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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages, by Julia
+De Wolf Addison
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages
+       A Description of Mediaeval Workmanship in Several of the Departments of Applied Art, Together with Some Account of Special Artisans in the Early Renaissance
+
+
+Author: Julia De Wolf Addison
+
+
+
+Release Date: April 19, 2006  [eBook #18212]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARTS AND CRAFTS IN THE MIDDLE
+AGES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Robert J. Hall
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+
+
+
+
+ARTS AND CRAFTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES
+
+A Description of Mediaeval Workmanship in Several of the Departments
+of Applied Art, Together with Some Account of Special Artisans in
+the Early Renaissance
+
+by
+
+JULIA DE WOLF ADDISON
+
+Author of "The Art of the Pitti Palace," "The Art of the National
+Gallery," "Classic Myths in Art," etc.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF ECCLESIASTICAL METAL WORK]
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+The very general and keen interest in the revival of arts and crafts
+in America is a sign full of promise and pleasure to those who
+are working among the so-called minor arts. One reads at every
+turn how greatly Ruskin and Morris have influenced handicraft: how
+much these men and their co-workers have modified the appearance
+of our streets and houses, our materials, textiles, utensils, and
+all other useful things in which it is possible to shock or to
+please the æsthetic taste, without otherwise affecting the value
+of these articles for their destined purposes.
+
+In this connection it is interesting to look into the past, particularly
+to those centuries known as the Middle Ages, in which the handicrafts
+flourished in special perfection, and to see for ourselves how
+these crafts were pursued, and exactly what these arts really were.
+Many people talk learnedly of the delightful revival of the arts
+and crafts without having a very definite idea of the original
+processes which are being restored to popular favour. William Morris
+himself, although a great modern spirit, and reformer, felt the
+necessity of a basis of historic knowledge in all workers. "I do
+not think," he says, "that any man but one of the highest genius
+could do anything in these days without much study of ancient art,
+and even he would be much hindered if he lacked it." It is but
+turning to the original sources, then, to examine the progress
+of mediæval artistic crafts, and those sources are usually to be
+found preserved for our edification in enormous volumes of plates,
+inaccessible to most readers, and seldom with the kind of information
+which the average person would enjoy. There are very few books
+dealing with the arts and crafts of the olden time, which are adapted
+to inform those who have no intention of practising such arts,
+and yet who wish to understand and appreciate the examples which
+they see in numerous museums or exhibitions, and in travelling
+abroad. There are many of the arts and crafts which come under
+the daily observation of the tourist, which make no impression
+upon him and have no message for him, simply because he has never
+considered the subject of their origin and construction. After
+one has once studied the subject of historic carving, metal work,
+embroidery, tapestry, or illumination, one can never fail to look
+upon these things with intelligent interest and vastly increased
+pleasure.
+
+Until the middle of the nineteenth century art had been regarded
+as a luxury for the rich dilettante,--the people heard little of
+it, and thought less. The utensils and furniture of the middle class
+were fashioned only with a view to utility; there was a popular belief
+that beautiful things were expensive, and the thrifty housekeeper who
+had no money to put into bric-à-brac never thought of such things as
+an artistic lamp shade or a well-coloured sofa cushion. Decorative
+art is well defined by Mr. Russell Sturgis: "Fine art applied to the
+making beautiful or interesting that which is made for utilitarian
+purposes."
+
+Many people have an impression that the more ornate an article
+is, the more work has been lavished upon it. There never was a
+more erroneous idea. The diligent polish in order to secure nice
+plain surfaces, or the neat fitting of parts together, is infinitely
+more difficult than adding a florid casting to conceal clumsy
+workmanship. Of course certain forms of elaboration involve great
+pains and labour; but the mere fact that a piece of work is decorated
+does not show that it has cost any more in time and execution than if
+it were plain,--frequently many hours have been saved by the device
+of covering up defects with cheap ornament. How often one finds that
+a simple chair with a plain back costs more than one which is
+apparently elaborately carved! The reason is, that the plain one had
+to be made out of a decent piece of wood, while the ornate one was
+turned out of a poor piece, and then stamped with a pattern in order
+to attract the attention from the inferior material of which it was
+composed. The softer and poorer the wood, the deeper it was possible
+to stamp it at a single blow. The same principle applies to
+much work in metal. Flimsy bits of silverware stamped with cheap
+designs of flowers or fruits are attached to surfaces badly finished,
+while the work involved in making such a piece of plate with a
+plain surface would increase its cost three or four times.
+
+A craft may easily be practised without art, and still serve its
+purpose; the alliance of the two is a means of giving pleasure
+as well as serving utility. But it is a mistake to suppose that
+because a design is artistic, its technical rendering is any the
+less important. Frequently curious articles are palmed off on us,
+and designated as "Arts and Crafts" ornaments, in which neither
+art nor craft plays its full share. Art does not consist only in
+original, unusual, or unfamiliar designs; craft does not mean hammering
+silver so that the hammer marks shall show; the best art is that
+which produces designs of grace and appropriateness, whether they
+are strikingly new or not, and the best craftsman is so skilful
+that he is able to go beyond the hammer marks, so to speak, and
+to produce with the hammer a surface as smooth as, and far more
+perfect than, that produced by an emery and burnisher. Some people
+think that "Arts and Crafts" means a combination which allows of
+poor work being concealed under a mask of æsthetic effect. Labour
+should not go forth blindly without art, and art should not proceed
+simply for the attainment of beauty without utility,--in other
+words, there should be an alliance between labour and art.
+
+One principle for which craftsmen should stand is
+a respect for their own tools: a frank recognition of the methods
+and implements employed in constructing any article. If the article
+in question is a chair, and is really put together by means of
+sockets and pegs, let these constructive necessities appear, and do
+not try to disguise the means by which the result is to be attained.
+Make the requisite feature a beauty instead of a disgrace.
+
+It is amusing to see a New England farmer build a fence. He begins
+with good cedar posts,--fine, thick, solid logs, which are at least
+genuine, and handsome so far as a cedar post is capable of being
+handsome. You think, "Ah, that will be a good unobjectionable fence."
+But, behold, as soon as the posts are in position, he carefully lays
+a flat plank vertically in front of each, so that the passer-by
+may fancy that he has performed the feat of making a fence of flat
+laths, thus going out of his way to conceal the one positive and
+good-looking feature in his fence. He seems to have some furtive
+dread of admitting that he has used the real article!
+
+A bolt is to be affixed to a modern door. Instead of being applied
+with a plate of iron or brass, in itself a decorative feature on
+a blank space like that of the surface of a door, the carpenter
+cuts a piece of wood out of the edge of the door, sinks the bolt
+out of sight, so that nothing shall appear to view but a tiny
+meaningless brass handle, and considers that he has performed a very
+neat job. Compare this method with that of a mediæval locksmith,
+and the result with his great iron bolt, and if you can not appreciate
+the difference, both in principle and result, I should recommend a
+course of historic art study until you are convinced. On the other
+hand, it is not necessary to carry your artistry so far that you
+build a fence of nothing but cedar logs touching one another, or that
+you cover your entire door with a meander of wrought iron which
+culminates in a small bolt. Enthusiastic followers of the Arts and
+Crafts movement often go to morbid extremes. _Recognition_ of
+material and method does not connote a _display_ of method and
+material out of proportion to the demands of the article to be
+constructed. As in other forms of culture, balance and sanity are
+necessary, in order to produce a satisfactory result.
+
+But when a craftsman is possessed of an æsthetic instinct and faculty,
+he merits the congratulations offered to the students of Birmingham by
+William Morris, when he told them that they were among the happiest
+people in all civilization--"persons whose necessary daily work is
+inseparable from their greatest pleasure."
+
+A mediæval artist was usually a craftsman as well. He was not content
+with furnishing designs alone, and then handing them over to men
+whose hands were trained to their execution, but he took his own
+designs and carried them out. Thus, the designer adapted his drawing
+to the demands of his material and the craftsman was necessarily in
+sympathy with the design since it was his own. The result was a harmony
+of intention and execution which is often lacking when two men of
+differing tastes produce one object. Lübke sums up the talents of
+a mediæval artist as follows: "A painter could produce panels with
+coats of arms for the military men of noble birth, and devotional
+panels with an image of a saint or a conventionalized scene from
+Scripture for that noble's wife. With the same brush and on a larger
+panel he could produce a larger sacred picture for the convent
+round the corner, and with finer pencil and more delicate touch
+he could paint the vellum leaves of a missal;" and so on. If an
+artistic earthenware platter was to be made, the painter turned
+to his potter's wheel and to his kiln. If a filigree coronet was
+wanted, he took up his tools for metal and jewelry work.
+
+Redgrave lays down an excellent maxim for general guidance to designers
+in arts other than legitimate picture making. He says: "The picture
+must be independent of the material, the thought alone should govern
+it; whereas in decoration the material must be one of the suggestors
+of the thought, its use must govern the design." This shows the
+difference between decoration and pictorial art.
+
+One hears a great deal of the "conventional" in modern art talk. Just
+what this means, few people who have the word in their vocabularies
+really know. As Professor Moore defined it once, it does not apply
+to an arbitrary theoretical system at all, but is instinctive. It
+means obedience to the limits under which the artist works. The
+really greatest art craftsmen of all have been those who have
+recognized the limitations of the material which they employed. Some
+of the cleverest have been beguiled by the fascination of overcoming
+obstacles, into trying to make iron do the things appropriate only
+to wood, or to force cast bronze into the similitude of a picture,
+or to discount all the credit due to a fine piece of embroidery by
+trying to make it appear like a painting. But these are the exotics;
+they are the craftsmen who have been led astray by a false impulse,
+who respect difficulty more than appropriateness, war rather than
+peace! No elaborate and tortured piece of Cellini's work can compare
+with the dignified glory of the Pala d'Oro; Ghiberti's gates in
+Florence, though a marvellous _tour de force_, are not so satisfying
+as the great corona candelabrum of Hildesheim. As a rule, we shall
+find that mediæval craftsmen were better artists than those of the
+Renaissance, for with facility in the use of material, comes always
+the temptation to make it imitate some other material, thus losing
+its individuality by a contortion which may be curious and interesting,
+but out of place. We all enjoy seeing acrobats on the stage, but it
+would be painful to see them curling in and out of our drawing-room
+chairs.
+
+The true spirit which the Arts and Crafts is trying to inculcate
+was found in Florence when the great artists turned their attention
+to the manipulation of objects of daily use, Benvenuto Cellini being
+willing to make salt-cellars, and Sansovino to work on inkstands, and
+Donatello on picture frames, while Pollajuolo made candlesticks.
+The more our leading artists realize the need of their attention
+in the minor arts, the more nearly shall we attain to a genuine
+alliance between the arts and the crafts.
+
+To sum up the effect of this harmony between art and craft in the
+Middle Ages, the Abbé Texier has said: "In those days art and
+manufactures were blended and identified; art gained by this affinity
+great practical facility, and manufacture much original beauty."
+And then the value to the artist is almost incalculable. To spend
+one's life in getting means on which to live is a waste of all
+enjoyment. To use one's life as one goes along--to live every day
+with pleasure in congenial occupation--that is the only thing worth
+while. The life of a craftsman is a constant daily fulfilment of
+the final ideal of the man who spends all his time and strength
+in acquiring wealth so that some time (and he may never live to
+see the day) he may be able to control his time and to use it as
+pleases him. There is stored up capital represented in the life
+of a man whose work is a recreation, and expressive of his own
+personality.
+
+In a book of this size it is not possible to treat of every art
+or craft which engaged the skill of the mediæval workers. But at
+some future time I hope to make a separate study of the ceramics,
+glass in its various forms, the arts of engraving and printing, and
+some of the many others which have added so much to the pleasure
+and beauty of the civilized world.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  CHAPTER
+          INTRODUCTION
+      I.  Gold and Silver
+     II.  Jewelry and Precious Stones
+    III.  Enamel
+     IV.  Other Metals
+      V.  Tapestry
+     VI.  Embroideries
+    VII.  Sculpture in Stone (France and Italy)
+   VIII.  Sculpture in Stone (England and Germany)
+     IX.  Carving in Wood and Ivory
+      X.  Inlay and Mosaic
+     XI.  Illumination of Books
+          Bibliography
+          Index
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Examples of Ecclesiastical Metal Work
+Crown of Charlemagne
+Bernward's Cross and Candlesticks, Hildesheim
+Bernward's Chalice, Hildesheim
+Corona at Hildesheim. (detail)
+Reliquary at Orvieto
+Apostle spoons
+Ivory Knife Handles, with Portraits of Queen Elizabeth and James I. Englis
+The "Milkmaid Cup"
+Saxon Brooch
+The Tara Brooch
+Shrine of the Bell of St. Patrick
+The Treasure of Guerrazzar
+Hebrew Ring
+Crystal Flagons, St. Mark's, Venice
+Sardonyx Cup, 11th Century, Venice
+German Enamel, 13th Century
+Enamelled Gold Book Cover, Siena
+Detail; Shrine of the Three Kings, Cologne
+Finiguerra's Pax, Florence
+Italian Enamelled Crozier, 14th Century
+Wrought Iron Hinge, Frankfort
+Biscornette's Doors at Paris
+Wrought Iron from the Bargello, Florence
+Moorish Keys, Seville
+Armour. Showing Mail Developing into Plate
+Damascened Helmet
+Moorish Sword
+Enamelled Suit of Armour
+Brunelleschi's Competitive Panel
+Ghiberti's Competitive Panel
+Font at Hildesheim, 12th Century
+Portrait Statuette of Peter Vischer
+A Copper "Curfew"
+Sanctuary Knocker, Durham Cathedral
+Anglo-Saxon Crucifix of Lead
+Detail, Bayeux Tapestry
+Flemish Tapestry, "The Prodigal Son"
+Tapestry, Representing Paris in the 15th Century
+Embroidery on Canvas, 16th Century, South Kensington Museum
+Detail of the Syon Cope
+Dalmatic of Charlemagne
+Embroidery, 15th Century, Cologne
+Carved Capital from Ravenna
+Pulpit of Nicola Pisano, Pisa
+Tomb of the Son of St. Louis, St. Denis
+Carvings around Choir Ambulatory, Chartres
+Grotesque from Oxford, Popularly Known as "The Backbiter"
+The "Beverly minstrels"
+St. Lorenz Church, Nuremberg, Showing Adam Kraft's Pyx, and the Hanging
+  Medallion by Veit Stoss
+Relief by Adam Kraft
+Carved Box--wood Pyx, 14th Century
+Miserere Stall; An Artisan at Work
+Miserere Stall, Ely; Noah and the Dove
+Miserere Stall; the Fate of the Ale-wife
+Ivory Tabernacle, Ravenna
+The Nativity; Ivory Carving
+Pastoral Staff; Ivory, German, 12th Century
+Ivory Mirror Case; Early 14th Century
+Ivory Mirror Case, 1340
+Chessman from Lewis
+Marble Inlay from Lucca
+Detail of Pavement, Baptistery, Florence
+Detail of Pavement, Siena; "Fortune," by Pinturicchio
+Ambo at Ravello; Specimen of Cosmati Mosaic
+Mosaic from Ravenna; Theodora and Her Suite, 16th Century
+Mosaic in Bas-relief, Naples
+A Scribe at Work; 12th Century Manuscript
+Detail from the Durham Book
+Ivy Pattern, from a 14th Century French Manuscript
+Mediæval Illumination
+Caricature of a Bishop
+Illumination by Gherart David of Bruges, 1498; St. Barbara
+Choral Book, Siena
+Detail from an Italian Choral Book
+
+
+
+
+ARTS AND CRAFTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GOLD AND SILVER
+
+The worker in metals is usually called a smith, whether he be
+coppersmith or goldsmith. The term is Saxon in origin, and is derived
+from the expression "he that smiteth." Metal was usually wrought
+by force of blows, except where the process of casting modified
+this.
+
+Beaten work was soldered from the earliest times. Egyptians evidently
+understood the use of solder, for the Hebrews obtained their knowledge
+of such things from them, and in Isaiah xli. 7, occurs the passage:
+"So the carpenter encouraged the goldsmith, and he that smootheth
+with the hammer him that smote the anvil, saying, 'It is ready
+for the soldering.'" In the Bible there are constant references
+to such arts in metal work as prevail in our own times: "Of beaten
+work made he the candlesticks," Exodus. In the ornaments of the
+tabernacle, the artificer Bezaleel "made two cherubims of gold
+beaten out of one piece made he them."
+
+An account of gold being gathered in spite of vicissitudes
+is given by Pliny: "Among the Dardoe the ants are as large as Egyptian
+wolves, and cat coloured. The Indians gather the gold dust thrown up
+by the ants, when they are sleeping in their holes in the Summer;
+but if these animals wake, they pursue the Indians, and, though
+mounted on the swiftest camels, overtake and tear them to pieces."
+
+Another legend relates to the blessed St. Patrick, through whose
+intercession special grace is supposed to have been granted to
+all smiths. St. Patrick was a slave in his youth. An old legend
+tells that one time a wild boar came rooting in the field, and
+brought up a lump of gold; and Patrick brought it to a tinker,
+and the tinker said, "It is nothing but solder. Give it here to
+me." But then he brought it to a smith, and the smith told him it
+was gold; and with that gold he bought his freedom. "And from that
+time," continues the story, "the smiths have been lucky, taking
+money every day, and never without work, but as for the tinkers,
+every man's face is against them!"
+
+In the Middle Ages the arts and crafts were generally protected by
+the formation of guilds and fraternities. These bodies practically
+exercised the right of patent over their professions, and infringements
+could be more easily dealt with, and frauds more easily exposed, by
+means of concerted effort on the part of the craftsmen. The goldsmiths
+and silversmiths were thus protected in England and France, and in most
+of the leading European art centres. The test of pure gold was made
+by "six of the more discreet goldsmiths," who went about and
+superintended the amount of alloy to be employed; "gold of the
+standard of the touch of Paris" was the French term for metal of the
+required purity. Any goldsmith using imitation stones or otherwise
+falsifying in his profession was punished "by imprisonment and by
+ransom at the King's pleasure." There were some complaints that
+fraudulent workers "cover tin with silver so subtilely... that
+the same cannot be discovered or separated, and so sell tin for
+fine silver, to the great damage and deceipt of us." This state
+of things finally led to the adoption of the Hall Mark, which is
+still to be seen on every piece of silver, signifying that it has
+been pronounced pure by the appointed authorities.
+
+The goldsmiths of France absorbed several other auxiliary arts, and
+were powerful and influential. In state processions the goldsmiths
+had the first place of importance, and bore the royal canopy when
+the King himself took part in the ceremony, carrying the shrine
+of St. Genevieve also, when it was taken forth in great pageants.
+
+In the quaint wording of the period, goldsmiths were forbidden to
+gild or silver-plate any article made of copper or latten, unless
+they left some part of the original exposed, "at the foot or some
+other part,... to the intent that a man may see whereof the thing
+is made for to eschew the deceipt aforesaid." This law was enacted
+in 1404.
+
+Many of the great art schools of the Middle Ages were established
+in connection with the numerous monasteries scattered through all
+the European countries and in England. The Rule of St. Benedict
+rings true concerning the proper consecration of an artist: "If
+there be artists in the monastery, let them exercise their crafts
+with all humility and reverence, provided the abbot shall have
+ordered them. But if any of them be proud of the skill he hath in
+his craft, because he thereby seemeth to gain something for the
+monastery, let him be removed from it and not exercise it again,
+unless, after humbling himself, the abbot shall permit him." Craft
+without graft was the keynote of mediæval art.
+
+King Alfred had a monastic art school at Athelney, in which he had
+collected "monks of all kinds from every quarter." This accounts
+for the Greek type of work turned out at this time, and very likely
+for Italian influences in early British art. The king was active in
+craft work himself, for Asser tells us that he "continued, during
+his frequent wars, to teach his workers in gold and artificers of
+all kinds."
+
+The quaint old encyclopædia of Bartholomew Anglicus, called, "The
+Properties of Things," defines gold and silver in an original way,
+according to the beliefs of this writer's day. He says of gold,
+that "in the composition there is more sadness of brimstone than
+of air and moisture of quicksilver, and therefore gold is more
+sad and heavy than silver." Of silver he remarks, "Though silver
+be white yet it maketh black lines and strakes in the body that
+is scored therewith."
+
+Marco Polo says that in the province of Carazan "the rivers yield
+great quantities of washed gold, and also that which is solid, and
+on the mountains they find gold in the vein, and they give one
+pound of gold for six of silver."
+
+Workers in gold or silver usually employ one of two methods--casting
+or beating, combined with delicacy of finish, chasing, and polishing.
+The technical processes are interestingly described by the writers
+of the old treatises on divers arts. In the earliest of these, by
+the monk Theophilus, in the eleventh century, we have most graphic
+accounts of processes very similar to those now in use. The naïve
+monastic instructor, in his preface, exhorts his followers to honesty
+and zeal in their good works. "Skilful in the arts let no one glorify
+himself," say Theophilus, "as if received from himself, and not from
+elsewhere; but let him be thankful humbly in the Lord, from whom all
+things are received." He then advises the craftsman earnestly to
+study the book which follows, telling him of the riches of instruction
+therein to be found; "you will there find out whatever... Tuscany
+knows of mosaic work, or in variety of enamels, whatever Arabia
+shows forth in work of fusion, ductility or chasing, whatever Italy
+ornaments with gold... whatever France loves in a costly variety
+of windows; whatever industrious Germany approves in work of gold,
+silver or copper, and iron, of woods and of stones." No wonder the
+authorities are lost in conjecture as to the native place of the
+versatile Theophilus! After promising all these delightful things,
+the good old monk continues, "Act therefore, well intentioned man,...
+hasten to complete with all the study of thy mind, those things which
+are still wanting among the utensils of the House of the Lord," and
+he enumerates the various pieces of church plate in use in the Middle
+Ages.
+
+Directions are given by Theophilus for the workroom, the benches
+at which the smiths are to sit, and also the most minute technical
+recipes for "instruments for sculping," for scraping, filing, and
+so forth, until the workshop should be fitted with all necessary
+tools. In those days, artists began at the very beginning. There were
+no "Windsor and Newtons," no nice makers of dividers and T-squares,
+to whom one could apply; all implements must be constructed by the
+man who contemplated using them.
+
+We will see how Theophilus proceeds, after he has his tools in
+readiness, to construct a chalice. First, he puts the silver in a
+crucible, and when it has become fluid, he turns it into a mould
+in which there is wax (this is evidently the "cire perdu" process
+familiar to casters of every age), and then he says, "If by some
+negligence it should happen that the melted silver be not whole,
+cast it again until it is whole." This process of casting would
+apply equally to all metals.
+
+Theophilus instructs his craftsman how to make the
+handles of the chalice as follows: "Take wax, form handles with
+it, and grave upon them dragons or animals or birds, or leaves--in
+whatever manner you may wish. But on the top of each handle place a
+little wax, round like a slender candle, half a finger in length,...
+this wax is called the funnel.... Then take some clay and cover
+carefully the handle, so that the hollows of the sculpture may
+be filled up.... Afterwards place these moulds near the coals,
+that when they have become warm you may pour out the wax. Which
+being turned out, melt the silver,... and cast into the same place
+whence you poured out the wax. And when they have become cold remove
+the clay." The solid silver handles are found inside, one hardly
+need say.
+
+In casting in the "cire perdu" process, Benvenuto Cellini warns
+you to beware lest you break your crucible--"just as you've got
+your silver nicely molten," he says, "and are pouring it into the
+mould, crack goes your crucible, and all your work and time and
+pains are lost!" He advises wrapping it in stout cloths.
+
+The process of repoussé work is also much the same to-day as it
+has always been. The metal is mounted on cement and the design
+partly beaten in from the outside; then the cement is melted out,
+and the design treated in more detail from the inside. Theophilus
+tells us how to prepare a silver vessel to be beaten with a design.
+After giving a recipe for a sort of pitch, he says, "Melt this
+composition and fill the vial to the top. And when it has become
+cold, portray... whatever you wish, and taking a slender ductile
+instrument, and a small hammer, design that which you have portrayed
+around it by striking lightly." This process is practically, on a
+larger scale, what Cellini describes as that of "minuterie." Cellini
+praises Caradosso beyond all others in this work, saying "it was just
+in this very getting of the gold so equal all over, that I never knew
+a man to beat Caradosso!" He tells how important this equality of
+surface is, for if, in the working, the gold became thicker in one
+place than in another, it was impossible to attain a perfect finish.
+Caradosso made first a wax model of the object which he was to
+make; this he cast in copper, and on that he laid his thin gold,
+beating and modelling it to the form, until the small hollow bas-relief
+was complete. The work was done with wooden and steel tools of
+small proportions, sometimes pressed from the back and sometimes
+from the front; "ever so much care is necessary," writes Cellini,
+"...to prevent the gold from splitting." After the model was brought
+to such a point of relief as was suitable for the design, great
+care had to be exercised in extending the gold further, to fit
+behind heads and arms in special relief. In those days the whole
+film of gold was then put in the furnace, and fired until the gold
+began to liquefy, at which exact moment it was necessary to remove
+it. Cellini himself made a medal for Girolamo Maretta, representing
+Hercules and the Lion; the figures were in such high relief that
+they only touched the ground at a few points. Cellini reports with
+pride that Michelangelo said to him: "If this work were made in
+great, whether in marble or in bronze, and fashioned with as
+exquisite a design as this, it would astonish the world; and
+even in its present size it seems to me so beautiful that I
+do not think even a goldsmith of the ancient world fashioned aught
+to come up to it!" Cellini says that these words "stiffened him
+up," and gave him much increased ambition. He describes also an
+Atlas which he constructed of wrought gold, to be placed upon a
+lapis lazuli background: this he made in extreme relief, using
+tiny tools, "working right into the arms and legs, and making all
+alike of equal thickness." A cope-button for Pope Clement was also
+quite a _tour de force_; as he said, "these pieces of work are often
+harder the smaller they are." The design showed the Almighty seated
+on a great diamond; around him there were "a number of jolly little
+angels," some in complete relief. He describes how he began with a
+flat sheet of gold, and worked constantly and conscientiously,
+gradually bossing it up, until, with one tool and then another, he
+finally mastered the material, "till one fine day God the Father
+stood forth in the round, most comely to behold." So skilful was
+Cellini in this art that he "bossed up in high relief with his
+punches some fifteen little angels, without even having to solder
+the tiniest rent!" The fastening of the clasp was decorated with
+"little snails and masks and other pleasing trifles," which suggest
+to us that Benvenuto was a true son of the Renaissance, and that his
+design did not equal his ability as a craftsman.
+
+Cellini's method of forming a silver vase was on this wise. The
+original plate of silver had to be red hot, "not too red, for then
+it would crack,--but sufficient to burn certain little grains thrown
+on to it." It was then adjusted to the stake, and struck with the
+hammer, towards the centre, until by degrees it began to take convex
+form. Then, keeping the central point always in view by means of
+compasses, from that point he struck "a series of concentric circles
+about half a finger apart from each other," and with a hammer,
+beginning at the centre, struck so that the "movement of the hammer
+shall be in the form of a spiral, and follow the concentric circles."
+It was important to keep the form very even all round. Then the
+vase had to be hammered from within, "till it was equally bellied
+all round," and after that, the neck was formed by the same method.
+Then, to ornament the vase, it was filled with pitch, and the design
+traced on the outside. When it was necessary to beat up the ornament
+from within, the vase was cleared out, and inverted upon the point
+of a long "snarling-iron," fastened in an anvil stock, and beaten
+so that the point should indent from within. The vase would often
+have to be filled with pitch and emptied in this manner several
+times in the course of its construction.
+
+Benvenuto Cellini was one of the greatest art personalities of all
+time. The quaintness of the æsthetic temperament is nowhere found
+better epitomized than in his life and writings. But as a producer of
+artistic things, he is a great disappointment. Too versatile to be a
+supreme specialist, he is far more interesting as a man and craftsman
+than as a designer. Technical skill he had in unique abundance. And
+another faculty, for which he does not always receive due credit, is
+his gift for imparting his knowledge. His Treatises, containing
+valuable information as to methods of work, are less familiar to most
+readers than his fascinating biography. These Treatises, or directions
+to craftsmen, are full of the spice and charm which characterize his
+other work. One cannot proceed from a consideration of the bolder
+metal work to a study of the dainty art of the goldsmith without a
+glance at Benvenuto Cellini.
+
+The introduction to the Treatises has a naïve opening: "What first
+prompted me to write was the knowledge of how fond people are of
+hearing anything new." This, and other reasons, induced him to
+"write about those loveliest secrets and wondrous methods of the
+great art of goldsmithing."
+
+Francis I. indeed thought highly of Cellini. Upon viewing one of his
+works, his Majesty raised his hands, and exclaimed to the Mareschal
+de France, "I command you to give the first good fat abbey that
+falls vacant to our Benvenuto, for I do not want my kingdom to
+be deprived of his like."
+
+Benvenuto describes the process of making filigree work, the principle
+of which is, fine wire coiled flat so as to form designs with an
+interesting and varied surface. Filigree is quite common still, and
+any one who has walked down the steep street of the Goldsmiths in
+Genoa is familiar with most of its modern forms. Cellini says: "Though
+many have practised the art without making drawings first, because the
+material in which they worked was so easily handled and so pliable,
+yet those who made their drawings first did the best work. Now give
+ear to the way the art is pursued." He then directs that the craftsman
+shall have ready three sizes of wire, and some little gold granules,
+which are made by cutting the short lengths of wire, and then subjecting
+them to fervent heat until they become as little round beads. He
+then explains how the artificer must twist and mould the delicate
+wires, and tastily apply the little granules, so as to make a graceful
+design, usually of some floriate form. When the wire flowers and
+leaves were formed satisfactorily, a wash of gum tragacanth should
+be applied, to hold them in place until the final soldering. The
+solder was in powdered form, and it was to be dusted on "just as
+much as may suffice,... and not more,"... this amount of solder
+could only be determined by the experience of the artist. Then came
+the firing of the finished work in the little furnace; Benvenuto is
+here quite at a loss how to explain himself: "Too much heat would
+move the wires you have woven out of place," he says, "really it is
+quite impossible to tell it properly in writing; I could explain it
+all right by word of mouth, or better still, show you how it is
+done,--still, come along,--we'll try to go on as we started!"
+
+Sometimes embossing was done by thin sheets of metal being pressed
+on to a wooden carving prepared for the purpose, so that the result
+would be a raised silver pattern, which, when filled up with pitch
+or lead, would pass for a sample of repoussé work. I need hardly
+say that a still simpler mechanical form of pressing obtains on
+cheap silver to-day.
+
+So much for the mechanical processes of treating these metals. We
+will now examine some of the great historic examples, and glance
+at the lives of prominent workers in gold and silver in the past.
+
+One of the most brilliant times for the production of works of art
+in gold and silver, was when Constantine, upon becoming Christian,
+moved the seat of government to Byzantium. Byzantine ornament lends
+itself especially to such work. The distinguishing mark between
+the earlier Greek jewellers and the Byzantine was, that the former
+considered chiefly line, form, and delicacy of workmanship, while
+the latter were led to expression through colour and texture, and
+not fineness of finish.
+
+The Byzantine emperors loved gold in a lavish way, and on a superb
+scale. They were not content with chaste rings and necklets, or
+even with golden crowns. The royal thrones were of gold; their
+armour was decorated with the precious metal, and their chariots
+enriched in the same way. Even the houses of the rich people
+were more endowed with precious furnishings than most of the churches
+of other nations, and every family possessed a massive silver table,
+and solid vases and plate.
+
+The Emperor Theophilus, who lived in the ninth century, was a great
+lover of the arts. His palace was built after the Arabian style,
+and he had skilful mechanical experts to construct a golden tree
+over his throne, on the branches of which were numerous birds,
+and two golden lions at the foot. These birds were so arranged
+by clockwork, that they could be made to sing, and the lions also
+joined a roar to the chorus!
+
+A great designer of the Middle Ages was Alcuin, the teacher of
+Charlemagne, who lived from 735 to 804; he superintended the building
+of many fine specimens of church plate. The school of Alcuin, however,
+was more famous for illumination, and we shall speak of his work
+at more length when we come to deal with that subject.
+
+Another distinguished patron of art was the Abbot Odo of Cluny,
+who had originally been destined for a soldier; but he was visited
+with what Maitland describes as "an inveterate headache, which, from
+his seventeenth to his nineteenth year, defied all medical skill,"
+so he and his parents, convinced that this was a manifestation of
+the disapproval of Heaven, decided to devote his life to religious
+pursuits. He became Abbot of Cluny in the year 927.
+
+[Illustration: CROWN OF CHARLEMAGNE]
+
+Examples of ninth century goldsmithing are rare. Judging from the
+few specimens existing, the crown of Charlemagne, and the beautiful
+binding of the Hours of Charles the Bold, one would be inclined to
+think that an almost barbaric wealth of closely set jewels was the
+entire standard of the art of the time, and that grace of form or
+contour was quite secondary. The tomb was rifled about the twelfth
+century, and many of the valuable things with which he was surrounded
+were taken away. The throne was denuded of its gold, and may be seen
+to-day in the Cathedral at Aachen, a simple marble chair plain and
+dignified, with the copper joints showing its construction. Many of
+the relics of Charlemagne are in the treasury at Aachen, among other
+interesting items, the bones of the right arm of the Emperor in a
+golden shrine in the form of a hand and arm. There is a thrill in
+contemplating the remains of the right arm of Charlemagne after all
+the centuries, when one remembers the swords and sceptres which have
+been wielded by that mighty member. The reliquary containing the
+right arm of Charlemagne is German work (of course later than the
+opening of the tomb), probably between 1155 and 1190. Frederic
+Barbarossa and his ancestors are represented on its ornamentation.
+
+There is little goldsmith's work of the Norman period in Great
+Britain, for that was a time of the building of large structures,
+and probably minor arts and personal adornment took a secondary
+place.
+
+[Illustration: BERNWARD'S CROSS AND CANDLESTICKS, HILDESHEIM]
+
+Perhaps the most satisfactory display of mediæval arts and crafts
+which may be seen in one city is at Hildesheim: the special richness
+of remains of the tenth century is owing to the life and example
+of an early bishop--Bernward--who ruled the See from 993 to 1022.
+Before he was made bishop, Bernward was tutor to the young Emperor
+Otto III. He was a student of art all his life, and a practical
+craftsman, working largely in metals, and training up a Guild of
+followers in the Cathedral School. He was extremely versatile: one
+of the great geniuses of history. In times of war he was Commander
+in Chief of Hildesheim; he was a traveller, having made pilgrimages
+to Rome and Paris, and the grave of St. Martin at Tours. This wide
+culture was unusual in those days; it is quite evident from his
+active life of accomplishment in creative art, that good Bishop
+Bernward was not to be numbered among those who expected the end of
+the world to occur in the year 1000 A. D. Of his works to be seen
+in Hildesheim, there are splendid examples. The Goldsmith's School
+under his direction was famous.
+
+He was created bishop in 992; Taugmar pays him a tribute, saying:
+"He was an excellent penman, a good painter, and as a household
+manager was unequalled." Moreover, he "excelled in the mechanical
+no less than in the liberal arts." In fact, a visit to Hildesheim
+to-day proves that to this man who lived ten centuries ago is due
+the fact that Hildesheim is the most artistic city in Germany from
+the antiquarian's point of view. This bishop influenced every branch
+of art, and with so vital an influence, that his See city is still
+full of his works and personality. He was not only a practical
+worker in the arts and crafts, but he was also a collector, forming
+quite a museum for the further instruction of the students who came
+in touch with him. He decorated the walls of his cathedral; the great
+candelabrum, or corona, which circles above the central aisle of the
+cathedral, was his own design, and the work of his followers; and
+the paschal column in the cathedral was from his workshop, wrought
+as delightfully as would be possible in any age, and yet executed
+nearly a thousand years ago. No bishop ever deserved sainthood
+more, or made a more practical contribution to the Church. Pope
+Celestine III. canonized him in 1194.
+
+Bernward came of a noble family. His figure may be seen--as near
+an approach to a portrait of this great worker as we have--among
+the bas-reliefs on the beautiful choir-screen in St. Michael's
+Church in Hildesheim.
+
+[Illustration: BERNWARD'S CHALICE, HILDESHEIM]
+
+The cross executed by Bernward's own hands in 994 is a superb work,
+with filigree covering the whole, and set with gems _en cabochon_,
+with pearls, and antique precious stones, carved with Greek divinities
+in intaglio. The candlesticks of St. Bernward, too, are most
+interesting. They are made of a metal composed of gold, silver,
+and iron, and are wrought magnificently, into a mass of animal
+and floriate forms, their outline being well retained, and the
+grace of the shaft and proportions being striking. They are partly
+the work of the mallet and partly of the chisel. They had been
+buried with Bernward, and were found in his sarcophagus in 1194.
+Didron has likened them, in their use of animal form, to the art
+of the Mexicans; but to me they seem more like delightful German
+Romanesque workmanship, leaning more towards that of certain spirited
+Lombard grotesques, or even that of Arles and certain parts of
+France, than to the Aztec to which Didron has reference. The little
+climbing figures, while they certainly have very large hands and
+feet, yet are endowed with a certain sprightly action; they all
+give the impression of really making an effort,--they are trying
+to climb, instead of simply occupying places in the foliage. There
+is a good deal of strength and energy displayed in all of them,
+and, while the work is rude and rough, it is virile. It is not
+unlike the workmanship on the Gloucester candlestick in the South
+Kensington Museum, which was made in the twelfth century.
+
+Bernward's chalice is set with antique stones, some of them carved.
+On the foot may be seen one representing the three Graces, in their
+customary state of nudity "without malice."
+
+Bernward was also an architect. He built the delightful church of
+St. Michael, and its cloister. He also superintended the building
+of an important wall by the river bank in the lower town.
+
+When there was an uneasy time of controversy at Gandesheim, Bernward
+hastened to headquarters in Rome, to arrange to bring about better
+feeling. In 1001 he arrived, early in January, and the Pope went
+out to meet him, kissed him, and invited him to stay as a guest
+at his palace. After accomplishing his diplomatic mission, and
+laden with all sorts of sacred relics, Bernward returned home, not
+too directly to prevent his seeing something of the intervening
+country.
+
+A book which Bishop Bernward had made and illuminated in 1011 has the
+inscription: "I, Bernward, had this codex written out, at my own cost,
+and gave it to the beloved Saint of God, Michael. Anathema to him who
+alienates it." This inscription has the more interest for being the
+actual autograph of Bernward.
+
+He was succeeded by Hezilo, and many other pupils. These men made
+the beautiful corona of the cathedral, of which I give an illustration
+in detail. Great coronas or circular chandeliers hung in the naves
+of many cathedrals in the Middle Ages. The finest specimen is this
+at Hildesheim, the magnificent ring of which is twenty feet across,
+as it hangs suspended by a system of rods and balls in the form
+of chains. It has twelve large towers and twelve small ones set
+around it, supposed to suggest the Heavenly Jerusalem with its many
+mansions. There are sockets for seventy-two candles. The detail
+of its adornment is very splendid, and repays close study. Every
+little turret is different in architectonic form, and statues of
+saints are to be seen standing within these. The pierced silver
+work on this chandelier is as beautiful as any mediæval example
+in existence.
+
+[Illustration: CORONA AT HILDESHEIM (DETAIL)]
+
+The great leader of mediæval arts in France was the Abbot Suger
+of St. Denis. Suger was born in 1081, he and his brother, Alvise,
+who was Bishop of Arras, both being destined for the Episcopate.
+As a youth he passed ten years at St. Denis as a scholar. Here he
+became intimate with Prince Louis, and this friendship developed
+in after life. On returning from a voyage to Italy, in 1122,
+he learned at the same time of the death of his spiritual father,
+Abbot Adam, and of his own election to be his successor. He
+thus stood at the head of the convent of St. Denis in 1123.
+This was due to his noble character, his genius for diplomacy
+and his artistic talent. He was minister to Louis VI., and afterwards
+to Louis VII., and during the second Crusade, he was made Regent
+for the kingdom. Suger was known, after this, as the Father of his
+Country, for he was a courageous counsellor, firm and convincing
+in argument, so that the king had really been guided by his advice.
+While he was making laws and instigating crusades, he was also
+directing craft shops and propagating the arts in connection with
+the life of the Church. St. Bernard denounced him, as encouraging
+too luxurious a ritual; Suger made a characteristic reply: "If
+the ancient law... ordained that vessels and cups of gold should
+be used for libations, and to receive the blood of rams,... how
+much rather should we devote gold, precious stones, and the rarest
+of materials, to those vessels which are destined to contain the
+blood of Our Lord."
+
+Suger ordered and himself made most beautiful appointments for the
+sanctuary, and when any vessel already owned by the Abbey was of
+costly material, and yet unsuitable in style, he had it remodelled.
+An interesting instance of this is a certain antique vase of red
+porphyry. There was nothing ecclesiastical about this vase; it was
+a plain straight Greek jar, with two handles at the sides. Suger
+treated it as the body of an eagle, making the head and neck to
+surmount it, and the claw feet for it to stand on, together with
+its soaring wings, of solid gold, and it thus became transformed
+into a magnificent reliquary in the form of the king of birds. The
+inscription on this Ampula of Suger is: "As it is our duty to present
+unto God oblations of gems and gold, I, Suger, offer this vase unto
+the Lord."
+
+Suger stood always for the ideal in art and character. He had the
+courage of his convictions in spite of the fulminations of St.
+Bernard. Instead of using the enormous sums of money at his disposal
+for importing Byzantine workmen, he preferred to use his funds
+and his own influence in developing a native French school of
+artificers.
+
+It is interesting to discover that Suger, among his many adaptations
+and restorations at St. Denis, incorporated some of the works of
+St. Eloi into his own compositions. For instance, he took an ivory
+pulpit, and remodelled it with the addition of copper animals.
+Abbots of St. Denis made beautiful offerings to the church. One of
+them, Abbot Matthiew de Vendôme, presented a wonderful reliquary,
+consisting of a golden head and bust, while another gave a reliquary
+to contain the jaw of St. Louis. Suger presented many fine products
+of his own art and that of his pupils, among others a great cross
+six feet in height. A story is told of him, that, while engaged in
+making a particularly splendid crucifix for St. Denis, he ran short
+of precious stones, nor could he in any way obtain what he required,
+until some monks came to him and offered to sell him a superb lot of
+stones which had formerly embellished the dinner service of Henry
+I. of England, whose nephew had given them to the convent in exchange
+for indulgences and masses! In these early and half-barbaric days of
+magnificence, form and delicacy of execution were not understood.
+Brilliancy and lavish display of sparkling jewels, set as thickly
+as possible without reference to a general scheme of composition,
+was the standard of beauty; and it must be admitted that, with
+such stones available, no more effective school of work has ever
+existed than that of which such works Charlemagne's crown, the
+Iron Crown of Monza, and the crown of King Suinthila, are typical
+examples. Abbot Suger lamented when he lacked a sufficient supply
+of stones; but he did not complain when there occurred a deficiency
+in workmen. It was comparatively easy to train artists who could
+make settings and bind stones together with soldered straps!
+
+In 1352 a royal silversmith of France, Etienne La Fontaine, made
+a "fauteuil of silver and crystal decorated with precious stones,"
+for the king.
+
+The golden altar of Basle is almost as interesting as the great
+Pala d'Oro in Venice, of which mention is made elsewhere. It was
+ordered by Emperor Henry the Pious, before 1024, and presented to
+the Prime Minister at Basle. The central figure of the Saviour
+has at its feet two tiny figures, quite out of scale; these are
+intended for the donors, Emperor Henry and his queen, Cunegunda.
+
+Silversmith's work in Spain was largely in Byzantine style, while
+some specimens of Gothic and Roman are also to be seen there. Moorish
+influence is noticeable, as in all Spanish design, and filigree work
+of Oriental origin is frequently to be met with. Some specimens of
+champlevé enamel are also to be seen, though this art was generally
+confined to Limoges during the Middle Ages. A Guild was formed in
+Toledo which was in flourishing condition in 1423.
+
+An interesting document has been found in Spain showing that craftsmen
+were supplied with the necessary materials when engaged to make
+valuable figures for the decoration of altars. It is dated May 12,
+1367, "I, Sancho Martinez Orebsc, silversmith, native of Seville,
+inform you, the Dean and Chapter of the church of Seville, that it
+was agreed that I make an image of St. Mary with its tabernacle,
+that it should be finished at a given time, and that you were to
+give me the silver and stones required to make it."
+
+In Spain, the most splendid triumphs of the goldsmith's skill were
+the "custodias," or large tabernacles, in which the Host was carried
+in procession. The finest was one made for Toledo by Enrique d'Arphe,
+in competition with other craftsmen. His design being chosen, he
+began his work in 1517, and in 1524 the custodia was finished. It
+was in the form of a Gothic temple, six sided, with a jewelled
+cross on the top, and was eight feet high. Some of the gold employed
+was the first ever brought from America. The whole structure weighed
+three hundred and eighty-eight pounds. Arphe made a similar custodia
+for Cordova and another for Leon. His grandson, Juan d'Arphe, wrote
+a verse about the Toledo custodia, in which these lines occur:
+
+  "Custodia is a temple of rich plate
+   Wrought for the glory of Our Saviour true...
+   That holiest ark of old to imitate,
+   Fashioned by Bezaleel the cunning Jew,
+   Chosen of God to work his sovereign will,
+   And greatly gifted with celestial skill."
+
+Juan d'Arphe himself made a custodia for Seville, the decorations
+and figures on which were directed by the learned Francesco Pacheco,
+the father-in-law of Velasquez. When this custodia was completed,
+d'Arphe wrote a description of it, alluding boldly to this work
+as "the largest and finest work in silver known of its kind," and
+this could really be said without conceit, for it is a fact.
+
+A Gothic form of goldsmith's work obtained in Spain in the 13th,
+14th and 15th centuries; it was based upon architectural models and
+was known as "plateresca." The shrines for holding relics became
+in these centuries positive buildings on a small scale in precious
+material. In England also were many of these shrines, but few of
+them now remain.
+
+The first Mayor of London, from 1189 to 1213, was a goldsmith,
+Henry Fitz Alwyn, the Founder of the Royal Exchange; Sir Thomas
+Gresham, in 1520, was also a goldsmith and a banker. There is an
+entertaining piece of cynical satire on the Goldsmiths in Stubbes'
+Anatomy of Abuses, written in the time of Queen Elizabeth, showing
+that the tricks of the trade had come to full development by that
+time, and that the public was being aroused on the subject. Stubbes
+explains how the goldsmith's shops are decked with chains and rings,
+"wonderful richly." Then he goes on to say: "They will make you any
+monster or article whatsoever of gold, silver, or what you will. Is
+there no deceit in these goodlye shows? Yes, too many; if you will
+buy a chain of gold, a ring, or any kind of plate, besides that you
+shall pay almost half more than it is worth... you shall also perhaps
+have that gold which is naught, or else at least mixed with drossie
+rubbage.... But this happeneth very seldom by reason of good orders,
+and constitutions made for the punishment of them that offend in
+this kind of deceit, and therefore they seldom offend therein,
+though now and then they chance to stumble in the dark!"
+
+Fynes Moryson, a traveller who died in 1614, says that "the goldsmiths'
+shops in London... are exceedingly richly furnished continually
+with gold, with silver plate, and with jewels.... I never see any
+such daily show, anything so sumptuous, in any place in the world,
+as in London." He admits that in Florence and Paris the similar
+shops are very rich upon special occasions; but it is the steady
+state of the market in London to which he has reference.
+
+The Company of Goldsmiths in Dublin held quite a prominent social
+position in the community. In 1649, a great festival and pageant
+took place, in which the goldsmiths and visiting craftsmen from
+other corporations took part.
+
+Henry III. set himself to enrich and beautify the shrine of his
+patron saint, Edward the Confessor, and with this end in view he
+made various extravagant demands: for instance, at one time he
+ordered all the gold in London to be detailed to this object, and
+at another, he had gold rings and brooches purchased to the value
+of six hundred marks. The shrine was of gold, and, according to
+Matthew Paris, enriched with jewels. It was commenced in 1241.
+In 1244 the queen presented an image of the Virgin with a ruby
+and an emerald. Jewels were purchased from time to time,--a great
+cameo in 1251, and in 1255 many gems of great value. The son of
+ado the Goldsmith, Edward, was the "king's beloved clerk," and was
+made "keeper of the shrine." Most of the little statuettes were
+described as having stones set somewhere about them: "an image of
+St. Peter holding a church in one hand and the keys in the other,
+trampling on Nero, who had a big sapphire on his breast;" and "the
+Blessed Virgin with her Son, set with rubies, sapphires, emeralds,
+and garnets," are among those cited. The whole shrine was described
+as "a basilica adorned with purest gold and precious stones."
+
+Odo the Goldsmith was in charge of the works for a good while. He
+was succeeded by his son Edward. Payments were made sometimes in a
+regular wage, and sometimes for "task work." The workmen were usually
+known by one name--Master Alexander the King's Carpenter, Master Henry
+the King's Master Mason, and so forth. In an early life of Edward the
+Confessor, there is an illumination showing the masons and carpenters
+kneeling to receive instruction from their sovereign.
+
+The golden shrine of the Confessor was probably made in the Palace
+itself; this was doubtless considered the safest place for so valuable
+a work to remain in process of construction; for there is an allusion
+to its being brought on the King's own shoulders (with the assistance
+of others), from the palace to the Abbey, in 1269, for its consecration.
+
+In 1243 Henry III. ordered four silver basins, fitted with cakes
+of wax with wicks in them, to be placed as lights before the shrine
+of Thomas à Becket in Canterbury. The great gold shrine of Becket
+appears to have been chiefly the work of a goldsmith, Master Adam.
+He also designed the Coronation Chair of England, which is now
+in Westminster Abbey.
+
+The chief goldsmith of England employed by Edward I. was one Adam
+of Shoreditch. He was versatile, for he was also a binder of books.
+A certain bill shows an item of his workmanship, "a group in silver
+of a child riding upon a horse, the child being a likeness of Lord
+Edward, the King's son."
+
+A veritable Arts and Crafts establishment had been in existence
+in Woolstrope, Lincolnshire, before Cromwell's time; for Georde
+Gifford wrote to Cromwell regarding the suppression of this monastery:
+"There is not one religious person there but what doth use either
+embrothering, wryting books with a faire hand, making garments,
+or carving."
+
+In all countries the chalices and patens were usually, designed
+to correspond with each other. The six lobed dish was a very usual
+form; it had a depressed centre, with six indented scallops, and
+the edge flat like a dinner plate. In an old church inventory,
+mention is made of "a chalice with _his_ paten." Sometimes there was
+lettering around the flat edge of the paten. Chalices were-composed
+of three parts: the cup, the ball or knop, and the stem, with the
+foot. The original purpose of having this foot hexagonal in shape
+is said to have been to prevent the chalice from rolling when it
+was laid on its side to drain. Under many modifications this general
+plan of the cup has obtained. The bowl is usually entirely plain,
+to facilitate keeping it clean; most of the decoration was lavished
+on the knop, a rich and uneven surface being both beautiful and
+functional in this place.
+
+Such Norman and Romanesque chalices as remain are chiefly in museums
+now. They were usually "coffin chalices"--that is, they had been
+buried in the coffin of some ecclesiastic. Of Gothic chalices, or
+those of the Tudor period, fewer remain, for after the Reformation,
+a general order went out to the churches, for all "chalices to be
+altered to decent Communion cups." The shape was greatly modified
+in this change.
+
+In the thirteenth century the taste ran rather to a chaster form
+of decoration; the large cabochons of the Romanesque, combined
+with a liquid gold surface, gave place to refined ornaments in
+niello and delicate enamels. The bowls of the earlier chalices
+were rather flat and broad. When it became usual for the laity to
+partake only of one element when communicating, the chalice, which
+was reserved for the clergy alone, became modified to meet this
+condition, and the bowl was much smaller. After the Reformation,
+however, the development was quite in the other direction, the bowl
+being extremely large and deep. In that period they were known
+as communion cups. In Sandwich there is a cup which was made over
+out of a ciborium; as it quite plainly shows its origin, it is
+naïvely inscribed: "This is a Communion Coop." When this change in
+the form of the chalice took place, it was provided, by admonition
+of the Archbishop, in all cases with a "cover of silver... which
+shall serve also for the ministration of the Communion bread." To
+make this double use of cover and dish satisfactory, a foot like
+a stand was added to the paten.
+
+The communion cup of the Reformation differed from the chalice,
+too, in being taller and straighter, with a deep bowl, almost in
+the proportions of a flaring tumbler, and a stem with a few close
+decorations instead of a knop. The small paten served as a cover
+to the cup, as has been mentioned.
+
+It is not always easy to see old church plate where it originally
+belonged. On the Scottish border, for instance, there were constant
+raids, when the Scots would descend upon the English parish churches,
+and bear off the communion plate, and again the English would cross
+the border and return the compliment. In old churches, such as the
+eleventh century structure at Torpenhow, in Cumberland, the deep
+sockets still to be seen in the stone door jambs were intended
+to support great beams with which the church had constantly to
+be fortified against Scottish invasion. Another reason for the
+disappearance of church plate, was the occasional sale of the silver
+in order to continue necessary repairs on the fabric. In a church
+in Norfolk, there is a record of sale of communion silver and "for
+altering of our church and fynnishing of the same according to our
+mindes and the parishioners." It goes on to state that the proceeds
+were appropriated for putting new glass in the place of certain windows
+"wherein were conteined the lives of certain prophane histories,"
+and for "paving the king's highway" in the church precincts. At the
+time of the Reformation many valuable examples of Church plate were
+cast aside by order of the Commissioners, by which "all monuments
+of feyned miracles, pilgrimages, idolatry, and superstition," were
+to be destroyed. At this time a calf or a sheep might have been seen
+browsing in the meadows with a sacring-bell fastened at its neck,
+and the pigs refreshed themselves with drinking from holy-water
+fonts!
+
+Croziers of ornate design especially roused the ire of the Puritans.
+In Mr. Alfred Maskell's incomparable book on Ivories, he translates
+a satirical verse by Guy de Coquille, concerning these objectionable
+pastoral staves (which were often made of finely sculptured ivory).
+
+  "The staff of a bishop of days that are old
+   Was of wood, and the bishop himself was of gold.
+   But a bishop of wood prefers gorgeous array,
+   So his staff is of gold in the new fashioned way!"
+
+During the Renaissance especially, goldsmith's work was carried
+to great technical perfection, and yet the natural properties of
+the metal were frequently lost sight of, and the craftsmen tried
+to produce effects such as would be more suitable in stone or
+wood,--little architectonic features were introduced, and gold
+was frequently made to do the work of other materials. Thus it
+lost much of its inherent effectiveness. Too much attention was
+given to ingenuity, and not enough to fitness and beauty.
+
+[Illustration: RELIQUARY AT ORVIETO]
+
+In documents of the fourteenth century, the following list of goldsmiths
+is given: Jean de Mantreux was goldsmith to King Jean. Claux de
+Friburg was celebrated for a gold statuette of St. John which he
+made for the Duke of Normandy. A diadem for this Duke was also
+recorded, made by Jean de Piguigny. Hannequin made three golden crowns
+for Charles V. Hans Crest was goldsmith to the Duke of Orleans, while
+others employed by him were Durosne, of Toulouse, Jean de Bethancourt,
+a Flemish goldsmith. In the fifteenth century the names of Jean de
+Hasquin, Perrin Manne, and Margerie d'Avignon, were famous.
+
+Artists in the Renaissance were expected to undertake several branches
+of their craft. Hear Poussin: "It is impossible to work at the
+same time upon frontispieces of books: a Virgin: at the picture
+for the congregation of St. Louis, at the designs for the gallery,
+and for the king's tapestry! I have only a feeble head, and am
+not aided by anyone!"
+
+A goldsmith attached to the Court of King René of Anjou was Jean
+Nicolas. René also gave many orders to one Liguier Rabotin, of
+Avignon, who made him several cups of solid gold, on a large tray
+of the same precious metal. The king often drew his own designs
+or such bijoux.
+
+Among the famous men of Italy were several who practised the art of
+the goldsmith. Ugolino of Siena constructed the wonderful reliquary
+at Orvieto; this, is in shape somewhat similar to the façade of
+the cathedral.
+
+Verocchio, the instructor of Leonardo da Vinci, accomplished several
+important pieces of jewelery in his youth: cope-buttons and silver
+statuettes, chiefly, which were so successful that he determined to
+take up the career of a sculptor. Ghirlandajo, as is well known,
+was trained as a goldsmith originally, his father having been the
+inventor of a pretty fashion then prevailing among young girls of
+Florence, and being the maker of those golden garlands worn on
+the heads of maidens. The name Ghirlandajo, indeed, was derived
+from these garlands (ghirlandes).
+
+Francia began life as a goldsmith, too, and was never in after life
+ashamed of his profession, for he often signed his works Francesco
+Francia Aurifex. Francia was a very skilful workman in niello,
+and in enamels. In fact, to quote the enthusiastic Vasari, "he
+executed everything that is most beautiful, and which can be performed
+in that art more perfectly than any other master had ever done."
+Baccio Baldini, also, was a goldsmith, although a greater portion
+of his ability was turned in the direction of engraving. His pupil
+Maso Finniguerra, who turned also to engraving, began his career
+as a goldsmith.
+
+The great silver altar in the Baptistery in Florence occupied nearly
+all the goldsmiths in that city. In 1330 the father of the Orcagnas,
+Cione, died; he had worked for some years before that on the altar.
+In 1366 the altar was destroyed, but the parts in bas-relief by
+Cione were retained and incorporated into the new work, which was
+finished in 1478. Ghiberti, Orcagna, Verocchio, and Pollajuolo,
+all executed various details of this magnificent monument.
+
+Goldsmiths did not quite change their standing and characteristics
+until late in the sixteenth century. About that time it may be said
+that the last goldsmith of the old school was Claude Ballin, while
+the first jeweller, in the modern acceptation of the word, was Pierre
+de Montarsy.
+
+Silver has always been selected for the better household utensils,
+not only on account of its beauty, but also because of its ductility,
+which is desirable in making larger vessels; its value, too, is
+less than that of gold, so that articles which would be quite out
+of the reach of most householders, if made in gold, become very
+available in silver. Silver is particularly adapted to daily use,
+for the necessary washing and polishing which it receives keeps
+it in good condition, and there is no danger from poison through
+corrosion, as with copper and brass.
+
+In the middle ages the customary pieces of plate in English homes
+were basins, bottles, bowls, candlesticks, saucepans, jugs, dishes,
+ewers and flagons, and chafing-dishes for warming the hands, which
+were undoubtedly needed, when we remember how intense the cold
+must have been in those high, bare, ill-ventilated halls! There
+were also large cups called hanaps, smaller cups, plates, and
+porringers, salt-cellars, spoons, and salvers. Forks were of much
+later date.
+
+There are records of several silver basins in the Register of John
+of Gaunt, and also in the Inventory of Lord Lisle: one being "a
+basin and ewer with arms" and another, "a shaving basin." John of
+Gaunt also owned "a silver bowl for the kitchen." If the mediæval
+household lacked comforts, it could teach us lessons in luxury
+in some other departments! He also had a "pair of silver bottles,
+partly gilt, and enamelled, garnished with tissues of silk, white
+and blue," and a "casting bottle" for distributing perfume: Silver
+candelabra were recorded; these, of course, must have been in constant
+service, as the facilities for lighting were largely dependent upon
+them. When the Crown was once obliged to ask a loan from the Earl
+of Salisbury, in 1432, the Earl received, as earnest of payment,
+"two golden candelabra, garnished with pearls and precious stones."
+
+In the Close Roll of Henry III. of England, there is found an
+interesting order to a goldsmith: "Edward, son of Eudo, with all
+haste, by day and by night, make a cup with a foot for the Queen:
+weighing two marks, not more; price twenty marks, against Christmas,
+that she may drink from it in that feast: and paint it and enamel it
+all over, and in every other way that you can, let it be decently
+and beautifully wrought, so that the King, no less than the said
+Queen, may be content therewith." All the young princes and princesses
+were presented with silver cups, also, as they came to such age as
+made the use of them expedient; Lionel and John, sons of Edward
+III., were presented with cups "with leather covers for the same,"
+when they were one and three years old respectively. In 1423 the
+chief justice, Sir William Hankford, gave his great-granddaughter
+a baptismal gift of a gilt cup and a diamond ring, together with a
+curious testimonial of eight shillings and sixpence to the nurse!
+
+Of dishes, the records are meagre, but there is an amusing entry
+among the Lisle papers referring to a couple of "conserve dishes"
+for which Lady Lisle expressed a wish. Husee had been ordered to
+procure these, but writes, "I can get no conserve dishes... however,
+if they be to be had, I will have of them, or it shall cost me hot
+water!" A little later he observes, "Towards Christmas day they
+shall be made at Bevoys, betwixt Abbeville and Paris."
+
+Flagons were evidently a novelty in 1471, for there is an entry
+in the Issue Roll of Edward IV., which mentions "two ollas called
+silver flagons for the King." An olla was a Latin term for a jar.
+Lord Lisle rejoiced in "a pair of flagons, the gilt sore worn."
+Hanaps were more usual, and appear to have been usually in the form
+of goblets. They frequently had stands called "tripers." Sometimes
+these stands were very ornate, as, for instance, one owned by the
+Bishop of Carpentras, "in the shape of a flying dragon, with a
+crowned damsel sitting upon a green terrace." Another, belonging
+to the Countess of Cambridge, was described as being "in the shape
+of a monster, with three buttresses and three bosses of mother of
+pearl... and an ewer,... partly enamelled with divers babooneries"--a
+delightful expression! Other hanaps were in the forms of swans, oak
+trees, white harts, eagles, lions, and the like--probably often
+of heraldic significance.
+
+A set of platters was sent from Paris to Richard II., all of gold,
+with balas rubies, pearls and sapphires set in them. It is related
+of the ancient Frankish king, Chilperic, that he had made a dish of
+solid gold, "ornamented all over with precious stones, and weighing
+fifty pounds," while Lothaire owned an enormous silver basin bearing
+as decoration "the world with the courses of the stars and the
+planets."
+
+The porringer was a very important article of table use, for pap,
+and soft foods such as we should term cereals, and for boiled pudding.
+These were all denominated porridge, and were eaten from these vessels.
+Soup was doubtless served in them as well. They were numerous in
+every household. In the Roll of Henry III. is an item, mentioning
+that he had ordered twenty porringers to be made, "like the one
+hundred porringers" which had already been ordered!
+
+An interesting pattern of silver cups in Elizabethan times were
+the "trussing cups," namely, two goblets of silver, squat in shape
+and broad in bowl, which fitted together at the rim, so that one
+was inverted as a sort of cover on top of the other when they were
+not in use. Drinking cups were sometimes made out of cocoanuts,
+mounted in silver, and often of ostrich eggs, similarly treated,
+and less frequently of horns hollowed out and set on feet. Mediæval
+loving cups were usually named, and frequently for some estates
+that belonged to the owner. Cups have been known to bear such names
+as "Spang," "Bealchier," and "Crumpuldud," while others bore the
+names of the patron saints of their owners.
+
+A kind of cruet is recorded among early French table silver, "a
+double necked bottle in divisions, in which to place two kinds
+of liquor without mixing them." A curious bit of table silver in
+France, also, was the "almsbox," into which each guest was supposed
+to put some piece of food, to be given to the poor.
+
+Spoons were very early in their origin; St. Radegond is reported
+by a contemporary to have used a spoon, in feeding the blind and
+infirm. A quaint book of instructions to children, called "The
+Babee's Booke," in 1475, advises by way of table manners:
+
+  "And whenever your potage to you shall be brought,
+   Take your sponys and soupe by no way,
+   And in your dish leave not your spoon, I pray!"
+
+And a later volume on the same subject, in 1500, commends a proper
+respect for the implements of the table:
+
+  "Ne playe with spoone, trencher, ne knife."
+
+Spoons of curious form were evidently made all the way from 1300
+to the present day. In an old will, in 1477, mention is made of
+spoons "wt leopards hedes printed in the sponself," and in another,
+six spoons "wt owles at the end of the handles." Professor Wilson
+said, "A plated spoon is a pitiful imposition," and he was right.
+If there is one article of table service in which solidity of metal
+is of more importance than in another, it is the spoon, which must
+perforce come in contact with the lips whenever it is used. In England
+the earliest spoons were of about the thirteenth century, and the first
+idea of a handle seems to have been a plain shaft ending in a ball or
+knob. Gradually spoons began to show more of the decorative instinct
+of their designers; acorns, small statuettes, and such devices
+terminated the handles, which still retained their slender proportions,
+however. Finally it became popular to have images of the Virgin on
+individual spoons, which led to the idea, after a bit, of decorating
+the dozen with the twelve apostles. These may be seen of all periods,
+differently elaborated. Sets of thirteen are occasionally met with,
+these having one with the statue of Jesus as the Good Shepherd,
+with a lamb on his shoulders: it is known as the "Master spoon."
+
+[Illustration: APOSTLE SPOONS]
+
+The first mention of forks in France is in the Inventory, of Charles
+V., in 1379. We hear a great deal about the promiscuous use of
+knives before forks were invented; how in the children's book of
+instructions they are enjoined "pick not thy teeth with thy knife,"
+as if it were a general habit requiring to be checked. Massinger
+alludes to a
+
+                                  "silver fork
+  To convey an olive neatly to thy mouth,"
+
+but this may apply to pickle forks. Forks were introduced from Italy
+into England about 1607.
+
+A curiosity in cutlery is the "musical knife" at the Louvre; the
+blade is steel, mounted in parcel gilt, and the handle is of ivory.
+On the blade is engraved a few bars of music (arranged for the
+bass only), accompanying the words, "What we are about to take
+may Trinity in Unity bless. Amen." This is a literal translation.
+It indicates that there were probably three other knives in the
+set so ornamented, one with the soprano, one alto, and one tenor,
+so that four persons sitting down to table together might chant
+their "grace" in four-part harmony, having the requisite notes
+before them! It was a quaint idea, but quite in keeping with the
+taste of the sixteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: IVORY KNIFE HANDLES, WITH PORTRAITS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH
+AND JAMES I. ENGLIS]
+
+The domestic plate of Louis, Duke of Anjou, in 1360, consisted of
+over seven hundred pieces, and Charles V. of France had an enormous
+treasury of such objects for daily use. Strong rooms and safes were
+built during the fourteenth century, for the lodging of the household
+valuables.  About this time the Dukes of Burgundy were famous for
+their splendid table service. Indeed, the craze for domestic display
+in this line became so excessive, that in 1356 King John of France
+prohibited the further production of such elaborate pieces, "gold or
+silver plate, vases, or silver jewelry, of more than one mark of gold,
+or silver, excepting for churches." This edict, however, accomplished
+little, and was constantly evaded. Many large pieces of silver made
+in the period of the Renaissance were made simply with a view to
+standing about as ornaments. Cellini alludes to certain vases which
+had been ordered from him, saying that "they are called ewers, and
+they are placed upon buffets for the purpose of display."
+
+The salt cellar was always a _piece de resistance_, and stood in
+the centre of the table. It was often in the form of a ship in
+silver. A book entitled "Ffor to serve a Lorde," in 1500, directs
+the "boteler" or "panter," to bring forth the principal salt, and to
+"set the saler in the myddys of the table." Persons helped themselves
+to salt with "a clene kniffe." The seats of honour were all about
+the salt, while those of less degree were at the lower end of the
+table, and were designated as "below the salt." The silver ship was
+commonly an immense piece of plate, containing the napkin, goblet,
+and knife and spoon of the host, besides being the receptacle for
+the spices and salt. Through fear of poison, the precaution was
+taken of keeping it covered. This ship was often known as the "nef,"
+and frequently had a name, as if it were the family yacht! One is
+recorded as having been named the "Tyger," while a nef belonging to
+the Duke of Orleans was called the "Porquepy," meaning porcupine.
+One of the historic salts, in another form, is the "Huntsman's
+salt," and is kept at All Soul's College, Oxford. The figure of a
+huntsman, bears upon its head a rock crystal box with a lid. About
+the feet of this figure are several tiny animals and human beings,
+so that it looks as if the intent had been to picture some gigantic
+legendary hunter--a sort of Gulliver of the chase.
+
+The table was often furnished also with a fountain, in which
+drinking-water was kept, and upon which either stood or hung cups
+or goblets. These fountains were often of fantastic shapes, and
+usually enamelled. One is described as representing a dragon on
+a tree top, and another a castle on a hill, with a convenient tap
+at some point for drawing off the water.
+
+The London City Companies are rich in their possessions of valuable
+plate. Some of the cups are especially beautiful. The Worshipful
+Company of Skinners owns some curious loving cups, emblematic of
+the names of the donors. There are five Cockayne Loving Cups, made
+in the form of cocks, with their tail feathers spread up to form
+the handles. The heads have to be removed for drinking. These cups
+were bequeathed by William Cockayne, in 1598. Another cup is in
+the form of a peacock, walking with two little chicks of minute
+proportions on either side of the parent bird. This is inscribed,
+"The gift of Mary the daughter of Richard Robinson, and wife to
+Thomas Smith and James Peacock, Skinners." Whether the good lady
+were a bigamist or took her husbands in rotation, does not transpire.
+
+An interesting cup is owned by the Vintners in London, called the
+Milkmaid. The figure of a milkmaid, in laced bodice, holds above
+her head a small cup on pivots, so that it finds its level when
+the figure is inverted, as is the case when the cup is used, the
+petticoat of the milkmaid forming the real goblet. It is constructed
+on the same principle as the German figures of court ladies holding
+up cups, which are often seen to-day, made on the old pattern. The
+cups in the case of this milkmaid are both filled with wine, and
+it is quite difficult to drink from the larger cup without spilling
+from the small swinging cup which is then below the other. Every
+member is expected to perform this feat as a sort of initiation.
+It dates from 1658.
+
+[Illustration: THE "MILKMAID CUP"]
+
+One of the most beautiful Corporation cups is at Norwich, where
+it is known as the "Petersen" cup. It is shaped like a very thick
+and squat chalice, and around its top is a wide border of decorative
+lettering, bearing the inscription, "THE + MOST + HERE + OF. + IS
++ DUNNE + BY + PETER + PETERSON +." This craftsman was a Norwich
+silversmith of the sixteenth century, very famous in his day, and
+a remarkably chaste designer as well. A beautiful ivory cup twelve
+inches high, set in silver gilt, called the Grace Cup, of
+Thomas à Becket, is inscribed around the top band, "_Vinum tuum bibe
+cum gaudio_." It has a hall-mark of a Lombardic letter H, signifying
+the year 1445. It is decorated by cherubs, roses, thistles, and
+crosses, relieved with garnets and pearls. On another flat band
+is the inscription: "_Sobrii estote_," and on the cover,
+in Roman capitals, "_Ferare God_." It is owned by the Howard family,
+of Corby.
+
+Tankards were sometimes made of such crude materials as leather
+(like the "lether bottel" of history), and of wood. In fact, the
+inventory of a certain small church in the year 1566 tells of a
+"penny tankard of wood," which was used as a "holy water stock."
+
+An extravagant design, of a period really later than we are supposed
+to deal with in this book, is a curious cup at Barber's and Surgeon's
+Hall, known as the Royal Oak. It is built to suggest an oak tree,--a
+naturalistic trunk, with its roots visible, supporting the cup,
+which is in the form of a semi-conventional tree, covered with
+leaves, detached acorns swinging free on rings from the sides at
+intervals!
+
+Richard Redgrave called attention to some of the absurdities of
+the exotic work of his day in England. "Rachel at a well, under
+an imitative palm tree," he remarks, "draws, not water, but ink;
+a grotto of oyster shells with children beside it, contains... an
+ink vessel; the milk pail on a maiden's head contains, not goat's
+milk, as the animal by her side would lead you to suppose, but a
+taper!"
+
+One great secret of good design in metal is to avoid imitating
+fragile things in a strong material. The stalk of a flower or leaf,
+for instance, if made to do duty in silver to support a heavy cup or
+vase, is a very disagreeable thing to contemplate; if the article
+were really what it represented, it would break under the strain.
+While there should be no deliberate perversion of Nature's forms,
+there should be no naturalistic imitation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+JEWELRY AND PRECIOUS STONES
+
+We are told that the word "jewel" has come by degrees from Latin,
+through French, to its present form; it commenced as a "gaudium"
+(joy), and progressed through "jouel" and "joyau" to the familiar
+word, as we have it.
+
+The first objects to be made in the form of personal adornment were
+necklaces: this may be easily understood, for in certain savage
+lands the necklace formed, and still forms, the chief feature in
+feminine attire. In this little treatise, however, we cannot deal
+with anything so primitive or so early; we must not even take time
+to consider the exquisite Greek and Roman jewelry. Amongst the
+earliest mediæval jewels we will study the Anglo-Saxon and the
+Byzantine.
+
+Anglo-Saxon and Irish jewelry is famous for delicate filigree, fine
+enamels, and flat garnets used in a very decorative way. Niello
+was also employed to some extent. It is easy, in looking from the
+Bell of St. Patrick to the Book of Kells, to see how the illuminators
+were influenced by the goldsmiths in early times,--in Celtic and
+Anglo-Saxon work.
+
+[Illustration: SAXON BROOCH]
+
+The earliest forms of brooches were the annular,--that is, a long
+pin with a hinged ring at its head for ornament, and the "penannular,"
+or pin with a broken circle at its head. Through the opening in the
+circle the pin returns, and then with a twist of the ring, it is
+held more firmly in the material. Of these two forms are notable
+examples in the Arbutus brooch and the celebrated Tara brooch. The
+Tara brooch is a perfect museum in itself of the jeweller's art.
+It is ornamented with enamel, with jewels set in silver, amber,
+scroll filigree, fine chains, Celtic tracery, moulded glass--nearly
+every branch of the art is represented in this one treasure, which
+was found quite by accident near Drogheda, in 1850, a landslide
+having exposed the buried spot where it had lain for centuries.
+As many as seventy-six different kinds of workmanship are to be
+detected on this curious relic.
+
+[Illustration: THE TARA BROOCH]
+
+At a great Exhibition at Ironmonger's Hall in 1861
+there was shown a leaden fibula, quite a dainty piece of personal
+ornament, in Anglo-Saxon taste, decorated with a moulded spiral
+meander. It was found in the Thames in 1855, and there are only
+three other similar brooches of lead known to exist.
+
+Of the Celtic brooches Scott speaks:
+
+    "...the brooch of burning gold
+  That clasps the chieftain's mantle fold,
+  Wrought and chased with rare device,
+  Studded fair with gems of price."
+
+One of the most remarkable pieces of Celtic jewelled work is the
+bell of St. Patrick, which measures over ten inches in height.
+This saint is associated with several bells: one, called the Broken
+Bell of St. Brigid, he used on his last crusade against the demons
+of Ireland; it is said that when he found his adversaries specially
+unyielding, he flung the bell with all his might into the thickest
+of their ranks, so that they fled precipitately into the sea, leaving
+the island free from their aggressions for seven years, seven months,
+and seven days.
+
+One of St. Patrick's bells is known, in Celtic, as the "white toned,"
+while another is called the "black sounding." This is an early and
+curious instance of the sub-conscious association of the qualities
+of sound with those of colour. Viollet le Duc tells how a blind man
+was asked if he knew what the colour red was. He replied, "Yes:
+red is the sound of the trumpet." And the great architect himself,
+when a child, was carried by his nurse into the Cathedral of Notre
+Dame in Paris, where he cried with terror because he fancied that
+the various organ notes which he heard were being hurled at him
+by the stained glass windows, each one represented by a different
+colour in the glass!
+
+[Illustration: SHRINE OF THE BELL OF ST. PATRICK]
+
+But the most famous bell in connection with St. Patrick is the one
+known by his own name and brought with his relics by Columbkille
+only sixty years after the saint's death. The outer case is an
+exceedingly rich example of Celtic work. On a ground of brass, fine
+gold and silver filigree is applied, in curious interlaces and knots,
+and it is set with several jewels, some of large size, in green,
+blue, and dull red. In the front are two large tallow-cut Irish
+diamonds, and a third was apparently set in a place which is now
+vacant. On the back of the bell appears a Celtic inscription in most
+decorative lettering all about the edge; the literal translation
+of this is: "A prayer for Donnell O'Lochlain, through whom this
+bell shrine was made; and for Donnell, the successor of Patrick,
+with whom it was made; and for Cahalan O'Mulhollan, the keeper of
+the bell, and for Cudilig O'Immainen, with his sons, who covered
+it." Donald O'Lochlain was monarch of Ireland in 1083. Donald the
+successor of Patrick was the Abbot of Armagh, from 1091 to 1105.
+The others were evidently the craftsmen who worked on the shrine.
+In many interlaces, especially on the sides, there may be traced
+intricate patterns formed of serpents, but as nearly all Celtic
+work is similarly ornamented, there is probably nothing personal
+in their use in connection with the relic of St. Patrick! Patrick
+brought quite a bevy of workmen into Ireland about 440: some were
+smiths, Mac Cecht, Laebhan, and Fontchan, who were turned at once
+upon making of bells, while some other skilled artificers, Fairill
+and Tassach, made patens and chalices. St. Bridget, too, had a
+famous goldsmith in her train, one Bishop Coula.
+
+The pectoral cross of St. Cuthbert of Lindisfarne is now to be seen
+in Durham. It was buried with the saint, and was discovered with
+his body. The four arms are of equal length, and not very heavy in
+proportion. It is of gold, made in the seventh century, and is set
+with garnets, a very large one in the centre, one somewhat smaller
+at the ends of the arms, where the lines widen considerably, and
+with smaller ones continuously between.
+
+Among the many jewels which decorated the shrine of Thomas à Becket
+at Canterbury was a stone "with an angell of gold poynting thereunto,"
+which was a gift from the King of France, who had had it "made
+into a ring and wore it on his thumb." Other stones described as
+being on this shrine were sumptuous, the whole being damascened
+with gold wire, and "in the midst of the gold, rings; or cameos
+of sculptured agates, carnelians, and onyx stones." A visitor to
+Canterbury in 1500 writes: "Everything is left far behind by a
+ruby not larger than a man's thumb nail, which is set to the right
+of the altar. The church is rather dark, and when we went to see
+it the sun was nearly gone down, and the weather was cloudy, yet
+we saw the ruby as well as if it had been in my hand. They say
+it was a gift of the King of France."
+
+Possessions of one kind were often converted into another, according
+to changing fashions. Philippa of Lancaster had a gold collar made
+"out of two bottles and a turret," in 1380.
+
+Mediæval rosaries were generally composed of beads of coral or
+carnelian, and often of gold and pearls as well. Marco Polo tells
+of a unique rosary worn by the King of Malabar; one hundred and
+four large pearls, with occasional rubies of great price, composed
+the string. Marco Polo adds: "He has to say one hundred and four
+prayers to his idols every morning and evening."
+
+In the possession of the Shah of Persia is a gold casket studded
+with emeralds, which is said to have the magic power of rendering
+the owner invisible as long as he remains celibate. I fancy that
+this is a safe claim, for the tradition is not likely to be put
+to the proof in the case of a Shah! Probably there has never been
+an opportunity of testing the miraculous powers of the stones.
+
+The inventory of Lord Lisle contains many interesting side lights
+on the jewelry of the period: "a hawthorne of gold, with twenty
+diamonds;" "a little tower of gold," and "a pair of beads of gold,
+with tassels." Filigree or chain work was termed "perry." In old
+papers such as inventories, registers, and the like, there are
+frequent mentions of buttons of "gold and perry;" in 1372 Aline
+Gerbuge received "one little circle of gold and perry, emeralds
+and balasses." Clasps and brooches were used much in the fourteenth
+century. They were often called "ouches," and were usually of jewelled
+gold. One, an image of St. George, was given by the Black Prince to
+John of Gaunt. The Duchess of Bretagne had among other brooches one
+with a white griffin, a balas ruby on its shoulder, six sapphires
+around it, and then six balasses, and twelve groups of pearls with
+diamonds.
+
+Brooches were frequently worn by being stuck in the hat. In a curious
+letter from James I. to his son, the monarch writes: "I send for
+your wearing the Three Brethren" (evidently a group of three stones)
+"...but newly set... which I wolde wish you to weare alone in your
+hat, with a Littel black feather." To his favourite Buckingham
+he also sends a diamond, saying that his son will lend him also
+"an anker" in all probability; but he adds: "If my Babee will not
+spare the anker from his Mistress, he may well lend thee his round
+brooch to weare, and yett he shall have jewels to weare in his
+hat for three grate dayes."
+
+In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the women wore nets in
+their hair, composed of gold threads adorned with pearls. At first
+two small long rolls by the temples were confined in these nets:
+later, the whole back hair was gathered into a large circular
+arrangement. These nets were called frets--"a fret of pearls" was
+considered a sufficient legacy for a duchess to leave to her daughter.
+
+In the constant resetting and changing of jewels, many important
+mediæval specimens, not to mention exquisite vessels and church
+furniture, were melted down and done over by Benvenuto Cellini,
+especially at the time that Pope Clement was besieged at the Castle
+of St. Angelo.
+
+Probably the most colossal jewel of ancient times was the Peacock
+Throne of Delhi. It was in the form of two spread tails of peacocks,
+composed entirely of sapphires, emeralds and topazes, feather by
+feather and eye by eye, set so as to touch each other. A parrot of
+life size carved from a single emerald, stood between the peacocks.
+
+In 1161 the throne of the Emperor in Constantinople is described
+by Benjamin of Tudela: "Of gold ornamented with precious stones.
+A golden crown hangs over it, suspended on a chain of the same
+material, the length of which exactly admits the Emperor to sit
+under it. The crown is ornamented with precious stones of inestimable
+value. Such is the lustre of these diamonds that even without any
+other light, they illumine the room in which they are kept."
+
+The greatest mediæval jeweller was St. Eloi of Limoges. His history
+is an interesting one, and his achievement and rise in life was very
+remarkable in the period in which he lived. Eloi was a workman in
+Limoges, as a youth, under the famous Abho, in the sixth century;
+there he learned the craft of a goldsmith. He was such a splendid
+artisan that he soon received commissions for extensive works on his
+own account. King Clothaire II. ordered from him a golden throne,
+and supplied the gold which was to be used. To the astonishment of
+all, Eloi presented the king with _two_ golden thrones (although
+it is difficult to imagine what a king would do with duplicate
+thrones!), and immediately it was noised abroad that the goldsmith
+Eloi was possessed of miraculous powers, since, out of gold sufficient
+for one throne, he had constructed two. People of a more practical
+turn found out that Eloi had learned the art of alloying the gold,
+so as to make it do double duty.
+
+A great many examples of St. Eloi's work might have been seen in
+France until the Revolution in 1792, especially at the Abbey of St.
+Denis. A ring made by him, with which St. Godiberte was married to
+Christ, according to the custom of mediæval saints, was preserved at
+Noyon until 1793, when it disappeared in the Revolution. The Chronicle
+says of Eloi: "He made for the king a great numer of gold vesses
+enriched with precious stones, and he worked incessantly, seated
+with his servant Thillo, a Saxon by birth, who followed the lessons
+of his master." St. Eloi founded two institutions for goldsmithing:
+one for the production of domestic and secular plate, and the other
+for ecclesiastical work exclusively, so that no worker in profane
+lines should handle the sacred vessels. The secular branch was
+situated near the dwelling of Eloi, in the Cité itself, and was
+known as "St. Eloi's Enclosure." When a fire burned them out of
+house and shelter, they removed to a suburban quarter, which soon
+became known in its turn, as the "Clôture St. Eloi." The religious
+branch of the establishment was presided over by the aforesaid
+Thillo, and was the Abbey of Solignac, near Limoges. This school
+was inaugurated in 631.
+
+While Eloi was working at the court of King Clothaire II., St. Quen
+was there as well. The two youths struck up a close friendship, and
+afterwards Ouen became his biographer. His description of Eloi's
+personal appearance is worth quoting, to show the sort of figure a
+mediæval saint sometimes cut before canonization. "He was tall, with
+a ruddy face, his hair and beard curly. His hands well made, and his
+fingers long, his face full of angelic sweetness.... At first he
+wore habits covered with pearls and precious stones; he had also
+belts sewn with pearls. His dress was of linen encrusted with gold,
+and the edges of his tunic trimmed with gold embroidery. Indeed, his
+clothing was very costly, and some of his dresses were of silk. Such
+was his exterior in his first period at court, and he dressed thus
+to avoid singularity; but under this garment he wore a rough sack
+cloth, and later on, he disposed of all his ornaments to relieve the
+distressed; and he might be seen with only a cord round his waist
+and common clothes. Sometimes the king, seeing him thus divested of
+his rich clothing, would take off his own cloak and girdle and give
+them to him, saying: 'It is not suitable that those who dwell for
+the world should be richly clad, and that those who despoil
+themselves for Christ should be without glory.'"
+
+Among the numerous virtues of St. Eloi was that of a consistent
+carrying out of his real beliefs and theories, whether men might
+consider him quixotic or not. He was strongly opposed to the institution
+of slavery. In those days it would have been futile to preach actual
+emancipation. The times were not ripe. But St. Eloi did all that he
+could for the cause of freedom by investing most of his money in
+slaves, and then setting them at liberty. Sometimes he would "corner"
+a whole slave market, buying as many as thirty to a hundred at a
+time. Some of these manumitted persons became his own faithful
+followers: some entered the religious life, and others devoted their
+talents to their benefactor, and worked in his studios for the
+furthering of art in the Church.
+
+He once played a trick upon the king. He requested the gift of
+a town, in order, as he explained, that he might there build a
+ladder by which they might both reach heaven. The king, in the
+rather credulous fashion of the times, granted his request, and
+waited to see the ladder. St. Eloi promptly built a monastery.
+If the monarch did not choose to avail himself of this species of
+ladder,--surely it was no fault of the builder!
+
+St. Quen and St. Eloi were consecrated bishops on the same day,
+May 14, St. Quen to the Bishopric of Rouen, and Eloi to the See of
+Noyon. He made a great hunt for the body of St. Quentin, which had
+been unfortunately mislaid, having been buried in the neighbourhood
+of Noyon; he turned up every available spot of ground around, within
+and beneath the church, until he found a skeleton in a tomb, with
+some iron nails. This he proclaimed to be the sacred body, for
+the legend was that St. Quentin had been martyred by having nails
+driven into his head! Although it was quite evident to others that
+these were coffin nails, still St. Eloi insisted upon regarding his
+discovery as genuine, and they began diligently to dismember the
+remains for distribution among the churches. As they were pulling
+one of the teeth, a drop of blood was seen to follow it, which
+miracle was hailed by St. Eloi as the one proof wanting. Eloi had
+the genuine artistic temperament and his religious zeal was much
+influenced by his æsthetic nature. He once preached an excellent
+sermon, still preserved, against superstition. He inveighed
+particularly against the use of charms and incantations. But he had
+his own little streak of superstition in spite of the fact that he
+fulminated against it. When he had committed some fault, after
+confession, he used to hang bags of relics in his room, and watch
+them for a sign of forgiveness. When one of these would turn oily,
+or begin to affect the surrounding atmosphere peculiarly, he would
+consider it a sign of the forgiveness of heaven. It seems to us
+to-day as if he might have looked to his own relic bags before
+condemning the ignorant.
+
+St. Eloi died in 659, and was himself distributed to the faithful
+in quite a wholesale way. One arm is in Paris. He was canonized
+both for his holy life and for his great zeal in art. He was buried
+in a silver coffin adorned with gold, and his tomb was said to
+work miracles like the shrine of Becket. Indeed, Becket himself
+was pretty dressy in the matter of jewels; when he travelled to
+Paris, the simple Frenchmen exclaimed: "What a wonderful personage
+the King of England must be, if his chancellor can travel in such
+state!"
+
+There are various legends about St. Eloi. It is told that a certain
+horse once behaved in a very obstreperous way while being shod; St.
+Eloi calmly cut off the animal's leg, and fixed the shoe quietly
+in position, and then replaced the leg, which grew into place again
+immediately, to the pardonable astonishment of all beholders, not
+to mention the horse.
+
+St. Eloi was also employed to coin the currency of Dagobert and
+Clovis II., and examples of these coins may now be seen, as authentic
+records of the style of his work. A century after his death the
+monasteries which he had founded were still in operation, and
+Charlemagne's crown and sword are very possibly the result of St.
+Eloi's teachings to his followers.
+
+While the monasteries undoubtedly controlled most of the art education
+of the early middle ages, there were also laymen who devoted themselves
+to these pursuits. John de Garlande, a famous teacher in the University
+of Paris, wrote, in the eleventh century, a "Dictionarius" dealing
+with various arts. In this interesting work he describes, the trades
+of the moneyers (who controlled the mint), the coining of gold and
+silver into currency (for the making of coin in those days was
+permitted by individuals), the clasp makers, the makers of cups
+or hanaps, jewellers and harness makers, and other artificers.
+John de Garlande was English, born about the middle of the twelfth
+century, and was educated in Oxford. In the early thirteenth century
+he became associated with the University, and when Simon de Montfort
+was slain in 1218, at Toulouse, John was at the University of
+Toulouse, where he was made So professor, and stayed three years,
+returning then to Paris. He died about the middle of the thirteenth
+century. He was celebrated chiefly for his Dictionarius, a work on
+the various arts and crafts of France, and for a poem "De Triumphis
+Ecclesiæ."
+
+During the Middle Ages votive crowns were often presented to churches;
+among these a few are specially famous. The crowns, studded with
+jewels, were suspended before the altar by jewelled chains, and often
+a sort of fringe of jewelled letters was hung from the rim, forming
+an inscription. The votive crown of King Suinthila, in Madrid, is
+among the most ornate of these. It is the finest specimen in the
+noted "Treasure of Guerrazzar," which was discovered by peasants
+turning up the soil near Toledo; the crowns, of which there were
+many, date from about the seventh century, and are sumptuous with
+precious stones. The workmanship is not that of a barbarous nation,
+though it has the fascinating irregularities of the Byzantine style.
+
+Of the delightful work of the fifth and sixth centuries there are
+scarcely any examples in Italy. The so-called Iron Crown of Monza
+is one of the few early Lombard treasures. This crown has within
+it a narrow band of iron, said to be a nail of the True Cross;
+but the crown, as it meets the eye, is anything but iron, being
+one of the most superb specimens of jewelled golden workmanship,
+as fine as those in the Treasure of Guerrazzar.
+
+[Illustration: THE TREASURE OF GUERRAZZAR.]
+
+The crown of King Alfred the Great is mentioned in an old inventory
+as being of "gould wire worke, sett with slight stones, and two
+little bells." A diadem is described by William of Malmsbury, "so
+precious with jewels, that the splendour... threw sparks of light
+so strongly on the beholder, that the more steadfastly any person
+endeavoured to gaze, so much the more he was dazzled, and compelled
+to avert the eyes!" In 1382 a circlet crown was purchased for Queen
+Anne of Bohemia, being set with a large sapphire, a balas, and four
+large pearls with a diamond in the centre.
+
+The Cathedral at Amiens owns what is supposed to be the head of
+John the Baptist, enshrined in a gilt cup of silver, and with bands
+of jewelled work. The head is set upon a platter of gilded and
+jewelled silver, covered with a disc of rock crystal. The whole,
+though ancient, is enclosed in a modern shrine. The legend of the
+preservation of the Baptist's head is that Herodias, afraid that
+the saint might be miraculously restored to life if his head and
+body were laid in the same grave, decided to hide the head until
+this danger was past. Furtively, she concealed the relic for a time,
+and then it was buried in Herod's palace. It was there opportunely
+discovered by some monks in the fourth century. This "invention of
+the head" (the word being interpreted according to the credulity of
+the reader) resulted in its removal to Emesa, where it was exhibited
+in 453. In 753 Marcellus, the Abbot of Emesa, had a vision by means
+of which he re-discovered (or re-invented) the head, which had in
+some way been lost sight of. Following the guidance of his dream,
+he repaired to a grotto, and proceeded to exhume the long-suffering
+relic. After many other similar and rather disconnected episodes,
+it finally came into possession of the Bishop of Amiens in 1206.
+
+A great calamity in early times was the loss of all the valuables
+of King John of England. Between Lincolnshire and Norfolk the royal
+cortège was crossing the Wash: the jewels were all swept away.
+Crown and all were thus lost, in 1216.
+
+Several crowns have been through vicissitudes. When Richard III.
+died, on Bosworth Field, his crown was secured by a soldier and
+hidden in a bush. Sir Reginald de Bray discovered it, and restored
+it to its rightful place. But to balance such cases several of the
+queens have brought to the national treasury their own crowns.
+In 1340 Edward III. pawned even the queen's jewels to raise money
+for fighting France.
+
+The same inventory makes mention of certain treasures deposited
+at Westminster: the values are attached to each of these, crowns,
+plates, bracelets, and so forth. Also, with commendable zeal, a
+list was kept of other articles stored in an iron chest, among which
+are the items, "one liver coloured silk robe, very old, and worth
+nothing," and "an old combe of horne, worth nothing." A frivolous
+scene is described by Wood, when the notorious Republican, Marten,
+had access to the treasure stored in Westminster. Some of the wits
+of the period assembled in the treasury, and took out of the iron
+chest several of its jewels, a crown, sceptre, and robes; these
+they put upon the merry poet, George Withers, "who, being thus
+crowned and royally arrayed, first marched about the room with a
+stately gait, and afterwards, with a thousand ridiculous and apish
+actions, exposed the sacred ornaments to contempt and laughter."
+No doubt the "olde comb" played a suitable part in these
+pranks,--perhaps it may even have served as orchestra.
+
+One Sir Henry Mildmay, in 1649, was responsible for dreadful vandalism,
+under the Puritan régime. Among other acts which he countenanced was
+the destruction and sale of the wonderful Crown of King Alfred,
+to which allusion has just been made. In the Will of the Earl of
+Pembroke, in 1650, is this clause showing how unpopular Sir Henry
+had become: "Because I threatened Sir Henry Mildmay, but did not
+beat him, I give £50 to the footman who cudgelled him. Item, my
+will is that the said Sir Harry shall not meddle with my jewels. I
+knew him... when he handled the Crown jewels,... for which reason
+I now name him the Knave of Diamonds."
+
+Jewelled arms and trappings became very rich in the fifteenth century.
+Pius II. writes of the German armour: "What shall I say of the
+neck chains of the men, and the bridles of the horses, which are
+made of the purest gold; and of the spears and scabbards which are
+covered with jewels?" Spurs were also set with jewels, and often
+damascened with gold, and ornamented with appropriate mottoes.
+
+An inventory of the jewelled cups and reliquaries of Queen Jeanne
+of Navarre, about 1570, reads like a museum. She had various gold
+and jewelled dishes for banquets; one jewel is described as "Item,
+a demoiselle of gold, represented as riding upon a horse, of mother
+of pearl, standing upon a platform of gold, enriched with ten rubies,
+six turquoises and three fine pearls." Another item is, "A fine rock
+crystal set in gold, enriched with three rubies, three emeralds,
+and a large sapphire, set transparently, the whole suspended from
+a small gold chain."
+
+It is time now to speak of the actual precious stones themselves,
+which apart from their various settings are, after all, the real
+jewels. According to Cellini there are only four precious stones:
+he says they are made "by the four elements," ruby by fire, sapphire
+by air, emerald by earth, and diamond by water. It irritated him
+to have any one claim others as precious stones. "I have a thing
+or two to say," he remarks, "in order not to scandalize a certain
+class of men who call themselves jewellers, but may be better likened
+to hucksters, or linen drapers, pawn brokers, or grocers... with a
+maximum of credit and a minimum of brains... these dunderheads...
+wag their arrogant tongues at me and cry, 'How about the chrysophrase,
+or the jacynth, how about the aqua marine, nay more, how about the
+garnet, the vermeil, the crysolite, the plasura, the amethyst?
+Ain't these all stones and all different?' Yes, and why the devil
+don't you add pearls, too, among the jewels, ain't they fish bones?"
+Thus he classes the stones together, adding that the balas, though
+light in colour, is a ruby, and the topaz a sapphire. "It is of the
+same hardness, and though of a different colour, must be classified
+with the sapphire: what better classification do you want? hasn't
+the air got its sun?"
+
+Cellini always set the coloured stones in a bezel or closed box
+of gold, with a foil behind them. He tells an amusing story of
+a ruby which he once set on a bit of frayed silk instead of on
+the customary foil. The result happened to be most brilliant. The
+jewellers asked him what kind of foil he had used, and he replied
+that he had employed no foil. Then they exclaimed that he must have
+tinted it, which was against all laws of jewelry. Again Benvenuto
+swore that he had neither used foil, nor had he done anything forbidden
+or unprofessional to the stone. "At this the jeweller got a little
+nasty, and used strong language," says Cellini. They then offered
+to pay well for the information if Cellini would inform them by what
+means he had obtained so remarkably a lustre. Benvenuto, expressing
+himself indifferent to pay, but "much honoured in thus being able to
+teach his teachers," opened the setting and displayed his secret,
+and all parted excellent friends.
+
+Even so early as the thirteenth century, the jewellers of Paris had
+become notorious for producing artificial jewels. Among their laws
+was one which stipulated that "the jeweller was not to dye the
+amethyst, or other false stones, nor mount them in gold leaf nor other
+colour, nor mix them with rubies, emeralds, or other precious stones,
+except as a crystal simply without mounting or dyeing."
+
+One day Cellini had found a ruby which he believed to be set
+dishonestly, that is, a very pale stone with a thick coating of
+dragon's blood smeared on its back. When he took it to some of
+his favourite "dunderheads," they were sure that he was mistaken,
+saying that it had been set by a noted jeweller, and could not be
+an imposition. So Benvenuto immediately removed the stone from
+its setting, thereby exposing the fraud. "Then might that ruby have
+been likened to the crow which tricked itself out in the feathers
+of the peacock," observes Cellini, adding that he advised these
+"old fossils in the art" to provide themselves with better eyes
+than they then _wore_. "I could not resist saying this," chuckles
+Benvenuto, "because all three of them wore great gig-lamps on their
+noses; whereupon they all three gasped at each other, shrugged
+their shoulders, and with God's blessing, made off." Cellini tells
+of a Milanese jeweller who concocted a great emerald, by applying a
+very thin layer of the real stone upon a large bit of green glass:
+he says that the King of England bought it, and that the fraud
+was not discovered for many years.
+
+A commission was once given Cellini to make a magnificent crucifix
+for a gift from the Pope to Emperor Charles V., but, as he expresses
+it, "I was hindered from finishing it by certain beasts who had the
+vantage of the Pope's ear," but when these evil whisperers had so
+"gammoned the Pope," that he was dissuaded from the crucifix, the
+Pope ordered Cellini to make a magnificent Breviary instead, so
+that the "job" still remained in his hands.
+
+Giovanni Pisano made some translucid enamels for the decorations of
+the high altar in Florence, and also a jewelled clasp to embellish
+the robe of a statue of the Virgin.
+
+Ghiberti was not above turning his attention to goldsmithing, and
+in 1428 made a seal for Giovanni de Medici, a cope-button and mitre
+for Pope Martin V., and a gold nutre with precious stones weighing
+five and a half pounds, for Pope Eugene IV.
+
+Diamonds were originally cut two at a time, one cutting the other,
+whence has sprung the adage, "diamond cut diamond." Cutting in
+facets was thus the natural treatment of this gem. The practise
+originated in India. Two diamonds rubbing against each other
+systematically will in time form a facet on each. In 1475 it was
+discovered by Louis de Berghem that diamonds could be cut by their
+own dust.
+
+It is an interesting fact in connection with the Kohinoor that
+in India there had always been a legend that its owner should be
+the ruler of India. Probably the ancient Hindoos among whom this
+legend developed would be astonished to know that, although the
+great stone is now the property of the English, the tradition is
+still unbroken!
+
+Marco Polo alludes to the treasures brought from the
+Isle of Ormus, as "spices, pearls, precious stones, cloth of gold
+and silver, elephant's teeth, and all other precious things from
+India." In Balaxiam he says are found "ballasses and other precious
+stones of great value. No man, on pain of death, dare either dig
+such stones or carry them out of the country, for all those stones
+are the King's. Other mountains also in this province yield stones
+called lapis lazuli, whereof the best azure is made. The like is
+not found in the world. These mines also yield silver, brass, and
+lead." He speaks of the natives as wearing gold and silver earrings,
+"with pearls and-other stones artificially wrought in them." In
+a certain river, too, are found jasper and chalcedons.
+
+Marco Polo's account of how diamonds are obtained is ingenuous
+in its reckless defiance of fact. He says that in the mountains
+"there are certain great deep valleys to the bottom of which there
+is no access. Wherefore the men who go in search of the diamonds
+take with them pieces of meat," which they throw into this deep
+valley. He relates that the eagles, when they see these pieces of
+meat, fly down and get them, and when they return, they settle on
+the higher rocks, when the men raise a shout, and drive them off.
+After the eagles have thus been driven away, "the men recover the
+pieces of meat, and find them full of diamonds, which have stuck to
+them. For the abundance of diamonds down in the depths," continues
+Marco Polo, naïvely "is astonishing; but nobody can get down, and
+if one could, it would be only to be incontinently devoured
+by the serpents which are so rife there." A further account proceeds
+thus: "The diamonds are so scattered and dispersed in the earth,
+and lie so thin, that in the most plentiful mines it is rare to
+find one in digging;... they are frequently enclosed in clods,...
+some... have the earth so fixed about them that till they grind
+them on a rough stone with sand, they cannot move it sufficiently
+to discover they are transparent or... to know them from other
+stones. At the first opening of the mine, the unskilful labourers
+sometimes, to try what they have found, lay them on a great stone,
+and, striking them one with another, to their costly experience,
+discover that they have broken a diamond.... They fill a cistern
+with water, soaking therein as much of the earth they dig out of
+the mine as it can hold at one time, breaking the clods, picking
+out the great stones, and stirring it with shovels... then they
+open a vent, letting out the foul water, and supply it with clean,
+till the earthy substance be all washed away, and only the gravelly
+one remains at the bottom." A process of sifting and drying is then
+described, and the gravel is all spread out to be examined, "they
+never examine the stuff they have washed but between the hours of
+ten and three, lest any cloud, by interposing, intercept the brisk
+beams of the sun, which they hold very necessary to assist them
+in their search, the diamonds constantly reflecting them when they
+shine on them, rendering themselves thereby the more conspicuous."
+
+The earliest diamond-cutter is frequently mentioned as Louis de
+Berquem de Bruges, in 1476. But Laborde finds earlier records of
+the art of cutting this gem: there was in Paris a diamond-cutter
+named Herman, in 1407. The diamond cutters of Paris were quite
+numerous in that year, and lived in a special district known as "la
+Courarie, where reside the workers in diamonds and other stones."
+
+Finger rings almost deserve a history to themselves, for their
+forms and styles are legion. Rings were often made of glass in the
+eleventh century. Theophilus tells in a graphic and interesting
+manner how they were constructed. He recommends the use of a bar
+of iron, as thick as one's finger, set in a wooden handle, "as a
+lance is joined in its pike." There should also be a large piece
+of wood, at the worker's right hand, "the thickness of an arm,
+dug into the ground, and reaching to the top of the window." On
+the left of the furnace a little clay trench is to be provided.
+"Then, the glass being cooked," one is admonished to take the little
+iron in the wooden handle, dip it into the molten glass, and pick
+up a small portion, and "prick it into the wood, that the glass
+may be pierced through, and instantly warm it in the flame, and
+strike it twice upon the wood, that the glass may be dilated, and
+with quickness revolve your hand with the same iron;" when the
+ring is thus formed, it is to be quickly thrown into the trench.
+Theophilus adds, "If you wish to vary your rings with other colours...
+take... glass of another colour, surrounding the glass of the ring
+with it in the manner of a thread... you can also place upon the
+ring glass of another kind, as a gem, and warm it in the fire that
+it may adhere." One can almost see these rings from this accurate
+description of their manufacture.
+
+The old Coronation Ring, "the wedding ring of England," was a gold
+ring with a single fine balas ruby; the pious tradition had it
+that this ring was given to Edward the Confessor by a beggar, who
+was really St. John the Evangelist in masquerade! The palace where
+this unique event occurred was thereupon named Have-ring-at-Bower.
+The Stuart kings all wore this ring and until it came to George
+IV., with other Stuart bequests, it never left the royal Stuart
+line.
+
+Edward I. owned a sapphire ring made by St. Dunstan. Dunstan was
+an industrious art spirit, being reported by William of Malmsbury
+as "taking great delight in music, painting, and engraving." In
+the "Ancren Riwle," a book of directions for the cloistered life
+of women, nuns are forbidden to wear "ne ring ne brooche," and
+to deny themselves other personal adornments.
+
+Archbishops seem to have possessed numerous rings in ancient times.
+In the romance of "Sir Degrevant" a couplet alludes to:
+
+   "Archbishops with rings
+    More than fifteen."
+
+Episcopal rings were originally made of sapphires, said to be typical
+of the cold austerity of the life of the wearer. Later, however,
+the carbuncle became a favourite, which was supposed to suggest fiery
+zeal for the faith. Perhaps the compromise of the customary amethyst,
+which is now most popularly used, for Episcopal rings, being a
+combination of the blue and the red, may typify a blending of more
+human qualities!
+
+[Illustration: HEBREW RING]
+
+In an old will of 1529, a ring was left as a bequest to a relative,
+described as "a table diamond set with black aniell, meate for my
+little finger."
+
+The accompanying illustration represents a Hebrew ring, surmounted
+by a little mosque, and having the inscription "Mazul Toub" (God
+be with you, or Good luck to you).
+
+It was the custom in Elizabethan times to wear "posie rings" (or
+poesie rings) in which inscriptions were cut, such as, "Let likinge
+Laste," "Remember the ? that is in pain," or, "God saw fit this
+knot to knit," and the like. These posie rings are so called
+because of the little poetical sentiments associated with them.
+They were often used as engagement rings, and sometimes as wedding
+rings. In an old Saxon ring is the inscription, "Eanred made me and
+Ethred owns me." One of the mottoes in an old ring is pathetic;
+evidently it was worn by an invalid, who was trying to be patient,
+"Quant Dieu Plera melior sera." (When it shall please God, I shall
+be better.) And in a small ring set with a tiny diamond, "This
+sparke shall grow." An agreeable and favourite "posie" was
+
+   "The love is true
+    That I O U."
+
+A motto in a ring owned by Lady Cathcart was inscribed on the occasion
+of her fourth marriage; with laudable ambition, she observes,
+
+   "If I survive,
+    I will have five."
+
+It is to these "posie rings" that Shakespeare has reference when
+he makes Jaques say to Orlando: "You are full of pretty answers:
+have you not been acquainted with goldsmiths' wives, and conned
+them out of rings?"
+
+In the Isle of Man there was once a law that any girl who had been
+wronged by a man had the right to redress herself in one of three
+ways: she was given a sword, a rope and a ring, and she could decide
+whether she would behead him, hang him, or marry him. Tradition
+states that the ring was almost invariably the weapon chosen by
+the lady.
+
+Superstition has ordained that certain stones should cure certain
+evils: the blood-stone was of very general efficacy, it was claimed,
+and the opal, when folded in a bay leaf, had the power of rendering
+the owner invisible. Some stones, especially the turquoise, turned
+pale or became deeper in hue according to the state of the owner's
+health; the owner of a diamond was invincible; the possession of an
+agate made a man amiable, and eloquent. Whoever wore an amethyst
+was proof against intoxication, while a jacynth superinduced sleep
+in cases of insomnia. Bed linen was often embroidered, and set with
+bits of jacynth, and there is even a record of diamonds having
+been used in the decoration of sheets! Another entertaining instance
+of credulity was the use of "cramp rings." These were rings blessed
+by the queen, and supposed to cure all manner of cramps, just as the
+king's touch was supposed to cure scrofula. When a queen died, the
+demand for these rings became a panic: no more could be produced,
+until a new queen was crowned. After the beheading of Anne Boleyn,
+Husee writes to his patroness: "Your ladyship shall receive of this
+bearer nine cramp rings of silver. John Williams says he never
+had so few of gold as this year!"
+
+A stone engraved with the figure of a hare was believed to be valuable
+in exorcising the devil. That of a dog preserved the owner from
+"dropsy or pestilence;" a versatile ring indeed! An old French book
+speaks of an engraved stone with the image of Pegasus being particularly
+healthful for warriors; it was said to give them "boldness and swiftness
+in flight." These two virtues sound a trifle incompatible!
+
+The turquoise was supposed to be especially sympathetic. According
+to Dr. Donne:
+
+   "A compassionate turquoise, that cloth tell
+    By looking pale, the owner is not well,"
+
+must have been a very sensitive stone.
+
+There was a physician in the fourth century who was famous for his
+cures of colic and biliousness by means of an iron ring engraved
+with an exorcism requesting the bile to go and take possession of
+a bird! There was also a superstition that fits could be cured
+by a ring made of "sacrament money." The sufferer was obliged to
+stand at the church door, begging a penny from every unmarried
+man who passed in or out; this was given to a silversmith, who
+exchanged it at the cathedral for "sacrament money," out of which
+he made a ring. If this ring was worn by the afflicted person,
+the seizures were said to cease.
+
+The superstition concerning the jewel in the toad's head was a
+strangely persistent one: it is difficult to imagine what real
+foundation there could ever have been for the idea. An old writer
+gives directions for getting this stone, which the toad in his life
+time seems to have guarded most carefully. "A rare good way to get
+the stone out of a toad," he says, "is to put a... toad... into
+an earthen pot: put the same into an ant's hillocke, and cover
+the same with earth, which toad... the ants will eat, so that the
+bones... and stone will be left in the pot." Boethius once stayed
+up all night watching a toad in the hope that it might relinquish
+its treasure; but he complained that nothing resulted "to gratify
+the great pangs of his whole night's restlessness."
+
+An old Irish legend says that "the stone Adamant in the land of
+India grows no colder in any wind or snow or ice; there is no heat
+in it under burning sods" (this is such an Hibernian touch! The
+peat fuel was the Celtic idea of a heating system), "nothing is
+broken from it by striking of axes and hammers; there is one thing
+only breaks that stone, the blood of the Lamb at the Mass; and
+every king that has taken that stone in his right hand before going
+into battle, has always gained the victory." There is also a
+superstition regarding the stone Hibien, which is said to flame
+like a fiery candle in the darkness, "it spills out poison before
+it in a vessel; every snake that comes near to it or crosses it
+dies on the moment." Another stone revered in Irish legend is the
+Stone of Istien, which is found "in the brains of dragons after
+their deaths," and a still more capable jewel seems to be the Stone
+of Fanes, within which it is claimed that the sun, moon, and twelve
+stars are to be seen. "In the hearts of the dragons it is always
+found that make their journey under the sea. No one having it in
+his hand can tell any lie until he has put it from him; no race or
+army could bring it into a house where there is one that has made
+way with his father. At the hour of matins it gives out sweet music
+that there is not the like of under heaven."
+
+Bartholomew, the mediæval scientist, tells narratives of the magical
+action of the sapphire. "The sapphire is a precious stone," he
+says, "and is blue in colour, most like to heaven in fair weather
+and clear, and is best among precious stones, and most apt and able
+to fingers of kings. And if thou put an addercop in a box, and
+hold a very sapphire of India at the mouth of the box any while,
+by virtue thereof the addercop is overcome and dieth, as it were
+suddenly. And this same I have seen proved oft in many and divers
+places." Possibly the fact that the addercop is so infrequent an
+invader of our modern life accounts for the fact that we are left
+inert upon reading so surprising a statement; or possibly our
+incredulity dominates our awe.
+
+The art of the lapidary, or science of glyptics, is a most interesting
+study, and it would be a mistake not to consider it for a few moments
+on its technical side. It is very ancient as an art. In Ecclesiasticus
+the wise Son of Sirach alludes to craftsmen "that cut and grave
+seals, and are diligent to make great variety, and give themselves
+to counterfeit imagery, and watch to finish a work."
+
+Theophilus on glyptics is too delightfully naïve for us to resist
+quoting his remarks. "Crystal," he announces, "which is water hardened
+into ice, and the ice of great age hardened into stone, is trimmed
+and polished in this manner." He then directs the use of sandstone
+and emery, chiefly used by rubbing, as one might infer, to polish the
+stones, probably _en cabochon_ as was the method in his time; this
+style of finish on a gem was called "tallow cutting." But when one
+wishes to sculp crystal, Theophilus informs one: "Take a goat of two
+or three years... make an opening between his breast and stomach, in
+the position of the heart, and lay in the crystal, so that it may lie
+in its blood until it grow warm... cut what you please in it as long
+as the heat lasts." Just how many goats were required to the finishing
+of a sculptured crystal would be determined by the elaboration of
+the design! Unfortunately Animal Rescue Leagues had not invaded
+the monasteries of the eleventh century.
+
+In sculpturing glass, the ingenuous Theophilus is quite at his best.
+"Artists!" he exclaims, "who wish to engrave glass in a beautiful
+manner, I now can teach you, as I have myself made trial. I have
+sought the gross worms which the plough turns up in the ground,
+and the art necessary in these things also bid me procure vinegar,
+and the warm blood of a lusty goat, which I was careful to place
+under the roof for a short time, bound with a strong ivy plant.
+After this I infused the worms and vinegar with the warm blood and
+I anointed the whole clearly shining vessel; which being done, I
+essayed to sculp the glass with the hard stone called the Pyrites."
+What a pity good Theophilus had not begun with the pyrites, when
+he would probably have made the further discovery that his worms
+and goats could have been spared.
+
+In the polishing of precious stones, he is quite sane in his directions.
+"Procure a marble slab, very smooth," he enjoins, "and act as useful
+art points out to you." In other words, rub it until it is smooth!
+
+Bartholomew Anglicus is as entertaining as Theophilus regarding
+crystal. "Men trowe that it is of snow or ice made hard in many
+years," he observes complacently. "This stone set in the sun taketh
+fire, insomuch if dry tow be put thereto, it setteth the tow on
+fire," and again, quoting Gregory on Ezekiel I., he adds, "water
+is of itself fleeting, but by strength of cold it is turned and
+made stedfast crystal."
+
+Of small specimens of sculptured crystal some little dark purple
+beads carved into the semblance of human faces may be seen on the
+Tara brooch; while also on the same brooch occur little purple
+daisies.
+
+The Cup of the Ptolemies, a celebrated onyx cup in Paris, is over
+fifteen inches in circumference, and is a fine specimen of early
+lapidary's work. It was presented in the ninth century by Charles
+the Bald to St. Denis, and was always used to contain the consecrated
+wine when Queens of France were crowned. Henry II. once pawned
+it to a Jew when he was hard up, and in 1804 it was stolen and
+the old gold and jewelled setting removed. It was found again in
+Holland, and was remounted within a century.
+
+In the Treasury of St. Mark's in Venice are many valuable examples
+of carved stones, made into cups, flagons, and the like. These were
+brought from Constantinople in 1204, when the city was captured
+by the Venetians. Constantinople was the only place where glyptics
+were understood and practised upon large hard stones in the early
+Middle Ages. The Greek artists who took refuge in Italy at that time
+brought the art with them. There are thirty-two of these Byzantine
+chalices in St. Mark's. Usually the mountings are of gold, and precious
+stones. There are also two beautiful cruets of agate, elaborately
+ornamented, but carved in curious curving forms requiring skill
+of a superior order. Two other rock crystal cruets are superbly
+carved, probably by Oriental workmen, however, as they are not
+Byzantine in their decorations. One of them was originally a vase,
+and, indeed, is still, for the long gold neck has no connection
+with the inside; the handle is also of gold, both these adjuncts
+seem to have been regarded as simply ornament. The other cruet is
+carved elaborately with leopards, the first and taller one showing
+monsters and foliate forms. Around the neck of the lower of these
+rock crystal cruets is an inscription, praying for God's blessing
+on the "Imam Aziz Billah," who was reigning in Egypt in 980. This
+cruet has a gold stand. The handle is cleverly cut in the same
+piece of crystal, but a band of gold is carried down it to give it
+extra strength. The forming of this handle in connection with the
+rest of the work is a veritable _tour de force_, and we should have
+grave doubts whether Theophilus with his goats could have managed
+it!
+
+[Illustration: CRYSTAL FLAGONS, ST. MARK'S, VENICE]
+
+Vasari speaks with characteristic enthusiasm of the glyptics of
+the Greeks, "whose works in that manner may be called divine."
+But, as he continues, "many and very many years passed over during
+which the art was lost".... until in the days of Lorenzo di Medici
+the fashion for cameos and intaglios revived.
+
+In the Guild of the Masters of Wood and Stone in Florence, the
+cameo-cutters found a place, nevertheless it seems fitting to include
+them at this point among jewellers, instead of among carvers.
+
+The Italians certainly succeeded in performing feats of lapidary
+art at a later period. Vasari mentions two cups ordered by Duke
+Cosmo, one cut out of a piece of lapis lazuli, and the other from
+an enormous heliotrope, and a crystal galley with gold rigging
+was made by the Sanachi brothers. In the Green Vaults in Dresden
+may be seen numerous specimens of valuable but hideous products
+of this class. In the seventeenth century, the art had run its
+course, and gave place to a taste for cameos, which in its turn
+was run into the ground.
+
+Cameo-cutting and gem engraving has always been accomplished partly
+by means of a drill; the deepest point to be reached in the cutting
+would be punctured first, and then the surfaces cut, chipped, and
+ground away until the desired level was attained. This is on much
+the same principle as that adopted by marble cutters to-day.
+
+Mr. Cyril Davenport's definition of a cameo is quite satisfactory:
+"A small sculpture executed in low relief upon some substance precious
+either for its beauty, rarity, or hardness." Cameos are usually
+cut in onyx, the different layers and stratifications of colour
+being cut away at different depths, so that the sculpture appears
+to be rendered in one colour on another, and sometimes three or
+four layers are recognized, so that a shaded effect is obtained.
+Certain pearly shells are sometimes used for cameo cutting; these
+were popular in Italy in the fifteenth century. In Greece and Rome
+the art of cameo cutting was brought to astonishing perfection, the
+sardonyx being frequently used, and often cut in five different
+coloured layers. An enormous antique cameo, measuring over nine
+inches across, may be seen in Vienna; it represents the Apotheosis
+of Augustus, and the scene is cut in two rows of spirited figures.
+It dates from the first century A. D. It is in dark brown and white.
+
+Among the treasures of the art-loving Henry III. was a "great cameo,"
+in a golden case; it was worth two hundred pounds. This cameo was
+supposed to compete with a celebrated work at Ste. Chapelle in Paris,
+which had been brought by Emperor Baldwin II. from Constantinople.
+
+[Illustration: SARDONYX CUP, 11TH CENTURY, VENICE]
+
+In Paris was a flourishing guild, the "Lapidaries, Jewel Cutters,
+and Engravers of Cameos and Hard Stones," in the thirteenth century;
+glass cutters were included in this body for a time, but after 1584
+the revised laws did not permit of any imitative work, so glass
+cutters were no longer allowed to join the society. The French work
+was rather coarse compared with the classic examples.
+
+The celebrated Portland Vase is a glass cameo, of enormous proportions,
+and a work of the first century, in blue and white. There is a
+quaint legend connected with the famous stone cameo known as the
+Vase of St. Martin, which is as follows: when St. Martin visited
+the Martyr's Field at Agaune, he prayed for some time, and then
+stuck his knife into the ground, and was excusably astonished at
+seeing blood flow forth. Recognizing at once that he was in the
+presence of the miraculous (which was almost second nature to mediæval
+saints), he began sedulously to collect the precious fluid in a
+couple of receptacles with which he had had the foresight to provide
+himself. The two vases, however, were soon filled, and yet the
+mystical ruby spring continued. At his wit's ends, he prayed again
+for guidance, and presently an angel descended, with a vase of
+fine cameo workmanship, in which the remainder of the sacred fluid
+was preserved. This vase is an onyx, beautifully cut, with fine
+figures, and is over eight inches high, mounted at foot and collar
+with Byzantine gold and jewelled work. The subject appears to be
+an episode during the Siege of Troy,--a whimsical selection of
+design for an angel.
+
+Some apparently mediæval cameos are in reality antiques recut with
+Christian characters. A Hercules could easily be turned into a
+David, while Perseus and Medusa could be transformed quickly into
+a David and Goliath. There are two examples of cameos of the Virgin
+which had commenced their careers, one as a Leda, and the other as
+Venus! While a St. John had originally figured as Jupiter with his
+eagle!
+
+In the Renaissance there was great revival of all branches of gem
+cutting, and cameos began to improve, and to resemble once more
+their classical ancestors. Indeed, their resemblance was rather
+academic, and there was little originality in design. Like most of
+the Renaissance arts, it was a reversion instead of a new creation.
+Technically, however, the work was a triumph. The craftsmen were
+not satisfied until they had quite outdone the ancients, and they
+felt obliged to increase the depth of the cutting, in order to show
+how cleverly they could coerce the material; they even under-cut
+in some cases. During the Medicean period of Italian art, cameos
+were cut in most fantastic forms; sometimes a negro head would
+be introduced simply to exhibit a dark stratum in the onyx, and
+was quite without beauty. One of the Florentine lapidaries was
+known as Giovanni of the Carnelians, and another as Domenico of
+the Cameos. This latter carved a portrait of Ludovico il Moro on
+a red balas ruby, in intaglio. Nicolo Avanzi is reported as having
+carved a lapis lazuli "three fingers broad" into the scene of the
+Nativity. Matteo dal Nassaro, a son of a shoemaker in Verona, developed
+extraordinary talent in gem cutting.
+
+An exotic production is a crucifix cut in a blood-stone by Matteo
+del Nassaro, where the artist has so utilized the possibilities of
+this stone that he has made the red patches to come in suitable
+places to portray drops of blood. Matteo worked also in Paris, in
+1531, where he formed a school and craft shop, and where he was
+afterwards made Engraver of the Mint.
+
+Vasari tells of an ingenious piece of work by Matteo, where he
+has carved a chalcedony into a head of Dejanira, with the skin of
+the lion about it. He says, "In the stone there was a vein of red
+colour, and here the artist has made the skin turn over... and he
+has represented this skin with such exactitude that the spectator
+imagines himself to behold it newly torn from the animal! Of another
+mark he has availed himself, for the hair, and the white parts
+he has taken for the face and breast." Matteo was an independent
+spirit: when a baron once tried to beat him down in his price for a
+gem, he refused to take a small sum for it, but asked the baron to
+accept it as a gift. When this offer was refused, and the nobleman
+insisted upon giving a low price, Matteo deliberately took his
+hammer and shattered the cameo into pieces at a single blow. His
+must have been an unhappy life. Vasari says that he "took a wife in
+France and became the father of children, but they were so entirely
+dissimilar to himself, that he had but little satisfaction from
+them."
+
+Another famous lapidary was Valerio Vicentino, who carved a set
+of crystals which were made into a casket for Pope Clement VII.,
+while for Paul III. he made a carved crystal cross and chandelier.
+
+Vasari reserves his highest commendation for Casati, called "el
+Greco," "by whom every other artist is surpassed in the grace and
+perfection as well as in the universality of his productions."...
+"Nay, Michelangelo himself, looking at them one day while Giovanni
+Vasari was present, remarked that the hour for the death of the
+art had arrived, for it was not possible that better work could
+be seen!" Michelangelo proved a prophet, in this case surely, for
+the decadence followed swiftly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ENAMEL
+
+"Oh, thou discreetest of readers," says Benvenuto Cellini, "marvel
+not that I have given so much time to writing about all this," and
+we feel like making the same apology for devoting a whole chapter
+to enamel; but this branch of the goldsmith's art has so many
+subdivisions, that it cries for space.
+
+The word Enamel is derived from various sources. The Greek language
+has contributed "maltha," to melt; the German "schmeltz," the old
+French "esmail," and the Italian "smalta," all meaning about the
+same thing, and suggesting the one quality which is inseparable
+from enamel of all nations and of all ages,--its fusibility. For
+it is always employed in a fluid state, and always must be.
+
+Enamel is a type of glass product reduced to powder, and then melted
+by fervent heat into a liquid condition, which, when it has hardened,
+returns to its vitreous state.
+
+Enamel has been used from very early times. The first allusion to
+it is by Philostratus, in the year 200 A. D., where he described
+the process as applied to the armour of his day. "The barbarians
+of the regions of the ocean," he writes, "are skilled in fusing
+colours on heated brass, which become as hard as stone, and render
+the ornament thus produced durable."
+
+Enamels have special characteristics in different periods: in the late
+tenth century, of Byzantium and Germany; in the eleventh century, of
+Italy; while most of the later work owes its leading characteristics
+to the French, although it continued to be produced in the other
+countries.
+
+It helps one to understand the differences and similarities in
+enamelled work, to observe the three general forms in which it is
+employed; these are, the cloisonné, the champlevé, and the painted
+enamel. There are many subdivisions of these classifications, but
+for our purpose these three will suffice.
+
+In cloisonné, the only manner known to the Greek, Anglo-Saxon, and
+Celtic craftsmen, the pattern is made upon a gold ground, by little
+upright wire lines, like filigree, the enamel is fused into all the
+little compartments thus formed, each bit being one clear colour,
+on the principle of a mosaic. The colours were always rather clear
+and crude, but are the more sincere and decorative on this account,
+the worker recognizing frankly the limitation of the material; and
+the gold outline harmonizes the whole, as it does in any form of
+art work. A cloisonné enamel is practically a mosaic, in which the
+separations consist of narrow bands of metal instead of plaster.
+The enamel was applied in its powdered state on the gold, and then
+fused all together in the furnace.
+
+[Illustration: GERMAN ENAMEL, 13TH CENTURY]
+
+Champlevé enamel has somewhat the same effect as the cloisonné,
+but the end is attained by different means. The outline is left in
+metal, and the whole background is cut away and sunk, thus making
+the hollow chambers for the vitreous paste, in one piece, instead of
+by means of wires. Often it is not easy to determine which method
+has been employed to produce a given work.
+
+Painted enamels were not employed in the earliest times, but came
+to perfection in the Renaissance. A translucent enamel prevailed
+especially in Italy: a low relief was made with the graver on gold
+or silver; fine raised lines were left here and there, to separate
+the colours. Therefore, where the cutting was deepest, the enamel
+ran thicker, and consequently darker in colour, giving the effect of
+shading, while in reality only one tint had been used. The powdered
+and moistened enamel was spread evenly with a spatula over the
+whole surface, and allowed to stand in the kiln until it liquefied.
+Another form of enamel was used to colour gold work in relief,
+with a permanent coating of transparent colour. Sometimes this
+colour was applied in several coats, one upon another, and the
+features painted with a later touch. Much enamelled jewelry was
+made in this way, figures, dragons, and animal forms, being among
+the most familiar. But an actual enamel painting--on the principle
+of a picture, was rendered in still another way. In preparing the
+ground for enamel painting, there are two things which have been
+essentially considered in all times and countries. The enamel ground
+must be more fusible than the metal on which it is placed, or else
+both would melt together. Also the enamel with which the final
+decoration is executed must be more easily made fluid than the harder
+enamel on which it is laid. In fact, each coat must of necessity
+be a trifle more fusible than the preceding one. A very accurate
+knowledge is necessary to execute such a work, as will be readily
+understood.
+
+[Illustration: ENAMELLED GOLD BOOK COVER, SIENA]
+
+In examining historic examples of enamel, the curious oval set
+in gold, known as the Alfred Jewel, is among the first which come
+within our province. It was found in Somersetshire, and probably
+dates from about the year 878. It consists of an enamelled figure
+covered by a thick crystal, set in filigree, around the edge of
+which runs the inscription, "AELFRED MEC REHT GAVUR CAN" (Alfred
+ordered me to be wrought). King Alfred was a great patron of the
+arts. Of such Anglo-Saxon work, an ancient poem in the Exeter Book
+testifies:
+
+  "For one a wondrous skill
+   in goldsmith's art is provided
+   Full oft he decorates and well adorns
+   A powerful king's nobles."
+
+Celtic enamels are interesting, being usually set in the spaces
+among the rambling interlaces of this school of goldsmithing. The
+Cross of Cong is among the most famous specimens of this work,
+and also the bosses on the Ardagh Chalice.
+
+The monk Theophilus describes the process of enamelling in a graphic
+manner. He directs his workmen to "adapt their pieces of gold in all
+the settings in which the glass gems are to be placed" (by which we
+see that he teaches the cloisonné method). "Cut small bands of
+exceedingly thin gold," he continues, "in which you will bend and
+fashion whatever work you wish to make in enamel, whether circles,
+knots, or small flowers, or birds, or animals, or figures." He then
+admonishes one to solder it with greatest care, two or three times,
+until all the pieces adhere firmly to the plate. To prepare the
+powdered glass, Theophilus advises placing a piece of glass in the
+fire, and, when it has become glowing, "throw it into a copper vessel
+in which there is water, and it instantly flies into small fragments
+which you break with a round pestle until quite fine. The next step
+is to put the powder in its destined cloison, and to place the whole
+jewel upon a thin piece of iron, over which fits a cover to protect
+the enamel from the coals, and put it in the most intensely hot part
+of the fire." Theophilus recommends that this little iron cover be
+"perforated finely all over so that the holes may be inside flat and
+wide, and outside finer and rough, in order to stop the cinders if by
+chance they should fall upon it." This process of firing may have
+to be repeated several times, until the enamel fills every space
+evenly. Then follows the tedious task of burnishing; setting the
+jewel in a strong bit of wax, you are told to rub it on a "smooth
+hard bone," until it is polished well and evenly.
+
+Benvenuto Cellini recommends a little paper sponge
+to be used in smoothing the face of enamels. "Take a clean nice piece
+of paper," he writes, "and chew it well between your teeth,--that
+is, if you have got any--I could not do it, because I've none left!"
+
+A celebrated piece of goldsmith's work of the tenth century is
+the Pala d'Oro at St. Mark's in Venice. This is a gold altar piece
+or reredos, about eleven feet long and seven feet high, richly
+wrought in the Byzantine style, and set with enamels and precious
+stones. The peculiar quality of the surface of the gold still lingers
+in the memory; it looks almost liquid, and suggests the appearance
+of metal in a fluid state. On its wonderful divisions and arched
+compartments are no less than twelve hundred pearls, and twelve
+hundred other precious gems. These stones surround the openings
+in which are placed the very beautiful enamel figures of saints
+and sacred personages. St. Michael occupies a prominent position;
+the figure is partly in relief. The largest medallion contains
+the figure of Christ in glory, and in other compartments may be
+seen even such secular personages as the Empress Irene, and the
+Doge who was ruling Venice at the time this altar piece was put
+in place--the year 1106. The Pala d'Oro is worked in the champlevé
+process, the ground having been cut away to receive the melted
+enamel. It is undoubtedly a Byzantine work; the Doge Orseolo, in
+976, ordered it to be made by the enamellers of Constantinople.
+It was not finished for nearly two centuries, arriving in Venice
+in 1102, when the portrait of the Doge then reigning was added
+to it. The Byzantine range of colours was copious; they had white,
+two reds, bright and dark, dark and light blue, green, violet,
+yellow, flesh tint, and black. These tints were always fused
+separately, one in each cloison: the Greeks in this period never
+tried to blend colours, and more than one tint never appears in
+a compartment. The enlarging and improving of the Pam d'Oro was
+carried on by Greek artists in Venice in 1105. It was twice
+altered after that, once in the fourteenth century for Dandolo,
+and thus the pure Byzantine type is somewhat invaded by the Gothic
+spirit. The restorations in 1345 were presided over by Gianmaria
+Boninsegna.
+
+One of the most noted specimens of enamel work is on the Crown of
+Charlemagne,[1] which is a magnificent structure of eight plaques
+of gold, joined by hinges, and surmounted by a cross in the front,
+and an arch crossing the whole like a rib from back to front. The
+other cross rib has been lost, but originally the crown was arched
+by two ribs at the top. The plates of gold are ornamented, one
+with jewels, and filigree, and the next with a large figure in
+enamel. These figures are similar to those occurring on the Pala
+d'Oro.
+
+[Footnote 1: See Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL; SHRINE OF THE THREE KINGS, COLOGNE]
+
+The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne is decorated both with
+cloisonné and champlevé enamels,--an unusual circumstance. In Aix
+la Chapelle the shrine of Charlemagne is extremely like it in some
+respects, but the only enamels are in champlevé. Good examples
+of translucent enamels in relief may be seen on several of the
+reliquaries at Aix la Chapelle.
+
+Theophilus gives us directions for making a very ornate chalice
+with handles, richly embossed and ornamented with mello. Another
+paragraph instructs us how to make a golden chalice decorated with
+precious stones and pearls. It would be interesting as a modern
+problem, to follow minutely his directions, and to build the actual
+chalice described in the eleventh century. To apply the gems and
+pearls Theophilus directs us to "cut pieces like straps," which
+you "bend together to make small settings of them, by which the
+stones may be enclosed." These little settings, with their stones,
+are to be fixed with flour paste in their places and then warmed
+over the coals until they adhere. This sounds a little risky, but
+we fancy he must have succeeded, and, indeed, it seems to have been
+the usual way of setting stones in the early centuries. Filigree
+flowers are then to be added, and the whole soldered into place in
+a most primitive manner, banking the coals in the shape of a small
+furnace, so that the coals may lie thickly around the circumference,
+and when the solder "flows about as if undulating," the artist is
+to sprinkle it quickly with water, and take it out of the fire.
+
+Niello, with which the chalice of Theophilus is also to be enriched,
+stands in relation to the more beautiful art of enamel, as drawing
+does to painting, and it is well to consider it here. Both the
+Romans and the Anglo-Saxons understood its use. It has been employed
+as an art ever since the sixth and seventh centuries. The term
+"niello" probably is an abbreviation of the Italian word "nigellus"
+(black); the art is that of inlaying an engraved surface with a
+black paste, which is thoroughly durable and hard as the metal
+itself in most cases, the only difference being in flexibility;
+if the metal plate is bent, the niello will crack and flake off.
+
+[Illustration: FINIGUERRA'S PAX, FLORENCE]
+
+Niello is more than simply a drawing on metal. That would come
+under the head of engraving. A graver is used to cut out the design
+on the surface of the silver, which is simply a polished plane. When
+the drawing has been thus incised, a black enamel, made of lead,
+lamp black, and other substances, is filled into the interstices,
+and rubbed in; when quite dry and hard, this is polished. The result
+is a black enamel which is then fused into the silver, so that
+the whole is one surface, and the decoration becomes part of the
+original plate. The process as described by Theophilus is as follows:
+"Compose the niello in this manner; take pure silver and divide
+it into equal parts, adding to it a third part of pure copper,
+and taking yellow sulphur, break it very small... and when you
+have liquefied the silver with the copper, stir it evenly with
+charcoal, and instantly pour into it lead and sulphur." This niello
+paste is then made into a stick, and heated until "it glows: then
+with another forceps, long and thin, hold the niello and rub it
+all over the places which you wish to make black, until the drawing
+be full, and carrying it away from the fire, make it smooth with a
+flat file, until the silver appear." When Theophilus has finished
+his directions, he adds: "And take great care that no further work
+is required." To polish the niello, he directs us to "pumice it
+with a damp stone, until it is made everywhere bright."
+
+There are various accounts of how Finiguerra, who was a worker
+in niello in Florence, discovered by its means the art of steel
+engraving. It is probably only a legendary narrative, but it is
+always told as one of the apocryphal stories when the origin of
+printing is discussed, and may not be out of place here. Maso
+Finiguerra, a Florentine, had just engraved the plate for his famous
+niello, a Pax which is now to be seen in the Bargello, and had
+filled it in with the fluid enamel, which was standing waiting
+until it should be dry. Then, according to some authorities, a
+piece of paper blew upon the damp surface, on which, after carefully
+removing it, Maso found his design was impressed; others state that
+it was through the servant's laying a damp cloth upon it, that
+the principle of printing from an incised plate was suggested.
+At any rate, Finiguerra took the hint, it is said, and made an
+impression on paper, rolling it, as one would do with an etching
+or engraving.
+
+In the Silver Chamber in the Pitti Palace is a Pax, by Mantegna,
+made in the same way as that by Finiguerra, and bearing comparison
+with it. The engraving is most delicate, and it is difficult
+to imagine a better specimen of the art. The Madonna and Child,
+seated in an arbour, occupy the centre of the composition, which
+is framed with jewelled bands, the frame being divided into sixteen
+compartments, in each of which is seen a tiny and exquisite picture.
+The work on the arbour of roses in which the Virgin sits is of
+remarkable quality, as well as the small birds and animals
+introduced into the composition. In the background, St. Christopher
+is seen crossing the river with the Christ Child on his back, while
+in the water a fish and a swan are visible.
+
+In Valencia in Spain may be seen a chalice which has been supposed
+to be the very cup in which Our Saviour instituted the Communion.
+The cup itself is of sardonyx, and of fine form. The base is made
+of the same stone, and handles and bands are of gold, adorned with
+black enamel. Pearls, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds are set in
+profusion about the stem and base. It is a work of the epoch of
+Imperial Rome.
+
+In England, one of the most perfect specimens of fine, close work,
+is the Wilton Chalice, dating from the twelfth century. The Warwick
+Bowl, too, is of very delicate workmanship, and both are covered
+with minute scenes and figures. One of the most splendid treasures
+in this line is the crozier of William Wyckham, now in Oxford.
+It is strictly national in style.
+
+The agreement entered into between Henry VII., and Abbot Islip,
+for the building of the chapel of that king in Westminster, is
+extant. It is bound in velvet and bossed with enamels. It is an
+interesting fact that some of the enamels are in the Italian
+style, while others are evidently English.
+
+Limoges was the most famous centre of the art of enamelling in
+the twelfth century, the work being known as Opus de Limogia, or
+Labor Limogiae. Limoges was a Roman settlement, and enamels were
+made there as early as the time of Philostratus. Champlevé enamel,
+while it was not produced among the Greeks, nor even in Byzantine
+work, was almost invariable at Limoges in the earlier days: one
+can readily tell the difference between a Byzantine enamel and an
+early Limoges enamel by this test, when there is otherwise sufficient
+similarity of design to warrant the question.
+
+Some of the most beautiful enamels of Limoges were executed in what
+was called basse-taille, or transparent enamel on gold grounds, which
+had been first prepared in bas-relief. Champlevé enamel was often
+used on copper, for such things as pastoral staves, reliquaries, and
+larger bits of church furniture. The enamel used on copper is usually
+opaque, and somewhat coarser in texture than that employed on gold
+or silver. Owing to their additional toughness, these specimens
+are usually in perfect preservation. In 1327, Guillaume de Harie,
+in his will, bequeathed 800 francs to make two high tombs, to be
+covered with Limoges enamel, one for himself, and the other for
+"Blanche d'Avange, my dear companion."
+
+[Illustration: ITALIAN ENAMELLED CROZIER, 14TH CENTURY]
+
+An interesting form of cloisonné enamel was that known as "plique
+à jour," which consists of a filigree setting with the enamel
+in transparent bits, without any metallic background. It is
+still made in many parts of the world. When held to the light
+it resembles minute arrangements of stained glass. Francis I.
+showed Benvenuto Cellini a wonderful bowl of this description,
+and asked Cellini if he could possibly imagine how the result
+was attained. "Sacred Majesty," replied Benvenuto, "I can
+tell you exactly how it is done," and he proceeded to explain
+to the astonished courtiers how the bowl was constructed, bit by
+bit, inside a bowl of thin iron lined with clay. The wires were
+fastened in place with glue until the design was complete, and
+then the enamel was put in place, the whole being fused together at
+the soldering. The clay form to which all this temporarily adhered
+was then removed, and the work, transparent and ephemeral, was
+ready to stand alone.
+
+King John gave to the city of Lynn a magnificent cup of gold, enamelled,
+with figures of courtiers of the period, engaged in the sports of
+hawking and hare-hunting, and dressed in the costume of the king's
+reign. "King John gave to the Corporation a rich cup and cover,"
+says Mackarel, "weighing seventy-three ounces, which is preserved
+to this day and upon all public occasions and entertainments used
+with some uncommon ceremonies at drinking the health of the King
+or Queen, and whoever goes to visit the Mayor must drink out of
+this cup, which contains a full pint." The colours of the enamels
+which are used as flat values in backgrounds to the little silver
+figures, are dark rose, clear blue, and soft green. The dresses of
+the persons are also picked out in the same colours, varied from
+the grounds. This cup was drawn by John Carter in 1787, he having
+had much trouble in getting permission to study the original for
+that purpose! He took letters of introduction to the Corporation,
+but they appeared to suspect him of some imposture; at first they
+refused to entertain his proposal at all, but after several
+applications, he was allowed to have the original before him, in
+a closed room, in company with a person appointed by them but at
+his expense, to watch him and see that no harm came to the precious
+cup!
+
+The translucent enamels on relief were made a great deal by the
+Italian goldsmiths; Vasari alludes to this class of work as "a
+species of painting united with sculpture."
+
+As enamel came by degrees to be used as if it were paint, one of
+the chief charms of the art died. The limits of this art were its
+strength, and simple straight-forward use of the material was its
+best expression. The method of making a painted enamel was as follows.
+The design was laid out with a stilus on a copper plate. Then a
+flux of plain enamel was fused on to the surface, all over it. The
+drawing was then made again, on the same lines, in a dark medium,
+and the colours were laid flat inside the dark lines, accepting
+these lines as if they had been wires around cloisons. All painted
+enamels had to be enamelled on the back as well, to prevent warping
+in the furnace when the shrinkage took place. After each layer of
+colour the whole plate was fired. In the fifteenth century these
+enamels were popular and retained some semblance of respect for the
+limitation of material; later, greater facility led, as it does in
+most of the arts, to a decadence in taste, and florid pictures, with
+as many colours and shadows as would appear in an oil painting,
+resulted. Here and there, where special metallic brilliancy was
+desired, a leaf of gold was laid under the colour of some transparent
+enamel, giving a decorative lustre. These bits of brilliant metal
+were known as _paillons_.
+
+When Limoges had finally become the royal manufactory of enamels,
+under Francis I., the head of the works was Leonard Limousin, created
+"Valet de Chambre du Roi," to show his sovereign's appreciation.
+Remarkable examples of the work of Leonard Limousin, executed in
+1547, are the large figures of the Apostles to be seen in the church
+of St. Pierre, at Chartres, where they are ranged about the apsidal
+chapel. They are painted enamels on copper sheets twenty-four by
+eleven inches, and are in a wonderful state of preservation. They
+were the gift of Henri II. to Diàne de Poictiers and were brought
+to Chartres from the Chateau d'Anet. These enamels, being on a
+white ground, have something the effect of paintings in Faience;
+the colouring is delicate, and they have occasional gold touches.
+
+A treatise by William of Essex directs the artist how to prepare
+a plate for a painted enamel, such as were used in miniature work.
+He says "To make a plate for the artist to paint upon: a piece of
+gold or copper being chosen, of requisite dimensions, and varying
+from about 1/18 to 1/16 of an inch in thickness, is covered with
+pulverized enamel, and passed through the fire, until it becomes
+of a white heat; another coating of enamel is then added, and the
+plate again fired; afterwards a thin layer of a substance called
+flux is laid upon the surface of the enamel, and the plate
+undergoes the action of heat for a third time. It is now ready for
+the painter to commence his picture upon."
+
+Leonard Limousin painted from 1532 until 1574. He used the process
+as described by William of Essex (which afterwards became very
+popular for miniaturists), and also composed veritable pictures
+of his own design. It is out of our province to trace the history
+of the Limoges enamellers after this period.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+OTHER METALS
+
+The "perils that environ men that meddle with cold iron" are many;
+but those who attempt to control hot iron are also to be respected,
+when they achieve an artistic result with this unsympathetic metal,
+which by nature is entirely lacking in charm, in colour and texture,
+and depends more upon a proper application of design than any other,
+in order to overcome the obstacles to beauty with which it is beset.
+
+"Rust hath corrupted," unfortunately, many interesting antiquities
+in iron, so that only a limited number of specimens of this metal
+have come down to us from very early times; one of the earliest
+in England is a grave-stone of cast metal, of the date 1350: it
+is decorated with a cross, and has the epitaph, "Pray for the soul
+of Joan Collins."
+
+The process of casting iron was as follows. The moulds were made
+of a sandy substance, composed of a mixture of brick dust, loam,
+plaster, and charcoal. A bed of this sand was made, and into it
+was pressed a wooden or metal pattern. When this was removed, the
+imprint remained in the sand. Liquid metal was run into the mould
+so formed, and would cool into the desired shape. As with a
+plaster cast, it was necessary to employ two such beds, the sand
+being firmly held in boxes, if the object was to be rounded, and
+then the two halves thus made were put together. Flat objects,
+such as fire-backs, could be run into a single mould.
+
+Bartholomew, in his book "On the Properties of Things," makes certain
+statements about iron which are interesting: "Though iron cometh of
+the earth, yet it is most hard and sad, and therefore with beating
+and smiting it suppresseth and dilateth all other metal, and maketh
+it stretch on length and on breadth." This is the key-note to the
+work of a blacksmith: it is what he has done from the first, and
+is still doing.
+
+In Spain there have been iron mines ever since the days when Pliny
+wrote and alluded to them, but there are few samples in that country
+to lead us to regard it as æsthetic in its purpose until the fifteenth
+century.
+
+For tempering iron instruments, there are recipes given by the
+monk Theophilus, but they are unfortunately quite unquotable, being
+treated with mediæval frankness of expression.
+
+St. Dunstan was the patron of goldsmiths and blacksmiths. He was
+born in 925, and lived in Glastonbury, where he became a monk rather
+early in life. He not only worked in metal, but was a good musician
+and a great scholar, in fact a genuine rounded man of culture. He
+built an organ, no doubt something like the one which Theophilus
+describes, which, Bede tells us, being fitted with "brass pipes,
+filled with air from the bellows, uttered a grand and most sweet
+melody." Dunstan was a favourite at court, in the reign of King
+Edmund. Enemies were plentiful, however, and they spread the report
+that Dunstan evoked demoniac aid in his almost magical work in its
+many departments. It was said that occasionally the evil spirits
+were too aggravating, and that in such cases Dunstan would stand
+no nonsense. There is an old verse:
+
+  "St. Dunstan, so the story goes,
+   Once pulled the devil by the nose,
+   With red hot tongs, which made him roar
+   That he was heard three miles or more!"
+
+The same story is told of St. Eloi, and probably of most of the
+mediæval artistic spirits who were unfortunate enough to be human
+in their temperaments and at the same time pious and struggling. He
+was greatly troubled by visitations such as persecuted St. Anthony.
+On one occasion, it is related that he was busy at his forge when
+this fiend was unusually persistent: St. Dunstan turned upon the
+demon, and grasped its nose in the hot pincers, which proved a most
+successful exorcism. In old portraits, St. Dunstan is represented
+in full ecclesiastical habit, holding the iron pincers as symbols
+of his prowess.
+
+He became Archbishop of Canterbury after having held the Sees of
+Worcester and London. He journeyed to Rome, and received the pallium
+of Primate of the Anglo-Saxons, from Pope John XII. Dunstan was a
+righteous statesman, twice reproving the king for evil deeds, and
+placing his Royal Highness under the ban of the Church for immoral
+conduct! St. Dunstan died in 988.
+
+[Illustration: WROUGHT IRON HINGE, FRANKFORT]
+
+Wrought iron has been in use for many centuries for hinges and
+other decorations on doors; a necessity to every building in a
+town from earliest times. The word "hinge" comes from the Saxon,
+_hengen_, to hang. Primitive hinges were sometimes sockets cut
+in stone, as at Torcello; but soon this was proved a clumsy and
+inconvenient method of hanging a door, and hinges more simple in
+one way, and yet more ornate, came into fashion. Iron hinges were
+found most useful when they extended for some distance on to the
+door; this strengthened the door against the invasion of pirates,
+when the church was the natural citadel of refuge for the inhabitants
+of a town, and also held it firmly from warping. At first single
+straps of iron were clamped on: then the natural craving for beauty
+prevailed, and the hinges developed, flowering out into scrolls and
+leaves, and spreading all over the doors, as one sees them constantly
+in mediæval examples. The general scheme usually followed was a
+straight strap of iron flanked by two curving horns like a crescent,
+and this motive was elaborated until a positive lace of iron, often
+engraved or moulded, covered the surface of the door, as in the
+wonderful work of Biscornette at Notre Dame in Paris.
+
+Biscornette was a very mysterious worker, and no one ever saw him
+constructing the hinges. Reports went round that the devil was helping
+him, that he had sold his soul to the King of Darkness in order to
+enlist his assistance in his work; an instance of æsthetic altruism
+almost commendable in its exotic zeal. Certain jealous artificers
+even went so far as to break off bits of the meandering iron, to
+test it, but with no result; they could not decide whether it was
+cast or wrought. Later a legend grew up explaining the reason why
+the central door was not as ornate as the side doors: the story was
+that the devil was unable to assist Biscornette on this door because
+it was the aperture through which the Host passed in processions. It
+is more likely, however, that the doors were originally uniform,
+and that the iron was subsequently removed for some other reason.
+The design is supposed to represent the Earthly Paradise. Sauval
+says: "The sculptured birds and ornaments are marvellous. They are
+made of wrought iron, the invention of Biscornette and which died
+with him. He worked the iron with an almost incredible industry,
+rendering it flexible and tractable, and gave it all the forms
+and scrolls he wished, with a 'douceur et une gentillesse' which
+surprised and astonished all the smiths." The iron master Gaegart
+broke off fragments of the iron, and no member of the craft has
+ever been able to state with certainty just how the work was
+accomplished. Some think that it is cast, and then treated with
+the file; others say that it must have been executed by casting
+entire, with no soldering. In any case, the secret will never be
+divulged, for no one was in the confidence of Biscornette.
+
+Norman blacksmiths and workers in wrought iron were more plentiful
+than goldsmiths. They had, in those warlike times, more call for
+arms and the massive products of the forge than for gaudy jewels and
+table appointments. One of the doors of St. Alban's Abbey displays the
+skill of Norman smiths dealing with this stalwart form of ornament.
+
+Among special artists in iron whose names have survived is that
+of Jehan Tonquin, in 1388. Earlier than that, a cutler, Thomas
+de Fieuvillier, is mentioned, as having flourished about 1330.
+
+[Illustration: BISCORNETTE'S DOORS AT PARIS]
+
+Elaborate iron work is rare in Germany; the Germans always excelled
+rather in bronze than in the sterner metal. At St. Ursula's in
+Cologne there are iron floriated hinges, but the design and idea
+are French, and not native.
+
+One may usually recognize a difference between French and English
+wrought iron, for the French is often in detached pieces, not an
+outgrowth of the actual hinge itself, and when this is found in
+England, it indicates French work.
+
+Ornaments in iron were sometimes cut out of flat sheet metal, and
+then hammered into form. In stamping this flat work with embossed
+effect, the smith had to work while the iron was hot,--as Sancho
+Panza expressed it, "Praying to God and hammering away." Dies were
+made, after a time, into which the design could be beaten with
+less effort than in the original method.
+
+One of the quaintest of iron doors is at Krems, where the gate is
+made up of square sheets of iron, cut into rude pierced designs,
+giving scenes from the New Testament, and hammered up so as to be
+slightly embossed.
+
+The Guild of Blacksmiths in Florence flourished as early as the
+thirteenth century. It covered workers in many metals, copper,
+iron, brass, and pewter included. Among the rules of the Guild
+was one permitting members to work for ready money only. They were
+not allowed to advertise by street crying, and were fined if they
+did so. The Arms of the Guild was a pair of furnace tongs upon a
+white field. Among the products of the forge most in demand were
+the iron window-gratings so invariable on all houses, and called
+by Michelangelo "kneeling windows," on account of the bulging shape
+of the lower parts.
+
+One famous iron worker carried out the law of the Guild both in
+spirit and letter to the extent of insisting upon payment in advance!
+This was Nicolo Grosso, who worked about 1499. Vasari calls him
+the "money grabber." His specialty was to make the beautiful torch
+holders and lanterns such as one sees on the Strozzi Palace and
+in the Bargello.
+
+In England there were Guilds of Blacksmiths; in Middlesex one was
+started in 1434, and members were known as "in the worship of St.
+Eloi." Members were alluded to as "Brethren and Sisteren,"--this
+term would fill a much felt vacancy! Some of the Guilds exacted
+fines from all members who did not pay a proper proportion of their
+earnings to the Church.
+
+Another general use of iron for artistic purposes was in the manufacture
+of grilles. Grilles were used in France and England in cathedrals.
+The earliest Christian grille is a pierced bronze screen in the
+Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem.
+
+In Hildesheim is an original form of grille; the leaves and rosettes
+in the design are pierced, instead of being beaten up into bosses.
+This probably came from the fact that the German smith did not
+understand the Frankish drawing, and supposed that the shaded portions
+of the work were intended to be open work. The result, however,
+is most happy, and a new feature was thus introduced into grille
+work.
+
+[Illustration: WROUGHT IRON FROM THE BARGELLO, FLORENCE]
+
+Many grilles were formed by the smith's taking an iron bar and,
+under the intense heat, splitting it into various branches, each
+of which should be twisted in a different way. Another method was
+to use the single slighter bar for the foundation of the design,
+and welding on other volutes of similar thickness to make the scroll
+work associated with wrought iron.
+
+Some of the smiths who worked at Westminster Abbey are known by
+name; Master Henry Lewis, in 1259, made the iron work for the tomb
+of Henry III. A certain iron fragment is signed Gilibertus. The iron
+on the tomb of Queen Eleanor is by Thomas de Leighton, in 1294.
+Lead workers also had a place assigned to them in the precincts,
+which was known as "the Plumbery." In 1431 Master Roger Johnson
+was enjoined to arrest or press smiths into service in order to
+finish the ironwork on the tomb of Edward IV.
+
+Probably the most famous use of iron in Spain is in the stupendous
+"_rejas_," or chancel screens of wrought iron; but these are nearly
+all of a late Renaissance style, and hardly come within the scope
+of this volume. The requirements of Spanish cathedrals, too, for
+wrought iron screens for all the side chapels, made plenty of work
+for the iron masters. In fact, the "_rejeros_," or iron master, was
+as regular an adjunct to a cathedral as an architect or a painter.
+Knockers were often very handsome in Spain, and even nail heads
+were decorated.
+
+An interesting specimen of iron work is the grille that surrounds
+the tomb of the Scaligers in Verolla. It is not a hard stiff
+structure, but is composed of circular forms, each made separately,
+and linked together with narrow bands, so that the construction is
+flexible, and is more like a gigantic piece of chain mail than an
+iron fence.
+
+Quentin Matsys was known as the "blacksmith of Antwerp," and is
+reported to have left his original work among metals to become a
+painter. This was done in order to marry the lady of his choice, for
+she refused to join her fate to that of a craftsman. She, however,
+was ready to marry a painter. Quentin, therefore, gave up his hammer
+and anvil, and began to paint Madonnas that he might prosper in his
+suit. Some authorities, however, laugh at this story, and claim
+that the specimens of iron work which are shown as the early works
+of Matsys date from a time when he would have been only ten or
+twelve years old, and that they must therefore have been the work
+of his father, Josse Matsys, who was a locksmith. The well-cover
+in Antwerp, near the cathedral, is always known as Quentin Matsys'
+well. It is said that this was not constructed until 1470, while
+Quentin was born in 1466.
+
+The iron work of the tomb of the Duke of Burgundy, in Windsor,
+is supposed to be the work of Quentin Matsys, and is considered
+the finest grille in England. It is wrought with such skill and
+delicacy that it is more like the product of the goldsmith's art
+than that of the blacksmith.
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH KEYS, SEVILLE]
+
+Another object of utility which was frequently ornamented was the
+key. The Key of State, especially, was so treated. Some are nine
+or ten inches long, having been used to present to visiting grandees
+as typical of the "Freedom of the City." Keys were often decorated
+with handles having the appearance of Gothic tracery. In an old
+book published in 1795, there is an account of the miraculous Keys
+of St. Denis, made of silver, which they apply to the faces of
+these persons who have been so unfortunate as to be bitten by mad
+dogs, and who received certain and immediate relief in only touching
+them. A key in Valencia, over nine inches in length, is richly
+embossed, while the wards are composed of decorative letters, looking
+at first like an elaborate sort of filigree, but finally resolving
+themselves into the autographic statement: "It was made by Ahmed
+Ahsan." It is a delicate piece of thirteenth or fourteenth century
+work in iron.
+
+Another old Spanish key has a Hebrew inscription round the handle:
+"The King of Kings will open: the King of the whole Earth will
+enter," and, in the wards, in Spanish, "God will open, the King
+will enter."
+
+The iron smiths of Barcelona formed a Guild in the thirteenth century:
+it is to be regretted that more of their work could not have descended
+to us.
+
+A frank treatment of locks and bolts, using them as decorations,
+instead of treating them as disgraces, upon the surface of a door,
+is the only way to make them in any degree effective. As Pugin has
+said, it is possible to use nails, screws, and rivets, so that
+they become "beautiful studs and busy enrichments." Florentine
+locksmiths were specially famous; there also was a great fashion
+for damascened work in that city, and it was executed with much
+elegance.
+
+In blacksmith's work, heat was used with the hammer at each stage
+of the work, while in armourer's or locksmith's work, heat was
+employed only at first, to achieve the primitive forms, and then
+the work was carried on with chisel and file on the cold metal.
+Up to the fourteenth century the work was principally that of the
+blacksmith, and after that, of the locksmith.
+
+The mention of arms and armour in a book of these proportions must
+be very slight; the subject is a vast one, and no effort to treat
+it with system would be satisfactory in so small a space. But a
+few curious and significant facts relating to the making of armour
+may be cited.
+
+The rapid decay of iron through rust--rapid, that is to say, in
+comparison with other metals--is often found to have taken place when
+the discovery of old armour has been made; so that gold ornaments,
+belonging to a sword or other weapon, may be found in excavating,
+while the iron which formed the actual weapon has disappeared.
+
+Primitive armour was based on a leather foundation, hence the name
+cuirass, was derived from _cuir_ (leather). In a former book I have
+alluded to the armour of the nomadic tribes, which is described by
+Pausanias as coarse coats of mail made out of the hoofs of horses,
+split, and laid overlapping each other, making them "something like
+dragon's scales," as Pausanias explains; adding for the benefit
+of those who are unfamiliar with dragons' anatomy, "Whoever has
+not _yet_ seen a dragon, has, at any rate, seen a pine cone still
+green. These are equally like in appearance to the surface of this
+armour." These horny scales of tough hoofs undoubtedly suggested,
+at a later date, the use of thick leather as a form of protection,
+and the gradual evolution may be imagined.
+
+The art of the armourer was in early mediæval times the art of the
+chain maker. The chain coat, or coats of mail, reached in early
+days as far as the knees. Finally this developed into an entire
+covering for the man, with head gear as well; of course this form
+of armour allowed of no real ornamentation, for there was no space
+larger than the links of the chain upon which to bestow decoration.
+Each link of a coat of mail was brought round into a ring, the ends
+overlapped, and a little rivet inserted. Warriors trusted to no
+solder or other mode of fastening. All the magnificence of knightly
+apparel was concentrated in the surcoat, a splendid embroidered or
+gem-decked tunic to the knees, which was worn over the coat of
+mail. These surcoats were often trimmed with costly furs, ermine
+or vair, the latter being similar to what we now call squirrel,
+being part gray and part white. Cinderella's famous slipper was
+made of "vair," which, through a misapprehension in being translated
+"verre," has become known as a glass slipper.
+
+[Illustration: ARMOUR, SHOWING MAIL DEVELOPING INTO PLATE]
+
+After a bit, the makers of armour discovered that much tedious
+labor in chain making might be spared, if one introduced a large
+plate of solid metal on the chest and back. This was in the thirteenth
+century. The elbows and knees were also treated in this way, and in
+the fourteenth century, the principle of armour had changed to a set
+of separate plates fastened together by links. This was the evolution
+from mail to plate armour. A description of Charlemagne as he appeared
+on the field of battle, in his armour, is given by the Monk of
+St. Gall, his biographer, and is dramatic. "Then could be seen
+the iron Charles, helmeted with an iron helmet, his iron breast
+and broad shoulders protected with an iron breast plate; an iron
+spear was raised on high in his left hand, his right always rested
+on his unconquered iron falchion.... His shield was all of iron,
+his charger was iron coloured and iron hearted.... The fields and
+open spaces were filled with iron; a people harder than iron paid
+universal homage to the hardness of iron. The horror of the dungeon
+seemed less than the bright gleam of iron. 'Oh, the iron! woe for
+the iron!' was the confused cry that rose from the citizens. The
+strong walls shook at the sight of iron: the resolution of young
+and old fell before the iron."
+
+By the end of the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, whole
+suits of armour were almost invariable, and then came the opportunity
+for the goldsmith, the damascener, and the niellist. Some of the
+leading artists, especially in Italy, were enlisted in designing
+and decorating what might be called the _armour-de-luxe_ of the
+warrior princes! The armour of horses was as ornate as that of
+the riders.
+
+The sword was always the most imposingly ornamented
+part of a knight's equipment, and underwent various modifications
+which are interesting to note. At first, it was the only weapon
+invariably at hand: it was enormously large, and two hands were
+necessary in wielding it. As the arquebuse came into use, the sword
+took a secondary position: it became lighter and smaller. And ever
+since 1510 it is a curious fact that the decorations of swords
+have been designed to be examined when the sword hangs with the
+point down; the earlier ornament was adapted to being seen at its
+best when the sword was held upright, as in action. Perhaps the
+later theory of decoration is more sensible, for it is certain
+that neither a warrior nor his opponent could have occasion to
+admire fine decoration at a time when the sword was drawn! That
+the arts should be employed to satisfy the eye in times of peace,
+sufficed the later wearers of ornamented swords.
+
+Toledo blades have always been famous, and rank first among the
+steel knives of the world. Even in Roman times, and of course under
+the Moors, Toledo led in this department. The process of making a
+Toledo blade was as follows. There was a special fine white sand
+on the banks of the Tagus, which was used to sprinkle on the blade
+when it was red hot, before it was sent on to the forger's. When
+the blade was red hot from being steeped four-fifths of its length
+in flame, it was dropped point first into a bucket of water. If it
+was not perfectly straight when it was withdrawn, it was beaten
+into shape, more sand being first put upon it. After this the
+remaining fifth of the blade was subjected to the fire, and was
+rubbed with suet while red hot; the final polish of the whole sword
+was produced by emery powder on wooden wheels.
+
+[Illustration: DAMASCENED HELMET]
+
+Damascening was a favourite method of ornamenting choice suits
+of armour, and was also applied to bronzes, cabinets, and such
+pieces of metal as lent themselves to decoration. The process began
+like niello: little channels for the design were hollowed out, in
+the iron or bronze, and then a wire of brass, silver, or gold, was
+laid in the groove, and beaten into place, being afterwards polished
+until the surface was uniform all over. One great feature of the art
+was to sink the incision a little broader at the base than at the top,
+and then to force the softer metal in, so that, by this undercutting,
+it was held firmly in place. Cellini tells of his first view of
+damascened steel blades. "I chanced," he says, "to become possessed
+of certain little Turkish daggers, the handle of which together
+with the guard and blade were ornamented with beautiful Oriental
+leaves, engraved with a chisel, and inlaid with gold. This kind of
+work differed materially from any which I had as yet practised or
+attempted, nevertheless I was seized with a great desire to try my
+hand at it, and I succeeded so admirably that I produced articles
+infinitely finer and more solid than those of the Turks." Benvenuto
+had such a humble opinion of his own powers! But when one considers
+the pains and labour expended upon the arts of damascening and
+niello, one regrets that the workers had not been inspired to attempt
+dentistry, and save so much unnecessary individual suffering!
+
+On the Sword of Boabdil are many inscriptions, among them, "God is
+clement and merciful," and "God is gifted with the best memory."
+No two sentiments could be better calculated to keep a conqueror
+from undue excesses.
+
+Mercia was a headquarters for steel and other metals
+in the thirteenth century. Seville was even then famous for its
+steel, also, and in the words of a contemporary writer, "the steel
+which is made in Seville is most excellent; it would take too much
+time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are
+made in this town." King Don Pedro, in his will, in the fourteenth
+century, bequeathes to his son, his "Castilian sword, which I had
+made here in Seville, ornamented with stones and gold." Swords
+were baptized; they were named, and seemed to have a veritable
+personality of their own. The sword of Charlemagne was christened
+"Joyeuse," while we all know of Arthur's Excalibur; Roland's sword
+was called Durandel. Saragossa steel was esteemed for helmets,
+and the sword of James of Arragon in 1230, "a very good sword,
+and lucky to those who handled it," was from Monzon. The Cid's
+sword was similar, and named Tizona. There is a story of a Jew who
+went to the grave of the Cid to steal his sword, which, according
+to custom, was interred with the owner: the corpse is said to have
+resented the intrusion by unsheathing the weapon, which miracle
+so amazed the Jew that he turned Christian!
+
+[Illustration: MOORISH SWORD]
+
+German armour was popular. Cologne swords were great favourites
+in England. King Arthur's sword was one of these,--
+
+  "For all of Coleyne was the blade
+   And all the hilt of precious stone."
+
+In the British Museum is a wonderful example of a wooden shield,
+painted on a gesso ground, the subject being a Knight kneeling
+before a lady, and the motto: "Vous ou la mort." These wooden shields
+were used in Germany until the end of Maximilian's reign.
+
+The helmet, or Heaume, entirely concealed the face, so that for
+purposes of identification, heraldic badges and shields were displayed.
+Later, crests were also used on the helmets, for the same purpose.
+
+Certain armourers were very well known in their day, and were as
+famous as artists in other branches. William Austin made a superb
+suit for the Earl of Warwick, while Thomas Stevyns was the coppersmith
+who worked on the same, and Bartholomew Lambspring was the polisher.
+There was a famous master-armourer at Greenwich in the days of
+Elizabeth, named Jacob: some important arms of that period bear
+the inscription, "Made by me Jacob." There is some question whether
+he was the same man as Jacob Topf who came from Innsbruck, and
+became court armourer in England in 1575. Another famous smith
+was William Pickering, who made exquisitely ornate suits of what
+we might call full-dress armour.
+
+Colossal cannon were made: two celebrated guns may be seen, the
+monster at Ghent, called Mad Meg, and the huge cannon at Edinburgh
+Castle, Mons Meg, dating from 1476. These guns are composed of steel
+coils or spirals, afterwards welded into a solid mass instead of
+being cast. They are mammoth examples of the art of the blacksmith
+and the forge. In Germany cannon were made of bronze, and these
+were simply cast.
+
+Cross bows obtained great favour in Spain, even after the arquebuse
+had come into use. It was considered a safer weapon to the one
+who used it. An old writer in 1644 remarks, "It has never been
+known that a man's life has been lost by breaking the string or
+cord, two things which are dangerous, but not to a considerable
+extent,"... and he goes on "once set, its shot is secure, which
+is not the case with the arquebus, which often misses fire." There
+is a letter from Ambassador Salimas to the King of Hungary, in
+which he says: "I went to Balbastro and there occupied myself in
+making a pair of cross bows for your Majesty. I believe they will
+satisfy the desires which were required... as your Majesty is annoyed
+when they do not go off as you wish." It would seem as though his
+Majesty's "annoyance" was justifiable; imagine any one dependent
+upon the shot of a cross bow, and then having the weapon fail to
+"go off!" Nothing could be more discouraging.
+
+[Illustration: ENAMELLED SUIT OF ARMOUR]
+
+There is a contemporary treatise which is full of interest,
+entitled, "How a Man shall be Armed at his ease when he shall Fight
+on Foot." It certainly was a good deal of a contract to render
+a knight comfortable in spite of the fact that he could see or
+breathe only imperfectly, and was weighted down by iron at every
+point. This complete covering with metal added much to the actual
+noise of battle. Froissart alludes to the fact that in the battle of
+Rosebeque, in 1382, the hammering on the helmets made a noise which
+was equal to that of all the armourers of Paris and Brussels working
+together. And yet the strength needed to sport such accoutrements
+seems to have been supplied. Leon Alberti of Florence, when clad
+in a full suit of armour, could spring with ease upon a galloping
+horse, and it is related that Aldobrandini, even with his right
+arm disabled, could cleave straight through his opponent's helmet
+and head, down to the collar bone, with a single stroke!
+
+One of the richest suits of armour in the world is to be seen at
+Windsor; it is of Italian workmanship, and is made of steel, blued
+and gilded, with wonderfully minute decorations of damascene and
+appliqué work. This most ornate armour was made chiefly for show,
+and not for the field: for knights to appear in their official
+capacity, and for jousting at tournaments, which were practically
+social events. In the days of Henry VIII. a chronicler tells of
+a jouster who "tourneyed in harneyse all of gilt from the head
+piece to the sabattons." Many had "tassels of fine gold" on their
+suits.
+
+Italian weapons called "lasquenets" were very deadly. In a letter
+from Albrecht Dürer to Pirckheimer, he alludes to them, as having
+"roncions with two hundred and eighteen points: and if they pink a
+man with any of these, the man is dead, as they are all poisoned."
+
+Bronze is composed of copper with an alloy of about eight or ten
+per cent. of tin. The fusing of these two metals produces the brown
+glossy substance called bronze, which is so different from either of
+them. The art of the bronze caster is a very old and interesting one.
+The method of proceeding has varied very little with the centuries. A
+statue to be cast either in silver or bronze would be treated in
+the following manner.
+
+A general semblance of the finished work was first set up in clay;
+then over this a layer of wax was laid, as thick as the final bronze
+was intended to be. The wax was then worked with tools and by hand
+until it took on the exact form designed for the finished product.
+Then a crust of clay was laid over the wax; on this were added other
+coatings of clay, until quite a thick shell of clay surrounded
+the wax. The whole was then subjected to fervent heat, and the wax
+all melted out, leaving a space between the core and the outer
+shell. Into this space the liquid bronze was poured, and after it
+had cooled and hardened the outer shell was broken off, leaving
+the statue in bronze exactly as the wax had been.
+
+Cellini relates an experience in Paris, with an old man
+eighty years of age, one of the most famous bronze casters whom
+he had engaged to assist him in his work for Francis I. Something
+went wrong with the furnace, and the poor old man was so upset and
+"got into such a stew" that he fell upon the floor, and Benvenuto
+picked him up fancying him to be dead: "Howbeit," explains Cellini,
+"I had a great beaker of the choicest wine brought him,... I mixed
+a large bumper of wine for the old man, who was groaning away like
+anything, and I bade him most winning-wise to drink, and said:
+'Drink, my father, for in yonder furnace has entered in a devil,
+who is making all this mischief, and, look you, we'll just let him
+bide there a couple of days, till he gets jolly well bored, and
+then will you and I together in the space of three hours firing,
+make this metal run, like so much batter, and without any exertion
+at all.' The old fellow drank and then I brought him some little
+dainties to eat: meat pasties they were, nicely peppered, and I
+made him take down four full goblets of wine. He was a man quite
+out of the ordinary, this, and a most lovable old thing, and what
+with my caresses and the virtue of the wine, I found him soon moaning
+away as much with joy as he had moaned before with grief." Cellini
+displayed in this incident his belief in the great principle that
+the artist should find pleasure in his work in order to impart
+to that work a really satisfactory quality, and did exactly the
+right thing at the right minute; instead of trusting to a faltering
+effort in a disheartened man, he cheered the old bronze founder
+up to such a pitch that after a day or two the work was completed
+with triumph and joy to both.
+
+In the famous statue of Perseus, Cellini experienced much difficulty
+in keeping the metal liquid. The account of this thrilling experience,
+told in his matchless autobiography, is too long to quote at this
+point; an interesting item, however, should be noted. Cellini used
+pewter as a solvent in the bronze which had hardened in the furnace.
+"Apprehending that the cause of it was, that the fusibility of
+the metal was impaired, by the violence of the fire," he says, "I
+ordered all my dishes and porringers, which were in number about
+two hundred, to be placed one by one before my tubes, and part of
+them to be thrown into the furnace, upon which all present perceived
+that my bronze was completely dissolved, and that my mould was
+filling," and, such was the relief that even the loss of the entire
+pewter service of the family was sustained with equanimity; the
+family, "without delay, procured earthen vessels to supply the place
+of the pewter dishes and porringers, and we all dined together very
+cheerfully." Edgecumb Staley, in the "Guilds of Florence," speaks
+of the "pewter fattened Perseus:" this is worthy of Carlyle.
+
+Early Britons cast statues in brass. Speed tells of King Cadwollo,
+who died in 677, being buried "at St. Martin's church near Ludgate,
+his image great and terrible, triumphantly riding on horseback,
+artificially cast in brass, was placed on the Western gate of the
+city, to the further fear and terror of the Saxons!"
+
+In 1562 Bartolomeo Morel, who made the celebrated statue of the
+Giralda Tower in Seville, executed a fifteen branched candelabrum
+for the Cathedral. It is a rich Renaissance design, in remarkably
+chaste and good lines, and holds fifteen statuettes, which are
+displaced to make room for the candles only during the last few
+days of Lent.
+
+A curious form of mediæval trinket was the perfume ball; this consisted
+of a perforated ball of copper or brass, often ornamented with
+damascene, and intended to contain incense to perfume the air, the
+balls being suspended.
+
+The earliest metal statuary in England was rendered in latten, a
+mixed metal of a yellow colour, the exact recipe for which has not
+survived. The recumbent effigies of Henry III. and Queen Eleanor
+are made of latten, and the tomb of the Black Prince in Canterbury
+is the same, beautifully chased. Many of these and other tombs were
+probably originally covered with gilding, painting, and enamel.
+
+The effigies of Richard II. and his queen, Anne of Bohemia, were
+made during the reign of the monarch; a contemporary document states
+that "Sir John Innocent paid another part of a certain indenture
+made between the King and Nicolas Broker and Geoffrey Prest,
+coppersmiths of London, for the making of two images, likenesses
+of the King and Queen, of copper and latten, gilded upon the said
+marble tomb."
+
+There are many examples of bronze gates in ecclesiastical
+architecture. The gates of St. Paolo Fuori le Mura in Rome were
+made in 1070, in Constantinople, by Stauracius the Founder. Many
+authorities think that those at St. Mark's in Venice were similarly
+produced. The bronze doors in Rome are composed of fifty-four small
+designs, not in relief, but with the outlines of the subjects inlaid
+with silver. The doors are in Byzantine taste.
+
+The bronze doors at Hildesheim differ from nearly all other such
+portals, in the elemental principle of design. Instead of being
+divided into small panels, they are simply blocked off into seven
+long horizontal compartments on each side, and then filled with a
+pictorial arrangement of separate figures; only three or four in
+each panel, widely spaced, and on a background of very low relief.
+The figures are applied, at scattered distances apart, and are
+in unusually high modelling, in some cases being almost detached
+from the door. The effect is curious and interesting rather than
+strictly beautiful, on the whole; but in detail many of the figures
+display rare power of plastic skill, proportion, and action. They
+are, at any rate, very individual: there are no other doors at
+all like them. They are the work of Bishop Bernward.
+
+Unquestionably, one of the greatest achievements in bronze of any
+age is the pair of gates by Lorenzo Ghiberti on the Baptistery
+in Florence. Twenty-one years were devoted to their making, by
+Ghiberti and his assistants, with the stipulation that all figures
+in the design were to be personal work of the master, the
+assistants only attending to secondary details. The doors were in
+place in April, 1424.
+
+[Illustration: BRUNELLESCHI'S COMPETITIVE PANEL]
+
+The competition for the Baptistery doors reads like a romance,
+and is familiar to most people who know anything of historic art.
+When the young Ghiberti heard that the competition was open to
+all, he determined to go to Florence and work for the prize; in
+his own words: "When my friends wrote to me that the governors
+of the Baptistery were sending for masters whose skill in bronze
+working they wished to prove, and that from all Italian lands many
+maestri were coming, to place themselves in this strife of talent,
+I could no longer forbear, and asked leave of Sig. Malatesta, who
+let me depart." The result of the competition is also given in
+Ghiberti's words: "The palm of victory was conceded to me by all
+judges, and by those who competed with me. Universally all the
+glory was given to me without any exception."
+
+[Illustration: GHIBERTI'S COMPETITIVE PANEL]
+
+Symonds considers the first gate a supreme accomplishment in bronze
+casting, but criticizes the other, and usually more admired gate, as
+"overstepping the limits that separate sculpture from painting," by
+"massing together figures in multitudes at three and sometimes four
+distances. He tried to make a place in bas-relief for perspective."
+Sir Joshua Reynolds finds fault with Ghiberti, also, for working at
+variance with the severity of sculptural treatment, by distributing
+small figures in a spacious landscape framework. It was not really
+in accordance with the limitations of his material to treat a bronze
+casting as Ghiberti treated it, and his example has led many men of
+inferior genius astray, although there is no use in denying that
+Ghiberti himself was clever enough to defy the usual standards
+and rules.
+
+Fonts were sometimes made in bronze. There is such a one at Liege
+cast by Lambert Patras, which stands upon twelve oxen. It is decorated
+with reliefs from the Gospels. This artist, Patras, was a native
+of Dinant, and lived in the twelfth century. The bronze font in
+Hildesheim is among the most interesting late Romanesque examples in
+Germany. It is a large deep basin entirely covered with enrichment
+of Scriptural scenes, and is supported by four kneeling figures,
+typical of the four Rivers of Paradise. The conical cover is also
+covered with Scriptural scenes, and surmounted by a foliate knob.
+Among the figures with which the font is covered are the Cardinal
+Virtues, flanked by their patron saints. Didron considers this a most
+important piece of bronze from an iconographic point of view
+theologically and poetically. The archaic qualities of the figures
+are fascinating and sometimes diverting. In the scene of the Baptism
+of Christ the water is positively trained to flow upwards in pyramidal
+form, in order to reach nearly to the waist, while at either side it
+recedes to the ground level again,--it has an ingenuous and almost
+startling suddenness in the rising of its flood! An interesting
+comment upon the prevalence of early national forms may be deduced,
+when one observes that on the table, at the Last Supper, there
+lies a perfectly shaped pretzel!
+
+The great bronze column constructed by St. Bernward at Hildesheim
+has the Life of Christ represented in consecutive scenes in a spiral
+form, like those ornamenting the column of Trajan. Down by Bernward's
+grave there is a spring which is said to cure cripples and rheumatics.
+Peasants visit Hildesheim on saints' days in order to drink of
+it, and frequently, after one of these visitations, crutches are
+found abandoned near by.
+
+Saxony was famous for its bronze founders, and work was sent forth,
+from this country, in the twelfth century, all over Europe.
+
+[Illustration: FONT AT HILDESHEIM, 12TH CENTURY]
+
+Orcagna's tabernacle at Or San Michele is, as Symonds
+has expressed it, "a monumental jewel," and "an epitome of the
+minor arts of mediæval Italy." On it one sees bas-relief carving,
+intaglios, statuettes, mosaic, the lapidary's art in agate; enamels,
+and gilded glass, and yet all in good taste and harmony. The sculpture
+is properly subordinated to the architectonic principle, and one
+can understand how it is not only the work of a goldsmith, but
+of a painter.
+
+Of all bronze workers, perhaps Peter Vischer is the best known
+and is certainly one of the best deserving of his wide fame. Peter
+Vischer was born about the same time as Quentin Matsys, between
+1460 and 1470. He was the most important metal worker in Germany.
+He and Adam Kraft, of whom mention will be made when we come to
+deal with sculptural carving, were brought up together as boys,
+and "when older boys, went with one another on all holidays, acting
+still as though they were apprentices together." Vischer's normal
+expression was in Gothic form. His first design for the wonderful
+shrine of St. Sebald in Nuremberg was made by him in 1488, and
+is still preserved in Vienna. It is a pure late-Gothic canopy,
+and I cannot help regretting that the execution was delayed until
+popular taste demanded more concession towards the Renaissance,
+and it was resolved in 1507, "to have the Shrine of St. Sebald
+made of brass."
+
+Therefore, although the general lines continue to hold a Gothic
+semblance, the shrine has many Renaissance features. Regret, however,
+is almost morbid, in relation to such a perfect work of art. Italian
+feeling is evident throughout, and the wealth of detail in figures
+and foliate forms is magnificent. The centre of interest is the
+little portrait statuette of Peter Vischer himself, according to his
+biographer, "as he looked, and as he daily went about and worked in
+the foundry." Though Peter had not been to Italy himself, his son
+Hermann had visited the historic land, and had brought home "artistic
+things that he sketched and drew, which delighted his old father, and
+were of great use to his brothers." Peter Vischer had three sons, who
+all followed him in the craft. His workshop must have been an ideal
+institution in its line.
+
+Some remnants of Gothic grotesque fancy are to be seen on the shrine,
+although treated outwardly with Renaissance feeling. A realistic
+life-sized mouse may be seen in one place, just as if it had run
+out to inspect the work; and the numbers of little tipsy "putti"
+who disport themselves in all attitudes, in perilous positions
+on narrow ledges, are full of merry humour.
+
+The metal of St. Sebald's shrine is left as it came from the casting,
+and owes much of its charm to the lack of filing, polishing, and
+pointing usual in such monuments. The molten living expression is
+retained. Only the details and spirit of the figures are Renaissance;
+the Gothic plan is hardly disturbed, and the whole monument is
+pleasing in proportion. The figures are exquisite, especially that
+of St. Peter.
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT STATUETTE OF PETER VISCHER]
+
+A great Renaissance work in Germany was the grille
+of the Rathaus made for Nuremberg by Peter Vischer the Younger. It
+was of bronze, the symmetrical diapered form of the open work part
+being supported by chaste and dignified columns of the Corinthian
+order. It was first designed by Peter Vischer the Elder, and revised
+and changed by the whole family after Hermann's return from Rome
+with his Renaissance notions. It was sold in 1806 to a merchant
+for old metal; later it was traced to the south of France, where
+it disappeared.
+
+Another famous bronze of Nuremberg is the well-known "Goose Man"
+fountain, by Labenwolf. Every traveller has seen the quaint half-foolish
+little man, as he stands there holding his two geese who politely
+turn away their heads in order to produce the streams of water!
+
+With the best bronzes, and with steel used for decorative purposes,
+the original casting has frequently been only for general form,
+the whole of the surface finishing being done with a shaping tool,
+by hand, giving the appearance of a carving in bronze or steel. In
+Japanese bronzes this is particularly felt. The classical bronzes
+were evidently perfect mosaics of different colours, in metal. Pliny
+tells of a bronze figure of a dying woman, who was represented
+as having changed colour at the extremities, the fusion of the
+different shades of bronze being disguised by anklets, bracelets,
+and a necklace! A curious and very disagreeable work of art, we
+should say. One sometimes sees in antique fragments ivory or silver
+eyeballs, and hair and eyelashes made separately in thin strips and
+coils of metal; while occasionally the depression of the edge of
+the lips is sufficient to give rise to the opinion that a thin
+veneer of copper was applied to give colour.
+
+The bronze effigies of Henry III. and Eleanor, at Westminster, were
+the work of a goldsmith, Master William Torel, and are therefore
+finer in quality and are in some respects superior to the average
+casting in bronze. Torel worked at the palace, and the statues were
+cast in "cire perdue" process, being executed in the churchyard
+itself. They are considered among the finest bronzes of the period
+extant. Gilding and enamel were often used in bronze effigies.
+
+Splendid bronzes, cast each in a single flow, are the recumbent
+figures of two bishops at Amiens; they are of the thirteenth century.
+Ruskin says: "They are the only two bronze tombs of her men of the
+great ages left in France." An old document speaks of the "moulds
+and imagines" which were in use for casting effigy portraits, in
+1394.
+
+Another good English bronze is that of Richard Beauchamp at Warwick,
+the work of Thomas Stevens, which has been alluded to. In Westminster
+Abbey, the effigy of Aymer de Valence, dating from 1296, is of
+copper, but it is not cast; it is of beaten metal, and is enamelled,
+probably at Limoges.
+
+Bells and cannon are among the objects of actual utility which
+were cast in bronze. Statues as a rule came later. In the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries in England, bronze was used to such an
+extent, that one authority suggested that it should be called the
+"Age of Bronze." Primitive bells were made of cast iron riveted
+together: one of these is at the Cologne museum, and the Irish bells
+were largely of this description. A great bell was presented to the
+Cathedral of Chartres in 1028, by a donor named Jean, which affords
+little clue to his personality. This bell weighed over two tons.
+
+There is considerable interest attaching to the subject of the
+making of bells in the Middle Ages. Even in domestic life bells
+played quite a part; it was the custom to ring a bell when the
+bath was ready and to announce meals, as well as to summon the
+servitors. Church bells, both large and small, were in use in England
+by 670, according to Bede. They were also carried by missionaries;
+those good saints, Patrick and Cuthbert, announced their coming
+like town criers! The shrine of St. Patrick's bell has been already
+described. Bells used to be regarded with a superstitious awe, and
+were supposed to have the ability to dispel evil spirits, which were
+exorcised with "bell, book, and candle." The bell of St. Patrick,
+inside the great shrine, is composed of two pieces of sheet iron,
+one of which forms the face, and being turned over the top, descends
+about half-way down the other side, where it meets the second sheet.
+Both are bent along the edges so as to form the sides of the bell,
+and they are both secured by rivets. A rude handle is similarly
+attached to the top.
+
+A quaint account is given by the Monk of St. Gall
+about a bell ordered by Charlemagne. Charlemagne having admired
+the tone of a certain bell, the founder, named Tancho, said to
+him: "Lord Emperor, give orders that a great weight of copper be
+brought to me that I may refine it, and instead of tin give me as
+much silver as I need,--a hundred pounds at least,--and I will
+cast such a bell for you that this will seem dumb in comparison
+to it." Charlemagne ordered the required amount of silver to be
+sent to the founder, who was, however, a great knave. He did not
+use the silver at all, but, laying it aside for his own use, he
+employed tin as usual in the bell, knowing that it would make a
+very fair tone, and counting on the Emperor's not observing the
+difference. The Emperor was glad when it was ready to be heard,
+and ordered it to be hung, and the clapper attached. "That was soon
+done," says the chronicler, "and then the warden of the church,
+the attendants, and even the boys of the place, tried, one after
+the other, to make the bell sound. But all was in vain; and so
+at last the knavish maker of the bell came up, seized the rope,
+and pulled at the bell. When, lo! and behold! down from on high
+came the brazen mass; fell on the very head of the cheating brass
+founder; killed him on the spot; and passed straight through his
+carcase and crashed to the ground.... When the aforementioned weight
+of silver was found, Charles ordered it to be distributed among
+the poorest servants of the palace."
+
+There is record of bronze bells in Valencia as early as 622, and
+an ancient mortar was found near Monzon, in the ruins of a castle
+which had formerly belonged to the Arabs. Round the edge of this
+mortar was the inscription: "Complete blessing, and ever increasing
+happiness and prosperity of every kind and an elevated and happy
+social position for its owner." The mortar was richly ornamented.
+
+At Croyland, Abbot Egebric "caused to be made two great bells which
+he named Bartholomew and Bethelmus, two of middle size, called
+Turketul and Tatwyn, and two lesser, Pega and Bega." Also at Croyland
+were placed "two little bells which Fergus the brass worker of St.
+Botolph's had lately given," in the church tower, "until better
+times," when the monks expressed a hope that they should improve
+all their buildings and appointments.
+
+Oil that dropped from the framework on which church bells were
+hung was regarded in Florence as a panacea for various ailments.
+People who suffered from certain complaints were rubbed with this
+oil, and fully believed that it helped them.
+
+The curfew bell was a famous institution; but the name was not
+originally applied to the bell itself. This leads to another curious
+bit of domestic metal. The popular idea of a curfew is that of
+a bell; a bell was undoubtedly rung at the curfew hour, and was
+called by its name; but the actual curfew (or _couvre feu_) was an
+article made of copper, shaped not unlike a deep "blower," which
+was used in order to extinguish the fire when the bell rang. There
+are a few specimens in England of these curious covers: they stood
+about ten to fifteen inches high, with a handle at the top, and
+closed in on three sides, open at the back. The embers were
+shovelled close to the back of the hearth, and the curfew, with the
+open side against the back of the chimney, was placed over them,
+thus excluding all air. Horace Walpole owned, at Strawberry Hill,
+a famous old curfew, in copper, elaborately decorated with vines
+and the York rose.
+
+[Illustration: A COPPER "CURFEW"]
+
+[Illustration: SANCTUARY KNOCKER, DURHAM CATHEDRAL]
+
+The Sanctuary knocker at Durham Cathedral is an important example
+of bronze work, probably of the same age as the Cathedral door on
+which it is fastened. They both date from about the eleventh
+century. Ever since 740, in the Episcopate of Cynewulf, criminals
+were allowed to claim Sanctuary in Durham. When this knocker was
+sounded, the door was opened, by two porters who had their
+accommodations always in two little chambers over the door, and
+for a certain length of time the criminal was under the protection
+of the Church.
+
+In speaking of the properties of lead, the old English Bartholomew
+says: "Of uncleanness of impure brimstone, lead hath a manner of
+neshness, and smircheth his hand who toucheth it... a man may wipe
+off the uncleanness, but always it is lead, although it seemeth
+silver." Weather vanes, made often of lead, were sometimes quite
+elaborate. One of the most important pieces of lead work in art
+is the figure of an angel on the chewet of Ste. Chapelle in Paris.
+Originally this figure was intended to be so controlled by clockwork
+that it would turn around once in the course of the twenty-four
+hours, so that his attitude of benediction should be directed to
+all four quarters of the city; but this was not practicable, and
+the angel is stationary. The cock on the weather vane at Winchester
+was described as early as the tenth century, in the Life of St.
+Swithin, by the scribe Walstan. He calls it "a cock of elegant
+form, and all resplendent and shining with gold who occupies the
+summit of the tower. He regards the world from on high, he commands
+all the country. Before him extend the stars of the North, and all
+the constellations of the zodiac. Under his superb feet he holds
+the sceptre of the law, and he sees under him all the people of
+Winchester. The other cocks are humble subjects of this one, whom
+they see thus raised in mid-air above them: he scorns the winds,
+that bring the rains, and, turning, he presents to them his back.
+The terrible efforts of the tempest do not annoy him, he receives
+with courage either snow or lightning, alone he watches the sun as
+it sets and dips into the ocean: and it is he who gives it its first
+salute on its rising again. The traveller who sees him afar off,
+fixes on him his gaze; forgetting the road he has still to follow,
+he forgets his fatigues: he advances with renewed ardour. While he
+is in reality a long way from the end, his eyes deceive him, and he
+thinks that he has arrived." Quite a practical tribute to a weather
+cock!
+
+The fact that leaden roofs were placed on all churches and monastic
+buildings in the Middle Ages, accounts in part for their utter
+destruction in case of fire; for it is easy to see how impossible
+it would be to enter a building in order to save anything, if, to
+the terror of flames, were added the horror of a leaden shower
+of molten metal proceeding from every part of the roof at once!
+If a church once caught fire, that was its end, as a rule.
+
+The invention of clocks, on the principle of cog-wheels and weights,
+is attributed to a monk, named Gerbert, who died in 1013. He had
+been instructor to King Robert, and was made Bishop of Rheims,
+later becoming Pope Sylvester II. Clocks at first were large affairs
+in public places. Portable clocks were said to have been first made
+by Carovage, in 1480.
+
+[Illustration: ANGLO SAXON CRUCIFIX OF LEAD]
+
+An interesting specimen of mediæval clock work is the old Dijon time
+keeper, which still performs its office, and which is a privilege
+to watch at high noon. Twelve times the bell is struck: first by a
+man, who turns decorously with his hammer, and then by a woman,
+who does the same. This staunch couple have worked for their living
+for many centuries. Froissart alludes to this clock, saying: "The
+Duke of Burgundy caused to be carried away from the market place at
+Courtray a clock that struck the hours, one of the finest which could
+be found on either side of the sea: and he conveyed it by pieces in
+carts, and the bell also, which clock was brought and carted into the
+town of Dijon, in Burgundy, where it was deposited and put up, and
+there strikes the twenty-four hours between day and night." This was
+in 1382, and there is no knowing how long the clock may have performed
+its functions in Courtray prior to its removal to Dijon.
+
+The great clock at Nuremberg shows a procession of the Seven Electors,
+who come out of one door, pass in front of the throne, each turning
+and doing obeisance, and pass on through another door. It is quite
+imposing, at noon, to watch this procession repeated twelve times.
+The clock is called the Mannleinlauffen.
+
+In the Statutes of Francis I., there is a clause stating that
+clockmakers as well as goldsmiths were authorized to employ in their
+work gold, silver, and all other materials.
+
+In Wells Cathedral is a curious clock, on which is a figure of a
+monarch, like Charles I., seated above the bell, which he kicks
+with his heels when the hour comes round. He is popularly known as
+"Jack Blandiver." This clock came originally from Glastonbury. On
+the hour a little tournament takes place, a race of little mounted
+knights rushing out in circles and charging each other vigorously.
+
+Pugin regrets the meaningless designs used by early Victorian clock
+makers. He calls attention to the fact that "it is not unusual to
+cast a Roman warrior in a flying chariot, round one of the wheels
+of which on close inspection the hours may be descried; or the whole
+front of a cathedral church reduced to a few inches in height,
+with the clock face occupying the position of a magnificent rose
+window!" This is not overdrawn; taste has suffered many vicissitudes
+in the course of time, but we hope that the future will hold more
+beauty for us in the familiar articles of the household than have
+prevailed at some periods in the past.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TAPESTRY
+
+A study of textiles is often subdivided into tapestry, carpet-weaving,
+mechanical weaving of fabrics of a lighter weight, and embroidery.
+These headings are useful to observe in our researches in the mediæval
+processes connected with the loom and the needle.
+
+Tapestry, as we popularly think of it, in great rectangular
+wall-hangings with rather florid figures from Scriptural scenes,
+commonly dates from the sixteenth century or later, so that it is
+out of our scope to study its manufacture on an extensive scale.
+But there are earlier tapestries, much more restrained in design,
+and more interesting and frequently more beautiful. Of these earlier
+works there is less profusion, for the examples are rare and precious,
+and seldom come into the market nowadays. The later looms were of
+course more prolific as the technical facilities increased. But
+a study of the craft as it began gives one all that is necessary
+for a proper appreciation of the art of tapestry weaving.
+
+The earliest European work with which we have to concern ourselves
+is the Bayeux tapestry. Although this is really needlework, it
+is usually treated as tapestry, and there seems to be no special
+reason for departing from the custom. Some authorities state that
+the Bayeux tapestry was made by the Empress Matilda, daughter of
+Henry I., while others consider it the achievement of Queen Matilda,
+the wife of William the Conqueror. She is recorded to have sat
+quietly awaiting her lord's coming while she embroidered this quaint
+souvenir of his prowess in conquest. A veritable mediæval Penelope,
+it is claimed that she directed her ladies in this work, which is
+thoroughly Saxon in feeling and costuming. It is undoubtedly the most
+interesting remaining piece of needlework of the eleventh century,
+and it would be delightful if one could believe the legend of its
+construction. Its attribution to Queen Matilda is very generally
+doubted by those who have devoted much thought to the subject. Mr.
+Frank Rede Fowke gives it as his opinion, based on a number of
+arguments too long to quote in this place, that the tapestry was
+not made by Queen Matilda, but was ordered by Bishop Odo as an
+ornament for the nave of Bayeux Cathedral, and was executed by
+Norman craftsmen in that city. Dr. Rock also favours the theory
+that it was worked by order of Bishop Odo. Odo was a brother of
+William the Conqueror and might easily have been interested in
+preserving so important a record of the Battle of Hastings. Dr.
+Rock states that the tradition that Queen Matilda executed the
+tapestry did not arise at all until 1730.
+
+The work is on linen, executed in worsteds. Fowke gives the length
+as two hundred and thirty feet, while it is only nineteen inches
+wide,--a long narrow strip of embroidery, in many colours on a cream
+white ground. In all, there are six hundred and twenty-three figures,
+besides two hundred horses and dogs, five hundred and five animals,
+thirty-seven buildings, forty-one ships, forty-nine trees, making in
+all the astonishing number of one thousand five hundred and twelve
+objects!
+
+The colours are in varying shades of blue, green, red and yellow
+worsted. The colours are used as a child employs crayons; just as
+they come to hand. When a needleful of one thread was used up,
+the next was taken, apparently quite irrespective of the colour or
+shade. Thus, a green horse will be seen standing on red legs, and
+a red horse will sport a blue stocking! Mr. J. L. Hayes believes
+that these varicoloured animals are planned purposely: that two
+legs of a green horse are rendered in red on the further side, to
+indicate perspective, the same principle accounting for two blue
+legs on a yellow horse!
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL, BAYEUX TAPESTRY]
+
+The buildings are drawn in a very primitive way, without consideration
+for size or proportion. The solid part of the embroidery is couched
+on, while much of the work is only rendered in outline. But the
+spirited little figures are full of action, and suggest those in
+the celebrated Utrecht Psalter. Sometimes one figure will be as
+high as the whole width of the material, while again, the people
+will be tiny. In the scene representing the burial of Edward the
+Confessor, in Westminster Abbey, the roof of the church is several
+inches lower than the bier which is borne on the shoulders of men
+nearly as tall as the tower!
+
+The naïve treatment of details is delicious. Harold, when about
+to embark, steps with bare legs into the tide: the water is laid
+out in the form of a hill of waves, in order to indicate that it
+gets deeper later on. It might serve as an illustration of the Red
+Sea humping up for the benefit of the Israelites! The curious little
+stunted figure with a bald head, in the group of the conference of
+messengers, would appear to be an abortive attempt to portray a
+person at some distance--he is drawn much smaller than the others
+to suggest that he is quite out of hearing! This seems to have
+been the only attempt at rendering the sense of perspective. Then
+comes a mysterious little lady in a kind of shrine, to whom a clerk
+is making curious advances; to the casual observer it would appear
+that the gentleman is patting her on the cheek, but we are informed
+by Thierry that this represents an embroideress, and that the clerk
+is in the act of ordering the Bayeux Tapestry itself! Conjecture
+is swamped concerning the real intention of this group, and no
+certain diagnosis has ever been pronounced! The Countess of Wilton
+sees in this group "a female in a sort of porch, with a clergyman
+in the act of pronouncing a benediction upon her!" Every one to
+his taste.
+
+A little farther on there is another unexplained figure: that of
+a man with his feet crossed, swinging joyously on a rope from the
+top of a tower.
+
+Soon after the Crowning of Harold, may be seen a crowd of people
+gazing at an astronomic phenomenon which has been described by an
+old chronicler as a "hairy star." It is recorded as "a blazing
+starre" such as "never appears but as a prognostic of afterclaps,"
+and again, as "dreadful to be seen, with bloudie haires, and all
+over rough and shagged at the top." Another author complacently
+explains that comets "were made to the end that the ethereal regions
+might not be more void of monsters than the ocean is of whales and
+other great thieving fish!" A very literal interpretation of this
+"hairy star" has been here embroidered, carefully fitted out with
+cog-wheels and all the paraphernalia of a conventional mediæval
+comet.
+
+In the scenes dealing with the preparation of the army and the
+arrangement of their food, there occurs the lassooing of an ox; the
+amount of action concentrated in this group is really wonderful.
+The ox, springing clear of the ground, with all his legs gathered
+up under him, turns his horned head, which is set on an unduly
+long neck, for the purpose of inspecting his pursuers. No better
+origin for the ancient tradition of the cow who jumped over the
+moon could be adduced. And what shall we say of the acrobatic antics
+of Leofwine and Gyrth when meeting their deaths in battle? These
+warriors are turning elaborate handsprings in their last moments,
+while horses are represented as performing such somersaults that
+they are practically inverted. In the border of this part of the
+tapestry, soldiers are seen stripping off the coats of mail from
+the dead warriors on the battle-field; this they do by turning the
+tunic inside out and pulling it off at the head, and the resulting
+attitudes of the victims are quaint and realistic in the extreme!
+The border has been appropriately described as "a layer of dead men."
+In the tenth and eleventh centuries one of the regular petitions in
+the Litany was "From the fury of the Normans Good Lord Deliver us."
+
+The Bayeux Tapestry was designated, in 1746, as "the noblest monument
+in the world relating to our old English History." It has passed
+through most trying vicissitudes, having been used in war time as a
+canvas covering to a transport wagon, among other experiences. For
+centuries this precious treasure was neglected and not understood. In
+his "Tour" M. Ducarel states: "The priests... to whom we addressed
+ourselves for a sight of this remarkable piece of antiquity, knew
+nothing of it; the circumstance only of its being annually hung up
+in their church led them to understand what we wanted, no person
+then knowing that the object of our inquiries any ways related to
+the Conqueror." This was in the nineteenth century.
+
+Anglo-Saxon women spent much of their time in embroidering. Edith,
+Queen of Edward the Confessor, was quite noted for her needlework,
+which was sometimes used to decorate the state robes of the king.
+
+Formerly there existed at Ely Cathedral a work very like the Bayeux
+Tapestry, recording the deeds of the heroic Brihtnoth, the East
+Saxon, who was slain in 991, fighting the Danish forces. His wife
+rendered his history in needlework, and presented it to Ely.
+Unhappily there are no remains of this interesting monument now
+existing. The nearest thing to the Bayeux Tapestry in general
+texture and style is perhaps a twelfth century work in the Cathedral
+at Gerona, a little over four yards square, which is worked in
+crewels on linen, and is ornamented with scenes of an Oriental and
+primitive character, taken mainly from the story of Genesis. These
+tapestries come under the head of needlework. The tapestries made
+on looms proceed upon a different principle, and are woven instead
+of embroidered.
+
+Two kinds of looms were used under varying conditions in different
+places; high warp looms, or _Haute Lisse_, and low warp looms,
+known as _Basse Lisse_.
+
+The general method of making tapestries on a high warp loom has been
+much the same for many centuries. The warp is stretched vertically
+in two sets, every other thread being first forward and then back in
+the setting. M. Lacordaire, late Director of the Gobelins, writes
+as follows: "The workman takes a spindle filled with worsted or
+silk... he stops off the weft thread and fastens it to the warp,
+to the left of the space to be occupied by the colour he has in
+hand; then, by passing his left hand between the back and the front
+threads, he separates those that are to be covered with colours;
+with his right hand, having passed it through the same threads,
+he reaches to the left side, for the spindle which he brings back
+to the right; his left hand, then, seizing hold of the warp, brings
+the back threads to the front, while the right hand thrusts the
+spindle back to the point whence it started." When a new colour
+is to be introduced, the artist takes a new shuttle. He fastens
+his thread on the wrong side of the tapestry (the side on which
+he works) and repeats the process just described on the strings
+stretched up and down before him, like harp strings; the work is
+commenced at the lower part, and worked upwards, so that, when
+this strictly "hand weaving" is accomplished, it may be crowded
+down into place by means of a kind of ivory comb, so adjusted that
+the teeth fit between the warp threads. In tapestry weaving, the
+warp could be of any inferior but strong thread, for, by the nature
+of the work, only the woof was visible, the warp being quite hidden
+and incorporated into the texture under the close lying stitches
+which met and dove-tailed over it.
+
+The worker on a low loom does not see the right side of the work
+at all, unless he lifts the loom, which is a difficult undertaking.
+On a high loom, it is only necessary for the worker to go around
+to the front in order to see exactly what he is doing. The design
+is put below the work, however, in a low loom, and the work is
+thus practically traced as the tapestry proceeds.
+
+On account of the limitations of the human arm in reaching, the
+low warp tapestry requires more seams than does that made on the
+"haute lisse" loom, the pieces being individually smaller. One
+whole division of the workmen in tapestry establishments used to be
+known as the "fine drawers," whose whole duty was to join the
+different pieces together, and also to repair worn tapestries,
+inserting new stitches for restorations. Tapestry repairing was
+a necessary craft; at Rheims some tapestries were restored by
+Jacquemire de Bergeres; these hangings had been "much damaged by
+dogs, rats, mice, and other beasts." It is not stated where they
+had been hung!
+
+High warp looms have been known in Europe certainly since the ninth
+century. There is an order extant, from the Bishop of Auxerre,
+who died in 840, for some "carpets for his church." In 890 the
+monks of Saumur were manufacturing tapestries. Beautiful textiles
+had been used to ornament the Church of St. Denis as early as 630,
+but there is no proof that these were actually tapestries. There
+is a legend that in 732 a tapestry establishment existed in the
+district between Tours and Poitiers. At Beauvais, too, the weavers
+of arras were settled at the time of the Norman ravages.
+
+King Dagobert was a mediæval patron of arts in France. He had the
+walls of St. Denis (which he built) hung with rich tapestries set
+with pearls and wrought with gold. At the monastery of St. Florent,
+at Saumur in 985, the monks wove tapestries, using floral and animal
+forms in their designs. At Poitiers there was quite a flourishing
+factory as early as 1025. Tapestry was probably first made in France,
+to any considerable extent, then, in the ninth century. The historian
+of the monastery of Saumur tells us an interesting incident in
+connection with the works there. The Abbot of St. Florent had placed
+a magnificent order for "curtains, canopies, hangings, bench covers,
+and other ornaments,... and he caused to be, made two pieces of tapestry
+of large size and admirable quality, representing elephants." While
+these were about to be commenced, the aforesaid abbot was called
+away on a journey. The ecclesiastic who remained issued a command
+that the tapestries should be made with a woof different from that
+which they habitually used. "Well," said they, "in the absence of
+the good abbot we will not discontinue our employment; but as you
+thwart us, we shall make quite a different kind of fabric." So they
+deliberately set to work to make square carpets with silver lions on
+a red ground, with a red and white border of various animals! Abbot
+William was fortunately pleased with the result, and used lions
+interchangeably with elephants thereafter in his decorations.
+
+At the ninth century tapestry manufactory in Poitiers, an amusing
+correspondence took place between the Count of Poitou and an Italian
+bishop, in 1025. Poitou was at that time noted for its fine breed
+of mules. The Italian bishop wrote to ask the count to send him
+one mule and one tapestry,--as he expressed it, "both equally
+marvellous." The count replied with spirit: "I cannot send you
+what you ask, because for a mule to merit the epithet _marvellous_,
+he would have to have horns, or three tails, or five legs, and
+this I should not be able to find. I shall have to content myself
+with sending you the best that I can procure!"
+
+In 992 the Abbey of Croyland, in England, owned "two large foot
+cloths woven with lions, to be laid before the high altar on great
+festivals, and two shorter ones trailed all over with flowers,
+for the feast days of the Apostles."
+
+Under Church auspices in the twelfth century, the tapestry industry
+rose to its most splendid perfection. When the secular looms were
+started, the original beauty of the work was retained for a considerable
+time; in the tenth century German craftsmen worked as individuals,
+independently of Guilds or organizations. In the thirteenth century
+the work was in a flourishing condition in France, where both looms
+were in use. The upright loom is still used at the Gobelin factory.
+
+As an adjunct to the stained glass windows in churches, there never
+was a texture more harmonious than good mediæval tapestry. In 1260
+the best tapestries in France were made by the Church exclusively;
+in 1461 King René of Anjou bequeathed a magnificent tapestry in
+twenty-seven subjects representing the Apocalypse, to "the church
+of Monsieur St. Maurice," at Angers.
+
+Although tapestry was made in larger quantities during the Renaissance,
+the mediæval designs are better adapted to the material.
+
+The royal chambers of the Kings of England were hung with tapestry,
+and it was the designated duty of the Chamberlain to see to such
+adornment. In 1294 there is mention of a special artist in tapestry,
+who lived near Winchester; his name was Sewald, and he was further
+known as "le tapenyr," which, according to M. G. Thomson, signifies
+tapestrier.
+
+One is led to believe that tapestries were used as church adornments
+before they were introduced into dwellings; for it was said, when
+Queen Eleanor of Castile had her bedroom hung with tapestries, that
+"it was like a church." At Westminster, a writer of 1631 alludes
+to the "cloths of Arras which adorn the choir."
+
+Sets of tapestries to hang entire apartments were known as "Hallings."
+Among the tapestries which belonged to Charles V. was one "worked
+with towers, fallow bucks and does, to put over the King's boat."
+Among early recorded tapestries are those mentioned in the inventory
+of Philip the Bold, in 1404, while that of Philip the Good tells of
+his specimens, in 1420. Nothing can well be imagined more charming
+than the description of a tapestried chamber in 1418; the room
+being finished in white was decorated with paroquets and damsels
+playing harps. This work was accomplished for the Duchess of Bavaria
+by the tapestry maker, Jean of Florence.
+
+Flanders tapestry was famous in the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.
+Arras particularly was the town celebrated for the beauty of its
+work. This famous manufactory was founded prior to 1350, as there
+is mention of work of that period. Before the town became known as
+Arras, while it still retained its original name, Nomenticum, the
+weavers were famous who worked there. In 282 A. D. the woven cloaks
+of Nomenticum were spoken of by Flavius Vopiscus.
+
+The earliest record of genuine Arras tapestry occurs in an order
+from the Countess of Artois in 1313, when she directs her receiver
+"de faire faire six tapis à Arras." Among the craftsmen at Arras
+in 1389 was a Saracen, named Jehan de Croisètes, and in 1378 there
+was a worker by the name of Huwart Wallois. Several of its workmen
+emigrated to Lille, in the fifteenth century, among them one Simon
+Lamoury and another, Jehan de Rausart. In 1419 the Council Chamber
+of Ypres was ornamented with splendid tapestries by François de
+Wechter, who designed them, and had them executed by Arras workmen.
+The Van Eycks and Memlinc also designed tapestries, and there is no
+doubt that the art would have continued to show a more consistent
+regard for the demands of the material if Raphael had never executed
+his brilliant cartoons. The effort to be Raphaelesque ruined the
+effect of many a noble piece of technique, after that.
+
+In 1302 a body of ten craftsmen formed a Corporation in Paris.
+The names of several workmen at Lille have been handed down to
+us. In 1318 Jehan Orghet is recorded, and in 1368, Willaume, a
+high-warp worker. Penalties for false work were extreme. One of
+the best known workers in France was Bataille, who was closely
+followed by one Dourdain.
+
+[Illustration: FLEMISH TAPESTRY, "THE PRODIGAL SON"]
+
+A famous Arras tapestry was made in 1386 by a weaver of the name
+of Michel Bernard. It measured over two hundred and eighty-five
+square yards, and represented the battle of Roosebecke. At this
+time a tapestry worker lived, named Jehanne Aghehe, one of the
+first attested women's names in connection with this art. In the
+Treasury of the church of Douai there is mention of three cushions
+made of high loom tapestry presented in 1386 by "la demoiselle
+Englise." It is not known who this young lady may have been. France
+and Flanders made the most desirable tapestries in the fourteenth
+century. In Italy the art had little vogue until the fifteenth.
+
+Very little tapestry was made in Spain in the Middle Ages,--the
+earliest well known maker was named Gutierrez, in the time of Philip
+IV. The picture by Velasquez, known as "The Weavers," represents
+the interior of his manufactory.
+
+A table cloth in mediæval times was called a "carpett:" these were
+often very ornate, and it is useful to know that their use was not
+for floor covering, for the inventories often mention "carpetts"
+worked with pearls and silver tissue, which would have been singularly
+inappropriate. The Arabs introduced the art of carpet weaving into
+Spain. An Oriental, Edrisi, writing in the twelfth century, says
+that such carpets were made at that time in Alicante, as could not
+be produced elsewhere, owing to certain qualities in both air and
+water which greatly benefited the wool used in their manufacture.
+
+In the Travels of Jean Lagrange, the author says that all carpets
+of Smyrna and Caramania are woven by women. As soon as a girl can
+hold a shuttle, they stretch cords between two trees, to make a
+warp, and then they give her all colours of wools, and leave her
+to her own devices. They tell her, "It is for you to make your own
+dowry." Then, according to the inborn art instinct of the child, she
+begins her carpet. Naturally, traditions and association with others
+engaged in the same pursuit assist in the scheme and arrangement;
+usually the carpet is not finished until she is old enough to marry.
+"Then," continues Lagrange, "two masters, two purchasers, present
+themselves; the one carries off a carpet, and the other a wife."
+
+Edward II.. of England owned a tapestry probably of English make,
+described as "a green hanging of wool wove with figures of Kings
+and Earls upon it." There was a roistering Britisher called John le
+Tappistere, who was complained of by certain people near Oxford, as
+having seized Master John of Shoreditch, and assaulted and imprisoned
+him, confiscating his goods and charging him fifty pounds for ransom.
+It is not stated what the gentleman from Shoreditch had done thus
+to bring down upon him the wrath of John the weaver!
+
+English weavers had rather the reputation of being fighters: in
+1340 one George le Tapicier murdered John le Dextre of Leicester;
+while Giles de la Hyde also slew Thomas Tapicier in 1385. Possibly
+these rows occurred on account of a practical infringement upon
+the manufacturing rights of others as set down in the rules of the
+Company. There was a woman in Finch Lane who produced tapestry,
+with a cotton back, "after the manner of the works of Arras:" this
+was considered a dishonest business, and the work was ordered to
+be burnt.
+
+Roger van der Weyden designed a set of tapestries representing
+the History of Herkinbald, the stern uncle who, with his own hand,
+beheaded his nephew for wronging a young woman. Upon his death-bed,
+Herkinbald refused to confess this act as a sin, claiming the murder
+to have been justifiable and a positive virtue. Apparently the
+Higher Powers were on his side, too, for, when the priest refused
+the Eucharist to the impertinent Herkinbald, it is related that
+the Host descended by a miracle and entered the lips of the dying
+man. A dramatic story, of which van der Weyden made the most, in
+designing his wonderfully decorative tapestries. The originals
+were lost, but similar copies remain.
+
+As early as 1441 tapestries were executed in Oudenardes; usually
+these were composed of green foliage, and known as "verdures." In
+time the names "verdure" and "Oudenarde" became interchangeably
+associated with this class of tapestry. They represented woodland
+and hunting scenes, and were also called "Tapestry verde," and
+are alluded to by Chaucer.
+
+Curious symbolic subjects were often used: for instance, for a
+set of hangings for a banquet hall, what could be more whimsically
+appropriate than the representation of "Dinner," giving a feast to
+"Good Company," while "Banquet" and "Maladies" attack the guests!
+This scene is followed by the arrest of "Souper" and "Banquet" by
+"Experience," who condemns them both to die for their cruel treatment
+of the Feasters!
+
+There is an old poem written by a monk of Chester, named Bradshaw,
+in which a large hall decorated with tapestries is described as
+follows:
+
+  "All herbs and flowers, fair and sweet,
+   Were strawed in halls, and layd under their feet;
+   Cloths of gold, and arras were hanged on the wall,
+   Depainted with pictures and stories manifold
+  Well wrought and craftely."
+
+A set of tapestries was made by some of the monks of Troyes, who
+worked upon the high loom, displaying scenes from the Life of the
+Magdalen. This task was evidently not devoid of the lighter elements,
+for in the bill, the good brothers made charge for such wine as
+they drank "when they consulted together in regard to the life
+of the Saint in question!"
+
+Among the most interesting tapestries are those representing scenes
+from the Wars of Troy, in South Kensington. They are crowded with
+detail, and in this respect exhibit most satisfactorily the beauties
+of the craft, which is enhanced by small intricacies, and rendered
+less impressive when treated in broad masses of unrelieved woven
+colour. Another magnificent set, bearing similar characteristics,
+is the History of Clovis at Rheims.
+
+There is a fascinating set of English tapestries representing the
+Seasons, at Hatfield: these were probably woven at Barcheston.
+The detail of minute animal and vegetable forms--the flora and
+fauna, as it were in worsted--are unique for their conscientious
+finish. They almost amount to catalogues of plants and beasts.
+The one which displays Summer is a herbal and a Noah's Ark turned
+loose about a full-sized Classical Deity, who presides in the centre
+of the composition.
+
+Among English makers of tapestries was a workman named John Bakes,
+who was paid the magnificent sum of twelve pence a day, while in an
+entry in another document he is said to have received only fourpence
+daily.
+
+The Hunting Tapestries belonging to the Duke of Devonshire are
+as perfect specimens as any that exist of the best period of the
+art. They are represented in colour in W. G. Thomson's admirable
+work on Tapestries, and are thus available to most readers in some
+public collection.
+
+Another splendidly decorative specimen is at Hampton Court, being
+a series of the Seven Deadly Sins. They measure about twenty-five
+by thirteen feet each, and are worked in heavy wools and silks.
+
+As technical facility developed, certain weaknesses began to show
+themselves. Tapestry weavers had their favourite figures, which,
+to save themselves trouble, they would often substitute for others
+in the original design.
+
+Arras tapestries were no longer made in the sixteenth
+century, and the best work of that time was accomplished in the
+Netherlands. About 1540 Brussels probably stood at the head of the
+list of cities famous for the production of these costly textiles.
+The Raphael tapestries were made there, by Peter van Aelst, under
+the order of Pope Leo X. They were executed in the space of four
+years, being finished in 1519, only a year before Raphael's death.
+
+In the sixteenth century the Brussels workers began to make certain
+"short cuts" not quite legitimate in an art of the highest standing,
+such as touching up the faces with liquid dyes, and using the same
+to enhance the effect after the work was finished. A law was passed
+that this must not be done on any tapestry worth more than twelve
+pence a yard. In spite of this trickery, the Netherlandish tapestries
+led all others in popularity in that century.
+
+It was almost invariable, especially in Flemish work, to treat
+Scriptural subjects as dressed in the costume of the period in
+which the tapestry happened to be made. When one sees the Prodigal
+Son attired in a delightful Flemish costume of a well-appointed
+dandy, and Adam presented to God the Father, both being clothed in
+Netherlandish garments suitable for Burgomasters of the sixteenth
+century, then we can believe that the following description, quoted
+by the Countess of Wilton, is hardly overdrawn. "In a corner of
+the apartment stood a bed, the tapestry of which was enwrought
+with gaudy colours, representing Adam and Eve in the Garden
+of Eden.... Adam was presenting our first mother with a large yellow
+apple gathered from a tree which scarcely reached his knee....
+To the left of Eve appeared a church, and a dark robed gentleman
+holding something in his hand which looked like a pin cushion, but
+doubtless was intended for a book; he seemed pointing to the holy
+edifice, as if reminding them that they were not yet married! On
+the ground lay the rib, out of which Eve, who stood a head higher
+than Adam, had been formed: both of them were very respectably
+clothed in the ancient Saxon costume; even the angel wore breeches,
+which, being blue, contrasted well with his flaming red wings."
+
+In France, the leading tapestry works were at Tours in the early
+sixteenth century. A Flemish weaver, Jean Duval, started the work
+there in 1540. Until 1552 he and his three sons laboured together
+with great results, and they left a large number of craftsmen to
+follow in their footsteps.
+
+In Italy the art had almost died out in the early sixteenth century,
+but revived in full and florid force under the Raphaelesque influence.
+
+King René of Anjou collected tapestries so assiduously that the
+care and repairing of them occupied the whole time of a staff of
+workers, who were employed steadily, living in the palace, and
+sleeping at night in the various apartments in which the hangings
+were especially costly.
+
+Queen Jeanne, the mother of Henri IV., was a skilled
+worker in tapestry. To quote Miss Freer in the Life of Jeanne d'Albret,
+"During the hours which the queen allowed herself for relaxation,
+she worked tapestry and discoursed with some one of the learned men
+whom she protected." This queen was of an active mental calibre and
+one to whom physical repose was most repugnant. She was a regular
+and pious attendant at church, but sitting still was torture to
+her, and listening to the droning sermons put her to sleep. So,
+with a courage to be admired, Jeanne "demanded permission from
+the Synod to work tapestry during the sermon. This request was
+granted; from thenceforth Queen Jeanne, bending decorously over
+her tapestry frame, and busy with her needle, gave due attention."
+
+The Chateau of Blois, during the reign of Louis XII. and Ann of
+Brittany, is described as being regally appointed with tapestries:
+"Those which were hung in the apartments of the king and queen,"
+says the chronicler, "were all full of gold; and the tapestries
+and embroideries of cloth of gold and of silk had others beneath
+them ornamented with personages and histories as those were above.
+Indeed, there was so great a number of rich tapestries, velvet
+carpets, and bed coverings, of gold and silk, that there was not
+a chamber, hall, or wardrobe, that was not full."
+
+In an inventory of the Princess of Burgundy there occurs this curious
+description of a tapestry: "The three tapestries of the Church
+Militant, wrought in gold, whereon may be seen represented God Almighty
+seated in majesty, and around him many cardinals, and below him many
+princes who present to him a church."
+
+Household luxury in England is indicated by a quaint writer in 1586:
+"In noblemen's houses," he says, "it is not rare to see abundance of
+arras, rich hangings, of tapestrie... Turkie wood, pewter, brasse,
+and fine linen.... In times past the costly furniture stayed there,
+whereas now it is discarded yet lower, even unto the inferior
+artificers, and many farmers... have for the most part learned to
+garnish their beds with tapestries and hangings, and their tables
+with carpetts and fine napery."
+
+Henry VIII. was devoted to tapestry collecting, also. An agent
+who was buying for him in the Netherlands in 1538, wrote to the
+king: "I have made a stay in my hands of two hundred ells of goodly
+tapestry; there hath not been brought this twenty year eny so good
+for the price." Henry VIII. had in his large collection many subjects,
+among them such characteristic pieces as: "ten peeces of the rich
+story of King David" (in which Bathsheba doubtless played an important
+part), "seven peeces of the Stories of Ladies," "A peece with a man
+and woman and a flagon," "A peece of verdure... having poppinjays
+at the nether corners," "One peece of Susannah," "Six fine new
+tapestries of the History of Helena and Paris."
+
+A set of six "verdure" tapestries was owned by Cardinal Wolsey,
+which "served for the hanging of Durham Hall of inferior days."
+The hangings in a hall in Chester are described as depicting "Adam,
+Noe, and his Shyppe." In 1563 a monk of Canterbury was mentioned as
+a tapestry weaver. At York, Norwich, and other cities, were also to
+be found "Arras Workers" during the sixteenth century.
+
+There was an amusing law suit in 1598, which was brought by a gentleman,
+Charles Lister, against one Mrs. Bridges, for accepting from him, on
+the understanding of an engagement in marriage, a suite of tapestries
+for her apartment. He sued for the return of his gifts!
+
+Among the State Papers of James I., there is a letter in which
+the King remarks "Sir Francis Crane desires to know if my baby
+will have him to-hasten the making of that suite of tapestry that
+he commanded him."
+
+In Florence, the art flourished under the Medici. In 1546 a regular
+Academy of instruction in tapestry weaving was set up, under the
+direction of Flemish masters. All the leading artists of the Golden
+Age furnished designs which, though frequently inappropriate for
+being rendered in textile, were fine pictures, at any rate. In
+Venice, too, there were work shops, but the influence of Italy was
+Flemish in every case so far as technical instruction was concerned.
+The most celebrated artists of the Renaissance made cartoons: Raphael,
+Giulio Romano, Jouvenet, Le Brun, and numerous others, in various
+countries.
+
+[Illustration: TAPESTRY, REPRESENTING PARIS IN THE 15TH CENTURY]
+
+The Gobelins work in Paris was inaugurated in the fifteenth century
+under Jean Gobelins, a native of Rheims. His son, Philibert, and
+later, many descendants persevered steadily at the work; the art
+prospered under Francis I., the whole force of tapestry weavers being
+brought together at Fontainebleau, and under Henry II., the direction
+of the whole was given to the celebrated artist Philibert Delorme. In
+1630 the Gobelins was fully established as a larger plant, and has
+never made another move. The work has increased ever since those days,
+on much the same general lines. Celebrated French artists have
+designed tapestries: Watteau, Boucher, and others were interpreted
+by the brilliant manager whose signature appears on the works,
+Cozette, who was manager from 1736 until 1792. With this technical
+perfection came the death of the art of tapestry: the pictures
+might as well have been painted on canvas, and all feeling for the
+material was lost, so that the naïve charm of the original workers
+ceased to be a part of the production.
+
+Among European collections now visible, the best is in Madrid,
+where over six hundred tapestries may be seen, chiefly Flemish,
+of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The collection at the
+Pitti Palace in Florence comprises six hundred, while in the Vatican
+are preserved the original Raphael tapestries. South Kensington
+Museum, too, is rich in interesting examples of various schools.
+It is a very helpful collection to students, especially, although
+not so large as some others.
+
+In 1663, "two well intended statutes" were introduced dealing with
+curiously opposite matters: one was to encourage linen and tapestry
+manufacture in England, and the other was "for regulating the packing
+of herrings!"
+
+The famous English Mortlake tapestry manufactory was not established
+until the seventeenth century, and that is rather late for us. The
+progress of craftsmanship has been steady, especially at the Gobelins
+in France. Many other centres of industry developed, however, in
+various countries. The study of modern tapestry is a branch by
+itself with which we are unable to concern ourselves now.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+EMBROIDERIES
+
+The materials used as groundwork for mediæval embroideries were
+rich in themselves. Samit was the favourite--shimmering, and woven
+originally of solid flat gold wire. Ciclatoun was also a brilliant
+textile, as also was Cendal. Cendal silk is spoken of by early
+writers.
+
+The first use of silk is interesting to trace. A monopoly, a veritable
+silk trust, was established in 533, in the Roman Empire. Women
+were employed at the Court of Justinian to preside over the looms,
+and the manufacture of silk was not allowed elsewhere. The only
+hindrance to this scheme was that the silk itself had to be brought
+from China. But in the reign of Justinian, two monks who had been
+travelling in the Orient, brought to the emperor, as curiosities,
+some silkworms and cocoons. They obtained some long hollow walking
+sticks, which they packed full of silkworms' eggs, and thus imported
+the producers of the raw material. The European silk industry, in
+fabrics, embroideries, velvets, and such commodities, may owe its
+origin to this bit of monastic enterprise in 550.
+
+Silk garments were very costly, however, and it was
+not every lady in early times who could have such luxuries. It is
+said that even the Emperor Aurelian refused his wife her request
+for just one single cloak of silk, saying: "No, I could never think
+of buying such a thing, for it sells for its weight in gold!"
+
+Fustian and taffeta were less costly, but frequently used in important
+work, as also were sarcenet and camora. Velvet and satin were of later
+date, not occurring until the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+Baudekin, a good silk and golden weave, was very popular.
+
+Cut velvets with elaborate patterns were made in Genoa. The process
+consisted in leaving the main ground in the original fine rib which
+resulted from weaving, while in the pattern these little ribs were
+split open, making that part of a different ply from the rest of
+the material, in fact, being the finished velvet as we now know
+it, while the ground remained uncut, and had more the appearance
+of silk reps. Velvet is first mentioned in England in 1295, but
+probably existed earlier on the Continent.
+
+Both Roger de Wendover and Matthew Paris mention a stuff called
+"imperial:" it was partly gold in weave, but there is some doubt
+as to its actual texture.
+
+Baudekin was a very costly textile of gold and silk which was used
+largely in altar coverings and hangings, such as dossals; by degrees
+the name became synonymous with "baldichin," and in Italy the whole
+altar canopy is still called a _baldachino_.
+
+During Royal Progresses the streets were always hung with rich cloth
+of gold. As Chaucer makes allusion to streets
+
+  "By ordinance throughout the city large
+   Hanged with cloth of gold, and not with serge,"
+
+so Leland tells how the Queen of Henry VII. was conducted to her
+coronation and "all the stretes through which she should pass were
+clenely dressed... with cloths of tapestry and Arras, and some
+stretes, as Cheepe, hanged with rich cloths of gold, velvetts,
+and silks." And in Machyn's Diary, he says that "as late as 1555
+at Bow church in London, was hangyd with cloth of gold and with
+rich Arras."
+
+The word "satin" is derived from the silks of the Mediterranean,
+called "aceytuni," which became "zetani" in Italian, and gradually
+changed through French and English influence, to "satin." The first
+mention of it in England is about 1350, when Bishop Grandison made
+a gift of choice satins to Exeter Cathedral.
+
+The Dalmatic of Charlemagne is embroidered on blue satin, although
+this is a rare early example of the material. At Constantinople,
+also, as early as 1204, Baldwin II. wore satin at his coronation.
+It was nearly always made in a fiery red in the early days. It
+is mentioned in a Welsh poem of the thirteenth century.
+
+Benjamin of Tudela, a traveller who wrote in 1161, mentions that
+the Jews were living in great numbers in Thebes, and that they
+made silks there at that time. There is record that in the late
+eleventh century a Norman Abbot brought home from Apulia a quantity
+of heavy and fine silk, from which four copes were made. French
+silks were not remarkable until the sixteenth century, while those
+of the Netherlands led all others as early as the thirteenth.
+
+Shot silks were popular in England in the sixteenth century. York
+Cathedral possessed, in 1543, a "vestment of changeable taffety
+for Good Friday."
+
+St. Dunstan is reported to have once "tinted" a sacerdotal vestment
+to oblige a lady, thus departing from his regular occupation as
+goldsmith to perform the office of a dyer of stuff.
+
+Many rich mediæval textiles were ornamented by designs, which usually
+show interlaces and animal forms, and sometimes conventional floral
+ornament. Patterns originated in the East, and, through Byzantine
+influence, in Italy, and Saracenic in Spain, they were adopted and
+modified by Europeans. In 1295 St. Paul's in London owned a hanging
+"patterned with wheels and two-headed birds." Sicilian silks, and
+many others of the contemporary textiles, display variations of
+the "tree of life" pattern. This consists of a little conventional
+shrub, sometimes hardly more than a "budding rod," with two birds
+or animals advancing vis-à-vis on either side. Sometimes these
+are two peacocks; often lions or leopards and frequently griffins
+and various smaller animals. Whenever one sees a little tree or
+a single stalk, no matter how conventionally treated, with a
+couple of matched animals strutting up to each other on either
+side, this pattern owes its origin to the old tradition of the
+decorative motive usual in Persia and in Byzantium, the Tree of
+Life, or Horn. The origin of patterns does not come within our
+scope, and has been excellently treated in the various books of
+Lewis Day, and other writers on this subject.
+
+Textiles of Italian manufacture may be seen represented in the
+paintings of the old masters: Orcagna, Francia, Crivelli, and others,
+who delighted in the rendering of rich stuffs; later, they abound
+in the creations of Veronese and Titian. A "favourite Italian
+vegetable," as Dr. Rock quaintly expresses it, is the artichoke,
+which, often, set in oval forms, is either outlined or worked solidly
+in the fabric.
+
+Almeria was a rich city in the thirteenth century, noted for its
+textiles. A historian of that period writes: "Christians of all
+nations came to its port to buy and to sell. From thence... they
+travelled to other parts of the interior of the country, where
+they loaded their vessels with such goods as they wanted. Costly
+silken robes of the brightest colours are manufactured in Almeria."
+Granada was famous too, a little later, for its silks and woven
+goods. About 1562 Navagiero wrote: "All sorts of cloth and silks
+are made there: the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all
+over Spain; they are not so good as those that come from Italy.
+There are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them
+well. They make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The
+velvets are not bad, but those that are made at Valencia are better
+in quality."
+
+Marco Polo says of the Persians in certain sections; "There are
+excellent artificers in the cities, who make wonderful things in
+gold, silk, and embroidery.... In veins of the mountains stones
+are found, commonly called turquoises, and other jewels. There
+also are made all sorts of arms and ammunition for war, and by the
+women excellent needlework in silks, with all sorts of creatures
+very admirably wrought therein." Marco Polo also reports the King
+of Tartary as wearing on his birthday a most precious garment of
+gold, while his barons wore the same, and had given them girdles of
+gold and silver, and "pearls and garments of great price." This Khan
+also "has the tenths of all wool, silk, and hemp, which he causes to
+be made into clothes, in a house for that purpose appointed: for
+all trades are bound one day in the week to serve him." He clothed
+his armies with this tythe wool.
+
+In Anglo-Saxon times a fabric composed of fine basket-weaving of
+thin flat strips of pure gold was used; sometimes the flat metal
+was woven on a warp of scarlet silk threads. Later strips of gilded
+parchment were fraudulently substituted for the genuine flat metal
+thread. Often the woof of gold strips was so solid and heavy that
+it was necessary to have a silk warp of six strands, to support
+its wear.
+
+Gold cloth was of varying excellence, however: among the items in
+an inventory for the Earl of Warwick in the time of Henry VI., there
+is allusion to "one coat for My Lord's body, beat with fine gold;
+two coats for heralds, beat with demi-gold."
+
+It is generally assumed that the first wire-drawing machines were
+made about 1360 in Germany; they were not used in England until
+about 1560. Theophilus, however, in the eleventh century, tells
+"Of the instruments through which wires are drawn," saying that
+they consist of "two irons, three fingers in breadth, narrow above
+and below, everywhere thin, and perforated with three or four ranges,
+through which holes wires are drawn." This would seem to be a primitive
+form of the more developed instrument. Wire drawing was introduced
+into England by Christian Schutz about 1560. In 1623 was incorporated
+in London, "The Worshipful Company of Gold and Silver Wire-Drawers."
+The preamble of their charter reads thus: "The Trade Art of Drawing
+and flattening of gold and silver wire, and making and spinning
+of gold and silver thread and stuffe." It seems as though there
+were some kind of work that corresponded to wire-drawing, earlier
+than its supposed introduction, for a petition was sent to King
+Henry VI. in 1423, by the "wise and worthy Communes of London, &
+the Wardens of Broderie in the said Citie," requesting protection
+against "deceit and default in the work of divers persons occupying
+the craft of embroidery;" and in 1461 "An act of Common Council
+was passed respecting the gold-drawers," showing that the art was
+known to some extent and practised at that time. In the reign of
+George II., in 1742, "An act to prevent the counterfeiting of gold
+and silver lace and for the settling and adjusting the proportions
+of fine silver and silk, and for the better making of gold and silver
+lace," was passed.
+
+Ecclesiastical vestments were often trimmed with heavy gold fringe,
+knotted "fretty wise," and the embroideries were further enriched
+with jewels and small plaques of enamel. Matthew Paris relates a
+circumstance of certain garments being so heavily weighted with
+gold that the clergy could not walk in them, and, in order to get
+the solid metal out again, it was necessary to burn the garments
+and thus melt the gold.
+
+Jewelled robes were often seen in the Middle Ages; a chasuble is
+described as having been made for the Abbot of St. Albans, in the
+twelfth century, which was practically covered with plaques of gold
+and precious stones. Imagine the unpleasant physical sensation
+of a bishop in 1404, who was obliged to wear a golden mitre of
+which the ground was set with large pearls, bordered with balas
+rubies, and sapphires, and trimmed with indefinite extra pearls!
+
+The body of St. Cecilia, who was martyred in 230, was interred in
+a garment of pure woven gold.
+
+The cloth of solid gold which was used for state occasions was
+called "tissue;" the thin paper in which it was wrapped when it
+was laid away was known as tissue paper, and Mr. William Maskell
+states that the name has clung to it, and that is why thin paper
+is called "tissue paper" to-day.
+
+St. Peter's in Rome possessed a great pair of silver curtains,
+which hung at the entrance to the church, given by Pope Stephen
+IV. in the eighth century.
+
+Vitruvius tells how to preserve the gold in old embroidery, or
+in worn-out textiles where the metal has been extensively used.
+He says: "When gold is embroidered on a garment which is worn out,
+and no longer fit for use, the cloth is burnt over the fire in
+earthen pots. The ashes are thrown into water, and quicksilver
+added to them. This collects all particles of gold, and unites
+with them. The water is then poured off, and the residuum placed
+in a cloth, which, when squeezed with the hands suffers the liquid
+quicksilver to pass through the pores of the cloth, but retains
+the gold in a mass within it."
+
+An early allusion to asbestos woven as a cloth is made by Marco
+Polo, showing that fire-proof fabrics were known in his time. In
+the province of Chinchintalas, "there is a mountain wherein are
+mines of steel... and also, as was reported, salamanders, of the
+wool of which cloth was made, which if cast into the fire, cannot
+burn. But that cloth is in reality made of stone in this manner,
+as one of my companions a Turk, named Curifar, a man endued with
+singular industry, informed me, who had charge of the minerals in
+that province. A certain mineral is found in that mountain which
+yields threads not unlike wool; and these being dried in the
+sun, are bruised in a brazen mortar, and afterwards washed, and
+whatsoever earthy substance sticks to them is taken away. Lastly,
+these threads are spun like ordinary wool, and woven into cloth.
+And when they would whiten those cloths, they cast them into the
+fire for an hour, and then take them out unhurt whiter than snow.
+After the same manner they cleanse them when they have taken any
+spots, for no other washing is used to them, besides the fire."
+
+In the Middle Ages it would have been possible, as Lady Alford
+suggests, to play the game "Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral" with
+textiles only! Between silk, hemp, cotton, gold, silver, wool,
+flax, camel's hair, and asbestos, surely the three elements all
+played their parts.
+
+Since the first record of Eve having "sewn fig leaves together to
+make aprons," women have used the needle in some form. In England,
+it is said that the first needles were made by an Indian, in 1545,
+before which time they were imported. The old play, "Gammer Gurton's
+Needle," is based upon the extreme rarity of these domestic implements,
+and the calamity occasioned in a family by their loss. There is a
+curious old story about a needle, which was supposed to possess
+magic powers. This needle is reported to have worked at night while
+its owner was resting, saving her all personal responsibility about
+her mending. When the old lady finally died, another owner claimed
+this charmed needle, and began at once to test its powers. But, do
+what she would, she was unable to force a thread through its obstinate
+eye. At last, after trying all possible means to thread the needle,
+she took a magnifying glass to examine and see what the impediment
+was, and, lo! the eye of the needle was filled with a great tear,--it
+was weeping for the loss of its old mistress, and no one was ever
+able to thread it again!
+
+Embroidery is usually regarded as strictly a woman's craft, but in
+the Middle Ages the leading needleworkers were often men. The old
+list of names given by Louis Farcy has almost an equal proportion of
+workers of both sexes. But the finest work was certainly accomplished
+by the conscientious dwellers in cloisters, and the nuns devoted
+their vast leisure in those days to this art. Fuller observes:
+"Nunneries were also good shee-schools, wherein the girls of the
+neighbourhood were taught to read and work... that the sharpnesse
+of their wits and suddennesse of their conceits (which even their
+enemies must allow unto them!) might by education be improved into
+a judicious solidity." In some of these schools the curriculum
+included "Reading and sewing, threepence a week: a penny extra
+for manners." An old thirteenth century work, called the "Kleine
+Heldenbuch," contains a verse which may be thus translated:
+
+  "Who taught me to embroider in a frame with silk?
+   And to draw and design the wild and tame
+   Beasts of the forest and field?
+   Also to picture on plain surface:
+   Round about to place golden borders,
+   A narrow and a broader one,
+   With stags and hinds lifelike."
+
+A study of historic embroidery should be preceded by a general knowledge
+of the principle stitches employed.
+
+One of the simplest forms was chain stitch, in which one stitch
+was taken through the loop of the stitch just laid. In the Middle
+Ages it was often used. Sometimes, when the material was of a loose
+weave, it was executed by means of a little hook--the probable
+origin of crochet.
+
+Tapestry stitch, of which one branch is cross-stitch, was formed by
+laying close single stitches of uniform size upon a canvas specially
+prepared for this work.
+
+[Illustration: EMBROIDERY ON CANVAS, 16TH CENTURY, SOUTH KENSINGTON
+MUSEUM]
+
+Fine embroidery in silk was usually executed in long smooth stitches
+of irregular length, which merged into each other. This is generally
+known as satin stitch, for the surface of the work is that of a satin
+texture when the work is completed. This was frequently executed
+upon linen, and then, when the entire surface had been hidden by the
+close silk stitches, it was cut out and transferred on a brocade
+background, this style of rendering being known as appliqué. Botticelli
+recommended this work as most durable and satisfactory: it is oftenest
+associated with church embroidery. A simple appliqué was also done
+by cutting out pieces of one material and applying them to another,
+hiding the edge-joinings by couching on a cord. As an improvement
+upon painted banners to be used in processions, Botticelli introduced
+this method of cutting out and resetting colours upon a different
+ground. As Vasari says: "This he did that the colors might not
+sink through, showing the tint of the cloth on each side." But
+Dr. Rock points out that it is hardly fair to earlier artificers
+to give the entire credit for this method of work to Botticelli,
+since such cut work or appliqué was practised in Italy a hundred
+years before Botticelli was born!
+
+Sometimes solid masses of silk or gold thread were laid in ordered
+flatness upon a material, and then sewn to it by long or short
+stitches at right angles. This is known as couching, and is a very
+effective way of economizing material by displaying it all on the
+surface. As a rule, however, the surface wears off somewhat, but
+it is possible to execute it so that it is as durable as embroidery
+which has been rendered in separate stitches.
+
+In Sicily it was a common practice to use coral in embroideries
+as well as pearls. Coral work is usually called Sicilian work,
+though it was also sometimes executed in Spain.
+
+The garments worn by the Byzantines were very ornate; they were
+made of woven silk and covered with elaborate devices. In the fourth
+century the Bishop of Amasia ridiculed the extravagant dress of his
+contemporaries. "When men appear in the streets thus dressed," he
+says, "the passers by look at them as at painted walls. Their clothes
+are pictures, which little children point out to one another. The
+saintlier sort wear likenesses of Christ, the Marriage of Galilee,
+and Lazarus raised from the dead." Allusion was made in a sermon:
+"Persons who arrayed themselves like painted walls" "with beasts and
+flowers all over them" were denounced!
+
+In the early Dark Ages there was some prejudice against these rich
+embroideries. In the sixth century the Bishop St. Cesaire of Arles
+forbade his nuns to embroider robes with precious stones or painting
+and flowers. King Withaf of Mercia willed to the Abbey of Croyland
+"my purple mantle which I wore at my Coronation, to be made into
+a cope, to be used by those who minister at the holy altar: and
+also my golden veil, embroidered with the Siege of Troy, to be
+hung up in the Church on my anniversary." St. Asterius preached to
+his people, "Strive to follow in your lives the teachings of the
+Gospel, rather than have the miracles of Our Redeemer embroidered
+on your outward dress!" This prejudice, however, was not long lived,
+and the embroidered vestments and garments continued to hold their
+popularity all through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
+
+It has been said on grave authority that "Woman is an animal that
+delights in the toilette," while Petrarch, in 1366, recognized the
+power of fashion over its votaries. "Who can see with patience,"
+he writes, "the monstrous fantastical inventions which people of
+our times have invented to deform rather than adorn their persons?
+Who can behold without indignation their long pointed shoes, their
+caps with feathers, their hair twisted and hanging down like
+tails,... their bellies so cruelly squeezed with cords that they
+suffer as much pain from vanity as the martyrs suffered for
+religion!" And yet who shall say whether a "dress-reform" Laura would
+have charmed any more surely the eye of the poet?
+
+Chaucer, in England, also deplores the fashions of his day, alluding
+to the "sinful costly array of clothing, namely, in too much superfluity
+or else indisordinate scantiness!" Changing fashions have always been
+the despair of writers who have tried to lay down rules for æsthetic
+effect in dress. "An Englishman," says Harrison, "endeavouring
+some time to write of our attire... when he saw what a difficult
+piece of work he had taken in hand, he gave over his travail, and
+onely drue a picture of a naked man unto whom he gave a pair of
+shears in the one hand and a piece of cloth in the other, to the
+end that he should shape his apparel after such fashion as himself
+liked, sith he could find no garment that could please him any
+while together: and this he called an Englishman."
+
+Edward the Confessor wore State robes which had been beautifully
+embroidered with gold by his accomplished wife, Edgitha. In the
+Royal Rolls of Edward III., in 1335, we find allusion to two vests
+of green velvet embroidered respectively with sea sirens and coats
+of arms. The tunics worn over armour offered great opportunities to
+the needleworker. They were richly embroidered, usually in heraldic
+style. When Symon, Bishop of Ely, performed the ceremony of Churching
+for Queen Philippa, the royal dame bestowed upon him the gown which
+she wore on that occasion; it is described as a murrey-coloured
+velvet, powdered with golden squirrels, and was of such voluminous
+pattern that it was cut over into three copes! Bridal gowns were
+sometimes given to churches, as well.
+
+St. Louis of France was what might be called temperate in dress.
+The Sire de Joinville says he "never saw a single embroidered coat
+or ornamented saddle in the possession of the king, and reproved
+his son for having such things. I replied that he would have acted
+better if he had given them in charity, and had his dress made of
+good sendal, lined and strengthened with his arms, like as the
+king his father had done!"
+
+At the marriage of the Lord of Touraine in 1389, the Duke of Burgundy
+presented magnificent habits and clothing to his nephew the Count
+of Nevers: among these were tunics, ornamented with embroidered
+trees conventionally displayed on their backs, fronts, and sleeves;
+others showed heraldic blazonry, while a blue velvet tunic was
+covered with balas rubies set in pearls, alternating with suns
+of solid gold with great solitaire pearls as centres. Again, in
+1390, when the king visited Dijon, he presented to the same nephew a
+set of harnesses for jousting. Some of them were composed largely of
+sheets of beaten gold and silver. In some gold and silver marguerites
+were introduced also.
+
+Savonarola reproved the Florentine nuns for employing
+their valuable time in manufacturing "gold laces with which to
+adorn persons and houses." The Florentine gold lace was very popular
+in England, in the days of Henry VIII., and later the art was taken
+up by the "wire-drawers" of England, and a native industry took the
+place of the imported article. Among prohibited gowns in Florence
+was one owned by Donna Francesca degli Albizi, "a black mantle of
+raised cloth: the ground is yellow, and over it are woven birds,
+parrots, butterflies, red and white roses, and many figures in
+vermilion and green, with pavilions and dragons, and yellow and
+black letters and trees, and many other figures of various colours,
+the whole lined with cloth in hues of black and vermilion." As
+one reads this description, it seems as though the artistic sense
+as much as conscientious scruples might have revolted and led to
+its banishment!
+
+Costumes for tournaments were also lavish in their splendour. In
+1467 Benedetto Salutati ordered made for such a pageant all the
+trappings for two horses, worked in two hundred pounds of silver
+by Pollajuolo; thirty pounds of pearls were also used to trim the
+garments of the sergeants. No wonder Savonarola was enthusiastic
+in his denunciation of such extravagance.
+
+Henry VIII. had "a pair of hose of purple silk and Venice gold,
+woven like a caul." For one of his favoured lady friends, also,
+there is an item, of a certain sum paid, for one pound of gold
+for embroidering a nightgown.
+
+The unrivalled excellence of English woollen cloths was made manifest
+at an early period. There was a fabric produced at Norwich of such
+superiority that a law was passed prohibiting monks from wearing it,
+the reason being that it was considered "smart enough for military
+men!" This was in 1422. The name of Worsted was given to a certain
+wool because it was made at Worsted, a town in Norfolk; later the
+"worsted thread" was sold for needleworkers.
+
+Ladies made their own gold thread in the Middle Ages by winding
+a fine flat gold wire, scarcely of more body than a foil, around
+a silk thread.
+
+Patches were embroidered into place upon such clothes or vestments
+as were torn: those who did this work were as well recognized as
+the original designers, and were called "healers" of clothes!
+
+Embroidered bed hangings were very much in order in mediæval times
+in England. In the eleventh century there lived a woman who had
+emigrated from the Hebrides, and who had the reputation for witchcraft,
+chiefly based upon the unusually exquisite needlework on her bed
+curtains! The name of this reputed sorceress was Thergunna. Bequests
+in important wills indicate the sumptuous styles which were usual
+among people of position. The Fair Maid of Kent left to her son her
+"new bed curtains of red velvet, embroidered with ostrich feathers
+of silver, and heads of leopards of gold," while in 1380 the Earl
+of March bequeathed his "large bed of black satin embroidered with
+white lions and gold roses, and the escutcheons of the arms of
+Mortimer and Ulster." This outfit must have resembled a Parisian
+"first class" funeral! The widow of Henry II. slept in a sort of
+mourning couch of black velvet, which must have made her feel as if
+she too were laid out for her own burial!
+
+A child's bedquilt was found mentioned in an inventory of furniture
+at the Priory of Durham, in 1446, which was embroidered in the
+four corners with the Evangelistic symbols. In the "Squier of Lowe
+Degree," a fifteenth century romance, there is allusion to a bed,
+of which the head sheet is described "with diamonds set and rubies
+bright." The king of England, in 1388, refers, in a letter, to "a bed
+of gold cloth." Wall hangings in bedrooms were also most elaborate,
+and the effect of a chamber adorned with gold and needlework must
+have been fairly regal. An embroiderer named Delobel made a set
+of furnishings for the bedroom of Louis XIV. the work upon which
+occupied three years. The subject was the Triumph of Venus.
+
+In South Kensington Museum there is a fourteenth century linen cloth
+of German workmanship, upon which occurs the legend of the unicorn,
+running for protection to a maiden. An old Bestiary describes how
+the unicorn, or as it is there called, the "monocerus," "is an
+animal which has one horn on its head: it is caught by means of
+a virgin." The unicorn and virgin, with a hunter in pursuit, is
+quite a favourite bit of symbolism in the middle ages.
+
+Another interesting piece of German embroidery in South Kensington
+is a table cloth, worked on heavy canvas, in heraldic style: long
+decorative inscriptions embellish the corners. A liberal translation
+of these verses is given by Dr. Rock, some of the sentences being
+quaint and interesting to quote. Evidently the embroideress indulged
+in autobiography in the following: "And she, to honour the esquire
+her husband, wished to adorn and increase his house furniture, and
+there has worked, with her own hand, this and still many other
+pretty cloths, to her memory." And in another corner, "Now follows
+here my own birthday. When one wrote 1565 my mother's heart was
+gladdened by my first cry. In the year 1585 I gave birth my self
+to a daughter. Her name is Emilia Catharina, and she has been a
+proper and praiseworthy child." Then, to her children the following
+address is directed: "Do not forget your prayers in the morning. And
+be temperate in your pleasures. And make yourselves acquainted with
+the Word of God.... I beseech you to be sincere in all matters. That
+will make you great and glorious. Honour everybody according to his
+station: it will make you honourably known. You, my truly beloved sons,
+beware of fiery wines... you, my truly beloved daughters, preserve
+and guard your honour, and reflect before you do anything: many have
+been led into evil by acting first and thinking afterwards." In
+another compartment, a lament goes up in which she deplores the
+death of her husband. "His age was sixty and eight years," she says.
+"The dropsy has killed him. I, his afflicted Anna Blickin von
+Liechtenperg who was left behind, have related it with my hand in
+this cloth, that might be known to my children this greater sorrow
+which God has sent me." The cloth is a naïve and unusual record of
+German home life.
+
+Ecclesiastical embroidery began in the fourth century. In earliest
+days the work was enhanced with quantities of gold thread. The shroud
+in which St. Cuthbert's body was wrapped is a mass of gold: a Latin
+inscription on the vestments in which the body was clad may be thus
+translated: "Queen to Alfred's son and successor, Edward the Elder,
+was one Aelflaed, who caused this stole and maniple to be made for a
+gift to Fridestan consecrated Bishop of Winchester, A. D. 905." The
+maniple is of "woven gold, with spaces left vacant for needlework
+embroidery." Such garments for burial were not uncommon; but they
+have as a rule perished from their long residence underground.
+St. Cuthbert's vestments are splendid examples of tenth century
+work in England. After the death of King Edward II., and his wife
+Aelflaed, Bishop Frithestan also having passed away, Athelstan, as
+King, made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Cuthbert and bestowed
+these valuable embroideries there. They were removed from the body
+of the saint in 1827. The style of the work inclines to Byzantine.
+The Saxon embroideries must have been very decorative: a robe is
+described by Aldhelme in 709, as "of a most delicate thread of
+purple, adorned with black circles and peacocks." At the church at
+Croyland some vestments were decorated with birds of gold cut out
+and appliqué and at Exeter they had "nothing about them but true
+needlework."
+
+In the "Liber Eliensis," in the Muniment room at Ely, is an account
+of a gift to the church by Queen Emma, the wife of King Knut, who
+"on a certain day came to Ely in a boat, accompanied by his wife
+the Queen Emma, and the chief nobles of his kingdom." This royal
+present was "a purple cloth worked with gold and set with jewels
+for St. Awdry's shrine," and the Monk Thomas assures us that "none
+other could be found in the kingdom of the English of such richness
+and beauty of workmanship."
+
+The various stitches in English work had their several names, the
+opus plumarium, or straight overlapping stitches, resembling the
+feathers of a bird; the opus pluvarium, or cross stitch, and many
+others. A great deal of work was accomplished by means of appliqué
+in satin and silk, and sometimes the ground was painted, as has
+already been described in Italian work. In the year 1246 Matthew
+Paris writes: "About this time the Lord Pope, Innocent IV., having
+observed that the ecclesiastical ornaments of some Englishmen,
+such as choristers' copes and mitres, were embroidered in gold
+thread, after a very desirable fashion, asked where these works
+were made, and received in answer, 'England.' Then," said the Pope,
+"England is surely a garden of delight for us; it is truly a never
+failing Spring, and there where many things abound much may be
+extorted." This far sighted Pope, with his semi-commercial views,
+availed himself of his discovery.
+
+In the days of Anastatius, ecclesiastical garments were spoken of
+by name according to the motive of their designs: for instance,
+the "peacock garment," the "elephant chasuble," and the "lion cope."
+Fuller tells of the use of a pall as an ecclesiastical vestment,
+remarking tersely: "It is made up of lamb's wool and superstition."
+
+Mediæval embroiderers in England got into certain habits of work, so
+that there are some designs which are almost as hall-marks to English
+work; the Cherubim over the wheel is especially characteristic, as
+is also the vase of lilies, and various heraldic devices which are
+less frequently found in the embroidered work of European peoples.
+
+The Syon Cope is perhaps the most conspicuous example of the mediæval
+embroiderer's art. It was made by nuns about the end of the thirteenth
+century, in a convent near Coventry. It is solid stitchery on a
+canvas ground, "wrought about with divers colours" on green. The
+design is laid out in a series of interlacing square forms, with
+rounded and barbed sides and corners. In each of these is a figure
+or a scriptural scene. The orphreys, or straight borders which go
+down both fronts of the cope, are decorated with heraldic charges.
+Much of the embroidery is raised, and wrought in the stitch known
+as Opus Anglicanum. The effect was produced by pressing a heated
+metal knob into the work at such points as were to be raised. The
+real embroidery was executed on a flat surface, and then bossed up
+by this means until it looked like bas-relief. The stitches in every
+part run in zig-zags, the vestments, and even the nimbi about the
+heads, are all executed with the stitches slanting in one direction,
+from the centre of the cope outward, without consideration of the
+positions of the figures. Each face is worked in circular progression
+outward from the centre, as well. The interlaces are of crimson, and
+look well on the green ground. The wheeled Cherubim is well developed
+in the design of this famous cope, and is a pleasing decorative bit of
+archaic ecclesiasticism. In the central design of the Crucifixion,
+the figure of the Lord is rendered in silver on a gold ground. The
+anatomy is according to the rules laid down by an old sermonizer,
+in a book entitled "The Festival," wherein it is stated that the
+body of Christ was "drawn on the cross as a skin of parchment on a
+harrow, so that all his bones might be told." With such instruction,
+there was nothing left for the mediæval embroiderers but to render
+the figure with as much realistic emaciation as possible.
+
+The heraldic ornaments on the Syon Cope are especially interesting
+to all students of this graceful art. It is not our purpose here
+to make much allusion to this aspect of the work, but it is of
+general interest to know that on the orphreys, the devices of most
+of the noble families of that day appear.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF THE SYON COPE]
+
+English embroidery fell off greatly in excellence during the Wars
+of the Roses. In the later somewhat degenerate raised embroidery,
+it was customary to represent the hair of angels by little tufted
+curls of auburn silk!
+
+Many of the most important examples of ancient ecclesiastical embroidery
+are in South Kensington Museum. A pair of orphreys of the fifteenth
+century, of German work (probably made at Cologne), shows a little
+choir of angels playing on musical instruments. These figures are
+cut out and applied on crimson silk, in what was called "cut work."
+This differed entirely from what modern embroiderers mean by cut
+work, as has been explained.
+
+The Dalmatic of Charlemagne is given by Louis Farcy to the twelfth
+century. He calls it the Dalmatic of Leo III. But Lady Alford claims
+for this work a greater antiquity. Certainly, as one studies its
+details, one is convinced that it is not quite a Gothic work, nor
+yet is it Byzantine; for the figures have all the grace of Greek
+work prior to the age of Byzantine stiffness. It is embroidered
+chiefly in gold, on a delicate bluish satin ground, and has not
+been transferred, although it has been carefully restored. The
+central ornament on the front is a circular composition, and the
+arrangement of the figures both here and on the back suggests that
+Sir Edward Burne Jones must have made a study of this magnificent
+dalmatic, from which it would seem that much of his inspiration
+might have been drawn. The composition is singularly restful and
+rhythmical. The little black outlines to the white silk faces, and
+to the glowing figures, give this work a peculiarly decorative
+quality, not often seen in other embroideries of the period. It is
+unique and one of the most valuable examples of its art in the world.
+It is now in the Treasury of the Vatican. When Charlemagne sang the
+Gospel at High Mass on the day of his Coronation, this was his
+vestment. It must have been a strangely gorgeous sight when Cola di
+Rienzi, according to Lord Lindsay, took this dalmatic, and placed it
+over his armour, and, with his crown and truncheon, ascended to the
+palace of the Popes!
+
+A very curious Italian piece of the fourteenth century is an altar
+frontal, on which the subjects introduced are strange. It displays
+scenes from the life of St. Ubaldo, with some incidents also in
+that of St. Julian Hospitaler. St. Ubaldo is seen forgiving a mason
+who, having run a wall across his private grounds, had knocked
+the saint down for remonstrating. Another scene shows the death
+bed of the saint, and the conversion of a possessed man at the
+foot of the bed: a lady is throwing her arms above her head in
+astonishment while the evil spirit flies from its victim into the
+air. Later, the saint is seen going to the grave in a cart drawn
+by oxen.
+
+[Illustration: DALMATIC OF CHARLEMAGNE]
+
+The peacock was symbolical both of knightly vigilance and of Christian
+watchfulness. An old Anglo-Norman, Osmont, writes: "The eye-speckled
+feathers should warn a man that never too often can he have his
+eyes wide open, and gaze inwardly upon his own heart." These
+dear people were so introspective and self-conscious, always looking
+for trouble--in their own motives, even--that no doubt many good
+impulses perished unnoticed, while the originator was chasing mental
+phantoms of heresy and impurity.
+
+Painting and jewelry were sometimes introduced in connection with
+embroideries. In the celebrated Cope of St. John Lateran, the faces
+and hands of the personages are rendered in painting; but this
+method was more generally adopted in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, when sincerity counted for less than effect, and when
+genuine religious fervour for giving one's time and best labour to
+the Lord's service no longer dominated the workers. Gold thread was
+used extensively in English work, and spangles were added at quite
+an early period, as well as actual jewels set in floral designs.
+The finest work was accomplished in the Gothic period, before the
+Renaissance came with its aimless scrolls to detract from the dignity
+of churchly ornament.
+
+In the sixteenth century the winged angels have often a degenerate
+similitude to tightly laced coryphées, who balance themselves upon
+their wheels as if they were performing a vaudeville turn. They
+are not as dignified as their archaic predecessors.
+
+Very rich funeral palls were in vogue in the sixteenth century. A
+description of Prince Arthur's burial in 1502 relates how numerous
+palls were bestowed, apparently much as friends would send wreaths
+or important floral tributes to-day. "The Lord Powys went to the
+Queere Doore," writes Leland, "where two gentlemen ushers delivered
+him a riche pall of cloth of gould of tissue, which he offered to
+the corpse, where two Officers of the Armes received it, and laid it
+along the corpse. The Lord Dudley in like manner offered a pall...
+the Lord Grey Ruthen offered another, and every each of the three
+Earls offered to the corpse three palls of the same cloth of gould...
+all the palls were layd crosse over the corpse."
+
+The account of the obsequies of Henry VII. also contains mention
+of these funeral palls: the Earls and Dukes came in procession,
+from the Vestry, with "certain palls, which everie of them did
+bring solemnly between their hands and coming in order one before
+another as they were in degree, unto the said herse, they kissed
+their said palls... and laid them upon the King's corpse." At Ann
+of Cleves' burial the same thing was repeated, in 1557. Finally
+these rich shimmering hangings came to be known in England as "cloth
+of pall," whether they were used for funerals or coronations, for
+bridals or pageants.
+
+The London City Guilds possessed magnificent palls; especially
+well known is that of the Fishmongers, with its kneeling angels
+swinging censers; this pall is frequently reproduced in works on
+embroidery. It is embroidered magnificently with angels, saints,
+and strange to say, mermaids. The peacock's wings of the angels
+make a most decorative feature in this famous piece of old
+embroidery. The Arms of the Company are also emblazoned.
+
+French embroiderers are known by name in many instances; in 1299
+allusion was made to "Clement le Brodeur," who furnished a cope for
+the Count of Artois, and in 1316 a magnificent set of hangings was
+made for the Queen, by one Gautier de Poulleigny. Nicolas Waquier was
+armourer and embroiderer to King John in 1352. Among Court workers in
+1384 were Perrin Gale, and Henriet Gautier. In the "Book of Rules"
+by Etienne Boileau, governing the "Embroiderers and embroideresses
+of the City of Paris," one of the chief laws was that no work should
+be permitted in the evening, "because the work of the night cannot
+be so good or so satisfactory as that accomplished in the day."
+When one remembers the facilities for evening lighting in the middle
+ages, one fully appreciates the truth of this statement.
+
+Matthew Paris, in his Life of St. Alban, tells of an excellent
+embroideress, Christine, Prioress of Margate, who lived in the
+middle of the twelfth century. In the thirteenth century several
+names occur. Adam de Bazinge made, in 1241, by order of Henry III.
+of England, a cope for the Bishop of Hereford. Cunegonde, Abbess
+of Goss, in Styria, accomplished numerous important works in that
+period. Also, Henry III. employed Jean de Sumercote to make jewelled
+robes of state.
+
+On a certain thirteenth century chasuble are the words
+"Penne fit me" (Penne made me), pointing to the existence of a
+needleworker of that name. Among the names of the fourteenth century
+are those of Gautier de Bruceles, Renier de Treit, Gautier de Poulogne,
+and Jean de Laon, while Jean Harent of Calais is recorded as having
+worked, for Mme. d'Artois, in 1319, a robe decorated "a bestelettes
+et a testes." These names prove that the art had been taught in
+many cities and countries: Ogier de Gant, Jean de Savoie, Etienne
+le Hongre, and Roger de Varennes, all suggest a cosmopolitan and
+dispersed number of workers, who finally all appeared in Paris.
+
+René d'Anjou had in his employ a worker in embroidery, named Pierre
+du Villant. This artist executed a set of needlework pieces for
+the Cathedral of Angers, of such important proportions that they
+were known collectively as "La Grande Broderie." In 1462, when
+they were put in place, a special mass was performed by way of a
+dedication. The letter which accompanied this princely donation
+contained the following sentences: "We, René, by the Grace of God...
+give... to this church... the adornments for a chapell all composd
+of golden embroidery, comprising five pieces" (which are enumerated)
+"and an altar cloth illustrated with scenes from the Passion of
+Our Saviour.... Given in our castle in Angers, the fourth day of
+March, 1462. René."
+
+[Illustration: EMBROIDERY, 15TH CENTURY, COLOGNE]
+
+In 1479 another altar frontal was presented. Two other rich chapels
+were endowed by René. One was known as La Chapelle Joyeuse, and the
+other as La Grande Chapelle des Trépassés. It is likely that the
+same embroiderer executed the pieces of all these.
+
+A guild of embroiderers was in standing in Seville in 1433, where
+Ordinances were enforced to protect from fraud and otherwise to
+regulate this industry. The same laws were in existence in Toledo.
+One of the finest and largest pieces of embroidery in Spain is
+known as the Tent of Ferdinand and Isabella. This was used in 1488,
+when certain English Ambassadors were entertained. The following
+is their description of its use. "After the tilting was over, the
+majesties returned to the palace, and took the Ambassadors with
+them, and entered a large room... and there they sat under a rich
+cloth of state of crimson velvet, richly embroidered, with the
+arms of Castile and Aragon."
+
+A curious effect must have been produced by a piece of embroidery
+described in the inventory of Charles V., as "two little pillows
+with savage beasts having the heads of armed men, and garnished
+with pearls."
+
+After the Reformation it became customary to use ecclesiastical
+ornaments for domestic purposes. Heylin, in his "History of the
+Reformation," makes mention of many "private men's parlours" which
+"were hung with altar cloths, and their tables and beds covered
+with copes instead of carpetts and coverlids."
+
+Katherine of Aragon, while the wife of Henry VIII., consoled herself
+in her unsatisfactory life by needlework: it is related that she
+and her ladies "occupied themselves working with their own hands
+something wrought in needlework, costly and artificially, which she
+intended to the honour of God to bestow upon some churches."
+Katherine of Aragon was such a devoted needlewoman, in fact, that on
+one occasion Burnet records that she stepped out to speak to two
+ambassadors, with a skein of silk about her neck, and explained that
+she had been embroidering with her ladies when they were announced.
+In an old sonnet she is thus commemorated:
+
+  "She to the eighth king Henry married was
+   And afterwards divorced, when virtuously,
+   Although a queen, yet she her days did pass
+   In working with the needle curiously."
+
+Queen Elizabeth was also a clever embroiderer; she worked a book-cover
+for Katherine Parr, bearing the initials K. P., and it is now in
+the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
+
+Mary Queen of Scots was also said to be skilful with her needle;
+in fact it seems to have been the consolation of most queens in
+their restricted existence in those centuries. Dr. Rock considers
+that the "corporal" which Mary Queen of Scots had bound about her
+eyes at the time of her execution, was in reality a piece of her own
+needle-work, probably wrought upon fine linen. Knight, in describing
+the scene in his "Picturesque History of England," says: "Then the
+maid Kennedy took a handkerchief edged with gold, in which the
+Eucharist had formerly been enclosed, and fastened it over her eyes;"
+so accounts differ and traditions allow considerable scope for varied
+preferred interpretation.
+
+It is stated that Catherine de Medicis was fond of needlework,
+passing her evenings embroidering in silk "which was as perfect
+as was possible," says Brantôme.
+
+Anne of Brittany instructed three hundred of the children of the
+nobles at her court, in the use of the needle. These children produced
+several tapestries, which were presented by the queen to various
+churches.
+
+The volatile Countess of Shrewsbury, the much married "Bess of
+Hardwick," was a good embroideress, who worked, probably, in company
+with the Queen of Scots when that unfortunate woman was under the
+guardianship of the Earl of Shrewsbury. One of these pieces is
+signed E. S., and dated 1590.
+
+A form of intricate pattern embroidery in black silk on fine linen
+was executed in Spain in the sixteenth century, and was known as
+"black work." Viscount Falkland owns some important specimens of
+this curious work. It was introduced into England by Katherine of
+Aragon, and became very popular, being exceedingly suitable and
+serviceable for personal adornment. The black was often relieved
+by gold or silver thread.
+
+The Petit Point, or single square stitch on canvas, became popular
+in England during the reign Elizabeth. It suggested Gobelins tapestry,
+on a small scale, when finished, although the method of execution
+is quite different, being needlework pure and simple.
+
+In Elizabeth's time was incorporated the London
+Company of Broderers, which flourished until about the reign of
+Charles I., when there is a complaint registered that "trade was
+so much decayed and grown out of use, that a great part of the
+company, for want of employment, were much impoverished."
+
+Raised embroidery, when it was padded with cotton, was called Stump
+Work. This was made extensively by the nuns of Little Gidding in
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Decided changes and
+developments took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+in all forms of embroidery, but these are not for us to consider
+at present. A study of historic samples alone is most tempting,
+but there is no space for the intrusion of any subject much later
+than the Renaissance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+SCULPTURE IN STONE
+
+(_France and Italy_)
+
+Sculpture is not properly speaking the "plastic art," as is often
+understood. The real meaning of sculpture is work which is cut
+into form, whereas plastic art is work that is moulded or cast
+into form. Terra cotta, which is afterwards baked, is plastic;
+and yet becomes hard; thus a Tanagra figurine is an example of
+plastic art, while a Florentine marble statuette is a product of
+sculpture. The two are often confounded. We shall allude to them
+under different heads, taking for our consideration now only such
+sculpture as is the result of cutting in the stone. The work of
+Luca Della Robbia will not be treated as sculpture in this book.
+Luca Della Robbia is a worker in plastic art, while Adam Kraft,
+hewing directly at the stone, is a sculptor.
+
+We have no occasion to study the art of the sculptor who produces
+actual statues; only so far as sculpture is a companion to architecture,
+and a decorative art, does it come within the scope of the arts and
+crafts. Figure sculpture, then, is only considered when strictly
+of a monumental character.
+
+In attacking such a subject as sculpture in the Middle Ages it
+is impossible to do more than indicate the general tendencies in
+different countries. But there are certain defined characteristics an
+observance of which will make clear to any reader various fundamental
+principles by which it is easy to determine the approximate age and
+style of works.
+
+In the first place, the great general rule of treatment of stone
+in the North and in the South is to be mentioned. In the Northern
+countries, France, Germany, and England, the stone which was employed
+for buildings and their decorations was obtainable in large blocks
+and masses; it was what, for our purposes, we will call ordinary
+stone, and could be used in the solid; therefore it was possible
+for carving in the North to be rendered as deeply and as roundly as
+the sculptor desired. In Southern countries, however, and chiefly in
+Italy, the stone used for building was not ordinary, but semi-precious
+stone. Marble, porphyry, and alabaster were available; and the use
+of such material led to a different ideal in architecture and
+decoration,--that of incrustation instead of solid piling. These
+valuable stones of Italy could not be used, generally speaking,
+in vast blocks, into which the chisel was at liberty to plough as
+it pleased; when a mass of marble or alabaster was obtained, the
+æsthetic soul of the Italian craftsman revolted against shutting
+up all that beauty of veining and texture in the confines of a
+solid square, of which only the two sides should ever be visible,
+and often only one. So he cut his precious block into slices: made
+slabs and shallow surfaces of it, and these he laid, as an outward
+adornment to his building, upon a substructure of brick or rubble.
+
+It is easy to perceive, then, the difference of the problem of the
+sculptors of the North and the South. The plain, solid Northern
+building was capable of unlimited enrichment by carving; this carving,
+when deeply cut, with forcible projection, acted as a noble
+embellishment in which the principal feature was a varied play of
+light and shade; the stone having little charm of colour or texture
+in itself, depended for its beauty entirely upon its bold relief,
+its rounded statuary, and its well shaped chiselled ornament. The
+shallow surface, already beautiful, both in colour and texture,
+in the Southern building material, called only for enrichment in
+low relief: ornament only slightly raised from the level or simply
+perforating the thin slab of glowing stone on which it was used
+was the more usual choice of the Italian craftsman.
+
+This statement applies, of course, only to general principles of
+the art of sculpture; there is some flat bas-relief in the North,
+and some rounded sculpture in the South; but as a rule the tendencies
+are as they have just been outlined.
+
+Another difference between sculpture in the North and South is
+due to the fact that in Italy the work was individual, as a rule,
+and in France it was the labour of a Guild or company. In Italy
+it is usually known who was the author of any striking piece of
+sculpture, while in France it is the exception when a work is signed,
+or the names of artisans recorded. In Italy, then, each piece was
+made more with a view to its own display, than as a part of a
+building, while in France statuary was regarded as an integral part
+of the architecture, and rows of figures were used as commonly as
+rows of columns in Italy. It is tragic to think of the personal skill
+and brilliancy of all these great French craftsmen being absorbed in
+one general reputation, while there were undoubtedly among them great
+art personalities who would have stood equally with the Pisani if
+they had been recognized.
+
+A good deal of flat carving, especially in the interlace and acanthus
+of Ravenna, was accomplished by commencing with a series of drilled
+holes, which were afterwards channelled into each other and formed
+patterns. When the subsequent finish is not particularly delicate,
+it is quite easy to detect these symmetrical holes, but the effect,
+under the circumstances, is not objectionable.
+
+[Illustration: CARVED CAPITAL FROM RAVENNA]
+
+The process of cutting a bas-relief was generally to outline the
+whole with an incision, and then cut away the background, leaving
+the simple elevated flat value, the shape of the proposed design.
+The modelling was then added by degrees, until the figure looked
+like half of a rounded object. While it is often unpractical to refer
+one's readers to examples of work in far and various countries, and
+advise them instantly to examine them, it is frequently possible
+to call attention to well-produced plates in certain modern
+art books which are in nearly every public library. To understand
+thoroughly the use of the drill in flat sculpture, I wish my
+readers would refer to Fig. 121 in Mr. Russell Sturgis's "Artist's
+Way of Working," Vol. II.
+
+In a quaint treatise on Belles Lettres in France nearly two centuries
+ago, by Carlencas, the writer says: "It is to no great purpose to
+speak of the Gothick sculptures: for everybody knows that they
+are the works of a rude art, formed in spite of nature and rules:
+sad productions of barbrous and dull spirits, which disfigure our
+old churches." Fie on a Frenchman who could so express himself! We
+recall the story of how Viollet le Duc made the people of Paris
+appreciate the wonderful carvings on Notre Dame. All the rage in
+France was for Greek and Roman remains, and the people persisted
+in their adoration of the antique, but would not deign to look
+nearer home, at their great mediæval works of art. So the architect
+had plaster casts made of the principal figures on the cathedral,
+and these were treated so as to look like ancient marble statues;
+he then opened an exhibition, purporting to show new discoveries
+and excavations among antiques. The exhibition was thronged, and
+everyone was deeply interested, expressing the greatest admiration
+for the marvellously expressive sculptures. Viollet le Duc then
+admitted what he had done, and confessing that these treasures
+were to be found in their native city, advised them to pay more
+attention to the beauties of Gothic art in Paris.
+
+We will not enter into a discussion of the relative merits of Northern
+and Southern art; whether the great revival really originated in
+France or Italy; but this is certain: Nicolo Pisano lived in the
+latter half of the thirteenth century, while the great sculptures
+of Notre Dame, Paris, and those of Chartres, were executed half
+a century earlier.
+
+But prior to either were the Byzantine and Romanesque sculptures
+in Italy and Southern France. Our attention must first be turned
+to them. Charles Eliot Norton's definition of this word Romanesque
+is as satisfactory as any that could be instanced: "It very nearly
+corresponds to the term of Romance as applied to language. It signifies
+the derivation of the main elements, both in plan and construction,
+from the works of the later Roman Empire. But Romanesque architecture"
+(and this applies equally to sculpture) "was not, as it has been
+called, a corrupted imitation of the Roman architecture, any more
+than the Provençal or the Italian language was a corrupted imitation
+of the Latin. It was a new thing, the slowly matured product of
+a long period of many influences."
+
+All mediæval carving was subordinate to architecture, therefore
+every piece of carving was designed with a view to being suitable to
+appear in some special place. The most striking difference between
+mediæval and later sculpture is that the latter is designed as
+a thing apart, an object to be stood anywhere to be admired for
+its intrinsic merit, instead of being a functional component
+in a general scheme for beautifying a given building.
+
+The use of the interlace in all primitive arts is very interesting.
+It undoubtedly began in an unconscious imitation of local architecture.
+For instance, in the British Isles, the building in earliest times
+was with wattles: practically walls of basket work. William of
+Malmsbury says that Glastonbury was "a mean structure of wattle
+work," while of the Monastery of Iona, it is related that in 563,
+Columba "sent forth his monks to gather twigs to build his hospice."
+British baskets were famous even so far away as Rome. So the first
+idea of ornament was to copy the interlacing forms. The same idea
+was worked out synchronously in metal work, and in illuminated
+books. Carving in stone, wood, and ivory, show the same influence.
+
+Debased Roman sculptural forms were used in Italy during the fourth
+and fifth centuries. Then Justinian introduced the Byzantine which
+was grafted upon the Roman, producing a characteristic and fascinating
+though barbaric combination. This was the Romanesque, or
+Romano-Byzantine, in the North of Italy generally being recognized
+as the Lombard style. The sculptures of this period, from the fifth
+to the thirteenth century, are blunt and heavy, but full of quaint
+expression due to the elemental and immature conditions of the
+art. Many of the old Byzantine carvings are to be seen in Italy.
+
+The Lombards, when invading Northern Italy,
+brought with them a mighty smith, Paul the Deacon, who had much
+skill with the hammer. When these rude Norsemen found themselves
+among the æsthetic treasures of Byzantium, and saw the fair Italian
+marbles, and the stately work of Theodoric and Justinian, they were
+inflamed with zeal for artistic expression, and began to hew and
+carve rough but spirited forms out of the Pisan and Carrara stones.
+The animals which they sculptured were, as Ruskin has said, "all alive:
+hungry and fierce, wild, with a life-like spring." The Byzantine
+work was quiescent: the designs formal, decent, and monumental. But
+the Lombards threw into their work their own restless energy, and
+some of their cruelty and relentlessness. Queen Theodolinda, in
+her palace at Monza, encouraged the arts; it was because of her
+appreciative comprehension of such things that St. Gregory sent
+her the famous Iron Crown, of which a description has been given, on
+the occasion of the baptism of her son. Under the influence of these
+subsequently civilized barbarians many of the greatest specimens of
+carving in North Italy came into being. The most delightful little
+stumpy saints and sacred emblems may be found on the façade of
+St. Michele at Pavia, and also at Lucca, and on the Baptistery
+at Parma. The sculptor who produced these works at Parma was a
+very interesting craftsman, named Antelami. His Descent from the
+Cross is one of the most striking pieces of early sculpture before
+the Pisani. He lived in the twelfth century. The figures are of
+Byzantine proportions and forms, but have a good deal of grace and
+suggestion of movement.
+
+Among the early names known in Italy is that of Magister Orso,
+of Verona. Another, in the ninth century, was Magister Pacifico,
+and in the twelfth there came Guglielmus, who carved the charming
+naïve wild hunting scenes on the portal of St. Zeno of Verona.
+These reliefs represent Theodoric on horseback, followed by an
+able company of men and horses which, according to legend, were
+supplied by the infernal powers. The eyes of these fugitives have
+much expression, being rendered with a drill, and standing out
+in the design as little black holes--fierce and effective.
+
+There is a fine round window at St. Zeno at Verona, designed and
+executed by one Briolottus, which, intended to represent the Wheel
+of Fortune, is decorated all over with little clinging figures,
+some falling and some climbing, and has the motto: "I elevate some
+mortals and depose others: I give good or evil to all: I clothe
+the naked and strip the clothed: in me if any one trust he will
+be turned to derision."
+
+Perhaps the most wonderful carvings on the church of St. Zeno at
+Verona are over the arched entrance to the crypt. These, being
+chiefly grotesque animal forms, are signed by Adaminus. Among the
+humourous little conceits is a couple of strutting cocks carrying
+between them a dead fox slung on a rod. Ruskin has characterized
+the carvings at Verona, especially those on the porch, as being
+among the best examples of the true function of flat decorative
+carving in stone. He says: "The primary condition is that the mass
+shall be beautifully rounded, and disposed with due discretion and
+order;... sculpture is essentially the production of a pleasant
+bossiness or roundness of surface. The pleasantness of that bossy
+condition to the eye is irrespective of imitation on one side, and
+of structure on the other." The more one considers this statement,
+the more he is convinced of its comprehensiveness. If the lights
+and shadows fall pleasantly, how little one stops to inquire, "What
+is the subject? Do I consider that horse well proportioned, or do
+I not? Is that woman in good drawing?" Effectiveness is almost
+independent of detail, except as that detail affects the law of
+proportion. There are varying degrees of relief: from flat (where
+the ornament is hardly more than incised, and the background planed
+away) to a practically solid round figure cut almost entirely free
+of its ground.
+
+In Venice, until the revival in the thirteenth century, the Greek
+Byzantine influence was marked. There is no more complete storehouse
+of the art of the East adapted to mediæval conditions than the
+Church of St. Mark's. If space permitted, nothing could be more
+delightful than to examine in detail these marvellous capitals and
+archivolts which Ruskin has so lovingly immortalized for English
+readers. Of all decorative sculpture there is none more satisfying
+from the ornamental point of view than the Byzantine interlace
+and vine forms so usual in Venice. The only place where these
+may be seen to even greater advantage is Ravenna. The pierced
+marble screens and capitals, with their restful combinations of
+interlacing bands and delicate foliate forms, are nowhere surpassed.
+The use of the acanthus leaf conventionalized in a strictly primitive
+fashion characterizes most of the Byzantine work in Italy. With
+these are combined delightful stiff peacocks, and curious bunches
+of grapes, rosettes, and animal forms of quaint grotesqueness.
+Such work exemplifies specially what has been said regarding the
+use of flat thin slabs for sculptural purposes in the South of
+Europe. Nearly all these carvings are executed in fine marbles
+and alabasters. The chief works of this period in the round are
+lions and gryphons supporting columns as at Ancona and Perugia,
+and many other Italian cities.
+
+In Rome there were several sculptors of the name of Peter. One
+of them, Peter Amabilis, worked about 1197; and another, Peter
+le Orfever, went to England and worked on the tomb of Edward the
+Confessor at Westminster.
+
+In Bologna is an interesting crucifix probably carved in the eighth
+or ninth century. Christ's figure is upon the cross and that of
+his mother stands near. The sculptor was Petrus Albericus. On the
+cross is an inscription in the form of a dialogue: "My son?" "What,
+Mother?" "Are you God?" "I am." "Why do you hang on the cross?"
+"That Mankind may not perish."
+
+The Masters of Stone and Wood were among the early Guilds and
+Corporations of Florence. Charlemagne patronized this industry and
+helped to develop it. Of craftsmen in these two branches exclusive
+of master builders, and recognized artists, there were, in 1299,
+about a hundred and forty-six members of the Guild.
+
+Italy was backward for a good while in the progress of art, for
+while great activities were going on in the North, the Doge of
+Venice in 976 was obliged to import artists from Constantinople
+to decorate St. Mark's church.
+
+The tombs of this early period in Italy, as elsewhere, are significant
+and beautiful. Recumbent figures, with their hands devoutly pressed
+together, are usually seen, lying sometimes on couches and sometimes
+under architectural canopies.
+
+The first great original Italian sculptor of the Renaissance was
+Nicola Pisano. He lived through almost the whole of the thirteenth
+century, being born about 1204, and dying in 1278. What were the
+early influences of Nicola Pisano, that helped to make him so much
+more more modern, more truly classic, than any of his age? In the
+first place, he was born at the moment when interest in ancient
+art was beginning to awaken; the early thirteenth century. In the
+Campo Santo of Pisa may be seen two of the most potent factors in
+his æsthetic education, the Greek sarcophagus on which was carved the
+Hunting of Meleager, and the Greek urn with Bacchic figures wreathing
+it in classic symmetry. With his mind tuned to the beautiful, the
+boy Nioola gazed at the work of genuine pagan Greek artists,
+who knew the sinuousness of the human form and the joy of living
+with no thought of the morrow. These joyous pagan elements, grafted
+on solemn religious surroundings and influences, combined to produce
+his peculiar genius. Basing his early endeavours on these specimens
+of genuine classical Greek art, there resulted his wonderful pulpits
+at Pisa and Siena, and his matchlessly graceful little Madonnas
+denote the Hellenistic sentiment for beauty. His work was a marked
+departure from the Byzantine and Romanesque work which constituted
+Italian sculpture up to that period. An examination of his designs
+and methods proves his immense originality. By profession he was
+an architect. Of his pulpit in Siena Charles Eliot Norton speaks
+with much appreciation. Alluding to the lions used as bases to its
+columns, he says: "These are the first realistic representations
+of living animals which the mediæval revival of art has produced;
+and in vivacity and energy of rendering, and in the thoroughly
+artistic treatment of leonine spirit and form, they have never
+been surpassed." It is usually claimed that one may learn much of
+the rise of Gothic sculpture by studying the models in the South
+Kensington Museum. In a foot-note to such a statement in a book
+edited by Ruskin, the indignant editor has observed, "You cannot
+do anything of the kind. Pisan sculpture can only be studied in
+the original marble: half its virtue is in the chiselling!" Nicola
+was assisted in the work on his shrine of St. Dominic at Bologna
+by one Fra Guglielmo Agnelli, a monk of a very pious turn, who,
+nevertheless, committed a curious theft, which was never discovered
+until his own death-bed confession. He absconded with a bone of
+St. Dominic, which he kept for private devotions all his subsequent
+life! An old chronicler says, naïvely: "If piety can absolve from
+theft, Fra Guglielmo is to be praised, though never to be imitated."
+
+[Illustration: PULPIT OF NICOLA PISANO, PISA]
+
+Andrea Pisano was Nicola's greatest scholar, though not his son.
+He took the name of his master after the mediæval custom. His work
+was largely in bronze, and the earlier gates of the Baptistery in
+Florence are by him. We have already alluded to the later gates
+by Ghiberti, when speaking of bronze. Andrea had the honour to
+teach the celebrated Orcagna,--more painter than sculptor,--whose
+most noted work in this line was the Tabernacle at Or San Michele.
+Among the loveliest of the figures sculptured by the Pisani are
+the angels standing in a group, blowing trumpets, on the pulpit at
+Pistoja, the work of Giovanni. Among Nicola's pupils were his son
+Giovanni, Donatello, Arnolfo di Cambio, and Lorenzo Maitani, who
+executed the delightful sculptures on the façade of the Cathedral
+of Orvieto,--perhaps the most interesting set of bas-reliefs in
+detail of the Early Renaissance, although in general symmetrical
+"bossiness" of effect, so much approved by Ruskin, they are very
+uneven. In this respect they come rather under the head of realistic
+than of decorative art.
+
+Lorenzo Maitani was a genuine leader of his guild of craftsmen,
+and superintended the large body of architects who worked at
+Orvieto, stone masons, mosaicists, bronze founders, painters,
+and minor workmen. He lived until 1330, and practically devoted
+his life to Orvieto. It is uncertain whether any of the Pisani
+were employed in any capacity, although for a time it was
+popularly supposed that the four piers on the façade were their
+work. An iconographic description of these sculptures would occupy
+too much time here, but one or two features of special interest
+should be noted: the little portrait relief of the master Maitani
+himself occurs on the fourth pier, among the Elect in heaven, wearing
+his workman's cap and carrying his architect's square. Only his
+head and shoulders can be seen at the extreme left of the second
+tier of sculptures. In accordance with an early tradition, that
+Virgil was in some wise a prophet, and that he had foretold the
+coming of Christ, he is here introduced, on the second pier, near
+the base, crowned with laurel. The incident of the cutting off of
+the servant's ear, by Peter, is positively entertaining. Peter
+is sawing away industriously at the offending member; a fisherman
+ought to understand a more deft use of the knife! In the scenes
+of the Creation, depicted on the first pier, Maitani has proved
+himself a real nature lover in the tender way he has demonstrated
+the joy of the birds at finding the use of their wings.
+
+The earliest sculptures in France were very rude,--it was rather
+a process than an art to decorate a building with carvings as the
+Gauls did! But the latent race talent was there; as soon as the
+Romanesque and Byzantine influences were felt, a definite school
+of sculpture was formed in France; almost at once they seized on
+the best elements of the craft and abandoned the worthless, and
+the great note of a national art was struck in the figures at
+Chartres, Paris, Rheims, and other cathedrals of the Ile de France.
+
+Prior to this flowering of art in Northern France, the churches
+of the South of France developed a charming Romanesque of their
+own, a little different from that in Italy. A monk named Tutilon,
+of the monastery of St. Gall, was among the most famous sculptors
+of the Romanesque period. Another name is that of Hughes, Abbot of
+Montier-en-Der. At the end of the tenth century one Morard, under
+the patronage of King Robert, built and ornamented the Church of St.
+Germain des Près, Paris, while Guillaume, an Abbot at Dijon, was
+at the head of the works of forty monasteries. Guillaume probably
+had almost as wide an influence upon French art as St. Bernward
+had on the German, or Nicola Pisano on that of Italy. In Metz were
+two noted architects, Adelard and Gontran, who superintended the
+building of fourteen churches, and an early chronicler says that
+the expense was so great that "the imperial treasury would scarce
+have sufficed for it."
+
+At Arles are two of the most famous monuments of Romanesque art,
+the porches of St. Trophime, and of St. Gilles. The latter exhibits
+almost classical feeling and influence; the former is much blunter
+and more Byzantine; both are highly interesting for purposes
+of study, being elaborately ornamented with figure sculptures and
+other decorative motives.
+
+Abbot Suger, the art-craftsman par excellence of the Ile de France,
+was the sculptor in chief of St. Denis from 1137 to 1180. This
+magnificent façade is harmonious in its treatment, betokening plainly
+that one brain conceived and carried out the plan. We have not the
+names of the minor architects and sculptors who were employed,
+but doubtless they were the scholars and followers of Suger, and
+rendered work in a similar manner.
+
+There are some names which have been handed down from early times
+in Normandy: one Otho, another Garnier, and a third, Anquetil,
+while a crucifix carved by Auquilinus of Moissac was popularly
+believed to have been created by divine means. If one will compare
+the statues of St. Trophime of Arles with those at St. Denis, it
+will be found that the latter are better rounded, those at St.
+Trophime being coarsely blocked out; although at first glance one
+would say that there was little to choose between them.
+
+The old font at Amiens is very ancient, older than the church. It
+is seven feet long, and stands on short square piers: it resembles
+a stone coffin, and was apparently so made that a grown person
+might be baptized by immersion, by lying at full length. Angels
+holding scrolls are carved at its four corners, otherwise it is
+very plain. There is an ancient Byzantine crucifix at Amiens, on
+which the figure of Our Lord is fully draped, and on his head is
+a royal crown instead of thorns. The figure, too, is erect, as if
+to invite homage by its outstretched arms, instead of suggesting
+that the arms had to bear the weight of the body. Indeed, it is a
+Christ triumphant and regnant though crucified--a very unusual
+treatment of the subject in the Middle Ages. It was brought from the
+East, in all probability, by a returning warrior from the Crusades.
+
+The foundation of Chartres was very early: the first Bishop St.
+Aventin occupied his see as early as 200 A. D. The early Gothic type
+in figure sculpture is always characterized by a few features in
+common, though different districts produced varying forms and facial
+expressions. The figures are always narrow, and much elongated, from
+a monumental sentiment which governed the design of the period. The
+influence of the Caryatid may have remained in the consciousness of
+later artists, leading them to make their figures conform so far as
+expedient to the proportions of the columns which stood behind them
+and supported them. In any case, it was considered an indispensable
+condition that these proportions should be maintained, and has come
+to be regarded as an architectural necessity. As soon as sculptors
+began to consider their figures as realistic representations of
+human beings instead of ornamental motives in their buildings,
+the art declined, and poor results followed.
+
+The west porch of Chartres dates from the twelfth century. The church
+was injured by fire in 1194. In 1226 certain restorations were made,
+and an old chronicle says that at that time it was quite fire-proof,
+remarking: "It has nothing to fear from any earthly fire from this
+time to the day of Judgment, and will save from fires eternal the
+many Christians who by their alms have helped in its rebuilding."
+The whole edifice was consecrated by St. Louis on Oct. 17, 1260.
+The King gave the north porch, and several of the windows, and the
+whole royal family was present at this impressive function.
+
+About the time of William the Conqueror it became customary to
+carve effigies on tombstones, at first simple figures in low relief
+lying on flat slabs: this idea being soon elaborated, however,
+into canopied tombs, which grew year by year more ornate, until
+Gothic structures enriched with finials and crockets began to be
+erected in churches to such an extent that the interior of the
+edifice was quite filled with these dignified little buildings.
+In many instances it is quite impossible to obtain any view of
+the sanctuary except looking directly down the central aisle; the
+whole ambulatory is often one continuous succession of exquisite
+sepulchral monuments.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB OF THE SON OF ST. LOUIS, ST. DENIS]
+
+Perhaps the most satisfying monument of French Gothic style is
+the tomb of the elder son of St. Louis at St. Denis. The majesty
+of the recumbent figure is striking, but the little procession of
+mourners about the main body of the tomb is absolutely unrivalled
+in art of this character. The device of little weeping figures
+surrounding the lower part of a tomb is also carried out in an exquisite
+way on the tomb of Aymer de Valence in Westminster.
+
+Some interesting saints are carved on the north portal of Amiens,
+among others, St. Ulpha, a virgin who is chiefly renowned for having
+lived in a chalk cave near Amiens, where she was greatly annoyed
+by frogs. Undaunted, she prayed so lustily and industriously, that
+she finally succeeded in silencing them!
+
+The thirteenth century revival in France was really a new birth;
+almost more than a Renaissance. It is a question among archæologists
+if France was not really more original and more brilliant than Italy
+in this respect. A glance at such figures as the Virgin from the
+Gilded Portal at Amiens, and another Virgin from the same cathedral,
+will show the change which came over the spirit of art in that one
+city during the thirteenth century. The figure on the right door
+of the western façade is a work of the early part of the century.
+She is grave and dignified in bearing, her hand extended in favour,
+while the Child gives the blessing in calm majesty. This figure has
+the spirit of a goddess receiving homage, and bestowing grace: it
+is conventional and monumental. The Virgin from the Gilded Portal
+is of a later generation. Her attention is given to the Child,
+and her aspect is human and spirited,--almost merry. It may be
+said to be less religious than the other statue, but it is filled
+with more modern grace and charm, and glorifies the idea of happy
+maternity: every angle and fold of the drapery is full of life
+and action without being over realistic. There is much in common
+between this pleasing statue and the Virgins of the Pisani in Italy.
+
+Professor Moore considers the statue of the Virgin on the Portal
+of the Virgin at the west end of Notre Dame in Paris as about the
+best example of Gothic figure sculpture in France. He says further
+that the finest statues in portals of any age are those of the
+north porch at Paris. The Virgin here is marvellously fine also.
+It combines the dignity and monumental qualities of the first of
+the Virgins at Amiens, with the living buoyancy of the Virgin on
+the Gilded Portal. It is the clear result of a study of nature
+grafted on Byzantine traditions. It dates from 1250.
+
+While sculpture was practised chiefly by monastic artists, it retained
+the archaic and traditional elements. When trained carvers from
+secular life began to take the chisel, the spirit of the world
+entered in. For a time this was a marked improvement: later the
+pendulum swung too far, and decadence set in.
+
+A favourite device on carved tympana above portals was the Last
+Judgment. Michael with the scales, engaged in weighing souls, was
+the tall central figure, and the two depressed saucers of the scales
+help considerably in filling the triangular space usually left
+over a Gothic doorway. At Chartres, there is an example of this
+subject, in which Mortal Sin, typified by a devil and two toads, are
+being weighed against the soul of a departed hero. As is customary
+in such compositions, a little devil is seen pulling on the side
+of the scale in which he is most interested!
+
+One of the most cheerful and delightful figures at Chartres is
+that of the very tall angel holding a sun dial, on the corner of
+the South tower. A certain optimistic inconsequence is his chief
+characteristic, as if he really believed that the hours bore more
+of happiness than of sorrow to the world.
+
+There is no limit to the originality and the symbolic messages
+of the Gothic grotesques. Two whole books might be written upon
+this subject alone to do it justice; but a few notable instances
+of these charming little adornments to the stern structures of
+the Middle Ages must be noticed here. The little medallions at
+Amiens deserve some attention. They represent the Virtues and Vices,
+the Follies, and other ethical qualities. Some of them deal with
+Scriptural scenes. "Churlishness" is figured by a woman kicking
+over her cup-bearer. Apropos of her attitude, Ruskin observes that
+the final forms of French churlishness are to be discovered in
+the feminine gestures in the can-can. He adds: "See the favourite
+print shops in Paris." Times have certainly changed little!
+
+One of these Amiens reliefs, signifying "Rebellion," is that of a
+man snapping his fingers at his bishop! Another known as "Atheism"
+is variously interpreted. A man is seen stepping out of his shoes at
+the church porch. Ruskin explains this as meaning that the infidel
+is shown in contradistinction to the faithful who is supposed
+to have "his feet shod with the preparation of the Gospel of Peace;"
+but Abbé Roze thinks it more likely that this figure represents
+an unfrocked monk abandoning the church.
+
+One of these displays the beasts in Nineveh, and a little squat
+monkey, developing into a devil, is wittily characterized by Ruskin
+as reversing the Darwinian theory.
+
+The statues above these little quatrefoils are over seven feet
+in height, differing slightly, and evidently portrait sculptures
+inspired by living models, adapted to their more austere use in
+this situation.
+
+A quiet and inconspicuous example of exquisite refinement in Gothic
+bas-relief is to be seen in the medallioned "Portail aux Libraires"
+at the Cathedral in Rouen. This doorway was built in 1278 by Jean
+Davi, who must have been one of the first sculptors of his time.
+The medallions are a series of little grotesques, some of them
+ineffably entertaining, and others expressive of real depth of
+knowledge and thought. Ruskin has eulogized some of these little
+figures: one as having in its eye "the expression which is never
+seen but in the eye of a dog gnawing something in jest, and preparing
+to start away with it." Again, he detects a wonderful piece of
+realism and appreciative work in the face of a man who leans with
+his head on his hand in thought: the wrinkles pushed up under his
+eye are especially commended.
+
+In the south transept at Amiens is a piece of elaborate
+sculpture in four compartments, which are the figures of many saints.
+There is a legend in connection with those figures: when the millers
+were about to select a patron saint, they agreed to choose the saint
+on whose head a dove, released for the purpose, should alight;
+but as the bird elected to settle on the head of a demon, they
+abandoned their plan! The figures in these carvings are almost
+free of the ground; they appear to be a collection of separate
+statuettes, the scenes being laid in three or four planes. It is
+not restrained bas-relief; but the effect is extremely rich. The
+sculptures in high relief, but in more conventional proportion
+than these, which occur on the dividing wall between the choir and
+the north aisle, are thoroughly satisfactory. They are coloured;
+they were executed in 1531, and they represent scenes in the life
+of the Baptist. In the panel where Salomé is portrayed as dancing,
+a grave little monkey is seen watching her from under the table.
+The similar screen surrounding the sanctuary at Paris was the work
+of the chief cathedral architect, Jean Renoy, with whom worked
+his nephew, Jehan le Bouteiller. These stone carved screens are
+quite usual in the Ile de France. The finest are at Chartres, where
+they go straight around the ambulatory, the whole choir being fenced
+in, as it were, about the apse, by this exquisite work. This screen
+is more effective, too, for being left in the natural colour of
+the stone: where these sculptures are painted, as they usually
+are, they suggest wood carvings, and have not as much dignity as
+when the stone is fully recognized.
+
+The Door of St. Marcel has the oldest carving on Notre Dame in
+Paris. The plate representing the iron work, in Chapter IV., shows
+the carving on this portal, which is the same that has Biscornette's
+famous hinges. The central figure of St. Marcel himself presents
+the saint in the act of reproving a naughty dragon which had had
+the indiscretion to devour the body of a rich but wicked lady. The
+dragon is seen issuing from the dismantled tomb of this unfortunate
+person. The dragon repented his act, when the saint had finished
+admonishing him, and showed his attachment and gratitude for thus
+being led in paths of rectitude, by following the saint for four
+miles, apparently walking much as a seal would walk, beseeching
+the saint to forgive him. But Marcel was firm, and punished the
+serpent, saying to him: "Go forth and inhabit the deserts or plunge
+thyself into the sea;" and, as St. Patrick rid the Celtic land of
+snakes, so St. Marcel seems to have banished dragons from fair
+France.
+
+[Illustration: CARVINGS AROUND CHOIR AMBULATORY, CHARTRES]
+
+At Chartres there are eighteen hundred statues, and almost as many
+at Amiens and at Rheims and Paris. One reason for the superiority
+of French figure sculpture in the thirteenth century, over that
+existing in other countries, is that the French used models. There
+has been preserved the sketch book of a mediæval French architect,
+Vilard de Honcourt, which is filled with studies from life: and why
+should we suppose him to be the only one who worked in this way?
+
+Rheims Cathedral is the Mecca of the student of mediæval sculpture.
+The array of statues on the exterior is amazing, and a walk around
+the great structure reveals unexpected riches in corbels, gargoyles,
+and other grotesques, hidden at all heights, each a veritable work
+of art, repaying the closest study, and inviting the enthusiast
+to undue extravagance at a shop in the vicinity, which advertises
+naïvely, that it is an "Artistical Photograph Laboratory."
+
+On the door of St. Germain l'Auxerrois in Paris, there is a portrait
+statue of St. Geneviève, holding a lighted candle, while "the devil
+in little" sits on her shoulder, exerting himself to blow it out!
+It is quite a droll conceit of the thirteenth century.
+
+Of the leaf forms in Gothic sculpture, three styles are enough to
+generalize about. The early work usually represented springlike
+leaves, clinging, half-developed, and buds. Later, a more luxuriant
+foliage was attempted: the leaves and stalks were twisted, and
+the style was more like that actually seen in nature. Then came
+an overblown period, when the leaves were positively detached,
+and the style was lost. The foliage was no longer integral, but
+was applied.
+
+There is little of the personal element to be exploited in dealing
+with the sculptors in the Middle Ages. Until the days of the Renaissance
+individual artists were scarcely recognized; master masons employed
+"Imagers" as casually as we would employ brick-layers or plasterers;
+and no matter how brilliant the work, it was all included in the general
+term "building."
+
+The first piece of signed sculpture in France is a tympanum in the
+south transept at Paris, representing the Stoning of Stephen. It
+is by Jean de Chelles, in 1257. St. Louis of France was a patron of
+arts, and took much interest in his sculptors. There were two Jean
+de Montereau, who carved sacred subjects in quite an extraordinary
+way. Jean de Soignoles, in 1359, was designated as "Macon et Ymageur."
+One of the chief "imageurs," as they were called, was Jacques Haag,
+who flourished in the latter half of the fifteenth century, in
+Amiens. This artist was imprisoned for sweating coin, but in 1481
+the king pardoned him. He executed large statues for the city gates,
+of St. Michael and St. Firmin, in 1464 and 1489. There was a sculptor
+in Paris in the fourteenth century, one Hennequin de Liege, who
+made several tombs in black and white marble, among them that of
+Blanche de France, and the effigy of Queen Philippa at Westminster.
+
+It was customary both in France and England to use colour on Gothic
+architecture. It is curious to realize that the façade of Notre
+Dame in Paris was originally a great colour scheme. A literary
+relic, the "Voyage of an Armenian Bishop," named Martyr, in the
+year 1490, alludes to the beauty of this cathedral of Paris, as
+being ablaze with gold and colour.
+
+An old record of the screen of the chapel of St. Andrew
+at Westminster mentions that it was "adorned with curious carvings
+and engravings, and other imagery work of birds, flowers, cherubims,
+devices, mottoes, and coats of arms of many of the chief nobility
+painted thereon. All done at the cost of Edmond Kirton, Abbot, who
+lies buried on the south side of the chapel under a plain gray
+marble slab." H. Keepe, who wrote of Westminster Abbey in 1683,
+mentioned the virgin over the Chapter House door as being "all
+richly enamelled and set forth with blue, some vestigia of all
+which are still remaining, whereby to judge of the former splendour
+and beauty thereof." Accounts make frequent mention of painters
+employed, one being "Peter of Spain," and another William of
+Westminster, who was called the "king's beloved painter."
+
+King René of Anjou was an amateur of much versatility; he painted
+and made many illuminations: among other volumes, copies of his own
+works in prose and verse. Aside from his personal claim to renown
+in the arts, he founded a school in which artists and sculptors
+were included. One of the chief sculptors was Jean Poncet, who
+was followed in the king's favour by his son Pons Poncet. Poor
+Pons was something of a back-slider, being rather dissipated; but
+King René was fond of him, and gave him work to do when he was
+reduced to poverty. The monument to his nurse, Tiphanie, at Saumur,
+was entrusted to Pons Poncet. After the death of Pons, the chief
+sculptor of the court was Jacques Moreau.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SCULPTURE IN STONE
+
+(_England and Germany_)
+
+A progressive history of English sculpture in stone could be compiled
+by going from church to church, and studying the tympana, over
+the doors, in Romanesque and Norman styles, and in following the
+works in the spandrils between the arches in early Gothic work.
+First we find rude sculptures, not unlike those in France. The
+Saxon work like the two low reliefs now to be seen in Chichester
+Cathedral show dug-out lines and almost flat modelling; then the
+Norman, slightly rounded, are full of historic interest and
+significance, though often lacking in beauty. The two old panels
+alluded to, now in Chichester, were supposed to have been brought
+from Selsea Cathedral, having been executed about the twelfth century.
+There is a good deal of Byzantine feeling in them; one represents
+the Raising of Lazarus, and the other, Our Lord entering the house
+of Mary and Martha. The figures are long and stiff, and there is
+a certain quality in the treatment of draperies not unlike that
+in the figures at Chartres.
+
+Then follows the very early Gothic, like the delightful
+little spandrils in the chapter house at Salisbury, and at Westminster,
+familiar to all travellers. They are full of life, partly through the
+unanatomic contortions by means of which they are made to express
+their emotions. Often one sees elbows bent the wrong way to emphasize
+the gesture of denunciation, or a foot stepping quite across the
+instep of its mate in order to suggest speed of motion. Early Gothic
+work in England is usually bas-relief; one does not find the statue
+as early as in France. In 1176 William of Sens went over to England,
+to work on Canterbury Cathedral, and after that French influence
+was felt in most of the best English work in that century. Before
+the year 1200 there was little more than ornamented spaces, enriched
+by carving; after that time, figure sculpture began in earnest,
+and, in statues and in effigies, became a large part of the
+craftsmanship of the thirteenth century.
+
+The transition was gradual. First small separate heads began to
+obtain, as corbels, and were bracketed at the junctures of the
+arch-mouldings in the arcade and triforium of churches. Then on
+the capitals little figures began to emerge from the clusters of
+foliage. In many cases the figures are very inferior to the faces,
+as if more time and study had been given to expressing emotions
+than to displaying form. The grotesque became very general. Satire
+and caricature had no other vehicle in the Middle Ages than the
+carvings in and out of the buildings, for the cartoon had not yet
+become possible, and painting offered but a limited scope to the
+wit, especially in the North; in Italy this outlet for humour was
+added to that of the sculptor.
+
+Of the special examples of great figure sculpture in England the
+façade at Wells is usually considered the most significant. The
+angel choir at Lincoln, too, has great interest; there is real
+power in some of the figures, especially the angel with the flaming
+sword driving Adam and Eve from Eden, and the one holding aloft a
+small figure,--probably typical of the Creation. At Salisbury, too,
+there is much splendid figure sculpture; it is cause for regret
+that the names of so few of the craftsmen have survived.
+
+Wells Cathedral is one of the most interesting spots in which to
+study English Gothic sculpture. Its beautiful West Front is covered
+with tier after tier of heroes and saints; it was finished in 1242.
+This is the year that Cimabue was three years old; Niccola Pisano
+had lived during its building, Amiens was finished forty-six years
+later, and Orvieto was begun thirty-six years later. It is literally
+the earliest specimen of so advanced and complete a museum of sculpture
+in the West. Many critics have assumed that the statues on the West
+Front of Wells were executed by foreign workmen; but there are
+no special characteristics of any known foreign school in these
+figures. Messrs. Prior and Gardner have recently expressed their
+opinion that these statues, like most of the thirteenth century
+work in England, are of native origin. The theory is that two kinds
+of influence were brought to bear to create English "imagers."
+In the first place, goldsmiths and ivory carvers had been making
+figures on a small scale: their trade was gradually expanded until
+it reached the execution of statues for the outside ornament of
+buildings. The figures carved by such artists are inclined to be
+squat, these craftsmen having often been hampered by being obliged
+to accommodate their design to their material, and to treat the
+human figure to appear in spaces of such shapes as circles, squares,
+and trefoils. Another class of workers who finally turned their
+attention to statuary, were the carvers of sepulchral slabs: these
+slabs had for a long time shown the effigies of the deceased. This
+theory accounts for both types of figures that are found in English
+Gothic,--the extremely attenuated, and the blunt squat statues. At
+Wells it would seem that both classes of workmen were employed,
+some of the statues being short and some extremely tall. They were
+executed, evidently, at different periods, the façade being gradually
+decorated, sometimes in groups of several statues, and sometimes
+in simple pairs. This theory, too, lends a far greater interest
+to the west front than the theory that it was all carried out at
+once, from one intentional design.
+
+St. Nicholas, the patron saint of Baptism, is here represented,
+holding a child on his arm, and standing in water up to his knees.
+The water, being treated in a very conventional way, coiling about
+the lower limbs, is so suggestive of tiers of flat discs, that
+it has won for this statue the popular name of "the pancake
+man," for he certainly looks as if he had taken up his position
+in the midst of a pile of pancakes, into which he had sunk.
+
+The old statue of St. Hugh at Lincoln is an attractive early Gothic
+work. In 1743 he was removed from his precarious perch on the top
+of a stone pinnacle, and was placed more firmly afterwards. In a
+letter from the Clerk of the Works this process was described.
+"I must acquaint you that I took down the antient image of St.
+Hugh, which is about six foot high, and stood upon the summit of a
+stone pinnacle at the South corner of the West Front... and pulled
+down twenty-two feet of the pinnacle itself, which was ready to
+tumble into ruins, the shell being but six inches thick, and the
+ribs so much decayed that it declined visibly.... I hope to see
+the saint fixed upon a firmer basis before the Winter." On the top
+of a turret opposite St. Hugh is the statue of the Swineherd of
+Stowe. This personage became famous through contributing a peck of
+silver pennies toward the building of the cathedral. As is usually
+the case, the saint and the donor therefore occupy positions of
+equal exaltation! The swineherd is equipped with a winding horn.
+A foolish tradition without foundation maintains that this figure
+does not represent the Swineherd at all, but is a play upon the
+name of Bishop Bloet,--the horn being intended to suggest "Blow
+it!" It seems hardly possible to credit the mediæval wit with no
+keener sense of humour than to perpetrate such a far-fetched pun.
+
+The Lincoln Imp, who sits enthroned at the foot of a cul-de-lampe
+in the choir, is so familiar to every child, now, through his
+photographs and casts, that it is hardly necessary to describe
+him. But many visitors to the cathedral fail to come across the old
+legend of his origin. It is as follows: "The wind one day brought
+two imps to view the new Minster at Lincoln. Both imps were greatly
+impressed with the magnitude and beauty of the structure, and one
+of them, smitten by a fatal curiosity, slipped inside the building
+to see what was going on. His temerity, however, cost him dear,
+for he was so petrified with astonishment, that his heart became
+as stone within him, and he remained rooted to the spot. The other
+imp, full of grief at the loss of his brother, flew madly round
+the Minster, seeking in vain for the lost one. At length, being
+wearied out, he alighted, quite unwittingly, upon the shoulders
+of a certain witch, and was also, and in like manner, instantly
+turned to stone. But the wind still haunts the Minster precincts,
+waiting their return, now hopelessly desolate, now raging with
+fury." A verse, also, is interesting in this connection:
+
+  "The Bishop we know died long ago,
+   The wind still waits, nor will he go,
+   Till he has a chance of beating his foe.
+   But the devil hopped without a limp,
+   And at once took shape as the Lincoln Imp.
+   And there he sits atop of a column,
+   And grins at the people who gaze so solemn,
+   Moreover, he mocks at the wind below,
+   And says: 'You may wait till doomsday, O!'"
+
+The effigies in the Round Church at the Temple in London have created
+much discussion. They represent Crusaders, two dating from the
+twelfth century, and seven from the thirteenth. Most of them have
+their feet crossed, and the British antiquarian mind has exploited
+and tormented itself for some centuries in order to prove, or to
+disprove, that this signifies that the warriors were crusaders who
+had actually fought. There seems now to be rather a concensus of
+opinion that they do not represent Knights Templars, but "associates
+of the Temple." As none of them can be certainly identified, this
+controversy would appear to be of little consequence to the world
+at large. The effigies are extremely interesting from an artistic
+point of view, and, in repairing them, in 1840, Mr. Richardson
+discovered traces of coloured enamels and gilding, which must have
+rendered them most attractive.
+
+Henry III. of England was a genuine art patron, and even evinced
+some of the spirit of socialism so dear to the heart of William
+Morris, for the old records relate that the Master Mason, John
+of Gloucester, was in the habit of taking wine each day with the
+King! This shows that Henry recognized the levelling as Well as
+the raising power of the arts. In 1255 the king sent five casks of
+wine to the mason, in payment for five with which John of Gloucester
+had accommodated his Majesty at Oxford! This is an intimate and
+agreeable departure from the despotic and grim reputation of early
+Kings of England.
+
+In 1321 the greatest mediæval craftsman in England was Alan de
+Walsingham, who built the great octagon from which Ely derives its
+chief character among English cathedrals. In a fourteenth century
+manuscript in the British Museum is a tribute to him, which is
+thus translated by Dean Stubbs (now Bishop of Truro):
+
+  "A Sacrist good and Prior benign,
+   A builder he of genius fine:
+   The flower of craftsmen, Alan, Prior,
+   Now lying entombed before the choir...
+   And when, one night, the old tower fell,
+   This new one he built, and mark it well."
+
+This octagon was erected to the glory of God and to St. Etheldreda,
+the Queen Abbess of Ely, known frequently as St. Awdry. Around
+the base of the octagon, at the crests of the great piers which
+carry it, Prior Alan had carved the Deeds of the Saint in a series
+of decorative bosses which deserve close study. The scene of her
+marriage, her subsequently taking the veil at Coldingham, and the
+various miracles over which she presided, terminate in the death
+and "chesting" of the saint. This ancient term is very literal,
+as the body was placed in a stone coffin above the ground, and
+therefore the word "burial" would be incorrect.
+
+The tomb of Queen Eleanor in Westminster is of Purbeck marble,
+treated in the style of Southern sculpture, being cut in thin slabs
+and enriched with low relief ornamentation. The recumbent effigy
+is in bronze, and was cast, as has been stated, by Master William
+Torel. Master Walter of Durham painted the lower portion. Master
+Richard Crundale was in charge of the general work.
+
+Master John of St. Albans worked in about 1257, and was designated
+"sculptor of the king's images." There was at this time a school
+of sculpture at the Abbey. This Westminster School of Artificers
+supplied statuettes and other sculptured ornaments to order for
+various places. One of the craftsmen was Alexander "le imaginator."
+In the Rolls of the Works at Westminster, there is an entry, "Master
+John, with a carpenter and assistant at St. Albans, worked on the
+lectern." This referred to a copy which was ordered of a rarely
+beautiful lectern at St. Albans' cathedral, which had been made by
+the "incomparable Walter of Colchester." Labour was cheap! There
+is record of three shillings being paid to John Benet for three
+capitals!
+
+Among Westminster labourers was one known as Brother Ralph, the
+Convert; this individual was a reformed Jew. Among the craftsmen
+selected to receive wine from the convent with "special grace" is
+the goldsmith, Master R. de Fremlingham, who was then the Abbey
+plumber.
+
+There was a master mason in 1326, who worked at Westminster and
+in various other places on His Majesty's Service. This was William
+Ramsay, who also superintended the building then in progress at
+St. Paul's, and was a man of such importance in his art, that the
+mayor and aldermen ordered that he should "not be placed on juries
+or inquests" during the time of his activity. He was also chief
+mason at the Tower. But in spite of the city fathers it was not
+possible to keep this worthy person out of court! For he and some
+of his friends, in 1332, practically kidnapped a youth of fourteen
+named Robert Huberd, took him forcibly from his appointed guardian,
+and married him out of hand to William Ramsay's daughter Agnes,
+the reason for this step being evidently that the boy had money.
+Upon the complaint of his guardian, Robert was given his choice
+whether he would remain with his bride or return to his former
+home. He deliberately chose his new relations, and so, as the
+marriage was quite legal according to existing laws, everything
+went pleasantly for Master William! It made no difference, either,
+in the respect of the community or the king for the master mason;
+in 1344, he was appointed to superintend the building at Windsor,
+and was made a member of the Common Council in 1347. Verily, the
+Old Testament days were not the last in which every man "did that
+which was right in his own eyes."
+
+Carter gives some curious historical explanations of some very
+quaint and little-known sculptures in a frieze high up in the Chapel
+of Edward the Confessor in Westminster. One of them represents the
+Trial of Queen Emma, and is quite a spirited scene. The little
+accusing hands raised against the central figure of the queen,
+are unique in effect in a carving of this character. Queen Emma
+was accused of so many misdemeanours, poor lady! She had agreed to
+marry the enemy of her kingdom, King Canute: she gave no aid to her
+sons, Edward the Confessor and Alfred, when in exile; and she was
+also behaving in a very unsuitable manner with Alwin, Bishop of
+Winchester: she seems to have been versatile in crime, and it is
+no wonder that she was invited to withdraw from her high estate.
+
+The burial of Henry V. is interestingly described in an old manuscript
+of nearly contemporary origin: "His body was embalmed and cired and
+laid on a royal carriage, and an image like to him was laid upon
+the corpse, open: and with divers banners, and horses, covered
+with the arms of England and France, St. Edward and St. Edmund...
+and brought with great solemnity to Westminster, and worshipfully
+buried; and after was laid on his tomb a royal image like to himself,
+of silver and gilt, which was made at the cost of Queen Katherine...
+he ordained in his life the place of his sepulchre, where he is
+now buried, and every daye III. masses perpetually to be sungen
+in a fair chapel over his sepulchre." This exquisite arrangement
+of a little raised chantry, and the noble tomb itself, was the
+work of Master Mapilton, who came from Durham in 1416.
+
+Mr. W. R. Lethaby calls attention to the practical and expedient
+way in which mediæval carvers of effigies utilized their long blocks
+of stone: "Notice," he says, "how... the angels at the head and
+the beast at the foot were put in just to square out the block,
+and how all the points of high relief come to one plane so that
+a drawing board might be firmly placed on the statue." Only such
+cutting away as was actually necessary was encouraged; the figure
+was usually represented as putting the earthly powers beneath his
+feet, while angels ministered at his head. St. Louis ordered a
+crown of thorns to be placed on his head when he was dying, and
+the crown of France placed at his feet. The little niches around
+the tombs, in which usually stood figures of saints, were called
+"hovels." It is amusing to learn this to-day, with our long established
+association of the word with poverty and squalor.
+
+Henry VII. left directions for the design of his tomb. Among other
+stipulations, it was to be adorned with "ymages" of his patron
+saints "of copper and gilte." Henry then "calls and cries" to his
+guardian saints and directs that the tomb shall have "a grate,
+in manner of a closure, of coper and gilte," which was added by
+English craftsmen. Inside this grille in the early days was an
+altar, containing a unique relic,--a leg of St. George.
+
+Sculpture and all other decorative arts reached their ultimatum in
+England about the time of the construction of Henry VII.'s chapel
+at Westminster. The foundation stone was laid in 1502, by Henry
+himself. Of the interesting monuments and carvings contained in it,
+the most beautiful is the celebrated bronze figure by Torregiano
+on the tomb of the king and queen, which was designed during their
+lives. Torregiano was born in 1470, and died in 1522, so he is
+not quite a mediæval figure, but in connection with his wonderful
+work we must consider his career a moment. Vasari says that he had
+"more pride than true artistic excellence." He was constantly
+interfering with Michelangelo, with whom he was a student in Florence,
+and on one memorable occasion they came to blows: and that was the
+day when "Torregiano struck Michelangelo on the nose with his fist,
+using such terrible violence and crushing that feature in such a
+manner that the proper form could never be restored to it, and
+Michelangelo had his nose flattened by that blow all his life." So
+Torregiano fled from the Medicean wrath which would have descended
+upon him. After a short career as a soldier, impatient at not being
+rapidly promoted, he returned to his old profession of a sculptor.
+He went to England, where, says Vasari, "he executed many works in
+marble, bronze, and wood, for the king." The chief of these was the
+striking tomb of Henry VII. and the queen. Torregiano's agreement
+was to make it for a thousand pounds: also there is a contract which
+he signed with Henry VIII., agreeing to construct a similar tomb
+also for that monarch, to be one quarter part larger than that of
+Henry VII., but this was not carried out.
+
+St. Anthony appears on a little sculptured medallion on the tomb
+of Henry VII., with a small pig trotting beside him. This is St.
+Anthony of Vienna, not of Padua. His legend is as follows. In an
+old document, Newcourt's Repertorium, it is related that "the monks
+of St. Anthony with their importunate begging, contrary to the
+example of St. Anthony, are so troublesome, as, if men give them
+nothing, they will presently threaten them with St. Anthony's
+fire; so that many simple people, out of fear or blind zeal, every
+year use to bestow on them a fat pig, or porker, which they have
+ordinarily painted in their pictures of St. Anthony, whereby they
+may procure their good will and their prayers, and be secure from
+their menaces."
+
+Torregiano's contract read that he should "make well, surely, cleanly,
+and workmanlike, curiously, and substantially" the marble tomb
+with "images, beasts, and other things, of copper, gilte." Another
+craftsman who exercised his skill in this chapel was Lawrence Imber,
+image maker, and in 1500 the names of John Hudd, sculptor, and
+Nicolas Delphyn, occur. Some of the figures and statuettes on the
+tomb were also made by Drawswerd of York.
+
+On the outer ribs of Henry VII.'s chapel may be detected certain
+little symmetrically disposed bosses, which at first glance one
+would suppose to be inconspicuous crockets. But in an admirable
+spirit of humour, the sculptor has here carved a series of griffins,
+in procession, holding on for dear life, in the attitudes of children
+sliding down the banisters. They are delightfully animated and
+amusing.
+
+The well-known figures of the Vices which stand around the quadrangle
+at Magdalen College, Oxford, are interpreted by an old Latin manuscript
+in the college. The statues should properly be known as the Virtues
+and Vices, for some of them represent such moral qualities as Vigilance,
+Sobriety, and Affection. It is indeed a shock to learn from this
+presumably authoritative source, that the entertaining figure of a
+patient nondescript animal, upon whose back a small reptile clings,
+is _not_ intended to typify "back biting," but is intended for a
+"hippopotamus, or river-horse, carrying his young one upon his
+shoulders; this is the emblem of a good tutor, or fellow of the
+college, who is set to watch over the youth." But a large number
+of the statues are devoted to the Vices, which generally explain
+themselves.
+
+[Illustration: GROTESQUE FROM OXFORD, POPULARLY KNOWN AS "THE
+BACKBITER"]
+
+No more spirited semi-secular carvings are to be seen in England
+than the delightful row of the "Beverly Minstrels." They stand on
+brackets round a column in St. Mary's Church, Beverly, and are
+exhibited as singing and playing on musical instruments. They were
+probably carved and presented by the Minstrels or Waits, themselves,
+or at any rate at their expense, for an angel near by holds a tablet
+inscribed: "This pyllor made the meynstyrls." These "waits" were
+quite an institution, being a kind of police to go about day and
+night and inspect the precincts, announcing break of day by blowing
+a horn, and calling the workmen together by a similar signal. The
+figures are of about the period of Henry VII.
+
+[Illustration: THE "BEVERLY MINSTRELS"]
+
+The general excellence of sculpture in Germany is said to be lower
+than that of France; in fact, such mediæval German sculpture as
+is specially fine is based upon French work. Still, while this
+statement holds good in a general way, there are marked departures,
+and examples of extremely interesting and often original sculpture
+in Germany, although until the work of such great masters as Albrecht
+Dürer, Adam Kraft, and Viet Stoss, the wood carver, who are much
+later, there is not as prolific a display of the sculptor's genius as
+in France.
+
+The figures on the Choir screen at Hildesheim are rather heavy,
+and decidedly Romanesque; but the whole effect is most delightful.
+Some of the heads have almost Gothic beauty. The screen is of about
+1186, and the figures are made of stucco; but it is exceptionally
+good stucco, very different in character from the later work, which
+Browning has designated as "stucco twiddlings everywhere."
+
+Much good German sculpture may be seen in Nüremberg. The Schöner
+Brunnen, the beautiful fountain, is a delight, in spite of the
+fact that one is not looking at the original, which was relegated
+to the museum for safe keeping long ago. The carving, too, on the
+Frauenkirche, and St. Sebald's, and on St. Lorenz, is as fine as
+anything one will find in Germany. Another exception stands out
+in the memory. Nothing is more exquisite than the Bride's Door,
+at St. Sebald's, in Nüremberg; the figures of the Wise and Foolish
+Virgins who guard the entrance could hardly be surpassed in the
+realm of realistic sculpture, retaining at the same time a just
+proportion of monumental feeling. They are bewitching and dainty,
+full of grace not often seen in German work of that period.
+
+The figures on the outside of Bamberg Cathedral are also as fine
+as anything in France, and there are some striking examples at
+Naumburg, but often the figures in German work lack lightness and
+length, which are such charming elements in the French Gothic
+sculptures.
+
+At Strasburg the Cathedral is generally conceded to be the most
+interesting and ornate of the thirteenth century work in Germany,
+although, as has been indicated, French influence is largely
+responsible. A very small deposit of this influence escaped into
+the Netherlands, and St. Gudule in Brussels shows some good carving
+in Gothic style.
+
+A gruesome statue on St. Sebald's in Nüremberg represents the
+puritanical idea of "the world," by exhibiting a good-looking young
+woman, whose back is that of a corpse; the shroud is open, and the
+half decomposed body is displayed, with snakes and toads depredating
+upon it.
+
+Among the early Renaissance artists in Nüremberg, was Hans Decker,
+who was named in the Burgher Lists of 1449. He may have had influence
+upon the youth of Adam Kraft, whose great pyx in St. Lorenz's is
+known to everyone who has visited Germany.
+
+Adam Kraft was born in Nüremberg in the early fifteenth century and
+his work is a curious link between Gothic and Renaissance styles.
+His chief characteristic is expressed by P. J. Rée, who says: "The
+essence of his art is best described as a naïve realism sustained
+by tender and warm religious zeal." Adam Kraft carved the Stations
+of the Cross, to occupy, on the road to St. John's Cemetery in
+Nüremberg, the same relative distances apart as those of the actual
+scenes between Pilate's house and Golgotha. Easter Sepulchres were
+often enriched with very beautiful sculptures by the first masters.
+Adam Kraft carved the noble scene of the Burial of Christ in St.
+John's churchyard in Nüremberg.
+
+[Illustration: ST. LORENZ CHURCH, NUREMBERG, SHOWING ADAM KRAFT'S
+PYX, AND THE HANGING MEDALLION BY VEIT STOSS]
+
+It is curious that the same mind and hand which conceived and carved
+these short stumpy figures, should have made the marvel of slim
+grace, the Tabernacle, or Pyx, at St. Lorenz. A figure of the artist
+kneeling, together with two workmen, one old and one young, supports
+the beautiful shrine, which rears itself in graduated stages to
+the tall Gothic roof, where it follows the curve of a rib, and
+turns over at the top exactly like some beautiful clinging plant
+departing from its support, and flowering into an exquisitely
+proportioned spiral. It suggests a gigantic crozier. Before it was
+known what a slender metal core followed this wonderful growth,
+on the inside, there was a tradition that Kraft had discovered
+"a wonderful method for softening and moulding hard stones." The
+charming relief by Kraft on the Weighing Office exhibits quite
+another side of his genius; here three men are engaged in weighing
+a bale of goods in a pair of scales: a charming arrangement of
+proportion naturally grows out of this theme, which may have been
+a survival in the mind of the artist of his memory of the numerous
+tympana with the Judgment of Michael weighing souls. The design is
+most attractive, and the decorative feeling is enhanced by two
+coats of arms and a little Gothic tracery running across the top.
+When Adam Kraft died in 1508, the art of sculpture practically
+ceased in Nüremberg.
+
+[Illustration: RELIEF BY ADAM KRAFT]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CARVING IN WOOD AND IVORY
+
+If the Germans were somewhat less original than the French, English,
+and Italians in their stone carving, they made up for this deficiency
+by a very remarkable skill in wood carving. Being later, in period,
+this art was usually characterized by more naturalism than that
+of sculpture in stone.
+
+In Germany the art of sculpture in wood is said to have been in full
+favour as early as the thirteenth century. There are two excellent
+wooden monuments, one at Laach erected to Count Palatine Henry III.,
+who died in 1095, and another to Count Henry III. of Sayne, in
+1246. The carving shows signs of the transition to Gothic forms.
+Large wooden crucifixes were carved in Germany in the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries. Byzantine feeling is usual in these figures,
+which are frequently larger than life.
+
+Mediæval wood carving developed chiefly along the line of altar
+pieces and of grotesque adornments of choir stalls. Among the most
+interesting of these are the "miserere" seats, of which we shall
+speak at more length.
+
+The general methods of wood carving resemble somewhat
+those of stone carving; that is to say, flat relief, round relief,
+and entirely disengaged figures occur in both, while in both the
+drill is used as a starting point in many forms of design. As with
+the other arts, this of carving in wood emanated from the monastery.
+
+[Illustration: CARVED BOX-WOOD PYX, 14TH CENTURY]
+
+The monk Tutilo, of St. Gall, was very gifted. The old chronicle
+tells us that "he was eloquent, with a fine voice, skilful in carving,
+and a painter. A musician, like his companions, but in all kinds
+of wind and stringed instruments... he excelled everybody. In building
+and in his other arts he was eminent." Tutilo was a monk of the ninth
+century.
+
+A celebrated wood carving of the thirteenth century, on a large
+scale, is the door of the Church of St. Sabina in Rome. It is divided
+into many small panels, finely carved. These little reliefs are
+crowded with figures, very spirited in action.
+
+Painted and carved shields and hatchments were popular. The Italian
+artists made these with great refinement. Sometimes stucco was
+employed instead of genuine carving, and occasionally the work was
+embossed on leather. They were painted in heraldic colours, and
+gold, and nothing could be more decorative. Even Giotto produced
+certain works of this description, as well as a carved crucifix.
+
+Altar pieces were first carved and painted, the backgrounds being
+gilded. By degrees stucco for the figures came in to replace the
+wood: after that, they were gradually modelled in lower relief,
+until finally they became painted pictures with slightly raised
+portions, and the average Florentine altar piece resulted. With
+the advance in painting, and the ability to portray the round,
+the necessity for carved details diminished.
+
+Orders from a great distance were sometimes sent to the Florentine
+Masters of Wood,--the choir stalls in Cambridge, in King's College
+Chapel, were executed by them, in spite of the fact that Torregiano
+alluded to them as "beasts of English."
+
+An early French wood carver was Girard d'Orleans, who, in 1379,
+carved for Charles V. "ung tableau de boys de quatre pieces." Ruskin
+considers the choir stalls in Amiens the best worth seeing in France;
+he speaks of the "carpenter's work" with admiration, for no nails
+are used, nor is the strength of glue relied upon; every bit is true
+"joinery," mortised, and held by the skill and conscientiousness
+of its construction. Of later work in wood it is a magnificent
+example. The master joiner, Arnold Boulin, undertook the construction
+of the stalls in 1508. He engaged Anton Avernier, an image maker,
+to carve the statuettes and figures which occur in the course of
+the work. Another joiner, Alexander Hust, is reported as working
+as well, and in 1511, both he and Boulin travelled to Rouen, to
+study the stalls in the cathedral there. Two Franciscan monks,
+"expert and renowned in working in wood," came from Abbeville to
+give judgment and approval, their expenses being paid for this
+purpose.
+
+Jean Troupin, a "simple workman at the wages of three sous a day,"
+was added to the staff of workers in 1516, and in one of the stalls
+he has carved his own portrait, with the inscription, "Jan Troupin,
+God take care of thee." In 1522 the entire work was completed, and
+was satisfactorily terminated on St. John's day, representing the
+entire labour of six or eight men for about fourteen years.
+
+In the fifteenth century Germany led all countries in the art of
+wood carving. Painting was nearly always allied to this art in
+ecclesiastical use. The sculptured forms were gilded and painted,
+and, in some cases, might almost be taken for figures in faience,
+so high was the polish. Small altars, with carved reredos and
+frontals, were very popular, both for church and closet. The style
+employed was pictorial, figures and scenes being treated with great
+naturalism. One of the famous makers of such altar pieces was Lucas
+Möser, in the earlier part of the fifteenth century. A little later
+came Hans Schülein, and then followed Freidrich Herlin, who carved
+the fine altar in Rothenburg. Jorg Syrlin of Ulm and his son of the
+same name cover the latter half of the century.
+
+Bavaria was the chief province in which sculptors in wood flourished.
+The figures are rather stumpy sometimes, and the draperies rather
+heavy and lacking in delicate grace, but the works are far more
+numerous than those of other districts, and vary enormously in
+merit.
+
+Then followed the great carvers of the early Renaissance--Adam
+Kraft, and Veit Stoss, contemporaries of Peter Vischer and Albrecht
+Dürer, whom we must consider for a little, although they hardly
+can be called mediæval workmen.
+
+Veit Stoss was born in the early fifteenth century, in Nüremberg.
+He went to Cracow when he was about thirty years of age, and spent
+some years working hard. He returned to his native city, however,
+in 1496, and worked there for the rest of his life. A delicate
+specimen of his craft is the Rosenkranztafel, a wood carving in
+the Germanic Museum, which exhibits medallions in relief, representing
+the Communion of Saints, with a wreath of roses encircling it. Around
+the border of this oblong composition there are small square reliefs,
+and a Last Judgment which is full of grim humour occupies the lower
+part of the space. Among the amusing incidents represented, is that
+of a redeemed soul, quite naked, climbing up a vine to reach heaven,
+in which God the Father is in the act of "receiving" Adam and Eve,
+shaking hands most sociably! The friends of this aspiring climber
+are "boosting" him from below; the most deliciously realistic proof
+that Stoss had no use for the theory of a winged hereafter!
+
+Veit Stoss was a very versatile craftsman. Besides his wonderful
+wood carvings, for which he is chiefly noted, he was a bridge-builder,
+a stone-mason, a bronze caster, painter of altars, and engraver on
+copper! Like all such variously talented persons, he suffered somewhat
+from restlessness and preferred work to peace,--but his compensation
+lay in the varied joys of creative works. His naturalism was marked
+in all that he did: a naïve old chronicler remarks that he made
+some life-sized coloured figures of Adam and Eve, "so fashioned
+that one was _afraid_ that they were alive!" Veit Stoss was an
+interesting individual. He was not especially moral in all his ways,
+narrowly escaping being executed for forgery; but his brilliancy as
+a technician was unsurpassed. He lived until 1533, when he died
+in Nüremberg as a very old man. One of his most delightful
+achievements is the great medallion with an open background, which
+hangs in the centre of the Church of St. Lorenz. It shows two large
+and graceful figures,--Mary and the Angel Gabriel, the subject
+being the Annunciation. A wreath of angels and flowers surrounds
+the whole, with small medallions representing the seven joys of the
+Virgin. It is a masterly work, and was presented by Anton Tucher
+in 1518. Veit Stoss was the leading figure among wood carvers of
+the Renaissance, although Albrecht Dürer combined this with his
+many accomplishments, as well.
+
+Some of the carvings in wood in the chapel of Henry VII. at Westminster,
+are adapted from drawings by Albrecht Dürer, and are probably the
+work of Germans. Two of these, Derrick van Grove and Giles van
+Castel, were working at St. George's, Windsor, about the same time.
+
+The very finest example of Nüremberg carving, however, is the famous
+wooden Madonna, which has been ascribed to Peter Vischer the Younger,
+both by Herr von Bezold and by Cecil Headlam. It seems very reasonable
+after a study of the other works of this remarkable son of Peter
+Vischer, for there is no other carver of the period, in all Nüremberg,
+who could have executed such a flawlessly lovely figure.
+
+One of the noted wood carvers in Spain in the Renaissance, was
+Alonso Cano. He was a native of Granada and was born in 1601. His
+father was a carver of "retablos," and brought the boy up to follow
+his profession. Cano was also a painter of considerable merit, but
+as a sculptor in wood he was particularly successful. His first
+conspicuous work was a new high altar for the church of Lebrija,
+which came to him on account of the death of his father, who was
+commencing the work in 1630, when his life was suddenly cut off.
+Alonso made this altar so beautifully, that he was paid two hundred
+and fifty ducats more than he asked! Columns and cornices are arranged
+so as to frame four excellent statues. These carvings have been
+esteemed so highly that artists came to study them all the way from
+Flanders. The altar is coloured, like most of the Spanish retablos.
+Cano was a pugnacious character, always getting into scrapes, using
+his stiletto, and being obliged to shift his residence on short
+notice. It is remarkable that his erratic life did not interfere with
+his work, which seems to have gone calmly on in spite of domestic and
+civic difficulties. Among his works at various places, where his
+destiny took him, was a tabernacle for the Cathedral of Malaga.
+He had worked for some time at the designs for this tabernacle,
+when it was whispered to him that the Bishop of Malaga intended
+to get a bargain, and meant to beat him down in his charges. So,
+packing up his plans and drawings, and getting on his mule. Cano
+observed, "These drawings are either to be given away for nothing,
+or else they are to bring two thousand ducats." The news of his
+departure caused alarm among those in authority, and he was urged
+to bring back the designs, and receive his own price.
+
+Cano carved a life-size crucifix for Queen Mariana, which she presented
+to the Convent of Monserrati at Madrid. Alonso Cano entered the
+Church and became canon of the Cathedral of Granada. But all his
+talents had no effect upon his final prosperity: he died in extreme
+want in 1667, the Cathedral records showing that he was the recipient
+of charity, five hundred reals being voted to "the canon Cano,
+being sick and very poor, and without means to pay the doctor."
+Another record mentions the purchase of "poultry and sweet-meats"
+also for him.
+
+Cano made one piece of sculpture in marble, a guardian angel for
+the Convent at Granada, but this no longer exists. Some of his
+architectural drawings are preserved in the Louvre. Ford says that
+his St. Francesco in Toledo is "a masterpiece of cadaverous ecstatic
+sentiment."
+
+The grotesques which played so large a part in church art are bewailed
+by St. Bernard: "What is the use," he asks, "of those absurd
+monstrosities displayed in the cloisters before the reading monks?...
+Why are unclean monkeys and savage lions, and monstrous centaurs
+and semi-men, and spotted tigers, and fighting soldiers, and
+pipe-playing hunters, represented?" Then St. Bernard inadvertently
+admits the charm of all these grotesques, by adding: "The variety
+of form is everywhere so great, that marbles are more pleasant
+reading than manuscripts, and the whole day is spent in looking
+at them instead of in meditating on the law of God." St. Bernard
+concludes with the universal argument: "Oh, God, if one is not
+ashamed of these puerilities, why does not one at least spare the
+expense?" A hundred years later, the clergy were censured by the
+Prior de Coinsi for allowing "wild cats and lions" to stand equal
+with the saints.
+
+[Illustration: MISERERE STALL; AN ARTISAN AT WORK]
+
+The real test of a fine grotesque--a genuine Gothic monster--is, that
+he shall, in spite of his monstrosity, retain a certain anatomical
+consistency: it must be conceivable that the animal organism could
+have developed along these lines. In the thirteenth century, this
+is always possible; but in much later times, and in the Renaissance,
+the grotesques simply became comic and degraded, and lacking in
+humour: in a later chapter this idea will be developed further.
+
+The art of the choir stalls and miserere seats was a natural ebullition
+of the humourous instinct, which had so little opportunity for
+exploiting itself in monastic seclusion. The joke was hidden away,
+under the seat, out of sight of visitors, or laymen: inconspicuous,
+but furtively entertaining. There was no self-consciousness in its
+elaboration, it was often executed for pure love of fun and whittling;
+and for that very reason embodies all the most attractive qualities of
+its art. There was no covert intention to produce a genre history of
+contemporary life and manners, as has sometimes been claimed. These
+things were accidentally introduced in the work, but the carvers
+had no idea of ministering to this or any other educational theory.
+Like all light-hearted expression of personality, the miserere
+stalls have proved of inestimable worth to the world of art, as a
+record of human skill and genial mirth.
+
+[Illustration: MISERERE STALL, ELY: NOAH AND THE DOVE]
+
+A good many of the vices of the times were portrayed on the miserere
+seats. The "backbiter" is frequently seen, in most unlovely form,
+and two persons gossiping with an "unseen witness" in the shape
+of an avenging friend, looking on and waiting for his opportunity
+to strike! Gluttons and misers are always accompanied by familiar
+devils, who prod and goad them into such sin as shall make them
+their prey at the last. Among favourite subjects on miserere seats
+is the "alewife." No wonder ale drinking proved so large a factor in
+the jokes of the fraternity, for the rate at which it was consumed,
+in this age when it took the place of both tea and coffee, was
+enormous. The inmates of St. Cross Hospital, Winchester, who were
+alluded to as "impotents," received daily one gallon of beer each,
+with two extra quarts on holidays! If this were the allowance of
+pensioners, what must have been the proportion among the well-to-do?
+In 1558 there is a record of a dishonest beer seller who gave only a
+pint for a penny drink, instead of the customary quart! The subject
+of the alewife who had cheated her customers, being dragged to hell
+by demons, is often treated by the carvers with much relish, in
+the sacred precincts of the church choir!
+
+[Illustration: MISERERE STALL; THE FATE OF THE ALE-WIFE]
+
+At Ludlow there is a relief which shows the unlucky lady carried
+on the back of a demon, hanging with her head upside down, while a
+smiling "recording imp" is making notes in a scroll concerning her!
+In one of the Chester Mysteries, the Ale Wife is made to confess
+her own shortcomings:
+
+  "Some time I was a taverner,
+   A gentle gossip and a tapster,
+   Of wine and ale a trusty brewer,
+     Which woe hath me wrought.
+
+   Of cans I kept no true measure,
+   My cups I sold at my pleasure,
+   Deceiving many a creature,
+     Though my ale were nought!"
+
+There is a curious miserere in Holderness representing a nun between
+two hares: she is looking out with a smile, and winking!
+
+At Ripon the stalls show Jonah being thrown to the whale, and the
+same Jonah being subsequently relinquished by the sea monster. The
+whale is represented by a large bland smiling head, with gaping
+jaws, occurring in the midst of the water, and Jonah takes the
+usual "header" familiar in mediæval art, wherever this episode is
+rendered.
+
+A popular treatment of the stall was the foliate mask; stems issuing
+from the mouth of the mask and developing into leaves and vines.
+This is an entirely foolish and unlovely design: in most cases
+it is quite lacking in real humour, and makes one think more of
+the senseless Roman grotesques and those of the Renaissance. The
+mediæval quaintness is missing.
+
+At Beverly a woman is represented beating a man, while a dog is
+helping himself out of the soup cauldron. The misereres at Beverly
+date from about 1520.
+
+Animals as musicians, too, were often introduced,--pigs playing
+on viols, or pipes, an ass performing on the harp, and similar
+eccentricities may be found in numerous places, while Reynard the
+Fox in all his forms abounds.
+
+The choir stalls at Lincoln exhibit beautiful carving
+and design: they date from the fourteenth century, and were given by
+the treasurer, John de Welburne. There are many delightful miserere
+seats, many of the selections in this case being from the legend
+of Reynard the Fox.
+
+Abbot Islip of Westminster was a great personality, influencing
+his times and the place where his genius expressed itself. He was
+very constant and thorough in repairing and restoring at the Abbey,
+and under his direction much fine painting and illuminating were
+accomplished. The special periods of artistic activity in most of
+the cathedrals may be traced to the personal influence of some
+cultured ecclesiastic.
+
+A very beautiful specimen of English carving is the curious oak
+chest at York Cathedral, on which St. George fighting the dragon
+is well rendered. However, the termination of the story differs
+from that usually associated with this legend, for the lady leads
+off the subdued dragon in a leash, and the very abject crawl of
+the creature is depicted with much humour.
+
+Mediæval ivory carving practically commenced with the fourth century;
+in speaking of the tools employed, it is safe to say that they
+corresponded to those used by sculptors in wood. It is generally
+believed by authorities that there was some method by which ivory
+could be taken from the whole rounded surface of the tusk, and then,
+by soaking, or other treatment, rendered sufficiently malleable to
+be bent out into a large flat sheet: for some of the large mediæval
+ivories are much wider than the diameter of any known possible tusk.
+There are recipes in the early treatises which tell how to soften
+the ivory that it may be more easily sculptured: in the Mappae
+Clavicula, in the twelfth century, directions are given for preparing
+a bath in which to steep ivory, in order to make it soft. In the
+Sloane MS. occurs another recipe for the same purpose.
+
+Ahab's "ivory house which he made" must have been either covered
+with a very thin veneer, or else the ivory was used as inlay, which
+was often the case, in connection with ebony. Ezekiel alludes to
+this combination. Ivory and gold were used by the Greeks in their
+famous Chryselephantine statues, in which cases thin plates of
+ivory formed the face, hands, and exposed parts, the rest being
+overlaid with gold, This art originated with the brothers Dipœnus
+and Scillis, about 570 B. C., in Crete.
+
+"In sculpturing ivory," says Theophilus, "first form a tablet of
+the magnitude you may wish, and superposing chalk, portray with
+a lead the figures according to your pleasure, and with a pointed
+instrument mark the lines that they may appear: then carve the
+grounds as deeply as you wish with different instruments, and sculp
+the figures or other things you please, according to your invention
+and skill." He tells how to make a knife handle with open work
+carvings, through which a gold ground is visible: and extremely
+handsome would such a knife be when completed, according to Theophilus'
+directions. He also tells how to redden ivory. "There is likewise
+an herb called 'rubrica,' the root of which is long, slender, and
+of a red colour; this being dug up is dried in the sun and is pounded
+in a mortar with the pestle, and so being scraped into a pot, and a
+lye poured over it, is then cooked. In this, when it has well boiled,
+the bone of the elephant or fish or stag, being placed, is made red."
+Mediæval chessmen were made in ivory: very likely the need for a red
+stain was felt chiefly for such pieces.
+
+The celebrated Consular Diptychs date from the fourth century onwards.
+It was the custom for Consuls to present to senators and other
+officials these little folding ivory tablets, and the adornment
+of Diptychs was one of the chief functions of the ivory worker.
+Some of them were quite ambitious in size; in the British Museum
+is a Diptych measuring over sixteen inches by five: the tusk from
+which this was made must have been almost unique in size. It is
+a Byzantine work, and has the figure of an angel carved upon it.
+
+Gregory the Great sent a gift of ivory to Theodolinda, Queen of
+the Lombards, in 600. This is decorated with three figures, and
+is a most interesting diptych.
+
+The earliest diptych, however, is of the year 406, known as the
+Diptych of Probus, on which may be seen a bas-relief portrait of
+Emperor Honorius. On the Diptych of Philoxenus is a Greek verse
+signifying, "I, Philoxenus, being Consul, offer this present to
+the wise Senate." An interesting diptych, sixteen inches by six,
+is inscribed, "Flavius Strategius Apius, illustrious man, count
+of the most fervent servants, and consul in ordinary." This
+consul was invested in 539; the work was made in Rome, but it
+is the property of the Cathedral of Orviedo in Spain, where it
+is regarded as a priceless treasure.
+
+Claudian, in the fourth century, alludes to diptychs, speaking of
+"huge tusks cut with steel into tablets and gleaming with gold,
+engraved with the illustrious name of the Consul, circulated among
+great and small, and the great wonder of the Indies, the elephant,
+wanders about in tuskless shame!" In Magaster, a city which according
+to Marco Polo, was governed by "four old men," they sold "vast
+quantities of elephants' teeth."
+
+Rabanus, a follower of Alcuin, born in 776, was the author of an
+interesting encyclopædia, rejoicing in the comprehensive title,
+"On the Universe." This work is in twenty-two books, which are
+supposed to cover all possible subjects upon which a reader might
+be curious.... The seventeenth book is on "the dust and soil of
+the earth," under which uninviting head he includes all kinds of
+stones, common and precious; salt, flint, sand, lime, jet, asbestos,
+and the Persian moonstone, of whose brightness he claims that it
+"waxes and wanes with the moon." Later he devotes some space to
+pearls, crystals, and glass. Metals follow, and marbles and _ivory_,
+though why the latter should be classed among minerals we shall
+never understand.
+
+[Illustration: IVORY TABERNACLE, RAVENNA]
+
+The Roman diptychs were often used as after-dinner gifts to
+distinguished guests. They were presented on various occasions.
+In the Epistles of Symmachus, the writer says: "To my Lord and
+Prince I sent a diptych edged with gold. I presented other friends
+also with these ivory note books."
+
+While elephant's tusks provided ivory for the southern races, the
+more northern peoples used the walrus and narwhale tusks. In Germany
+this was often the case. The fabulous unicorn's horn, which is so
+often alluded to in early literature, was undoubtedly from the
+narwhale, although its possessor always supposed that he had secured
+the more remarkable horn which was said to decorate the unicorn.
+
+Triptychs followed diptychs in natural sequence. These, in the Middle
+Ages, were usually of a devotional character, although sometimes
+secular subjects occur. Letters were sometimes written on ivory
+tablets, which were supposed to be again used in forwarding a reply.
+St. Augustine apologizes for writing on parchment, explaining, "My
+ivory tablets I sent with letters to your uncle; if you have any
+of my tablets, please send them in case of similar emergencies."
+Tablets fitted with wax linings were used also in schools, as children
+now use slates.
+
+Ivory diptychs were fashionable gifts and keepsakes in the later
+Roman imperial days. They took the place which had been occupied
+in earlier days by illuminated books, such as were produced by
+Lala of Cyzicus, of whom mention will be made in connection with
+book illuminators.
+
+[Illustration: THE NATIVITY; IVORY CARVING]
+
+After the triptychs came sets of five leaves, hinged together;
+sometimes these were arranged in groups of four around a central
+plaque. Often they were intended to be used as book covers.
+Occasionally the five leaves were made up of classical ivories
+which had been altered in such a way that they now had Christian
+significance. The beautiful diptych in the Bargello, representing
+Adam in the Earthly Paradise, may easily have been originally
+intended for Orpheus, especially since Eve is absent! The treatment
+is rather classical, and was probably adapted to its later name.
+Some diptychs which were used afterwards for ecclesiastical
+purposes, show signs of having had the Consular inscription erased,
+and the wax removed, while Christian sentiments were written or
+incised within the book itself. Parts of the service were also
+occasionally transcribed on diptychs. In Milan the Rites contain
+these passages: "The lesson ended, a scholar, vested in a surplice,
+takes the ivory tablets from the altar or ambo, and ascends the
+pulpit;" and in another place a similar allusion occurs: "When the
+Deacon chants the Alleluia, the key bearer for the week hands the
+ivory tablets to him at the exit of the choir."
+
+Anastatius, in his Life of Pope Agatho, tells of a form of posthumous
+excommunication which was sometimes practised: "They took away from
+the diptychs... wherever it could be done, the names and figures
+of these patriarchs, Cyrus, Sergius, Paul, Pyrrhus, and Peter,
+through whom error had been brought among the orthodox."
+
+Among ivory carvings in Carlovingian times may be
+cited a casket with ornamental colonettes sent by Eginhard to his
+son. In 823, Louis le Debonaire owned a statuette, a diptych, and
+a coffer, while in 845 the Archbishop of Rheims placed an order
+for ivory book covers, for the works of St. Jerome, a Lectionary,
+and other works.
+
+The largest and best known ivory carving of the middle ages is
+the throne of Maximian, Archbishop of Ravenna. This entire chair,
+with an arched back and arms, is composed of ivory in intricately
+carved plaques. It is considerably over three feet in height, and is
+a superb example of the best art of the sixth century. Photographs
+and reproductions of it may be seen in most works dealing with
+this subject. Scenes from Scripture are set all over it, divided
+by charming meanders of deeply cut vine motives. Some authorities
+consider the figures inferior to the other decorations: of course
+in any delineation of the human form, the archaic element is more
+keenly felt than when it appears in foliate forms or conventional
+patterns. Diptychs being often taken in considerable numbers and
+set into large works of ivory, has led some authorities to suppose
+that the Ravenna throne was made of such a collection; but this
+is contradicted by Passeri in 1759, who alludes to the panels in
+the following terms: "They might readily be taken by the ignorant
+for diptychs.... This they are not, for they cannot be taken from
+the consular diptychs which had their own ornamentation, referring
+to the consultate and the insignia, differing from the sculpture
+destined for other purposes. Hence they are obviously mistaken who
+count certain tablets as diptychs which have no ascription to any
+consul, but represent the Muses, Bacchantes, or Gods. These seem
+to me to have been book covers." Probably the selected form of an
+upright tablet for the majority of ivory carvings is based on
+economic principles: the best use of the most surface from any
+square block of material is to cut it in thin slices. In their
+architecture the southern mediæval builders so treated stone, building
+a substructure of brick and laying a slab or veneer of the more
+costly material on its surface: with ivory this same principle
+was followed, and the shape of the tusk, being long and narrow,
+naturally determined the form of the resulting tablets.
+
+The Throne of Ivan III. in Moscow and that of St. Peter in Rome
+are also magnificent monuments of this art. Ivory caskets were the
+chief manifestation of taste in that medium, during the period of
+transition from the eighth century until the revival of Byzantine
+skill in the tenth century. This form of sculpture was at its best
+at a time when stone sculpture was on the decline.
+
+There is a fascinating book cover in Ravenna which is a good example
+of sixth century work of various kinds. In the centre, Christ is
+seen, enthroned under a kind of palmetto canopy; above him, on
+a long panel, are two flying angels displaying a cross set in a
+wreath; at either end stand little squat figures, with balls and
+crosses in their hands. Scenes from the miracles of Our Lord occupy
+the two side panels, which are subdivided so that there are four
+scenes in all; they are so quaint as to be really grotesque, but
+have a certain blunt charm which is enhanced by the creamy lumpiness
+of the material in which they are rendered. The healing of the
+blind, raising of the dead, and the command to the man by the pool
+to take up his bed and walk, are accurately represented; the bed
+in this instance is a form of couch with a wooden frame and
+mattress, the carrying of which would necessitate an unusual amount
+of strength on the part of even a strong, well man. One of the most
+naïve of these panels of the miracles is the curing of "one
+possessed:" the boy is tied with cords by the wrists and ankles,
+while, at the touch of the Master, a little demon is seen issuing
+from the top of the head of the sufferer, waving its arms proudly
+to celebrate its freedom! Underneath is a small scene of the three
+Children in the Fiery Furnace; they look as if they were presenting
+a vaudeville turn, being spirited in action, and very dramatic.
+Below all, is a masterly panel of Jonah and the whale,--an old
+favourite, frequently appearing in mediæval art. The whale,
+positively smiling and sportive, eagerly awaits his prey at the
+right. Jonah is making a graceful dive from the ship, apparently
+with an effort to land in the very jaws of the whale. At the
+opposite side, the whale, having coughed up his victim, looks
+disappointed, while Jonah, in an attitude of lassitude suggestive
+of sea-sickness, reclines on a bank; an angel, with one finger
+lifted as if in reproach, is hurrying towards him.
+
+An ingenuous ivory carving of the ninth century in Carlovingian
+style is a book cover on which is depicted the finding of St. Gall,
+by tame bears in the wilderness. These bears, walking decorously
+on their hind legs, are figured as carrying bread to the hungry
+saint: one holds a long French loaf of a familiar pattern, and
+the other a breakfast roll!
+
+Bernward of Hildesheim had a branch for ivory carving in his celebrated
+academy, to which allusion has been made.
+
+Ivory drinking horns were among the most beautiful and ornate examples
+of secular ivories. They were called Oliphants, because the tusks
+of elephants were chiefly used in their manufacture. In 1515 the
+Earl of Ormonde leaves in his will "a little white horn of ivory
+garnished at both ends with gold," and in St. Paul's in the thirteenth
+century, there is mention of "a great horn of ivory engraved with
+beasts and birds." The Horn of Ulphas at York is an example of the
+great drinking horns from which the Saxons and Danes, in early
+days, drank in token of transfer of lands; as we are told by an old
+chronicler, "When he gave the horn that was to convey his estate,
+he filled it with wine, and went on his knees before the altar...
+so that he drank it off in testimony that thereby he gave them
+his lands." This horn was given by Ulphas to the Cathedral with
+certain lands, a little before the Conquest, and placed by him
+on the altar.
+
+Interesting ivories are often the pastoral staves
+carried by bishops. That of Otho Bishop of Hildesheim in 1260 is
+inscribed in the various parts: "Persuade by the lower part; rule
+by the middle; and correct by the point." These were apparently
+the symbolic functions of the crozier. The French Gothic ivory
+croziers are perhaps more beautiful than others, the little figures
+standing in the carved volutes being especially delicate and graceful.
+
+[Illustration: PASTORAL STAFF; IVORY, GERMAN, 12TH CENTURY]
+
+Before a mediæval bishop could perform mass he was enveloped in
+a wrapper, and his hair was combed "respectfully and lightly" (no
+tugging!) by the deacon. This being a part of the regular ceremonial,
+special carved combs of ivory, known as Liturgical Combs, were used.
+Many of them remain in collections, and they are often ornamented in
+the most delightful way, with little processions and Scriptural scenes
+in bas-relief. In the Regalia of England, there was mentioned among
+things destroyed in 1649, "One old comb of horn, worth nothing."
+According to Davenport, this may have been the comb used in smoothing
+the king's hair on the occasion of a Coronation.
+
+The rich pulpit at Aix la Chapelle is covered with plates of gold
+set with stones and ivory carvings; these are very fine. It was
+given to the cathedral by the Emperor Henry II. The inscription
+may be thus translated: "Artfully brightened in gold and precious
+stones, this pulpit is here dedicated by King Henry with reverence,
+desirous of celestial glory: richly it is decorated with his own
+treasures, for you, most Holy Virgin, in order that you may obtain
+the highest gain as a future reward for him." The sentiment is
+not entirely disinterested; but are not motives generally mixed?
+St. Bernard preached a Crusade from this pulpit in 1146. The ivory
+carvings are very ancient, and remarkably fine, representing figures
+from the Greek myths.
+
+Ivory handles were usual for the fly-fan, or flabellum, used at
+the altar, to keep flies and other insects away from the Elements.
+One entry in an inventory in 1429 might be confusing if one did not
+know of this custom: the article is mentioned as "one muscifugium
+de pecock" meaning a fly-fan of peacock's feathers!
+
+Small round ivory boxes elaborately sculptured were used both for
+Reserving the Host and for containing relics. In the inventory of
+the Church of St. Mary Hill, London, was mentioned, in the fifteenth
+century, "a lytill yvory cofyr with relyks." At Durham, in 1383,
+there is an account of an "ivory casket conteining a vestment of
+St. John the Baptist," and in the fourteenth century, in the same
+collection, was "a tooth of St. Gendulphus, good for the Falling
+Sickness, in a small ivory pyx."
+
+[Illustration: IVORY MIRROR CASE; EARTH 14TH CENTURY]
+
+Ivory mirror backs lent themselves well to decorations of a more
+secular nature: these are often carved with the Siege of the Castle
+of Love, and with scenes from the old Romances; tournaments were
+very popular, with ladies in balconies above pelting the heroes
+with roses as large as themselves, and the tutor Aristotle "playing
+horse" was a great favourite. Little elopements on horseback were
+very much liked, too, as subjects; sometimes rows of heroes on steeds
+appear, standing under windows, from which, in a most wholesale
+way, whole nunneries or boarding-schools seem to be descending to
+fly with them. One of these mirrors shows Huon of Bordeaux playing
+at chess with the king's daughter: another represents a castle,
+which occupies the upper centre of the circle, and under the window
+is a drawbridge, across which passes a procession of mounted knights.
+One of these has paused, and, standing balancing himself in a most
+precarious way on the pommels of his saddle, is assisting a lady to
+descend from a window. Below are seen others, or perhaps the same
+lovers, in a later stage of the game, escaping in a boat. At the
+windows are the heads of other ladies awaiting their turn to be
+carried off.
+
+[Illustration: IVORY MIRROR CASE, 1340]
+
+An ivory chest of simple square shape, once the property of the Rev.
+Mr. Bowle, is given in detail by Carter in the Ancient Specimens,
+and is as interesting an example of allegorical romance as can
+be imagined. Observe the attitude of the knight who has laid his
+sword across a chasm in order to use it as a bridge. He is proceeding
+on all fours, with unbent knees, right up the sharp edge of the blade!
+
+Among small box shrines which soon developed in Christian times
+from the Consular diptychs is one, in the inventory of Roger de
+Mortimer, "a lyttle long box of yvory, with an ymage of Our ladye
+therein closed."
+
+The differences in expression between French, English, and German
+ivory carvings is quite interesting. The French faces and figures
+have always a piquancy of action: the nose is a little retroussée
+and the eyelids long. The German shows more solidity of person,
+less transitoriness and lightness about the figure, and the nose
+is blunter. The English carvings are often spirited, so as to be
+almost grotesque in their strenuousness, and the tool-mark is visible,
+giving ruggedness and interest.
+
+Nothing could be more exquisite than the Gothic shrines in ivory
+made in the thirteenth century, but descriptions, unless accompanied
+by illustrations, could give little idea of their individual charm,
+for the subject is usually the same: the Virgin and child, in the
+central portion of the triptych, while scenes from the Passion
+occupy the spaces on either side, in the wings.
+
+Statuettes in the round were rare in early Christian times: one of
+the Good Shepherd in the Basilewski collection is almost unique,
+but pyxes in cylindrical form were made, the sculpture on them
+being in relief. In small ivory statuettes it was necessary to
+follow the natural curve of the tusk in carving the figure, hence
+the usual twisted, and sometimes almost contorted forms often seen
+in these specimens. Later, this peculiarity was copied in stone,
+unconsciously, simply because the style had become customary. One
+of the most charming little groups of figures in ivory is in the
+Louvre, the Coronation of the Virgin. The two central figures are
+flanked by delightful jocular little angels, who have that
+characteristic close-lipped, cat-like smile, which is a regular
+feature in all French sculpture of the Gothic type. In a little
+triptych of the fourteenth century, now in London, there is the
+rather unusual scene of Joseph, sitting opposite the Virgin, and
+holding the Infant in his arms.
+
+Among the few names of mediæval ivory carvers known, are Henry de
+Grès, in 1391, Héliot, 1390, and Henry de Senlis, in 1484. Héliot
+is recorded as having produced for Philip the Bold "two large ivory
+tablets with images, one of which is the... life of Monsieur St.
+John Baptist." This polite description occurs in the Accounts of
+Amiot Arnaut, in 1392.
+
+A curious freak of the Gothic period was the making of ivory statuettes
+of the Virgin, which opened down the centre (like the Iron Maiden
+of Nüremberg), and disclosed within a series of Scriptural scenes
+sculptured on the back and on both sides. These images were called
+Vierges Ouvrantes, and were decidedly more curious than beautiful.
+
+In the British Museum is a specimen of northern work, a basket cut
+out from the bone of a whale; it is Norse in workmanship, and there
+is a Runic inscription about the border, which has been thus
+translated:
+
+  "The whale's bones from the fishes' flood
+   I lifted on Fergen Hill:
+   He was dashed to death in his gambols
+   And aground he swam in the shallows."
+
+Fergen Hill refers to an eminence near Durham.
+
+[Illustration: CHESSMAN FROM LEWIS]
+
+Some very ancient chessmen are preserved in the British Museum, in
+particular a set called the Lewis Chessmen. They were discovered
+in the last century, being laid bare by the pick axe of a labourer.
+These chessmen have strange staring eyes; when the workman saw
+them, he took them for gnomes who had come up out of the bowels
+of the earth, to annoy him, and he rushed off in terror to report
+what proved to be an important archæological discovery.
+
+One of the chessmen of Charlemagne is to be seen in Paris: he rides
+an elephant, and is attended by a cortège, all in one piece. Sometimes
+these men are very elaborate ivory carvings in themselves.
+
+As Mr. Maskell points out that bishops did not wear mitres, according
+to high authority, until after the year 1000, it is unlikely that
+any of the ancient chessmen in which the Bishop appears in a mitre
+should be of earlier date than the eleventh century. There is one
+fine Anglo-Saxon set of draughts in which the white pieces are
+of walrus ivory, and the black pieces, of genuine jet.
+
+Paxes, which were passed about in church for the Kiss of Peace,
+were sometimes made of ivory.
+
+There are few remains of early Spanish ivory sculpture. Among them
+is a casket curiously and intricately ornamented and decorated,
+with the following inscription: "In the Name of God, The Blessing
+of God, the complete felicity, the happiness, the fulfilment of
+the hope of good works, and the adjourning of the fatal period
+of death, be with Hagib Seifo.... This box was made by his orders
+under the inspection of his slave Nomayr, in the year 395." Ivory
+caskets in Spain were often used to contain perfumes, or to serve as
+jewel boxes. It was customary, also, to use them to convey presents
+of relics to churches. Ivory was largely used in Spain for inlay
+in fine furniture.
+
+King Don Sancho ordered a shrine, in 1033, to contain the relics
+of St. Millan. The ivory plaques which are set about this shrine
+are interesting specimens of Spanish art under Oriental domination.
+Under one little figure is inscribed Apparitio Scholastico, and
+Remirus Rex under another, while a figure of a sculptor carving a
+shield, with a workman standing by him, is labelled "Magistro and
+Ridolpho his son."
+
+Few individual ivory carvers are known by name. A French artist,
+Jean Labraellier, worked in ivory for Charles V. of France; and
+in Germany it must have been quite a fashionable pursuit in high
+life; the Elector of Saxony, August the Pious, who died in 1586,
+was an ivory worker, and there are two snuff-boxes shown as the
+work of Peter the Great. The Elector of Brandenburgh and Maximilian
+of Bavaria both carved ivory for their own recreation. In the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there were many well-known
+sculptors who turned their attention to ivory; but our researches
+hardly carry us so far.
+
+For a moment, however, I must touch on the subject of billiard
+balls. It may interest our readers to know that the size of the
+little black dot on a ball indicates its quality. The nerve which
+runs through a tusk, is visible at this point, and a ball made from
+the ivory near the end of the tusk, where the nerve has tapered
+off to its smallest proportions, is the best ball. The finest balls
+of all are made from short stubby tusks, which are known as "ball
+teeth." The ivory in these is closer in grain, and they are much
+more expensive. Very large tusks are more liable to have coarse
+grained bony spaces near the centre.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+INLAY AND MOSAIC
+
+There are three kinds of inlay, one where the pattern is incised,
+and a plastic filling pressed in, and allowed to harden, on the
+principle of a niello; another, where both the piece to be set
+in and the background are cut out separately; and a third, where
+a number of small bits are fitted together as in a mosaic. The
+pavement in Siena is an example of the first process. The second
+process is often accomplished with a fine saw, like what is popularly
+known as a jig saw, cutting the same pattern in light and dark
+wood, one layer over another; the dark can then be set into the
+light, and the light in the dark without more than one cutting
+for both. The mosaic of small pieces can be seen in any of the
+Southern churches, and, indeed, now in nearly every country. It
+was the chief wall treatment of the middle ages.
+
+[Illustration: MARBLE INLAY FROM LUCCA]
+
+About the year 764, Maestro Giudetto ornamented the delightful
+Church of St. Michele at Lucca. This work, or at least the best of
+it, is a procession of various little partly heraldic and partly
+grotesque animals, inlaid with white marble on a ground of green
+serpentine. They are full of the best expression of mediæval art.
+The Lion of Florence, the Hare of Pisa, the Stork of Perugia, the
+Dragon of Pistoja, are all to be seen in these simple mosaics,
+if one chooses to consider them as such, hardly more than white
+silhouettes, and yet full of life and vigour. The effect is that
+of a vast piece of lace,--the real cut work of the period. Absurd
+little trees, as space fillers, are set in the green and white
+marble. Every reader will remember how Ruskin was enthusiastic over
+these little creatures, and no one can fail to feel their charm.
+
+The pavements at the Florentine Baptistery and at San Miniato are
+interesting examples of inlay in black and white marble. They are
+early works, and are the natural forerunners of the marvellous
+pavement at Siena, which is the most remarkable of its kind in the
+world.
+
+The pavement masters worked in varying methods. The first of these
+was the joining together of large flat pieces of marble, cut in
+the shapes of the general design, and then outlining on them an
+actual black drawing by means of deeply cut channels, filled with
+hard black cement. The channels were first cut superficially and
+then emphasized and deepened by the use of a drill, in a series
+of holes.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF PAVEMENT, BAPTISTERY, FLORENCE]
+
+Later workers used black marbles for the backgrounds, red for the
+ground, and white for the figures, sometimes adding touches of
+yellow inlay for decorations, jewels, and so forth. Some of the
+workers even used gray marble to represent shadows, but this was
+very difficult, and those who attempted less chiaroscuro were more
+successful from a decorator's point of view.
+
+This work covered centuries. The earliest date of the ornamental
+work in Siena is 1369. From 1413 to 1423 Domenico del Coro, a famous
+worker in glass and in intarsia, was superintendent of the works. The
+beauty and spirit of much of the earlier inlay have been impaired
+by restoration, but the whole effect is unique, and on so vast a
+scale that one hesitates to criticize it just as one hesitates
+to criticize the windows at Gouda.
+
+One compartment of the floor is in genuine mosaic, dating from
+1373. The designer is unknown, but the feeling is very Sienese;
+Romulus and Remus are seen in their customary relation to the
+domesticated wolf, while the symbolical animals of various Italian
+cities are arranged in a series of circles around this centrepiece.
+One of the most striking designs is that of Absalom, hanging by
+his hair. It is in sharp black and white, and the foliage of the
+trees is remarkably decorative, rendered with interesting minutiæ.
+This is attributed to Pietro del Minella, and was begun in 1447.
+
+A very interesting composition is that of the Parable of the Mote and
+the Beam. This is an early work, about 1375; it shows two gentlemen
+in the costume of the period, arguing in courtly style, one apparently
+declaiming to the other how much better it would be for him if
+it were not for the mote in his eye, while from the eye of the
+speaker himself extends, at an impossible angle, a huge wedge of
+wood, longer than his head, from which he appears to suffer no
+inconvenience, and which seems to have defied the laws of gravitation!
+
+The renowned Matteo da Siena worked on the pavement; he designed
+the scene of the Massacre of the Innocents--it seems to have been
+always his favourite subject. He was apparently of a morbid turn.
+
+In 1505 Pinturicchio was paid for a work on the floor: "To master
+Bernardino Pinturicchio, ptr., for his labour in making a cartoon
+for the design of Fortune, which is now being made in the Cathedral,
+on this 13th day of March, 12 Lires for our said Master Alberto."
+The mosaic is in red, black, and white, while other coloured marbles
+are introduced in the ornamental parts of the design, several of which
+have been renewed. Fortune herself has been restored, also, as have
+most of the lower figures in the composition. Her precariousness
+is well indicated by her action in resting one foot on a ball, and
+the other on an unstable little boat which floats, with broken
+mast, by the shore. She holds a sail above her head, so that she
+is liable to be swayed by varying winds. The three upper figures
+are in a better state of preservation than the others.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF PAVEMENT, SIENA; "FORTUNE," BY PINTURICCHIO]
+
+There was also in France some interest in mosaic during the eleventh
+century. At St. Remi in Rheims was a celebrated pavement in which
+enamels were used as well as marbles. Among the designs which appeared
+on this pavement, which must have positively rivalled Siena in its
+glory, was a group of the Seven Arts, as well as numerous Biblical
+scenes. It is said that certain bits of valuable stone, like jasper,
+were exhibited in marble settings, like "precious stones in a ring."
+There were other French pavements, of the eleventh century, which
+were similar in their construction, in which terra cotta was employed
+for the reds.
+
+"Pietra Dura" was a mosaic laid upon either a thick wood or a marble
+foundation. Lapis lazuli, malachite, and jasper were used largely,
+as well as bloodstones, onyx, and Rosso Antico. In Florentine Pietra
+Dura work, the inlay of two hard and equally cut materials reached
+its climax.
+
+Arnolfo del Cambio, who built the Cathedral of Sta. Maria Fiore in
+Florence, being its architect from 1294 till 1310, was the first
+in that city to use coloured slabs and panels of marble in a sort
+of flat mosaic on a vast scale on the outside of buildings. His
+example has been extensively followed throughout Italy. The art
+of Pietra Dura mosaic began under Cosimo I. who imported it, if
+one may use such an expression, from Lombardy. It was used chiefly,
+like Gobelins Tapestry, to make very costly presents, otherwise
+unprocurable, for grandees and crowned heads. For a long time the
+work was a Royal monopoly. There are several interesting examples
+in the Pitti Palace, in this case in the form of tables. Flowers,
+fruits, shells, and even figures and landscapes have been represented
+in this manner.
+
+Six masters of the art of Pietra Dura came from Milan in 1580,
+to instruct the Florentines: and a portrait of Cosimo I. was the
+first important result of their labours. It was executed by Maestro
+Francesco Ferucci. The Medicean Mausoleum in Florence exhibits
+magnificent specimens of this craft.
+
+In the time of Ferdinand I. the art was carried by Florentines
+to India, where it was used in decorating some of the palaces.
+Under Ferdinand II. Pietra Dura reached its climax, there being
+in Florence at this time a most noted Frenchman, Luigi Siriès,
+who settled in Florence in 1722. He refined the art by ceasing to
+use the stone as a pigment in producing pictures, and employing
+it for the more legitimate purposes of decoration. Some of the
+large tables in the Pitti are his work. Flowers and shells on a
+porphyry ground were especially characteristic of Siriès. There was
+a famous inlayer of tables, long before this time, named Antonio
+Leopardi, who lived from 1450 to 1525.
+
+The inlay of wood has been called marquetry and intarsia, and was
+used principally on furniture and choir stalls. Labarte gives the
+origin of this art in Italy to the twelfth century. The Guild of
+Carpenters in Florence had a branch of Intarsiatura workers, which
+included all forms of inlay in wood. It is really more correct
+to speak of intarsia when we allude to early Italian work, the
+word being derived from "interserere," the Latin for "insert;"
+while marquetry originates in France, much later, from "marqueter,"
+to mark. Italian wood inlay began in Siena, where one Manuello is
+reported to have worked in the Cathedral in 1259. Intarsia was
+also made in Orvieto at this time. Vasari did not hold the art in
+high estimation, saying that it was practised by "those persons who
+possessed more patience than skill in design," and I confess to a
+furtive concurrence in Vasari's opinion. He criticizes it a little
+illogically, however, when he goes on to say that the "work soon
+becomes dark, and is always in danger of perishing from the worms
+and by fire," for in these respects it is no more perishable than
+any great painting on canvas or panel. Vasari always is a little
+extreme, as we know.
+
+The earliest Italian workers took a solid block of wood, chiselled
+out a sunken design, and then filled in the depression with other
+woods. The only enemy to such work was dampness, which might loosen
+the glue, or cause the small thin bits to swell or warp. The glue
+was applied always when the surfaces were perfectly clean, and
+the whole was pressed, being screwed down on heated metal plates,
+that all might dry evenly.
+
+In 1478 there were thirty-four workshops of intarsia makers in
+Florence. The personal history of several of the Italian workers
+in inlay is still available, and, as it makes a craft seem much
+more vital when the names of the craftsmen are known to us, it
+will be interesting to glance at a few names of prominent artists
+in this branch of work. Bernardo Agnolo and his family are among
+them; and Domenico and Giovanni Tasso were wood-carvers who worked
+with Michelangelo. Among the "Novelli," there is a quaint tale
+called "The Fat Ebony Carver," which is interesting to read in this
+connection.
+
+Benedetto da Maiano, one of the "most solemn" workers in intarsia in
+Florence, became disgusted with his art after one trying experience,
+and ever after turned his attention to other carving. Vasari's
+version of the affair is as follows. Benedetto had been making
+two beautiful chests, all inlaid most elaborately, and carried
+them to the Court of Hungary, to exhibit the workmanship. "When
+he had made obeisance to the king, and had been kindly received,
+he brought forward his cases and had them unpacked... but it was
+then he discovered that the humidity of the sea voyage had softened
+the glue to such an extent that when the waxed cloths in which
+the coffers had been wrapped were opened, almost all the pieces
+were found sticking to them, and so fell to the ground! Whether
+Benedetto stood amazed and confounded at such an event, in the
+presence of so many nobles, let every one judge for himself."
+
+A famous family of wood inlayers were the del Tasso, who came from
+S. Gervasio. One of the brothers, Giambattista, was a wag, and
+is said to have wasted much time in amusement and standing about
+criticizing the methods of others. He was a friend of Cellini, and
+all his cronies pronounce him to have been a good fellow. On one
+occasion he had a good dose of the spirit of criticism, himself,
+from a visiting abbot, who stopped to see the Medicean tomb, where
+Tasso happened to be working. Tasso was requested to show the stranger
+about, which he did. The abbot began by depreciating the beauty of
+the building, remarking that Michelangelo's figures in the Sacristy
+did not interest him, and on his way up the stairs, he chanced to
+look out of a window and caught sight of Brunelleschi's dome. When
+the dull ecclesiastic began to say that this dome did not merit
+the admiration which it raised, the exasperated Tasso, who was
+loyal to his friends, could stand no more. Il Lasca recounts what
+happened: "Pulling the abbot backward with force, he made him
+tumble down the staircase, and he took good care to fall himself
+on top of him, and calling out that the frater had been taken mad,
+he bound his arms and legs with cords... and then taking him,
+hanging over his shoulders, he carried him to a room near,
+stretched him on the ground, and left him there in the dark, taking
+away the key." We will hope that if Tasso himself was too prone to
+criticism, he may have learned a lesson from this didactic monastic,
+and was more tolerant in the future.
+
+Of the work of Canozio, a worker of about the same time, Matteo
+Colaccio in 1486, writes, "In visiting these intarsiad figures I
+was so much taken with the exquisiteness of the work that I could
+not withold myself from praising the author to heaven!" He refers
+thus ecstatically to the Stalls at St. Antonio at Padua, which
+were inlaid by Canozio, assisted by other masters. For his work
+in the Church of St. Domenico in Reggio, the contract called for
+some curious observances: he was bound by this to buy material
+for fifty lire, to work one third of the whole undertaking for
+fifty lire, to earn another fifty lire for each succeeding third,
+and then to give "forty-eight planks to the Lady," whatever that may
+mean! Among the instruments mentioned are: "Two screw profiles: one
+outliner: four one-handed little planes: rods for making cornices:
+two large squares and one grafonetto: three chisels, one glued and
+one all of iron: a pair of big pincers: two little axes: and a bench
+to put the tarsia on." Pyrography has its birth in intarsia, where
+singeing was sometimes employed as a shading in realistic designs.
+
+In the Study of the Palace at Urbino, there is mention of "arm
+chairs encircling a table all mosaicked with tarsia, and carved
+by Maestro Giacomo of Florence," a worker of considerable repute.
+One of the first to adopt the use of ivory, pearl, and silver for
+inlay was Andrea Massari of Siena. In this same way inlay of
+tortoise-shell and brass was made,--the two layers were sawed out
+together, and then counterchanged so as to give the pattern in
+each material upon the other. Cabinets are often treated in this
+way. Ivory and sandal-wood or ebony, too, have been sometimes thus
+combined. In Spain cabinets were often made of a sort of mosaic of
+ebony and silver; in 1574 a Prohibtion was issued against using
+silver in this way, since it was becoming scarce.
+
+In De Luna's "Diologos Familiarea," a Spanish work of 1669, the
+following conversation is given: "How much has your worship paid
+for this cabinet? It is worth more than forty ducats. What wood
+is it made of? The red is of mahogany, from Habaña, and the black
+is made of ebony, and the white of ivory. You will find the
+workmanship excellent." This proves that inlaid cabinets were
+usual in Spain.
+
+Ebony being expensive, it was sometimes simulated with stain. An
+old fifteenth century recipe says: "Take boxwood and lay in oil
+with sulphur for a night, then let it stew for an hour, and it
+will become as black as coal." An old Italian book enjoins the
+polishing of this imitation ebony as follows: "Is the wood to be
+polished with burnt pumice stone? Rub the work carefully with canvas
+and this powder, and then wash the piece with Dutch lime water so
+that it may be more beautifully polished... then the rind of a
+pomegranate must be steeped, and the wood smeared over with it,
+and set to dry, but in the shade."
+
+Inlay was often imitated; the elaborate marquetry cabinets in Sta.
+Maria della Grazia in Milan which are proudly displayed are in
+reality, according to Mr. Russell Sturgis, cleverly painted to
+simulate the real inlaid wood. Mr. Hamilton Jackson says that these,
+being by Luini, are intended to be known as paintings, but to imitate
+intarsia.
+
+Intarsia was made also among the monasteries. The Olivetans practised
+this art extensively, and, much as some monasteries had scriptoria
+for the production of books, so others had carpenter's shops and
+studios where, according to Michele Caffi, they showed "great talent
+for working in wood, succeeding to the heirship of the art of tarsia
+in coloured woods, which they got from Tuscany." One of the more
+important of the Olivetan Monasteries was St. Michele in Bosco, where
+the noted worker in tarsia, Fra Raffaello da Brescia, made some
+magnificent choir stalls. In 1521 these were finished, but they were
+largely destroyed by the mob in the suppression of the convents in
+the eighteenth century. In 1812 eighteen of the stalls were saved,
+bought by the Marquis Malvezzi, and placed in St. Petronio. He tried
+also to save the canopies, but these had been sold for firewood at
+about twopence each!
+
+The stalls of St. Domenico at Bologna are by Fra Damiano of Bergamo;
+it is said of him that his woods were coloured so marvellously
+that the art of tarsia was by him raised to the rank of that of
+painting! He was a Dominican monk in Bologna most of his life.
+When Charles V. visited the choir of St. Domenico, and saw these
+stalls, he would not believe that the work was accomplished by
+inlay, and actually cut a piece out with his sword by way of
+investigation.
+
+Castiglione the Courtier expresses himself with much admiration
+of the work of Fra Damiano, "rather divine than human." Of the
+technical perfection of the workmanship he adds: "Though these
+works are executed with inlaid pieces, the eye cannot even by the
+greatest exertion detect the joints.... I think, indeed, I am certain,
+that it will be called the eighth wonder of the world." (Count
+Castiglione did not perhaps realize what a wonderful world he lived
+in!) But at any rate there is no objection to subscribing to his
+eulogy: "All that I could say would be little enough of his rare and
+singular virtue, and on the goodness of his religious and holy life."
+Another frate who wrote about that time alluded to Fra Damiano as
+"putting together woods with so much art that they appear as pictures
+painted with the brush."
+
+In Germany there was some interesting intarsia made by the Elfen
+Brothers, of St. Michael's in Hildesheim, who produced beautiful
+chancel furniture. Hans Stengel of Nüremberg, too, was renowned
+in this art.
+
+After the Renaissance marquetry ran riot in France, but that is
+out of the province of our present study.
+
+The art of mosaic making has changed very little during the centuries.
+Nearly all the technical methods now used were known to the ancients.
+In fact, this art is rather an elemental one, and any departure
+from old established rules is liable to lead the worker into a
+new craft; his art becomes that of the inlayer or the enameller
+when he attempts to use larger pieces in cloissons, or to fuse
+bits together by any process.
+
+Mosaic is a natural outgrowth from other inlaying; when an elaborate
+design had to be set up, quite too complicated to be treated in
+tortuously-cut large pieces, the craftsman naturally decided to
+render the whole work with small pieces, which demanded less accurate
+shaping of each piece. Originally, undoubtedly, each bit of glass or
+stone was laid in the soft plaster of wall or floor; but now a more
+labour saving method has obtained; it is amusing to watch the modern
+rest-cure. Instead of an artist working in square bits of glass to
+carry out his design, throwing his interest and personality into the
+work, a labourer sits leisurely before a large cartoon, on which he
+glues pieces of mosaic the prescribed colour and size, mechanically
+fitting them over the design until it is completely covered. Then
+this sheet of paper, with the mosaic glued to it, is slapped on to
+the plaster wall, having the stones next to the plaster, so that,
+until it is dry, all that can be seen is the sheet of paper apparently
+fixed on the wall. But lo! the grand transformation! The paper is
+washed off, leaving in place the finished product--a very accurate
+imitation of the picture on which the artist laboured, all in place in
+the wall, every stone evenly set as if it had been polished--entirely
+missing the charm of the irregular faceted effect of an old
+mosaic--again mechanical facility kills the spirit of an art.
+
+Much early mosaic, known as Cosmati Work, is inlaid into marble,
+in geometric designs; twisted columns of this class of work may be
+seen in profusion in Rome, and the façade of Orvieto is similarly
+decorated. Our illustration will demonstrate the technical process
+as well as a description.
+
+The mosaic base of Edward the Confessor's shrine is inscribed to
+the effect that it was wrought by Peter of Rome. It was a dignified
+specimen of the best Cosmati. All the gold glass which once played
+its part in the scheme of decoration has been picked out, and in
+fact most of the pieces in the pattern are missing.
+
+[Illustration: AMBO AT RAVELLO; SPECIMEN OF COSMATI MOSAIC]
+
+The mosaic pavement in Westminster Abbey Presbytery is as fine
+an example of Roman Cosmati mosaic as one can see north of the
+Alps. An inscription, almost obliterated, is interpreted by Mr.
+Lethaby as signifying, that in the year 1268 "Henry III. being
+King, and Odericus the cementarius, Richard de Ware, Abbot, brought
+the porphyry and divers jaspers and marbles of Thaso from Rome." In
+another place a sort of enigma, drawn from an arbitrary combination
+of animal forms and numbers, marks a chart for determining the end
+of the world! There is also a beautiful mosaic tomb at Westminster,
+inlaid with an interlacing pattern in a ground of marble, like the
+work so usual in Rome, and in Palermo, and other Southern centres
+of the art.
+
+While the material used in mosaic wall decoration is sometimes a
+natural product, like marble, porphyry, coral, or alabaster, the
+picture is composed for the most part of artificially prepared
+smalts--opaque glass of various colours, made in sheets and then
+cut up into cubes. An infinite variety in gradations of colour
+and texture is thus made possible.
+
+The gold grounds which one sees in nearly all mosaics are constructed
+in an interesting way. Each cube is composed of plain rather coarse
+glass, of a greenish tinge, upon which is laid gold leaf. Over
+this leaf is another film of glass, extremely thin, so that the
+actual metal is isolated between two glasses, and is thus impervious
+to such qualities in the air as would tarnish it or cause it to
+deteriorate. To prevent an uninteresting evenness of surface on
+which the sun's rays would glint in a trying manner, it was usual
+to lay the gold cubes in a slightly irregular manner, so that
+each facet, as it were, should reflect at a different angle,
+and the texture, especially in the gold grounds, never became
+monotonous. One does not realize the importance of this custom
+until one sees a cheap modern mosaic laid absolutely flat, and then
+it is evident how necessary this broken surface is to good effect.
+Any one who has tried to analyze the reason for the superiority of
+old French stained glass over any other, will be surprised, if
+he goes close to the wall, under one of the marvellous windows
+of Chartres, for instance, and looks up, to see that the whole
+fabric is warped and bent at a thousand angles,--it is not only
+the quality of the ancient glass, nor its colour, that gives this
+unattainable expression to these windows, but the accidental warping
+and wear of centuries have laid each bit of glass at a different
+angle, so that the refraction of the light is quite different from
+any possible reflection on the smooth surface of a modern window.
+
+The dangers of a clear gold ground were, felt more fully by the
+workers at Ravenna and Rome, than in Venice. Architectural schemes
+were introduced to break up the surface: clouds and backgrounds,
+fields of flowers, and trees, and such devices, were used to prevent
+the monotony of the unbroken glint. But in Venice the decorators
+were brave; their faith in their material was unbounded, and they
+not only frankly laid gold in enormous masses on flat wall and
+cupola, but they even moulded the edges and archivolts without
+separate ribs or strips to relieve them; the gold is carried all
+over the edges, which are rounded into curves to receive the mosaic,
+so that the effect is that of the entire upper part of the church
+having been _pressed_ into shape out of solid gold. The lights on
+these rounded edges are incomparably rich.
+
+It is equally important to vary the plain values of the colour,
+and this was accomplished by means of dilution and contrast in
+tints instead of by unevenness of surface, although in many of the
+most satisfactory mosaics, both means have been employed. Plain
+tints in mosaic can be relieved in a most delightful way by the
+introduction of little separate cubes of unrelated colour, and
+the artist who best understands this use of mass and dot is the
+best maker of mosaic. The actual craft of construction is similar
+everywhere, but the use of what we may regard as the pigment has
+possibilities similar to the colours of a painter. The manipulation
+being of necessity slow, it is more difficult to convey the idea
+of spontaneity in design than it is in a fresco painting.
+
+To follow briefly the history of mosaic as used in the Dark Ages,
+the Middle Ages, and the period of the Renaissance, it is interesting
+to note that by the fourth century mosaic was the principal decoration
+in ecclesiastical buildings. Contantine employed this art very
+extensively. Of his period, however, few examples remain. The most
+notable is the little church of Sta. Constanza, the vaults of which
+are ornamented in this way, with a fine running pattern of vines,
+interspersed with figures on a small scale. The Libel Pontificalis
+tells how Constantine built the Basilica of St. Agnese at the request
+of his daughter, and also a baptistery in the same place, where
+Constance was baptized, by Bishop Sylvester.
+
+Among the most interesting early mosaics is the apse of the Church
+of St. Pudentiana in Rome. Barbet de Jouy, who has written extensively
+on this mosaic, considers it to be an eighth century achievement.
+But a later archæologist, M. Rossi, believes it to have been made
+in the fourth century, in which theory he is upheld by M. Vitet. The
+design is that of a company of saints gathered about the Throne on
+which God the Father sits to pass judgment. In certain restorations
+and alterations made in 1588 two of these figures were cut away, and
+the lower halves of those remaining were also removed, so that the
+figures are now only half length. The faces and figures are drawn
+in a very striking manner, being realistic and full of graceful
+action, very different from the mosaics of a later period, which
+were dominated by Byzantine tradition.
+
+In France were many specimens of the mosaics of the fifth century.
+But literary descriptions are all that have survived of these works,
+which might once have been seen at Nantes, Tours, and Clermont.
+
+[Illustration: MOSAIC FROM RAVENNA; THEODORA AND HER SUITE, 16TH
+CENTURY]
+
+Ravenna is the shrine of the craft in the fifth and sixth centuries.
+It is useless in so small a space to attempt to describe or do
+justice to these incomparable walls, where gleam the marvellous
+procession of white robed virgins, and where glitters the royal
+cortège of Justinian and Theodora. The acme of the art was reached
+when these mural decorations were planned and executed, and the
+churches of Ravenna may be considered the central museum of the
+world for a study of mosaic.
+
+Among those who worked at Ravenna a few names have descended. These
+craftsmen were, Cuserius, Paulus, Janus, Statius and Stephanus,
+but their histories are vague. Theodoric also brought some mosaic
+artists from Rome to work in Ravenna, which fact accounts for a
+Latin influence discernible in these mosaics, which are in many
+instances free from Byzantine stiffness. The details of the textiles
+in the great mosaics of Justinian and Theodora are rarely beautiful.
+The chlamys with which Justinian is garbed is covered with circular
+interlaces with birds in them; on the border of the Empress's robe
+are embroideries of the three Magi presenting their gifts; on one
+of the robes of the attendants there is a pattern of ducks swimming,
+while another is ornamented with leaves of a five-pointed form.
+
+There is a mosaic in the Tomb of Galla Placida in Ravenna, representing
+St. Lawrence, cheerfully approaching his gridiron, with the Cross
+and an open book encumbering his hands, while in a convenient corner
+stands a little piece of furniture resembling a meat-safe, containing
+the Four Gospels. The saint is walking briskly, and is fully draped;
+the gridiron is of the proportions of a cot bedstead, and has a raging
+fire beneath it,--a gruesome suggestion of the martyrdom.
+
+No finer examples of the art of the colourist in mosaic can be
+seen than in the procession of Virgins at San Apollinaire Nuovo
+in Ravenna. Cool, restrained, and satisfying, the composition has
+all the elements of chromatic perfection. In the golden background
+occasional dots of light and dark brown serve to deepen the tone
+into a slightly bronze colour. The effect is especially scintillating
+and rich, more like hammered gold than a flat sheet. The colours
+in the trees are dark and light green, while the Virgins, in brown
+robes, with white draperies over them, are relieved with little
+touches of gold. The whole tone being thus green and russet, with
+purplish lines about the halos, is an unusual colour-scheme, and
+can hardly carry such conviction in a description as when it is
+seen.
+
+In the East, the Church of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople exhibited
+the most magnificent specimens of this work; the building was
+constructed under Constantine, by the architects Anthemius and
+Isidore, and the entire interior, walls and dome included, was covered
+by mosaic pictures.
+
+Among important works of the seventh century is the apse of St.
+Agnese, in Rome. Honorius decorated the church, about 630, and it
+is one of the most effective mosaics in Rome. At St. John Lateran,
+also, Pope John IV. caused a splendid work to be carried out,
+which has been reported as being as "brilliant as the sacred waters."
+
+In the eighth century a magnificent achievement was accomplished
+in the monastery of Centula, in Picardie, but all traces of this
+have been lost, for the convent was burnt in 1131. The eighth was
+not an active century for the arts, for in 726 Leo's edict was sent
+forth, prohibiting all forms of image worship, and at a Council
+at Constantinople in 754 it was decided that all iconographic
+representation and all use of symbols (except in the Sacrament) were
+blasphemous. Idolatrous monuments were destroyed, and the iconoclasts
+continued their devastations until the death of Theophilus in 842.
+Fortunately this wave of zeal was checked before the destruction of
+the mosaics in Ravenna and Rome, but very few specimens survived
+in France.
+
+In the ninth century a great many important monuments were added,
+and a majority of the mosaics which may still be seen, date from
+that time: they are not first in quality, however, although they
+are more numerous. After this, there was a period of inanition,
+in this art as in all others, while the pseudo-prophets awaited
+the ending of the world. After the year 1000 had passed, and the
+astonished people found that they were still alive, and that the
+world appeared as stable as formerly, interest began to revive,
+and the new birth of art produced some significant examples in the
+field of mosaic. There was some activity in Germany, for a time,
+the versatile Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim adding this craft to
+his numerous accomplishments, although it is probable that his
+works resembled the graffiti and inlaid work rather than the
+mosaics composed of cubes of smalt.
+
+At the Monastery of Monte Cassino in the eleventh century was an
+interesting personality,--the Abbé Didier, its Superior. About
+1066 he brought workers from Constantinople, who decorated the apse
+and walls of the basilica under his direction. At the same time,
+he established a school at the monastery, and the young members
+were instructed in the arts and crafts of mosaic and inlay, and
+the illumination of books. Greek influence was thus carried into
+Italy through Monte Cassino.
+
+In the twelfth century the celebrated Suger of St. Denis decorated
+one of the porches of his church with mosaic, in smalt, marbles,
+and gold; animal and human forms were introduced in the ornament.
+But this may not have been work actually executed on the spot,
+for another narrator tells us that Suger brought home from Italy,
+on one of his journeys, a mosaic, which was placed over the door
+at St. Denis; as it is no longer in its position, it is not easy
+to determine which account is correct.
+
+The mosaics at St. Mark's in Venice were chiefly the work of two
+centuries and a half. Greek artists were employed in the main,
+bringing their own tesseræ and marbles. In 1204 there was special
+activity in this line, at the time when the Venetians took
+Constantinople. After this, an establishment for making the smalts
+and gold glass was set up at Murano, and Venice no longer imported
+its material.
+
+The old Cathedral at Torcello has one of the most perfect examples
+of the twelfth century mosaic in the world. The entire west end of
+the church is covered with a rich display of figures and Scriptural
+scenes. A very lurid Hell is exhibited at the lower corner, in the
+depths of which are seen stewing, several Saracens, with large
+hoop earrings. Their faces are highly expressive of discomfort.
+This mosaic is full of genuine feeling; one of the subjects is
+Amphitrite riding a seahorse, among those who rise to the surface
+when "the sea gives up its dead." The Redeemed are seen crowding
+round Abraham, who holds one in his bosom; they are like an infant
+class, and are dressed in uniform pinafores, intended to look like
+little ecclesiastical vestments! The Dead who are being given up by
+the Earth are being vomited forth by wild animals--this is original,
+and I believe, almost the only occasion on which this form of literal
+resurrection is represented.
+
+In the thirteenth century a large number of mosaic artists appeared
+in Florence, many of whose names and histories are available. In the
+Baptistery, Andrea Tafi, who lived between 1213 and 1294, decorated the
+cupola. With him were two assistants who are known by name--Apollonius
+a Greek, which in part accounts for the stiff Byzantine figures in
+this work, and another who has left his signature, "Jacobus Sancti
+Francisci Frater"--evidently a monastic craftsman. Gaddo Gaddi
+also assisted in this work, executing the Prophets which occur
+under the windows, and professing to combine in his style "the
+Greek manner and that of Cimabue." Apollonius taught Andrea Tafi
+how to compose the smalt and to mix the cement, but this latter
+was evidently unsuccessful, for in the next century the mosaic
+detached itself and fell badly, when Agnolo Gaddi, the grandson
+of Gaddo, was engaged to restore it. Tafi, Gaddi, and Jacobus were
+considered as a promising firm, and they undertook other large works
+in mosaic. They commenced the apse at Pisa, which was finished
+in 1321 by Vicini, Cimabue designing the colossal figure of Christ
+which thus dominates the cathedral.
+
+Vasari says that Andrea Tafi was considered "an excellent, nay,
+a divine artist" in his specialty. Andrea, himself more modest,
+visited Venice, and deigned to take instruction from Greek mosaic
+workers, who were employed at St. Mark's. One of them, Apollonius,
+became attached to Tafi, and this is how he came to accompany him
+to Florence. The work on the Baptistery was done actually _in situ_,
+every cube being set directly in the plaster. The work is still
+extant, and the technical and constructive features are perfect,
+since their restoration. It is amusing to read Vasari's patronizing
+account of Tafi; from the late Renaissance point of view, the mosaic
+worker seemed to be a barbarous Goth at best: "The good fortune
+of Andrea was really great," says Vasari, "to be born in an age
+which, doing all things in the rudest manner, could value so highly
+the works of an artist who really merited so little, not to say
+nothing!"
+
+Gaddo Gaddi was a painstaking worker in mosaic, executing some
+works on a small scale entirely in eggshells of varying tints. In
+the Baroncelli chapel in Florence is a painting by Taddeo Gaddi,
+in which occur the portraits of his father, Gaddo Gaddi, and Andrea
+Tafi.
+
+About this time the delightful mosaic at St. Clemente, in Rome,
+was executed. With its central cross and graceful vine decorations,
+it stands out unique among the groups of saints and seraphs, of
+angels and hierarchies, of most of the Roman apsidal ornaments. The
+mosaic in the basilica of St. John Lateran is by Jacopo Torriti.
+In the design there are two inconspicuous figures, intentionally
+smaller than the others, of two monks on their knees, working,
+with measure and compass. These represent Jacopo Torriti and his
+co-worker, Camerino. One of them is inscribed (translated) "Jacopo
+Torriti, painter, did this work," and the other, "Brother Jacopo
+Camerino, companion of the master worker, commends himself to the
+blessed John." The tools and implements used by mosaic artists are
+represented in the hands of these two monks. Torriti was apparently
+a greater man in some respects than his contemporaries. He based his
+art rather on Roman than Greek tradition, and his works exhibit
+less Byzantine formality than many mosaics of the period. On
+the apse of Sta. Maria Maggiore there appears a signature, "Jacopo
+Torriti made this work in mosaic." Gaddo Gaddi also added a composition
+below the vault, about 1308.
+
+The well-known mosaic called the Navicella in the atrium of St.
+Peter's, Rome, was originally made by Giotto. It has been much
+restored and altered, but some of the original design undoubtedly
+remains. Giotto went to Rome to undertake this work in 1298; but the
+present mosaic is largely the restoration of Bernini, who can hardly
+be considered as a sympathetic interpreter of the early Florentine
+style. Vasari speaks of the Navicella as "a truly wonderful work,
+and deservedly eulogized by all enlightened judges." He marvels
+at the way in which Giotto has produced harmony and interchange of
+light and shade so cleverly: "with mere pieces of glass" (Vasari
+is so naïvely overwhelmed with ignorance when he comes to deal
+with handicraft) especially on the large sail of the boat.
+
+In Venice, the Mascoli chapel was ornamented by scenes from the
+life of the Virgin, in 1430. The artist was Michele Zambono, who
+designed and superintended the work himself. At Or San Michele in
+Florence, the painter Peselli, or Guliano Arrigo, decorated the
+tabernacle, in 1416. Among other artists who entered the field of
+mosaic, were Baldovinetti and Domenico Ghirlandajo, the painter who
+originated the motto: "The only painting for eternity is mosaic."
+
+In the sixteenth century the art of mosaic ceased to
+observe due limitations. The ideal was to reproduce exactly in
+mosaic such pictures as were prepared by Titian, Pordenone, Raphael,
+and other realistic painters. Georges Sand, in her charming novel,
+"Les Maitres Mosaïstes," gives one the atmosphere of the workshops
+in Venice in this later period. Tintoretto and Zuccato, the aged
+painter, are discussing the durability of mosaic:--"Since it resists
+so well," says Zuccato, "how comes it that the Seignory is repairing
+all the domes of St. Mark's, which to-day are as bare as my skull?"
+To which Tintoretto makes answer: "Because at the time when they
+were decorated with mosaics, Greek artists were scarce in Venice.
+They came from a distance, and remained but a short time: their
+apprentices were hastily trained, and executed the works entrusted
+to them without knowing their business, and without being able
+to give them the necessary solidity. Now that this art has been
+cultivated in Venice, century after century, we have become as
+skilful as even the Greeks were." The two sons of Zuccato, who
+are engaged in this work, confide to each other their trials and
+difficulties in the undertaking: like artists of all ages, they
+cannot easily convince their patrons that they comprehend their art
+better than their employers! Francesco complains of the Procurator,
+who is commissioned to examine the work: "He is not an artist.
+He sees in mosaic only an application of particles more or less
+brilliant. Perfection of tone, beauty of design, ingenuity of
+composition, are nothing to him.... Did I not try in vain the
+other day to make him understand that the old pieces of gilded
+crystal used by our ancestors and a little tarnished by time,
+were more favourable to colour than those manufactured to-day?"
+"Indeed, you make a mistake, Messer Francesco," said he, "in
+handing over to the Bianchini all the gold of modern manufacture.
+The Commissioners have decided that the old will do mixed with
+the new."... "But did I not in vain try to make him understand
+that this brilliant gold would hurt the faces, and completely ruin
+the effect of colour?"... The answer of the Procurator was, "The
+Bianchini do not scruple to use it, and their mosaics please the
+eye much better than yours," so his brother Valerio, laughing,
+asks, "What need of worrying yourself after such a decision as
+that? Suppress the shadows, cut a breadth of material from a great
+plate of enamel and lay it over the breast of St. Nicaise, render
+St. Cecilia's beautiful hair with a badly cut tile, a pretty lamb
+for St. John the Baptist, and the Commission will double your salary
+and the public clap its hands. Really, my brother, you who dream
+of glory, I do not understand how you can pledge yourself to the
+worship of art." "I dream of glory, it is true," replied Francesco,
+"but of a glory that is lasting, not the vain popularity of a day.
+I should like to leave an honoured name, if not an illustrious
+one, and make those who examine the cupolas of St. Mark's five
+hundred years hence say, 'This was the work of a conscientious
+artist.'" A description follows of the scene of the mosaic workers
+pursuing their calling. "Here was heard abusive language, there
+the joyous song; further on, the jest; above, the hammer: below,
+the trowel: now the dull and continuous thud of the tampon on the
+mosaics, and anon the clear and crystal like clicking of the glassware
+rolling from the baskets on to the pavement, in waves of rubies and
+emeralds. Then the fearful grating of the scraper on the cornice,
+and finally the sharp rasping cry of the saw in the marble, to say
+nothing of the low masses said at the end of the chapel in spite
+of the racket."
+
+[Illustration: MOSAIC IN BAS-RELIEF, NAPLES]
+
+The Zuccati were very independent skilled workmen, as well as being
+able to design their own subjects. They were, in the judgment of
+Georges Sand, superior to another of the masters in charge of the
+works, Bozza, who was less of a man, although an artist of some
+merit. Later than these men, there were few mosaic workers of high
+standing; in Florence the art degenerated into a mere decorative
+inlay of semi-precious material, heraldic in feeling, costly and
+decorative, but an entirely different art from that of the Greeks
+and Romans. Lapis-lazuli with gold veinings, malachite, coral,
+alabaster, and rare marbles superseded the smalts and gold of an
+elder day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ILLUMINATION OF BOOKS
+
+One cannot enter a book shop or a library to-day without realizing
+how many thousands of books are in constant circulation. There was
+an age when books were laboriously but most beautifully written,
+instead of being thus quickly manufactured by the aid of the
+type-setting machine; the material on which the glossy text was
+executed was vellum instead of the cheap paper of to-day, the
+illustrations, instead of being easily reproduced by photographic
+processes, were veritable miniature paintings, most decorative,
+ablaze with colour and fine gold,--in these times it is easy to
+forget that there was ever a period when the making of a single
+book occupied years, and sometimes the life-time of one or two
+men.
+
+In those days, when the transcription of books was one of the chief
+occupations in religious houses, the recluse monk, in the quiet
+of the scriptorium, was, in spite of his seclusion, and indeed,
+by reason of it, the chief link between the world of letters and
+the world of men.
+
+The earliest known example of work by a European monk dates from
+the year 517; but shortly after this there was a great increase
+in book making, and monasteries were founded especially for the
+purpose of perpetuating literature. The first establishment of
+this sort was the monastery of Vivaria, in Southern Italy, founded
+by Cassiodorus, a Greek who lived between the years 479 and 575,
+and who had been the scribe (or "private secretary") of Theodoric
+the Goth. About the same time, St. Columba in Ireland founded a
+house with the intention of multiplying books, so that in the sixth
+century, in both the extreme North and in the South, the religious
+orders had commenced the great work of preserving for future ages
+the literature of the past and of their own times.
+
+Before examining the books themselves, it will be interesting to
+observe the conditions under which the work was accomplished. Sometimes
+the scriptorium was a large hall or studio, with various desks
+about; sometimes the North walk of the cloister was divided into
+little cells, called "carrels," in each of which was room for the
+writer, his desk, and a little shelf for his inks and colours.
+These carrels may be seen in unusual perfection in Gloucester. In
+very cold weather a small brazier of charcoal was also introduced.
+
+Cassiodorus writes thus of the privilege of being a copyist of
+holy books. "He may fill his mind with the Scriptures while copying
+the sayings of the Lord; with his fingers he gives life to men
+and arms against the wiles of the Devil; as the antiquarius copies
+the word of Christ, so many wounds does he inflict upon Satan. What
+he writes in his cell will be carried far and wide over distant
+provinces. Man multiplies the word of Heaven: if I may dare so to
+speak, the three fingers of his right hand are made to represent
+the utterances of the Holy Trinity. The fast travelling reed writes
+down the holy words, thus avenging the malice of the wicked one,
+who caused a reed to be used to smite the head of the Saviour."
+
+When the scriptorium was consecrated, these words were used (and
+they would be most fitting words to-day, in the consecration of
+libraries or class rooms which are to be devoted to religious study):
+"Vouchsafe, O, Lord, to bless this workroom of thy servants, that all
+which they write therein may be comprehended by their intelligence,
+and realized by their work." Scriptorium work was considered equal
+to labour in the fields. In the Rule of St. Fereol, in the sixth
+century, there is this clause: "He who doth not turn up the earth
+with his plough, ought to write the parchment with his fingers."
+The Capitulary of Charlemagne contains this phrase: "Do not permit
+your scribes or pupils, either in reading or writing, to garble the
+text; when you are preparing copies of the Gospels, the Psalter,
+or the Missal, see that the work is confided to men of mature age,
+who will write with due care." Some of the scribes were prolific
+book transcribers. Jacob of Breslau, who died in 1480, copied so
+many books that it is said that "six horses could with difficulty
+bear the burden of them!"
+
+The work of each scriptorium was devoted first to the completion
+of the library of the individual monastery, and after that, to
+other houses, or to such patrons as were rich enough to order books
+to be transcribed for their own use. The library of a monastery
+was as much a feature as the scriptorium. The monks were not like
+the rising literary man, who, when asked if he had read "Pendennis"
+replied, "No--I never read books--I write them." Every scribe was
+also a reader. There was a regular system of lending books from
+the central store. A librarian was in charge, and every monk was
+supposed to have some book which he was engaged in reading "straight
+through" as the Rule of St. Benedict enjoins, just as much as the one
+which he was writing. As silence was obligatory in the scriptorium
+and library, as well as in the cloisters, they were forced to apply
+for the volumes which they desired by signs. For a general work,
+the sign was to extend the hand and make a movement as if turning
+over the leaves of a book. If a Missal was wanted, the sign of the
+cross was added to the same form; for a Gospel, the sign of the
+cross was made upon the forehead, while those who wished tracts to
+read, should lay one hand on the mouth and the other on the stomach;
+a Capitulary was indicated by the gesture of raising the clasped
+hands to heaven, while a Psalter could be obtained by raising the
+hands above the head in the form of a crown. As the good brothers
+were not possessed of much religious charity, they indicated a
+secular book by scratching their ears, as dogs are supposed to
+do, to imply the suggestion that the infidel who wrote such a book
+was no better than a dog!
+
+This extract is made from a book in one of the early monastic libraries.
+"Oh, Lord, send the blessing of thy Holy Spirit upon these books,
+that, cleansing them from all earthly things, they may mercifully
+enlighten our hearts, and give us true understanding, and grant
+that by their teaching they may brightly preserve and make a full
+abundance of good works according to Thy will." The books were
+kept in cupboards, with doors; in the Customs of the Augustine
+Priory of Barnwell, these directions are given: "The press in which
+the books are kept ought to be lined with wood, that the damp of
+the walls may not moisten or stain the books. The press should be
+divided vertically as well as horizontally, by sundry partitions,
+on which the books may be ranged so as to be separated from one
+another, for fear they be packed so close as to injure one another,
+or to delay those who want them."
+
+We read of the "chained books" of the Middle Ages, and I think
+there is a popular belief that this referred to the fact that the
+Bible was kept in the priest's hands, and chained so that the people
+should not be able to read it for themselves and become familiar
+with every part of it. This, however, is a mistake. It was the
+books in the libraries which were chained, so that dishonest people
+should not make way with them! In one Chapter Library, there occurs
+a denunciation of such thieves, and instructions how to fasten the
+volumes. It reads as follows: "Since to the great reproach of the
+Nation, and a greater one to our Holy Religion, the thievish
+disposition of some who enter libraries to learn no good there,
+hath made it necessary to secure the sacred volumes themselves
+with chains (which are better deserved by those ill persons, who
+have too much learning to be hanged, and too little to be honest),
+care shall be taken that the chains should neither be too long nor
+too clumsy, more than the use of them requires: and that the loops
+whereby they are fastened to the books may be rivetted on such a
+part of the cover, and so smoothly, as not to gall or graze the
+books, while they are moved to or from their respective places.
+And forasmuch as the more convenient way to place books in
+libraries is to turn their backs out showing the title and other
+decent ornaments in gilt work which ought not to be hidden, this
+new method of fixing the chain to the back of the book is
+recommended until one more suitable shall be contrived."
+
+Numerous monasteries in England devoted much time to scriptorium
+work. In Gloucester may still be seen the carrels of the scribes
+in the cloister wall, and there was also much activity in the book
+making art in Norwich, Glastonbury, and Winchester, and in other
+cities. The two monasteries of St. Peter and St. Swithin in Winchester
+were, the chronicler says, "so close packed together,... that between
+the foundation of their respective buildings there was barely room
+for a man to pass along. The choral service of one monastery
+conflicted with that of the other, so that both were spoiled, and
+the ringing of their bells together produced a horrid effect."
+
+One of the most important monasteries of early times, on the Continent,
+was that conducted by Alcuin, under the protection of Charlemagne.
+When the appointed time for writing came round, the monks filed
+into the scriptorium, taking their places at their desks. One of
+their number then stood in the midst, and read aloud, slowly, for
+dictation, the work upon which they were engaged as copyists; in
+this way, a score of copies could be made at one time. Alcuin himself
+would pass about among them, making suggestions and correcting
+errors, a beautiful example of true consecration, the great scholar
+spending his time thus in supervising the transcription of the
+Word of God, from a desire to have it spread far and wide. Alcuin
+sent a letter to Charlemagne, accompanying a present of a copy
+of the Bible, at the time of the emperor's coronation, and from
+this letter, which is still preserved, it may be seen how reverent
+a spirit his was, and how he esteemed the things of the spiritual
+life as greater than the riches of the world. "After deliberating
+a long while," he writes, "what the devotion of my mind might find
+worthy of a present equal to the splendour of your Imperial dignity,
+and the increase of your wealth,--at length by the inspiration of
+the Holy Spirit, I found what it would be competent for me to
+offer, and fitting for your prudence to accept. For to me inquiring
+and considering, nothing appeared more worthy of your peaceful
+honour than the gifts of the Sacred Scriptures... which, knit
+together in the sanctity of one glorious body, and diligently
+amended, I have sent to your royal authority, by this your faithful
+son and servant, so that with full hands we may assist at the
+delightful service of your dignity." One of Alcuin's mottoes was:
+"Writing books is better than planting vines: for he who plants a
+vine serves his belly, while he who writes books serves his soul."
+
+Many different arts were represented in the making of a mediæval
+book. Of those employed, first came the scribe, whose duty it was
+to form the black even glossy letters with his pen; then came the
+painter, who must not only be a correct draughtsman, and an adept
+with pencil and brush, but must also understand how to prepare
+mordaunts and to lay the gold leaf, and to burnish it afterwards
+with an agate, or, as an old writer directs, "a dogge's tooth set
+in a stick." After him, the binder gathered the lustrous pages and
+put them together under silver mounted covers, with heavy clasps.
+At first, the illuminations were confined only to the capital letters,
+and red was the selected colour to give this additional life to the
+evenly written page. The red pigment was known as "minium." The
+artist who applied this was called a "miniator," and from this,
+was derived the term "miniature," which later referred to the
+pictures executed in the developed stages of the art. The use of
+the word "miniature," as applied to paintings on a small scale,
+was evolved from this expression.
+
+[Illustration: A SCRIBE AT WORK: 12TH CENTURY MANUSCRIPT]
+
+The difficulties were numerous. First, there was climate and temperature
+to consider. It was necessary to be very careful about the temperature
+to which gold leaf was exposed, and in order to dry the sizing
+properly, it was important that the weather should not be too damp
+nor too warm. Peter de St. Audemar, writing in the late thirteenth
+century, says: "Take notice that you ought not to work with gold
+or colours in a damp place, on account of the hot weather, which,
+as it is often injurious in burnishing gold, both to the colours
+on which the gold is laid and also to the gilding, if the work
+is done on parchment, so also it is injurious when the weather
+is too dry and arid." John Acherius, in 1399, observes, too, that
+"care must be taken as regards the situation, because windy weather
+is a hindrance, unless the gilder is in an enclosed place, and
+if the air is too dry, the colour cannot hold the gold under the
+burnisher." Illumination is an art which has always been difficult;
+we who attempt it to-day are not simply facing a lost art which
+has become impossible because of the changed conditions; even when
+followed along the best line in the best way the same trials were
+encountered.
+
+Early treatises vary regarding the best medium for laying leaf on
+parchment. There are very few vehicles which will form a connecting
+and permanent link between these two substances. There is a general
+impression that white of egg was used to hold the gold: but any
+one who has experimented knows that it is impossible to fasten
+metal to vellum by white of egg alone. Both oil and wax were often
+employed, and in nearly all recipes the use of glue made of
+boiled-down vellum is enjoined. In some of the monasteries there
+are records that the scribes had the use of the kitchen for drying
+parchment and melting wax.
+
+The introductions to the early treatises show the spirit in which
+the work was undertaken. Peter de St. Audemar commences: "By the
+assistance of God, of whom are all things that are good, I will
+explain to you how to make colours for painters and illuminators
+of books, and the vehicles for them, and other things appertaining
+thereto, as faithfully as I can in the following chapters." Peter
+was a North Frenchman of the thirteenth century.
+
+Of the recipes given by the early treatises, I will quote a few,
+for in reality they are all the literature we have upon the subject.
+Eraclius, who wrote in the twelfth century, gives accurate directions:
+"Take ochre and distemper it with water, and let it dry. In the
+meanwhile make glue with vellum, and whip some white of egg. Then
+mix the glue and the white of egg, and grind the ochre, which by
+this time is well dried, upon a marble slab; and lay it on the
+parchment with a paint brush;... then apply the gold, and let it
+remain so, without pressing it with the stone. When it is dry,
+burnish it well with a tooth. This," continues Eraclius naïvely,
+"is what I have learned by experiment, and have frequently proved,
+and you may safely believe me that I shall have told you the truth."
+This assurance of good faith suggests that possibly it was a habit
+of illuminators to be chary of information, guarding their own
+discoveries carefully, and only giving out partial directions to
+others of their craft.
+
+In the Bolognese Manuscript, one is directed to make a simple size
+from incense, white gum, and sugar candy, distempering it with
+wine; and in another place, to use the white of egg, whipped with
+the milk of the fig tree and powdered gum Arabic. Armenian Bole is
+a favourite ingredient. Gum and rose water are also prescribed,
+and again, gesso, white of egg, and honey. All of these recipes
+sound convincing, but if one tries them to-day, one has the doubtful
+pleasure of seeing the carefully laid gold leaf slide off as soon
+as the whole mixture is quite dry. Especially improbable is the
+recipe given in the Brussels Manuscript: "You lay on gold with well
+gummed water alone, and this is very good for gilding on parchment.
+You may also use fresh white of egg or fig juice alone in the same
+manner."
+
+Theophilus does not devote much time or space to the art of
+illuminating, for, as he is a builder of everything from church
+organs to chalices, glass windows, and even to frescoed walls, we
+must not expect too much information on minor details. He does not
+seem to direct the use of gold leaf at all, but of finely ground
+gold, which shall be applied with its size in the form of a paste,
+to be burnished later. He says (after directing that the gold dust
+shall be placed in a shell): "Take pure minium and add to it a
+third part of cinnibar, grinding it upon a stone with water. Which,
+being carefully ground, beat up the clear white of an egg, in
+summer with water, in winter without water," and this is to be
+used as a slightly raised bed for the gold. "Then," he continues,
+"place a little pot of glue on the fire, and when it is liquefied,
+pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it." This is to be
+painted on to the gesso ground just mentioned, and when quite dry,
+burnished with an agate. This recipe is more like the modern
+Florentine method of gilding in illumination.
+
+Concerning the gold itself, there seem to have been various means
+employed for manufacturing substitutes for the genuine article.
+A curious recipe is given in the manuscript of Jehan de Begue,
+"Take bulls' brains, put them in a marble vase, and leave them for
+three weeks, when you will find gold making worms. Preserve them
+carefully." More quaint and superstitious is Theophilus' recipe
+for making Spanish Gold; but, as this is not quotable in polite
+pages, the reader must refer to the original treatise if he cares
+to trace its manufacture.
+
+Brushes made of hair are recommended by the Brussels manuscript,
+with a plea for "pencils of fishes' hairs for softening." If this
+does not refer to _sealskin_, it is food for conjecture!
+
+And for the binding of these beautiful volumes, how was the leather
+obtained? This is one way in which business and sport could be combined
+in the monastery, Warton says, "About the year 790, Charlemagne
+granted an unlimited right of hunting to the Abbot and monks of
+Sithiu, for making... of the skins of the deer they killed...
+covers for their books." There is no doubt that it had occurred
+to artists to experiment upon human skin, and perhaps the fact
+that this was an unsatisfactory texture is the chief reason why
+no books were made of it. A French commentator observes: "The
+skin of a man is nothing compared with the skin of a sheep....
+Sheep is good for writing on both sides, but the skin of a dead
+man is just about as profitable as his bones,--better bury him,
+skin and bones together."
+
+There was some difficulty in obtaining manuscripts to copy. The
+Breviary was usually enclosed in a cage; rich parishioners were bribed
+by many masses and prayers, to bequeath manuscripts to churches. In
+old Paris, the Parchment Makers were a guild of much importance.
+Often they combined their trade with tavern keeping, in the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries. The Rector of the University was glad
+when this occurred, for the inn keeper and parchment maker was
+under his control, both being obliged to reside in the Pays Latin.
+Bishops were known to exhort the parchment makers, from the pulpit,
+to be honest and conscientious in preparing skins. A bookseller,
+too, was solemnly made to swear "faithfully to receive, take care
+of, and expose for sale the works which should be entrusted to
+him." He might not buy them for himself until they had been for
+sale a full month "at the disposition of the Masters and Scholars."
+But in return for these restrictions, the bookseller was admitted
+to the rights and privileges of the University. As clients of the
+University, these trades, which were associated with book making,
+joined in the "solemn processions" of those times; booksellers,
+binders, parchment makers, and illuminators, all marched together
+on these occasions. They were obliged to pay toll to the Rector
+for these privileges; the recipe for ink was a carefully guarded
+secret.
+
+It now becomes our part to study the books themselves, and see
+what results were obtained by applying all the arts involved in
+their making.
+
+The transition from the Roman illuminations to the Byzantine may
+be traced to the time when Constantine moved his seat of government
+from Rome to Constantinople. Constantinople then became the centre
+of learning, and books were written there in great numbers. For
+some centuries Constantinople was the chief city in the art of
+illuminating. The style that here grew up exhibited the same features
+that characterized Byzantine art in mosaic and decoration. The
+Oriental influence displayed itself in a lavish use of gold and
+colour; the remnant of Classical art was slight, but may sometimes
+be detected in the subjects chosen, and the ideas embodied. The
+Greek influence was the strongest. But the Greek art of the seventh
+and eighth centuries was not at all like the Classic art of earlier
+Greece; a conventional type had entered with Christianity, and is
+chiefly recognized by a stubborn conformity to precedent. It
+is difficult to date a Byzantine picture or manuscript, for the
+same severe hard form that prevailed in the days of Constantine
+is carried on to-day by the monks of Mt. Athos, and a Byzantine
+work of the ninth century is not easily distinguished from one of
+the fifteenth. In manuscripts, the caligraphy is often the only
+feature by which the work can be dated.
+
+In the earlier Byzantine manuscripts there is a larger proportion
+of Classical influence than in later ones, when the art had taken
+on its inflexible uniformity of design. One of the most interesting
+books in which this classical influence may be seen is in the Imperial
+Library at Vienna, being a work on Botany, by Dioscorides, written
+about 400 A. D. The miniatures in this manuscript have many of
+the characteristics of Roman work.
+
+The pigments used in Byzantine manuscripts are glossy, a great deal
+of ultramarine being used. The high lights are usually of gold,
+applied in sharp glittering lines, and lighting up the picture with
+very decorative effect. In large wall mosaics the same characteristics
+may be noted, and it is often suggested that these gold lines may
+have originated in an attempt to imitate cloisonné enamel, in which
+the fine gold line separates the different coloured spaces one from
+another. This theory is quite plausible, as cloisonné was made by
+the Byzantine goldsmiths.
+
+M. Lecoy de la Marche tells us that the first recorded name of an
+illuminator is that of a woman--Lala de Cizique, a Greek, who
+painted on ivory and on parchment in Rome during the first Christian
+century. But such a long period elapses between her time and that
+which we are about to study, that she can here occupy only the
+position of being referred to as an interesting isolated case.
+
+The Byzantine is a very easy style to recognize, because of the
+inflexible stiffness of the figures, depending for any beauty largely
+upon the use of burnished gold, and the symmetrical folds of the
+draperies, which often show a sort of archaic grace. Byzantine
+art is not so much representation as suggestion and symbolism.
+There is a book which may still be consulted, called "A Byzantine
+Guide to Painting," which contains accurate recipes to be followed
+in painting pictures of each saint, the colours prescribed for the
+dress of the Virgin, and the grouping to be adopted in representing
+each of the standard Scriptural scenes; and it has hardly from
+the first occurred to any Byzantine artist to depart from these
+regulations. The heads and faces lack individuality, and are outlined
+and emphasized with hard, unsympathetic black lines; the colouring
+is sallow and the expression stolid. Any attempt at delineating
+emotion is grotesque, and grimacing. The beauty, for in spite of
+all these drawbacks there is great beauty, in Byzantine manuscripts,
+is, as has been indicated, a charm of colour and gleaming gold
+rather than of design. In the Boston Art Museum there is a fine
+example of a large single miniature of a Byzantine "Flight into
+Egypt," in which the gold background is of the highest perfection
+of surface, and is raised so as to appear like a plate of beaten
+gold.
+
+There is no attempt to portray a scene as it might have occurred;
+the rule given in the Manual is followed, and the result is generally
+about the same. The background is usually either gold or blue, with
+very little effort at landscape. Trees are represented in flat
+values of green with little white ruffled edges and articulations.
+The sea is figured by a blue surface with a symmetrical white pattern
+of a wavy nature. A building is usually introduced about half as
+large as the people surrounding it. There is no attempt, either,
+at perspective.
+
+The anatomy of the human form was not understood at all. Nearly
+all the figures in the art of this period are draped. Wherever
+it is necessary to represent the nude, a lank, disproportioned
+person with an indefinite number of ribs is the result, proving
+that the monastic art school did not include a life class.
+
+Most of the best Byzantine examples date from the fifth to the
+seventh centuries. After that a decadence set in, and by the eleventh
+century the art had deteriorated to a mere mechanical process.
+
+The Irish and Anglo-Saxon work are chiefly characterized in their
+early stages by the use of interlaced bands as a decorative motive.
+The Celtic goldsmiths were famous for their delicate work in filigree,
+made of threads of gold used in connection with enamelled grounds.
+In decorating their manuscripts, the artists were perhaps
+unconsciously influenced by this, and the result is a marvellous
+use of conventional form and vivid colours, while the human figure
+is hardly attempted at all, or, when introduced, is so conventionally
+treated, as to be only a sign instead of a representation.
+
+Probably the earliest representation of a pen in the holder, although
+of a very primitive pattern, occurs in a miniature in the Gospels
+of Mac Durnam, where St. John is seen writing with a pen in one
+hand and a knife, for sharpening it, in the other. This picture
+is two centuries earlier than any other known representation of
+the use of the pen, the volume having been executed in the early
+part of the eighth century.
+
+Two of the most famous Irish books are the Book of Kells, and the
+Durham Book. The Book of Kells is now in Trinity College, Dublin.
+It is also known as the Gospel of St. Columba. St. Columba came,
+as the Chronicle of Ethelwerd states, in the year 565: "five years
+afterwards Christ's servant Columba came from Scotia (Ireland)
+to Britain, to preach the word of God to the Picts."
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL FROM THE DURHAM BOOK]
+
+The intricacy of the interlacing decoration is so minute that it
+is impossible to describe it. Each line may be followed to its
+conclusion, with the aid of a strong magnifying glass, but cannot
+be clearly traced with the naked eye. Westwood reports that, with a
+microscope, he counted in one square inch of the page, one hundred
+and fifty-eight interlacements of bands, each being of white, bordered
+on either side with a black line. In this book there is no use of
+gold, and the treatment of the human form is most inadequate.
+There is no idea of drawing except for decorative purposes; it
+is an art of the pen rather than of the brush--it hardly comes
+into the same category as most of the books designated as
+illuminated manuscripts. The so-called Durham Book, or the Gospels
+of St. Cuthbert, was executed at the Abbey of Lindisfarne, in 688,
+and is now in the British Museum. There is a legend that in the
+ninth century pirates plundered the Abbey, and the few monks who
+survived decided to seek a situation less unsafe than that on the
+coast, so they gathered up their treasures, the body of the saint,
+their patron, Cuthbert, and the book, which had been buried with
+him, and set out for new lands. They set sail for Ireland, but a
+storm arose, and their boat was swamped. The body and the book
+were lost. After reaching land, however, the fugitives discovered
+the box containing the book, lying high and dry upon the shore,
+having been cast up by the waves in a truly wonderful state of
+preservation. Any one who knows the effect of dampness upon parchment,
+and how it cockles the material even on a damp day, will the more
+fully appreciate this miracle.
+
+Giraldus Cambriensis went to Ireland as secretary to Prince John,
+in 1185, and thus describes the Gospels of Kildare, a book which
+was similar to the Book of Kells, and his description may apply
+equally to either volume. "Of all the wonders of Kildare I have
+found nothing more wonderful than this marvellous book, written
+in the time of the Virgin St. Bridget, and, as they say, at the
+dictation of an angel. Here you behold the magic face divinely
+drawn, and there the mystical forms of the Evangelists, there an
+eagle, here a calf, so closely wrought together, that if you look
+carelessly at them, they would seem rather like a uniform blot
+than like an exquisite interweavement of figures; exhibiting no
+perfection of skill or art, where all is really skill and perfection
+of art. But if you look closely at them with all the acuteness of
+sight that you can command, and examine the inmost secrets of this
+wondrous art, you will discover such delicate, such wonderful and
+finely wrought lines, twisted and interwoven with such intricate
+knots and adorned with such fresh and brilliant colours, that you
+will readily acknowledge the whole to have been the work of angelic
+rather than human skill."
+
+At first gold was not used at all in Irish work, but the manuscripts
+of a slightly later date, and especially of the Anglo-Saxon school,
+show a superbly decorative use both of gold and silver. The "Coronation
+Oath Book of the Anglo-Saxon Kings" is especially rich in this
+exquisite metallic harmony. By degrees, also, the Anglo-Saxons
+became more perfected in the portrayal of the human figure, so
+that by the twelfth century the work of the Southern schools and
+those of England were more alike than at any previous time.
+
+[Illustration: IVY PATTERN, FROM A 14TH CENTURY FRENCH MANUSCRIPT]
+
+In the Northern manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries
+it is amusing to note that the bad characters are always represented
+as having large hooked noses, which fact testifies to the dislike
+of the Northern races for the Italians and Southern peoples.
+
+The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be considered to stand
+for the "Golden Age" of miniature art in all the countries of Europe.
+In England and France especially the illuminated books of the thirteenth
+century were marvels of delicate work, among which the Tenison
+Psalter and the Psalter of Queen Mary, both in the British Museum,
+are excellent examples. Queen Mary's Psalter was not really painted
+for Queen Mary; it was executed two centuries earlier. But it was
+being sent abroad in 1553, and was seized by the Customs. They
+refused to allow it to pass. Afterwards it was presented to Queen
+Mary.
+
+At this time grew up a most beautiful and decorative style, known
+as "ivy pattern," consisting of little graceful flowering sprays,
+with tiny ivy leaves in gold and colours. The Gothic feeling prevails
+in this motive, and the foliate forms are full of spined cusps.
+The effect of a book decorated in the ivy pattern, is radiant and
+jewelled as the pages turn, and the burnishing of the gold was
+brought to its full perfection at this time. The value of the creamy
+surface of the vellum was recognized as part of the colour scheme.
+With the high polish of the gold it was necessary to use always
+the strong crude colours, as the duller tints would appear faded
+by contrast. In the later stages of the art, when a greater realism
+was attempted, and better drawing had made it necessary to use
+quieter tones, gold paint was generally adopted instead of leaf, as
+being less conspicuous and more in harmony with the general scheme;
+and one of the chief glories of book decoration died in this change.
+
+[Illustration: MEDIÆVAL ILLUMINATION]
+
+The divergences of style in the work of various countries are well
+indicated by Walter de Gray Birch, who says: "The English are famous
+for clearness and breadth; the French for delicate fineness and
+harmoniously assorted colours, the Flemish for minutely stippled
+details, and the Italian for the gorgeous yet calm dignity apparent
+in their best manuscripts." Individuality of facial expression,
+although these faces are generally ugly, is a characteristic of
+Flemish work, while the faces in French miniatures are uniform
+and pretty.
+
+One marked feature in the English thirteenth and fourteenth century
+books, is the introduction of many small grotesques in the borders,
+and these little creatures, partly animal and partly human, show
+a keen sense of humour, which had to display itself, even though
+inappropriately, but always with a true spirit of wit. One might
+suppose on first looking at these grotesques, that the droll expression
+is unintentional: that the monks could draw no better, and that
+their sketches are funny only because of their inability to portray
+more exactly the thing represented. But a closer examination will
+convince one that the wit was deliberate, and that the very subtlety
+and reserve of their expression of humour is an indication of its
+depth. To-day an artist with the sense of caricature expresses
+himself in the illustrated papers and other public channels provided
+for the overflow of high spirits; but the cloistered author of the
+Middle Ages had only the sculptured details and the books belonging
+to the church as vehicles for his satire. The carvings on the
+miserere seats in choirs of many cathedrals were executed by the
+monks, and abound in witty representations of such subjects as
+Reynard the Fox, cats catching rats, etc.; inspired generally by
+the knowledge of some of the inconsistencies in the lives of
+ecclesiastical personages. The quiet monks often became cynical.
+
+The spirit of the times determines the standard of wit. At various
+periods in the world's history, men have been amused by strange and
+differing forms of drollery; what seemed excruciatingly funny to
+our grandparents does not strike us as being at all entertaining.
+Each generation has its own idea of humour, and its own fun-makers,
+varying as much as fashion in dress.
+
+In mediæval times, the sense of humour in art was more developed
+than at any period except our own day. Even-while the monk was
+consecrating his time to the work of beautifying the sanctuary,
+his sense of humour was with him, and must crop out. The grotesque
+has always played an important part in art; in the subterranean
+Roman vaults of the early centuries, one form of this spirit is
+exhibited. But the element of wit is almost absent; it is displayed
+in oppressively obvious forms, so that it loses its subtlety: it
+represents women terminating in floral scrolls, or sea-horses with
+leaves growing instead of fins. The same spirit is seen in the
+grotesques of the Renaissance, where the sense of humour is not
+emphasized, the ideal in this class of decoration being simply to
+fill the space acceptably, with voluptuous graceful lines,
+mythological monstrosities, the inexpressive mingling of human and
+vegetable characteristics, grinning dragons, supposed to inspire
+horror, and such conceits, while the attempt to amuse the spectator
+is usually absent.
+
+In mediæval art, however, the beauty of line, the sense of horror,
+and the voluptuous spirit, are all more or less subservient to
+the light-hearted buoyancy of a keen sense of fun. To illustrate
+this point, I wish to call the attention of the reader to the wit
+of the monastic scribes during the Gothic period. Who could look at
+the little animals which are found tucked away almost out of sight
+in the flowery margins of many illuminated manuscripts, without seeing
+that the artist himself must have been amused at their pranks, and
+intended others to be so? One can picture a gray-hooded brother,
+chuckling alone at his own wit, carefully tracing a jolly little
+grotesque, and then stealing softly to the alcove of some congenial
+spirit, and in a whisper inviting his friend to come and see the
+satire which he has carefully introduced: "A perfect portrait of
+the Bishop, only with claws instead of legs! So very droll! And
+dear brother, while you are here, just look at the expression of
+this little rabbit's ears, while he listens to the bombastic utterance
+of this monkey who wears a stole!"
+
+[Illustration: CARICATURE OF A BISHOP]
+
+Such a fund of playful humour is seldom found in a single book as
+that embodied in the Tenison Psalter, of which only a few pages
+remain of the work of the original artist. The book was once the
+property of Archbishop Tenison. These few pages show to the world the
+most perfect example of the delicacy and skill of the miniaturist.
+On one page, a little archer, after having pulled his bow-string,
+stands at the foot of the border, gazing upwards after the arrow,
+which has been caught in the bill of a stork at the top of the
+page. The attitude of a little fiddler who is exhibiting his trick
+monkeys can hardly be surpassed by caricaturists of any time. A
+quaint bit of cloister scandal is indicated in an initial from
+the Harleian Manuscript, in which a monk who has been entrusted
+with the cellar keys is seen availing himself of the situation,
+eagerly quaffing a cup of wine while he stoops before a large cask.
+In a German manuscript I have seen, cuddled away among the foliage,
+in the margin, a couple of little monkeys, feeding a baby of their
+own species with pap from a spoon. The baby monkey is closely wrapped
+in the swathing bands with which one is familiar as the early
+trussing of European children. Satire and wrath are curiously blended
+in a German manuscript of the twelfth century, in which the scribe
+introduces a portrait of himself hurling a missile at a venturesome
+mouse who is eating the monk's cheese--a fine Camembert!--under his
+very nose. In the book which he is represented as transcribing, the
+artist has traced the words--"Pessime mus, sepius me provocas ad
+iram, ut te Deus perdat." ("Wicked mouse, too often you provoke me
+to anger--may God destroy thee!")
+
+In their illustrations the scribes often showed how literal was
+their interpretation of Scriptural text. For instance, in a passage
+in the book known as the Utrecht Psalter, there is an illustration
+of the verse, "The words of the Lord are pure words; as silver
+tried in the furnace, purified seven times." A glowing forge is
+seen, and two craftsmen are working with bellows, pincers, and
+hammer, to prove the temper of some metal, which is so molten that
+a stream of it is pouring out of the furnace. Another example of
+this literal interpretation, is in the Psalter of Edwin, where
+two men are engaged in sharpening a sword upon a grindstone, in
+illustration of the text about the wicked, "who whet their tongue
+like a sword."
+
+There is evidence of great religious zeal in the exhortations of
+the leaders to those who worked under them. Abbot John of Trittenham
+thus admonished the workers in the Scriptorium in 1486: "I have
+diminished your labours out of the monastery lest by working badly
+you should only add to your sins, and have enjoined on you the
+manual labour of writing and binding books. There is in my opinion
+no labour more becoming a monk than the writing of ecclesiastical
+books.... You will recall that the library of this monastery...
+had been dissipated, sold, or made way with by disorderly monks
+before us, so that when I came here I found but fourteen volumes."
+
+It was often with a sense of relief that a monk finished his work
+upon a volume, as the final word, written by the scribe himself,
+and known as the Explicit, frequently shows. In an old manuscript
+in the Monastery of St. Aignan the writer has thus expressed his
+emotions: "Look out for your fingers! Do not put them on my writing!
+You do not know what it is to write! It cramps your back, it obscures
+your eyes, it breaks your sides and stomach!" It is interesting
+to note the various forms which these final words of the scribes
+took; sometimes the Explicit is a pathetic appeal for remembrance
+in the prayers of the reader, and sometimes it contains a note of
+warning. In a manuscript of St. Augustine now at Oxford, there
+is written: "This book belongs to St. Mary's of Robert's Bridge;
+whoever shall steal it or in any way alienate it from this house,
+or mutilate it, let him be Anathema Marantha!" A later owner,
+evidently to justify himself, has added, "I, John, Bishop of Exeter,
+know not where this aforesaid house is, nor did I steal this book,
+but acquired it in a lawful way!"
+
+The Explicit in the Benedictional of Ethelwold is touching: the
+writer asks "all who gaze on this book to ever pray that after the
+end of the flesh I may inherit health in heaven; this is the prayer
+of the scribe, the humble Godemann." A mysterious Explicit occurs
+at the end of an Irish manuscript of 1138, "Pray for Moelbrighte
+who wrote this book. Great was the crime when Cormac Mac Carthy
+was slain by Tardelvach O'Brian." Who shall say what revelation
+may have been embodied in these words? Was it in the nature of a
+confession or an accusation of some hitherto unknown occurrence?
+Coming as it does at the close of a sacred book, it was doubtless
+written for some important reason.
+
+Among curious examples of the Explicit may be quoted the following:
+"It is finished. Let it be finished, and let the writer go out for
+a drink." A French monk adds: "Let a pretty girl be given to the
+writer for his pains." Ludovico di Cherio, a famous illuminator
+of the fifteenth century, has this note at the end of a book upon
+which he had long been engaged: "Completed on the vigil of the
+nativity of Our Lord Jesus Christ, on an empty stomach." (Whether
+this refers to an imposed penance or fast, or whether Ludovico
+considered that the offering of a meek and empty stomach would be
+especially acceptable, the reader may determine.)
+
+There is an amusing rhymed Explicit in an early fifteenth century
+copy of Froissart:
+
+  "I, Raoul Tanquy, who never was drunk
+   (Or hardly more than judge or monk,)
+   On fourth of July finished this book,
+   Then to drink at the Tabouret myself took,
+   With Pylon and boon companions more
+   Who tripe with onions and garlic adore."
+
+But if some of the monks complained or made sport of their work,
+there were others to whom it was a divine inspiration, and whose
+affection for their craft was almost fanatic, an anecdote being
+related of one of them, who, when about to die, refused to be parted
+from the book upon which he had bestowed much of his life's energy,
+and who clutched it in his last agony so that even death should
+not take it from him. The good Othlonus of Ratisbon congratulates
+himself upon his own ability in a spirit of humility even while
+he rejoices in his great skill; he says: "I think proper to add
+an account of the great knowledge and capacity for writing which
+was given me by the Lord in my childhood. When as yet a little
+child, I was sent to school and quickly learned my letters, and
+I began long before the time of learning, and without any order
+from my master, to learn the art of writing. Undertaking this in a
+furtive and unusual manner, and without any teacher, I got a habit
+of holding my pen wrongly, nor were any of my teachers afterwards
+able to correct me on that point." This very human touch comes down
+to us through the ages to prove the continuity of educational
+experience! The accounts of his monastic labours put us to the blush
+when we think of such activity. "While in the monastery of Tegernsee
+in Bavaria I wrote many books.... Being sent to Franconia while I
+was yet a boy, I worked so hard writing that before I had returned
+I had nearly lost my eyesight. After I became a monk at St. Emmerem,
+I was appointed the school-master. The duties of the office so fully
+occupied my time that I was able to do the transcribing I was
+interested in only by nights and in holidays.... I was, however,
+able, in addition to writing the books that I had myself composed,
+and the copies which I gave away for the edification of those who
+asked for them, to prepare nineteen missals, three books of the
+Gospels and Epistles, besides which I wrote four service books for
+Matins. I wrote in addition several other books for the brethren
+at Fulda, for the monks at Hirschfeld, and at Amerbach, for the
+Abbot of Lorsch, for certain friends at Passau, and for other
+friends in Bohemia, for the monastery at Tegernsee, for the
+monastery at Preyal, for that at Obermunster, and for my sister's
+son. Moreover, I sent and gave at different times sermons, proverbs,
+and edifying writings. Afterward old age's infirmities of various
+kinds hindered me." Surely Othlonus was justified in retiring when
+his time came, and enjoying some respite from his labours!
+
+Religious feeling in works of art is an almost indefinable thing,
+but one which is felt in all true emanations of the conscientious
+spirit of devotion. Fra Angelico had a special gift for expressing
+in his artistic creations is own spiritual life; the very qualities
+for which he stood, his virtues and his errors,--purity,
+unquestioning faith in the miraculous, narrowness of creed, and
+gentle and adoring humility,--all these elements are seen to
+completeness in his decorative pictures. Perhaps this is because
+he really lived up to his principles. One of his favourite sayings
+was "He who occupies himself with the things of Christ, must ever
+dwell with Christ."
+
+It is related that, in the Monastery of Maes Eyck, while the
+illuminators were at work in the evening, copying Holy Writ, the
+devil, in a fit of rage, extinguished their candles; they, however,
+were promptly lighted again by a Breath of the Holy Spirit, and
+the good work went on! Salvation was supposed to be gained through
+conscientious writing. A story is told of a worldly and frivolous
+brother, who was guilty of many sins and follies, but who, nevertheless,
+was an industrious scribe. When he came to die, the devil claimed
+his soul. The angels, however, brought before the Throne a great
+book of religious Instructions which he had illuminated, and for
+every letter therein, he received pardon for one sin. Behold! When
+the account was completed, there proved to be one letter over!
+the narrator adds naïvely, "And it was a very big book."
+
+[Illustration: ILLUMINATION BY GHERART DAVID OF BRUGES, 1498; ST.
+BARBARA]
+
+Perhaps more than any books executed in the better period, after
+the decline had begun, were the Books of Hours, containing the
+numerous daily devotions which form part of the ritual of the Roman
+Church. Every well appointed lady was supposed to own a copy, and
+there is a little verse by Eustache Deschamps, a poet of the time
+of Charles V., in which a woman is supposed to be romancing about
+the various treasures she would like to possess. She says:
+
+  "Hours of Our Lady should be mine,
+     Fitting for a noble dame,
+     Of lofty lineage and name;
+   Wrought most cunningly and quaint,
+   In gold and richest azure paint.
+     Rare covering of cloth of gold
+     Full daintily it shall enfold,
+   Or, open to the view exposed,
+   Two golden clasps to keep it closed."
+
+John Skelton the poet did honour to the illuminated tomes of his
+day, in spite of the fact that the æesthetic deterioration had
+begun.
+
+  "With that of the boke lozende were the clasps
+   The margin was illumined all with golden railes,
+   And bice empictured, with grasshoppers and waspes
+   With butterflies and fresh peacock's tailes:
+   Englosed with... pictures well touched and quickly,
+   It wold have made a man hole that had be right sickly!"
+
+But here we have an indication of that realism which rung the death
+knell of the art. The grasshoppers on a golden ground, and the
+introduction of carefully painted insect and floral life, led to
+all sorts of extravagances of taste.
+
+But before this decadence, there was a very interesting period of
+transition, which may be studied to special advantage in Italy,
+and is seen chiefly in the illuminations of the great choral books
+which were used in the choirs of churches. One book served for
+all the singers in those days, and it was placed upon an open
+lectern in the middle of the choir, so that all the singers could
+see it: it will be readily understood that the lettering had to
+be generous, and the page very large for this purpose. The
+decoration of these books took on the characteristics of breadth
+in keeping with their dimensions, and of large masses of ornament
+rather than delicate meander. The style of the Italian choral books
+is an art in itself.
+
+The Books of Hours and Missals developed during the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries into positive art galleries, whole pages being
+occupied by paintings, the vellum being entirely hidden by the
+decoration. The art of illumination declined as the art of miniature
+painting progressed. The fact that the artist was decorating a page
+in a book was lost sight of in his ambition to paint a series of
+small pictures. The glint of burnished gold on the soft surface
+of the vellum was no longer considered elegant, and these more
+elaborate pictures often left not even a margin, so that the pictures
+might as well have been executed on paper and canvas and framed
+separately, for they do not suggest ornaments in a book after this
+change had taken place. Lettering is hardly introduced at all on
+the same page with the illustration, or, when it is, is placed
+in a little tablet which is simply part of the general scheme.
+
+[Illustration: CHORAL BOOK, SIENA]
+
+Among the books in this later period I will refer specifically to
+two only, the Hours of Ann of Brittany, and the Grimani Breviary.
+The Hours of Ann of Brittany, illuminated by a famous French artist
+of the time of Louis XII., is reproduced in facsimile by Curmer, and
+is therefore available for consultation in most large libraries.
+It will repay any one who is interested in miniature art to examine
+this book, for the work is so excellent that it is almost like
+turning the leaves of the original. The Grimani Breviary, which
+was illuminated by Flemish artists of renown, was the property of
+Cardinal Grimani, and is now one of the treasures of the Library
+of St. Marc in Venice. It is impossible in a short space to comment
+to any adequate extent upon the work of such eminent artists as
+Jean Foucquet, Don Giulio Clovio, Sano di Pietro, and Liberale da
+Verona; they were technically at the head of their art, and yet,
+so far as taste in book decoration is to be considered, their work
+would be more satisfactory as framed miniatures than as marginal
+or paginal ornament.
+
+Stippling was brought to its ultimate perfection by Don Giulio
+Clovio, but it is supposed to have been first practised by Antonio
+de Holanda.
+
+One of Jehan Foucquet's assistants was Jehan Bourdichon. There is
+an interesting memorandum extant, relating to a piece of illumination
+which Bourdichon had accomplished. "To the said B. for having had
+written a book in parchment named the Papalist, the same illuminated
+in gold and azure and made in the same nine rich Histories, and for
+getting it bound and covered, thirty crowns in gold."
+
+At the time of the Renaissance there was a rage for "tiny books,"
+miniature copies of famous works. M. Würtz possessed a copy of the
+Sonnets of Petrarch, written in italics, in brown ink, of which
+the length was one inch, and the breadth five-eighths of an inch,
+showing fifty lines on a page. The text is only visible through
+a glass. It is in Italian taste, with several miniatures, and is
+bound in gold filigree.
+
+The value of illuminated books is enormous. An Elector of Bavaria
+once offered a town for a single book; but the monks had sufficient
+worldly wisdom to know that he could easily take the town again,
+and so declined the exchange!
+
+With the introduction of printing, the art of illumination was
+doomed. The personal message from the scribe to the reader was
+merged in the more comprehensive message of the press to the public.
+It was no longer necessary to spend a year on a work that could be
+accomplished in a day; so the artists found themselves reduced to
+painting initial letters in printed books, sometimes on vellum, but
+more often on paper. This art still flourishes in many localities;
+but it is no more illumination, though it is often so designated,
+than photography is portrait painting. Both are useful in their
+departments and for their several purposes, but it is incorrect
+to confound them.
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL FROM AN ITALIAN CHORAL BOOK]
+
+Once, while examining an old choral book, I was particularly
+struck with the matchless personal element which exists in a book
+which is made, as this was, by the hand, from the first stroke to
+the last. The first page showed a bold lettering, the sweep of the
+pen being firm and free. Animal vigour was demonstrated in the steady
+hand and the clear eye. The illuminations were daintily painted,
+and the sure touch of the little white line used to accentuate the
+colours, was noticeable. After several pages, the letters became
+less true and firm. The lines had a tendency to slant to the right;
+a weakness could be detected in the formerly strong man. Finally
+the writing grew positively shaky. The skill was lost.
+
+Suddenly, on another page, came a change. A new hand had taken up
+the work--that of a novice. He had not the skill of the previous
+worker in his best days, but the indecision of his lines was that
+of inexperience, not of failing ability. Gradually he improved.
+His colours were clearer and ground more smoothly; his gold showed
+a more glassy surface. The book ended as it had begun, a virile
+work of art; but in the course of its making, one man had grown
+old, lost his skill, and died, and another had started in his
+immaturity, gained his education, and devoted his best years to
+this book.
+
+The printing press stands for all that is progressive and desirable;
+modern life and thought hang upon this discovery. But in this glorious
+new birth there was sacrificed a certain indescribable charm which
+can never be felt now except by a book lover as he turns the leaves
+of an ancient illuminated book. To him it is given to understand that
+pathetic appeal across the centuries.
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Arts and Crafts Movement. O. L. Triggs.
+Two Lectures. William Morris.
+Decorative Arts. William Morris.
+Treatises of Benvenuto Cellini.
+Library of British Manufactories.
+Gold and Silver. Wheatley.
+Ye Olden Time. E. S. Holt.
+Arts and Crafts Essays. Ed. by Morris.
+Industrial Arts. Maskell.
+Old English Silver. Cripps.
+Spanish Arts. J. E. Riañio.
+History of the Fine Arts. W. B. Scott.
+Art Work in Gold and Silver. P. H. Delamotte.
+Gold and Silver. J. H. Pollen.
+Une Ville du Temps Jadis. M. E. Del Monte.
+Industrial Arts. P. Burty.
+Arts of the Middle Ages. Labarte.
+Miscellanea Graphica. Fairholt.
+Artist's Way of Working. R. Sturgis.
+Jewellery. Cyril Davenport.
+Enamels. Mrs. Nelson Dawson.
+Precious Stones. Jones.
+Ghiberti and Donatello. Leader Scott.
+Iron Work. J. S. Gardner.
+Guilds of Florence. E. Staley.
+Armour in England. J. S. Gardner.
+Foreign Armour in England. J. S. Gardner.
+Cameos. Cyril Davenport.
+Peter Vischer. Cecil Headlam.
+St. Eloi and St. Bernward. Baring Gould; Lives of the Saint.
+European Enamels. H. Cunynghame.
+Intarsia and Marquetry. H. Jackson.
+Pavement Masters of Siena. R. H. Cust. Sculpture in Ivory. Digby
+Wyatt. Ancient and Mediæval Ivories. Wm. Maskell. Ivory Carvers of
+the Middle Ages. A. M. Cust. Arts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
+P. Lacroix. Ivories. A. Maskell. Old English Embroidery. F. and H.
+Marshall. The Bayeux Tapestry. F. R. Fowke. History of Tapestry.
+W. G. Thomson. La Broderie. L. de Farcy. Textile Fabrics. Dr. Rock.
+Needlework as Art. Lady Alford. History of Needlework. Countess
+of Wilton. Gilds; Their Origins, etc. C. Walford. Tapestry. A.
+Champeaux. Tapestry. J. Hayes. Ornamental Metal Work. Digby Wyatt.
+La Mosaïque. Gerspach. The Master Mosaic Workers. G. Sand. Revival
+of Sculpture. A. L. Frothingham. History of Italian Sculpture. C.
+H. Perkins. Art Applied to Industry. W. Burges. Four Centuries
+of Art. Noel Humphreys. Aratra Pentelici. Ruskin. Seven Lamps of
+Architecture. Ruskin. Val d'Arno. Ruskin. Stones of Venice. Ruskin.
+Lectures on Sculpture. Flaxman. Brick and Marble. G. E. Street.
+Sculpture in Wood. Williams. Greek and Gothic. St. J. Tyrwhitt.
+Westminster Abbey and Craftsmen. W. R. Lethaby. Le Roi René. L. de
+la Marche. English Mediæval Figure Sculpture. Prior and Gardner.
+Churches of Paris. Sophia Beale. Matthew Paris' Chronicle. Crowns
+and Coronations. Jones. Bell's Handbooks of Rouen, Chartres, Amiens,
+Wells, Salisbury and Lincoln. History of Sculpture. D'Agincourt.
+The Grotesque in Church Art. T. T. Wildridge.
+Choir Stalls and Their Carving. Emma Phipson. Memorials of Westminster
+Abbey. Dean Stanley. Memorials of Canterbury. Dean Stanley. Les
+Corporations des Arts et Metiers. Hubert Valeroux. Finger Ring
+Lore. Jones. Goldsmith's and Silversmith's Work. Nelson Dawson. The
+Dark Ages. Maitland. Rambles of an Archæologist. F. W. Fairholt.
+History of Furniture. A. Jacquemart. Embroidery. W. G. P. Townsend.
+Le Livre des Metiers. Etienne Boileau. Illuminated Manuscripts.
+J. H. Middleton. Illuminated Manuscripts. Edward Quaile. English
+Illuminated Manuscripts. Maunde Thompson. Les Manuscrits et l'art
+de les Orner. Alphonse Labitte. Les Manuscrits et la Miniature.
+L. de la Marche. Primer of Illumination. Delamotte. Primer of
+Illumination. Digby Wyatt. Ancient Painting and Sculpture in England.
+J. Carter. Vasari's Lives of the Painters. (Selected.) Benvenuto
+Cellini--Autobiography. Illuminated Manuscripts. O. Westwood. Celtic
+Illuminative Art. S. F. H. Robinson. Illuminated Manuscripts. Bradley.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Aachen, 16
+Abbeville, 265
+Abbo, 57
+Absalom, 299
+Acherius, J., 335
+Adam, 28
+Adam, Abbot, 21
+Adaminus, 222
+Adelard, 229
+Aelfled, 199
+Aelst, 172
+Agatho, 281
+Agnelli, Fra, 226
+Agnese, St., 14, 316
+Agnolo, B., 303
+Ahab, 276
+Aignan, St., 354
+Aix-la-Chapelle, 98, 287
+Albans, St., 114, 186, 207, 250
+Alberti, L., 131
+Aleuin, 14, 278, 332
+Aldobrandini, 131
+Alfred, King, 4, 64, 67, 94, 199
+Alford, Lady, 188, 303
+Alicante, 167
+Almeria, 183
+Aloise, 20
+Alwin, Bp., 252
+Alwyn, H. F., 25
+Amasia, Bp. of, 191
+America, 25
+Amiens, 65, 144, 230, 233, 236, 238, 240, 244, 265
+Anastatius, 201, 281
+"Anatomy of Abuses," 26
+Ancona, 224
+"Ancren Riwle," 75
+Angers, 164, 208
+Anglo-Saxons, 49, 92, 95, 100, 111, 159, 184, 294, 343
+Anne of Bohemia, 65, 135
+Anne of Brittany, 174, 211, 361
+Anne of Cleves, 206
+Anquetil, 230
+Antelami, 221
+Anthemius, 316
+Anthony, St., 254
+Antwerp, 116
+Apollinaire, St., 316
+Apollonius, 319
+Apulia, 182
+Arabia, 5, 14, 147
+Arles, 18, 192, 229
+Arnant, A., 292
+Arnolfo di Cambio, 227
+Armour, 121-132
+Arphe, H. d' and J. d', 24, 25
+Arras, 20, 165, 166, 167, 171
+Arrigo (see Peselli)
+Arthur, Prince, 205
+Artois, 166
+Asser, 4
+Asterius, St., 192
+Atlas, 9
+Athelmay, 4
+August the Pious, 245
+Augustine, St., 279, 354
+Aurelian, 180
+Auquilinus, 230
+Austin, W., 129
+Auxene, 162
+Aventin, St., 231
+Avernier, A., 265
+Avignon, M. de, 33
+
+"Babee's Book," 39
+Bakes, J., 171
+Balbastro, 130
+Baldini, B., 34
+Baldovinetto, 322
+Ballin, C., 35
+Bamberg, 258
+Baptist, John, 65
+Barbarossa, 16
+Barcheston, 171
+Bargello, 281
+Barnwell, 330
+Bartholomew Anglicus, 4, 81, 83, 110, 149
+Basilewski, 291
+Basle, 23
+Basse-taille, 103
+Bataille, 166
+Bavaria, 165, 266, 295, 362
+Bayeux Tapestry, 154-159
+Bazinge, A. de, 207
+Beauchamp, R., 144
+Becket, T. à, 28, 46, 54, 61
+Bede, 110, 145
+Begue, J. de, 338
+Bells, 145
+Benedict, St., 4, 329
+Benedictional of Ethelwold, 355
+Benet, J., 250
+Bergamo, 308
+Bernard, M., 167
+Bernard, St., 21, 22, 270, 287
+Bernward, Bp., 16-20, 136, 140, 229, 317
+Berquem, L., 74
+Bess of Hardwick, 211
+Bethancourt, J. de, 33
+Beverly, 257, 274
+Bezaleel, 1, 25
+Bezold, H. van, 268
+Bianchini, 324
+Billiard Balls, 295
+Birch, W. de G., 349
+Biscornette, 113
+Black Prince, 135
+"Blandiver, Jack," 152
+Bloet, Bp., 246
+Blois, 174
+Boabdil, 127
+Boileau, E., 217
+Boleyn, A., 78
+Bologna, 224, 308
+Bolognese, M. S., 337
+Boningegna, G., 98
+Boston Art Museum, 342
+Bosworth, 66
+Botticelli, 190
+Boudichon, J., 361
+Boulin, A., 265
+Boutellier, J. le, 237
+Bradshaw, 170
+Brandenburgh, 295
+Bridget, St., 53, 346
+Briolottus, 222
+Brithnoth, 160
+British Museum, 292, 345
+Bronze, 132-149
+Brooches, 50-56
+Browning, R., 258
+Brunelleschi, 305
+Brussels, 172
+Brussels, M. S., 337
+Burgundy, 194
+Byzantine style, 13, 22, 24, 49, 63, 84, 87, 92, 97, 103, 183, 191,
+199, 220, 224, 340
+"Byzantine Guide," 342
+
+Cadwollo, 134
+Caffi, M., 307
+Cambio, A. del, 301
+Cambridge, 37, 364
+Camerino, J., 321
+Cameos, 85-90
+Cano, A., 268
+Canterbury, 54, 135, 176, 243
+Canute (see Knut)
+Canozio, 305
+Caradosso, 8
+Caramania, 168
+Carazan, 5
+Carlencas, 218
+Carovage, 151
+Carpentras, Bp. of, 37
+Carrara, 221
+Carter, J., 106, 251, 290
+Casati, 90
+Cassiodorus, 327
+Castel, G. van, 268
+Castiglione, Count, 308
+Cecilia, St., 186
+Celestine III., Pope, 18
+Cellini, Benvenuto, xii, 7-13, 43, 56, 68-71, 91, 96, 105, 127, 132,
+304
+Celtic style, 50-54, 92, 343
+Centula, 317
+Chained Books, 330
+Chalices, 29
+Champlevé, 94, 103
+Charlemagne, 14, 15, 23, 62, 98, 124, 146, 181, 203, 224, 294, 328,
+332, 338
+Charles I., 212
+Charles V., 40, 70, 165, 209, 265, 295, 359
+Charles the Bold, 15
+Chartres, 107, 145, 219, 229, 231, 234, 237, 238, 242, 312
+Chaucer, 169, 181, 193
+Chelles, J. de, 240
+Cherio, L. de, 355
+Chester, 170, 273
+Chichester, 242
+Chilperic, 38
+Chinchintalas, 187
+Christin of Margate, 207
+Cid, The, 128
+Claudian, 278
+Clement le Brodeur, 207
+Clement, Pope, 9, 56, 89
+Clemente, St., 321
+Clermont, 314
+Clocks, 150
+Clothaire II., 157
+Clovio, G., 361
+Clovis II., 62
+Cluny, 14
+Cockayne, W., 44
+Coinsi, Prior, 270
+Colaccio, M., 305
+Cola di Rienzi, 204
+Coldingham, 249
+Cologne, 98, 115, 145
+Columba, St., 220, 327, 344
+Columbkille, 52
+Constantine, 13, 313, 316, 340
+Constantinople, 57, 84, 86, 97, 136, 181, 225, 316, 317, 318, 340
+Constanza, Sta., 314
+Coquille, G. de, 32
+Cordova, 25
+Coro, D. del, 299
+Cosmati Mosaic, 310
+Coula, 53
+Courtray, 152
+Coventry, 201
+Cozette, 177
+Cracow, 266
+Crete, 276
+Crest, H., 33
+Crivelli, C., 183
+Croisètes, J. de, 166
+Cromwell, O., 29
+Crown Jewels, 66
+Croyland, 147, 164, 192, 200
+Crumdale, R., 250
+Cunegonde, 207
+Cunegunda, Queen, 2, 24
+Cups, 44
+Curfew, 147
+Curmer, 361
+Cuserius, 315
+Cuthbert, St., 53, 145, 199, 345
+Cynewulf, 149
+Cyzicus, L. de, 279, 341
+
+Dagobert, 62, 162
+Damascening, 126
+Damiano, Fra, 308
+Davenport, 287
+Davenport, C., 86
+Davi, J., 236
+Day, Lewis, 183
+Decker, H., 259
+Delhi, 57
+Delphyn, N., 255
+Delobel, 196
+Denis, St., 20, 22, 58, 83, 162, 230, 232
+Deschamps, E., 359
+Diamonds, 71-74
+Diàne of de Poictiers, 107
+Didier, Abbé, 318
+Didron, 18, 140
+Dijon, 152, 194, 229
+Dipoenus, 276
+Dioscorides, 341
+Domenico of the Cameos, 88
+Donatello, xiii, 227
+Donne, Dr., 79
+Dourdan, 166
+Drawswerd, 255
+Dresden, 85
+Dublin, 27, 344
+Ducarel, 159
+Dunstan, St., 75, 110, 182
+Dürer, A., 132, 258, 266, 268
+Durham, 53, 148, 172, 197, 250, 252, 288, 318
+"Durham Book," 344
+Durosne, 33
+Duval, J., 173
+
+Ebony, 307
+Ecclesiasticus, 81
+Edinburgh, 130
+Edgitha, 193
+Edith, Queen, 159
+Edrisi, 167
+Edward, goldsmith, 28, 36
+Edward I., 75
+Edward II., 168, 199
+Edward III., 36, 66, 193
+Edward IV., 37, 117
+Edward the Confessor, 26, 28, 75, 156, 193, 224, 251
+Egebric, 147
+Eginhard, 282
+Egyptians, 1
+Eleanor, Queen, 117, 135, 144, 165, 249
+Elfen, 309
+Elizabeth, Queen, 26, 129, 211
+Eloi, St., 22, 57-62, 111
+Ely, 159, 195, 200, 249
+Embroideries, 179-212
+Emesa, 65
+Emma, Queen, 200, 251
+Enamels, 91-108
+England, 2, 4, 23, 135, 164, 214
+Eraclius, 336
+Essex, William of, 107
+Etheldreda, St., 249
+Explicit, 354
+Exodus, 1
+Ezekiel, 276
+
+Fairill, 53
+Falkland, Viscount, 211
+Farcy, L., 189, 203
+Ferdinand I., 302
+Ferdinand II., 302
+Fereol, St., 328
+Ferucci, F., 302
+Filigree, 12
+Finger-rings, 74-78
+Finiguerra, M., 34, 101
+Flagons, 37
+Flanders, 165
+Florence, xii, 26, 34, 88, 115, 136, 147, 176, 224, 264, 298, 301,
+303, 319, 322
+Florence, Jean of, 165
+Florent, St., 163
+Fontaine, E. la, 23
+Foucquet, J., 361
+Fowke, F. R., 155
+Fra Angelico, 357
+France, 2, 3, 5, 23, 162, 164, 214-216, 257, 262, 291, 325
+Francia, 34, 183
+Francis I., 11, 105, 107, 133, 152, 177
+Fremlingham, R. de, 250
+Froissart, 131, 152, 356
+Fuller, 189, 201
+
+Gaddi, G. and A., 319-320, 322
+Gaegart, 114
+Gale, P., 207
+Gall, St., 124, 145, 263, 285
+Galla Placida, 315
+"Gammer Gurton's Needle," 188
+Gandesheim, 19
+Garlande, J. de, 62
+Garnier, 230
+Gaunt, J. of, 35, 55
+Gautier, R., 207
+Gendulphus, St., 288
+Genesis, 160
+Genevieve, St., 3, 239
+Genoa, 12, 180
+Gerbert, 150
+Germany, 5, 16, 17, 114, 130, 139, 141, 185, 198, 214, 257, 262, 291
+George II., 186
+George IV., 75
+Gerona, 160
+Ghent, 130
+Ghiberti, xii, 34, 71, 136, 227
+Ghirlandajo, 33, 322
+Giacomo, Maestro, 306
+Gifford, G., 29
+Gilles, St., 229
+Giralda, 135
+Giraldus, Cambriensis, 335
+Girard d'Orleans, 265
+Giotto, 264, 322
+"Giovanni of the Camelians," 88
+Giudetto, Maestro, 296
+Glastonbury, 110, 152, 220, 331
+Gloucester, 327, 331
+Gloucester, John of, 248
+Gobelins Tapestry, 160, 164, 176
+Godemann, 355
+Gold Leaf, 335
+Gontran, 229
+Gothic style, 24, 29
+Gouda, 299
+Granada, 183
+Gregory, St., 221, 277
+Gresham, Sir T., 25
+Grès, H. de, 292
+Grimani Breviary, 361
+Grosso, N., 116
+Grotesques, 235-243, 273, 349, 353
+Grove, D. van, 268
+Guerrazzar, Treasure of, 63
+Guillaume, Abbot, 229
+Gutierez, 167
+
+Haag, J., 240
+Hall Mark, 3
+Hankford, Sir W., 36
+Hampton Court, 171
+Hannequin, 32
+Harleian MS., 352
+Harrison, 193
+Harold, 157, 158
+Hasquin, J. de, 33
+Hatfield, 171
+Hayes, S. L., 156
+Headlam, C., 268
+Hebrides, 196
+Hebrews, 1
+Héliot, 292
+Hennequin de Liege, 240
+Henry I., 23, 155
+Henry II., 83, 107, 197
+Henry III, 27, 28, 36, 38, 86, 117, 135, 144, 207, 248, 287, 311
+Henry V., 252
+Henry VI., 185
+Henry VII., 102, 181, 206, 253, 254, 257, 268
+Henry VIII., 131, 175, 195, 209, 254
+Henry the Pious, 23
+Herlin, F., 266
+Herman, 74
+Herodias, 65
+Hezilo, 20
+Hildesheim, xii, 16-20, 116, 136, 139, 140, 258, 285, 286, 309, 317
+Holanda, A. de, 361
+Holderness, 273
+Honorius, Pope, 316
+Hudd, A., 255
+Huberd, R., 251
+Hugh, St., 246
+Hughes, Abbot, 229
+Husee, 37-78
+Hust, A., 265
+
+Il Lasca, 305
+Illumination, 326-364
+Imber, L., 255
+Inlay, 296-309
+Innocent IV., 200
+Iona, 220
+Ireland, 342-345
+Iron, 109-121
+Isaiah, 1
+Isidore, 316
+Isle of Man, 77
+Islip, Abbot, 102, 275
+Italy, 5, 21, 92, 141
+Ivan III, 283
+Ivory carving, 275-295
+"Ivy Pattern," 347
+
+Jackson, H., 307
+Jacob of Breslau, 328
+Jacobus, Fra, 319
+James, 315
+James I., 56, 176
+Jeanne, Queen, 173
+Jeanne of Navarre, 68
+John, King, 66, 105, 207
+John XII., 111
+John IV., 316
+Johnson, R., 117
+Joinville, Sirede, 194
+Jones, Sir E. B., 203
+Jouy, B. de, 314
+Justinian, 220, 221, 315
+
+Katherine, Queen, 252
+Katherine of Aragon, 209
+Keepe, H., 241
+Kells, Book of, 49, 344
+Kent, Fair Maid of, 196
+Keys, 119
+Kildare, Gospels of, 345
+Kirton, Ed., 241
+"Kleine Heldenbuch," 189
+Knight, 210
+Knut, King, 200, 252
+Kohinoor, 71
+Kraft, A., 141, 213, 258, 259, 261, 266
+Krems, 115
+
+Laach, 262
+Labenwolf, 143
+Labarte, 302
+Laborde, 74
+Labraellier, J., 295
+Lacordaire, 160
+Lagrange, 168
+Lambspring, B., 129
+Lamoury, S., 166
+Lateran, The, 205, 316, 321
+Laura, 193
+Lawrence, St., 315
+Lead, 149
+Lebrija, 269
+Leighton, T. de, 117
+Leland, 206
+Leo III., 203
+Leo X., 172
+Leon, 25
+Leopardi, 302
+"Les Maitres Mosaïtes," 323
+Lethaby, W. R., 252, 311
+Lewis, 293
+Lewis, H., 117
+Liberale da Verona, 361
+"Liber Eliensis," 200
+Lille, 166
+Limoges, 24-57, 103, 107, 144
+Lincoln, 244, 246, 274
+Lincoln Imp, 247
+Lindisfarne, 53, 345
+Limousin, E. and L., 107
+Lisle, Lord, 35, 55
+Little Gidding, 212
+Locks, 120
+Lombards, The, 18, 63, 220, 277
+London, 25, 26, 44, 182, 185, 206, 248, 288
+Lothaire, 38
+Louis VI., 21
+Louis VII., 21
+Louis XII., 174, 361
+Louis XIV., 197
+Louis, Prince, 20
+Louis, St., 22, 194, 232, 240, 253
+Louvre, The, 270, 292
+Lübke, xi
+Lucca, 221, 296
+Luca della Robbia, 213
+Ludlow, 273
+Luini, B., 307
+Luna, de, 306
+
+MacDurnam, 344
+"Mad Meg," 130
+Madrid, 177-270
+Maes Eyck, 358
+Magaster, 278
+Maiano, B. de, 304
+Maitland, 14
+Maitani, L., 227
+Malaga, 269
+Malmsbury, W. of, 65, 75, 220
+Malvezzi, M., 308
+Manne, P., 33
+Mantegna, 101
+Mantreux, J. de, 32
+Manuello, 302
+Mapilton, Master, 252
+"Mappae Claviculae," 276
+Marcel, St., 238
+Marcellus, 65
+Marche, L. de la, 341
+Maretta, G., 8
+Mariana, Queen, 270
+Mark's, St., 318, 323, 361
+Marten, 66
+Martin, St., 17, 87
+Martyr, Bp., 240
+Mary, Queen of Scots, 210
+Maskell, A. and W., 32, 186, 294
+Massari, A., 306
+Matilda, Queen, 155
+Matsys, Q., 118, 141
+Matteo da Siena, 300
+Maximian, 282
+Medici, The, 85, 176, 211, 254, 301
+Memlinc, 166
+Mexicans, 18
+Michael, St., 18, 19
+Michelangelo, 9, 90, 116, 254, 303
+Milan, 281, 307
+Mildmay, H., 67
+Minella, P. de, 299
+Miniato, San, 298
+Miserere Stalls, 271-275
+"Mons Meg," 130
+Monte Cassino, 318
+Montereau, J. de, 240
+Montfort, S. de, 63
+Montarsy, P. de, 35
+Monza, 23, 63, 221
+Monzon, 146
+Moore, Charles, xi, 234
+Moorish style, 24
+Moreau, J., 241
+Morel, B., 135
+Mortlake, 178
+Morris, Wm., v, x, 248
+Moryson, F., 26
+Mt. Athos, 341
+Möser, L., 266
+Mosaic, 309-327
+
+Nantes, 314
+Nassaro, M. dal, 88
+Naumberg, 259
+Navagiero, 183
+Nevers, Count of, 194
+Nicolas, J., 33
+Niello, 49, 99-102
+Nomenticum, 166
+Norfolk, 31
+Norman style, 29
+Norton, C. E., 219, 226
+Norwich, 45, 196, 331
+Nôtre Dame, Paris, 218, 234, 238, 240
+Noyon, 58, 60
+Nüremberg, 141, 152, 258, 259, 266, 292, 309
+
+Oath Book of the Saxon Kings, 346
+Odericus, 311
+Odo, goldsmith, 14, 27
+Odo, Abbot, 115
+Olivetans, 307-308
+Orcagna, 34, 140, 183, 227
+Orebsc, S. M., 24
+Orghet, J., 166
+Oriental, 24, 84
+Orleans, 33
+Orso Magister, 222
+Orviedo, 278
+Orvieto, 33, 227, 244, 302, 310
+Osmont, 204
+Othlonus, 356
+Otho, 230, 286
+Otto III., Emperor, 16
+Oudenardes, 169
+Ouen, St., 58
+Oxford, 168, 210, 248, 255, 354
+
+Pacheco, 25
+Padua, 305
+Pala d'Oro, 23, 97, 98
+Palermo, 311
+"Pancake Man" 245
+Paris, 2, 17, 20-23, 26, 37, 52, 69, 86, 113, 149, 166, 186, 200, 218,
+229, 234, 238, 239, 240, 339
+Paris, Matthew, 27, 180, 207
+Parma, 221
+Patras, L., 139
+Patrick, St., 2, 49, 52, 145, 238
+Paul the Deacon, 221
+Paulus, 315
+Pausanias, 121
+Pavia, 221
+Pembroke, Earl, 67
+Penne, 208
+Perseus, 134
+Persia, 55
+Perugia, 224, 298
+Peselli, 322
+Peter Albericus, 224
+Peter Amabilis, 224
+Peter the Great, 295
+Peter de St. Andeman, 335
+Peter Orfever, 224
+Peter of Rome, 310
+Peter of Spain, 241
+Petrarch, 192, 362
+Philip IV., 167
+Philip the Bold, 165
+Philip the Good, 165
+Philippa, Queen, 194
+Philostratus, 91, 103
+Philoxenus, 277
+Picardie, 317
+Pickering, W., 129
+Pietra Dura, 301
+Piggigny, J. de, 32
+Pinturicchio, 300
+Pirckheimer, W., 132
+Pisa, 221, 225, 298
+Pisani, The, 71, 216, 221, 225, 234, 244
+Pistoja, 298
+Pitti Palace, 101, 177, 301, 302
+Pius II., 67
+Pliny, 2, 110, 143
+Poitiers, 162, 163
+Pollajuolo, xiii, 34, 195
+Polo, Marco, 5, 55, 71, 184, 187, 278
+Pordenone, 323
+Portland Vase, 87
+Poucet, J. de and B., 241
+Poulligny, G. de, 207
+Poussin, N., 33
+Precious Stones, 77-83
+Prior and Gardner, 244
+Probus, 277
+"Properties of Things," 4
+Psalter of Edwin, 353
+Ptolemies, The, 83
+Pudenziana, St., 314
+Pugin, 120, 153
+
+Quentin, St., 60
+"Queen Mary's Psalter," 347
+
+Rabanus, 278
+Rabotin, L., 33
+Raffaelo da Brescia, 308
+Ralph, Brother, 250
+Ramsay, W., 250
+Raphael, 166, 172, 323
+Rausart, J. de, 166
+Ravenna, 216, 224, 282, 283, 312, 314, 315
+Redgrave, R., xi, 47
+Rée, J. P., 259
+Reformation, The, 29, 31, 209
+Reggio, 305
+Renaissance, 32, 88, 117, 135, 141, 164, 192, 205, 227, 239, 268, 271,
+362
+René of Anjou, 33, 164, 173, 208, 241
+Renoy, J., 237
+Reynolds, Sir J., 139
+Rheims, 150, 162, 229, 238, 239, 300
+Richard II., 37, 135
+Richard III., 66
+Ripon, 273
+Robert, King, 150, 229
+Rock, Dr., 155, 183, 191, 197, 210
+Rome, 17, 19, 24, 136, 187, 264, 278, 283, 310, 316, 321, 322
+Romanesque style, 18, 29, 219, 220, 258
+Romulus and Remus, 299
+Rosebeque, 131, 167
+Rossi, 314
+Rothenburg, 266
+Rouen, 60, 236, 265
+Roze, Abbé, 236
+Ruskin, J., v, 144, 221, 222, 226, 227, 235, 265, 298
+
+Salinas, 130
+Salisbury, 243
+Salisbury, Earl, 35
+Salt-cellars, 43
+Salutati, B., 195
+Sand, G., 323
+Sandwich, 30
+Sansovino, xii
+Sano di Pietro, 361
+Saumur, 162, 241
+Sauval, 114
+Savonarola, 195
+Schülein, H., 266
+Scillis, 276
+Scholastico, A., 295
+Schutz, C., 185
+Scott, W., 51
+Sculpture, 213
+Selsea, 242
+Senlis, H. de, 292
+Seville, 24, 25, 128, 132, 209
+Sewald, 165
+Shakespeare, 77
+Shoreditch, J. of, 168
+Shrewsbury, 211
+Siena, 225, 298-300, 302
+Silk, 179
+Siriès, L., 302
+Sithiu, 339
+Skelton, J., 359
+Smyrna, 168
+Soignoles, J. de, 240
+Solignac, 58
+Sophia, Sta., 316
+South Kensington Museum, 19, 170, 177, 197, 198, 303, 226
+Spain, 24, 102, 110, 117, 120, 127-8, 130, 211, 258, 278, 294, 306
+Spoons, 39
+"Squire of Low Degree," 197
+Staley, E., 134
+Statius, 315
+Stauracius, 136
+Stengel, H., 309
+Stephanus, 315
+Stephen IV., 187
+Stevens, T., 144
+Strasburg, 259
+Stoss-Veit, 258-266
+Stubbes, 25
+Stubbs, Charles, 249
+Stump Work, 212
+Sturgis, R., vii, 218, 307
+Suger, Abbot, 20-23, 230, 318
+Suinthila, 23, 63
+Sumercote, J. de, 207
+"Swineherd of Stowe," 246
+Sylvester II., 151
+Sylvester, Bp., 314
+Symmachus, 279
+Symonds, J. A., 139
+Syon Cope, 201
+Syrlin, J., 266
+
+Tali, A., 319-320
+Tanagra, 213
+Tancho, 146
+Tapestry, 154-178
+Tapicier, G. le, 168
+Tappistere, J. le, 168
+Tara Brooch, 50, 83
+Tartary, 184
+Tassach, 53
+Tasso, D. and G., 303, 304
+Taugmar, 17
+Tegernsee, 357
+Temple Church, 248
+Tenison Psalter, 347, 352
+Texier, Abbé, xiii
+Textiles, 154
+Thebes, 181
+Thergunna, 196
+Theodolinda, Queen, 221, 277
+Theodora, 315
+Theodoric, 221, 222, 327
+Theophilus the Monk, 5, 6, 7, 74, 81, 85, 95, 99, 100, 110, 185, 276, 337
+Theophilus, Emperor, 14, 317
+Thillo, 58
+Thomson, M. G., 165, 171
+Tintoretto, 323
+Titian, 323
+Toledo, 24, 25, 63, 125, 209, 270
+Tonquin, J., 114
+Topf, J., 129
+Torcello, 112, 319
+Torel, W., 144, 249, 250
+Torpenhow, 31
+Torregiano, 254, 264
+Torriti, J., 321
+Touraine, 194
+Tours, 17, 162, 173, 314
+"Treatises" of Cellini, 11
+Trittenham, J. of, 354
+Trophimes, St., 229
+Troupin, J., 265
+Troyes, 170
+Tucher, A., 268
+Tudela, B. of, 57, 181
+Tudor, 29
+Tuscany, 5
+Tutilon, or Tutilo, 229, 263
+
+Ubaldo, St., 204
+Ugolino of Siena, 33
+Ulm, 266
+Ulpha, St., 233
+Urbino, 306
+Utrecht Psalter, 156, 353
+
+Valence, A. de, 144, 233
+Valencia, 146
+Valerio Vincentino, 89
+Van Eyck, 166
+Vasari, G., 34, 85, 89, 106, 116, 191, 254, 302, 320, 322
+Vatican, 204
+Velasquez, 25, 167
+Venice, 84, 97, 136, 223, 312, 318, 322, 323, 361
+Verocchio, 33, 34
+Verona, 88, 117, 222
+Villant, P. de, 208
+Vinci, L. da, 33
+Viollet-le-Duc, 52, 218
+Virgil, 228
+Vischer, Peter, 141-143, 266
+Vischer, Peter, Jr., 268
+Vitel, 314
+Vitruvius, 187
+Vivaria, 327
+Vopiscus, F., 166
+
+Wallois, H., 166
+Walpole, H., 148
+Walsingham, A. de, 248
+Walter of Colchester, 250
+Walter of Durham, 250
+Ware, R. de, 311
+Warwick, 144
+Waquier, 207
+Wechter, F. de, 166
+Welburne, J., 275
+Wells, 152, 244
+Wendover, R. de, 180
+Westminster, 66, 102, 117, 144, 156, 165, 224, 233, 240, 241, 243,
+249-255, 268, 275, 311, 331
+Westwood, O., 344
+Weyden, van der, 169
+Willaume, 166
+William the Conqueror, 155, 232
+Williams of Sens, 243
+Wilton, Countess of, 157, 172
+Winchester, 149, 165, 199, 272
+Windsor, 118, 131, 268
+Wire-drawing, 184
+Withaf, King, 192
+Withers, G., 67
+Wolsey, Card., 175
+Wood-carving, 262-275
+Wood, 66
+Woolstrope, 29
+Worsted, 196
+Wyckham, W., 102
+
+Ypres, 166
+York, 181, 275, 285
+
+Zamborro, M., 322
+Zuccati, The, 323-325
+
+
+
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