, made an +attempt to take it, but when a small party of advancing skirmishers +arrived within a hundred yards of the foot of the glacis, they were +confronted by a row of rifle muzzles and Turkish heads, and thought it +more prudent to retire. + +On the 11th, however, the Roumanians, with whom were three battalions of +Russians, made their 'demonstration' against the Grivitza simultaneously +with the Russian attacks on the other redoubts. Little attention appears +to have been paid to them in the slaughter of that terrible day, but on +the following the correspondents narrated the result of their +operations, and as those not only substantiated the title of the young +army to _elan_ and bravery, but really constituted the turning point in +the war, we will endeavour to follow their brief descriptions of the +events. + + 'It appears,' writes one of the chroniclers, 'that at half-past two + p.m. the redoubt was attacked by two Roumanian brigades each + consisting of four battalions, and three battalions of Russians. + The Roumanians attacked from the east and south-east, the Russians + from the south and south-west. The attack was made in the following + manner:--First a lino of skirmishers with men carrying scaling + ladders, gabions, and fascines among them. The latter had their + rifles slung on their backs, and were ordered in no case to fire + but merely to run forward, fill up the ditch, and place their + ladders behind. Then followed the second line in company column + formation for the attack, followed by the third line to support the + assault. At half-past two p.m. the attack was made by the + Roumanians, and it is said that by some mistake the Russians + arrived half an hour too late. Be that as it may, the assault was + repulsed, and all retired except two companies of infantry, which + rallied, and, keeping under cover, maintained a brisk fire against + the work. + + 'At half-past five the attack was renewed by a battalion of the + Roumanian militia, followed by two Russian battalions of the 17th + and 18th regiments. The redoubt was then carried, and the Turks + withdrew to the other redoubt a little to the north of the captured + work. But it was soon apparent that the redoubt could not be held + without reinforcements, and three Roumanian battalions with a + battery of artillery were ordered forward. They lost their way, + however, in the fog, and were thus precluded from rendering the + required assistance; consequently, when the Turks returned to the + attack, the allies were driven out. + + 'The third assault soon followed, and the work was finally captured + at seven p.m. Four guns and a standard were the trophies of the + feat of arms. More than once during the night did the Turks advance + with shouts of "Allah," but no serious attack was made. Thus, to my + surprise, when I reached the Plevna valley this morning, I beheld a + flagstaff up defiantly exposing the Roumanian flag in that hitherto + dreaded Grivica Redoubt.'[187] + +How sanguinary had been the struggle which is here described in a few +commonplace sentences is manifest from the subsequent appearance of the +captured redoubt. + + 'The interior of this large work was piled up not only with dead + but with wounded, forming one ghastly undistinguishable mass of + dead and living bodies, the wounded being as little heeded as the + dead. The fire had hindered the doctors from coming up to attend to + the wounded, and the same cause had kept back the wounded-bearers. + There were not even comrades to moisten the lips of their wretched + fellow-soldiers, or give them a word of consolation. There they + lie, writhing and groaning. I think some attempt might have been + made, at whatever risk, to aid these poor fellows, for they were + gallant men, who, twenty-four hours before, had so valiantly and + successfully struggled for the conquest of that long-uncaptured + redoubt; and it was sad now to see them dying without any attempt + being made to attend to them. I could fill pages with a description + of this harrowing scene and others near it, which I witnessed, but + the task would be equally a strain on my own nerves and on those of + your readers.'[188] + +But the Roumanians were not contented with holding their position. +Within 250 yards of the Grivitza was another Turkish redoubt whose fire +commanded the former, and that they attempted in vain to take on the +11th. Nothing daunted, however, they held their ground day after day, +and on the 18th they made another gallant but futile attempt to expel +the enemy from his position. 'It is said they will renew it,' writes one +of the spectators, 'and there is plenty of fight in Prince Charles's +gallant young army, but, in my opinion, there is little chance of +success unless they work up to the hostile redoubt by sap.'[189] On +September 24 they were progressing by trenches, and were only 80 yards +from the second Grivitza redoubt. 'Their fighting spirit and cheerful +endurance of hardships are admirable,' we hear. And again, on the 26th: +'The Roumanians are pushing forward their works against the second +redoubt with a perseverance and pluck worthy all praise, and which is +the more remarkable as the Russians are doing absolutely nothing on +their side.'[190] This contrast comes from the pen of the chronicler who +told the story of the twenty Roumanians being taken prisoners by five +Russians, and whose views of the relative merits of the combatants had +evidently undergone considerable modification; for he now says of the +Russians: 'They are waiting for reinforcements, which are arriving +slowly, and which, when they are here, will hardly more than cover the +losses by battle and by sickness during the last two months. I think +history offers no such example of a splendid army in such an utterly +helpless condition. The Roumanian generals are showing far more pluck +and energy.'[191] + +[Illustration: PRINCE (NOW KING) CHARLES OF ROUMANIA, BEFORE PLEVNA + +(_From a Photograph taken on the spot by F. Duschek_.)] + +The Roumanians were unable to capture the second redoubt, but they +managed not only to hold their advanced position before Plevna, but to +give material assistance elsewhere in turning the siege into an +investment. On November 21 they captured Rahova, on the Danube, which +greatly facilitated operations against the doomed fortress and aided to +make the works of the allies impregnable. In the closing incidents of +the investment of Plevna the Roumanians took little or no part in +consequence of the position which they occupied. On the morning of +December 10, Osman Pasha made his brave but unsuccessful attempt to +break through the Russian lines, a struggle in which both sides +performed prodigies of valour. One whole Russian regiment was +annihilated in the effort to check the enemy, whose general was himself +wounded; and after having kept the Russo-Roumanian army at bay with +an inferior force for more than four months, he was at length obliged to +surrender with his whole army. Here is a glimpse of the final scene, as +the wounded hero met his conquerors:-- + + 'The Grand Duke rode up to the carriage, and for some seconds the + two chiefs gazed into each other's faces without the utterance of a + word. Then the Grand Duke stretched out his hand and shook the hand + of Osman Pasha heartily and said: "I compliment you on your defence + of Plevna; it is one of the most splendid military feats in + history." Osman Pasha smiled sadly, rose painfully to his feet in + spite of his wound, said something which I could not hear, and then + reseated himself. The Russian officers all cried "Bravo! bravo!" + repeatedly, and all saluted respectfully. There was not one among + them who did not gaze on the hero of Plevna with the greatest + admiration and sympathy. Prince Charles, who had arrived, rode up, + and repeated unwittingly almost every word of the Grand Duke, and + likewise shook hands. Osman Pasha again rose and bowed, this time + in grim silence.'[192] + +[Footnote 186: _Ibid._ p. 444.] + +[Footnote 187: _Daily War Correspondence,_ vol. i. p. 485.] + +[Footnote 188: _Ibid._ p. 487.] + +[Footnote 189: _Daily News War Correspondence_, vol. i. p. 491.] + +[Footnote 190: _Ibid._ p. 495.] + +[Footnote 191: _Ibid._ p. 496.] + +[Footnote 192: _Daily News Correspondence_, vol. ii. p. 153.] + + +VI. + +How easy it is to be magnanimous to a fallen foe; how difficult, with +some people, to be honourable in their dealings with an ally, especially +if he has been successful where they failed! The first is a claim of +superiority, and the higher the meed of praise awarded by us to the +vanquished the greater appears our victory; but the less we admit to be +due to our comrade in arms, the greater credit is left for ourselves. +And yet what will be the judgment of posterity upon the conduct of +Russia towards her brave ally who had saved her honour, if not the +integrity of her empire? Whatever she may think, the joy-bells would +have rung throughout a great portion of Europe, and certainly the party +then dominant in England would have rejoiced exceedingly, if she had +been driven back over the Pruth, and had been compelled to busy herself +with much-needed reforms in her own country instead of meddling with the +affairs of her neighbours and seeking to extend her already overgrown +possessions. + +The war was never popular with the masses in Roumania, and although, at +the opening of the Chambers in November 1877, the royal speech predicted +that the fall of Plevna would mean a complete emancipation for +Roumania, much uneasiness prevailed concerning the designs of +Russia--uneasiness which was justified by subsequent events. On December +17, a load having been lifted from the mind of the nation by the +surrender of Osman Pasha, there was great rejoicing at Bucarest on the +occasion of the Czar's visit. He was on his way to St. Petersburg to +receive the congratulations of his subjects, having left Plevna behind +him, 'full of horrors.' He is dead now, but his son and all princes who +live by the sword would do well to peruse and reperuse the accounts of +the tragical scenes that the victors left upon the battle-field when +they departed to receive the ovations of the fickle populace. The +Roumanians feted their victorious allies, to whom it must be admitted +that we have here done ample justice in all their proceedings. But they +were the same Russians who, under Peter the Great, were reported to have +stolen the boots from the feet of their sleeping hosts; the same whose +hands the Roumanians had kissed when in 1829 they had released them from +the Turkish yoke; who it 1853 overran the Principalities with a view to +their permanent occupation, and who a few months after the events above +recorded betrayed their allies, and, for the risk they had run of once +more sacrificing their national existence, deprived them of Southern +Bessarabia, a province inhabited almost entirely by Roumanians. + +Still the war brought its compensating advantages. The Dobrudscha which +the Roumanians received in exchange for Bessarabia, is proving a more +valuable acquisition both for trade and for strategical purposes than +was at first anticipated. + +The Treaty of San Stephano, which was executed between Russia and Turkey +on February 19 [March 3], 1878, and was practically confirmed by the +Berlin Conference, contained amongst its other provisions this one (part +of Article V.): 'The Sublime Porte recognises the independence of +Roumania, which will establish its right to an indemnity to be discussed +between the two countries;' and (part of Article XII.): 'All the +Danubian strongholds shall be razed. There shall be no strongholds in +future on the banks of this river, nor any men-of-war in the waters of +the Principalities of Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria, except the usual +_stationnaires_ and the small vessels intended for river police and +custom-house purposes.' And Article XIX. gave to Russia that part of +Turkey bordering on the Danube, known as the Dobrudscha, which Russia +'reserves the right of exchanging for the part of Bessarabia detached +from her by the treaty of 1856,' and which, to the great indignation of +the Roumanians, she subsequently forced them to relinquish in 'exchange' +for her newly acquired territory. + +But _n'importe_. Roumania was free; and this time she had fought for and +won her complete independence. + + +VII. + +There is something unsettled in the nature of an independent +principality. The title fails to convey the idea of a free and sovereign +people, and we are always disposed to regard it as the possible province +of some annexing neighbour. So thought a writer on Roumania four years +ago, at the close of the war of liberation. 'Situated as it is, as an +independent State, it must sooner or later fall to Russia or Austria, +more probably to the former.'[193] So, in all probability, thought the +Russian diplomatists when they created a number of weak principalities +south of the Danube to serve them as stepping-stones to Constantinople. +And so, too, thought the Roumanians themselves. They knew that a name is +'neither hand, nor foot, nor arm, nor face, nor any other part belonging +to a man,' and so they 'doffed the name,' and on May 23, 1881, with the +concurrence of the great Powers of Europe, they invested their prince +and princess with the royal dignity, placing upon their sovereign's head +a crown made from the very guns which he had captured whilst he was +fighting for their liberties. + +The poetic sentiment which attaches to this last act of the people of +Roumania brings vividly before our mind's eye the dramatic character of +her whole national career. Twice have we found the course of her history +lost in darkness--first in the clouds of antiquity by which the early +life of every nation is obscured; then in the still impenetrable gloom +of the so-called dark ages, which continued to hang over the Danubian +plains long after it was lifted from every other part of Europe. +Conquered first, and civilised by one who ranks amongst the greatest +heroes of the Roman Empire, she has inherited a high antiquity of which +she may be justly proud, remembering, however, that honourable ancestry +alone is not the measure of a nation's greatness. But then, for ages we +might almost say, the blast which swept across her plains with all the +fury of a tempest, but, as it travelled westward, broke and moderated +under the influence of the older civilisation, caused a second blank in +her existence; and when she once more rose from her prostration, she +found herself whole centuries behind the western peoples. But hardly had +she time to breathe again, and ere the wounds inflicted on her by the +Goths, and Huns, and Avars were yet fully healed, another ruthless +conqueror had laid hands upon her; and spite of all her efforts to +regain her liberty he held her fast, and sent her taskmasters as cruel +and exacting as the leaders of barbarian hordes had been before. And yet +her spirit was indomitable; bowed but not broken she continued to live +on, and ever strove for freedom. Mircea, Stephen, Michael, those are the +names which vindicate her claim to courage, and which shield her from +the charge of cowardly submission. And next she is the object of +contention between two neighbouring despots, the one endeavouring to +hold, the other to annex her. It is a marvelt hat between them she was +not dismembered limb from limb. + +At length for her, as for all suffering peoples, the day of liberation +was at hand; the iron bonds which Oriental despotism had forged were +loosened by the agency of Western progress, and, lightened of her load, +she this time struck a more effectual blow for liberty, and was amongst +the first to unfurl the flag of freedom in the East. But a long +succession of barbarian governors, the license of repeated military +occupations, the proximity of Tartar savagery on the one side and of +Oriental effeminacy on the other, these incidents of her long-continued +vassalage have necessarily, and, it is to be hoped, but for a time, left +their evil influence upon the nation, which it is now the earnest +endeavour of her patriotic leaders to exterminate. + +[Footnote 193: Ozanne, p. 226.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +PRESENT ROUMANIAN LEADERS AND THEIR POLICY. + + The King--Customs of the Court--The Queen--Her attainments--Extract + from her poetry--Madame Rosetti--Her patriotism and adventures--M. + Constantin A. Rosetti--His career and public services--M. + Bratiano--Other leaders of public opinion--The party of + progress--Their past foreign and domestic policy--Geographical + boundaries--Panslavism and Panroumanism--The future policy of + Roumania--Growth by pacific means--(Note: Comparative values of + Russian, Turkish, and Roumanian securities)--Roumania and Great + Britain--Conclusion. + + +I. + +We have passed in hasty and imperfect review those features in the +national life of Roumania which we believed would be of interest to our +readers, and will now endeavour to present to them sketches of a few of +the persons of distinction who are forming public opinion, and are the +leaders of progress in the country, premising, however, that there are +many omissions, due partly to our own ignorance, and partly to the fact +that the discussion of the merits and demerits of some of the public men +would not have been fitting in this treatise. + +By his rank and patriotism, and not least by his extensive knowledge, +his Majesty King Charles is entitled to our first consideration. Of his +political career we have spoken in our historical summary, and little +more need be added. He was born on April 20, 1839, and is therefore +about forty-three years of age. On November 15, 1869, he married Pauline +Elisabeth, Princess of Wied, who was then about twenty-six years old; +but, unfortunately, the sole offspring of their union, a little girl, +lies interred in the grounds of the Asyle Helene. The King is a handsome +man, rather above the average height, and, so far as his regularly +formed features are concerned, he might belong to any nationality of +Western Europe. He usually wears a somewhat severe expression, but the +moment he begins to converse this at once disappears. His manner is +quiet and earnest, although he often warms into enthusiasm, and he has +the happy faculty of placing all with whom he comes into contact at +perfect ease. He possesses a wide range of information, and speaks with +evident knowledge on all matters of interest to his subjects or to +civilisation. Of course he is well acquainted with his adopted country +and its resources, takes a lively interest in its trade and +capabilities; and so far as the geographical configuration of Roumania +is concerned, he not only knows all about the level country, but has +either ridden or walked through every part of the Carpathians. His +scientific knowledge is such as one might expect in an educated German, +and is chiefly of a practical kind. He is deeply interested in +arboriculture, about which he knows more than many who are entrusted +with the care and fate of the vast woods that clothe the mountain +districts, and he has often pointed out to such persons errors in their +mode of felling timber. In private life the King is hospitable, genial, +and very regular in his habits; he is a devout Catholic, but a constant +attendant upon the services of the Greek Church. + +[Illustration: H.M. PAULINE ELIZABETH, + +FIRST QUEEN OF ROUMANIA. + +IN THE NATIONAL COSTUME. + +(FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ DUSCHEK.)] + +But of course our interest in him is necessarily rather of a public than +of a private character. Is he constitutional? or is Europe likely some +day to be favoured with a Roumanian _coup d'etat_? The answer to these +questions is clear and emphatic. Although a Hohenzollern, he is a +Constitutional Liberal, we should say of an advanced type. We spoke +before of his misunderstandings with his ministers; but even those who +were originally opposed to him, and who watched his every act with +suspicion, state that he has managed with great tact to steer clear of +unconstitutional courses; indeed, from their own admissions and the +facts of history, it is clear that he must have served a very trying +apprenticeship in the art of constitutional rule. His demeanour towards +his subjects and that of his queen, of whom we shall speak presently, is +everything that can be desired, and both are winning their affections +more completely year by year. + +When the court is at Bucarest a great portion of the king's time is +devoted to giving audiences, not only to officials, but to all who +desire to know their sovereign, and even to seek his counsel or that of +his amiable consort. Two books are kept at the palace, one for callers +only, and the other for persons who desire to see and speak with the +king or queen, for they give audiences apart. Those who enter their +names in the second book must give notice to the 'Hofmarschall,' and +they are then sent for in turn, and punctuality above all things is +insisted upon. The king gives audiences from 1 to 3 or 4 p.m.; the queen +for a longer time, and young as she is, for she has not yet attained her +fortieth year, she is regarded as the mother of her people, and many +there are who come to her for advice or consolation. But we are +digressing. If the king interests himself in the civil affairs of +Roumania, he is a soldier before everything else. The virtual as well as +the nominal head of the army, he always wears uniform, and nothing is +too unimportant for his consideration in the organisation of his army. +Those who have been in the field with him and much about his person +extol his coolness, bravery, and endurance. He has often risked his life +in battle, was always to the fore visiting outposts and bivouacs in the +most inclement weather, and there can be no doubt that it is to his +bravery as a general, and to his tact and patience as a statesman, that +Roumania is largely indebted for her independence and her promise in the +future. + + +II. + +The Queen of Roumania is almost too well known in Europe, through her +literary attainments, to need any description here; still a few +particulars concerning her may be of interest to our readers. She is of +the middle height, has an amiable face and still more affable manner. +She, too, might pass for a lady of any western country, having very +little to indicate her German nationality. Her voice is soft and +melodious, and although she can speak well on literary and scientific +subjects, there is not the slightest pedantry or affectation of learning +in her discourse. She is said to speak six languages, and she certainly +speaks Roumanian, French, German, and English. We do not know what the +other two may be, but if she speaks the four languages here named as +fluently and with as little foreign accent as she does our own, she may +fairly claim to be an accomplished linguist. All educated Roumanians +speak French, and most of them German, besides their own tongue; indeed +French is almost the universal language of the middle classes, whilst +those who have been educated here, especially the younger men, naturally +speak English well, and therefore the Queen is in this respect only +somewhat ahead of her more accomplished subjects. But, as we have +already stated, she is a poetess, and her verses are often marked by +great depth of feeling. She possesses, too, considerable scientific +knowledge and great taste in art, and one of her chief desires is to +promote national industry. She sets the example by wearing the national +costume (in which her portrait is usually taken) whilst in the country, +and requires it to be worn on State occasions, her main object being, we +were told, to encourage the peasant women who make these costumes in +their own homes. But whilst in these matters, as in her devotion to +public duty, the Queen identifies herself with the Roumanian people and +their interests, she would not be a German if she had forgotten the +'Fatherland.' + + 'Land of greenwood and of vine, + Sparkling wavelets of the Rhine, + Hushed thy song, afar thy gleam. + All to me, now, but a dream. + + 'Oft when I these eyelids close, + Purling sounds haunt my repose, + Vessels in the sunlight's ray, + 'Fore the wind, speed on their way. + + 'Lovely home on German plain + Once my own, but ne'er again, + Thou wilt be to mem'ry dear + Till they place me on my bier.'[194] + +[Footnote 194: The first three verses of the dedication in _Rumaenische +Dichtungen_, by Carmen Sylva (the Queen's _nom de plume_), Leipzig, W. +Friedrich, 1881. Lest our halting verse should prejudice the illustrious +authoress, we append the original for those who know German:-- + + 'Du Rebenland, du gruener Wald, + Du Rhein mit deinem Schimmer: + Dein Glanz ist fern, dein Sang verhallt, + Ich bin entflohn fuer immer! + + 'Oft, oft schliess' ich die Angen zu, + Dann hoer' ich's singen, rauschen, + Seh' Schiffe zieh'n in sonn'ger Ruh', + Den Wind die Segel bauschen. + + 'Dass ich die schoenste Heimath hab' + In deutschen Gau'n besessen, + Das macht, dass ich sie bis zum Grab + Nun nimmer kann vergessen.' +] + + +III. + +But her Majesty, who is a Protestant, is not the only lady now living +who has made her mark in Roumanian history. There is another of whom we +are sure our readers will be glad to hear something, for she is an +accomplished Englishwoman, and it is very questionable whether, after +all, the Roumanians do not owe their independence as much to her energy +and devotion as to any other cause; we mean Madame Rosetti, the wife of +the Home Secretary.[195] It was mentioned in our historical summary that +the patriots of 1848 made their escape to France in that year, and that +they returned after the Crimean war in 1856. That is a long story told +in a, couple of sentences, and but for Madame Rosetti it is probable +they would never have escaped, but would have languished and died in a +Turkish prison in Bosnia, whilst Roumania might have been at this day a +Turkish pashalik or a Russian province. The fact is that all the leaders +of the revolution, fifteen in number, were arrested and conveyed on +board a Turkish man-of-war lying in the Danube; and Madame Rosetti, +whose heroic adventures have formed the theme of a work by +Michelet,[196] helped them to escape from their captors. As we have +already said, she is an Englishwoman, whose maiden name was Grant, and +she had only been married about a year when the revolution broke out. +Her first child was born a day or two before her husband and his +comrades were arrested, but she at once left her bed, and, taking her +infant in her arms, prepared to follow them. First she managed to obtain +an interview with the patriots on board the Turkish vessel to which they +had been conveyed, and there plans were formed which she skilfully and +courageously executed. Disguising herself as a peasant, and carrying her +child, she followed them up the Danube to Orsova, communicating with her +friends from time to time by signals. At Orsova the prisoners were +landed, and whilst they were on shore she succeeded in making their +guards intoxicated, and, with the connivance of the authorities, +prepared suitable conveyances, in which the patriots made their escape. +First they passed through Servia, and reaching Vienna in safety they +entered that city the day after the bombardment, and subsequently they +made their way through Germany, accompanied by their deliverer, and +found a hospitable asylum in Paris. Since her return Madame Rosetti has +been as valuable a coadjutor to her husband in his prosperity as she was +in his adversity, and she is also a useful and willing adviser to any of +her countrymen who, visiting Roumania, may stand in need of her +assistance. + +[Footnote 195: When the above lines were penned, M. Rosetti was the Home +Secretary, although he has since resigned. It was as such that we knew +him, and we therefore prefer to leave our account, of him and his +amiable lady as it was originally written.] + +[Footnote 196: _Legendes demoeratiques du Nord_, Madame Rosetti, p. 279 +_et seq._] + + +IV. + +Her husband, his Excellency Constantin A. Rosetti, has also reaped the +reward of his devotion to his country's welfare. He is of an old boyard +family of Italian origin, and in his early youth he was not only a +soldier in the national army, but his pen also gained for him a +considerable reputation, for he composed and published many interesting +Roumanian poems. At the age of about thirty-two years he married the +English lady to whom he owes so much, and of his adventures in 1848 we +have already twice spoken. Before he permanently took up his residence +in Paris after his escape, we believe he spent some time in +Constantinople. In Paris he was the companion of Michelet, Quinet, and +other leading writers, and with them and his countrymen the brothers +Bratiano and Golesco lie managed by his patriotic publications to keep +the lamp of liberty burning in his own country. Here, too, he is said to +have enjoyed the support of our own distinguished statesman, William +Ewart Gladstone, who was subsequently made a Roumanian citizen by an Act +of the legislature about the year 1861, and whom the Roumanians still +regard with feelings of great respect and admiration. On the return of +M. Rosetti to Roumania after the Crimean war he founded the 'Romanal' a +daily paper which still occupies a high position amongst the journals of +the capital, and which remains his property.[197] He took a conspicuous +part in the union of the Principalities under Prince Couza, and +supported that prince whilst his proceedings were constitutional, but he +was one of the most active agents in his deposition, and the only +serious objection that has been taken to his acts and those of his +colleagues on that occasion is that he employed the army to bring about +the prince's overthrow. To this matter, however, we have already +referred in our historical summary. In 1866 he was one of the +provisional government, and was at first by no means favourably disposed +towards the present king, who was, we believe, recommended to the +Roumanians by the Emperor Napoleon III. In later times, however, he +became one of his Majesty's most faithful advisers. + +[Illustration: Constantin A. Rosetti] + +M. Rosetti is about sixty-seven years of age, full of life and energy. +His career of hardship has somewhat bowed his physical frame, but it has +in no way interfered with his cheerful and kindly disposition. In +appearance he is an Italian, has very prominent but mild eyes, and a +most thoughtful, somewhat careworn countenance. He is _vif_, hot and +excitable, and not unfrequently lets his voice be heard if anything is +going wrong in public affairs, and something is very often going wrong +in Roumania. He speaks Roumanian, French, and German, and can write +English (of which he is fond of interjecting an expressive word now and +then when he is speaking in French) fairly well. Unfortunately for +scandal-mongers, of whom there are a good many in the capital and +elsewhere, M. Rosetti lives with great simplicity on the premises of the +'Romanul,' and upon, the profits of his paper and his salary; so they +are unable to charge him with peculation, which they would certainly do +if he gave them the slightest justification. He is a Radical, and an +uncompromising enemy of _coups d'etat_, and of despotism or +unconstitutional proceedings in any form, a man of unflinching honesty +and the leader of political thought in his country. In fact, he is a +patriot, and his countrymen know and appreciate the fact. + +They usually couple his name with that of M. Bratiano, who is President +of the Council and Minister of Finance, and, so far as temperament is +concerned, the very opposite of his colleague. M. Bratiano is a quiet, +courteous gentleman, somewhat younger than M. Rosetti. His features are +regular and handsome, his beard and hair iron-grey, and his voice even +and melodious. He is full of pleasant humour, and has the bearing and +manner of an English gentleman; but although an excellent debater, he is +not a good linguist. In Roumania they say, 'Rosetti thinks and Bratiano +speaks,' but Bratiano thinks as well as speaks. So completely at one are +the two statesmen that many of the uninformed poorer classes who have +not seen them believe them to be one person, whom they call +'Bratiano-Rosetti,' and whilst we were in Bucarest we saw a caricature +(an art in which the Roumanians take great delight) where the two +statesmen were depicted as the Siamese twins. + +[Illustration: M. BRATIANO.] + +The aim and policy of M. Bratiano are well expressed in one of his +despatches on the question of the Danube, which were made public by that +diplomatic phenomenon M. Callimaki-Catargi. 'Our attitude,' he says, +'like the whole policy of the ministry to which I belong, has always +been, and ever should be, defensive, not offensive.'[198] + +Amongst the other leaders of political thought in Roumania is Prince +Demeter Ghika, President of the Senate, a fine burly good-natured +gentleman of the old school; Prince Jon Ghika, at present the Roumanian +Ambassador in London, a patriot and a savant, whose sons were educated +in England; M. Statesco, the Foreign Minister, a young and promising +statesman; M. Stourdza, the director of the National Credit Association; +and there are doubtless many others of whom we do not like to speak +without a nearer acquaintance, or better information than we possess. +One of these is M. Cogalniceanu, a deputy, who has written a good +history of Roumania, was a minister under Prince Couza, and we believe +the author of the celebrated Act of 1864 which created the peasant +proprietary of the country.[199] + +[Footnote 197: There are daily papers in Bucarest for readers of every +nationality resident there, the _Romanal, Independance Roumaine, +Bukarester Tagblatt_, &c., all of which are free to say whatever they +please--_and they say it!_] + +[Footnote 198: Despatch, February 1, 1880.] + +[Footnote 199: Of the leaders of intellectual thought and industries in +Roumania we have already spoken elsewhere.] + + +V. + +From men to measures is a natural transition in politics. Although we +have endeavoured to show, and do not hesitate to repeat here, that some +of the great principles laid down in the Constitution of Roumania are +only beginning to be carried out in practice, it is but just to add that +the vigour and energy with which the party of progress has of late years +developed the resources of the country is a matter of surprise and +admiration even to foreigners resident there who are acquainted with our +Western methods. The present _regime_ began, as we have already said, in +1875, and since that time the foreign policy of the party in power first +liberated the nation from the last vestige of foreign despotism; then +firmly established it as a European kingdom. That they occasionally +make mistakes no one can deny. For example, the recent announcement in +the speech from the throne, that Roumania was prepared in the present +and future for every sacrifice which it might be necessary to make to +ensure in all respects absolute facility of navigation of the Danube, +appears to an outsider to have been an error in judgment, if the +government were not prepared to hear with equanimity of the threatened +departure of the ambassador of a neighbouring State which had put the +cap upon its head, and against whose unwarrantable pretensions the +remark was directed. But it is easy to be wise after the event, and we +admit that it is presumptuous for anyone to criticise hastily any matter +that is being tossed about on the troubled sea of Oriental politics. +Living as we do on a seagirt isle which is practically unapproachable to +an external foe, and having for centuries enjoyed the blessings of +freedom, we can have no conception of the difficult cards which +Roumanian statesmen have to play in the political game in which they are +often compelled, much against their desire, to participate. From time to +time they hear great international theories propounded for the benefit +of their powerful neighbours, to which they are compelled to close their +ears, however nearly those principles may apply to their own condition. +Suppose, for example, some European Power claims new territory on the +ground of geographical position. Why, ask the Roumanians, should we be +hemmed in as we are on every side? Why should not the plains on both +sides of the Danube guarded by the Balkans and the Carpathians +constitute a strong realm, one and indivisible, with the great river +flowing as an artery through its centre? The answer is, Russia! If an v +of the Great Powers had insisted upon such a readjustment in the East, +she would have opposed it, for is not Bulgaria her last stepping-stone +to Constantinople? 'Skobeleff the First, King of Bulgaria' would suit +her aims far better. This reminds one of 'Panslavism.' Who will deny the +right of adjacent branches of the same race to live under one +government? Admitted; but then why not also Panroumanism? In that case +considerable portions of Austro-Hungary, Bessarabia, Bulgaria, Servia, +would have to be added to the present dominions of King Charles of +Roumania; for there are almost as many Roumanians in those countries as +there are within the present boundaries of the kingdom.[200] + +But if Roumanian statesmen are permitted to enjoy their _reflections_ on +these interesting political topics, they know that it would be unsafe to +publish them, for, as we have seen, if they venture even, to cry too +loudly 'Roumania for the Roumanians,' some hectoring neighbour instantly +takes the alarm and threatens to withdraw its ambassador; and in case of +a fracas between any two such neighbouring States, even the rights which +she at present enjoys would hardly be respected. Her policy is therefore +tolerably well defined, and it was ably set forth in the royal speech +which contained that dangerous reference to Austrian pretensions. Peace +is requisite for her, in order that her Parliament may occupy itself in +developing the riches of the soil and the economic interests of the +country; but the organisation of a strong defensive army is equally +necessary to protect those interests from grasping and despotic States +in her vicinity, and because, 'by the development of all the forces of +the nation, Roumania will become an element of order, peace, and +progress in Eastern Europe.' In fact, she must make herself, by peaceful +measures, what Michael the Brave succeeded for a very short time, and +from motives of personal ambition, in making her by the sword in his +day, the arbiter of surrounding nations, the Belgium of the East, which +no aggressive despot would dare to assail; and she must become +sufficiently strong to resist not only inimical but friendly foreign +occupations, which have such a demoralising effect upon her people. + +On this undertaking her Government has already for some years past been +embarked. It has secured railway property for the State which was in the +hands of aliens, has begun to improve watercourses, created national +credit institutions, reduced the interest upon the national debt, +increased the value of Roumanian securities, and has generally followed, +as it still pursues, the ways of 'peace, retrenchment, and reform.'[201] + +We have no wish to patronise Roumania even in words, for her best friend +is he who tells her to depend entirely on her own resources and develop +those herself; to carve her fortunes, and to shape her ends. But when we +look upon her sufferings, reflecting how for ages she has lain beneath +the claws of savage enemies, quailed under despots who sucked the +lifeblood of the nation, and then compare her constitutional democracy +with ours--nay, if alone from a material point of view we weigh the +interest we have in her prosperity, we cannot fail to see that in the +East is rising up a Power, in part of our creation, young and weak as +yet, but full of hope and promise; and therefore, in concluding this +imperfect record of her 'past and present,' we heartily commend her +future to the earnest watchfulness of every English friend of liberty. + +[Footnote 200: According to some, there are more.] + +[Footnote 201: Although we have endeavoured as much as possible to avoid +burdening this popular treatise with statistics, one set of figures +which have been kindly supplied to us by friends at Bucarest and in +London is so significant, and indeed of such general interest, that we +must claim the reader's indulgence for giving it _in extenso_. It +comprises the values of Russian, Turkish, and Roumanian securities from +1870 to 1880, which are as follows:-- + + TURKISH. + RUSSIAN. General Five per Cent. ROUMANIAN. + Six per Cents. Debt. Oppenheim. + +1870 83-1/2 to 94-1/2 45 to 51 75 to 98 +1871 88 " 97 44-1/2 " 52-1/2 86 " 96-1/2 +1872 95 " 100 46-1/2 " 55 91 " 104 +1873 96 " 100-1/2 45 " 47 98 " 104 +1874 97 " 103 45 " 46-1/2 98 " 108 +1875 95 " 104-1/2 23 " 45 100 " 109 +1876 74 " 100-1/2 11-1/2 " 23 74 " 106 +1877* 71 " 93 6-1/2 " 11-1/2 58 " 91 +1878* 74 " 91 8-1/2 " 12 87 " 105 +1879 84 " 93 10-1/2 " 12 93 " 110 +1880 85 " 96 10 " 12-1/2 102 " 112 + +And in 1881 the prices of the Oppenheim loan ranged from 105 to 116. +From these eloquent figures it will be seen that whilst Russia has been +stationary, and Turkey has fallen 75 per cent, the condition and +security of Roumania has risen, roughly speaking, 25 per cent, in the +eslimation of the financial world during the last ten years. The two +years marked with an asterisk were years of war.] + + + + +APPENDICES. + + + + +APPENDIX I. + + +_Table of Movements and Settlements of various Nationalities and Tribes +in the Provinces bordering on the Lower Danube between the Getic period +and about the end of the Thirteenth Century, A.D., compiled by +the Author, and corrected from the Ancient Historians (Tacitus, Dion +Cassius, Eutropius) and the works of Gibbon, Smith, Lesage, Engel, +Lauriani, Neigebaur, Henke, Wilkinson, Merivale, Freeman, Dierauer, +Roesler, Pic, and others._ + ++--------------+--------------------------------------------+------------------+ +| | _APPROXIMATE DATES OF_ | | +|_NATIONALITY +-----------+-----------+----------+---------+ | +|or TRIBE, with|_First | |_By whom |_Final | _Remarks_ | +|supposed |appearance |_Term of |and when |Disappea-| | +|Subdivisions_ |in Danubian|Domination_|Conquered_|rance_ | | +| |Provinces_ | | | | | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |Believed to be of | +|GETAE--Getae | 335 B.C. | ? | ? | ? |Thracian origin; | +|and _Dacians_ | | | | |not clearly | +| | | | | |traceable. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The Dacians rose | +| |(Successors| | | |against the Romans| +| |of or | |Romans | |under Ant. Pius | +| DACIANS |contempo- | ? B.C. to |(Trajan), | See |and at other | +| |rary with | A.D. 106 |A.D. 106 | Remarks |times, but were | +| |Getae) | | | |probably fused | +| | | | | |with the Romans | +| | | | | |and the barbarians| +| | | | | |who followed them.| ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |A considerable | +| | | | | |proportion of the | +| | | |Withdrew | |Roman and Daco- | +| ROMANS |1st century|106 A.D. to|before the| ? |Roman descendants | +| |B.C. |274 A.D. |Goths | |fused with | +| | | |about 274 | |succeeding tribes,| +| | | |A.D. | |and their descen- | +| | | | | |dants survive in | +| | | | | |Roumania to-day. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |About 376 A.D. | +| | | | | |they crossed the | +| | | | | |Danube, driven | +|GOTHS-- | | | | |before the Huns, | +|Ostrogoths, | 250 A.D. |274 to 375 |Huns, 375 | 378 A.D.|and were allowed | +|Visigoths, | |A.D. |A.D. | |to settle with | +|_Gepidae_ | | | | |other tribes in | +| | | | | |Moesia. Sometimes | +| | | | | |the Goths and Huns| +| | | | | |were allied. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +|Sarmatians, | | | | |The Sarmatians | +|Quadi, | | | | |fought against the| +|Marcomanni | | | | |Romans at various | +|invaded Dacia | |282 to 375 |Romans, | |periods, but were | +|at various | |A.D. |375 A.D. | |conquered by | +|times; | | | | |Valentinian, 375 | +|_Sarmatians_ | | | | |A.D. | +|settled. | | | | | | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The Huns were | +| | | | | |driven eastward, | +| | | | | |but returned a few| +|HUNS (and |370 to 375 |375 A.D. to|Gepidae, | 460 A.D.|years afterwards, | +|Alani) |A.D. |about 453 |453 A.D. | |overran Italy, and| +| | | | | |are mentioned as | +| | | | | |being in Dacia | +| | | | | |about 564 A.D. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| |See above |453 to |Lombards | | | +| GEPIDAE |(Goths) |550-564 |and Avari,| 568 A.D.| | +| | |A.D. |550 A.D. | | | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The Lombards, | +| | | | | |allied to the | +| | | | | |Avari, overran a | +| | | | | |great part of | +| LOMBARDS | 550 A.D. | 561 to ? |Joined the| |Dacia and | +| | | |Byzantines| |Pannonia, and, | +| | | | | |entering the army | +| | | | | |of Justinian, left| +| | | | | |their possessions | +| | | | | |to the Avari. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | |Dispersed.| |The Avari were | +| | |564 to |Part anni-|End |alternately | +| AVARI | 550 A.D. |616-640 |hilated by|seventh |masters and | +| | |(intermit- |Heraclius |century |vassals of other | +| | |tently) |(610-640) | |tribes. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The Bulgari were | +| | | | | |of Scythian | +| | |634 (with | | |origin, and many | +| | |Slaves) |Byzantines| |tribes have been | +| BULGARI |493 to 499 |679 (alone)|(Basilius)|See |included in them | +| |A.D. |to |1014-1019 |Remarks |by different | +| | |1014-1019 | | |authors. Amongst | +| | | | | |them, the | +| | | | | |Wallachs, Croats, | +| | | | | |Moravians | +| | | | | |(Lesage). | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The Slaves settled| +| | | | | |in detachments in | +| | | | | |various parts, | +| | | | | |from the Euxine to| +| | | | | |the Adriatic Sea, | +| SLAVES |493 to 527 |See Remarks|See | |and, allied with | +| | | |Remarks | |one or more | +| | | | | |tribes, fought the| +| | | | | |Byzantines. Many | +| | | | | |merged into the | +| | | | | |general | +| | | | | |population. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |For some time | +| | | | | |Dacia was | +|BYZANTINE | | 1014 to ? | | |nominally | +|EMPIRE | | | | |incorporated with | +| | | | | |the Empire. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | |Stephen | | | +|UNGRI-- | |Powerful in|(about | |Transylvania was | +|Hungarians or |824 to 839 |Dacia Tra- |997) foun-| |annexed to Hungary| +|Magyars |A.D. |jana tenth |ded Hunga-| |either 1002 or | +| | |century |rian King-| |1070 A.D. | +| | | |dom | | | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | |Disappea-|The Patzinakitai, | +|PATZINAKITAI |End of |Powerful | |red in |settled chiefly in| +|(probably |ninth |tenth |Came under|Hungary |the Carpathians, | +|mixed race) |century |century |Kumani &c.|about |are associated | +| | | | |1275 |with Wallachs and | +| | | | | |Kumani as vassals.| ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The Kumani | +|KUMANI |1047 A.D. |Powerful |Settled | |dominated over and| +|(and |(with |1083 to |and | |absorbed other | +|Chazars) |Chazars) |1220 |baptised | |tribes on the | +| | | |1220 A.D. | |Carpathians. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The Wallachs were | +| | | | | |a race of | +|WALLACHO- | | | | |shepherds; | +|BULGARIAN | | | | |considered by some| +|EMPIRE-- |Wallachs, |1199 to |Tartars, | |an independent | +|(Wallachs, |976-1037 |1246-1285 |about | |tribe (see above | +|called also | | |1246-1285 | |remarks on | +|Romani, | | | | |Bulgari), by | +|Blachi, &c.) | | | | |others descendants| +| | | | | |of the Daco-Roman | +| | | | | |colonists. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | | | | |The King of | +| | | | | |Hungary, as | +| | | | | |suzerain of | +|TEUTONIC | |Teut. Knts.| | |Transylvania and | +|KNIGHTS and | |1200 to | | |part of | +|KNIGHTS OF ST.| |1223; Knts.| | |Wallachia, gave | +|JOHN | |St. John | | |the government of | +| | |1249 to ? | | |certain districts | +| | | | | |to the Teutonic | +| | | | | |Knights in 1200, | +| | | | | |but withdrew it in| +| | | | | |1223 A.D. | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ +| | |Made in- | | | | +| | |roads into | | | | +| | |'Moldavia' | | | | +| | |and Walla- |Retired | |At the same time | +|TARTARS (or |About 1240 |chia 13th |northward | |there were smaller| +|Mongols) | |century. |to Russia.| |voivodeships, | +| | |Ruled in |Founded | |banates, and | +| | |Moldavia |the Tartar| |khanates north of | +| | |13th and |Dynasty. | |the Danube. | +| | |first half | | | | +| | |of 14th | | | | +| | |century. | | | | ++--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+ + + + + +APPENDIX II. + +THE 'CAPITULATIONS.' + + +The original 'Capitulation' of Mircea I. of Wallachia to the Sultan +Bajazid I. at Nicopolis, 1393 A.D., is contained in a +'Hatthoumaioun' of the latter, said to have been preserved in +Constantinople, and there seen by a Roumanian called Kitzorano, who was +attached to the Wallachian Embassy, and who took a copy of it (along +with others), which he sent to the Great Ban Takanitza Vacaresco. The +Greek historian, Dionysius Photino, also saw it at the Porte, and +published a copy of it in his 'History of Dacia,' vol. ii. cap. v. p. +369, a work which the reader will find in the British Museum. This runs +as follows:-- + +'We order, in our great condescension, that the country of Wallachia, +which has lately submitted to our invincible arms, shall be governed by +its own laws, and that the Voivode shall have the power of making war +and peace with his neighbours and of life and death over his subjects. +All Christians belonging to the countries subject to our rule who would +emigrate to Wallachia shall be allowed the free exercise of their +religion. All Wallachians visiting our empire on business shall be +allowed to do so without interference in the same or in their garments. +The Christian voivodes to be elected by the metropolitan and the +boyards. In return for our great condescension in having accepted this +rayah (the Voivode of Wallachia) amongst the other subjects of our +empire, he will be bound to pay into our treasury, every year, the sum +of 6,000 red piastres of the country.' + +Translations of this capitulation are to be found in the French +histories of Roumania, but they are not always trustworthy; for example, +Beaure and Mathorel (Appendix, p. 203) profess to give a verbatim copy, +in which the last article declares that the Sultan promises never to +deliver a firman to a Wallachian subject, nor to summon him to +_Constantinople_. A moment's reflection would have shown the inaccuracy +of this statement, for Constantinople was at that time still the capital +of the Eastern Empire, and only fell into the Ottoman power in 1453. The +stipulation in question is the last in the treaty with Vlad (V.?), 1460. + +The 'Capitulation' of Bogdan of Moldavia to Selim I., 1513, was in some +respects more favourable to the vassal State. Amongst other +stipulations, it provided for the residence in Constantinople of a +Moldavian envoy, and permitted a Christian church to be erected there. +The annual tribute was, however, raised and consisted of 11,000 +piastres, forty falcons, and forty mares in foal, 'all by way of +present.' In both countries, after each war or insurrection fresh +stipulations, including a constantly increasing tribute, were added. + + + + +APPENDIX III. + +THE ROUMANIAN CONSTITUTION. + + +The Constitution of Roumania contains one hundred and thirty-three +articles, and is framed with great regard to justice and to the national +liberties. The following are some of its leading provisions. The country +is divided into districts, the districts into arrondissements, the +arrondissements into communes.[202] It grants (Article 5) freedom of +conscience, of instruction, of the press, and of public meeting. +Abolishes (10 and 12)[203] distinctions and privileges of class and +foreign titles, such as Prince, Count, Baron, &c., as being contrary to +ancient institutions.[204] Capital punishment is abolished except under +martial law in time of war (18). The property of the peasantry and the +indemnity to landowners are inviolable (20). The Greek Catholic religion +is made the State Church, but all other sects are allowed freedom of +worship (21). Primary instruction is gratuitous and compulsory (23), and +primary schools are to be established in every commune. Freedom of +speech, except as to breaches of the Criminal Code, is unrestricted; +press offences must be tried by jury, and no journal can be 'warned,' +suspended, or suppressed; neither is there any kind of 'censure' of the +press (24). Freedom of assemblage (26) and the right to petition (28) +are confirmed; and the extradition of political exiles is forbidden. All +crimes are to be tried by jury (105). The legislative power is vested in +the Prince and the national representatives, namely, the Senate and the +Chamber of Deputies (32). But money bills and matters relating to the +army contingents must originate with the latter (33). + +The executive power is vested in the prince (35) (now the king), who is +hereditary in the male line only (82), and who must belong to the +Orthodox Greek Church. He is inviolate, his ministers only being +responsible, and one of them must countersign all his decrees (92). He +sanctions, and may refuse his assent to, all laws; has the right of +amnesty (93); is the head of the army, makes war, concludes peace, and +performs the other acts of a constitutional sovereign. Should a vacancy +occur in the throne, various provisions exist for the eventuality, and +in case of failure of issue the two Assemblies conjointly 'elect a +prince of one of the sovereign dynasties of Western Europe' (84). +(Rather vague, but very significant.) + +The Chamber of Deputies consists of members elected by direct and by +indirect voting. The constituency is divided into four 'colleges' or +groups (58). The first college in each district comprises persons having +incomes from property (_foncier_) of not less than 300 ducats, equal to +about 141_l._ (59). The second college includes those with an income +ranging from 100 to 300 ducats (47_l._ to 141_l._)(60). The third (61) +comprises persons in trade paying the State 80 francs (about 3_l._ +4_s._) or upwards per annum. Members of the liberal professions, +half-pay officers, and some others, are exempted from the money +qualification. These colleges elect each one Deputy, and the towns elect +an additional number according to their importance, from such places as +Pitesti two to Bucarest five. The fourth college elects indirectly. It +consists of all persons who pay any taxes or contributions, however +small. In this college each set of fifty electors names a delegate, and +the delegates elect a Deputy. The Deputies (of whom there are to-day one +hundred and forty-five) must be Roumanians, born or naturalised, must +have attained the age of twenty-five, and must live in Roumania (66). +The duration of the Chamber of Deputies is four years. + +The Senate is elected by two colleges, being the two highest for the +election of Deputies. It consists to-day of seventy-six members, and +includes a number of high officials who are not elective, such as the +archbishop and bishops. The qualification for a Senator is an income of +800 ducats (equal to about 376_l._) per annum, and he must have attained +the age of forty years. The Senators are elected for eight years, one +half retiring every four years, except in case of a dissolution of the +Senate, when all must be re-elected, or, more properly speaking, a new +Senate must be chosen (68 to 81). The Act of the Constitution deals +with the judicial system, the Code Napoleon being in force in Roumania, +with finances, army organisation, and other important matters of +national interest. The Act is signed by the Prince and his Ministers: +The Minister of the Interior and President of the Council, L. Catargi; +the Minister of Finance, J. Bratiano; the Minister of Justice, J. +Cantacuzene; the Minister of Foreign Affairs, P. Mavrogeni; the Minister +of Public Worship and Instruction, C.A. Rosetti; the Minister of War, J. +Ghika; the Minister of Public Works, Agriculture, and Commerce, D. +Stourdza. + +[Footnote 202: This abstract is made from the French translation of the +Constitution; the actual divisions of the country are as follows:-- + +_Judetu_ is a department or district, the head of which is a prefect. Of +these there are at present thirty-two in all. + +_Plasa_, subdivision of a _Judetu_, the head of which is a sub-prefect. + +_Comuna_, a parish. + +_Urba_, a city. + +_Orage_, a town.] + +[Footnote 203: The numbers in parentheses refer to the articles.] + +[Footnote 204: A few old families have retained their titles, but many +who would have the same justification for doing so have discontinued +their use.] + + + + +APPENDIX IV. + +THE PEASANT PROPRIETARY OF ROUMANIA. + + +The precise terms and circumstances under which the peasant proprietary +was formed in Roumania, as communicated to us by Prince Jon Ghika, are +as follows:-- + +Before the 'Convention of Balta Liman' between Russia and Turkey, there +were three classes of peasantry: + +1. Those who possessed four beasts of burden and one cow. +2. " " " two " " " " +3. " " " one cow only. + +By the Convention above named each class was to receive the following +land, to be paid for in certain cases by twenty-two days' labour, 1/10th +of the harvest and 1/5th of the hay. + +CLASS 1.--(11 pogones, or 5-1/2 hectares), or about 14 acres, +namely: + + 3 pogones = about 3-8/10 acres arable. + 3 " = " 3-8/10 " hay. + 5 " = " 6-4/10 " pasturage. + +CLASS 2.--7-8/10 pogones, or about 10 acres, viz.: + 3-8/10 acres arable. + 3-8/10 " pasturage. + 2-8/10 " hay; and + +CLASS 3.--4-1/2 pogones, or about 5-1/2 acres, viz.: + 3-8/10 acres arable. + 1-2/10 " hay. + 6/10 " pasturage. + +In 1864 these holdings, varying, therefore, from 5 to 14 acres, were +converted into freeholds at about 2_l._ per acre, repayable (as stated +in the text) in fifteen years, with 10 per cent. interest. + +Mr. White, our Minister at Bucarest, has favoured us with the following +information on the same subject:-- + +The peasant heads of families who were endowed with land (in 1864) +received freeholds: + +In Wallachia 279,684, averaging 9.1 English acres. + " Moldavia 127,214 " 12.08 " " + 406,898 holdings, average 10.6 " + + + + +APPENDIX V. + +LIST OF WORKS. + + +The following works, all of which have been consulted in the preparation +of this treatise, deal either with the past history or present condition +of Roumania. The words italicised are those used in the notes appended +to the text, where also references will be found to other books and +official reports, of which the titles are given in full. + +_Almanach de Gotha_. Justus Perthes, Gotha. 1882. 'Royaume de +Roumanie,' pp. 898-907. + +Annual _Report of the Board of Trade_, 1880. + +_Aurelian_, Odobesco, and others (Commission princiere). '_Notice_ sur +la Roumanie.' Paris: A. Frank. 1867. + +_Aurelian_, '_Terra Nostra_.' Bucuresci, Tipografia Academiei Romane. +1880. + +_Beaure et Mathorel_. 'La Roumanie.' Calmann-Levy, Paris. 1878. + +_Cantacuzene_. 'Cenni sulla Romania.' (Roumanian Geographical Society.) +1875. + +_Carmen Sylva_ (the Queen of Roumania). 'Rumaenische Dichtungen.' +Leipzig: Friedrich. 1881. + +_Carra_. 'Histoire de la Moldavie et de la Valachie.' Jassy. 1777. +Consular Reports on Roumania (referred to specially in the text)-- + Consul-General Green. May 1873. + Consul-General Vivian. October 1876. + Consul-General Sanderson. 1877. + Vice-Consul Bonham. 1878. +Sold by King, King Street, Westminster. + +_Dierauer_, Johannes. 'Beitraege zur Geschichte Trajan's.' Leipzig: +Teubner. 1868. + +_Dion Cassius._ 'Histoire Romaine' de, par E. Gros. Paris: Firmin +Didot. 1867. + +_Engel_. 'Geschichte der Moldau und Walachei' (in 'Allgemeine +Weltgeschichte,' Band 49). Halle: Gebauer. 1801. + +_Felix_, Doctor L. 'Miscarea Populatiunii Romaniei.' Bucuresci: +Tipografia Academiei. 1880. + +_Fife-Cookson_. 'With the Armies of the Balkans.' Cassell. 1880. + +_Filek_ von Wittinghausen. 'Das Koenigreich Rumaenien.' Wien: +Carl Gerold's Sohn. 1881. + +_Freeman_, Edward A. 'Historical Essays.' Macmillan. 1879. 'General +Sketch of European History.' Macmillan. 1877. + +_Gerando_. A. de. 'Siebenbuergen und seine Bewohner.' Lorck, +Leipzig. 1845. + +_Gibbon's_ 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.' Tegg's edition. + +_Hallam's_ 'Middle Ages.' Murray. 1860. + +_Hammer_-Purgstall. 'Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches.' 4 vols. +Hartleben, Pesth. 1834-1836. + +_Hauer_, Franz Ritter von. 'Geologie Siebenbuergen's.' + +_Henke_, Rudolf. 'Rumaenien, Land und Volk.' Leipzig: Otto Wigand. +1877. + +_Kogalnitchan_, M. de. 'Histoire de la Dacie, des Valaques +Transdanubiens et de la Valacie.' Berlin: Behr. 1854. + +_Kunisch_. 'Eine Fahrt nach dem Orient.' Berlin: Effert & Lindtner. +1869. + +_Lauriani_, A. Treb. 'Schneller Ueberblick der Geschichte der Romaenen.' +Bukuresti: Buchdruckerei des National-Collegiums. 1846. + +_Lesage_, A. 'Atlas Historique.' Paris: P. Didot aine. 1823. + +_Merivale_. 'The Romans under the Empire.' London: Longmans. +1852-1862. + +_Michelet_. 'Legendes democratiques du Nord.' Madame Rosetti, +1848. Paris: Garnier. 1854. + +_Neigebaur_, J.F. 'Moldau und Walachei.' J.U. Kern, Breslau. +1854. + +_Obedenare_, M.C. 'La Roumanie Economique.' Paris: Leroux. +1876. + +_Ozanne_. 'Three Years in Roumania.' Chapman & Hall. 1878. + +_Paget_. 'Hungary and Transylvania.' London: Murray. 1850. + +_Peters_, Prof. K.F. 'Die Donau und ihr Gebiet.' Leipzig: Brockhaus. +1876. + +_Petermann's_ 'Mittheilungen.' Ergaenzungsheft 4. Justus Perthes, +Gotha. + +_Photino_, Dionysius. [Greek: Historia tes palai Dakias]. Vienna: Svek. +1818. + +_Pic_, Jos. Lad. 'Ueber die Abstammung der Rumaenen.' Leipzig: +Duncker & Humblot. 1880. + +_Piranese_. Engravings of Trajan's Column. + +_Quinet_, Edgar, Oeuvres Completes de. Tome vi., 'Les Roumains.' +Pagnerre, Paris. 1857. + +_Raicewich_. 'Bemerkungen ueber die Moldau und Wallachey.' Wien: +Edeln von Kurzbeck. 1789. + +_Regnault_. 'Histoire des Principantes Danubiennes. Paulin & Chevalier, +Paris. 1855. + +_Reissenberger_, Ludwig. 'Die bischoefliche Klosterkirche bei +Kurtea d'Argyisch.' Wien: K.K. Hof-und Staatsdruckerei. 1860. + +_Roesler_, Robt. 'Romianische Studien.' Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot. +1871. + +_Russo-Turkish War_, Cassell's History of the. Cassell. + +_Russo-Turkish 'War Correspondence_' of the 'Daily News.' Macmillan. +1878. + +_Smith_, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman _Biography_. Murray. +Dictionary of Ancient _Geography_. Murray. 1872-1873. + +_Stanley_. 'Rouman Anthology.' Hertford: Austin. 1856. + +'_Statistica din Romania_.' Bucuresci: Tipografia Statululiu. +1880. + +_Tacitus_, Bohn's. + +_Teutschlaender_, W. St. 'Michael der Tapfere.' Wien: Graeser. +Bucarest: Sotschek. 1879. + +_Tocilesco_. 'Dacia inainte de Romani.' Bucuresci: +Tipografia Academiei Romane. 1880. + +_Vaillant_, J.A. 'La Romanie.' Paris: A. Bertrand. 1845. + +_Wilkinson_, W. 'An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and +Moldavia,' London: Longmans. 1820. + +_Zallony_, Marc. Philippe. 'Fassai sur les Phanariotes.' Marseille; +Ant. Ricard. 1824. + + + + +INDEX. + + +A. + +Agriculture: + cattle and sheep, 78, 79. + cereals, nature, growth, and trade in, 6, 11, 31, 70, 76, 77. + yield, and estimates of cost of growing, 76, 78. + cheese and dairy products, 79. + college (agricultural) of Ferestreu, 80-82. + education, agricultural, 80. + fanning, slovenly, 6, and _note_. + flowers and fruits, 11, 12. + implements of husbandry, 13, 75, 76. + labourers, wages of, 13. + landlordism in Roumania, 84, 85. + land reforms, comparison between Roumanian and Irish, 85, 86. + peasantry, character and condition of, 85, 86. + peasant proprietary, history of the, 82-84, and Appendix IV. + rotation of crops, 75. + soil, nature and capabilities of, 6, 17, 75, 79. + statistics of occupations, 87. + +Archaeology: + collections in the Academy at Bucarest, 42. + Constantine's bridge, 27. + Curtea d'Ardges, cathedral of, 27, 58-65. + its traditions and true history, 62-65. + Gothic remains in Roumania, 27. + Roman remains in Roumania, 26, 27. + roads in Roumania, Transylvania, and Bulgaria, 26. + Trajan's bridge, 23, 24. + road on the Danube, 23. + Tablet, 21, 23-25. + + +B. + +Bibliography (see Appendix V. 'List of Works'). + +Biography: + Baasarab, Matthew, 201. + Neagu, 63, 64, 174. + Brancovano (Wallachia), 203, 206. + Bratiano, M., 223, 265, 266. + Cantemir (Moldavia), 204. + Charles I., prince and king, 16, 17, 233-52, 258-60 (see 'History'). + Couza, Prince, 229-32 (see 'History'). + Decebalus, 119 _et seq._ + Elisabeth, princess and queen, 55, 92. + marriage, 257. + personal description of, 260, 261. + verses by, 261 _note_. + Heliade, 221, 222, 223. + Hunniad, Johann Corvin von, 167-69. + Mavrocordato, Nicholas and Constantine, 208, 209. + Mavrogeni, Nicholas, 214, 215, 218. + Michael the Brave, 175, 176-98. + Mircea the Old, 164-67. + Rosetti, C.A., 223, 263-65. + Madame, 262, 263. + Serban II. (Cantacuzene), 64, 202, 203. + Stephen, called the Good, 170, 178. + Trajan, 122 _et seq._ + Vladimiresco, 219. + Ypsilanti, 219, 220. + +Botany: + Ferestreu, plants cultivated at, 80. + garden flowers and fruits of Roumania, 11, 12. + plants and trees of the plains, 6. + of the hills, 11. + of the mountains, 14. + + +C + +Commerce and Manufactures: + building company, for public works, 56. + cereals, imports from Roumania into Great Britain, 81. + Danube, navigation of, 30. + tonnage of vessels entering, 30. + Danubian Commission, history of, 32-35. + flannel factories, 70. + flour mills, 70. + Galatz, trade at, 68-70. + Ibrail, trade at, 72. + maize, imports into England from Roumania, 31. + markets and exchanges, absence of, 55. + match factories, 70. + petroleum wells and distilleries, 14, 31. + railways, extension of, 71. + securities, Roumanian, &c., 270 _note_. + salt mines of Roumania, 14, 106. + saw mills, 70. + statistics of trade between Roumania and Great Britain, 70. + sugar factories, 70. + + +E. + +Education and Culture: + Academy, the, 41, 42. + its collections and appliances, 42-45. + agricultural college at Ferestreu, 80-82. + Asyle Helene, girls' school, 92-94. + education in Roumania, 88-95. + compared with England, 89 _note_. + of youths abroad, 89-91, 95. + collegiate, 89. + other schools, 94, 95. + music, 52, 55, 97. + popular instruction and culture, want of, 55. + Savants--M, Aurelian, 80. + M. Bacologlu, 43. + M. Bernath, 19, 43. + M. Cogalniceanu, 55, 267. + Dr. Davila, 43, 92, 94, 238. + M. Hasdeu, 55, 99. + M. Jon Ghika, 165 _note_, 267, and Appendix IV. + M. Stourdza, 42. + M. Tocilesco, 27 _note_, 42. + societies, learned, 55. + +Ethnography: + dances, in their relation to the descent of the Roumanians, 97, 98. + language, in its relation to the descent of the Roumanians, 95-99. + authorities on, 99. + music and its relations to the people, 97. + peasantry, types of, 7. + Trajan's colonists and modern Roumanians, 132, 162. + Wallachs, the, and the Roumanians, 151-64, 164. + + +G. + +Geography (see also 'Topography' and 'Geology'): + boundaries of Roumania, 3. + configuration of the surface, 5. + dimensions, 4. + hills, zone of, 11. + Kazan Pass, the, 22. + lakes, 25. + mountains, zone of, 5, 14. + plains, zone of, 6. + rivers--the Danube, 20-25. + other rivers, 25. + Iron Gates, the, 22. + population, 4. + of cities, 39, 50, 51, 71. + summary of geographical characters, 28. + +Geology and Mineralogy: + Balta Alba, mineral waters of, 25. + basin of the Danube, 17, 18. + Carpathians, slopes of, 18. + summits of, 18. + coal and lignite, 18. + copper and other minerals, 19. + iron, 18. + ozokerit (hydrocarbon), 18. + petroleum wells, 14. + plains, geology of, 17. + salt mines, 14, 106-9. + + +H. + +History (see also 'Biography'): + Adrianople, treaty of, 221. + AEneas Sylvius on the Wallachs, 153. + Alexander, Philip, and Lysimachus, their wars with the Getae, 115-17. + Anna Comnena on the Wallachs, 152. + Anonymous Notary of King Bela, the, 150, 151. + Attila, his career and death, 141, 142. + Aurelian evacuates Dacia, 135-37. + Aurelius (Marcus) defeats the Goths, 134. + Avari, the, 143. + Bajazet I. overruns Wallachia, 165. + Balta-Liman, convention of, 224, Appendix IV. + bans, voivodes, and khans (early), 163, 164. + barbarians, 138-60, and Appendix I. (see also 'Goths,' 'Huns,' &c.). + Basilius Lupus, 201. + Bassarab, the clan, 163. + Basta (General), 192, 195, 198. + Bathori, Sigismund, 182, 185, 196. + Andreas, 189, 190, 191. + Belgrade, treaty of, 216. + Bessarabia (Lower) annexed to Moldavia, 228. + retaken by Russia in exchange for the Dobrudscha, 253. + Bogdan, Dragosch, 162, 170. + son of Stephen, 172. + Bonfinius on the Wallachs, 152. + Brancovano treats with Peter the Great, 203. + deposed and executed, 204, 205. + his great treasures, 205, 206. + Bratiano, M., 223, 266. + Bucarest, treaty of, 218. + Bulgari, their customs, 144-46. + Bulgari, their rule, 147, 148. + Bulgarians (modern), their revolt (1877), 236. + their alliance with the Russians, 242. + Cantemir treats with Peter the Great, 203. + flees into Russia, 204. + Capitulation of Mircea to the Turks, 165 and Appendix II. + of Bogdan to the Turks, 172 and Appendix II. + Charles, Prince, 16, 17. + accession, 233. + difficulties of rule, 234. + services to army, 237. + participation in war of 1877-8, 239, 241. + commander-in-chief before Plevna, 243. + meets Osman Pasha, 252, + crowned king, 255. + personal description, 258-60. + Christianity, history of, 65-66 _note_. + Consuls, Russian, established in Roumania, 217. + English and French, established in Roumania, 218. + Corvinus (see 'Hunniad'). + Couza, Prince, accession and reign, 229. + surprised in his palace and deposed, 230. + abdication and departure, 231, 232. + Criminal codes of Matthew Bassarab and Basilius Lupus, 201, 202. + Dacia, contests with Home, 117 _et seq._ + Decebalus, King of, 119-29. + Trajan's first invasion of, 122-27. + second invasion of, 127-30. + a Roman province, 131-34. + evacuated by Aurelian, 195-97. + Gibbon on the evacuation, 135-37. + Dacians, the, their origin and character, 117-19. + early wars with Rome, 119 _et seq._ + Decebalus, King of the Dacians, 119-29. + defeats Appius Sabinus, and Cornelius Fuscus, 120. + is beaten by Tertius Julianus, 121. + makes a treaty with Domitian, 121, 122. + is defeated by Trajan, 124. + breaks his treaty with Trajan, 127. + attempts Trajan's life by assassination, 128. + again defeated by Trajan and commits suicide, 129. + Dion Cassius, the historian, 117, 118 _note_. + Domitian, defeated by Decebalus, 120. + Elisabeth, princess and queen, 55, 92, 257, 260-61, 261 _note_ (see also 'Biography'). + Gellius (and other chiefs), tradition of, 150, 151 _note_. + Gepidae (a branch of the Goths), powerful in Northern Dacia, 142. + defeated and exterminated by the Lombards, 143. + Getae, their supposed origin, 115, 116. + at war with Alexander and other Greek generals, 116, 117. + Gibbon on Aurelian's evacuation of Dacia, 135. + his estimate of the Dacians, 136. + Goths, their first appearance, 134. + defeated by Marcus Aurelius, 135. + negotiate with Aurelian, 136. + rule in Dacia, 139, 140. + end of their rule, and remains left by them, 140. + Greek families, reference to histories of, 201 _note_. + rulers of Wallachia and Roumania (see 'Phanariotes'). + rising under Vladimiresco and Ypsilanti, 219, 220. + suppressed, 220. + Grivitza Redoubt besieged by the Roumanians, 245, 246. + its strength, 247. + its capture by the Roumanians, 248, 249. + Helena (Couza), Princess, 92, 229. + Heliad, the regenerator of national literature in Roumania, 221-23. + his political action, 223. + Hospodars, Greek (see 'Phanariotes'). + origin of title, 208, 209 _note_. + restoration of native, 220. + Hungarians (see 'Ungri'). + Hunniad, Johann Corvin von, his birth and early life, 167, 168. + viceroy of Siebenbuergen and regent of Hungary, 168. + his wars with the Turks and death, 168. + anecdotes concerning him, and his character, 160. + Huns, appear in northern Dacia, 140, 141. + their aspect and ferocity, 141. + their king Attila, 141. + defeated and driven out of Europe, 142. + Innocent III., his correspondence with Joannitz, King of Wallacho-Bulgaria, 156-60. + Jassy, Treaty of, 218. + Jasyges, the, 118. + Kainardji, treaty of, 217. + Knights of St. John and Teutonic knights, 156. + Kumani, the, 155, 156. + Lauriani on the correspondence between Joannitz and Innocent III., 156-60. + on the fall of Wallacho-Bulgaria, 160. + Lombards, the, 143. + Magyars, the (see 'Ungri'). + Matthew Bassarab, his criminal code, 201, 202. + Mavrocordato, Alexander, 207. + Nicholas, first Phanariote voivode, 208. + Constantine, suppresses retainers of boyards, 208. + appoints new officers of State, 208, 209. + Mavrogeni, Nicholas, his nobles rebel, 214, 215. + his defeat by the Austrians and Russians, 218. + Michael the Brave, condition of Wallachia in his day, 176-81. + classes of society, 176, 177, 178. + taxes, 178. + officials, 179. + army, 180. + political relations with other states, 181. + career of Michael: + early history and accession, 182; + alliances, 182; + massacre of the Turks, 183; + conspiracy against him, 183; + Achmed Pasha's invasion and defeat, 184; + Sigismund of Transylvania, Michael's submission to him, 185; + invasion of Sinan Pasha, 186; + Kalugereni, Michael's great victory, 186, 187; + retreat and rally of Michael, 187; + expulsion of the Turks, 188; + intrigues of Michael, 189; + abdication of Sigismund and accession of Andreas Bathori, 189; + Michael's invasion and conquest of Transylvania, 189-92; + triumph at Weissenburg, 192; + Michael overruns Moldavia, 192, 194; + in the zenith of his power, 194; + General Basta, 192, 195; + revolt of Transylvanian nobles, 195; + defeat of Michael at Miriszlo and Hight, 195, 196; + appeals to the German Emperor, 196; + recall of Sigismund Bathori, 196; + Michael pardoned and reinstated, 196, 197; + junction with Basta and defeat of the Transylvanians, 197; + feud with Basta, 197; + Michael assassinated by order of Basta, 198; + his character, 198. + Mircea the Old, allied with Hungary and Poland, defeats the Turks, 165. + first 'capitulation' at Nicopolis, 165 and Appendix II. + his army, 166. + his character, and verses in his memory by Bolentineanu, 167. + Moldavia, tradition of Bogdan Dragosch, 162. + earliest historical records of, 170. + early voivodes, 170, 171. + Stephen 'the Good,' voivode of, 171-73. + capitulation of Bogdan to the Turks, 172. + conquered by Michael the Brave, 193, 194. + Basilius Lupus, voivode of, 202. + Cantemir, voivode of, treats with Peter the Great, 203. + invasion by Peter the Great, 203. + Greek rising in (1821), 223. + Michael Stourdza seizes the boyards, who escape, 223. + Moldavia, junction of, with Wallachia under Couza, 228. + coronation of King Charles, 255. + Muktar Pasha relieves Kars, 241. + Neagu Bassarab, records in the Cathedral of Ardges, 63, 64. + his good deeds, 174. + Niamtz, verses on Stephen's flight to, 172. + Nicholas, Czar of Russia, and the Crimean war, 225, 227. + Grand Duke, watches the crossing of the Danube by the Russians, 240. + meets Osman Pasha, 252. + Officers of State in the Principalities, 179. + Omar Pasha suppresses the Greek rising, 224. + Osman Pasha repels the Russians at Plevna, 240. + is repulsed at Plevna, 243. + is defeated, and surrenders to the Russian and Roumanian generals, 252. + Paris, treaty of, 227. + Patzinakitai, the, 151. + Peter, Asan, and John, founders of Wallacho-Bulgarian empire, 154, 155. + Peter the Great, his invasion of Moldavia, 203. + Phanariotes, the, their rise and early history, 206, 207. + the first rulers, 207, 208. + installation of hospodars, 209. + extortion and tyranny of, 210-12. + extravagance of the princesses, 211. + their usual fate, 212. + favourable aspects of their rule, 214. + end of their domination, 220. + Wilkinson on their character, 220. + Pic, on the origin of the, Roumanians, 164 _note_. + Plevna, siege and investment of, 240-52. + Russian repulses before, 240, 245, 246. + defences of, 244. + fall of, 252. + Radu Affumati, 175. + Radu Negru, tradition of, 162. + Revolution of, 1848, 223. + suppressed, 224. + Roesler on the origin of the Roumanians, 164 _note_. + Romans invade Dacia under Domitian. 120. + invade Dacia under Trajan, 122-27. + second invasion under Trajan, 127-30. + rule in Dacia, 131-34. + at war with the Goths, 134, 135. + evacuate Dacia, 135-37. + Rosetti, C.A., his participation in the rising of 1848, 223; + his career, 263-265 (see also 'Biography'). + Madame, liberates the Roumanian patriots from the Turks, 262, 263 (see also 'Biography'). + Roumania constituted a principality under Couza, 229. + its provisional government after the fall of Couza, 231, 232. + under Prince Charles, 233-57. + erected into a kingdom, 255. + review of its history, 255. + the future of, 269, 270. + Roumanian alliance with Russia against Turkey, 237. + army, 237, 238 and _note_, 245. + neutrality in 1877, 236. + policy, 267-70. + soldiers, Russian contempt of, at the commencement of the war, 242. + praised for their coolness, 242. + bravery at Grivitza, 248. + sufferings of, after the capture of Grivitza, 248. + securities, rise in the value of, 270 _note_. + Russian invasion of Moldavia under Peter the Great (1709), 203, 204. + of the Principalities under Anne (1755), 216. + under Catherine IV. (1768), 216. + rule in Wallachia (1774), 217. + Russian consuls sent to Bucarest, 217. + rule in the Principalities (1789-92, 1806-12), 220. + intervention and Russo-Turkish war of 1829, 221. + invasion in 1848, 224. + intervention, review of benefits to Roumania therefrom, 224-25. + designs in 1853, 225. + war with England, France, and Turkey (1853), 226, 227, 228. + action in 1877, 235, 236. + indebtedness to Roumania in 1877, 237, 238. + invasion of Bulgaria (1877) 240. + disasters in Bulgaria and Asia, 240, 241, 246. + contempt for the Roumanian soldiers, 242. + recognition of their bravery, 243. + ingratitude after the conclusion of the war, 242, 243. + San Stephano, treaty of, 253. + Sarmatians, rule in Dacia, 142. + defeated by Valentinian, 142. + Serban (Cantacuzene), 202. + betrays the Turks at Vienna, 202. + Shipka Pass, fighting in, between Turks and Russians, 240, 241. + Skobeleff, his success at Loftcha, 245. + disaster at Plevna, 246, 247. + Slavonians, 144. + Stephen, called the Good, Voivode of Moldavia, 171. + overruns Wallachia, 171. + story of his flight to Niamtz (verses by Bolentineanu), 172. + his cruelty and fanaticism, 173. + his wars with the Turks and Tartars, 171-73. + Tacitus, his comments on the Roman defeats in Dacia, 119, 120. + Tartar conquest of the Principalities, 160. + ravages, and defeats by Michael the Brave, 182, 184. + Teutonic knights and knights of St John, 156. + Traditions of Radu Negru and Bogdan, 162. + Trajan, his first expedition into Dacia, 122-27. + his second expedition into Dacia, 127-30. + his triumph after the reduction of Dacia, 129. + his method of colonising Dacia, 131-33 and _note_. + Treaties of Nicopolis (1393), 165 and Appendix II.; + between Bogdan and Selim (1513), Appendix II.; + of Belgrade (1789), 216; + of Kainardji (1774), 217; + of Jassy (1792), 218; + of Bucarest (1812), 218; + of Adrianople (1829), 221; + of Balta-Liman (1849), 224; + of Paris (1856), 227, 228; + of San Stephano (1878), 253. + Turkish invasion of the Principalities (first), 165. + suzerainty enforced upon Mircea, 165. + wars with Johann Corvin von Hunniad, 168. + wars with Moldavia, 171. + supremacy established in Moldavia, 172. + inhabitants of Wallachia massacred by Michael, 183. + defeat at Kalugereni, 186, 187. + expulsion from Wallachia, 188. + exactions after Michael's death, 200. + army betrayed at Vienna, 202. + war with Peter the Great, 203, 204. + appointment of Greek voivodes, 208. + war with Anne and Charles VI., 216. + defeat the allies at Belgrade, 216. + war with Catherine, 216. + with Russia (1806), 218; + (1829), 221; + (1853), 225-28. + obstacles to the union of the Principalities, 228. + to the accession of Charles I., 234. + war with Russia and Roumania (1877), 235-53. + victories in Bulgaria and Asia, 240, 241. + defeats at Plevna, 243. + victory over Skobeleff before Plevna, 246, 247. + defeat at Grivitza, 248, 249. + Ungri (Hungarians, or Magyars), their origin, 148. + Ungri, Hallam's description of them, 149. + German account of their savagery, 149, 150. + their career in the Principalities and settlement in Hungary, 150. + Vlad, the Impaler, fights the Turks in alliance with John Corvinus, 168. + his wars with the Turks, 170. + his horrible cruelties, 170. + submission to the Turks, 170. + Vladimiresco, his career and death, 219. + Vladislaus, King of Poland and Hungary, fights the Turks in alliance with John Corvinus, 168. + killed at Varna, 168. + Voivodes, early, in Wallachia, 163 _et seq._, 200 _et seq._ + in Moldavia, 170 _et seq._ + their short rule and usual fate, 200, 213. + Phanariote, 208 _et seq._ + native, restored, 220. + Wallachia, early traditions of, 162. + historical records of its foundation, 163. + bans, voivodes, and khans in, 163, 164. + first capitulation to the Turks, 165 and Appendix II. + state of society under Michael the Brave, 176-81. + under the Phanariotes, 208-14. + under Russian protection, 217, 221, 224. + Greek rising in, 218, 220. + national regeneration by Heliade, 221, 222. + revolution of 1848 in, 223, 224. + junction with Moldavia, 228. + Wallachs, their origin, 151, 153. + opinions of mediaeval historians regarding their Daco-Roman descent (Bonfinius, Anna Comnena, AEneas Sylvius), 152, 153. + their first rule, 154. + Wallacho-Bulgarian Empire, founded by Peter, Asan, and John, 155. + allied with the Kumani, 155. + duration of the Empire, 155. + correspondence between Innocent III. and John, Emperor of, 156-60. + fall of, 160. + Wilkinson on the Phanariotes, 180 _note_, 210. + Ypsilanti, his leadership of the Greek rising, 219. + treachery against Vladimiresco, 219. + lights the Turks at Dragosani, 219. + defeat, flight, and ultimate fate, 220. + Zallony on the Phanariotes, 210. + + +L. + +Law and Jurisprudence: + capital punishment abolished, and its substitutes, 101, 102, 106. + courts of justice, 100. + crime, statistics of, 103. + Doftana, visit to salt mine of, 104, 105. + expenditure for judicial and penal purposes, 112. + prisons of Roumania, 102-10. + prisoners, treatment of, 102, 104, 106, 110, 111. + Vakareschti, visit, to prison of, 104, 105. + + +M. + +Manufactures (see 'Commerce'). + +Meteorology: + climate and seasons of Roumania, 28. + + +P. + +Philology: + language, constitution of the Roumanian, 95-97. + comparison of Latin, Roumanian, and English, 96. + Greek and other derivatives, 97. + Magyar words in Roumanian, 97. + +Politics: + Austria and Roumania, and the Danube, 32-35, 267. + domestic, in Roumania, 267, 269. + English interests on the Danube, 34, 35. + foreign, in Roumania, 267-69. + future, 269. + land question, the, in Roumania and Ireland, 82-85. + leaders in, 257-67 (see also 'Biography'). + Liberals, efforts of the, 267-70. + parties, state of, in Roumania, 235 _note_. + + +S. + +Sociology: + amusements of the people, 46. + divorces in Roumania, 213, 214 _note_. + funerals, 56. + gipsies, their history, condition, and occupations, 49-54. + hospitals, 44-46, 68. + Jews, the, 57, 58. + land and houses, cost of, 47. + Lipovans, the, 54. + octroi duties and poll-tax, 57. + peasant proprietary, 82-6, and Appendix IV. + peasantry, types of, 7. + costumes of, 7, 8, 48, 49. + women, occupations of, 8, 48. + subterranean huts of, 10. + diseases of, 10. + police des moeurs, 45. + prisons and prison system, 101-10 (see 'Law'). + upper classes, 46. + working classes, customs, wages, and condition in Bucarest, 46-49. + + +T. + +Topography: + Bucarest, 5, 37-56. + Curtea d'Ardges, 58-64. + Danubian towns, 21. + Galatz, 67-70. + Ibrail, 72. + Jassy, 71, 72. + Roumanian towns, chief, 36, 37. + Sinaia, 7, 15, 16. + + +Z. + +Zoology: + buffaloes, 78. + fishes, 25. + sheep and cattle, 79. + + + LONDON: PRINTED BY +SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE + AND PARLIAMENT STREET + + + + +39 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. LONDON, _April 1882_. + +GENERAL LISTS OF WORKS + +PUBLISHED BY + +MESSRS. LONGMANS, GREEN & CO. + + + + +HISTORY, POLITICS, HISTORICAL MEMOIRS, &c. + + +History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815. By +SPENCER WALPOLE. 8vo. VOLS. I. & II. 1815-1832 (Second +Edition, revised) price 36_s._ VOL. III. 1832-1841, price +18_s._ + + +History of England in the 18th Century. By W.E.H. LECKY, M.A. +VOLS. I. & II. 1700-1760, Second Edition, price 36_s._ +VOLS. III. & IV. 1760-1784, price 36_s._ + + +The History of England from the Accession of James II. By the Right +Hon. Lord MACAULAY. + +STUDENT'S EDITION, 2 vols. cr. 8vo. 12_s._ + +PEOPLE'S EDITION, 4 vols. cr. 8vo. 16_s._ + +CABINET EDITION, 8 vols. post 8vo. 48_s._ + +LIBRARY EDITION, 5 vols. 8vo. L4. + + +The Complete Works of Lord Macaulay. Edited by Lady +TREVELYAN. + +CABINET EDITION, 16 vols. crown 8vo. price L4. 16_s._ + +LIBRARY EDITION, 8 vols. 8vo. Portrait, price L5. 5_s._ + + +Lord Macaulay's Critical and Historical Essays. + +CHEAP EDITION, crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._ + +STUDENT'S EDITION, crown 8vo. 6_s._ + +PEOPLE'S EDITION, 2 vols. crown 8vo. 8_s._ + +CABINET EDITION, 4 vols. 24_s._ + +LIBRARY EDITION, 3 vols. 8vo. 36_s._ + + +The History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the +Spanish Armada. By J.A. FROUDE, M.A. + +POPULAR EDITION, 12 vols. crown, L2. 2_s._ + +CABINET EDITION, 12 vols. crown, L3. 12_s._ + + +The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century. By J.A. +FROUDE, M.A. 3 vols. crown 8vo. 18_s._ + + +Journal of the Reigns of King George IV. and King William IV. By the +late C.C.F. GREVILLE, Esq. Edited by H. REEVE, Esq. +Fifth Edition. 3 vols. 8vo. price 36_s._ + + +The Life of Napoleon III. derived from State Records, Unpublished +Family Correspondence, and Personal Testimony. By BLANCHARD +JERROLD. With numerous Portraits and Facsimiles. 4 vols. 8vo. L3. +18_s._ + + +The Early History of Charles James Fox. By GEORGE OTTO +TREVELYAN, M.P. Fourth Edition, 8vo. 6_s._ + + +The Speeches of the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Beaconsfield, K.G. Selected +and arranged, with Explanatory Notes and a Preface, by T.E. +KEBBEL. 2 vols, 8vo. 32_s._ + + +The Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George +III. 1760-1870. By Sir THOMAS ERSKINE MAY, K.C.B. D.C.L. Sixth +Edition. 3 vols. crown 8vo. 18_s._ + + +Democracy in Europe; a History. By Sir THOMAS ERSKINE MAY, +K.C.B. D.C.L. 2 vols. 8vo. 32_s._ + + +Introductory Lectures on Modern History delivered in 1841 and 1842. By +the late THOMAS ARNOLD, D.D. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +On Parliamentary Government In England. By ALPHEUS TODD. 2 +vols. 8vo. 37_s._ + + +Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies. By ALPHEUS +TODD. 8vo, 21_s._ + + +History of Civilisation in England and France, Spain and Scotland. By +HENRY THOMAS BUCKLE. 3 vols. crown 8vo. 24_s._ + + +Lectures on the History of England from the Earliest Times to the +Death of King Edward II. By W. LONGMAN, F.S.A. Maps and +Illustrations. 8vo. 15_s._ + + +History of the Life & Times of Edward III. By W. LONGMAN, +F.S.A. With 9 Maps, 8 Plates, and 16 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. 28_s._ + + +The Historical Geography of Europe. By E.A. FREEMAN, D.C.L. +LL.D. Second Edition, with 65 Maps. 2 vols. 8vo. 31_s._ 6_d._ + + +History of England under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I. +1624-1628. By S.R. GARDINER, LL.D. 2 vols. 8vo. Maps, price +24_s._ + + +The Personal Government of Charles I. from the Death of Buckingham to +the Declaration in favour of Ship Money, 1628-1637. By S.R. +GARDINER, LL.D. 2 vols. 8vo. 24s. + + +The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I. 1637-1649. By S.R. +GARDINER, LL.D. VOLS. I. & II. 1637-1642. 2 vols, 28_s._ + + +Bosco's Compendium of Italian History from the Fall of the Roman +Empire. Translated from the Italian, and continued to the Present Time, +by J.D. MORELL, M.A. LL.D. With 8 Illustrations. Royal 8vo. 7s. +6_d._ + + +Popular History of France, from the Earliest Times to the Death of +Louis XIV. By MISS SEWELL. Crown 8vo. Maps, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Student's Manual of the History of India from the Earliest Period to +the Present. By COL. MEADOWS TAYLOR, M.R.A.S. Third Thousand. +Crown 8vo. Maps, 1_s._ 6_d._ + + +Outline of English History, B.C. 55-A.D. 1880. By +S.R. GARDINER, LL.D. Pp. 484, with 96 Woodcuts and Maps. Fcp. +8vo. price 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +Waterloo Lectures; a Study of the Campaign of 1815. By Col. C.C. +CHESNEY, R.E. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Oxford Reformers--John Colet, Erasmus, and Thomas More; a History +of their Fellow-Work. By F. SEEBOHM. 8vo. 14_s._ + + +History of the Romans under the Empire. By DEAN MERIVALE, +D.D. 8 vols. post 8vo. 48_s._ + + +General History of Rome from B.C. 753 to A.D. 476. +By DEAN MERIVALE, D.D. Crown 8vo. Maps, price 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Fall of the Roman Republic; a Short History of the Last Century of +the Commonwealth. By DEAN MERIVALE, D.D. 12mo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The History of Rome. By WILHELM IHNE. 5 vols. 8vo. price L3. +17_s._ + + +Carthage and the Carthaginians. By R. BOSWORTH SMITH, M.A. +Second Edition. Maps, plans, &c. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +History of Ancient Egypt. By G. RAWLINSON, M.A. With Map and +numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. price 63_s._ + + +The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy; or, a History of the Sassanians. +By G. RAWLINSON, M.A. With Map and 95 Illustrations. 8vo. +28_s._ + + +The History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne. By +W.E.H. LECKY, M.A. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 16_s._ + + +History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in +Europe. By W.E.H. LECKY, M.A. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 16_s._ + + +The History of Philosophy, from Thales to Comte, By GEORGE HENRY +LEWES. Fifth Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 32_s._ + + +A History of Classical Greek Literature. By the Rev. J.P.P. +MAHAFFY, M.A. Crown 8vo. VOL. I. Poets, 7_s_ 6_d._ +VOL. II. Prose Writers, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Zeller's Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics. Translated by the Rev. +O.J. REICHEL, M.A. New Edition revised. Crown 8vo. 15_s._ + + +Zeller's Socrates & the Socratic Schools. Translated by the Rev. +O.J. REICHEL, M.A. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Zeller's Plato & the Older Academy. Translated by S. FRANCES +ALLEYNE and ALFRED GOODWIN, B.A. Crown 8vo. 18_s._ + + +Zeller's Pre-Socratic Schools; a History of Greek Philosophy from the +Earliest Period to the time of Socrates. Translated by SARAH F. +ALLEYNE. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 30_s._ + + +Zeller's Aristotle and the Elder Peripatetics. Translated by +B.F.C. COSTELLOE, Balliol College, Oxford. Crown 8vo. [_In +preparation._ + +The above volume will complete the Authorised English Translation of Dr. +ZELLER'S Work on the Philosophy of the Greeks. + + +Epochs of Modern History. Edited by C. COLBECK, M.A. + +Church's Beginning of the Middle Ages, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Cox's Crusades, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Creighton's Age of Elizabeth, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Gardiner's Lancaster and York, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Gardiner's Puritan Revolution, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Gardiner's Thirty Years' War, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Hale's Fall of the Stuarts, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Johnson's Normans in Europe, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Longman's Frederic the Great, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Ludlow's War of American Independence, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +M'Carthy's Epoch of Reform, 1830-1850. 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Morris's Age of Anne, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Seebohm's Protestant Revolution, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Stubbs's Early Plantagenets, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Warburton's Edward III. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +Epochs of Ancient History. Edited by the Rev. Sir G.W. COX, +Bart. M.A. & C. SANKEY, M.A. + +Beesly's Gracchi, Marius & Sulla, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Capes's Age of the Antonines, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Capes's Early Roman Empire, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Cox's Athenian Empire, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Cox's Greeks & Persians, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Curteis's Macedonian Empire, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Ihne's Rome to its Capture by the Gauls, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Merivale's Roman Triumvirates, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Sankey's Spartan & Theban Supremacies, 2_s._ 6_d._ + +Smith's Rome and Carthage, 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +Creighton's Shilling History of England, introductory to 'Epochs of +English History.' Fcp. 1_s._ + + +Epochs of English History. Edited by the Rev. MANDELL +CREIGHTON, M.A. Fcp. 8vo. 5_s._ + +Browning's Modern England, 1820-1874, 9_d._ + +Cordery's Struggle against Absolute Monarchy, 1603-1688, 9_d._ + +Creighton's (Mrs.) England a Continental Power, 1066-1216, 9_d._ + +Creighton's (Rev. M.) Tudors and the Reformation, 1485-1603, 9_d._ + +Rowley's Rise of the People, 1215-1485, 9_d._ + +Rowley's Settlement of the Constitution, 1689-1784, 9_d._ + +Tancock's England during the American & European Wars, 1765-1820, +9_d._ + +York-Powell's Early England to the Conquest, 1_s._ + + +The Student's Manual of Ancient History; the Political History, +Geography and Social State of the Principal Nations of Antiquity. By +W. COOKE TAYLOR, LL.D. Cr. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Student's Manual of Modern History; the Rise and Progress of the +Principal European Nations. By W. COOKE TAYLOR, LL.D. Crown +8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + + + +BIOGRAPHICAL WORKS. + + +Thomas Carlyle, a History of the first Forty Years of his Life, 1795 +to 1835. By J.A. FROUDE, M.A. With 2 Portraits and 4 +Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 32_s._ + + +Reminiscences. By THOMAS CARLYLE. Edited by J.A. +FROUDE, M.A. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 18_s._ + + +The Marriages of the Bonapartes. By the Hon. D.A. BINGHAM. 2 +vols. crown 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Recollections of the Last Half-Century. By COUNT ORSI. With a +Portrait of Napoleon III. and 4 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi. By J. THEODORE BENT. Crown +8vo. with Portrait, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Autobiography. By JOHN STUART MILL. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Felix Mendelssohn's Letters, translated by Lady WALLACE. 2 +vols. crown 8vo. 5_s._ each. + + +The Correspondence of Robert Southey with Caroline Bowles. Edited by +EDWARD DOWDEN, LL.D. 8vo. Portrait, 14_s._ + + +The Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay. By his Nephew, G. OTTO +TREVELYAN, M.P. + +CABINET EDITION, 2 vols. crown 8vo. 12_s._ + +POPULAR EDITION, 1 vol. crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +William Law, Nonjuror and Mystic, a Sketch of his Life, Character, and +Opinions. By J.H. OVERTON, M.A. Vicar of Legbourne. 8vo. 15_s._ + + +James Mill; a Biography. By A. BAIN, LL.D. 8vo. 5_s._ + + +John Stuart Mill; a Criticism, with Personal Recollections. By A. +BAIN, LL.D. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Dictionary of General Biography. By W.L.R. CATES. Third +Edition, revised throughout and completed; with nearly Four Hundred +Memoirs and Notices of Persons recently deceased. 8vo. 28_s._ + + +Apologia pro Vita Sua; Being a History of his Religious Opinions by +JOHN HENRY NEWMAN, D.D. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Biographical Studies. By the late WALTER BAGEHOT, M.A. Fellow +of University College, London. 8vo. 12_s._ + + +Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. By the Right Hon. Sir J. +STEPHEN, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Caesar; a Sketch. By J.A. FROUDE, M.A. With Portrait and Map. +8vo. 16_s._ + + +Life of the Duke of Wellington. By the Rev. G.R. GLEIG, M.A. +Crown 8vo. Portrait, 6_s._ + + +Memoirs of Sir Henry Havelock, K.C.B. By JOHN CLARK MARSHMAN. +Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +Vicissitudes of Families. By Sir BERNARD BURKE, C.B. Two +vols, crown 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland; Swift, Flood, Grattan, +O'Connell. By W.E.H. LECKY, M.A. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + + + +MENTAL and POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY. + + +Comte's System of Positive Polity, or Treatise upon Sociology. By +various Translators. 4 vols. 8vo. L4. + + +De Tocqueville's Democracy in America, translated by H. +REEVE. 2 vols. crown 8vo, 16_s._ + + +Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. By JAMES MILL. +With Notes, Illustrative and Critical. 2 vols. 8vo. 28_s._ + + +On Representative Government. By JOHN STUART MILL. Crown 8vo. +2_s._ + + +On Liberty. By JOHN STUART MILL. Post 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ crown +8vo. 1_s._ 4_d._ + + +Principles of Political Economy. By JOHN STUART MILL. 2 vols. +8vo. 30_s._ or I vol. crown 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Essays on some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy. By JOHN +STUART MILL. 8vo. 6_s._ 6_d._ + + +Utilitarianism. By JOHN STUART MILL. 8vo. 5_s._ + + +The Subjection of Women. By JOHN STUART MILL. Fourth Edition. +Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy. By JOHN STUART +MILL. 8vo. 16_s._ + + +A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive. By JOHN STUART +MILL. 2 vols. 8vo. 25_s._ + + +Dissertations and Discussions. By JOHN STUART MILL. 4 vols. +8vo. L2. 7_s._ + + +A Systematic View of the Science of Jurisprudence. By SHELDON +AMOS, M.A. 8vo. 18_s._ + + +Path and Goal; a Discussion on the Elements of Civilisation and the +Conditions of Happiness. By M.M. KALISCH, Ph. D. M.A. 8vo. +12_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Law of Nations considered as Independent Political Communities. By +Sir TRAVERS TWISS, D.C.L. 2 vols. 8vo. L1. 13_s._ + + +A Primer of the English Constitution and Government. By S. +AMOS, M.A. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Fifty Years of the English Constitution, 1830-1880. By SHELDON +AMOS, M.A. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Principles of Economical Philosophy. By H.D. MACLEOD, M.A. +Second Edition, in 2 vols. VOL. I. 8vo. 15_s._ VOL. +II. PART I. 12_s._ + + +Lord Bacon's Works, collected & edited by R.L. ELLIS, M.A. +J. SPEDDING, M.A. and D.D. HEATH. 7 vols. 8vo. L3. +13_s._ 6_d._ + + +Letters and Life of Francis Bacon, including all his Occasional Works. +Collected and edited, with a Commentary, by J. SPEDDING. 7 +vols. 8vo. L4. 4_s._ + + +The Institutes of Justinian; with English Introduction, Translation, +and Notes. By T.C. SANDARS, M.A. 8vo. 18_s._ + + +The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle, translated into English by R. +WILLIAMS, B.A. Crown 8vo. price 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Aristotle's Politics, Books I. III. IV. (VII.) Greek Text, with an +English Translation by W.E. BOLLAND, M.A. and Short Essays by +A. LANG, M.A. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Ethics of Aristotle; with Essays and Notes. By Sir A. +GRANT, Bart. LL.D. 2 vols. 8vo, 32_s._ + + +Bacon's Essays, with Annotations. By R. WHATELY, D.D. 8vo. +10_s._ 6_d._ + + +An Introduction to Logic. By WILLIAM H. STANLEY MONCK, M.A. +Prof, of Moral Philos. Univ. of Dublin. Crown 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Picture Logic; an Attempt to Popularise the Science of Reasoning. By +A.J. SWINBURNE, B.A. Post 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Elements of Logic. By R. WHATELY, D.D. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ +Crown 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ + + +Elements of Rhetoric. By R. WHATELY, D.D. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ +Crown 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Senses and the Intellect. By A. BAIN, LL.D, 8vo. 15_s._ + + +On the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion. By the late Sir. +G.C. LEWIS, Bart. 8vo. 14_s._ + + +The Emotions and the Will. By A. BAIN, LL.D. 8vo. 15_s._ + + +Mental and Moral Science; a Compendium of Psychology and Ethics. By +A. BAIN, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought; a Treatise on Pure and +Applied Logic. By W. THOMSON, D.D. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy. By T.E. CLIFFE +LESLIE, Hon. LL.D. Dubl. of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law. 8vo. +10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Hume's Philosophical Works; Edited, with Notes, &c. by T.H. +GREEN, M.A. and the Rev. T.H. GROSE, M.A. 4 vols. 8vo. +56_s._ Or separately, Essays, 2 vols. 28_s._ Treatise on Human Nature, 2 +vols. 28_s._ + + + + +MISCELLANEOUS & CRITICAL WORKS. + + +Studies of Modern Mind and Character at Several European Epochs. By +JOHN WILSON. 8vo. 12_s._ + + +Selected Essays, chiefly from Contributions to the Edinburgh and +Quarterly Reviews. By A. HAYWARD, Q.C. 2 vols. crown 8vo. +12_s._ + + +Short Studies on Great Subjects. By J.A. FROUDE, M.A. 3 vols. +crown 8vo. 18_s._ + + +Literary Studies. By the late WALTER BAGEHOT, M.A. Fellow of +University College, London. Second Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. with Portrait, +28_s._ + + +Manual of English Literature, Historical and Critical. By T. +ARNOLD, M.A. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Poetry and Prose; Illustrative Passages from English Authors from the +Anglo-Saxon Period to the Present Time: a Companion-Volume to the above. +Edited by T. ARNOLD, M.A. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +The Wit and Wisdom of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield, +collected from his Writings and Speeches. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +The Wit and Wisdom of the Rev. Sydney Smith. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +Lord Macaulay's Miscellaneous Writings:-- + +LIBRARY EDITION, 2 vols. 8vo. 21_s._ + +PEOPLE'S EDITION, 1 vol. cr. 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ + + +Lord Macaulay's Miscellaneous Writings and Speeches. Student's +Edition. Crown 8vo, 6_s._ Cabinet Edition, including Indian Penal Code, +Lays of Ancient Rome, and other Poems. 4 vols. post 8vo. 24_s._ + + +Speeches of Lord Macaulay, corrected by Himself. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ +6_d._ + + +Selections from the Writings of Lord Macaulay. Edited, with Notes, by +G.O. TREVELYAN, M.P. Crown. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Miscellaneous Works of Thomas Arnold, D.D. late Head Master of Rugby +School. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +German Home Life; a Series of Essays on the Domestic Life of Germany. +Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Realities of Irish Life. By W. STEUART TRENCH, Crown 8vo. +2_s._ 6_d._ boards, or 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. + + +Apparitions; a Narrative of Facts. By the Rev. B.W. SAVILE, +M.A. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. price 5_s._ + + +Evenings with the Skeptics; or, Free Discussion on Free Thinkers. By +JOHN OWEN, Rector of East Anstey, Devon. 2 vols. 8vo. 32_s._ + + +Selected Essays on Language Mythology, and Religion. By F. MAX +MUeLLER, K.M. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 16_s._ + + +Lectures on the Science of Language. By F. MAX MUeLLER, K.M. 2 +vols. crown 8vo. 16_s._ + + +Chips from a German Workshop; Essays on the Science of Religion, and +on Mythology, Traditions & Customs. By F. MAX MUeLLER, K.M. 4 +vols. 8vo. L1. 16_s._ + + +Language & Languages. A Revised Edition of Chapters on Language and +Families of Speech. By F.W. FARRAR, D.D. F.R.S. Crown 8vo, +6_s._ + + +The Essays and Contributions of A.K.H.B. Uniform Cabinet Editions in +crown 8vo. + +Autumn Holidays, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Commonplace Philosopher, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Counsel and Comfort, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Critical Essays, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Graver Thoughts. 3 Series, 3_s._ 6_d._ each. + +Landscapes, Churches, and Moralities, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Leisure Hours in Town, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Lessons of Middle Age, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Our Little Life, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Present-Day Thoughts, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Recreations of a Country Parson, Three Series, 3_s._ 6_d._ each. + +Seaside Musings, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Sunday Afternoons, 3_s._ 6_d._ + + + + +DICTIONARIES and OTHER BOOKS of REFERENCE. + + +One-Volume Dictionary of the English Language. By R.G. +LATHAM, M.A. M.D. Medium 8vo. 14_s._ + + +Larger Dictionary of the English Language. By R.G. LATHAM, +M.A. M.D. Founded on Johnson's English Dictionary as edited by the Rev. +H.J. TODD. 4 vols. 4to. L7. + + +English Synonymes. By E.J. WHATELY. Edited by R. +WHATELY, D.D. Fcp. 8vo. 3_s._ + + +Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, classified and +arranged so as to facilitate the expression of Ideas, and assist in +Literary Composition. Revised and enlarged by the Author's Son, J.L. +ROGET. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Handbook of the English Language. By R.G. LATHAM, M.A. M.D. +Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Contanseau's Practical Dictionary of the French and English Languages, +Post 8vo. price 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Contanseau's Pocket Dictionary, French and English, abridged from the +Practical Dictionary by the Author. Square 18mo. 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Practical Dictionary of the German and English Languages. By Rev. +W.L. BLACKLEY, M.A. & Dr. C.M. FRIEDLAeNDER. Post 8vo. +7_s._ 6_d._ + + +A New Pocket Dictionary of the German and English Languages. By +F.W. LONGMAN, Ball. Coll. Oxford. Square 18mo. 5_s._ + + +Becker's Gallus; Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus. Translated by +the Rev. F. METCALFE, M.A. Post 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Becker's Charicles; Illustrations of the Private Life of the Ancient +Greeks. Translated by the Rev. F. METCALFE, M.A. Post 8vo. +7_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Dictionary of Roman and Greek Antiquities. With 2,000 Woodcuts +illustrative of the Arts and Life of the Greeks and Romans. By A. +RICH, B.A. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Greek-English Lexicon. By H.G. LIDDELL, D.D. Dean of +Christchurch, and R. SCOTT, D.D. Dean of Rochester. Crown 4to. +36_s._ + + +Liddell & Scott's Lexicon, Greek and English, abridged for Schools. +Square 12mo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +An English-Greek Lexicon, containing all the Greek Words used by +Writers of good authority. By C.D. YONGE, M.A. 4to. 21_s._ +School Abridgment, square 12mo. 8_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Latin-English Dictionary. By JOHN T. WHITE, D.D. Oxon. and +J.E. RIDDLE, M.A. Oxon. Sixth Edition, revised. Quarto 21_s._ + + +White's Concise Latin-English Dictionary, for the use of University +Students. Royal 8vo. 12_s._ + + +M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation. +Re-edited, with a Supplement shewing the Progress of British Commercial +Legislation to the Year 1880, by HUGH G. REID. With 11 Maps and +30 Charts. 8vo. 63_s._ + + +Keith Johnston's General Dictionary of Geography, Descriptive, +Physical, Statistical, and Historical; a complete Gazetteer of the +World. Medium 8vo. 42_s._ + + +The Public Schools Atlas of Ancient Geography, in 28 entirely new +Coloured Maps. Edited by the Rev. G. BUTLER, M.A. Imperial 8vo. +or imperial 4to. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Public Schools Atlas of Modern Geography, in 31 entirely new +Coloured Maps. Edited by the Rev. G. BUTLER, M.A. Uniform, +5_s._ + + + + +ASTRONOMY and METEOROLOGY. + + +Outlines of Astronomy. By Sir J.F.W. HERSCHEL, Bart. M.A. +Latest Edition, with Plates and Diagrams. Square crown 8vo. 12_s._ + + +The Moon, and the Condition and Configurations of its Surface. By +E. NEISON, F.R.A.S. With 26 Maps and 5 Plates. Medium 8vo. +price 31_s._ 6_d._ + + +Air and Rain; the Beginnings of a Chemical Climatology, By R.A. +SMITH, F.R.S. 8vo. 24_s._ + + +Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. By the Rev. T.W. +WEBB, M.A. Fourth Edition, revised and adapted to the Present State +of Sidereal Science; Map, Plate, Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 9_s._ + + +The Sun; Ruler, Light, Fire, and Life of the Planetary System. By +R.A. PROCTOR, B.A. With Plates & Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 14_s._ + + +The Orbs Around Us; a Series of Essays on the Moon & Planets, Meteors +& Comets, the Sun & Coloured Pairs of Suns. By R.A. PROCTOR, +B.A. With Chart and Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Other Worlds than Ours; The Plurality of Worlds Studied under the +Light of Recent Scientific Researches. By R.A. PROCTOR, B.A. +With 14 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. price 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Moon; her Motions, Aspects, Scenery, and Physical Condition. By +R.A. PROCTOR, B.A. With Plates, Charts, Woodcuts, and Lunar +Photographs, Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Universe of Stars; Presenting Researches into and New Views +respecting the Constitution of the Heavens. By R.A. PROCTOR, +B.A. Second Edition, with 22 Charts (4 Coloured) and 22 Diagrams. 8vo. +price 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +A New Star Atlas, for the Library, the School, and the Observatory, in +12 Circular Maps (with 2 Index Plates). By R.A. PROCTOR, B.A. +Crown 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Larger Star Atlas, for the Library, in Twelve Circular Maps, with +Introduction and 2 Index Plates. By R.A. PROCTOR, B.A. Folio, +15_s._ or Maps only, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +Essays on Astronomy. A Series of Papers on Planets and Meteors, the +Sun and Sun-surrounding Space, Stars and Star Cloudlets. By R.A. +PROCTOR, B.A. With 10 Plates and 24 Woodcuts. 8vo. 12_s._ + + + + +NATURAL HISTORY and PHYSICAL SCIENCE. + + +Ganot's Elementary Treatise on Physics, Experimental and Applied, for +the use of Colleges and Schools. Translated by E. ATKINSON, Ph. +D. F.C.S. Tenth Edition, revised and enlarged; with 4 Coloured Plates +and 844 Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo. 15_s._ + + +Ganot's Natural Philosophy for General Readers and Young Persons; a +Course of Physics divested of Mathematical Formulae and expressed in the +language of daily life. Translated by E. ATKINSON, Ph. D. +F.C.S. Fourth Edition, revised; with 2 Plates and 471 Woodcuts. Crown +8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Professor Helmholtz' Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects. +Translated and edited by EDMUND ATKINSON, Ph. D. F.C.S. +Professor of Chemistry &c. Staff College, Sandhurst. With a Preface by +Professor TYNDALL, F.R.S. and 68 Woodcuts. 2 vols. crown 8vo. +15_s._ or separately, 7_s._ 6_d._ each. + + +Arnott's Elements of Physics or Natural Philosophy. Seventh Edition, +edited by A. BAIN, LL.D. and A.S. TAYLOR, M.D. F.R.S. +Crown 8vo. Woodcuts, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Correlation of Physical Forces. By the Hon. Sir W.R. +GROVE, F.R.S. &c. Sixth Edition, revised and augmented. 8vo. 15_s._ + + +A Treatise on Magnetism, General and Terrestrial. By H. +LLOYD, D.D. D.C.L. &c. late Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. +8vo. 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Mathematical and other Tracts of the late James M'Cullagh, +F.T.C.D. Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Dublin. +Now first collected, and Edited by the Rev. J.H. JELLETT, B.D. +and the Rev. S. HAUGHTON, M.D. Fellows of Trinity College, +Dublin, 8vo. 15_s._ + + +Elementary Treatise on the Wave-Theory of Light. By H. LLOYD, +D.D. D.C L. &c. late Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. 8vo. price +10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Fragments of Science. By JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S. Sixth Edition, +revised and augmented. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 16_s._ + + +Heat a Mode of Motion. By JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S. Sixth Edition +(Thirteenth Thousand), thoroughly revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo. +12_s._ + + +Sound. By JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S. Fourth Edition, including +Recent Researches. [_In the press._ + + +Essays on the Floating-Matter of the Air in relation to Putrefaction +and Infection. By JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S. With 24 Woodcuts. Crown +8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Professor Tyndall's Lectures on Light, delivered in America in 1872 +and 1873. With Portrait, Plate & Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Professor Tyndall's Lessons in Electricity at the Royal Institution, +1875-6. With 58 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +Professor Tyndall's Notes of a Course of Seven Lectures on Electrical +Phenomena and Theories, delivered at the Royal Institution. Crown 8vo. +1_s._ sewed, 1_s._ 6_d._ cloth. + + +Professor Tyndall's Notes of a Course of Nine Lectures on Light, +delivered at the Royal Institution. Crown 8vo. 1_s._ sewed, 1_s._ 6_d._ +cloth. + + +Six Lectures on Physical Geography, delivered in 1876, with some +Additions. By the Rev. SAMUEL HAUGHTON, F.R.S. M.D. D.C.L. With +23 Diagrams. 8vo. 15_s._ + + +An Introduction to the Systematic Zoology and Morphology of Vertebrate +Animals. By A. MACALISTER, M.D. With 28 Diagrams. 8vo. 10_s._ +6_d._ + + +Text-Books of Science, Mechanical and Physical, adapted for the use of +Artisans and of Students in Public and Science Schools. Small 8vo. with +Woodcuts, &c. + +Abney's Photography, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Anderson's (Sir John) Strength of Materials, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Armstrong's Organic Chemistry, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Ball's Elements of Astronomy, 6_s._ + +Barry's Railway Appliances, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Bauerman's Systematic Mineralogy, 6_s._ + +Bloxam's Metals, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Goodeve's Mechanics, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Gore's Electro-Metallurgy, 6_s._ + +Griffin's Algebra & Trigonometry, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Jenkin's Electricity & Magnetism, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Maxwell's Theory of Heat, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Merrifield's Technical Arithmetic, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Miller's Inorganic Chemistry, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Preece & Sivewright's Telegraphy, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Rutley's Study of Rocks, 4_s._ 6_d._ + +Shelley's Workshop Appliances, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Thome's Structural and Physiological Botany, 6_s._ + +Thorpe's Quantitative Analysis, 4_s._ 6_d._ + +Thorpe & Muir's Qualitative Analysis, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Tilden's Chemical Philosophy, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Unwin's Machine Design, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +Watson's Plane & Solid Geometry, 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. By +RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S. With 1,472 Woodcuts. 3 vols. 8vo. L3. +13_s._ 6_d._ + + +Homes without Hands; a Description of the Habitations of Animals, +classed according to their Principle of Construction. By the Rev. J.G. +WOOD, M.A. With about 140 Vignettes on Wood. 8vo. 14_s._ + + +Wood's Strange Dwellings; a Description of the Habitations of Animals, +abridged from 'Homes without Hands.' With Frontispiece and 60 Woodcuts. +Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ Popular Edition, 4to. 6_d._ + + +Wood's Insects at Home; a Popular Account of British Insects, their +Structure, Habits, and Transformations. 8vo. Woodcuts, 14_s._ + + +Wood's Insects Abroad; a Popular Account of Foreign Insects, their +Structure, Habits, and Transformations. 8vo. Woodcuts, 14_s._ + + +Wood's Out of Doors; a Selection of Original Articles on Practical +Natural History. With 6 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Wood's Bible Animals; a description of every Living Creature mentioned +in the Scriptures. With 112 Vignettes. 8vo. 14_s._ + + +The Sea and its Living Wonders. By Dr. G. HARTWIG. 8vo. with +many Illustrations, 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Hartwig's Tropical World. With about 200 Illustrations. 8vo. 10_s._ +6_d._ + + +Hartwig's Polar World; a Description of Man and Nature in the Arctic +and Antarctic Regions of the Globe. Maps, Plates & Woodcuts. 8vo. 10_s._ +6_d._ Sunbeam Edition, 6_d._ + + +Hartwig's Subterranean World. With Maps and Woodcuts. 8vo. 10_s._ +6_d._ + + +Hartwig's Aerial World; a Popular Account of the Phenomena and Life of +the Atmosphere. Map, Plates, Woodcuts. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Familiar History of Birds. By E. STANLEY, D.D. New Edition, +revised and enlarged, with 160 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Rural Bird Life; Essays on Ornithology, with Instructions for +Preserving Objects relating to that Science. By CHARLES DIXON. +With Coloured Frontispiece and 44 Woodcuts by G. Pearson. Crown 8vo. +7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Country Pleasures; the Chronicle of a Year, chiefly in a Garden. By +GEORGE MILNER. Second Edition, with Vignette Title-page. Crown +8vo. price 6_s._ + + +The Note-book of an Amateur Geologist. By JOHN EDWARD LEE, +F.G.S. F.S.A. &c. With numerous Woodcuts and 200 Lithographic Plates of +Sketches and Sections. 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Rocks Classified and Described. By BERNHARD VON COTTA. An +English Translation, by P.H. LAWRENCE, with English, German, +and French Synonymes. Post 8vo, 14_s._ + + +The Geology of England and Wales; a Concise Account of the +Lithological Characters, Leading Fossils, and Economic Products of the +Rocks. By H.B. WOODWARD, F.G.S. Crown 8vo. Map & Woodcuts, +14_s._ + + +Keller's Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, and other Parts of Europe. +Translated by JOHN E. LEE, F.S.A. F.G.S. With 206 +Illustrations. 2 vols. royal 8vo. 42_s._ + + +Heer's Primaeval World of Switzerland. Edited by JAMES +HEYWOOD, M.A. F.R.S. With Map, 29 Plates, & 372 Woodcuts. 2 vols. +8vo. 12_s._ + + +The Puzzle of Life and How it Has Been Put Together; a Short History +of Praehistoric Vegetable and Animal Life on the Earth, By A. +NICOLS, F.R.G.S. With 12 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Origin of Civilisation, and the Primitive Condition of Man; Mental +and Social Condition of Savages. By Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart. M.P. +F.R.S. Fourth Edition, enlarged. 8vo. Woodcuts, 18_s._ + + +Light Science for Leisure Hours; Familiar Essays on Scientific +Subjects, Natural Phenomena, &c. By R.A. PROCTOR, B.A. 2 vols. +crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ each. + + +A Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. Re-edited by the Rev. +Sir G.W. COX, Bart. M.A. 3 vols. medium 8vo. 63_s._ + + +Hullah's Course of Lectures on the History of Modern Music. 8vo. 8_s._ +6_d._ + + +Hullah's Second Course of Lectures on the Transition Period of Musical +History, 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Plants; the Specific Character, Description, +Culture, History, &c. of all Plants found in Great Britain. With 12,000 +Woodcuts. 8vo. 42_s._ + + +Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening; the Theory and Practice of +Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture & Landscape Gardening, With +1,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21_s._ + + +De Caisne & Le Maout's Descriptive and Analytical Botany. Translated +by Mrs. HOOKER; edited and arranged by J.D. HOOKER, +M.D. With 5,500 Woodcuts. Imperial 8vo. price 31_s._ 5_d._ + + +Rivers's Orchard-House; or, the Cultivation of Fruit Trees under +Glass. Sixteenth Edition. Crown 8vo. with 25 Woodcuts, 5_s._ + + +The Rose Amateur's Guide. By THOMAS RIVERS. Latest Edition. +Fcp. 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ + + + + +CHEMISTRY and PHYSIOLOGY. + + +Experimental Chemistry for Junior Students. By J.E. REYNOLDS, +M.D. F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry, University of Dublin. Part I. +Introductory. Fcp. 8vo. 1_s._ 6_d._ + + +Practical Chemistry; the Principles of Qualitative Analysis. By +W.A. TILDEN, D. Sc. Lond. F.C.S. Professor of Chemistry in +Mason's College, Birmingham. Fcp. 8vo. 1_s._ 6_d._ + + +Miller's Elements of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical, Re-edited, +with Additions, by H. MACLEOD, F.C.S. 3 vols. 8vo. + +PART I. CHEMICAL PHYSICS. 16_s._ + +PART II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 24_s._ + +PART III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 31_s._ 6_d._ + + +Annals of Chemical Medicine; including the Application of Chemistry to +Physiology, Pathology, Therapeutics, Pharmacy, Toxicology, & Hygiene. +Edited by J.L.W. THUDICHUM, M.D. 2 vols. 8vo. 14_s._ each. + + +Health in the House; Lectures on Elementary Physiology in its +Application to the Daily Wants of Man and Animals. By Mrs. +BUCKTON. Crown 8vo. Woodcuts, 2_s._ + + +A Dictionary of Chemistry and the Allied Branches of other Sciences. +Edited by HENRY WATTS, F.R.S. 8 vols. medium 8vo, L12. 12_s._ +6_d._ + + +Third Supplement, completing the Record of Chemical Discovery to the +year 1877. PART II. completion, is now ready, price 50_s._ + + +Practical Inorganic Chemistry. An Elementary Text-Book of Theoretical +and Practical Inorganic Chemistry, designed chiefly for the use of +Students of Science Classes connected with the Science and Art +Department of the Committee of Council on Education. By W. +JAGO, F.C.S. Science Master at Brighton College. With 37 Woodcuts. +Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ + + + + +The FINE ARTS and ILLUSTRATED EDITIONS. + + +Lord Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome, with Ivry and the Armada. With +41 Wood Engravings by G. Pearson from Original Drawings by J.R. +Weguelin, Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Lord Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. With Ninety Illustrations +engraved on Wood from Drawings by G. Scharf. Fcp. 4to. 21_s._ or +imperial 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Notes on Foreign Picture Galleries. By C.L. EASTLAKE, +F.R.I.B.A. Keeper of the National Gallery, London. Crown 8vo. fully +Illustrated. [_In preparation._ + +Vol. I. The Brera Gallery, Milan. + +Vol. II. The Louvre, Paris. + +Vol. III. The Pinacothek, Munich. + + +The Three Cathedrals dedicated to St Paul in London. By W. +LONGMAN, F.S.A. With Illustrations. Square crown 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Lectures on Harmony, delivered at the Royal Institution. By G.A. +MACFARREN. 8vo. 12_s._ + + +Moore's Lalla Rookh. TENNIEL'S Edition, with 68 Woodcut +Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Moore's Irish Melodies, MACLISE'S Edition, with 161 Steel +Plates. Super-royal 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Sacred and Legendary Art. By Mrs. JAMESON. 6 vols. square +crown 8vo. L5, 15_s._ 6_d._ + + +Jameson's Legends of the Saints and Martyrs. With 19 Etchings and 187 +Woodcuts. 2 vols. 31_s._ 6_d._ + + +Jameson's Legends of the Monastic Orders. With 11 Etchings and 88 +Woodcuts. I vol. 21_s._ + + +Jameson's Legends of the Madonna. With 27 Etchings and 165 Woodcuts, 1 +vol. 21_s._ + + +Jameson's History of the Saviour, His Types and Precursors. Completed +by Lady EASTLAKE. With 13 Etchings and 281 Woodcuts. 2 vols. +42_s._ + + + + +The USEFUL ARTS, MANUFACTURES, &c. + + +The Elements of Mechanism. By T.M. GOODEVE, M.A. +Barrister-at-Law. New Edition, re-written and enlarged, with 342 +Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Railways and Locomotives; a Series of Lectures delivered at the School +of Military Engineering, Chatham. _Railways_, by J.W. BARRY, M. +Inst. C.E. _Locomotives_, by Sir F.J. BRAMWELL, F.R.S. M. Inst. +C.E. With 228 Illustrations engraved on Wood. 8vo. price 21_s._ + + +The Engineer's Valuing Assistant. By H.D. HOSKOLD, Civil and +Mining Engineer. 8vo. price 31_s._ 6_d._ + + +Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture, with above 1,600 Woodcuts. +Revised and extended by W. PAPWORTH. 8vo. 52_s._ 6_d._ + + +Lathes and Turning, Simple, Mechanical, and Ornamental. By W.H. +NORTHCOTT. Second Edition, with 338 Illustrations. 8vo. 18_s._ + + +Industrial Chemistry; a Manual for Manufacturers and for Colleges or +Technical Schools; a Translation of PAYEN'S _Precis de Chimie +Industrielle_. Edited, with Chapters on the Chemistry of the Metals, &c. +by B.H. PAUL. With 698 Woodcuts. Medium 8vo. 42_s._ + + +The Theory of Strains in Girders and similar Structures, with +Observations on the application of Theory to Practice, and Tables of the +Strength and other Properties of Materials. By B.B. STONEY, +M.A. M. Inst. C.E. Royal 8vo. with 5 Plates and 123 Woodcuts, 36_s._ + + +The British Navy: its Strength, Resources, and Administration. By Sir +T. BRASSEY, K.C.B. M.P. M.A. In 6 vols. 8vo. VOLS. I. +and II. with many Illustrations, 14_s._ or separately, VOL. I. +10 _s._ 6_d._ VOL. II. price 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Treatise on Mills and Millwork. By the late Sir W. +FAIRBAIRN, Bart. C.E. Fourth Edition, with 18 Plates and 333 +Woodcuts. I vol. 8vo 25_s._ + + +Useful Information for Engineers. By the late Sir W. +FAIRBAIRN, Bart. C.E. With many Plates and Woodcuts. 3 vols. crown +8vo. 31_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes. By the +late Sir W. FAIRBAIRN, Bart. C.E. With 6 Plates and 118 +Woodcuts. 8vo. 16_s._ + + +Hints on Household Taste in Furniture, Upholstery, and other Details. +By C.L. EASTLAKE. Fourth Edition, with 100 Illustrations. +Square crown 8vo. 14_s._ + + +Handbook of Practical Telegraphy. By R.S. CULLEY, Memb. Inst. +C.E. Seventh Edition. Plates & Woodcuts. 8vo. 16_s._ + + +The Marine Steam Engine. A Treatise for the use of Engineering +Students and Officers of the Royal Navy. By RICHARD SENNETT, +Chief Engineer, Royal Navy; First Assistant to Chief Engineer H.M. +Dockyard, Devonport; late Instructor in Marine Engineering at the Royal +Naval College. With numerous Illustrations and Diagrams. 8vo. price +21_s._ + + +A Treatise on the Steam Engine, in its various applications to Mines, +Mills, Steam Navigation, Railways and Agriculture. By J. +BOURNE, C.E. With Portrait, 37 Plates, and 546 Woodcuts. 4to. +42_s._ + + +Catechism of the Steam Engine, in its various Applications, By +JOHN BOURNE, C.E. Fcp. 8vo. Woodcuts, 6_s._ + + +Handbook of the Steam Engine, a Key to the Author's Catechism of the +Steam Engine. By J. BOURNE, C.E. Fcp. 8vo. Woodcuts, 9_s._ + + +Examples of Steam and Gas Engines of the most recent Approved Types as +employed in Mines, Factories, Steam Navigation, Railways and +Agriculture, practically described. By JOHN BOURNE, C.E. With +54 Plates and 356 Woodcuts. 4to. 70_s._ + + +Recent Improvements in the Steam Engine. By J. BOURNE, C.E. +Fcp. 8vo. Woodcuts, 6_s._ + + +Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. Seventh Edition, +re-written and enlarged by R. HUNT, F.R.S. assisted by numerous +Contributors. With 2,604 Woodcuts. 4 vols. medium 8vo. L7. 7_s._ + + +Cresy's Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering, Historical, Theoretical, +and Practical. With above 3,000 Woodcuts, 8vo. 25_s._ + + +Kerl's Practical Treatise on Metallurgy. Adapted from the last German +Edition by W. CROOKES, F.R.S. &c. and E. ROeHRIG, Ph. +D. 3 vols. 8vo. with 625 Woodcuts, L4. 19_s._ + + +Ville on Artificial Manures, their Chemical Selection and Scientific +Application to Agriculture. Translated and edited by W. +CROOKES, F.R.S. With 31 Plates. 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Mitchell's Manual of Practical Assaying. Fifth Edition, revised, with +the Recent Discoveries incorporated, by W. CROOKES, F.R.S. +Crown 8vo. Woodcuts, 31_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Art of Perfumery, and the Methods of Obtaining the Odours of +Plants; the Growth and general Flower Farm System of Raising Fragrant +Herbs; with Instructions for the Manufacture of Perfumes &c. By +G.W.S. PIESSE, Ph. D. F.C.S. Fourth Edition, with 96 Woodcuts, +Square crown 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening; the Theory and Practice of +Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture & Landscape Gardening. With +1,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21_s._ + + +Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture; the Laying-out, Improvement, and +Management of Landed Property; the Cultivation and Economy of the +Productions of Agriculture. With 1,100 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21_s._ + + + + +RELIGIOUS and MORAL WORKS. + + +An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament, Critical, +Exegetical, and Theological. By the Rev. S. DAVIDSON, D.D. +LL.D. New Edition, thoroughly revised by the Author. 2 vols. 8vo. 30_s._ + + +History of the Papacy During the Reformation. By M. +CREIGHTON, M.A. late Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. 2 vols. 8vo. +price 32_s._ VOL. I. the Great Schism--the Council of +Constance, 1378-1418. VOL. II. the Council of Basel--the Papal +Restoration, 1418-1464. [_In the press._ + + +A History of the Church of England; Pre-Reformation Period. By the +Rev. T.P. BOULTBEE, LL.D. 8vo. 15_s._ + + +Sketch of the History of the Church of England to the Revolution of +1688. By T.V. SHORT, D.D. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The English Church in the Eighteenth Century. By C.J. ABBEY, +late Fellow of Univ. Coll. Oxon. and J.H. OVERTON, late Scholar +of Lincoln Coll. Oxon. 2 vols. 8vo. 36_s._ + + +An Exposition of the 39 Articles, Historical and Doctrinal. By +E.H. BROWNE, D.D. Bishop of Winchester. Twelfth Edition. 8vo. +16_s._ + + +A Commentary on the 39 Articles, forming an Introduction to the +Theology of the Church of England. By the Rev. T.P. BOULTBEE, +LL.D. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Sermons preached mostly in the Chapel of Rugby School by the late +T. ARNOLD, D.D. Collective Edition, revised by the Author's +Daughter, Mrs. W.E. FORSTER. 6 vols. crown 8vo. 30_s._ or +separately, 5_s._ each. + + +Historical Lectures on the Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ. By C.J. +ELLICOTT, D.D. 8vo. 12_s._ + + +The Eclipse of Faith; or a Visit to a Religious Sceptic. By HENRY +ROGERS. Fcp. 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Defence of the Eclipse of Faith. BY H. ROGERS. Fcp. 8vo. +3_s._ 6_d._ + + +Nature, the Utility of Religion, and Theism. Three Essays by JOHN +STUART MILL. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles. By +C.J. ELLICOTT, D.D. 8vo. Galatians, 8_s._ 6_d._ Ephesians, +8_s._ 6_d._ Pastoral Epistles, 10_s._ 6_d._ Philippians, Colossians, & +Philemon, 10_s._ 6_d._ Thessalonians, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Conybeare & Howson's Life and Epistles of St Paul. Three Editions, +copiously illustrated. + +Library Edition, with all the Original Illustrations, Maps, Landscapes +on Steel, Woodcuts, &c. 2 vols. 4to. 42_s._ + +Intermediate Edition, with a Selection of Maps, Plates, and Woodcuts, +2 vols. square crown 8vo. 21_s._ + +Student's Edition, revised and condensed, with 46 Illustrations and +Maps. 1 vol. crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Smith's Voyage & Shipwreck of St Paul; with Dissertations on the Life +and Writings of St. Luke, and the Ships and Navigation of the Ancients. +Fourth Edition, revised by the Author's Son, with all the Original +Illustrations, Cr. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Handbook to the Bible, or, Guide to the Study of the Holy Scriptures +derived from Ancient Monuments and Modern Exploration. By F.R. +CONDER, and Lieut. C.R. CONDER, R.E. Third Edition, Maps. +Post 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Bible Studies. By M.M. KALISCH, Ph. D. PART I. _The +Prophecies of Balaam_. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ PART II. _The Book of +Jonah_. 8vo. price 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament; with a New +Translation. By M.M. KALISCH, Ph. D. Vol. I. Genesis, 8vo. +18_s._ or adapted for the General Reader, 12_s._ Vol. II. Exodus, 15_s._ +or adapted for the General Reader, 12_s._ Vol. III. Leviticus, Part I. +15_s._ or adapted for the General Reader, 8_s._ Vol. IV. Leviticus, Part +II. 15_s._ or adapted for the General Reader, 8_s._ + + +The Four Gospels in Greek, with Greek-English Lexicon. By JOHN T. +WHITE, D.D. Oxon. Square 32mo. 5_s._ + + +Ewald's History of Israel. Translated from the German by J.E. +CARPENTER, M.A. with Preface by R. MARTINEAU, M.A. 5 vols. +8vo. 63_s._ + + +Ewald's Antiquities of Israel. Translated from the German by H.S. +SOLLY, M.A. 8vo. 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +The New Man and the Eternal Life; Notes on the Reiterated Amens of the +Son of God. By A. JUKES. Second Edition. Cr. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +The Types of Genesis, briefly considered as revealing the Development +of Human Nature. By A. JUKES. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Second Death and the Restitution of all Things; with some +Preliminary Remarks on the Nature and Inspiration of Holy Scripture. By +A. JUKES. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +Supernatural Religion; an Inquiry into the Reality of Divine +Revelation. Complete Edition, thoroughly revised. 3 vols. 8vo. 36_s._ + + +Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the +Religions of India. By F. MAX MUeLLER, K.M. 8vo. price 10_s._ +6_d._ + + +Introduction to the Science of Religion, Four Lectures delivered at +the Royal Institution; with Essays on False Analogies and the Philosophy +of Mythology. By F. MAX MUeLLER, K.M. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Gospel for the Nineteenth Century. Fourth Edition. 8vo. price +10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Passing Thoughts on Religion. By Miss SEWELL. Fcp. 8vo, price +3_s._ 6_d._ + + +Preparation for the Holy Communion; the Devotions chiefly from the +works of Jeremy Taylor. By Miss SEWELL. 32mo. 3_s._ + + +Private Devotions for Young Persons, Compiled by ELIZABETH M. +SEWELL, Author of 'Amy Herbert' &c. 18mo. 2_s._ + + +Bishop Jeremy Taylor's Entire Works; with Life by Bishop Heber. +Revised and corrected by the Rev. C.P. EDEN. 10 vols. L5. 5_s._ + + +Hymns of Praise and Prayer. Corrected and edited by Rev. JOHN +MARTINEAU, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ 32mo. 1_s._ 6_d._ + + +Spiritual Songs for the Sundays and Holidays throughout the Year. By +J.S.B. MONSELL, LL.D. Fcp. 8vo. 5_s._ 18mo. 2_s._ + + +Christ the Consoler; a Book of Comfort for the Sick. By ELLICE +HOPKINS. Second Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +Lyra Germanica; Hymns translated from the German by Miss C. +WINKWORTH. Fcp. 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Hours of Thought on Sacred Things; Two Volumes of Sermons. By +JAMES MARTINEAU, D.D. LL.D. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ +each. + + +Endeavours after the Christian Life; Discourses. By JAMES +MARTINEAU, D.D. LL.D. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Pentateuch & Book of Joshua Critically Examined. By J.W. +COLENSO, D.D. Bishop of Natal. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Lectures on the Pentateuch and the Moabite Stone; with Appendices. By +J.W. COLENSO, D.D. Bishop of Natal. 8vo. 12_s._ + + + + +TRAVELS, VOYAGES, &c. + + +Sunshine and Storm in the East, or Cruises to Cyprus and +Constantinople. By Lady BRASSEY. Cheaper Edition, with 2 Maps +and 114 Illustrations engraved on Wood. Cr. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Voyage in the 'Sunbeam', our Home on the Ocean for Eleven Months. By +Lady BRASSEY. Cheaper Edition, with Map and 65 Wood Engravings. +Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ School Edition, fcp. 2_s._ Popular Edition, 4to. +6_d._ + + +Eight Years in Ceylon. By Sir SAMUEL W. BAKER, M.A. Crown +8vo. Woodcuts, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon. By Sir SAMUEL W. BAKER, +M.A. Crown 8vo. Woodcuts, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Sacred Palmlands; or, the Journal of a Spring Tour in Egypt and the +Holy Land. By A.G. WELD. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Wintering in the Riviera; with Notes of Travel in Italy and France, +and Practical Hints to Travellers. By WILLIAM MILLER, S.S.C. +Edinburgh. With 12 Illustrations, Post 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +San Remo and the Western Riviera, climatically and medically +considered. By A. HILL HASSALL, M.D. Map and Woodcuts. Crown +8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan Districts of British India, their Climate, +Medical Topography, and Disease Distribution. By F.N. +MACNAMARA, M.D. With Map and Fever Chart. 8vo. 21_s._ + + +The Alpine Club Map of Switzerland, with parts of the Neighbouring +Countries, on the scale of Four Miles to an Inch. Edited by R.C. +NICHOLS, F.R.G.S. 4 Sheets in Portfolio, 42_s._ coloured, or 34_s._ +uncoloured. + + +Enlarged Alpine Club Map of the Swiss and Italian Alps, on the Scale +of 3 English Statute Miles to 1 Inch, in 8 Sheets, price 1_s._ 6_d._ +each. + + +The Alpine Guide. By JOHN BALL, M.R.I.A. Post 8vo. with Maps +and other Illustrations:-- + +The Eastern Alps, 10_s._ 6_d._ + +Central Alps, including all the Oberland District, 7_s._ 6_d._ + +Western Alps, including Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, Zermatt, &c. Price +6_s._ 6_d._ + +On Alpine Travelling and the Geology of the Alps. Price 1_s._ Either +of the Three Volumes or Parts of the 'Alpine Guide' may be had with this +Introduction prefixed, 1_s._ extra. + + + + +WORKS of FICTION. + + +The Hughenden Edition of the Novels and Tales of the Earl of +Beaconsfield, K.G. from Vivian Grey to Endymion. With Maclise's +Portrait of the Author, a later Portrait on Steel from a recent +Photograph, and a Vignette to each volume. To the last volume, +_Endymion_, is appended a brief Memoir of the Life and Political Career +of the Earl of Beaconsfield. Eleven Volumes, crown 8vo. bound in cloth +extra, 42_s._ + + +Novels and Tales. By the Right Hon. the EARL of +BEACONSFIELD, K.G. The Cabinet Edition. Eleven Volumes, crown +8vo. 6_s._ each. + + +The Novels and Tales of the Right Hon. the Earl of Beaconsfield, K.G. +Modern Novelist's Library Edition, complete in Eleven Volumes, crown +8vo. price 22_s._ boards, or 27_s._ 6_d._ cloth. + + +Buried Alive; or, Ten Years of Penal Servitude in Siberia. By +FEDOR DOSTOYEFFSKY. Translated from the German by MARIE VON +THILO. Fourth Edition, Post 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Whispers from Fairyland. By the Right Hon. E.H. +KNATCHBULL-HUGESSEN, M.P. With 9 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 3_s._ +6_d._ + + +Higgledy-Piggledy; or, Stories for Everybody and Everybody's Children. +By the Right Hon. E.H. KNATCHBULL-HUGESSEN, M.P. With 9 +Illustrations. Uniform, 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +Stories and Tales. By ELIZABETH M. SEWELL. Cabinet Edition, +in Ten Volumes, crown 8vo. price 3_s._ 6_d._ each, in cloth extra, with +gilt edges:-- + +Amy Herbert. +Gertrude. +The Earl's Daughter +Experience of Life. +Cleve Hall. +Ivors. +Katharine Ashton. +Margaret Percival. +Laneton Parsonage. +Ursula. + + +The Modern Novelist's Library. Each work complete in itself, price +2_s._ boards, or 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth:-- + +By Earl of BEACONSFIELD, K.G. + +Endymion. +Lothair. +Coningsby. +Sybil. +Tancred. +Venetia. +Henrietta Temple. +Contarini Fleming, &c. +Alroy, Ixion, &c. +The Young Duke, &c. +Vivian Grey. + +By ANTHONY TROLLOPE. + +Barchester Towers. +The Warden. + +By Major WHYTE-MELVILLE. + +Digby Grand. +General Bounce. +Kate Coventry. +The Gladiators. +Good for Nothing. +Holmby House. +The Interpreter. +Queen's Maries. + +By the Author of 'The Rose Garden.' + +Unawares. + +By the Author of 'Mlle. Mori.' + +The Atelier du Lys. +Mademoiselle Mori. + +By Various Writers. + +Atherstone Priory. +The Burgomaster's Family. +Elsa and her Vulture. +The Six Sisters of the Valleys. + + +Novels and Tales by the Right Honourable the Earl of Beaconsfield, +K.G. Modern Novelist's Library Edition, complete in Eleven Volumes, +crown 8vo. cloth extra, gilt edges, price 33_s._ + + + + +POETRY and THE DRAMA. + + +Poetical Works of Jean Ingelow. New Edition, reprinted, with +Additional Matter, from the 23rd and 6th Editions of the two volumes +respectively; with 2 Vignettes. 2 vols. fcp. 8vo. 12_s._ + + +Faust. From the German of GOETHE. By T.E. WEBB, +LL.D. Reg. Prof. of Laws & Public Orator in the Univ. of Dublin. 8vo. +12_s._ 6_d._ + + +Goethe's Faust. A New Translation, chiefly in Blank Verse; with a +complete Introduction and copious Notes. By JAMES ADEY BIRDS, +B.A. F.G.S. Large crown 8vo. 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +Goethe's Faust. The German Text, with an English Introduction and +Notes for Students. By ALBERT M. SELSS, M.A. Ph. D. Prof. of +German in the Univ. of Dublin. Cr. 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Lays of Ancient Rome; with Ivry and the Armada. By LORD +MACAULAY. 16mo. 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Poem of the Cid: a Translation from the Spanish, with Introduction +and Notes. By JOHN ORMSBY. Crown 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Festus, a Poem. By PHILIP JAMES BAILEY. 10th Edition, +enlarged & revised. Crown 8vo. 12_s._ 6_d._ + +The 'Festus' Birthday-Book. Fcp. 8vo. 3_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Iliad of Homer, Homometrically translated by C.B. CAYLEY. +8vo. 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +Bowdler's Family Shakspeare. Genuine Edition, in 1 vol. medium 8vo. +large type, with 36 Woodcuts, 14_s._ or in 6 vols. fcp. 8vo. 21_s._ + + +The AEneid of Virgil. Translated into English Verse. By J. +CONINGTON, M.A. Crown 8vo. 9_s._ + + +Southey's Poetical Works, with the Author's last Corrections and +Additions. Medium 8vo. with Portrait, 14_s._ + + + + +RURAL SPORTS, HORSE and CATTLE MANAGEMENT, &c. + + +Blaine's Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports; Complete Accounts, Historical, +Practical, and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, &c. +With 600 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21_s._ + + +A Book on Angling; or, Treatise on the Art of Fishing in every branch; +including full Illustrated Lists of Salmon Flies. By FRANCIS +FRANCIS. Post 8vo. Portrait and Plates, 15_s._ + + +Wilcocks's Sea-Fisherman: comprising the Chief Methods of Hook and +Line Fishing, a glance at Nets, and remarks on Boats and Boating. Post +8vo. Woodcuts, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Fly-Fisher's Entomology. By ALFRED RONALDS. With 20 +Coloured Plates. 8vo. 14_s._ + + +Horses and Roads; or, How to Keep a Horse Sound on his Legs. By +FREE-LANCE. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Horses and Riding. By GEORGE NEVILE, M.A. With 31 +Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Horses and Stables. By Major-General Sir F. FITZWYGRAM, Bart. +Second Edition, revised and enlarged; with 39 pages of Illustrations +containing very numerous Figures. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Youatt on the Horse. Revised and enlarged by W. WATSON, +M.R.C.V.S. 8vo. Woodcuts, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +Youatt's Work on the Dog. Revised and enlarged. 8vo. Woodcuts, 6_s._ + + +The Dog in Health and Disease. By STONEHENGE. Third Edition, +with 78 Wood Engravings. Square crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Greyhound. By STONEHENGE. Revised Edition, with 25 +Portraits of Greyhounds, &c. Square crown 8vo. 15_s._ + + +Stables and Stable Fittings. By W. MILES. Imp. 8vo. with 13 +Plates, 15_s._ + + +The Horse's Foot, and How to keep it Sound. By W. MILES. Imp. +8vo. Woodcuts, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Plain Treatise on Horse-shoeing. By W. MILES. Post 8vo. +Woodcuts, 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +Remarks on Horses' Teeth, addressed to Purchasers. By W. +MILES. Post 8vo. 1_s._ 6_d._ + + +A Treatise on the Diseases of the Ox; being a Manual of Bovine +Pathology specially adapted for the use of Veterinary Practitioners and +Students. By J.H. STEEL, M.R.C.V.S. F.Z.S. With 2 Plates and +116 Woodcuts. 8vo. 15_s._ + + + + +WORKS of UTILITY and GENERAL INFORMATION. + + +Maunder's Biographical Treasury. Latest Edition, reconstructed and +partly re-written, with above 1,600 additional Memoirs, by W.L.R. +CATES. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Maunder's Treasury of Natural History; or, Popular Dictionary of +Zoology. Revised and corrected Edition. Fcp. 8vo. with 900 Woodcuts, +6_s._ + + +Maunder's Treasury of Geography, Physical, Historical, Descriptive, +and Political. Edited by W. HUGHES, F.R.G.S. With 7 Maps and 16 +Plates. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Maunder's Historical Treasury; Introductory Outlines of Universal +History, and Separate Histories of all Nations. Revised by the Rev. Sir +G.W. COX, Bart. M.A. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge and Library of Reference; comprising +an English Dictionary and Grammar, Universal Gazetteer, Classical +Dictionary, Chronology, Law Dictionary, Synopsis of the Peerage, Useful +Tables, &c. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Maunder's Scientific and Literary Treasury; a Popular Encyclopaedia of +Science, Literature, and Art. Latest Edition, partly re-written, with +above 1,000 New Articles, by J.Y. JOHNSON. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +The Treasury of Botany, or Popular Dictionary of the Vegetable +Kingdom; with which is incorporated a Glossary of Botanical Terms. +Edited by J. LINDLEY, F.R.S. and T. MOORE, F.L.S. With +274 Woodcuts and 20 Steel Plates. Two Parts, fcp. 8vo. 12_s._ + + +The Treasury of Bible Knowledge; being a Dictionary of the Books, +Persons, Places, Events, and other Matters of which mention is made in +Holy Scripture. By the Rev. J. AYRE, M.A. Maps, Plates & +Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +A Practical Treatise on Brewing; with Formulae for Public Brewers & +Instructions for Private Families. By W. BLACK. 8vo. 10_s._ +6_d._ + + +The Theory of the Modern Scientific Game of Whist. By W. +POLE, F.R.S. Thirteenth Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Correct Card; or, How to Play at Whist; a Whist Catechism. By +Major A. CAMPBELL-WALKER, F.R.G.S. Fourth Edition. Fcp. 8vo. +2_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Cabinet Lawyer; a Popular Digest of the Laws of England, Civil, +Criminal, and Constitutional. Twenty-Fifth Edition, corrected and +extended. Fcp. 8vo. 9_s._ + + +Chess Openings. By F.W. LONGMAN, Balliol College, Oxford. New +Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +Pewtner's Comprehensive Specifier; a Guide to the Practical +Specification of every kind of Building-Artificer's Work. Edited by +W. YOUNG. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Modern Cookery for Private Families, reduced to a System of Easy +Practice in a Series of carefully-tested Receipts. By ELIZA +ACTON. With 8 Plates and 150 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Food and Home Cookery. A Course of Instruction in Practical Cookery +and Cleaning, for Children in Elementary Schools. By Mrs. +BUCKTON. Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 2_s._ + + +The Ventilation of Dwelling Houses and the Utilisation of Waste Heat +from Open Fire-Places, &c. By F. EDWARDS, Jun. Second Edition. +With numerous Lithographic Plates, comprising 106 Figures. Royal 8vo. +10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Hints to Mothers on the Management of their Health during the Period +of Pregnancy and in the Lying-in Room. By THOMAS BULL, M.D. +Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Maternal Management of Children in Health and Disease. By +THOMAS BULL, M.D. Fcp. 8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +American Farming and Food. By FINLAY DUN, Special +Correspondent for the 'Times.' Crown 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Farm Valuer. By JOHN SCOTT, Land Valuer. Crown 8vo. 5_s._ + + +Rents and Purchases; or, the Valuation of Landed Property, Woods, +Minerals, Buildings, &c. By JOHN SCOTT. Crown 8vo. 6_s._ + + +Economic Studies. By the late WALTER BAGEHOT, M.A. Fellow of +Univ. Coll. London. Edited by R.H. HUTTON. 8vo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Economics for Beginners By H.D. MACLEOD, M.A. Small crown +8vo. 2_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Elements of Economics. By H.D. MACLEOD, M.A. In 2 vols. +VOL. I. crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + +The Elements of Banking. By H.D. MACLEOD, M.A. Fourth +Edition. Crown 8vo. 5_s._ + + +The Theory and Practice of Banking. By H.D. MACLEOD, M.A. 2 +vols. 8vo. 26_s._ + + +The Resources of Modern Countries; Essays towards an Estimate of the +Economic Position of Nations and British Trade Prospects. By ALEX +WILSON. 2 vols. 8vo. 24_s._ + + +The Patentee's Manual; a Treatise on the Law and Practice of Letters +Patent, for the use of Patentees and Inventors. By J. JOHNSON, +Barrister-at-Law; and J.H. JOHNSON, Assoc. Inst. C.E. Solicitor +and Patent Agent. Fourth Edition, enlarged. 8vo. price 10_s._ 6_d._ + + +Willich's Popular Tables Arranged in a New Form, giving Information +&c. equally adapted for the Office and the Library. Ninth Edition, +edited by M. MARRIOTT, Barrister. Crown 8vo. 10_s._ + + + + +INDEX. + + +_Abbey & Overton's_ English Church History, 15 + +_Abney's_ Photography, 10 + +_Acton's_ Modern Cookery, 20 + +Alpine Club Map of Switzerland, 17 + Guide (The), 17 + +_Amos's_ Jurisprudence, 5 + Primer of the Constitution, 5 + 50 Years of English Constitution, 5 + +_Anderson's_ Strength of Materials, 10 + +_Armstrong's_ Organic Chemistry, 10 + +_Arnold's_ (Dr.) Lectures on Modern History, 2 + Miscellaneous Works, 7 + Sermons, 15 + (T.) English Literature, 6 + Poetry and Prose, 6 + +_Arnott's_ Elements of Physics, 9 + +Atelier (The) du Lys, 19 + +Atherstone Priory, 18 + +Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson, 7 + +_Ayre's_ Treasury of Bible Knowledge, 20 + + +_Bacon's_ Essays, by _Whately_, 5 + Life and Letters, by _Spedding_, 5 + Works, 5 + +_Bagehot's_ Biographical Studies, 4 + Economic Studies, 21 + Literary Studies, 6 + +_Bailey's_ Festus, a Poem, 18 + +_Bain's_ James Mill and J.S. Mill, 4 + Mental and Moral Science, 6 + on the Senses and Intellect, 6 + Emotions and Will, 6 + +_Baker's_ Two Works on Ceylon, 17 + +_Ball's_ Alpine Guides, 17 + +_Ball's_ Elements of Astronomy, 10 + +_Barry_ on Railway Appliances, 10 + & _Brumweli_ on Railways, &c., 13 + +_Bauerman's_ Mineralogy, 10 + +_Beaconsfield's_ (Lord) Novels and Tales, 17 & 18 + Speeches, 1 + Wit and Wisdom, 6 + +_Becker's_ Charicles and Gallus, 8 + +_Beesly's_ Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla, 3 + +_Bent's_ Memoir of Garibaldi, 4 + +_Bingham's_ Bonaparte Marriages, 4 + +_Black's_ Treatise on Brewing, 20 + +_Blackley's_ German-English Dictionary, 8 + +_Blaine's_ Rural Sports, 19 + +_Bloxam's_ Metals, 10 + +_Bolland_ and _Lang's_ Aristotle's Politics, 5 + +_Bosco's_ Italian History by _Morell_, 2 + +_Boultbee_ on 39 Articles, 15 + 's; History of the English Church, 15 + +_Bourne's_ Works on the Steam Engine, 14 + +_Bowdler's_ Family _Shakespeare_, 19 + +_Bramley-Moore's_ Six Sisters of the Valleys, 19 + +_Brandt's_ Dict. of Science, Literature, & Art, 11 + +_Brassey's_ British Navy, 13 + Sunshine and Storm in the East, 17 + Voyage of the 'Sunbeam', 17 + +_Browne's_ Exposition of the 39 Articles, 15 + +_Browning's_ Modern England, 3 + +_Buckle's_ History of Civilisation, 3 + +_Buckton's_ Food and Home Cookery, 20 + Health in the House, 12 + +_Bull's_ Hints to Mothers, 21 + Maternal Management of Children, 21 + +Burgomaster's Family (The), 19 + +Buried Alive, 18 + +_Burke's_ Vicissitudes of Families, 4 + + +Cabinet Lawyer, 20 + +_Capes's_ Age of the Antonines, 3 + Early Roman Empire, 3 + +_Carlyle's_ Reminiscences, 4 + +_Cales's_ Biographical Dictionary, 4 + +_Cayley's_ Iliad of Homer, 19 + +Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths, 7 + +_Chesney's_ Waterloo Campaign, 2 + +_Church's_ Beginning of the Middle Ages, 3 + +_Colenso_ on Moabite Stone &c., 16 + 's Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, 16 + +Commonplace Philosopher, 7 + +_Comte's_ Positive Polity, 5 + +_Conder's_ Handbook to the Bible, 15 + +_Conington's_ Translation of Virgil's AEneid, 19 + +_Contanseau's_ Two French Dictionaries, 7 & 8 + +_Conybeare_ and _Howson's_ St. Paul, 15 + +_Cordery's_ Struggle against Absolute Monarchy, 3 + +_Cotta_ on Rocks, by _Lawrence_, 11 + +Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit, 7 + +_Cox's_ (G.W.) Athenian Empire, 3 + Crusades, 3 + Greeks and Persians, 3 + +_Creighton's_ Age of Elizabeth, 3 + England a Continental Power, 3 + Papacy during the Reformation, 15 + Shilling History of England, 3 + Tudors and the Reformation, 3 + +_Cresy's_ Encyclopaedia, of Civil Engineering, 14 + +Critical Essays of a Country Parson., 7 + +_Culley's_ Handbook of Telegraphy, 14 + +_Curteis's_ Macedonian Empire, 3 + + +_Davidson's_ New Testament, 15 + +_De Caisne_ and _Le Maout's_ Botany, 12 + +_De Tocqueville's_ Democracy in America, 2 + +_Dixon's_ Rural Bird Life, 11 + +_Dun's_ American Farming and Food, 21 + + +_Eastlake's_ Foreign Picture Galleries, 13 + Hints on Household Taste, 14 + +_Edwards_ on Ventilation &c., 20 + +_Ellicott's_ Scripture Commentaries, 15 + Lectures on Life of Christ, 15 + +Elsa and her Vulture, 19 + +Epochs of Ancient History, 3 + English History, 3 + Modern History, 3 + +_Ewald's_ History of Israel, 16 + Antiquities of Israel, 16 + + +_Fairbairn's_ Applications of Iron, 14 + Information for Engineers, 14 + Mills and Millwork, 13 + +_Farrar's_ Language and Languages, 7 + +_Fitzwygram_ on Horses, 19 + +_Francis's_ Fishing Book, 19 + +_Freeman's_ Historical Geography, 2 + +_Froude's_ Caesar, 4 + English in Ireland, 1 + History of England, 1 + Short Studies, 6 + Thomas Carlyle, 4 + + +_Gairdner's_ Houses of Lancaster and York, 3 + +_Ganot's_ Elementary Physics, 9 + Natural Philosophy, 9 + +_Gardiner's_ Buckingham and Charles I., 2 + Personal Government of Charles I., 2 + Fall of ditto, 2 + Outline of English History, 2 + Puritan Resolution, 3 + Thirty Years' War, 3 + +German Home Life, 7 + +_Goethe's_ Faust, by Birds, 18 + by Selss, 18 + by Webb, 18 + +_Goodeve's_ Mechanics, 10 + Mechanism, 13 + +_Gore's_ Electro-Metallurgy, 10 + +Gospel (The) for the Nineteenth Century, 16 + +_Grant's_ Ethics of Aristotle, 5 + +Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson, 7 + +_Greville's_ Journal, 1 + +_Griffin's_ Algebra and Trigonometry, 10 + +_Grove_ on Correlation of Physical Forces, 9 + +_Gwilt's_ Encyclopaedia of Architecture, 13 + + +_Hale's_ Fall of the Stuarts, 3 + +_Hartwig's_ Works on Natural History, &c., 11 + +_Hassall's_ Climate of San Remo, 17 + +_Haughton's_ Physical Geography, 11 + +_Hayward's_ Selected Essays, 6 + +_Heer's_ Primeval World of Switzerland, 11 + +_Helmholtz's_ Scientific Lectures, 9 + +_Herschel's_ Outlines of Astronomy, 8 + +_Hopkins's_ Christ the Consoler, 16 + +Horses and Roads, 19 + +_Hoskold's_ Engineer's Valuing Assistant, 13 + +_Hullah's_ History of Modern Music, 11 + Transition Period, 12 + +_Hume's_ Essays, 6 + Treatise on Human Nature, 6 + + +_Ihne's_ Rome to its Capture by the Gauls, 3 + History of Rome, 2 + +_Ingelow's_ Poems, 18 + + +_Jago's_ Inorganic Chemistry, 12 + +_Jameson's_ Sacred and Legendary Art, 13 + +_Jenkin's_ Electricity and Magnetism, 10 + +_Jerrold's_ Life of Napoleon, 1 + +_Johnson's_ Normans in Europe, 3 + Patentee's Manual, 21 + +_Johnston's_ Geographical Dictionary, 8 + +_Jukes's_ New Man, 16 + Second Death, 16 + Types of Genesis, 16 + + +_Kalisch's_ Bible Studies, 15 + Commentary on the Bible, 16 + Path and Goal, 5 + +_Keller's_ Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, 11 + +_Kerl's_ Metallurgy, by _Crookes_ and _Roehrig_, 14 + +_Knatchbull-Hugessen's_ Fairy-Land, 18 + Higgledy-Piggledy, 18 + + +Landscapes, Churches, &c., 7 + +_Latham's_ English Dictionaries, 7 + Handbook of English Language, 7 + +_Lecky's_ History of England, 1 + European Morals, 3 + Rationalism, 3 + Leaders of Public Opinion, 4 + +_Lee's_ Geologist's Note Book, 11 + +Leisure Hours in Town, 7 + +_Leslie's_ Political and Moral Philosophy, 6 + +Lessons of Middle Age, 7 + +_Lewes's_ History of Philosophy, 3 + +_Lewis_ on Authority, 6 + +_Liddell_ and _Scott's_ Greek-English Lexicons, 8 + +_Lindley_ and _Moore's_ Treasury of Botany, 20 + +_Lloyd's_ Magnetism, 9 + Wave-Theory of Light, 10 + +_Longman's_ (F.W.) Chess Openings, 20 + Frederic the Great, 3 + +_Longman's_ (F.W.) German Dictionary, 8 + (W.) Edward the Third, 2 + Lectures on History of England, 2 + Old and New St. Paul's, 13 + +_Loudon's_ Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, 14 + Gardening, 14 + Plants, 12 + +_Lubbock's_ Origin of Civilisation, 11 + +_Ludlow's_ American War of Independence, 3 + +Lyra Germanica, 16 + + +_Macalister's_ Vertebrate Animals, 11 + +_Macaulay's_ (Lord) Essays, 1 + History of England, 1 + Lays, Illustrated Edits, 12 + Cheap Edition, 18 + Life and Letters, 4 + Miscellaneous Writings, 6 + Speeches, 6 + Works, 1 + Writings, Selections from, 6 + +_MacCullagh's_ Tracts, 9 + +_McCarthy's_ Epoch of Reform, 3 + +_McCulloch's_ Dictionary of Commerce, 8 + +_Macfarren_ on Musical Harmony, 13 + +_Macleod's_ Economical Philosophy, 5 + Economics for Beginners, 21 + Elements of Banking, 21 + Elements of Economics, 21 + Theory and Practice of Banking, 21 + +Macnamara's Himalayan Districts, 17 + +Mademoiselle Mori, 19 + +_Mahaffy's_ Classical Greek Literature, 3 + +_Marshman's_ Life of Havelock, 4 + +_Martineau's_ Christian Life, 16 + Hours of Thought, 16 + Hymns, 16 + +_Maunder's_ Popular Treasuries, 20 + +_Maxwell's_ Theory of Heat, 10 + +_May's_ History of Democracy, 2 + History of England, 2 + +_Melville's_ (Whyte) Novels and Tales, 19 + +_Mendelssohn's_ Letters, 4 + +_Merivale's_ Fall of the Roman Republic, 2 + General History of Rome, 2 + Roman Triumvirates, 3 + Romans under the Empire, 2 + +_Merrifield's_ Arithmetic and Mensuration, 10 + +_Miles_ on Horse's Foot and Horse Shoeing, 19 + on Horse's Teeth and Stables, 19 + +_Mill_ (J.) on the Mind, 5 + +_Mill's_ (J.S.) Autobiography, 4 + Dissertations & Discussions, 5 + Essays on Religion, 15 + Hamilton's Philosophy, 5 + Liberty, 5 + Political Economy, 5 + Representative Government, 5 + Subjection of Women, 5 + System of Logic, 5 + Unsettled Questions, 5 + Utilitarianism, 5 + +_Miller's_ Elements of Chemistry, 12 + Inorganic Chemistry, 10 + Wintering in the Riviera, 17 + +_Milner's_ Country Pleasures, 11 + +_Mitchell's_ Manual of Assaying, 14 + +Modern Novelist's Library, 18 & 19 + +_Monck's_ Logic, 6 + +_Monsell's_ Spiritual Songs, 17 + +_Moore's_ Irish Melodies, Illustrated Edition, 13 + Lalla Rookh, Illustrated Edition, 13 + +_Morris's_ Age of Anne, 3 + +_Mueller's_ Chips from a German Workshop, 7 + Hibbert Lectures on Religion, 16 + Science of Language, 7 + Science of Religion, 16 + Selected Essays, 7 + + +_Neison_ on the Moon, 8 + +_Nevile's_ Horses and Riding, 19 + +_Newman's_ Apologia pro Vita Sua, 4 + +_Nicols's_ Puzzle of Life, 11 + +_Northcott's_ Lathes & Turning, 13 + + +_Orsi's_ Fifty Years' Recollections, 4 + +_Ormsby's_ Poem of the Cid, 18 + +Our Little Life, by A.K.H B., 7 + +_Overton's_ Life, &c. of _Law_, 4 + +_Owen's_ Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrate Animals, 10 + +_Owen's_ Evenings with the Skeptics, 7 + + +_Payen's_ Industrial Chemistry, 13 + +_Pewtner's_ Comprehensive Specifier, 20 + +_Piesse's_ Art of Perfumery, 14 + +_Pole's_ Game of Whist, 20 + +_Powell's_ Early England, 3 + +_Preece & Sivewright's_ Telegraphy, 10 + +Present-Day Thoughts, 7 + +_Proctor's_ Astronomical Works, 9 + Scientific Essays, 11 + +Public Schools Atlases, 8 + + +_Rawlinson's_ Ancient Egypt, 3 + Sassanians, 3 + +Recreations of a Country Parson, 7 + +_Reynolds's_ Experimental Chemistry, 12 + +_Rich's_ Dictionary of Antiquities, 8 + +_Rivers's_ Orchard House, 12 + Rose Amateur's Guide, 12 + +_Rogers's_ Eclipse of Faith and its Defence, 15 + +_Roget's_ English Thesaurus, 8 + +_Ronalds'_ Fly-Fisher's Entomology, 19 + +_Rowley's_ Rise of the People, 3 + Settlement of the Constitution, 3 + +_Rutley's_ Study of Rocks, 10 + + +_Sandars's_ Justinian's Institutes, 5 + +_Sankey's_ Sparta and Thebes, 3 + +_Savile_ on Apparitions, 7 + +Seaside Musings, 7 + +_Scott's_ Farm Valuer, 21 + Rents and Purchases, 21 + +_Seebohm's_ Oxford Reformers of 1498, 3 + Protestant Revolution, 3 + +_Sennett's_ Marine Steam Engine, 14 + +_Sewell's_ History of France, 2 + Passing Thoughts on Religion, 16 + Preparation for Communion, 16 + Private Devotions, 16 + Stories and Tales, 18 + +_Shelley's_ Workshop Appliances, 10 + +_Short's_ Church History, 15 + +_Smith's_ (_Sydney_) Wit and Wisdom, 6 + (Dr. R.A.) Air and Rain, 8 + (R.B.)Carthage & the Carthaginians, 2 + Rome and Carthage, 3 + (J.) Shipwreck of St. Paul, 15 + +_Southey's_ Poetical Works, 19 + & _Bowles's_ Correspondence, 4 + +_Stanley's_ Familiar History of Birds, 11 + +_Steel_ on Diseases of the Ox, 19 + +_Stephen's_ Ecclesiastical Biography, 4 + +_Stonehenge_, Dog and Greyhound, 19 + +_Stoney_ on Strains, 13 + +_Stubbs's_ Early Plantagenets, 3 + +Sunday Afternoons, by A.K.H.B., 7 + +Supernatural Religion, 16 + +_Swinburne's_ Picture Logic, 6 + + +_Tancock's_ England during the Wars, 1778-1820, 3 + +_Taylor's_ History of India, 3 + Ancient and Modern History, 4 + (_Jeremy_) Works, edited by _Eden_, 16 + +Text-Books of Science, 10 + +_Thome's_ Botany, 10 + +_Thomson's_ Laws of Thought, 6 + +_Thorpe's_ Quantitative Analysis, 10 + +_Thorpe_ and _Muir's_ Qualitative Analysis, 10 + +_Thudichum's_ Annals of Chemical Medicine, 12 + +_Tilden's_ Chemical Philosophy, 10 + Practical Chemistry, 12 + +_Todd_ on Parliamentary Government, 2 + +_Trench's_ Realities of Irish Life, 17 + +_Trevelyan's_ Life of Fox, 1 + +_Trollope's_ Warden and Barchester Towers, 18 + +_Twiss's_ Law of Nations, 5 + +_Tyndall's_ (Professor) Scientific Works, 10 + + +Unawares, 19 + +_Unwin's_ Machine Design, 10 + +_Ure's_ Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, 14 + + +_Ville_ on Artificial Manures, 14 + + +_Walker_ on Whist, 20 + +_Walpole's_ History of England, 1 + +_Warburton's_ Edward the Third, 3 + +_Watson's_ Geometry, 10 + +_Watts's_ Dictionary of Chemistry, 12 + +_Webb's_ Celestial Objects, 8 + +_Weld's_ Sacred Palmlands, 17 + +_Wellington's_ Life, by _Gleig_, 4 + +_Whately's_ English Synonymes, 7 + Logic and Rhetoric, 6 + +_White's_ Four Gospels in Greek, 16 + and _Riddle's_ Latin Dictionaries, 8 + +_Wilcocks's_ Sea-Fisherman, 19 + +_Williams's_ Aristotle's Ethics, 5 + +_Willich's_ Popular Tables, 21 + +_Wilson's_ Resources of Modern Countries, 21 + Studies of Modern Mind, 6 + +_Wood's_ Works on Natural History, 10 & 11 + +_Woodward's_ Geology, 11 + + +_Yonge's_ English-Greek Lexicons, 8 + +_Youatt_ on the Dog and Horse, 19 + + +_Zeller's_ Greek Philosophy, 3 + + +_Spottiswoode & Co. Printers, New-street Square, London._ + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Roumania Past and Present, by James Samuelson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUMANIA PAST AND PRESENT *** + +***** This file should be named 18240.txt or 18240.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/2/4/18240/ + +Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Taavi Kalju and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net. (This file was made using scans of +public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital +Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |