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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18189-8.txt b/18189-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..36f9f80 --- /dev/null +++ b/18189-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4742 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Growing Nuts in the North, by Carl Weschcke + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Growing Nuts in the North + A Personal Story of the Author's Experience of 33 Years + with Nut Culture in Minnesota and Wisconsin + +Author: Carl Weschcke + +Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18189] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH *** + + + + +Produced by Stacy Brown, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: Eat more nuts +Carl Weschcke author] + +GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH + + + + +A personal story of the author's experience of 33 years with nut culture +in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Includes his failures as well as final +successes. + +Scientific as well as readable for the amateur horticulturist with many +illustrations. Tells how to grow and to propagate nut bearing trees and +shrubs. + + +By CARL WESCHCKE + + + + +Published + +WEBB PUBLISHING CO. + +ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA, U.S.A. + +1953 + +Copyright 1954 + +CARL WESCHCKE + +ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA + + + + +Introduction + +GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH + + +Only a few books have been written on the subject of nut trees and their +bearing habits, and very little of that material applies to their +propagation in cold climates. For these reasons I am relating some of +the experiences I have had in the last thirty-two years in raising nut +trees in Wisconsin. To me, this has been a hobby with results both +practical and ornamental far beyond my original conception. I hope that +the information I am giving will be of help and interest to those who, +like myself, enjoy having nut-bearing trees in their dooryards, and that +it will prevent their undergoing the failures and disappointments I +sometimes met with in pioneering along this line. Since my purpose is to +give advice and assistance to those whose interest parallels mine by +relating my successes and failures and what I learned from each, I have +included only those details of technique which are pertinent. + +It is a fine thing to have a hobby that takes one out-of-doors. That in +itself suggests healthful thought and living. The further association of +working with trees, as with any living things, brings one into the +closest association with nature and God. I hope this book may help +someone achieve that attitude of life, in which I have found such great +pleasure and inner satisfaction. + +Anyone wishing to make a planting of a few nut trees in his dooryard or +a small orchard planting should join the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. This Association can be joined by writing the current +secretary, but since that office may be changed from time to time, +persons applying for membership should write George L. Slate of Geneva +Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, or Dr. H. L. Crane, Principal +Horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant +Industry, Beltsville, Maryland, or the Author. The first president was +Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York City, N. Y., 1910-1911, the Association +being founded by Dr. W. C. Deming of Westchester, New York, who called +the first meeting in 1910. + +Each year a report was printed of the proceedings of the Annual Meeting +and exclusive of the 1952 meeting, the Reports which are in substantial +book form number forty-two. Most of these Reports can be obtained by +writing to the secretary, the total library of these Reports +constituting one of the best authorities for nut tree planting in the +northern hemisphere of the United States than any extant. + +The author acknowledges with thanks the consistent encouraging praise +from his father, Charles Weschcke, of the work involved in nut growing +experiments, also for his financial assistance, thus making the +publication of this book possible and available to readers at a nominal +price. + +The editor of the greater part of this book, Allison Burbank Hartman (a +descendent of the great Luther Burbank), is entitled to great praise and +thanks for the interest and work she put forth. + +Grateful acknowledgment is made to William Kuehn, the artist. He had +been associated with the author in Boy Scout work, also became a part of +the nut growing experiments in Northern Wisconsin, which work was +interrupted by World War II. + +Acknowledgment is hereby made with gratitude to Dr. J. W. McKay of the +U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.; Harry Weber of +Cincinnati, Ohio; Ford Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind.; Fayette Etter, +Lehmasters, Pa.; Dr. W. C. Deming, Litchfield, Conn.; Clarence A. Reed, +Washington, D. C.; Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa.; George S. +Slate, Urbana, Ill.; Herman Last, Steamboat Rock, Iowa, and many other +professors and horticulturists who lent their time and effort assisting +me in my experiments throughout the years. And last but not least, the +author is indebted to his secretary, Dorothy Downie, for tireless +efforts in re-writing the manuscript many times which was necessary in +compiling this book. + + + + +GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH + + + + +Contents + + +Introduction + +Chapter 1 First Encounters + +Chapter 2 First Attempts + +Chapter 3 Black Walnuts + +Chapter 4 Hazels and Filberts + +Chapter 5 Hazels and/or Filberts + +Chapter 6 Pecans and Their Hybrids + +Chapter 7 Hickory the King + +Chapter 8 Butternut + +Chapter 9 Pioneering With English Walnuts in Wisconsin + +Chapter 10 Other Trees + +Chapter 11 Pests and Pets + +Chapter 12 Storing and Planting Seeds + +Chapter 13 Tree Planting Methods + +Chapter 14 Winter Protection of Grafts and Seedlings + +Chapter 15 Tree Storage + +Chapter 16 Suggestions on Grafting Methods + +Chapter 17 Grafting Tape Versus Raffia + +Chapter 18 Effects of Grafting on Unlike Stocks + +Chapter 19 Distinguishing Characteristics of Scions + +Chapter 20 Hybridizing + +Chapter 21 Toxicity Among Trees and Plants + +Conclusion + + + + +Chapter 1 + +FIRST ENCOUNTERS + + +Almost everyone can remember from his youth, trips made to gather nuts. +Those nuts may have been any of the various kinds distributed throughout +the United States, such as the butternut, black walnut, beechnut, +chestnut, hickory, hazel or pecan. I know that I can recall very well, +when I was a child and visited my grandparents in New Ulm and St. Peter, +in southern Minnesota, the abundance of butternuts, black walnuts and +hazels to be found along the roads and especially along the Minnesota +and Cottonwood river bottoms. Since such nut trees were not to be found +near Springfield, where my parents lived, which was just a little too +far west, I still associate my first and immature interest in this kind +of horticulture with those youthful trips east. + +The only way we children could distinguish between butternut and black +walnut trees was by the fruit itself, either on the tree or shaken down. +This is not surprising, however, since these trees are closely related, +both belonging to the family _Juglans_. The black walnut is known as +_Juglans nigra_ and the butternut or white walnut as _Juglans cinera_. +The similarity between the trees is so pronounced that the most +experienced horticulturist may confuse them if he has only the trees in +foliage as his guide. An experience I recently had is quite suggestive +of this. I wished to buy some furniture in either black walnut or +mahogany and I was hesitating between them. Noting my uncertainty, the +salesman suggested a suite of French walnut. My curiosity and interest +were immediately aroused. I had not only been raising many kinds of +walnut trees, but I had also run through my own sawmill, logs of walnut +and butternut. I felt that I knew the various species of walnut very +thoroughly. So I suggested to him: + +"You must mean Circassian or English walnut, which is the same thing. It +grows abundantly in France. You are wrong in calling it French walnut, +though, because there is no such species." + +He indignantly rejected the name I gave it, and insisted that it was +genuine French walnut. + +"Perhaps," I advised him, "that is a trade name to cover the real +origin, just as plucked muskrat is termed Hudson seal." + +That, too, he denied. We were both insistent. I was sure of my own +knowledge and stubborn enough to want to prove him wrong. I pulled a +drawer from the dresser of the "French walnut" suite and asked him to +compare its weight with that of a similar drawer from a black walnut +suite nearby. Black walnut weighs forty pounds per cubic foot, while +butternut weighs only twenty-five. He was forced to admit the difference +and finally allowed my assertion to stand that "French walnut" was +butternut, stained and finished to simulate black walnut. Since it would +have been illegal to claim that it was black walnut, the attractive but +meaningless label of "French walnut" had been applied. Although it is +less expensive, I do not mean to imply that butternut is not an +excellent wood for constructing furniture. It ranks high in quality and +is probably as durable as black walnut. I do say, though, that it was +necessary for me to know both the species names and the relative weights +of each wood to be able to distinguish between them indisputably. + +An instance in which the nuts themselves were useless for purposes of +identification occurred when I sent some black walnuts to the Division +of Pomology at Washington, D. C. These were the Ohio variety which I had +grafted on butternut roots. The tree had been bearing for three or four +years but this was the first year the nuts had matured. During their +bearing period, these black walnuts had gradually changed in appearance, +becoming elongated and very deeply and sharply corrugated like +butternuts although they still retained the black walnut flavor. Because +of this mixture of characteristics, the government experts had great +difficulty in identifying the variety, although the Ohio was well known +to them. + +Another variety of black walnut, the Thomas, I have also known to be +influenced by the butternut stock on which it was grafted, when in 1938, +one of my trees bore black walnuts whose meat had lost its +characteristic flavor and assumed that of the butternut. + +[Illustration: _A--Genuine original Ohio Black Walnut from parent tree_ + +_B--Nut produced by grafting Ohio on Butternut_] + +I also liked to pick hazelnuts when I was a boy. These are probably the +least interesting among the wild nuts since they are usually small and +hard to crack. There is much variation in wild hazels, however, and many +people may recall them as being reasonably large. One of the two species +abundant in Minnesota, _Corylus cornuta_ or Beak hazel, has fine, +needle-like hairs on its husk which are sure to stick into one's fingers +disagreeably. When the husk is removed, _Corylus cornuta_ resembles a +small acorn. It does not produce in southern Minnesota and central +Wisconsin as well as the common hazel, _Corylus Americana_, does, nor is +its flavor as pleasing to most people. It is lighter in color than the +common hazel and has a thinner shell. Of course, some hazels are +intermediate or natural hybrids between these two species, and if the +nuts of such hybrids are planted, they generally revert to one of the +parents when mature enough to bear. This natural hybridization occurs +among all plants, between those of the same species, the same genera or +the same family. It is very rare between plants of different families. +The process is a very important one in horticulture and I shall explain +some of the crosses which are well-known later in this book. + + + + +Chapter 2 + +FIRST ATTEMPTS + + +When I was about fifteen years old, my family moved to St. Paul, +Minnesota, where my home now is and where my experimental work with nuts +was begun. St. Paul is in the 45th north parallel, but although it is +farther north, it is as favorable for the growth of nut trees as New Ulm +or St. Peter, because it lies in the Mississippi River valley and is +farther east. Bodies of water and altitudes have as great an influence +on plant life as latitude; at least, they can have, and these are +factors that must be understood thoroughly. Soil conditions also vitally +affect plant life, particularly deep-rooted trees such as nut trees +usually are. Each has its own requirements; hickory, Japanese heartnut +and Persian walnuts favor an alkaline soil, which chestnuts, wanting +acid will not grow in; chestnuts thrive best in a slightly acid, +well-drained soil; hazels will grow in either alkaline or acid soil as +will black walnuts and butternuts; almonds need a light sandy soil, +similar to that suitable to plums, pecans do well in either rich river +bottoms, which may be slightly acid, or in clay soil on high hillsides +which are alkaline. A deep, sandy or graveltype soil is usually accepted +by the chestnuts even though it may not be slightly acid, and successful +orchards have been grown on a deep clay soil on hillsides. + +It is not always easy to obtain black walnuts and butternuts to eat. +Hickory nuts have been a favorite of mine since I first tasted them and +I often have found it difficult to procure fresh ones, ones that were +not slightly rancid. Because I liked eating these nuts, I thought I +would try to grow some for my own consumption and so avoid having to +depend on a grocer's occasional supply of those shipped in, always a +little stale. Raising nuts appealed to me economically too, since +obviously trees would need little care, and after they had begun to bear +would supply nuts that could be sold at interesting prices. + +I turned the back yard of my home in St. Paul into an experimental plot. +Here I set out some of each kind of tree I planted or grafted at my farm +in Wisconsin. I had purchased a farm 35 miles east of St. Paul, beyond +the influence of the St. Croix River Valley. My experiments really began +there. The farm was covered with butternut trees, hazel bushes, and a +wild hickory called "bitternut." This last is well-named for I have +never found an animal other than a squirrel that could endure its nuts. +Possibly the white-footed mouse or deer-mouse could--I don't know. He +usually eats anything a squirrel does. I learned to appreciate these +bitternut trees later and they became a source of experience and +interest to me as I learned to graft on them many varieties, species and +hybrids of hickory. They served as a root-system and shortened the +length of time required to test dozens of hickory types, helping me in +that way, to learn within one lifetime what types of nuts are practical +for growing in the north. + +Remembering the nut trees in southern Minnesota, I first thought to +procure black walnut and hickory trees from some farmer in that +district. Through acquaintances in St. Peter, I did locate some black +walnut trees only to find that it was impractical to dig and transport +trees of the size I wanted. A nursery near St. Paul supplied me with +some and I bought twenty-eight large, seedling black walnut trees. I was +too eager to get ahead with my plans and I attempted, the first year +these trees were planted, to graft all of them. My ability to do this +was not equal to my ambition though, and all but two of the trees were +killed. I was successful in grafting one of them to a Stabler black +walnut; the other tree persisted so in throwing out its natural sprouts +that I decided it should be allowed to continue doing so. That native +seedling tree which I could not graft now furnishes me with bushels of +walnuts each year which are planted for understocks. This is the name +given to the root systems on which good varieties are grafted. + +In an effort to replace these lost trees, I inquired at the University +of Minnesota Farm and was given the addresses of several nurserymen who +were then selling grafted nut trees. Their catalogues were so inviting +that I decided it would be quite plausible to grow pecans and English +walnuts at this latitude. So I neglected my native trees that year for +the sake of more exotic ones. One year sufficed; the death of my whole +planting of English walnuts and pecans turned me back to my original +interest. My next order of trees included grafted black walnuts of four +accepted varieties to be planted in orchard form--the Stabler, Thomas, +Ohio and Ten Eyck. + +I ordered a few hickories at the same time but these eventually died. My +experience with hickories was very discouraging since they were my +favorite nuts and I had set my heart on growing some. I think I should +have given up attempting them had not one dealer, J. F. Jones, urged +that I buy just three more hickory trees of the Beaver variety. He gave +me special instructions on how to prepare them against winter. I have +always felt that what he told me was indeed special and very valuable +since those three trees lived. Subsequently, I bought several hundred +dollars worth of trees from him. More than that, we became friends. I +visited him at his nurseries in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and he again +demonstrated his interest and generosity by giving me both horticultural +information and the kindest hospitality. My friendship with him was but +one of many that I have formed while traveling and corresponding in the +interests of nut culture. True and lasting friends such men make, too, +with no circumstances of selfish import to taint the pleasure of the +relationship. + +Since I wanted to have many black walnut trees some day, I decided to +plant ten bushels of black walnuts in rows. I thought I could later +graft these myself and save expense. The theory was all right but when I +came to practice it, I found I had not taken squirrels into +consideration. These bushy-tailed rats dug up one complete bed which +contained two bushels of nuts and reburied them in haphazard places +around the farm. When the nuts started to sprout, they came up in the +fields, in the gardens, and on the lawn--everywhere except where I had +intended them to be. I later was grateful to those squirrels, though, +because, through their redistributing these nuts I learned a great deal +about the effect of soil on black walnut trees, even discovering that +what I thought to be suitable was not. The trees which the squirrels +planted for me are now large and lend themselves to experimental +grafting. On them I have proved, and am still proving, new varieties of +the English walnut. + +The other eight bushels had been planted near a roadside and close to +some farm buildings. The constant human activity thereabouts probably +made the squirrels less bold, for although they carried off at least a +bushel of walnuts, about two thousand seedlings grew. I had planted +these too close together and as the trees developed they became so +crowded that many died. The remaining seedlings supplied me with +root-stocks for experimental work which proved very valuable. + +I have always suspected the squirrels of having been responsible for the +fact that my first attempt to grow hickory seedlings was unsuccessful. I +planted a quart of these nuts and not one plant came up. No doubt the +squirrels dug them up as soon as I planted them and probably they +enjoyed the flavor as much as I always have. + +In 1924 I ordered one hundred small beechnut trees, _Fagus ferruginea_, +from the Sturgeon Bay Nurseries at Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin. The company +was very generous and sent me three hundred of them. I planted these +trees in a heavy clay soil with limestone running near the surface. They +grew well the first year, except that there was heavy mortality during +cold weather. In working with these trees my lack of experience and +horticultural knowledge was against me. They could not tolerate the soil +and within three years they were all dead. + +To give variety to the landscape at my farm, I planted several other +kinds of trees. Among these were Kentucky coffee-trees which have +beautiful bronze foliage in the spring and honey locusts. I planted five +hundred Douglas fir but unfortunately, I put these deep in the woods +among heavy timber where they were so shaded that only a few lived. +Later, I moved the surviving fir trees into an open field where they +still flourish. About two hundred fifty pines of mixed varieties--white, +Norway and jack--that I planted in the woods, also died. + +I decided, then, that evergreens might do better if they were planted +from seeds. I followed instructions in James W. Toumey's "Seeding and +Planting in the Practice of Forestry," in bed culture and spot seeding. +In the latter one tears off the sod in favorable places and throws seed +on the unprotected ground. In doing this, I ignored the natural +requirements of forest practice which call for half-shade during the +first two to three years of growth. Thousands of seedlings sprouted but +they all died either from disease or from attacks by cows and sheep. One +should never attempt to raise trees and stock in the same field. + +Because of these misfortunes, I determined to study the growth of +evergreens. I invested in such necessary equipment as frames and lath +screening. Better equipped with both information and material, I grew +thousands of evergreen trees. Among the varieties of pine were: + + native White Pine --Pinus strobus + Norway pine --Pinus silvestrus + Mugho pine --Pinus pumila montana + sugar pine --Pinus Lambertiana + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + Swiss stone --Pinus cembra + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + Italian stone --Pinus pinea + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + pinon --Pinus edulis + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + bull pine --Pinus Jeffreyi (hardy) + jack pine --Pinus banksiana (very hardy) + limber pine --Pinus flexilis + (semi-hardy, a fine nut pine). + +Many of the limber pines came into bearing about fifteen years after the +seed was planted. At that age they varied in height from three to +fifteen feet. One little three-foot tree had several large cones full of +seed. Each tree varied in the quality and size of its seeds. Although it +might be possible to graft the best varieties on young seedling stocks, +in all the hundreds of grafts I have made on pine, I have been +successful only once. I doubt that such a thing would ever be practical +from a commercial standpoint unless some new method were discovered by +which a larger percentage of successful grafts could be realized. + +I cultivated the Douglas fir, white, Norway, and Colorado blue varieties +of spruce. Besides these, I planted balsam fir, red cedar, _Juniperus +Virginiana_, and white cedar, _Arborvitae_. Practically all of these +trees are still growing and many of them bear seed. + +I wish to describe the limber pine, _Pinus flexilis_, for it is not only +a good grower and quite hardy but it is also a very ornamental nut pine +which grows to be a broad, stout-trunked tree 40 to 75 feet high. The +young bark is pale grey or silver; the old bark is very dark, in square +plates. The wood itself is light, soft and close-grained, having a color +that varies from yellow to red. The needles, which are found in clusters +of five, are slender, 1-1/2 to 3 inches long, and are dark green. They +are shed during the fifth or sixth year. The buds of the tree are found +bunched at the branch tips and are scaly and pointed. The limber pine +has flowers like those of the white pine, except that they are +rose-colored. Although the fruit is described as annual, I have found +that, in this locality, it takes about fifteen months from the time the +blossoms appear for it to reach maturity. That is, the fruit requires +two seasons for growth, maturing its seeds the second September. The +cones of the limber pine, which vary from three to seven inches in +length, are purple, having thick rounded scales and being abruptly +peaked at the apex. The seeds are wingless or have only very narrow +wings around them. + +With the idea of getting practical results sooner, since nut trees +mature slowly, I interplanted my nut trees with varieties of apple, plum +and cherry. Doing so also served to economize on ground, since +ultimately nut trees require a great deal of space for best growth. +Walnut trees, for example, should be set 40 to 60 feet apart in each +direction. + +[Illustration: _Pinus Flexilus nut seeds, Natural Size_] + +I learned a variety of facts during these first years of trial and +error. I discovered, for instance, that iron fence posts rust away in an +acid soil; that one must use cedar or oak. Conversely, in alkaline soil, +iron will last indefinitely, but that the nitrogenous bacteria will +quickly rot wooden posts. I found that the secret of growing hickories +successfully lies in giving them plenty of room, with no forest trees +around to cut off their supply of sunlight and air. I learned that it is +impractical to graft a large forest tree of butternut or hickory. +Incidental to that, I learned that a branch of a butternut tree which +looks large enough to support a man's weight near the trunk, will not do +so when the branch is green and alive, but that a dead branch of similar +size will. Contrariwise, even a small green limb of a bitternut-hickory +will bear my weight, but an old limb, though several inches thick, +becomes so brittle after it is dead for several years that it will break +under slight pressure. Fortunately, falls from trees do not usually +result in serious injuries but I did acquire quite a few bruises +learning these distinctions. + +There is always a natural mortality in planting trees, but in those +first years, lacking badly-needed experience, I lost more than 75%. +Nearly all of them started to grow but died during the first few +winters. Those which survived were the start of a nursery filled with +hardy trees which can endure the climate of the north. In looking back, +I appreciate how fortunate I was in having sought and received advice +from experienced nurserymen. Had I not done so, frequent failures would +surely have discouraged me. As it was, the successes I did have were an +incentive which made me persist and which left me with faith enough in +an ultimate success to go on buying seeds and trees and to make greater +and more varied experiments. + + + + +Chapter 3 + +BLACK WALNUTS + + +I have spent more of my time cultivating black walnuts than any other +kind of nut tree and given more of my ground area over to them. Yet it +was with no great amount of enthusiasm that I started working with these +trees. Obviously there could be nothing new or extraordinary resulting +from my planting trees of this species either on my farm or at my St. +Paul home, since there already were mature, bearing black walnut trees +at both places. It was only with the idea that they would be an +attractive addition to the native butternut groves that I decided to +plant some black walnut seedlings. + +This did not prove feasible as I first attempted it. I had engaged a Mr. +Miller at St. Peter to procure wild black walnut trees for me since they +grew near that town. He was to dig these trees with as much of the root +system included as possible and ship them to my farm. But the winter +season came before this had been accomplished and both Mr. Miller and I, +deciding the idea was not as practical as we had hoped it would be, +abandoned it. Later that same autumn I found that a nursery just outside +of St. Paul had several rows of overgrown black walnut trees which they +would sell me quite reasonably. I bought them and sent instructions to +the tenant at my farm to dig twenty-eight large holes in which to plant +them. Packed in straw and burlap, the trees weighed about 500 pounds, I +found. This was much too heavy and cumbersome to pack in my old touring +car, so I hunted around for some sort of vehicle I could attach to my +car as a trailer. In an old blacksmith shop, I came upon an antiquated +pair of buggy wheels. They looked as though they were ready to fall +apart but I decided that with repairs and by cautious driving, they +might last out the trip of thirty-five miles. So I paid the blacksmith +his asking price--twenty-five cents. The spokes rattled and the steel +tires were ready to roll off their wooden rims but the axles were +strong. My father-in-law and I puttered and pounded, strengthened and +tightened, until we felt our semi-trailer was in good-enough order. It +might have been, too, if the roads in the country hadn't been rough and +frozen so hard that they hammered on the solid, unresisting tires and +spokes until, almost within sight of the farm, one wheel dismally +collapsed. As the wheel broke, the trailer slid off the road into a +ditch, so that it was necessary to send on to the farm for the plow +horses to haul out the car, the trailer and the trees. The horses +finished hauling the trees to that part of the farm where holes had been +dug for them. I had told my tenant to dig large holes and large holes he +had certainly dug! Most of them were big enough to bury one of the +horses in. Such was my amateurish first endeavor. + +It was not until December of that year, 1919, that the twenty-eight +trees were finally planted. Although the ground was already somewhat +frozen and the trees poorly planted as a result, most of them started to +grow in the spring. They would probably be living now if I had not been +too ambitious to convert them from seedlings into grafted varieties such +as the Ohio, Thomas and Stabler, which I had learned of during a +winter's study of available nut-culture lore. I obtained scionwood from +J. F. Jones, part of which I put on these abused trees and the remainder +of which I grafted on butternut trees. At that time, I must admit, I was +much more interested in trying the actual work of grafting than I was in +developing or even conceiving a methodical plan to be worked out over a +period of years. + +In order to facilitate my grafting work that spring, I pitched a tent in +the woods and lived there for a week at a time, doing my own cooking and +roughing it generally. Cows were being pastured in this part of the +woods and they were very interested in my activities. If I were absent +for a long time during the day, on my return I would find that +noticeable damage had been done to my tent and food supplies by these +curious cows. While preparing some scionwood inside the tent one day, I +heard a cow approaching and picked up a heavy hickory club which I had +for protection at night, intending to rush out and give the animal a +proper lesson in minding its own business. The cow approached the tent +from the side opposite the door and pushed solidly against the canvas +with its nose and head. This so aggravated me that I jumped over to that +part of the tent and gave the cow a hard whack over the nose with my +hickory stick. It jumped away fast for such a big animal. This seemed to +end all curiosity on the part of these cows and I was allowed to carry +on my work in peace. + +With beginner's luck, I succeeded with many of the butternut grafts, as +well as with some of the grafts on the twenty-eight planted black +walnuts. However, all of the grafted black walnut trees ultimately died +with the exception of one grafted Stabler. This large tree was a +monument of success for twenty years, bearing some nuts every year and +maturing them, and in a good season, producing bushels of them. One +other of these seedlings survived but as it would not accept any grafts, +I finally let it live as nature intended. + +In 1921, I began ordering grafted black walnut trees, as well as grafted +hickory trees from J. F. Jones, who had the largest and best known of +the nurseries handling northern nut trees. Some of these grafted trees +were also planted at my home in St. Paul, using the two locations as +checks against each other. The site in St. Paul eventually proved +unsatisfactory because of the gravelly soil and because the trees were +too crowded. The varieties of black walnuts I first experimented with +were the Thomas, Ohio, Stabler and Ten Eyck, which were planted by +hundreds year after year. If I had not worked on this large scale there +would be no reason for me to write about it today as the mortality of +these black walnuts was so high that probably none would have lived to +induce in me the ambition necessary to support a plan involving lengthy, +systematic experimentation. Some of these early trees survive today, +however, and although few in number, they have shown me that the +experiment was a worthy one since it laid the foundation for results +which came later. In fact, I feel that both the time and money I spent +during that initial era of learning were investments in which valuable +dividends of knowledge and development are still being paid. + +In grafting black walnuts on butternut trees, I very foolishly attempted +to work over a tree more than a foot in diameter and I did not succeed +in getting a single graft to grow on it. Other younger trees, from three +to six inches in diameter, I successfully grafted. Some of these are +still living but clearly show the incompatibility of the two species +when black walnut is grafted on butternut. The opposite combination of +butternut on black walnut is very successful and produces nuts earlier +and in greater abundance than butternut does when grafted on its own +species. + +The expense of buying trees by hundreds was so great that after a year I +decided that I could very easily plant black walnuts to obtain the young +trees needed as understocks. When they had grown large enough, I would +graft them over myself. I wrote to my friend in St. Peter, Mr. E. E. +Miller, and he told me where I could obtain walnuts by the bushel. Soon +I was making trips to the countryside around St. Peter buying walnuts +from the farmers there. I planted about five bushels of these at the +River Falls farm and the rest, another two bushels, at St. Paul. Soon I +had several thousand young walnut trees which all proved hardy to the +winters. + +When pruning the black walnut trees purchased from Mr. Jones for +transplanting, I saved the tops and grafted them to the young trees with +a fair degree of success. In a few years, I was using my own trees to +fill up spaces left vacant by the mortality of the Pennsylvania-grown +trees. I did not neglect seeding to provide stocks of the Eastern black +walnut also, which is almost a different species from the local black +walnut, but these seedling trees proved to be tender toward our winters +and only a few survived. After they had grown into large trees, these +few were grafted to English walnuts. The difference between the Eastern +black walnut and the local native black walnut is quite apparent when +the two trees are examined side by side. Even the type of fruit is +different, although I do not know of any botanical authority who will +confirm my theory that they are different species. They are probably to +be considered as geographically distinct rather than as botanically +different species. + +For several years I continued to graft black walnuts on butternut trees +with the intention of converting hundreds, perhaps thousands, of these +wild trees over to prolific, cultured black walnuts. I did not realize +my mistake in doing this until ten years had elapsed. I believed that +since the tops were growing, the trees would shortly produce nuts. Today +they are still growing, bigger and better, yet most of these grafted +trees bear no nuts, having only a crop of leaves. A few nuts result from +these grafts, however, and some of the trees bear a handful of nuts from +tops of such size that one would expect the crops to be measured in +bushels. The kind which bore the best was the Ohio variety. In another +chapter, I shall relate parallel experience in hickory grafting which I +carried on simultaneously with grafting of black walnut on butternut. + +My first big disappointment in my black walnut orchard was when, in +about 1930, having a fairly good crop of nuts, I unsuccessfully +attempted to sell them to local stores. They were not interested in +anything except walnut kernels and to them, a wild walnut kernel was the +same as a cultivated one as long as it was highly-flavored. This so +cooled my enthusiasm and hopes for a black walnut orchard that I ceased +experimenting with them except to try out new varieties being discovered +through nut contests carried on by the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. The 1926 contest produced a number of black walnut +possibilities, among them being such named varieties as the Rohwer, +Paterson, Throp, Vandersloot, Pearl and Adams. + +The neglected and over-grown walnut seedlings now began to serve a +useful purpose in grafting the new varieties which I obtained for +testing in this locality. These were propagated by obtaining scionwood +from the originators of the variety and grafting it on these seedling +trees. My technical knowledge had increased by this time to such an +extent that I was usually certain of one-half of the grafts growing. The +behavior of the Rohwer and Paterson in 1937 invited nursery propagation +on a greater scale than did other better-known types, because of their +qualities of hardiness and earlier-ripening. + +In the spring of 1937, these native seedlings were again offered to the +spirit of propagation, when a large part of the scionwood of English +walnuts I had imported from the Carpathian mountains of Poland was +grafted on them. The success of my grafting in this instance was only +about 1-1/2%, showing that something was decidedly wrong. Two +conclusions were possible: Either the scionwood had been injured by +transportation and the severe winter temperatures during January and +February of 1937 during which they were stored, or incompatibility +existed between the imported walnuts and our local ones. My conclusion +now is that when these stocks are fifteen years old or more and are +thrifty, they will support grafting of the Carpathian English walnuts +much more successfully than they will in their first decade of growth. +Results have shown that these local stocks will accept such grafts, +however, and that crops of English walnuts will be produced. The +fertility of the soil must be maintained carefully, since the English +walnut top tends to overgrow its black walnut root-stock, and unless +nutritional substance for the support of these tops is fed to the +root-system, meager crops, if any, will result. + +I might note in comparison to the 1-1/2% success I had in this grafting, +that during the same season I put several hundred scions of these same +English walnuts on the Eastern black walnut stocks without a single +successful graft occurring. + +In 1933 and 1934, many of these experimentally grafted walnuts, such as +Vandersloot, Paterson, and Rohwer as well as others, were planted in +orchard formation. In digging these trees, we took care to get all of +the root possible and to take a ball of dirt with the root. In spite of +these precautions, some of the trees died, not having sufficient +vitality and root development to withstand transplantation. This was a +result not only of the crowded condition under which the stocks had +grown but also of the poor soil which had nourished them. The soil was +heavy blue clay underlaid with limestone within two feet of the top of +the ground. Enough trees were set out in orchard formation which are +growing well and bearing annual crops, to give us the proof we need in +drawing conclusions of superiority among these varieties. + +Black walnuts will keep for several years if they are properly dried and +then stored in a cool, but not too damp, place. Storing nuts in attics +which are likely to become excessively hot in the summer time, causes +rancidity sooner than any other method. Nuts keep very well in attics +during the winter but they should be transferred to a basement during +hot weather. If the basement is very damp, though, nuts will mould +there. For general storage, without having to move them from one place +to another for different seasons, nuts can be kept most practically in a +barn or outside shed. The only precaution necessary under such +circumstances is that they should be in a box or steel barrel to prevent +squirrels and mice from feeding on them, since barns and sheds are +easily accessible to these animals. + +The kernels of black walnuts need not be discolored if the hulls of the +fresh nuts are removed as soon as the nuts are ripe. At my farm, we have +done this with an ordinary corn-sheller. The nuts, having been hulled +this way, are then soaked in water for a few hours to remove any excess +coloring matter left on their shells, after which they are dried for +several days out-of-doors, although not exposed to the sun since this +might cause them to crack open. Thorough drying is necessary before +sacking to prevent moulding. Kernels extracted from nuts treated this +way are very light in color like English walnuts. This enhances their +market value and they command a higher price when they are to be used +for culinary purposes such as cake frosting and candies where there is +exposure of large pieces or halves of the nut kernel. I find black +walnuts are exceptionally delicious when used in a candy called divinity +fudge. The strong flavor of the black walnut kernel although appreciated +by many people, is not as popular as that of the butternut, of which +more is said in another chapter. + +The food value of black walnut kernels is high since they are composed +of concentrated fat and protein, similar to the English walnut, the +hickory nut and the pecan. There is also the advantage, which John +Harvey Kellogg of Battle Creek, Michigan, has pointed out, that nuts are +a food of high purity being entirely free from disease bacteria. One +could safely say of unshelled nuts that there is not a disease germ in a +carload. + +There was a time when black walnut hulls were purchased by producers of +insecticides. The black walnut hull, when dried and pulverized, produces +a substance which gives body to the concentrated pyrethrum extract which +is the essential ingredient of many insecticides. + +One cannot leave a discussion of black walnuts without reflecting on the +furniture which has been possible only through the use of vast forests +of black walnut timber. Beautiful veneers have come from the burl +walnut, being formed by protuberances on the trunks of the trees near +the surface of the ground. There is a variety of black walnut which we +have been experimenting with for quite a few years, called the Lamb, +which has a beautifully figured grain. As this appears only in mature +timber, ours is not yet old enough to show it. + +I have found that the Ohio black walnut is prone to hybridize with +butternut trees in its vicinity and others have told me of its +hybridizing with English walnut trees near it, which shows it to be +almost as vacillating in character as our Japanese walnuts or heartnuts. +Ohio black walnuts, when planted, usually produce vigorous stocks, many +of which show hybridity of some sort. If one examines the nuts of the +Ohio and finds them dwarfed or deformed, he may be sure that they have +been pollinized by something other than a black walnut. Planting such +nuts, then, will grow hybrid trees. Most of us have enough curiosity to +want to try this as an experiment. + +Thomas walnut seedlings have produced more thrifty trees than Ohio nuts +have. However, the best understocks are those produced from seeds of +native grown trees. It is well understood that rarely does a specific +type such as the Ohio, Thomas or Stabler reproduce itself exactly from +seeds. In raising black walnut seedlings, my experience has taught me +that the nuts should be planted in the fall and not too deep, one to two +inches below the surface being all the depth necessary. They may never +sprout if they are four to six inches under ground. The black walnut +tree is a glutton for food seemingly, it will use all the fertilizer +that it is given although, no doubt, there is a practical limit. It must +have plenty of food to produce successive crops of nuts, and barnyard +manure is the safest and most practical kind to use. This can be put on +as a heavy mulch around the trees but some of it should also be spaded +into the ground. One must always remember that the feeding roots of a +tree are at about the same circumference as the tips of the branches so +that fertilizer put close to the trunk will do little good except in +very young trees. Since 1936 we have been watching a small native +walnut which came into bearing while in a nursery row. This tree bore +such fine thin-shelled easy-to-crack nuts and lent itself so readily to +being propagated by graftage and had so many other good characteristics +that we have selected it as representative of the black walnut varieties +for the north and have named it the Weschcke walnut and patented the +variety. A list is here appended to show the order of hardiness and +value based on our experience: + + 1--Weschcke--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor + + 2--Paterson--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor (originating + in Iowa) + + 3--Rohwer--very hardy--good cracker (originating in Iowa) + + 4--Bayfield--very hardy--good cracker (originating in Northern + Wisconsin) + + 5--Adams (Iowa)--fairly hardy--good cracker + + 6--Ohio--semi-hardy, excellent cracking and flavor (parent tree in + Ohio) + + 7--Northwestern--a new, good hardy nut + + 8--Pearl--semi-hardy--good (from Iowa) + + 9--Vandersloot--semi-hardy--very large + + 10--Thomas--tender to our winters--otherwise very good (from + Pennsylvania) + + 11--Stabler--tender--many nuts single-lobed + + 12--Throp--tender, many nuts single-lobed + +A friend of mine, who lives in Mason, Wisconsin, discovered a black +walnut tree growing in that vicinity. Since Mason is in the northern +part of the state, about 47° parallel north, this tree grows the +farthest north of any large black walnut I know of. I would estimate its +height at about sixty-five feet and its trunk diameter at about sixteen +inches at breast-height. Because of the short growing season there, the +nuts do not mature, being barely edible, due to their shrinkage while +drying. Some seasons this failure to mature nuts also occurs in such +varieties as the Thomas, the Ohio and even the Stabler at my River Falls +farm, which is nearly 150 miles south of Mason. Such nuts will sprout, +however, and seedlings were raised from the immature nuts of this +northern tree. Incidentally these seedlings appear to be just as hardy +in wood growth as their parent tree. I have also grafted scionwood from +the original tree on black walnut stocks at my farm in order to +determine more completely the quality of this variety. Since grafted, +these trees have borne large, easy to crack mature nuts and are +propagated under the varietal name (Bayfield) since the parent tree is +in sight of Lake Superior at Bayfield, Wisconsin. + +Many of our best nut trees, from man's point of view, have inherent +faults such as the inability of the staminate bloom of the Weschcke +hickory to produce any pollen whatsoever, as has been scientifically +outlined in the treatise by Dr. McKay under the chapter on hickories. In +the Weschcke walnut we have a peculiarity of a similar nature as it +affects fruiting when the tree is not provided with other varieties to +act as pollinators. It has been quite definitely established, by +observation over a period of ten or more years, that the pollen of the +Weschcke variety black walnut does not cause fruiting in its own +pistillate blooms. Although this is not uncommon among some plants, such +as the chestnut and the filbert where it is generally the rule instead +of the exception, yet in the black walnuts species the pollen from its +own male (or staminate) flowers is generally capable of exciting the +ovule of the female (pistillate) flower into growth. Such species are +known as self-fertile. As in the case of ordinary chestnuts which +receive no cross pollination, and the pistillate flowers develop into +perfect burrs with shrunken meatless, imperfect nuts, the Weschcke black +walnut, when standing alone or when the prevailing winds prevent other +nearby pollen from reaching any or but few of its pistillate bloom, goes +on to produce fine looking average-sized nuts practically all of which +are without seed or kernels. Such therefore is the importance of knowing +the correct pollinators for each variety of nut tree. In the +self-sterility of filberts the failure of self-pollination results in an +absence of nuts or in very few rather than a full crop of seedless +fruits such as the common chestnut and the Weschcke black walnuts +produces. This is the only black walnut that has come to the author's +attention where its pollen acting on its pistillate bloom has affected +the production of nuts in just this way but the variety of black walnut +known as the Ohio, one of the best sorts for this northern climate +except for hardiness, has often demonstrated that it has a peculiarity +which might be caused by lack of outside pollen or because of the action +of its own pollen on its pistillate bloom. This peculiarity is the often +found one-sided development of the Ohio walnut kernel when the tree is +isolated from other pollen bearing black walnuts. One lobe of the kernel +is therefore full-meated while the other half or lobe is very +undernourished or it may be a thin wisp of a kernel as is the appearance +of the Weschcke variety in similar circumstances. + +[Illustration: _Stabler variety of Black Walnut grafted on a Minnesota +seedling stock bore many years but was winter killed. Photo by C. +Weschcke_] + +Cutting scionwood early one spring, I noticed that the sap was running +very fast in the grafted Stabler tree previously referred to. Later when +I came back to inspect this tree, I noticed that the sap had congealed +to syrupy blobs at the ends of the cut branches. My curiosity led me to +taste this and I found it very sweet and heavy. I mean to experiment +some time in making syrup from the sap of this tree as I believe its +sugar content to be much higher than that of the local sugar maple. This +makes the Stabler a 3-purpose tree, the first being its nuts, the second +being the syrup, and the third being, at the end of its potentially long +life, a good-sized piece of timber of exceptionally high value. The tree +is one of beauty, having drooping foliage similar to that of the weeping +willow. This is another point in its favor, its being an ornamental tree +worthy of any lawn. However, the Stabler is now considered as a tender +variety and is not recommended for northern planting. + +[Illustration: _Stabler graft on old seedling grafted in May, 1938 +bearing in August of the same year. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +[Illustration: _Cut Leaf Black Walnut. Scions furnished by Harry Weber +of Cincinnati, Ohio. Variety was hardy on Minnesota seedling for about 5 +years. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +The aesthetic value of the black walnut does not cease here since there +are some varieties which are exceptionally attractive. One of these is +the cut-leaf black walnut which has the ordinary compound leaf but whose +individual leaflets are so scalloped and serrated that they resemble a +male fern. Everyone who has seen one of these has evinced pleasurable +surprise at this new form of leaf and it may become very popular with +horticulturists in the future. Another interestingly different variety +is the Deming Purple walnut which, although orthodox in leaf form, has a +purplish tint, bordering on red in some cases, coloring leaf, wood and +nuts, resulting in a distinctly decorative tree. This tree was named +for Dr. W. C. Deming who was the founder of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. Neither the Laceleaf nor Deming Purple are hardy for this +climate but survived several years nevertheless before succumbing to one +of our periodical test winters. + + + + +Chapter 4 + +HAZELS AND FILBERTS + + +In October 1921, I ordered from J. F. Jones, one hundred plants of what +is known as the Rush hazel which was, at that time, the best known of +the propagated hazels. In ordering these, I mentioned the fact that I +expected to get layered plants or grafted ones. Mr. Jones wrote me at +once to say that the plants he had were seedlings of the Rush hazel +which are said to come very true to seed, but that if I did not want +them as seedlings he would cancel the order. Rather than lacking a +profitable filler between the orchard trees, I accepted the order of one +hundred plants and received from him a fine lot of hazels which took +good root and began to grow luxuriantly. It was several years before any +of them began to bear and when one or two did, the nuts were not hazels +at all, but filberts and hybrids. In most cases these nuts were larger +and better than those of the original Rush hazel. + +One of these seedlings grew into a bushy tree ten or twelve feet high. +For several years it bore a crop which, though meager, was composed of +large, attractive nuts shaped like those of the common American hazel +but very unlike the true Rush hazelnut. One year this tree began to fail +and I tried to save it or propagate it by layering and sprouting seeds. +Unfortunately it did not occur to me at that time to graft it to a wild +hazel to perpetuate it. I still lament my oversight as the tree finally +died and a very hardy plant was lost which was apparently able to +fertilize its own blossoms. + +I ordered four Winkler hazel bushes from Snyder Bros. of Center Point, +Iowa, in March 1927, asking them to send me plants that were extra +strong and of bearing size. I planted these that spring but the +following summer was so dry that all four died. I ordered twelve more +Winklers in September for spring delivery, requesting smaller ones this +time (two to three feet). Half of these were shipped to me with bare +roots, the others being balled in dirt for experimental purposes. Four +of the latter are still living and producing nuts. + +In April 1928, I planted a dozen Jones hybrid hazels but only two of +them survived more than two years. I think the reason they lasted as +well as they did was that around each plant I put a guard made of laths +four feet high, bound together with wire and filled with forest leaves. +I drove the laths several inches into the ground and covered them with +window screening fastened down with tacks to keep mice out of the +leaves. Although somewhat winter-killed, most of the plants lived during +the first winter these guards were used. The second winter, more plants +died, and I didn't use the guards after that. + +The two Jones hybrids that lived produced flowers of both sexes for +several years but they did not set any nuts. One day while reading a +report of one of the previous conventions of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association, I discovered an article by Conrad Vollertsen in which he +stressed the importance of training filberts into a single truncated +plant, allowing no root sprouts or suckers to spring up since such a +condition prevents the bearing of nuts. I followed his advice with my +two Jones hybrids and removed all surplus sprouts. This resulted in more +abundant flowers and some abortive involucres but still no nuts +developed. In the spring of 1940, I systematically fertilized numerous +pistillate flowers of these plants with a pollen mixture. On the +branches so treated, a fairly good crop of nuts similar to those of the +orthodox Jones hybrid appeared. + +I had cut off a few branches from the Jones hybrids when I received them +and grafted these to wild hazels. This had been suggested by Robert +Morris in his book, "Nut Growing," as an interesting experiment which +might prove to be practical. It did not prove to be so for me for +although the grafting itself was successful I found it tiresome to +prune, repeatedly, the suckers which constantly spring up during the +growing period and which are detrimental to grafts. Although they lived +for five years, these grafts suffered a great deal of winter-injury and +they never bore nuts. The one which lived for the longest time became +quite large and overgrew the stock of the wild hazel. This same plant +produced both staminate and pistillate blossoms very abundantly for +several seasons but it did not set any nuts in spite of the many wild +hazels growing nearby which gave it access to pollen. It is now known +that this hybrid is self-sterile and must have pollinators of the right +variety in order to bear. + +My next work with members of the genus Corylus was discouraging. In +April 1929, I bought one hundred hazel and filbert plants from Conrad +Vollertsen of Rochester, New York, which included specimens of the Rush +hazel and of the following varieties of filberts: + + Italian Red + Merribrook + Kentish Cob + Early Globe + Zellernuts + White Lambert + Althaldensleben + Medium Long + Bony Bush + Large Globe + Minnas Zeller + Marveille de Bollwyller + +Although many of these filberts bore nuts the first year they were +planted, within two years they were all completely winter-killed. + +In 1932, I received ten filbert bushes from J. U. Gellatly of West Bank, +British Columbia. These consisted of several varieties of Glover's best +introductions and some Pearson seedlings. I planted them on the south +side of a high stone wall, a favorable location for semi-hardy plants. +They appeared to be thrifty and only slightly winter-killed during the +first two years but by 1939, all but two of the bushes had died or were +dying. Although as nut-bearing plants they have been of little value to +me, their pollen has been of great service. + +I found an unusually fine wild hazel growing in the woods on my farm and +in 1934, I began an experiment in hybridizing it. I crossed the +pistillate flowers of the native hazel with pollen from a Gellatly +filbert and obtained four hybrid plants, which I have called hazilberts. +In the spring of 1940, three of these hybrids had pistillate flowers but +no staminate blooms. As I was very eager to see what the new crosses +would be like, I fertilized the blossoms with a gunshot mixture of +pollen from other plants such as the Winkler hazel, the European filbert +and the Jones hybrid hazel. Certain difficulties arose in making these +hybrids, mainly due to the curiosity of the squirrels who liked to rip +open the sacks covering the blossoms which were being treated. Deer +mice, too, I found, have a habit of climbing the stems of hazel bushes +and gnawing at the nuts long before they are mature enough to use for +seed. Later I learned to protect hybrid nuts by lacing flat pieces of +window screening over each branch, thus making a mouse-proof enclosure. +Even after gathering the nuts I discovered that precautions were +necessary to prevent rodents from reaching them. The best way I found to +do this is to plant nuts in cages of galvanized hardware cloth of 2 by 2 +mesh, countersunk in the ground one foot and covered completely by a +frame of the same material reinforced with boards and laths. + +The most interesting hazilbert that has developed bears nuts of +outstanding size, typically filberts in every detail of appearance, +although the plant itself looks more like a hazel, being bushy and +having many suckers. After more testing, this hybrid may prove to be a +definite asset to nursery culture in our cold northern climate, +fulfilling as it does, all the requirements for such a plant. The second +hazilbert resembles the first closely except that its nuts, which are +also large, are shaped like those of Corylus Americana. The third +hazilbert has smaller nuts but its shell is much thinner than that of +either of the others. + +In reference to the hazilberts, I am reminded of certain correspondence +I once had with J. F. Jones. He had sent me samples of the Rush hazel +and although I was impressed by them, I mentioned in replying to him +that we had wild hazels growing in our pasture which were as large or +larger than the Rush hazelnuts. I admitted that ours were usually very +much infested with the hazel weevil. Mr. Jones was immediately +interested in wild hazels of such size and asked me to send him samples +of them. He wrote that he had never seen wild hazels with worms in them +and would like to learn more about them. I sent him both good and wormy +nuts from the wild hazel bush to which I had referred. He was so +impressed by them that he wished me to dig up the plant and ship it to +him, writing that he wished to cross it with filbert pollen as an +experiment. I sent it as he asked but before he was able to make the +cross he intended, his death occurred. Several years later, his daughter +Mildred wrote to me about this hazel bush, asking if I knew where her +father had planted it. Unfortunately I could give her no information +about where, among his many experiments, this bush would be, so that the +plant was lost sight of for a time. Later Miss Jones sent me nuts from a +bush which she thought might be the one I had sent. I was glad to be +able to identify those nuts as being, indeed, from that bush. + +In the spring of 1939, I crossed the Winkler hazel with filbert pollen; +the European hazel with Winkler pollen; the Gellatly filbert with Jones +hybrid pollen. These crosses produced many plants which will be new and +interesting types to watch and build from. I have already made certain +discoveries about them. By close examination of about forty plants, I +have been able to determine that at least five are definitely hybrids by +the color, shape and size of their buds. This is a very strong +indication of hybridity with wild hazel or Winkler. On one of these +plants, about one-foot high, I found staminate bloom which I consider +unusual after only two seasons' growth. + +During the fall of 1941, I became interested in a phenomenon of fruit +determination previous to actual fructification of the plant by detailed +examinations of its buds. I noticed, for instance, that large buds +generally meant that the plant would produce large nuts and small buds +indicated small nuts to come. The color of the buds, whether they were +green, bronze green or reddish brown, could be fairly well depended +upon to indicate their hybridity in many cases. These tests were not +wholly reliable but the percentage of indication was so high that I was +tempted to make predictions. + +At that time, hazilbert No. 1 had not borne nuts. The bush resembled a +wild hazel so much that I had begun to doubt its hybridity. Upon +examining its buds, I found indications in their color that it was a +hybrid, although the nuts apparently would not be large. It would be an +important plant to me only if its pollen should prove to be effective on +the other hazilberts. At the time this was only a wishful hope, because +the pollen of the wild hazel, which this plant resembles, apparently +does not act to excite the ovules of either filberts or filbert hybrids +with filbert characteristics. Pure filbert pollen seemed to be +necessary. In 1942, its pollen did prove to be acceptable to the other +hazilberts and my hope for a good pollinizer was realized in it. + +From the conclusions I reached through my study of the buds, I made +sketches of which I believed the nuts of No. 1 would be like in size and +shape. In March 1942, these sketches were used as the basis of the +drawing given here. A comparison of this drawing with the photograph +taken in September 1942, of the actual nuts of hazilbert No. 1 show how +accurate such a predetermination can be. + +I am convinced from the work I have done and am still doing, that we are +developing several varieties of hazilberts as hardy and adaptable to +different soils as the pasture hazel is, yet having the thin shell and +the size of a European filbert. As to the quality of the kernel of such +a nut, that of the wild hazel is as delicious as anyone could desire. + +[Illustration: _3/4 Natural size Filberts_] + +[Illustration: _3/4 Natural size Hazilberts and Winkler Hazel_] + +[Illustration: _31/32 of actual size Hazilberts. Left to right: No. 3, +No. 5, No. 4, No. 2_] + +[Illustration: _No. 1 Hazilbert about 9/15/42. Note almost identical +size and shape of this actual photograph of No. 1 compared to +predetermined size and shape in drawing made almost one year previous to +photograph. Plant had not produced any nuts prior to crop of 1942_] + + + + +Chapter 5 + +HAZELS AND/OR FILBERTS + + +There is a certain amount of confusion in the minds of many people +regarding the difference between filberts and hazels, both of which +belong to the genus Corylus. Some think them identical and call them all +hazels dividing them only into European and American types. I see no +reason for doing this. "Filbert" is the name of one species of genus +Corylus just as "English walnut" is the commercial name of one of the +members of the Juglans family. There is as much difference between a +well-developed filbert and a common wild hazelnut as there is between a +cultivated English walnut and wild black walnut. + +For ordinary purposes the nuts sold commercially, whether imported or +grown in this country, are called filberts while those nuts which may be +found growing prolifically in woodlands and pastures over almost the +whole United States but which are not to be found on the market are +called hazelnuts. This lack of commercialization of hazelnuts should be +recognized as due to the smallness of the nut and the thickness of its +shell rather than to its lacking flavor. Its flavor, which seldom varies +much regardless of size, shape or thickness of shell, is both rich and +nutty. The three main food components of the hazelnut, carbohydrate, +protein and oil, are balanced so well that they approach nearer than +most other nuts the ideal food make-up essential to man. The English +walnut contains much oil and protein while both chestnuts and acorns +consist largely of carbohydrates. + +One salient feature which definitely separates the species Corylus +Americana or wild hazel, from others of its genus, is its resistance to +hazel blight, a native fungus disease of which it is the host. +Controversies may occur over the application of the names "hazel" and +"filbert" but there is no dispute about the effect of this infection on +members of genus Corylus imported from Europe. Although there is wide +variety in appearance and quality within each of the species, especially +among the European filberts, and although filberts may resemble hazels +sufficiently to confuse even a horticulturist, the action of this fungus +is so specific that it divides Corylus definitely into two species. +Corylus Americana and Corylus cornuta, through long association, have +become comparatively immune to its effects and quickly wall off infected +areas while filbert plants are soon killed by contact with it. Hybrids +between filberts and hazels will usually be found to retain some of the +resistance of the hazel parent. + +The ideal nut of genus Corylus should combine qualities of both hazels +and filberts. Such a hybrid should have the bushy characteristics of the +American hazel with its blight-resisting properties and its ability to +reproduce itself by stolons or sucker-growth. It should bear fruit +having the size, general shape, cracking qualities and good flavor of +the filbert as popularly known. The hybrids I am growing at my farm, +which I call "hazilberts" and which are discussed later, seem to fulfill +these requirements. The plants may be grown as bushes or small trees. +They are blight-resistant and their nuts are like filberts in +appearance. Three varieties of these hazilberts have ivory-colored +kernels which are practically free of pellicle or fibre. They have a +good flavor. + +A comparison of the ripening habits and the effect of frost on the +various members of the genus Corylus growing in my nursery in the fall +of 1940, is shown by these extracts taken from daily records of the work +done there. It should be noted that the summer season that year was +rainy and not as hot as usual, so that most nuts ripened two to three +weeks later than they normally do. + + "September 7 and 8: Wild hazels ripe and picked at this time. + (Their kernels showed no shrinkage by October 25.) + + September 14 and 15: I picked ripe nuts from hazilbert No. 5 which + seems to be the first to ripen. Also picked half of the European + filberts. (There was slight shrinkage in the kernels of the latter + a few weeks later showing that they could have stayed on the trees + another week to advantage.) + + All of the nuts of a Jones hybrid, which is a cross between Rush + and some European variety such as Italian Red, could have been + picked as they were ripe. Some were picked. + + The almond-shaped filbert classified as the White Aveline type, was + not quite ripe; neither were hazilberts No. 2 and No. 4, nor the + Gellatly filberts. Wild hazelnuts at this time had dry husks and + were falling off the bushes or being cut down by mice. + + September 21 and 22: The remaining European filberts of the + imported plants were picked. Also, I picked half of the White + Aveline type nuts. + + [Illustration: _Carlola Hazilberts No. 5, about 8/10/42. This is + the earliest ripening and thinnest shell of the large type + hazilberts, not the largest size however. Carlola Weschcke shown in + picture. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + + September 28 and 29: We picked most of the nuts remaining on + hazilbert No. 5 and the remainder of the White Aveline type. At + this time we record a heavy frost which occurred during the + previous week, that is, between September 22 and 28th. Since it + froze water it was considered a "killing" frost. However, the + damage was spotty all over the orchard, most things continuing to + develop and ripen. Winkler hazels picked and examined at this time + showed them far from ripe. Hazilberts growing next to limestone + walls on the south side showed no signs of frost damage whereas the + Winkler, on higher ground, showed severe damage to the leaves and + the husks of the nuts which immediately started to turn brown. + Leaves of other filbert plants in the vicinity showed no frost + damage and the very few nuts that had been left on, such as those + of the Jones hybrid, were undamaged. + + October 5 and 6: Picked all of hazilbert No. 2 except the last two + nuts. + + Gellatly filberts were picked about October 10 and were ripe at + that time. + + October 11 to 13: Two English walnuts were picked and found to be + as ripe as they would get. These as well as the black walnuts + showed distinct signs of lacking summer heat needed for their + proper development. The last two nuts on hazilbert No. 2 and the + only nut on hazilbert No. 4 were picked at this time and were ripe. + Chestnut burrs had opened up and the nuts enclosed were fully + mature. + + October 19 and 20: I found the last of the Winkler hazelnuts had + been picked during the previous week, approximately October 14. + These were left the longest on the bush of any hazel and still were + not ripe although they were not entirely killed by the several + frosts occurring before that time. They are always much later than + the wild hazel." + +On October 20, I had an opportunity of comparing the action of frost on +the leaves of these plants. Those of the White Aveline type had not +changed color and were very green. The leaves of the Jones hybrid showed +some coloration but nothing to compare with those of the Winkler hazel, +many of which had the most beautiful colors of any of the trees on the +farm--red, orange and yellow bronze. Hazilbert No. 1, which resembles a +wild hazel in appearance and habits of growth, had colored much earlier +in reaction to the frost and was as brightly tinted as the wild hazel +and Winkler plants except that, like the wild hazel, it had already lost +much of its foliage. Some of the wild hazels were entirely devoid of +leaves at this time. Hazilbert No. 5 showed the best color effects with +No. 4 second and No. 2 last. + +The color of the leaves and the action of the frost on the plants during +the autumn is another thing, in my opinion, that helps to differentiate +between and to classify European filberts, American hazels and their +hybrids. My conclusion in regard to the effect of frost is that the +reaction of the Winkler hazel is very similar to that of the wild hazel +in color but exceeding it in beauty since its leaves do not drop as soon +after coloring. At this time, the leaves had not changed color on the +imported European plants, the Gellatly filberts from British Columbia or +the White Aveline type. They had turned only slightly on the Jones +hybrid. I think an accurate idea of the general hardiness of a plant is +indicated by the effect of frost and by early dropping of leaves, using +the sturdy wild hazel as the limit of hardiness and assuming that its +hardiness is shown by both degree of coloration and early dropping of +leaves. + +In noting the action of frost on the Winkler hazel, I have mentioned +that it was more like that on the American hazel than on the European +filberts. The Winkler has always been considered a native woodland +hazel, but, although it does show several similarities to Corylus +Americana, I have also noticed certain qualities which definitely +suggest some filbert heritage. I have based my theory on a study of the +Winkler hazels which have been bearing annually at my farm for six +years, bearing more regularly, in fact, than even the wild hazels +growing nearby. My comparisons have been made with wild hazels in both +Minnesota and Wisconsin and with European filberts. + +I found the first point of similarity with the filbert is in the +involucre covering the nut. In the wild hazel, this folds against itself +to one side of the nut, while in the filbert it is about balanced and if +not already exposing a large part of the end of the nut, is easily +opened. The involucre of the Winkler hazel is formed much more like that +of the filbert than that of the hazel. In Corylus Americana this +involucre is usually thick, tough and watery, while in the filbert it is +thinner and drier, so that while a person may be deceived in the size of +a hazelnut still in its husk, he can easily tell that of a filbert. This +is also true of the Winkler whose involucre is fairly thick but outlines +the form of the enclosed nut. Another feature about the involucre of the +Winkler which classes it with the filberts rather than the hazels is in +its appearance and texture, which is smooth and velvety while that of +the hazel is hairy and wrinkled. + +The staminate blooms of the Winkler hazel show similarity to those of +both filberts and hazels. Sometimes they appear in formation at the ends +of branches, much as those of the European filberts do, in overlapping +groups of three or four. Again, they may be found at regular intervals +at the axis of leaf stems very much as in the case of the American +hazel. The buds on the Winkler hazel are dull red which is also true of +those on the hybrid hazilberts, another indication of hybridity. + +The initial growth of the embryo nut is very slow in the Winkler as it +is in the filbert, as contrasted with the very rapid development of the +native hazel embryo which matures in this latitude about one month ahead +of the Winklers and some filberts. Although Winkler nuts are shaped like +hazels and have the typically thick shells of hazelnuts, their size is +more that of a filbert usually three times as large as a native hazel. + +During the years between 1942 and 1945 many new hybrids between filberts +and hazels were produced. Four wild varieties of hazels, which had +unusual characteristics such as tremendous bearing and large size nuts +and others having very early maturing or very thin shelled nuts were +used as the female parents in making the crosses. Pollen was obtained +from other parts of the U. S. or from filbert bushes which were growing +on the place. Crosses included pollen of the Barcelona, Duchilly, Red +Aveline, White Aveline, Purple Aveline, the Italian Red, Daviana and +several hybrids between other filberts and hazels. By 1945 the number of +these plants were in the neighborhood of 2000 and by 1952 considerable +knowledge had been gained as to the hardiness, blight resistance to the +common hazel blight (known scientifically as cryptosporella anomala), +freedom from the curculio of the hazelnuts (commonly known as the hazel +weevil) and resistance to other insect pests. Also, considerable data +had been accumulated by cataloging over 650 trees each year for five +years; cataloging included varied and detailed studies of their growth, +bearing habits, ability to resist blight, curculio and other insects, +the size of the nut, the thinness of the shell and the flavor of the +kernel. Several books of all this detail were accumulated in trying to +nail down several commercial varieties that would be propagated from +this vast amount of material. Although some bushes produced good nuts at +the rate of as much as two tons to the acre, measured on the basis of +space that they took up in the test orchard, the most prolific kind +seemed to be the ones that had a tendency to revert to the wild hazel +type. The better and thinner-shelled types, more resembling the +filberts, seemed to be shy bearers so that there being a host of new +plants to catalog (more than 1000) which had not indicated their bearing +characteristics, we included these among the possible ideal plants we +were seeking. Although there were several plants that could be +considered commercial in the original group of over 650 it has been +thought that the waiting of a few more years to ascertain whether there +would be something better in the next 1000 plants to bear that would be +worthwhile waiting for and no attempt has been made to propagate the +earlier tested plants. Some of these 650 tested hybrids proved to have +nuts that were classed as Giants being much larger than the filberts +produced by male or pollen parent such as the Barcelona, Duchilly or +Daviana, and several times the size of the nuts of the female parent +which was the wild hazel. + +[Illustration: _Wild Wisconsin Hazel discovered on Hazel Hills Farm near +River Falls. Note size of nuts in husks as compared to woman's hand. +This plant became the female parent in over 1,000 crosses by pollen +furnished from male blooms of Duchilly, Barcelona, Italian Red, White, +Red, and Purple Aveline and many other well known filberts. Photo by C. +Weschcke_] + + + + +Chapter 6 + +PECANS AND THEIR HYBRIDS + + +At the same time, October 1924, that I purchased Beaver hickory trees +from J. F. Jones, I also procured from him three specimens each of three +commercial varieties of pecan trees, the Posey, Indiana and Niblack, as +well as some hiccan trees, i.e., hybrids having pecan and hickory +parents. Only one tree survived, a Niblack pecan, which, after sixteen +years, was only about eighteen inches in height. Its annual growth was +very slight and it was killed back during the winter almost the full +amount of the year's growth. In the 17th year this tree was dead. + +In September 1925, at a convention of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association in St. Louis, Missouri, I became acquainted with a man whose +experience in the nut-growing industry was wide and who knew a great +deal about the types of hickory and pecan trees in Iowa. He was S. W. +Snyder of Center Point, Iowa. (He later became president of the +Association.) In one of his letters to me the following summer, Mr. +Snyder mentioned that there were wild pecan trees growing near Des +Moines and Burlington. I decided I wanted to know more about them and at +my request, he collected ten pounds of the nuts for me. I found they +were the long type of pecan, small, but surprisingly thin-shelled and +having a kernel of very high quality. + +I first planted these nuts in an open garden in St. Paul, but after a +year I moved them to my farm, where I set them out in nursery rows in an +open field. The soil there was a poor grade of clay, not really suited +to nut trees, but even so, most of the ones still remaining there have +made reasonably good growth. I used a commercial fertilizing compound +around about half of these seedlings which greatly increased their rate +of growth, although they became less hardy than the unfertilized ones. +After five years, I transplanted a number of them to better soil, in +orchard formation. Although I have only about fifty of the original +three hundred seedlings, having lost the others mainly during droughts, +these remaining ones have done very well. Some of these trees have been +bearing small crops of nuts during the years 1947 to date. The most +mature nuts of these were planted and to date I have 17 second +generation pure pecan trees to testify as to the ability of the northern +pecan to become acclimated. + +I gave several of the original seedlings to friends who planted them in +their gardens, where rich soil has stimulated them to grow at twice the +rate of those on my farm. There were four individual pecan trees growing +in or near St. Paul from my first planting, the largest being about 25 +feet high with a caliber of five inches a foot above ground. Although +this tree did not bear nuts I have used it as a source of scionwood for +several years. These graftings, made on bitternut hickory stock, have +been so successful that I am continuing their propagation at my nursery, +having named this variety the Hope pecan, for Joseph N. Hope, the man +who owns the parent tree and who takes such an interest in it. + +[Illustration: _Shows the use of a zinc metal tag fastened by 16 or 18 +gauge copper wire to branch of tree._] + +By the year 1950 the tree had such a straggly appearance, although still +healthy and growing but being too shaded by large trees on the +boulevard, that Mr. Hope caused it to be cut down. The variety is still +growing at my farm, grafted on bitternut stocks and although blossoming +it has never produced a nut up to this time. + +Another tree given to Joseph Posch of the city of St. Paul, Minnesota, +had made even better growth and was luxuriantly healthy and in bloom +when it was cut down by the owner because the branches overhung the +fence line into a neighbor's yard. This was done in about 1950. + +Another tree given to Mrs. Wm. Eldridge of St. Paul still flourishes and +is quite large (in 1952 at breast height, 6 inches in diameter) but +being in a dense shade, it has not borne any nuts. + +The fourth tree, given to John E. Straus, the famous skate maker, +presumably exists at his lake residence north of St. Paul. I have not +seen it in the last seven or eight years. + +Although they are not as hardy as bitternut stocks, I have found the +wild Iowa pecan seedlings satisfactory for grafting after five years' +growth. I use them as an understock for grafting the Posey, Indiana and +Major varieties of northern pecan and find them preferable to northern +bitternut stocks with which the pecans are not compatible for long, as a +rule, such a union resulting in a stunted tree which is easily +winter-killed. Although the Posey continued to live for several years +our severe winters finally put an end to all these fine pecans. The root +system of the seedling understock continued to live, however. + +I chanced to discover an interesting thing in the fall of 1941 which +suggests something new in pecan propagation. There were two small pecans +growing in the same rows as the large ones planted fifteen years +previously. When I noticed them, I thought they were some of this same +planting and that they had been injured or frozen back to such an extent +that they were mere sprouts again, for this has happened. I decided to +move them and asked one of the men on the farm to dig them up. When he +had dug the first, I was surprised to find that this was a sprout from +the main tap root of a large pecan tree which had been taken out and +transplanted. The same was true of the second one, except that in this +case we found three tap roots, the two outside ones both having shoots +which were showing above the ground. Another remarkable circumstance +about this was that these tap roots had been cut off twenty inches below +the surface of the ground and the sprouts had to come all that distance +to start new trees. All of this suggests the possibility of pecan +propagation by root cuttings. These two pecans, at least, show a natural +tendency to do this and I have marked them for further experimentation +along such lines. + +On the advice of the late Harry Weber of Cincinnati, Ohio, an eminent +nut culturist, who, after visiting my nursery in 1938, became very +anxious to try out some of the Indiana varieties of pecans in our +northern climate, I wrote to J. Ford Wilkinson, a noted propagator of +nut trees at Rockport, Indiana, suggesting that he make some +experimental graftings at my farm. Both Mr. Wilkinson and Mr. Weber +gathered scionwood from all the black walnut, pecan, hiccan and hickory +trees at their disposal, for this trial. There was enough of it to keep +three of us busy for a week grafting it on large trees. Our equipment +was carried on a two-wheeled trailer attached to a Diesel-powered +tractor, and we were saved the trouble of having to carry personally, +scions, packing material, wax pots, knives, pruning shears, tying +material, canvas and ladders into the woods. Mr. Wilkinson remarked, on +starting out, that in the interests of experimental grafting, he had +travelled on foot, on horseback, by mule team and in rowboats, but that +this was his first experience with a tractor. + +When he saw the type of grafting with which I had been getting good +results, Mr. Wilkinson was astounded. He declared that using a side-slot +graft in the South resulted in 100% failure, while I had more than 50% +success with it. He was willing to discard his type of grafting for +mine, which was adequate for the work we were doing, but I wanted to +check his grafting performance and urged him to continue with his own +(an adaptation of the bark-slot graft to the end of a cut-off stub). We +both used paper sacks to shade our grafts. Although results proved that +my methods averaged a slightly higher percentage of successful graftings +in this latitude and for the type of work we were doing, his would +nonetheless be superior in working over trees larger than four inches in +diameter and having no lateral branches up to eight feet above ground, +at which height it is most convenient to cut off a large hickory +preparatory to working on it. + +In the late fall of that year, we cut scionwood of the season's growth +and inverted large burlap bags stuffed with leaves over the grafts, the +bags braced on the inside by laths to prevent their collapsing on the +grafts. So we have perpetuated the following varieties: + + Hickories: Cedar Rapids, Taylor, Barnes, Fairbanks. + + Hiccans: McAlester, Bixby, Des Moines, Rockville, Burlington, Green + Bay. + +The Major and Posey pure pecans being incompatible on bitternut hickory +roots were grafted on pecan stocks, but they proved to be tender to our +winters and the varieties were finally lost. + +[Illustration: _Largest planted pecan in World having a record. About 17 +ft. circumference breast height, 125 ft. spread and 125 ft. height. Very +small worthless pecans. Easton, Maryland. Photo by Reed 1927_] + +Other experiments I have made with pecans include an attempt to grow +Southern pecans from seed, but they seem to be no more hardy than an +orange tree would be. It is certain that they are not at all suited to +the climate of the 45th parallel. In 1938, I received from Dr. W. C. +Deming of Connecticut, some very good nuts from a large pecan tree at +Hartford, Connecticut. Of the twelve pecans I planted, only six +sprouted, and of these, only one has survived up to this date and is now +a small weak tree. Apparently, the seedlings of this Hartford pecan are +not as hardy as those from Iowa. + +[Illustration: _Iowa seedling Pecans. Tree planted in 1926 as seed. +First crop October 29, 1953. 7/8 of actual size. Nuts were fully +matured. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +Of the hiccans, hybrids between hickory and pecan, there are several +varieties, as I mentioned before. Of these, the McAlester is the most +outstanding, its nuts measuring over three inches in circumference and +about three inches long. Horticulturists believe that this hybrid is the +result of a cross between a shell-bark hickory, which produces the +largest nut of any hickory growing in the United States, and a large +pecan. I have experimented a number of times with the McAlester and my +conclusion is that it is not hardy enough to advocate its being grown in +this climate. There are other hiccans hardier than it is, however, such +as the Rockville, Burlington, Green Bay and Des Moines, and it is +certain that the North is assured of hardy pecans and a few hardy +hybrids, which, although they do not bear the choicest pecan nuts, make +interesting and beautiful lawn trees. Indeed, as an ornamental tree, the +pecan is superior to the native hickory in two definite ways: by its +exceedingly long life, which may often reach over 150 years as +contrasted with the average hickory span of 100 years, and by its +greater size. One pecan tree I saw growing in Easton, Maryland, in +1927, for example, was then seventeen feet in circumference at +breast-height, one hundred twenty-five feet in height and having a +spread of one hundred fifty feet. The wood of the pecan is similar to +that of the hickory in both toughness and specific gravity, although for +practical purposes, such as being used for tool handles, the shagbark +hickory is enough harder and tougher to make it the superior of the two. + +I was pleasantly surprised on October 30, 1953 when a pecan seedling of +the Iowa origin, which had not yet borne any nuts, showed a small crop. +These nuts were fully matured and were of sufficient size so that they +could be considered a valuable new variety of pecan nut for the North. A +plate showing a few of these pecans illustrates, by means of a ruler, +the actual size of these pecans, and the fact that they matured so well +by October 30 indicates that in many seasons they may be relied upon to +mature their crop. No other data has been acquired on this variety and +we can only be thankful that we can expect it to do a little better in +size as successive crops appear, which is the usual way of nut trees. +Also, by fertilizing this tree we can expect bigger nuts, as is +generally the case. The shell of this pecan is so thin that it can be +easily cracked with the teeth, which I have done repeatedly, and +although small is thinner-shelled than any standard pecan. + + + + +Chapter 7 + +HICKORY THE KING + + +The acknowledged autocrat of all the native nuts is the hickory. Perhaps +not all the experts admit this leadership but it is certainly the +opinion held by most people. Of course, when I speak of the hickory nut +in this high regard, I refer to the shagbark hickory which, as a wild +tree, is native as far north as the 43rd parallel in Minnesota and +Wisconsin, and somewhat farther in the eastern states. + +Wild hickory nuts have been commercialized only to a slight extent. Its +crops are almost entirely consumed in the locality in which they are +grown by those people who find great pleasure in spending fine autumn +days gathering them. The obvious reason why hickory nuts have not been +made a product of commerce lies in the nut itself, which is usually very +small and which has a shell so strong and thick that the kernel can be +taken out only in small pieces. The toughness of the shell makes +cracking difficult, too, and since only rarely is one found that can be +broken by a hand cracker, it is necessary to use the flatiron-and-hammer +method. It is quite possible, though, that some day the hickory will +rival or exceed its near relative, the wild pecan, in commercial favor. +The wild pecans which formerly came on the market at Christmastime in +mixtures of nuts were just as difficult to extract from their shells as +the wild shagbark hickory nuts are now. By means of selection and +cultivation, the pecan was changed from a small, hard-to-crack nut to +that of a large thin-shelled nut whose kernel was extractable in whole +halves. Among many thousands of wild pecan trees were a few which bore +exceptionally fine nuts, nuts similar to those now found at every +grocery store and called "papershell" pecans. These unusual nuts were +propagated by grafting twigs from their parent trees on ordinary wild +pecan trees whose own nuts were of less value. These grafted trees were +set out in orchards where they produce the millions of pounds of +high-grade pecans now on the market. + +The question which naturally occurs is, "Why hasn't this been done with +hickory nuts?" Hundreds of attempts have been made to do so, by the +greatest nut propagators in the United States. They have been successful +in grafting outstanding varieties of hickory to wild root stocks but the +time involved has prevented any practical or commercial success, since +most grafted hickories require a period of growth from ten to twenty +years before bearing any nuts. This length of time contrasts very +unfavorably with that required by grafted pecans which produce nuts on +quite young trees, frequently within three to five years after grafting. +This factor of slow growth has set the pecan far ahead of the tasty +shagbark hickory. Experimenters have long thought to reduce the time +required by the hickory to reach maturity by grafting it to fast-growing +hickory roots such as the bitternut or the closely related pecan. Both +of these grow rapidly and the bitternut has the additional advantage of +growing farther north and of being transplanted more easily. It has +always been thought that when a good variety of shagbark hickory had +been successfully grafted to bitternut root stocks, orchards of hickory +trees would soon appear. This takes me to my discovery of the variety +now known as the Weschcke hickory, which I have found fulfills the +necessary conditions. + +[Illustration: _Shows exceptionally thin shell of Weschcke hickory +variety. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn_] + +One fall day in 1926, when I was at the home of a neighboring farmer, he +offered me some mixed hickory nuts he had received from an uncle in +Iowa. As he knew of my interest in nuts, he wanted my opinion of them. I +looked them over and explained that they were no better than little +nutmegs, having very hard shells and a small proportion of inaccessible +meat. To demonstrate this, I cracked some between hammer and flatiron. +My demonstration was conclusive until I hit one nut which almost melted +under the force I was applying. The shape of this nut was enough +different from the others to enable me to pick out a handful like it +from the mixture. I was amazed to see how very thin-shelled and full of +meat they were. Upon my request, this neighbor wrote to his uncle, John +Bailey, of Fayette, Iowa, asking if he knew from which tree such fine +nuts had come. Unfortunately he did not, because the nuts had been +gathered from quite a large area. After corresponding with Mr. Bailey +myself, I decided that I would go there and help him locate the tree, +although it was nearly Christmas and heavy snowfalls which already +covered the ground would make our search more difficult. + +[Illustration: _Carl Weschcke, Jr., hand holding Weschcke hickory in +hull. 9/15/42 Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +On my arrival in Fayette, I called on Mr. Bailey, who was glad to help +me hunt out the tree in which I had so much interest. We called A. C. +Fobes, the owner of the farm from which the nuts were believed to have +come, and arranged to go out there with him by bob sleigh. A rough ride +of six or seven miles brought us to the farm and we began our quest. +Once there, Mr. Bailey had a more definite idea of where to look for the +tree from which these particular nuts came than he had had before and we +had not been at our task for more than an hour before it was located. +There were still quite a few nuts on the ground beneath it, which +identified it accurately. It was a large shagbark whose first living +branch was fully sixteen feet off the ground and, since we had no ladder +with us, I had to shin up the tree to cut off some of the smaller +branches. This shagbark, true to its name, had rough bark which tore not +only my clothes but some of the skin on my legs as well and whereas the +climbing up was difficult, the coming down was equally so. Having +contracted verbally with Mr. Fobes to buy the tree, I packed the +branches I had cut in cardboard boxes with straw packing and carefully +brought them home to St. Paul. + +I wrote at once to my friend, J. F. Jones, of my expedition, telling him +of my plans to propagate this hickory. I also sent him some of the nuts +from the parent tree and samples of extra-good nuts from other trees +growing near it so that he could give me his opinion of them. Mr. Jones +responded by advising me about the kind of a contract to make with Mr. +Fobes in regard to both the purchasing and propagation of the original +hickory tree and he urged the latter enthusiastically. Of the Weschcke +hickory nuts themselves, he wrote: "This is practically identical with +the Glover. The Glover is usually a little larger but this varies in all +nuts from year to year. This is a fine nut and if it comes from Iowa, it +ought to be propagated. I suggest you keep the stock of it and propagate +the tree for northern planting, that is for Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, +etc., where most nuts grown here would not mature." A few years ago, I +saw the Glover hickory nut for the first time and I also thought it much +the same as the Weschcke in shape, as is also the Brill. + +Because I did not know how to preserve the scions I had cut, they dried +out during the winter to such an extent that they were worthless for +spring grafting. This meant losing a whole season. The next fall I +obtained more scionwood from Mr. Fobes and having kept it in good +condition during the winter by storing it in a Harrington graft box +shown by illustration, I was able to graft it in the spring. However, +these grafts did not take hold well, only two or three branches +resulting from all of it and these did not bear nor even grow as they +should have. I was disappointed and discouraged, writing to Mr. Fobes +that I did not believe the tree could be propagated. + +[Illustration: _This drawing illustrates how to build a Harrington graft +storage box_] + +In the fall of 1932, Mr. Fobes sent me a large box of scions and +branches, explaining that he had sold his farm and, as the tree might be +cut down, this was my last opportunity to propagate it. Without much +enthusiasm, I grafted the material he had sent me on about a dozen +trees, some of them very large hickories and I was most agreeably +surprised to find the grafting successful and more than one branch +bearing nutlets. These nuts dropped off during the summer until only one +remained to mature, which it did in the latter part of October. But I +waited too long to pick that nut and some smart squirrel, which had +probably been watching it ripen as diligently as I had, secured it +first. I made a very thorough search of the ground nearby to find the +remains of it, for while I knew I would not get a taste of the +kernel--the squirrel would take care of that--I was interested in +finding out whether it followed the exact shape and thinness of shell of +the first nuts I had examined. I finally did find part of it, enough to +see that it was similar to the nuts from the parent tree. + +The grafts I made in 1932 have been bearing nuts every year since that +time. The Weschcke hickory makes a tremendous growth grafted on +bitternut hickory (Carya Cordiformis). The wood and buds are hardy to a +temperature of 47° below zero Fahrenheit, so that wherever the wild +bitternut hickory grow, this grafted tree will survive to bear its +thin-shelled nuts. The nuts have a fine flavor and the unusual quality +of retaining this flavor without becoming rancid, for three years. The +only fault to find with them is the commercial one of being only medium +in size, so that compared to English walnuts, for example, they become +unimpressive. I have noticed time and again that the average person will +pass over a small, sweet nut to choose a larger one even though the +latter may not have as attractive a flavor. This is noticeably true in +regard to pecans, when the large paper-shell types, which have a rather +dry, sweet kernel, are almost invariably preferred to the smaller ones +of finer flavor, which are plump and have slightly thicker shells. + +Previous to finding the Weschcke hickory, I experimented with several +varieties of hickory hybrids. In March 1924, I purchased twelve Beaver +and twelve Fairbanks hybrid hickories from J. F. Jones. I planted these +trees in April of that year but of the lot, only two Beaver trees lived +to bear nuts. One of these is still growing on my farm, in thin, clay +soil underlaid with limestone, and it bears nuts annually. It is only a +fair-sized tree but I think its slow growth has protected it from the +usual amount of winter damage. I also ordered from Mr. Jones, in July +1924, 12 Marquardt hiccans, 12 Laney, 12 Siers, 34 Beaver and 30 +Fairbanks. The last four are hybrids between species of hickories. Out +of the whole order, amounting to one hundred trees, none remains alive +now. + +The Marquardt hiccan mentioned above was the subject of dispute among +nut culturists for a time but it has been definitely agreed now, that +the Marquardt was never actually propagated, the tree having been lost +or cut down before scions were taken from it. Substitutes were taken +from the Burlington, a hybrid whose nut is similar to the Marquardt and +whose foliage and other attributes are thought to be like it. The name +of Marquardt persisted for several years, however, and it has been +entirely discarded only recently. The Burlington is now known to be the +representative of that part of Iowa. However, I grafted some of the tops +of the Marquardt trees from Jones to bitternut trees at the time that I +transplanted them; several of the grafts made successful growth and +resulted in several trees growing deep in the woods. After 28 years +these grafts are still alive and certainly have established their right +to be called compatible with bitternut hickory stocks. Close examination +of the branches, leaves and buds, particularly the leaf-scars, indicate +that this hiccan is enough different and more hardy than the Burlington, +which also grows well on the bitternut, to discredit the story that the +Marquardt is lost. It will not be determined, however, that this is the +genuine Marquardt until it has fruited. + +Altogether I have grafted about 70 varieties of hickory and its hybrids +on bitternut stocks in my attempts to increase the number of varieties +of cultured hickory trees in the North. Most of those I worked with were +compatible with the bitternut stock, but a few, perhaps a dozen, have +indicated that they would rather not live on the bitternut and have +died, either from incompatibility or winter-killing. Yet as a root +system, the bitternut is the hardiest and easiest to transplant of any +of the hickories and for these reasons it makes an ideal stock for the +amateur nut-grower to use. I did try, in 1926, to grow some shagbark +hickory stocks, which would be more compatible with those varieties I +could not get started on bitternut. I planted half a bushel of shagbark +hickory nuts from Iowa, but although they sprouted nicely, they were not +sufficiently hardy and were winter-killed so severely that, after twelve +years, the largest was not more than a foot high, nor thicker than a +lead pencil. Some of these, about 50, were transplanted into the orchard +and in other favorable locations. The largest of these, in 1952, is +about 4 inches in diameter, 1-foot off the ground, and about 15 feet +high. I have not grafted any yet and only one has borne any seedling +nuts so far. I am now reconciled to using my native bitternut trees for +most of my stock in spite of some disadvantages. A list of successfully +grafted varieties is appended, and indicates to what extent this stock +is a universal root stock for most of the hickories and their hybrids. A +successful union, however, and long life, does not mean that good +bearing habits will be established, since most of these trees grow in +the woods in dense shade and poor surroundings. Some varieties have not +borne many nuts, and some not at all. The following scions were cut this +fall (in 1952) from successfully grafted trees deep in the woods: + + Bixby hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Burlington hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Green Bay hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Des Moines hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Burton hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1939 + McAlester hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Anthony Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Barnes Shagbark by mocker nut grafted in 1938 + Brill Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Brooks Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Camp No. 2 Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 (?) + Deveaux Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Fox Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Glover Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Gobble Shagbark hickory grafted in 1940 + Hand Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Harman Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Leonard Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Lingenfelter Shagbark hickory grafted in 1942 + Manahan Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Milford Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Murdock Shagbark hickory grafted in 1941 + Netking Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Platman Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Pleas Pecan by bitternut grafted in 1938 + Schinnerling Shagbark hickory grafted in 1942 + Stanley Shellbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Swaim Shagbark hickory grafted in 1941 + Taylor Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Triplett Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Woods grafted in 1939 + +The varieties below are growing in orchard or random locations out of +the woods: + + Beaver Hybrid hickory grafted in 1924 + Cedar Rapids Shagbark hickory grafted in 1926 + Clark Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Fairbanks hybrid Shagbark by bitternut grafted in 1924 + Herman Last Hybrid grafted in 1948 + Hope pecan Pure pecan grafted to bitternut grafted in 1938 + Kirtland Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Laney Pecan by shellbark grafted in 1936 + Marquardt Hiccan grafted in 1924 + Norton Hiccan grafted in 1938 + River hickory Undetermined hybrid grafted in 1948 + Rockville hiccan Pecan by shellbark grafted in 1926 + Siers Mockernut by bitternut grafted in 1936 + Stratford Shagbark by bitternut grafted in 1938 + Weiker hybrid Shagbark by shellbark grafted in 1936 + +In addition to the above, several large and small trees of the Weschcke +variety are located in orchard and random locations, some having been +grafted in 1926 and later. Also, there is a sprinkling of Bridgewater +variety, grafted in 1936 and later, all bearing each year. + +For many years, I observed hickories and walnuts in bloom and +hand-pollinated them, yet I overlooked many things I should have +discovered earlier in study. It was only after ten years of observing +the Weschcke hickory, for example, that I realized the importance of +proper pollinization of it. In years when it produced only a few nuts, I +had blamed seasonal factors, rains and soil conditions, but I now +realize that it was due to lack of the right pollen. In the spring of +1941, I decided to make special pollen combinations with all the +hickories then in bloom. The information I acquired in return was great +reward for the work I did. + +I selected branches of the Weschcke hickory trees bearing a profuse +amount of pistillate (female) blossoms. I hand-pollinated these with a +special apparatus (the hand-pollen gun described later in this book), +using a magnifying glass so that both pollen and blossom could be +plainly seen. In doing this, I found it most practical to wear what +jewelers call a "double loupe," a light, fiber head-gear carrying lenses +well-suited to such work. I treated the marked branches with pollen +gathered from the Bridgewater, the Kirtland and the Beaver, all very +good pollen-bearers. I also pollinated branches of the Cedar Rapids +variety, which bears little pollen in this locality, with Kirtland +pollen. However, the pollinization of the Cedar Rapids, which involved +treating from 35 to 50 pistillate blossoms, resulted in only two mature +nuts. + +The Weschcke hickory has an abortive staminate bloom so that it must +depend on some other variety for pollen. At the Northern Nut Growers' +Convention, held at Hershey, Pa. in 1941, (where I had the honor of +being elected president of that venerable organization and succeeded +myself thereafter for the next five years) I mentioned this abortive +staminate bloom of my hickory to my friend, Dr. J. W. McKay, Associate +Cytologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at that time. He was +very interested in this phenomenon and wanted specimens of the abortive +catkins for examination. These were sent to him in the spring of 1942. I +quote from Dr. McKay's report on his primary findings: + + "I have just made a preliminary examination of the catkins from + your hickory tree received last May, and it seems that the + individual staminate flower of the catkin produces 4-5 undersized + stamens, the anthers of which are devoid of either pollen or + pollen-mother-cells. So far I have made only temporary preparations + of the crushed anthers in stain but careful study of these mounts + discloses no sign of pollen grains or mother cells, so we may + tentatively conclude that no pollen is produced by the tree; in + other words it is male-sterile. The stage at which degeneration of + the pollen-forming tissue occurs in the anthers and its nature will + have to be determined by means of a longer and more elaborate + technique and I will let you know what we find as soon as the + results are available. It may be that pollen-mother-cells are not + even formed in the anthers; the small size of these structures and + their more or less shriveled appearance lead me to believe that + this may be the case. + + "So far as I know there is no instance among nut species comparable + to that outlined above. We have two or three cases of male + sterility in chestnut but in these no stamens are formed in the + individual staminate flower. In one of the hybrid walnuts that I + reported on at the Hershey convention, imperfect pollen grains are + formed in the anthers but the latter structures never open, so no + pollen is shed. + + "Bear in mind that the above report is preliminary and other + angles may turn up when permanent mounts are available for study." + +On December 14, 1943 I received a second, and final report from Dr. +McKay from which I quote, as follows: + + "Dear Mr. Weschcke: + + The enclosed pencil sketches will give you an idea of the results + obtained from sectioning four lots of material from the two samples + of catkins that you sent, two lots from each sample. Since the + sample collected May 25 at the time of catkin fall was old enough + to contain mature pollen and showed only anthers of the two types + described herewith I think we may safely conclude that the tree is + male sterile because of the failure of the mother cells to + function. It is odd that in some anthers the pollen-mother-cells + develop (type 2) while in others they do not (type 1). For this we + have no explanation; nor can we explain why the tree is male + sterile. I am afraid these phenomena will remain a matter of + conjecture for some time to come. Since sterilities of this and + other sorts in most other plants are largely genetic, that is, + controlled by one or more genes that are inherited in Mendelian + fashion, it is likely that such is the case here. You and I will + not live long enough, however, to grow the necessary number of + generations of trees to clear up these matters. + + "In the course of routine preparation of other material I plan to + run up other lots from your samples, and I will let you know if + anything different turns up. I believe we may safely conclude, + however, that the results reported herewith are representative." + +In further explanation, Dr. McKay submitted the drawings shown on page +57, and says: + + "Four lots of material were sectioned, two from the collection of + May 6 and two from that of May 25. Of these, two gave anthers of + type one, and two of type two. More material will have to be + sectioned before we know which type is predominant. + + "The anthers of type one are greatly shriveled, and a band of + deeply-staining collapsed cells apparently represents the remains + of archesporial or pollen-forming tissue. + + "The anthers of type two are normal in appearance, but the + pollen-mother-cells degenerate before pollen grains are formed. A + comparison of the degenerate pollen-mother-cells of this plant with + normal pollen-mother-cells is given below:" + +[Illustration: Sections of anthers of the Weschcke Hickory Carya ovata + +_Illustrations by Dr. McKay showing pollen degeneration in Weschcke +hickory._] + +This substantiates the conclusion that I had arrived at previous to this +report, that this hickory is able to mature its nuts early in the fall +by reason of not having to waste its energy in the production of pollen. +(There is only one other variety of hickory which I have grafted on +bitternut which has proved unable to mature pollen and it is the Creager +from Iowa.) I was immensely pleased to find that it responded very well +to Bridgewater pollen, a high percentage of the blooms treated with it +developing mature nuts. The results with the Kirtland pollen were almost +equally good, the poorest showing coming from those branches treated +with Beaver pollen on which only three mature nuts developed. (The +Beaver is presumed to be a hybrid between bitternut and shagbark +hickories.) Sixty-two nuts from these pollinizations were planted in the +fall of 1941 in rodent-proof seed beds. In the spring, counting +germination, I found 100% of these nuts had sprouted and grown into +small trees during the season. + +After finding the most suitable pollen for the Weschcke hickory, I +realized the necessity for including more than one variety of hickory in +a planting, just as there should be more than one variety of apple or +plum tree in an orchard. I think that it would always be well to have +three or more varieties of known compatibility within reasonable +distances, probably not more than 100 feet apart, nor less than 40 to 50 +feet for large hickories. + +Of the many varieties of hickory and hickory hybrids I have tested, +about twenty have, by now, proved to be sufficiently hardy to recommend +for this latitude. These include: + + *Beaver hybrid hickory + *Fairbanks hybrid hickory + *Laney hybrid hickory + Burlington hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory + Rockville hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory + Hope pecan pure pecan grafted on to bitternut roots + Hand pure shagbark + *Bridgewater pure shagbark + Barnes hybrid hickory + *Cedar Rapids pure shagbark + *Weschcke pure shagbark + *Deveaux pure shagbark + *Brill pure shagbark + *Glover pure shagbark + *Kirtland pure shagbark + *Siers thought to be a hybrid between + the mocker nut and bitternut + *Stratford hybrid (bitternut by shagbark) + *Creager + + *Have produced mature nuts + +There are three or four others that are hardy but all means of +identification having been lost, it will be necessary to wait until they +come into bearing before their varieties will be known. As experiments +continue, more varieties of worthy, hardy hickories and hiccans will be +found which will justify completely the opinion of those of us who +always hail as king of all our native nuts, the hickory. + +[Illustration: _1930--Weschcke Hickory as borne by parent tree at +Fayette, Iowa._ + +_1939--After several years of bearing grafted on Northern Bitternut +hickory at River Falls, Wis._ + +_1940--Still further change in shape and size from graft on Bitternut._ + +_1941--Change and increase in size now is so pronounced as to almost +extinguish its original identity._] + +[Illustration: _Weschcke hickory nut natural size shows free splitting +hull. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + + + + +Chapter 8 + +BUTTERNUT + + +Like the hickory tree, the butternut shares in the childhood +reminiscences of those who have lived on farms or in the country where +butternuts are a treat to look forward to each fall. The nuts, which +mature early, have a rich, tender kernel of mild flavor. Only the +disadvantage of their heavy, corrugated shells prevents them from +holding the highest place in popularity, although a good variety cracks +easily into whole half-kernels. + +Butternuts grow over an extended range which makes them the most +northern of all our native wild nut trees, although their nuts do not +mature as far north as hazelnuts do. Butternut trees blossom so early +that in northern latitudes the blossoms are frequently killed in late +spring frosts. Only when the trees are growing near the summit of a +steep hillside will they be likely to escape such frosts and bear crops +regularly. I have found that really heavy crops appear in cycles in +natural groves of butternut trees. My observation of them over a period +of thirty-two years in their natural habitat in west-central Wisconsin +has led me to conclude that one may expect butternut trees to bear, on +an average, an enormous crop of nuts once in five years, a fairly large +crop once in three years, with little or no crop the remaining years. + +As a seedling tree of two or three years, the butternut is +indistinguishable from the black walnut except to a very discerning and +practiced eye, especially in the autumn after its leaves have fallen. As +the trees grow older, the difference in their bark becomes more +apparent, that of the butternut remaining smooth for many years, as +contrasted to the bark on black walnut trees which begins to roughen on +the main trunk early in its life. Bark on a butternut may still be +smooth when the tree is ten years old. Forest seedlings of butternut, +when one or two years old, are easily transplanted if the soil is +congenial to their growth. Although the tree will do well on many types +of soil, it prefers one having a limestone base, just as the English +walnut does. + +A butternut seedling usually requires several more years of growth than +a black walnut does before it comes into bearing, although this varies +with climate and soil. It is impossible to be exact, but I think I may +safely say that it requires at least ten years of growing before a +seedling butternut tree will bear any nuts. Of course, exceptions will +occasionally occur. + +As a butternut tree matures, it spreads out much like an apple or +chestnut tree. Of course, it must have enough room to do so, an +important factor in raising any nut tree. Enough room and sunlight +hasten bearing-age and insure larger crops of finer nuts. Grafting +valuable varieties of butternut on black walnut stock will also hasten +bearing. I have had such grafts produce nuts the same year the grafting +was done and these trees continued to grow rapidly and produce annually. +However, they were not easy to graft, the stubborn reluctance of the +butternut top to accept transplantation to a foreign stock being well +known. This factor will probably always cause grafted butternut trees to +be higher in price than black walnut or hickory. The reverse graft, +i.e., black walnut on butternut should never be practiced for although +successful, the black walnut overgrows the stock and results in an +unproductive tree. Specimens 25 or more years old prove this to be a +fact. + +Butternut trees are good feeders. They respond well to cultivation and +lend themselves to being grafted upon, although, from my own experience, +I question their usefulness as a root stock. I have found that when I +grafted black walnuts, English walnuts or heartnuts on butternut stock, +the top or grafted part of the tree became barren except for an +occasional handful of nuts, even on very large trees. Since this has +occurred throughout the many years of my nut culture work, I think it +should be given serious consideration before butternut is used as a root +stock for other species of nut trees. + +[Illustration: _Weschcke Butternut. Smooth shallow convolutions of shell +allow kernels to drop out freely. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn._] + +I had the good luck to discover an easy-cracking variety of butternut in +River Falls, Wisconsin, in 1934, which I have propagated commercially +and which carries my name. A medium-sized nut, it has the requisite +properties for giving it a varietal name, for it cracks mostly along the +sutural lines and its internal structure is so shallow that the kernel +will fall out if a half-shell is turned upside down. I received one of +those surprises which sometimes occur when a tree is asexually +propagated when I grafted scions from this butternut on black walnut +stock. The resulting nuts were larger than those on the parent tree and +their hulls peeled off with almost no effort. Whether these features +continue after the trees become older is something I shall observe with +interest. + +[Illustration: _Self hulling Butternut. Weschcke variety. Drawing by Wm. +Kuehn._] + +The nearly self-hulling quality of these nuts makes them very clean to +handle. The absence of hulls in cracking butternuts not only does away +with the messiness usually involved, but also it allows more accurate +cracking and more sanitary handling of the kernels. In 1949 I noticed a +new type of butternut growing near the farm residence. This butternut +was fully twice as large as the Weschcke and had eight prominent ridges. +The nut proved to be even better than the older variety and we intend to +test it further by grafting it on butternuts and black walnut stocks. +Although hand-operated nutcrackers have been devised to crack these and +other wild nuts, they are not as fast as a hammer. If one protects the +hand by wearing a glove and stands the butternut on a solid iron base, +hitting the pointed end with a hammer, it is quite possible to +accumulate a pint of clean nut meats in half an hour. + +The butternut tree is one whose lumber may be put to many uses. It is +light but very tough and stringy and when planed and sanded, it absorbs +varnish and finishes very well. Although not as dark in natural color as +black walnut, butternut resembles it in grain. When butternut has been +stained to represent black walnut, it is only by their weight that they +can be distinguished. In late years, natural butternut has become +popular as an interior finish and for furniture, being sold as "blonde +walnut," "French walnut," or "white walnut," in my opinion very improper +names. I see no reason for calling it by other than its own. Depletion +of forests of butternut trees brings its lumber value up in price nearly +to that of fine maple or birch, approaching that of black walnut in some +places. + +I have run several thousand feet of butternut lumber from my farmland +through my own sawmill and used it for a variety of purposes. It is +probably the strongest wood for its weight except spruce. I have used it +successfully to make propellers which operate electric generators for +deriving power from the wind. Because butternut is so light and, +properly varnished, resists weathering and decay to so great an extent, +I have found it the best material I have ever tried for such +construction. In building a small electric car for traveling around the +orchards, I used butternut rather than oak or metal, which saved at +least 100 pounds of weight, an important matter since the source of the +car's power is automobile storage batteries. + +Butternut is very durable in contact with the ground and is used for +fence posts on farms where it is plentiful. Bird houses built of this +wood will last indefinitely, even a lifetime if they are protected with +paint or varnish. Butternut is like red cedar in this respect, although +much stronger. Stories have been told of black walnut logs which, after +lying unused for fifty years, have been sawed into lumber and found to +be still in excellent condition. It is quite likely that the same could +be said of butternut for these woods are very much alike in the degree +of their durability and resistance to weather. + +An incidental value butternut trees have is their ability to bleed +freely in the spring if the outer bark is cut. Therefore, they can be +tapped like maple trees and their sap boiled down to make a sweet syrup. +It does not have the sugar content that the Stabler black walnut has, +however. Another possible use is suggested by the shells of butternuts +which, even when buried in the ground, show great resistance to decay. I +have found them to be still intact and possessing some strength after +being covered by earth for fifteen years. This indicates that they might +be used with a binder in a composition material. Their extreme hardness +also offers a good wearing surface. + +[Illustration: _Electrically operated wagon constructed of native +butternut wood known for strength and light weight as well as +durability. Author's sons aboard. Photo by C. Weschcke 1941._] + +Not only good things can be said of the butternut tree and it would be +wrong to avoid mentioning the deleterious effect that a butternut tree +may have on other trees planted within the radius of its root system. I +have had several experiences of this kind. One butternut tree on my +farm, having a trunk six inches in diameter, killed every Mugho pine +within the radius of its root system. This amounted to between 50 and +100 pines. Their death could not be attributed to the shade cast by the +butternut as Mugho pines are very tolerant of shade. As the first +branches of the butternut were more than three feet off the ground, the +pines could not have been influenced by the top system of the tree nor +do I believe that it was due to fallen leaves, but rather directly to +the greatly ramified roots. Large evergreens, such as Colorado blue +spruce, native white pine, limber pine and Jeffrey pine are known to +have been similarly influenced. While small butternut trees do not, in +my experience, have this effect, this may be explained by the fact that +the radius of their root systems is much more limited. Most plants, +other than pines, thrive within the influence of butternut roots, +however, and it certainly does not damage pasture grass as some of the +country's best grazing land is among such trees. The damage results from +a chemical known as Juglone which is elaborated by the root system and +when the roots of the butternut cross those of its evergreen neighbor, +this acts as a poison to the evergreen and may kill it. + +[Illustration: _An 8-foot propeller of butternut wood is the prime mover +for wind power generator which in a brisk wind generated 110 volts and +10 amperes at 300 RPM._] + +The butternut is attacked by one serious disease which is in the nature +of a blight (melanconium oblongum), since it is transmitted through +spores. It usually attacks old trees, the branches of the top part +dying, and the bark on the main trunk becoming loose. The disease +progresses slowly and I have seen large trees infected for twelve or +fifteen years, continuing to bear fine crops. It does have a very +weakening effect, though, and eventually saps the life from the tree +long before its natural span of life of about fifty years is over. + + + + +Chapter 9 + +PIONEERING WITH ENGLISH WALNUTS IN WISCONSIN + + +The convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association at Geneva, New +York, in 1936, brought many interesting subjects to the attention of nut +enthusiasts. None, however, commanded as much attention as an exhibit by +Paul C. Crath, of Toronto, of walnuts from the Carpathian Mountains in +Europe. There were more than forty varieties of walnuts represented in +it, in sizes ranging from that of a large filbert to that of a very +large hen's egg, and in shape being globular, ovate or rectangular. The +exhibitor had these identified by varietal numbers until testing and +propagation should suggest appropriate names. In several talks which +Rev. Crath gave during the convention, he described his trips and +findings in the walnut-producing sections of the Polish Carpathians. The +subject remained in prominence during the three days of the convention +and the idea was suggested that the Association sponsor another trip to +Europe to obtain walnuts growing there which Rev. Crath considered even +hardier and finer than the ones he had. The plan was tabled, however, +for only two of us were eager to contribute to the venture. + +On my return home, I thought more about what a splendid opportunity this +would be to procure hardy English walnuts to grow in this part of the +country. I interested my father in the idea, and, with his backing, +corresponded with Rev. Crath. This was not the first or the last time +that my father, Charles Weschcke, had encouraged me and had backed his +good wishes and advice with money. A professional man and a graduate of +pharmacy and chemistry of the University of Wisconsin, he showed an +unusual interest in my horticultural endeavors. The immediate outcome +was Rev. Crath's visit to my nursery at River Falls, to determine +whether material that he might collect could be properly tested there. +To my satisfaction, he found that temperature, soil conditions and stock +material were adequate for such work. + +We contracted with Rev. Crath to reproduce asexually all the varieties +that he could discover and ship to us, agreeing to finance his trip and +to pay him a royalty whenever we sold trees resulting from the plant +material he sent us. We decided that the material which he was to gather +should include not only English walnuts but also the hazels or filberts +native to Poland. The walnuts were to consist of about six hundred +pounds of seeds, representing some forty varieties, several thousand +scions and about five hundred trees. We planned that the filberts should +consist of both trees and nuts, but because of a total failure of this +crop the year that Rev. Crath was there, only trees were available. + +Rev. Crath left Canada in October 1936, and spent all of the following +winter in Poland. While he was there, I began the task of arranging for +the receipt of the walnuts and hazels he was to send, and so began a +wearisome, exasperating experience. First, it was necessary to obtain +permits from the Bureau of Plant Industry in Washington. Because of the +vast quantity of material expected, these permits had to be issued in +the names of five people. Next, I engaged a New York firm of importers, +so that no time would be lost in re-routing the shipment to the proper +authorities for inspection. This firm, in turn, hired brokers who were +responsible for paying all duty, freight and inspection charges. I +certainly thought that we had everything in such readiness that there +would be nothing to delay the shipment when it arrived. How wrong I was! + +Although Rev. Crath had written me that the shipment had been sent on a +certain Polish steamer, I learned of its arrival only from a letter I +received from the importing company, which requested that the original +bill of lading and invoice be sent to them at once, as the shipment had +already been in the harbor for a week but could not be released by the +customs office until they had these documents. I had received the bill +of lading from Rev. Crath but not the invoice, for he had not known that +I would need it. So my valuable, but perishable, shipment remained in +port storage day after day while I frantically sought for some way to +break through the "red tape" holding it there. Cables to Rev. Crath were +undeliverable as he was back in the mountains seeking more material. In +desperation, I wrote to Clarence A. Reed, an old friend, member of the +Northern Nut Growers' Association and in charge of government nut +investigations in the Division of Pomology at Washington. Through his +efforts and under heavy bond pending receipt of the invoice, the walnut +and filbert material was released and sent to Washington, D. C. As there +was too much of it to be inspected through the usual facilities for this +work, it was necessary to employ a firm of seed and plant importers to +do the necessary inspecting and fumigating. At last, terminating my +concern and distress over the condition in which the trees and scions +would be after such great delays and so many repackings, the shipment +arrived in St. Paul. There remained only the requirement of getting +permission from the Bureau of Plant Inspection of the State of Minnesota +to take it to Wisconsin, where, if there was anything left, I intended +to plant it. This permission being readily granted, we managed, by truck +and, finally, by sled, to get it to the nursery about the middle of the +winter. + +The following spring, we planted the nuts and trees and grafted the +scions on black walnut and butternut stocks. The mortality of these +grafts was the greatest I have ever known. Of about four thousand +English walnut grafts, representing some twenty varieties, only one +hundred twenty-five took well enough to produce a good union with the +stock and to grow. Some of them grew too fast and in spite of my +precautions, were blown out; others died from winter injury the first +year. By the following spring, there were only ten varieties which had +withstood the rigor of the climate. Of the five hundred trees, only a +few dozen survived. Fortunately, this was not one of our severe, "test" +winters, or probably none of these plants would have withstood it. + +The walnuts which were planted showed a fairly high degree of hardiness. +Of 12,000 seedling trees, our nursery is testing more than 800 for +varietal classification. These have been set out in test orchard +formation on two locations, both high on the slope of a ravine, one +group on the north side, one on the south. It has been suggested that +from the remaining seedlings, which number thousands, we select 500 to +1000 representative specimens and propagate them on black walnut stocks +in some warmer climate, either in Oregon, Missouri or New York. This +would determine their value as semi-hardy trees worthy of propagation in +such localities. Such an experiment will probably be made eventually. + +The same year, 1937, in which I obtained the Polish nuts, I also bought +one hundred pounds of Austrian walnuts, to serve as a check. Eighty +pounds of these consisted of the common, commercial type of walnut, +while the remainder was of more expensive nuts having cream-colored +shells and recommended by the Austrian seed firm as particularly hardy. +Altogether these nuts included approximately one hundred varieties, +twenty of which were so distinctive that their nuts could be separated +from the others by size and shape. + +About two thousand seedlings grew from this planting, most of which +proved to be too tender for our winter conditions. The seedlings grown +from the light-colored nuts show about the same degree of hardiness as +the Carpathian plants. Many of them have been set out in experimental +orchards to be brought into bearing. + +After the first year, the English walnuts progressed fairly well. Large +trees, which had not been entirely worked over at first, were trimmed so +that nothing remained of the original top, but only the grafted +branches. The winter of 1938-39 was not especially severe and mortality +was low, although it was apparent that all of the varieties were not +equally hardy. Even a few of the scions grafted on butternut stocks were +growing successfully. I had made these grafts realizing that the stock +was not a very satisfactory one, to learn if it could be used to produce +scionwood. As the results were encouraging, I decided it would be +worthwhile to give them good care and gradually to remove all of the +butternut top. + +Each fall, the first two years after I had grafted all these walnuts, I +cut and stored enough scionwood from each variety to maintain it if the +winter should be so severe as to destroy the grafts. Unfortunately, the +grafts had developed so well, even to the actual bearing of nuts by +three varieties, that in 1940 I did not think this precaution was +necessary. Then came our catastrophic Armistice Day blizzard, the most +severe test of hardiness and adaptability ever to occur in the north. +Many of our hardiest trees suffered great injury from it, such trees, +for instance, as Colorado blue spruce, limber pine, arborvitae; cultured +varieties of hickories, hiccans, heartnuts; fruit trees, including +apples, plums and apricots, which bore almost no fruit the next summer. + +Although not one variety of English walnut was entirely killed, all, +except one, suffered to some degree, and it was not until late the +following summer that several varieties began to produce new wood. The +variety which showed the greatest degree of hardiness is "Firstling," +originally known as Letter F. Although the primary buds on the Firstling +were nearly all killed, very few of the small branches were affected and +the union itself suffered no injury. Second in hardiness is Kremenetz, +much of its top being killed, but its union being only slightly +affected. No. 64 was affected in about the same amount as Kremenetz. +Increasing degrees of tenderness and, of course, decreasing degrees of +hardiness, were shown by the many other varieties, some of which may +never recover completely from the shock of that blizzard. The seedling +trees suffered only slight damage so that I expect that they are hardy +enough to produce fruit here. + +I cannot conclude this chapter without mentioning certain observations +I have made regarding hardiness, which, although they require more +specific study, I wish to describe as a suggestion for further +experimentation by either amateur or professional horticulturists. My +theory is that a determination of the hardiness factor of an English +walnut tree can be made according to the color of its bark. I have seen +that a tree having thin bark which remains bright green late into the +fall is very likely to be of a tender variety. Conversely, among these +Carpathian walnuts, I have found that varieties whose bark becomes tan +or brown early in autumn show much more hardiness than those whose bark +remains green. One variety, Wolhynie, whose bark is chocolate brown, is +very resistant to winter injury. Another, whose green bark is heavily +dotted with lenticels, shows itself hardier than those having none or +only a trace of them. In testing almonds, I have found that trees whose +bark turns red early in the fall are definitely more hardy than those +whose bark remains green or tan. In observing apricots, I have learned +that young twigs with red bark are more resistant to cold than those +with brown. Of course, these findings cannot be considered as facts +until further studies have been made. I hope that others will find the +idea of investigating this more-than-possibility as interesting as I do. + +As the years increased, however, the growth of the seedling walnuts +decreased and some having made a nice tree-like form, with a trunk of +approximately an inch in diameter, within a succession of years were +reduced in size through the combination of winter injury and attacks by +the butternut curculio as well as a bacterial blight until by 1952 only +a fraction of the 12,000 seedlings remained, certainly less than 1,000. +All of the originally grafted specimens are dead with the exception of +one variety which has been kept alive by constantly re-grafting it on +black walnut. We have not named this variety as yet, although it has +borne both staminate and pistillate bloom, it has never borne any ripe +nuts. Some of the seedlings, however, still show persistent traits of +hardiness and of insect resistance and we still have hopes that after 15 +years these trees will yet overcome the adversities of this uncongenial +climate for this species. + + + + +Chapter 10 + +OTHER TREES + + +Heartnut + +The heartnut is a sport of the Japanese walnut (Juglans sieboldiana). +Since its nut is heart-shaped, it has the name of "cordiformis" added to +its species name. There are many of these sports, some of which have +been propagated under the varietal names of Faust, Lancaster, +Fodermaier, Wright, Walters, Canoka, Okay and Gellatly. + +I think this is the most ornamental of all nut trees. In shape, it is +similar to an apple tree, spreading out rather than growing tall, but +its long, compound leaves give it a tropical appearance. During the +autumn these leaves do not color any more than do those of the black +walnut. The tree produces long racemes of red blossoms and its staminate +blooms are catkins eight to ten inches long, which, when fully ripened, +swish in the wind and release clouds of yellow pollen. The heartnut tree +holds the interest of its owner closely during that time when the nuts +resulting from the racemes of blossoms are steadily increasing in size. +I have seen as many as sixteen nuts on one stem and doubtless, there +sometimes are more. The owner of such a tree, at least if he is at all +like me, will proudly exhibit it to all comers during the spring and +summer seasons. And then, at harvest time, after the nuts have gradually +changed from green to the dull yellow that indicates their maturity, he +will have the satisfaction of shaking them down for drying and storage. + +The heartnut kernel tastes much like that of the butternut and its +internal structure is almost the same but the outside shell is smooth. +Cultivated varieties usually crack easily and in such a way that the +kernel is released in halves. From all this, it is easy to see that the +heartnut is not only a beautiful tree but is definitely useful. + +In my own work with heartnuts I have found that, although they are to be +classed only as semi-hardy, there are a few varieties which are hardy +enough for northern temperatures. Only testing will determine which ones +can endure severe climates. In the spring of 1921, I planted a Lancaster +heartnut grafted on a black walnut, but the weather was cold that season +and it was killed down to the graft joint, where it threw out a sprout. +This was weak and succulent by fall and the graft was entirely killed +back that winter. I bought twelve more Lancaster heartnuts a year later. +They were interspersed in the orchard among some black walnuts. +Although a few survived the first winter, none ever lived to come into +bearing. From time to time, I also experimented with seedlings sent to +me by Professor James A. Neilson of Vineland, Ontario, who was +interested in having them tested in this latitude. These, too, were +always unsuccessful. + +I had my first success with several unnamed varieties of heartnuts I +purchased in 1933 from J. U. Gellatly of British Columbia. These were +grafted on black walnut stocks of considerable size. To insure their +surviving the first winter, I built wooden shelters which completely +enclosed them, filling these shelters with forest leaves and protecting +them against mice with screen covers. No doubt this was a decided help; +at least all of these heartnuts lived for many years until the invasion +of the butternut curculio and the damage done by the yellow bellied sap +sucker bird caused me the loss of all except one variety, the Gellatly. +This variety I have perpetuated by re-grafting on other black walnut +stocks and by spraying and covering the limbs with screen to prevent the +sap sucker from working on it, still have it in the nursery and at my +home in St. Paul where a young tree on the boulevard bears each year. + +I have found that heartnuts are difficult to propagate, the number of +successful grafts I have made being far below that of black walnuts on +black walnut stocks. The reason for this is not well understood any more +than is the fact, in my experience, that the Stabler walnut will graft +readily and the Ten Eyck persistently refuses to. A good feature that +these grafted trees do have, however, is their early productiveness. I +have seen them set nuts the second year after grafting and this has also +occurred in trees I have sold to others. + +When a nut of J. sieboldiana cordiformis is planted, it does not +reliably reproduce itself in true type, sometimes reverting to that of +the ordinary Japanese walnut, which looks more like a butternut and has +a rather rough shell as distinguished from the smooth shell of the +heartnut. In hulling my heartnut crop for 1940, I noticed many deformed +nuts. + +The season had been a prolific one for nut production of all kinds, and +I knew there had been a mixture of pollen in the air at the time these +nutlets were receptive (a mixture made up largely of pollen from black +walnuts, butternuts, with some English walnuts). Since irregularities in +size and shape indicate hybridity frequently and since heartnuts are +easily hybridized I have assumed that these were pollinized by the +mixture. I have planted these odd-shaped nuts and I expect them to +result in many new crosses of J. sieboldiana cordiformis, some five to +eight years from now. + +[Illustration: _Beautiful tropical looking Japanese Walnut (Juglans +sieboldiana cordiformis). Variety Gellatly, from Westbank, B. C., +Canada. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +To show how nature reacts to much interference I will follow through on +these nearly 100 small trees that resulted from this pollination. They +were transplanted into an orchard on a side hill and well taken care of +for several years, but during that time one after another was killed, +apparently by winter conditions or perhaps the site was too exposed or +the soil may have been uncongenial. Today there remains but three trees, +none of which have borne but all indicate that they are true heartnuts +from the shape of the leaves and color of the bark and general +formation. In order to hasten their bearing, scions have been taken from +these small trees and will be grafted on large black walnut stocks to +bring them into fruitfulness much earlier than if they were left to +their own slow growth. This system of testing out seedlings long before +they have reached a size sufficient to bear on their own roots is +applicable to all of the species of nut trees and is one way that the +plant breeder can hurry up his testing for varieties after making +crosses and obtaining young plants. + +[Illustration: _Natural size Heartnut. Photo 10/26/38 by C. Weschcke. +Gellatly variety._] + + +Beechnut + +The beechnut, Fagus ferruginea, belonging to the oak family, is one of +the giants of the forest, growing to great size and age. Even very old +beech trees have smooth bark and this, in earlier and more rustic days, +was much used for the romantic carving of lovers' names, as scars still +visible on such ancient trees testify. The wood itself is dense and +hard, even more so than hard maple, and is considered good lumber. +Beechnut is one of the few nut trees with a more shallow and ramified +root system as contrasted with that of most, which, as in the oak, +walnut and hickory, is a tap root system. This fact suggests that in +those localities where beeches grow wild, grafts made on such trees, and +transplanted, would survive and grow well. + +Perhaps one of the reasons why very little propagation is done with +beeches is that no outstanding variety has ever been discovered. +Although the nut shell is thin and the meat sweet and oily, the kernel +is so small that one must crack dozens of them to get a satisfying +sample of their flavor. This, of course, prevents their having any +commercial value as a nut. There is also the fact that the beechnut is +the slowest growing of all the common nut trees, requiring from twenty +to thirty years to come into bearing as a seedling. Of course this could +be shortened, just as it is in propagating hickories and pecans, by +making grafts on root systems which are ten or more years old, as +explained in the chapter on heartnuts. However, I know of no nursery in +which beechnuts are propagated in this way. + +My attempts to grow beechnut trees in Wisconsin have met with little +success. About the year 1922, I obtained 150 trees from the Sturgeon Bay +Nurseries. I planted these on level ground which had clay near the +surface with limestone about a foot under it. Although all of these +trees seemed to start satisfactorily, some even growing about a foot, +within two or three years they had all died. I decided they were not +hardy but I now realize that the character of the soil was responsible +for their gradual death; they should be planted in a limestone or +calcareous soil, preferably of the fine sandy type, the main requisite +being plenty of moisture because of their shallow root system. Since +then, I have purchased beechnut seeds several times from various +seedsmen, but none of these seeds has ever sprouted. I think this is +because beechnuts, like chestnuts, must be handled with great care to +retain their viability. + +In 1938, I ordered 100 beechnut trees from the Hershey Nurseries of +Downingtown, Pennsylvania. Although these trees were set in sandy soil, +there are now only about five of them alive, and of these, only four are +growing well enough to suggest that they will some day become big trees. + +Beechnuts must be protected against mice and rabbits as these species of +rodents are very fond of bark and young growth of these trees and I have +every reason to believe that deer are in the same category. + + +Oaks + +Although the acorns produced by the red oak are very bitter and +consistently wormy, those from the white oak are more edible. In my own +exploring, I have found one tree, apparently a hybrid between the red +and white oaks, which bears good acorns. The nuts, which are long and +thin, are generally infested with weevils. If there were a demand for +such a nut tree, I'm sure that it could easily be grafted on oak roots. +During favorable seasons, when these edible nuts were of good size and +free from worms, I have carried them in my pocket and enjoyed munching +on them. I found that their flavor, like that of chestnuts, was improved +by roasting. + +Acorns are a balanced food and contain enough starch to make them +readily assimilated, except for their bitterness. They are a good food +for farm animals and chickens. I have kept a flock of goats in good +condition by feeding them acorns during the winter. It isn't necessary +to grind them for such use. I have read that Indians at one time +prepared acorns for their own use by storing them in bags submerged in +cold running water. This not only extracted the bitterness but also it +probably discouraged the development of weevil eggs. + +Oak trees are generally prolific and are regular bearers, but of course, +what they are widely known and loved for is the beauty of their leaves +in the autumn. No one doubts their esthetic value, which will keep them +forever popular whether they come into demand as a grafted nut tree or +not. + + +Chestnuts + +Another of our ornamental nut trees is the chestnut, also of the oak +family, classified under the genus Castanea, which grows into a large, +beautiful tree with wide-spread branches. Chestnuts do not grow well on +limestone soil and always fail in the heavy blue clay so common on farm +lands in this part of the country. It is best for their growth that the +soil be gravelly and slightly acid. + +The chestnut has always been a good timber tree. Its wood, although not +as hard as the red oak, resembles it in grain. The beams of many old +pioneer homes are found to be chestnut. It is said that this is one of +few woods to give a warning groan under too heavy a burden before it +cracks or breaks. Chestnut wood is very durable in contact with the +soil, outlasting all others except possibly black walnut and cedar. It +contains so much siliceous matter in its pores that it quickly dulls +chisels and saws used in working it. + +The chestnut trees at my nursery were grown from mixed hybrid seeds +which I obtained from Miss Amelia Riehl of Godfrey, Illinois. Almost all +of the seeds she first sent me, in 1926, spoiled while they were stored +during the winter. But Miss Riehl sent me more the following spring, +many of which proved hardy. In 1937, the oldest of these trees produced +staminate bloom for the first time. I naturally expected a crop of nuts +from it that year, but none developed. The same thing happened in 1938. +I then wrote to Miss Riehl about it, also asking her where to look for +the pistillate blossoms. Her reply was a very encouraging one in which +she wrote that the pistillate blossoms appear at the base of the catkins +or staminate blooms, but that it is quite a common thing for chestnut +trees to carry the latter for several years before producing pistillate +blossoms. She also explained that it was very unlikely that the tree +would fertilize its own blooms, so that I should not expect one tree to +bear until other nearby chestnuts were also shedding pollen. This +occurred the next year and another chestnut close to the first one set a +few nuts. It was not until 1940 that the tree which had blossomed first, +actually bore nuts. + +In 1940, I crossed the pistillate blossoms of this tree with pollen from +a Chinese variety called Carr, resulting in half a dozen nuts which I +planted. + +Since the chestnuts in these parts do not bloom usually until early July +we can expect chestnuts to be a more reliable crop than butternuts, for +instance, which bloom very early in the spring about May 1 to 15th. + +Having had this reward for my efforts I took much more interest in +chestnut growing and ordered trees of the Chinese varieties, Castanea +mollissma from J. Russell Smith, H. F. Stoke, and John Hershey. Some of +these were seedlings and some were grafted trees, not over a dozen of +them alive today and none have produced mature nuts. Seemingly they have +not been hardy although they have grown large enough to produce both +staminate and pistillate blooms; they have never winter killed back to +the ground, however. + +Also, I have been planting nuts from all sources from which I could +obtain them, mostly of the Chinese chestnut type. Some of these nuts +were results of crosses, and showed their hybridity in the young +seedlings that resulted there from. Today I have perhaps 150 of such +young seedlings which I am pampering with the hope of getting something +worthwhile from them. One of the big thrills of chestnut growing was the +result of a chestnut that I picked up from a plant that was no higher +than 2 feet, growing at Beltsville, Maryland in the government testing +ground there, in 1937. My records show that this plant began to bear +nuts in 1943 and have subsequently borne several crops in between the +times that it was frozen to the ground and grew up again, which happened +at least three times. Like most chestnuts this one has to be pollinated +by taking the staminate bloom from a dwarfed chestnut nearby whose bloom +coincides with the blossoming of the female flowers of this Chinese +hybrid. Chestnuts rarely set any nuts that produce mature seed from +their own pollen but depend on cross-pollination. The nut from this +hybrid is also the largest of any that I have grown and to my taste is a +palatable one. It may not rank among the best ones of known varieties +today, but for our climate I would consider it unusually large and good. +Experimentally, I have been able to produce new plants from this tree by +layering young shoots coming from the roots. This generally requires two +years to make a well-rooted plant before they are cut off and +transplanted. This alternative of propagating by grafting or budding is +considered a better method if it can be practiced, as it gives a plant +on its own roots instead of the roots of some unknown seedling stock. + +[Illustration: _Hybrid Chestnut; natural size, one of the two survivors +of several dozen trees sent by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for +testing this far north. Fair size nut and it resembles the American +Sweet Chestnut. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +Another tree that surprised me when it came into bearing proved to bear +one nut in a burr which led me to believe that it was a chinquapin +hybrid. Later on, the habit of this tree changed somewhat and some of +the burrs had more than one nut. I have found this to be the experience +of others who have observed so-called chinquapin trees of a hybrid +nature. It is my belief that the kind of pollen with which these +blossoms are fertilized directly influences the number of nuts in a burr +and sometimes the size of the nuts, again showing the importance of the +cross-pollinating varieties when setting out an orchard of trees. This +particular chinquapin type chestnut has upright growing habits different +from a tree bearing similar nuts but having a very dwarfed habit. All of +the nuts of the latter after six years of bearing can be picked off this +tree by standing on the ground. There are several other trees bearing +chestnuts, some large and some small nuts, all of which are interesting +to me and may be important in the future of the chestnuts this far north +since they indicate without doubt that the chestnut can accommodate +itself to our climate, providing it has the right type of soil to grow +in. In 1952 I acquired a 20-acre adjoining piece of land which has a +much better chestnut growing site, being deep sandy soil, well drained, +and yet not ever being dry. New varieties will be tested on this piece +and should give much better results than the old trees which already +were good enough to indicate success in chestnuts. + +[Illustration: _A hybrid chestnut presumed to be a cross between +European Chestnut (Castanea Sativa) and its American cousin (Castanea +Americana). Actual size. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +[Illustration: _Chinquapin hybrids from a tall growing tree. Nuts grow +in racemes of burrs with as many as 10 burrs on one stem. Photo by C. +Weschcke._] + + +Apricot + +If it were not that an apricot is a nut as well as a fruit, I should +hesitate to include a description of my work with it. But the apricot +seed has a rich kernel which, in many countries, for example, China, is +used as a substitute for the almond to which it is closely related. + +It was in 1933 that my aunt, Margaret Weschcke, told me of an apricot +tree growing in a yard on the Mississippi River bluff in St. Paul and +said to be bearing fruit. I was quite skeptical until I saw the tree and +also saw fruit from it which had been preserved by the woman who owned +it. Convinced of the hardiness of the tree, I was anxious to obtain +scionwood but it was not until late that winter that I received +permission to do so. It happened that a truck had broken off a large +branch from the tree while delivering coal, and the owner very +reasonably decided that taking a few twigs from it would not hurt it any +more. I not only took the small branches that she was willing to +sacrifice from her tree but also as many as possible from the branch +which had been torn off, as its terminals were still in a fresh +condition. + +I grafted these scions on hybrid plum trees where they took hold +readily, and in 1938, they began to bear prolifically. The apricots, +which I have named Harriet, in honor of my mother, are a fine-flavored +fruit, medium in size. Their cheeks are a mottled red with raised +surfaces. Their pits are well-formed and fairly edible. Although the +parent tree died the winter I took scions from it, my grafts have proved +quite hardy, having received no injury when temperatures as low as 47° +below zero have occurred. Since the parent tree died because its roots +were severely frozen, it would seem that the top of the tree, in this +case, was more hardy than the root system. This does occur sometimes, +although it is unusual. + +In developing the factor of hardiness further in this apricot variety, I +have taken advantage of something I had observed about other fruit +trees. When one combines parts of two trees by grafting, it is a simple +thing to select a hardy root stock from the available plants, just as I +selected hardy plum stock on which to graft my apricot scions. This is +not always possible in choosing scionwood, however, since scionwood is +usually selected for such reasons as the quality of its fruit. It may +happen that the top part of a tree is limited in its climatic scope +because of its inability to withstand precipitate or otherwise +unfavorable temperatures. Having observed that certain grafted varieties +of fruit trees, such as the Wealthy apple, for instance, have gradually +come to be planted much farther north than they originally were, I +reasoned that this was because only the hardiest of them survived and +these hardy ones therefore became the mother blocks for future grafting. +This was an inescapable procedure which acted as a method of bud +selection. I therefore assumed that by a careful choice of the hardiest +among surviving twigs of the most recent graft of the Harriet apricot, +when particularly severe winter weather had caused some injury, I could +induce extra-hardiness in future grafts. + +I also believe that I have added to the hardiness factor of the apricot +by making frequent grafts. It is my theory that the root stock is able +to exert some influence over the top other than mere maintenance of +life. By frequently uniting a hardy stock with a less hardy top, I think +that the individuality of the top part may be somewhat broken down and +the extra characteristic of hardiness added to it. After the fifth +re-graft of this apricot made in eight years, I am convinced by its +appearance and behavior that it is capable of becoming a reliable +apricot for the region around St. Paul. Today the apricot still exists +grafted on plum at my nursery at River Falls, Wisconsin, and the +weakness of the tree seems to be in the union between the top and the +plum stock. If this union were not so corky and large and succulent it +might be less injured by our winters; therefore it is quite apparent +that the plum is not a congenial stock for an apricot, at least it does +not produce a satisfactory union. I am now making tests with this same +variety by grafting it on more hardy apricot seedling stock such as the +Prof. N. E. Hansen of Brookings, South Dakota, introduces. + + + + +Chapter 11 + +PESTS AND PETS + + +The pocket gopher is an herbivorous animal which attains approximately +the size of a gray squirrel. It has a sleek, grey-brown coat of fur +which is almost as fine as that of the mole and would, I think, make a +good quality fur except that the skin is too tender to stand either +sewing or the wear that fur coats have to undergo. I learned this by +trapping them and having a furrier try them out, as I knew that the +quickest way to get rid of a pest is to eat it or use its hide. Since I +found its hide to be of no practical value, I enjoined my troop of Boy +Scouts, a willing group of boys, to carry out my suggestions that they +skin and prepare one of these animals in a stew. Gophers are purely +herbivorous and I thought they should be quite edible, but as I am a +strict vegetarian myself, I had to depend on them to make this +experiment. The boys followed instructions up to the point of cooking, +but by that time the appearance of the animal had so deprived them of +their enthusiasm and appetites that I had no heart to urge them to +continue. I am still of the opinion, however, that to meat-eating +people, the pocket gopher would taste as good as squirrel or pigeon. + +The first introduction I had to the devastating work that these animals +can do in an orchard was when I was working among my young apple and +plum trees one spring. I noticed that the foliage was turning yellow on +many of them and upon investigation I found that the trees were very +loose in the ground. At first I thought that planting operations and +heaving of the ground by frost in the spring might be the cause, but in +testing the looseness of one of these trees, I found that I could pull +it out of the ground easily. There I saw what appeared to be the marks +of an axe. I was completely convinced that I had personal enemies who +went around nights chopping off the roots of my trees, for I knew that +most of my neighbors were completely out of sympathy with my tree +cultivation. In fact, farmers living in that section of the country were +always poking fun at my nut tree plantings and orchard work, for their +idea of what was proper on a farm was a treeless field of plowed ground. +As I thought of all these things, I pulled up many other trees; in fact, +there were dozens that were chopped off so that they could be completely +pulled out. Others still had one or two roots clinging to the main +trunk and these I carefully replanted so that they would continue to +live and grow. + +Not long after the tragic day on which I found all these ravaged trees, +I noticed, winding in and out close to the young orchard trees, the +mounds which pocket gophers make when they tunnel under the ground. I +followed some of these by digging into them with a shovel, and +discovered that they led to the roots of trees, the very trees that had +been chopped off and killed. My enemies were not human after all. + +Sending for a pamphlet from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, I +studied the material given about pocket gophers and their habits. I then +began their systematic eradication, using about twelve steel muskrat +traps. I succeeded in trapping, in one season, over thirty of them, at a +time when they were so prolific and their holes so numerous that I could +not drive a horse through the orchard without danger of breaking one of +its legs. I also used poisoned grains and gases but I do not recommend +them. Trapping is the only method in which one obtains actual evidence +of elimination. It took me many years to force the gophers out of my +orchards and I still must set traps every fall, during September and +October when they are most active. Their habits are such that they do +most of their tunnelling in the early fall months, before frost, during +which time they expose and isolate the roots on which they intend to +feed during the winter months when the ground is so hard that they +cannot burrow further. This period is when they are most easily trapped. + +It was with the idea of establishing a balance of nature against these +animals that I conceived the idea of importing bull snakes. Almost +everyone has heard of the bull snake, but its name is a poor one, for it +has the wrong connotation. These snakes are actually a fine friend to +the farmer since each snake accounts for the death of many rodents each +year. Their presence certainly was of definite value in decreasing the +number at my farm. Bull snakes have the long body typical of +constrictors, sometimes reaching a length of nearly six feet at +maturity, and being at the most an inch and one-half in diameter. This +country had a natural abundance of such snakes at one time but ignorance +and superstition have lessened their number so that it is now a rare +thing to find one. During the early days of automobiles, these huge bull +snakes, or gopher snakes, as I prefer to call them, would lie across the +sunny, dusty roads, and drivers of cars delighted in running them down. +Since they are very docile, they are the least afraid of man of any +members of the local snake family. They are slow in movement until they +sense the immediate presence of their natural food, which is live mice, +rats, gophers, squirrels, young rabbits, and sometimes, though rarely, +birds. Then it is they become alert, and the horny appendage on their +tails vibrates with a high-pitched, buzzing sound, simulating, although +not similar to, the sound of a poisonous rattlesnake. + +When I first brought some of these snakes to my farm, I loosed them and +they wandered off to a neighbor's premises where they were promptly +found and killed. Later importations I confined to my basement, where I +built an artificial pool with frogs and fish in it. However, I could +never induce the bull snakes to eat any of these batrachians. They +would, almost playfully, stalk the frogs, but at the moment when one was +within reach, the snake would glide away. Neither would the snakes, +unless force-fed, eat anything they had not caught themselves. + +My children were delighted to have the snakes there and made pets of +them. Only once was one of the girls bitten when she attempted +force-feeding. The bite was a mere scratch but we feared that it might +be slightly poisonous. However, it healed so promptly that it was quite +apparent that the bull snake's bite is not toxic. I, too, have had my +skin slightly punctured by their teeth, but always the wound healed with +no more pain or trouble than a pin prick. Such is not at all the case +when a person is nipped by a squirrel or gopher. I have purposely +allowed a pocket gopher to bite me, to determine what the effects are. +The pain was severe and healing was slow. Once, bitten by a gray +squirrel when I reached into a hollow tree to get it, I received such a +wound that fever started in my whole hand. Its teeth punctured a +finger-nail and were stopped only by meeting the bone. Such bites I +consider rather poisonous. + +Rabbits also committed much damage at my nursery by gnawing the bark of +my trees, especially during times of deep snow. They did not bother the +walnuts particularly, but were very fond of hickories and pecan trees. +On the smallest ones, they cut branches off and carried them away to +their nests. On larger trees, they gnawed the bark off of most of the +lower branches. This was dangerous but seldom fatal, whereas the gnawing +of mice, near the base of the trunks, was such that in some cases when +complete girdling occurred, it was necessary to use bridge-grafting to +save the trees. This consists of connecting the bark immediately above +the roots with the bark above the girdled portion, so that the tree can +receive and send the food substances it elaborates to its upper and +lower parts. + +Rabbits and mice, therefore, had to be dealt with. Of course, one could +go hunting for rabbits and later eat them. This was one task I had my +employees do. I, myself, was unwilling to take an active part in it, +although still intent on saving my trees in spite of my pity for the +little animals. Placing hundreds of cans in the orchard, with a pinch of +poisoned wheat and oat mixture in each, helped to eradicate the mice. +The bait was placed inside the cans to prevent birds from being +poisoned, and the cans were tipped at an angle so that water would not +enter them. + +To be absolutely sure of preventing mice damage, one should provide each +tree with a screen guard. I have made about 10,000 screen protectors for +my trees for this purpose. I have also trapped rabbits which we were not +able to shoot and I conceived the idea of painting the traps with white +enamel. When these were set on the snow around those trees which the +rabbits attacked, they worked very successfully. The traps were a size +larger than the common gopher trap, but were not expensive. There are +other ways of catching rabbits or curtailing their activities, but on my +list, shooting comes first, with trapping as a second effective measure. + +Squirrels, although they do no damage to the trees themselves, except on +rare occasions, are a definite nuisance when they come in large numbers +and cut down nuts before they are ripe. They do this to hickory nuts, +and apparently are very fond of the half-ripened nuts. I have seen +squirrels chew hickory buds and young sprouts of hickory grafts and I +had to trap several before I stopped them from doing this to certain +ornamental trees in our garden. In fact, when one has a large nut +orchard, squirrels will be attracted in number that preclude the +possibility of harvesting a crop unless measures are taken to banish +them. They are very active early in the morning and my experiences +indicate that two or three people should hunt them together, as they are +very clever at dodging a single hunter. I also have built galvanized +metal guards around isolated trees which prevent squirrels from climbing +them. + +In speaking of mice, we have two important species commonly known as the +meadow mouse and the other species known as the white-footed mouse. The +meadow mouse is the one that does so much damage to the orchard trees +and young nursery stock if unprotected, and the white-footed mouse may +be responsible for some of this when present in great numbers, but of +the white-footed mouse this much good can be said: + +[Illustration: Drwg. by Wm. Kuehn. _Squirrel guards._] + +Much of its diet, especially of the mother mouse during the time that +she is nursing her young ones, is made up of insects. A personal +experience accentuates this. Since these are such pretty little +creatures, having such cunning ways, it was my ambition to catch a +complete family of mother and young ones which sometimes numbered as +high as ten. My ambition was finally gratified and I was able to get a +mother of eight and her tiny mouslings, which have a habit of fastening +themselves securely to her breasts while she runs about, and drags them +all along in a most ludicrous fashion. At times, under these +circumstances, the combined weight of the brood exceeds that of the +mother mouse but they are exceptionally strong creatures for their size, +a mature mouse being able to jump out of a 3-foot barrel with one leap. +In observing this brood of mice, I was particularly anxious to see what +kind of a diet they throve on and tried the mother's appetite with +tidbits from the table. While she ate most everything, it soon became +apparent that something was wrong because the young ones became weaker, +finally to the extent that they were unable to nurse, and one morning I +found several on their backs with their feet feebly waving in the air +indicating that they were dying of starvation. At about that time I was +drying some hazelnuts on a flat back porch floor and in sweeping them up +found a lot of alive and dried up larvae which had escaped from the +shells. Just for fun, I swept this material up and threw it into the +mouse cage. The reaction of this treatment was gratifying, for the +mother mouse pounced upon this insect life greedily devouring +everything. Within three days, the young mice were all in good health +and running around showing that the milk produced from the diet that I +had been giving the mother was inadequate for the baby mice. It is +therefore to their credit to state that these mice and probably at times +the meadow mice do consume large quantities of larvae and grubs in the +surface soil, as well as mature active insects, such as crickets and +grasshoppers. + + +HOW TO PREPARE RODENT PROTECTORS FOR TREES + +1. Cut 6" strips from 24" wide roll of galvanized screen with a 12 x 12 +mesh. + +2. Cut strips in half to make two protectors from each strip. + +3. Make bundles of 25 each by running wire through protectors. + +4. Dip these bundles in a solution containing 5 pounds of red lead per +gallon of linseed oil. Use from 3 to 5 gallons of this solution. + +5. Remove bundles and hang them on a pole with a drip pan beneath to +catch the solution, which can be used again. Allow bundles to drip for 8 +hours, then separate each protector and place on grass for a few days to +dry. + +6. Roll each protector around a 3/4" pipe or broomstick and it is ready +for the tree. + +[Illustration: Drwg. by Wm. Kuehn. _Preparation of screen guards._] + +In dealing with wild creatures, one must forebear condemning a whole +species of animals merely because at times they become troublesome, for +the main purpose of their existence, like owls, hawks and crows, they +may be more beneficial than otherwise. + +A good word should be said here for skunks and moles. A great deal of +the skunk diet is insect life. The same is true of the mole whose diet +probably consists of 75% insects, mostly in their larval state. This is +an important feature of mole and skunk as they dig these insects out +before they mature into winged female adults which may lay hundreds of +eggs. If these larvae should be allowed to develop into a mature winged +insect that would lay eggs, this particular insect would multiply itself +hundreds of times over and it would take many more birds than at present +exist to take over the big job of keeping the balance between necessary +insect life and a surplus which would be destructive to all plant life. +We can never hope to eradicate all insect life which we deplore as being +deleterious to the interests of mankind, and it is mighty well that we +cannot do this for the insects are as important to us as all other life, +for without them we would be unable to produce the vast quantities of +foods that are now dependent upon such insect life. It is true that +they take their toll of the food that they are instrumental in +sometimes producing but when one attempts to unravel the mystery of +balance of nature one is confronted by the big question of how far to go +in the eradication of both animals and insect pests. Before man's +interference the wild crops were plentiful and balances were kept in +harmony by vast multitudes of frogs and toads, birds and rodents, all of +which have been slaughtered and reduced by such amounts as to endanger +man's food supply, forcing him to resort to poison sprays and other +measures in order to hold destruction in check. All of this expense and +trouble he could have avoided if he had been sensible enough to observe +the natural checks and foster the natural procedure of which nature is +the best guide. + + + + +Chapter 12 + +STORING AND PLANTING SEEDS + + +Most nut tree seed requires ideal storage conditions to preserve its +germinating power or viability. Under natural circumstances, such nuts +as black walnuts, English walnuts, butternuts, hickory nuts, pecans, +hazelnuts, filberts and almost all other nuts, will be planted by +squirrels, mice and other rodents. Although most of these will be eaten +by the animals who buried them, a large percentage of the ones which are +not eaten will sprout. The sprouts which achieve maturity and bearing +age, however, will be only a very small percentage--some say only a +fraction of 1%--of the number that sprouted. This is an expensive and +wasteful method, horticulturally speaking, but it does indicate that it +is best to plant nuts as soon as possible after they have properly +ripened and been dried. + +After walnuts, hickory nuts, butternuts and hazels have been gathered, +they should be dried until the hulls have lost most of their moisture. +The husks should be removed from filberts before they are dried. While +this preparation is not essential, nuts are less likely to mold if they +are dried somewhat before they are planted. However, I have planted +freshly-gathered black walnuts and butternuts and most of them sprouted. +If nuts are to be stored in large quantities, the drying-out process is +absolutely essential and should be carried to the point of completely +drying the hulls. The system I followed in doing this is to gather the +nuts after they have fallen and spread them out in the sunlight on roofs +or floors where air can circulate around them. After the hulls are dry, +such nuts as black walnuts, English walnuts and butternuts may be put in +barrels or burlap bags and stored in an unheated basement without +seriously deteriorating. English walnuts are most safely stored when +they are hulled before being packed in burlap bags. These bags should be +suspended above the floor of the cellar by a rope or wire. These are +additional precautions which allow better circulation of air, further +prevention of mold, and safety from mice and squirrels. + +Chestnuts, beechnuts and acorns require more care when they are to be +stored, for their viability is very sensitive to dryness. I have found +that these soft-shelled species of nuts should be treated in a different +manner than the walnut and hickory types of seeds if we are to get the +most out of their germination. Since chestnuts are very prone to molding +or rotting, the best way to maintain their viability and freshness over +winter is to stratify them in a can or box between layers of a peat +moss. This peat moss must be decidedly on the acid side and must be +dampened, but must not be so wet that you can wring any water out of it. +The best way to prepare this dry peat moss is to soak it in water and +wring as much water out of it as possible by squeezing with your hands. +Then mix it with half as much of the undampened peat. This will give you +approximately the right moisture coefficient. If stored in cans, the +bottom of the can must be punctured with a few holes about 1/4 of an +inch in diameter, well distributed on the bottom to act as a drain and +to admit some slight circulation of air. The same thing should be done +with the cover. + +First, put down an even layer about 1-1/2 inches of this dampened moss, +then put in a layer of chestnuts or other nuts to be stratified, placed +evenly or well distributed but not touching each other. After the first +layer, carefully sift in more dampened moss about 1 inch thick and +repeat the process until either the can is full or all the seeds have +been stored. The last layer should be a 2-inch layer of peat moss before +the cover is placed on. Now the important thing about all this is to +place this can in a storage room of low temperature and yet it should +not freeze solid. But in a temperature of from 32 to 40 degrees is ideal +and preferably it should be on the ground floor so as to maintain the +moisture that is already stored in the seed and the moss. A mechanical +refrigerator which would constantly dehydrate might eventually dry them +out too much for good germination; otherwise such a refrigerator would +be ideal for the storage of small amount of seeds of this kind. + +It would be well from time to time to inspect these seeds to see whether +they were in good condition and check the temperatures as well. If they +start to sprout all the better; they can then be planted with the sprout +downward and the nut barely covered with earth. Some years I have had +sprouts nearly six inches long on my chestnuts which had been so stored +and care will have to be taken not to break the sprout when +transplanting the nuts. + +In planting nuts, great care must be taken not to plant them too deeply. +Large nuts, such as black walnuts, butternuts and English walnuts, are +often planted with a small part of the nut still exposed. Certainly, the +depth of the soil over a nut should never exceed the thickness of the +nut. Most seeds develop best when they are planted just under the +surface of the soil. The earth should be lightly tamped around the +planted seeds to eliminate air-pockets. A thin coating of manure, not +more than three inches deep, is valuable if large seeds are planted but +it is detrimental to the development of small seeds and manure should +never be used for evergreens. Seeds of the nut pines, usually purchased +from seedsmen and received in a dry state, should be planted no deeper +than their own diameter in a light, sandy loam. A seed bed, +incidentally, is a very necessary protection against rodents in the case +of nut pine seed. I have used a mixture of bone meal on such seeds with +good results. Four quarts of bone meal carefully worked into the first +two or three inches of the surface soil of a 4 x 12 seed bed greatly +increases its fertility. Sifted hardwood ashes scattered over the bed +after the seed is in, will discourage cutworms and increase the potash +content of the soil. + +Proper drying and storage are of no use if nuts are not planted where +they will have protection against rodents, improper drainage, and other +hazards. To keep them from being eaten by rodents, nut seeds should be +planted under wire screens inside a deep frame. The seed beds I have +made for use in my nursery are four feet wide and twelve feet long. By +using heavy galvanized hardware cloth 2 x 2 mesh, which means that it +has 1/2-inch square holes, is ideal for the top and sides of this frame. +By using this wire cloth 2 feet wide, 18 inches is sunk under the ground +surface, and only 6 inches protrudes above. This is to prevent burrowing +rodents from going underneath and extracting the seeds which you will +find they will do unless the screen protection goes down deep enough +into the ground to discourage them. A stout frame of rot-resisting wood, +such as cedar or fir should be placed on the inside of this countersunk +screen. This should also be 4 feet wide, 12 feet long so that a similar +frame, which is removable, can be placed over this. The edges of the +frame should match perfectly so that no rodents can reach the interior +of the seed bed without going down 1-1/2 feet under ground to burrow +under the countersunk screen. Several thousand evergreens or several +hundred walnut trees can be raised in a seed bed this size. + +The soil is now removed from the inside of this enclosure or stationary +part of the bed to the depth of 6 inches so that the plants will have +head room to develop leaves and stems and still be protected under the +top or removable frame part. The top frame made of the same material and +covered also by the 2 x 2 hardware cloth should be about 6 inches in +height so that there will actually be 18 inches of head room for the +plants to grow in before touching the screen. + +[Illustration: _This 60 x 30 foot corrugated galvanized iron fence 3-1/2 +feet tall and sunk 6 inches into ground protects valuable hybrids +against invasion by rodents. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +There are several important points to remember in starting a seed bed. +It must be in a well-drained site, so that the seeds will not be under +water or water-logged for any length of time. It should be in an open +place where sunlight is plentiful, unless evergreens are being grown. +Evergreens must be in half-shade the first season to avoid a condition +known as "damping off." The top six inches of soil in the bed should be +the best garden soil obtainable, the growth resulting from using good, +clean soil, free from weed seeds, being worth the trouble of preparing +it. By having the bed in two parts, with a cover that may be taken off, +proper weeding can be done when necessary. The cover should always be +replaced afterward, though, as rodents will sometimes attack the young +shoots and the remainder of the seed kernel. + +In the spring of the second season of growth, the young plants may be +dug up and lined out in nursery rows. After two or three years more, +they may be planted in permanent locations. + + + + +Chapter 13 + +TREE PLANTING METHODS + + +Since nut trees usually have deep, well-developed root systems of the +taproot type, they are more difficult to transplant than such trees as +plum, apple, elm or maple which have many small fibrous roots. Taproots +have a long, main trunk like a parsnip, from which lateral roots branch. +These roots are heavy and may extend deep into the ground even in trees +only two or three years old. In moving such a tree, the lower part of +the central taproot must, of course, be cut off, but as many of the side +roots as possible are retained. Because such roots have no fibrous or +hair-root system, their handling during transplantation necessarily +differs from that of the ordinary shade or fruit tree. + +If trees having a taproot system, such as the English walnut, black +walnut, butternut, hickory or pecan, are received with bare roots, they +should be treated in the following way: Immediately after the trees have +been unpacked, their roots should be submerged in a barrel of water for +several hours. After their thirst has been quenched, the roots should be +dipped into a mixture of clay and water made to the consistency of thick +paint. With a heavy coating of wet clay around them, the roots may then +be wrapped in wet burlap sacks. They are now ready to be transported to +their planting site. + +Selecting a favorable location for nut trees is very important. They +should never be planted at the bottom of a gulch or valley because, in +such places, frost pockets may occur which will interfere with both +blossoming in the spring and ripening of nuts in the fall. Nut trees +grow best near the summit of a hill. Although such soils are difficult +to plant in, stony soil or soil overlaid with limestone results in good +growth. Shallow surface soil, underlaid with heavy clay, will usually +slow down the growth of a young tree so that it remains dwarfed for many +years. It is more satisfactory to have at least three feet of soil +before clay is reached. If the soil is light and sandy, it will be +improved by adding black dirt immediately around the roots of each tree. + +As most nut trees ultimately grow to be very large, they should be +planted at least forty feet apart. The hole dug to receive each tree +should be wide and deep enough to accommodate the roots without bending +or twisting them. If the excavated soil is of poor quality, it should be +discarded, and good, rich soil brought in for setting the tree. Trees +should not be planted too deeply. The collar of a tree, which is a +discoloration of its trunk resulting from contact with the ground, +indicates how much of the tree was previously underground. Although it +is a good idea to plant so that this collar is a little lower than the +surface to allow access to extra moisture, the actual planting depth +should be about as it was previously in the nursery. All broken or +damaged parts on the roots should be trimmed smoothly with pruning +shears. Such clean cuts will send out new rootlets to replace the lost +ones. After a tree has been set into the hole made for it, the soil, +which should be thoroughly mixed with a quart of bone meal to increase +its fertility, is replaced a little at a time. It must be packed very +solidly about the roots with a rounded tamping stick to avoid leaving +air pockets. I find it advisable to retamp the earth about each tree two +or three times during the first year's growing season, to insure +intimate contact between soil and roots. + +Planting should be delayed if the soil is very wet. Trees will stay in +good condition for several days, if the burlap sacks are kept moistened. +Wet, soggy soil is certain to shrink away from the roots and leave air +pockets which will, in time, kill the trees. If trees are transplanted +during a very dry season, they should be thoroughly watered. To do this, +remove several shovelfuls of dirt from the ground about a foot from the +tree, being careful not to cut any roots. Fill this hole with water and +after the water has seeped away, fill it two more times. The tree should +receive about five gallons of water. Sprinkling with a hose does not +suffice. If dry weather continues, each tree should be watered in this +way every week. + +Nurserymen in the future will have to deal with this transplanting +problem in a different way than the old time nurserymen who handles +fruit trees. A suggested way to improve the root system and at the same +time make it easy to lift the tree with a ball of dirt, similar to the +way an evergreen is transplanted, is to prepare a pocket of special +transplanting soil previous to the lining out (which is the term used by +nurserymen in setting out seedlings preparatory to grafting them in +nursery rows). A suggested balanced soil for making the method practical +is to use 1/2 by volume of peat moss; the other half should be rich, +black sandy loam with very little clay mixture in it. In other words, +each nut tree should be allowed about a bushel of soil for its +development, 1/2 bushel to be peat moss, the other half bushel to be +represented by rich black loam. This mixture will encourage many +fibrous roots to develop and when the tree is dug, approximately all of +this bushel of soil will be retained around the roots. Having such a +high proportion of peat moss makes it lighter than ordinary ground; such +a ball and the tree will weigh approximately from 100 to 125 pounds +which can be shipped by freight at a low rate and is well worth the +extra price that nurserymen must ask for a specimen of this kind. Such +trees have really never been unplanted and for this reason do not suffer +the shock which is inevitable in the usual transplanting process. +Although pre-planted trees are more expensive to buy and to transport, +their improved chances of living make them worth the price. The above +recommendation is especially applicable to young grafted hickory trees +since they are among the most difficult trees to transplant +satisfactorily. The English walnut (Persian), black walnut, butternut +and especially the hickory are improved by the use of a handful of +ground lime mixed with the soil in preparing these pockets which will +later constitute the ball surrounding the roots of the tree to be +transplanted. + +There is a tendency in grafted trees to produce sprouts below the graft. +Unless these are rubbed off, the grafted portion will become discouraged +and the tree will revert to a seedling variety. Filberts should never be +allowed more than two or three stems, or trunks, while one is more +preferable. If they are allowed to have more, they will produce a rank +growth of wood but only a few, if any, nuts. I stress, by repeating, +that trees should not be planted too deeply and that great care must be +taken to eliminate air pockets. Extra effort and nursing of transplanted +trees during the first season will be repaid by their successful +development and growth. + +It is a wise precaution to place a protective screen around the trunk of +each tree to prevent rodents from attacking it. Mice gnaw off the bark +near the ground, sometimes girdling a tree and so killing it. Rabbits +chew off branches and they, too, may girdle the upper part of a tree. +Rabbits are very fond of pecan and hickory bark. In some places, it may +be necessary to encircle each pecan and hickory tree with a three or +four-foot rabbit fence until the tree is large enough to lose its appeal +to these nuisances. + +Compared with the number of insects which infest fruit trees, very few +attack nut trees. One of those which does is the walnut-leaf +caterpillar. These appear as a closely congregated group of small worms +which feed on the leaves of black walnut and hickory trees during the +latter half of the summer season. Very often they are all to be found +on a single leaf, which should be picked from the tree and crushed +underfoot. A simple spray of lead arsenate of the strength recommended +by companies selling spray material, will effectively rid trees of these +pests. Another insect often found in a nut orchard is the oak tree +girdler, which also is active in the latter part of the summer. It often +causes limbs as large as an inch in diameter to be cut through and to +fall to the ground. By removing such freshly girdled branches and +cutting into the hollow made by the larva, it is possible to find the +live worm and destroy it. A good way to combat this pest is to keep each +tree pruned of all dead branches and to burn all broken and dead wood +each fall. While some nut trees are subject to other insects, the two +described here are the most frequently found. Fortunately, they are +easily controlled if a watch is kept for them. + + + + +Chapter 14 + +WINTER PROTECTION OF GRAFTS AND SEEDLINGS + + +It is not enough to make a successful graft and to watch it carefully +during the growing season, picking all sprouts off the stock, spraying +it so that insects will not chew the tender leaves and bark, bracing it +against windstorms and perching birds. Each graft must also be protected +from winter injury. For many years I have studied and experimented to +find a successful way of achieving such protection. To enumerate my many +experiments, from simple to far-fetched, would be to write another book +quite as long as this one. My conclusion, now, is that there is little +one can do to assist nature in the process of acclimatizing grafted +plants and seedlings. + +I have repeatedly noticed that the place where most damage is done by +the cold is at the union between stock and graft. For example, I +observed this on the European walnuts, imported from Poland, grafted to +Minnesota black walnut stocks. Although both the buds and the wood of +the top remained fresh and green, the unions suffered severe, and +sometimes total winter injury. In grafts where the latter occurred, the +dead cells soon caused the wood to ferment and sour. Occasionally, a +small group of healthy cells succeeded in re-establishing circulation +with the unharmed, grafted top and the graft, continuing its growth, +would eventually overcome the injury it had suffered. I have seen this +occur with grafts of English walnut, apricot and pecan. + +A blackbird's nest in the crotch of a small tree suggested to me the +most satisfactory guard I have yet found against this greatest of +dangers to all exotic, grafted varieties of nut trees. The nest, which +enclosed over half of the graft union, was partly composed of woolen +fibers which its builder had gathered from barbed-wire fences that sheep +had brushed against. On the exposed portion of the graft union, +discoloration indicated injury and dead cells, but on that part covered +by the nest, all the cells were alive and green. I have improved on the +bird's nest by wrapping a large wad of wool loosely around each graft +union. The value of wool is that it will not collect moisture and so +start fermentation. It allows the cells to breathe, yet protects the +union from the shock of temperature extremes. Birds will inevitably +steal some of the strands of wool but this activity in and about the +trees means a decrease in injuries from insects--a worthwhile exchange. + +When an unusually large swelling at the graft union appears, it is +certain that the plant needs protection such as I have described. Such +swellings result from a too-rapid multiplication of cells, a condition +which leaves the union weak and susceptible to injury. Although a union +is never entirely safe, even after many seasons of growth, each year +adds to the safety factor by the development of rough, cork-like bark. I +suggest the use of a woolen guard for several winters, by which time +this outer bark should be able to do its protective work alone. + +A successful but rather expensive method of winter protection, both to +the graft itself and its union with its host, is to enclose the entire +tree with a box-like structure consisting of four corrugated aluminum +roofing sheets set up on their ends and countersunk into the ground +about six inches. The purpose of countersinking these below the ground +surface is two-fold: it stiffens and braces the structure and prevents +the intrusion of mice and other rodents, which may also appreciate both +the shelter and possible food supply contained therein. By fastening +these sheets together with a stout wire you can depend on the structure +to stand up against wind and snow pressures. Fill the entire inside with +forest leaves, oak leaves preferred, as their insulating quality is the +best and they are slow to rot and ferment. + +When working with semi-hardy plants in a cold climate, avoid fertilizing +and cultivating the ground after the first of August. Doing so +stimulates late growth and such growth is very likely to be badly +injured during the winter months. If fertilizer is used, it should be +early in the spring, as soon as the ground is free from frost. Trees +which persist in growing late into the fall are more subject to winter +injury. Protective measures to avoid their doing so by inducing an +earlier dormancy, include keeping the soil around them dry and exposing, +somewhat, the roots near the trunk of each tree. + +My last word of advice in raising what might be termed semi-hardy trees, +is to grow them in sod, the ordinary quack grass, June grass, bluegrass +or other natural grass sods which can be found on your planting site. +Although this will probably hold back your tree development for a few +years, until the roots are thoroughly established in the deeper soil +beneath the sod roots, it is surprising how many species of trees will +thrive in sod and perish on open cultivated ground. I can give no better +example of this than relating a circumstance which bears this out in a +most convincing way. In 1941 I purchased about 250 filbert seedlings +from Samuel Graham of Ithaca, New York. These were planted out on a +field site and practically all of the plants made good growth the first +year. They were thoroughly cultivated. The next year a second batch of +plants of a like amount were purchased from the same man and of the same +kind of seedlings. Mr. Graham told me that these were seedling trees +from Jones hybrid seeds which he had growing in his orchard. These +plants were put on heavy sod ground; all plants were protected by +screens, but the plants on the sod ground were subject to a very wet +season and it was necessary to build up the soil around some of the +plants in order to save them from being drowned out. Today about 45 +plants are living on the sod culture and two or three barely alive exist +in the open field culture. Although the plants remaining alive on the +sod culture plot are almost pure filbert strain they are therefore very +subject to the common hazel blight. Some have grown into bushes 10 feet +high which later were hit by blight and have been reduced to small +bushes. Others are producing good filbert-type nuts and are somewhat +blight resistant, but the main fact to remember is that about 1/4 of the +plants on sod culture lived, whereas not over 2% are alive of the open +field culture plants. The distance between these plantings is +approximately 1/8 of a mile. In addition to being placed in sod these +filberts which have survived are sheltered by rows of evergreen trees +both on the south and on the north side which may be construed as of +some assistance but is not altogether the reason for the tremendous +difference between the winter protection value of sod and open field +culture. This is not the only example that I could cite but is one of +the most outstanding ones which has come to my attention. Sod culture is +now being recommended to fruit orchardists in this part of the country +and in my own experience, I can highly recommend it for apples, plums, +pears, mulberries and nut trees. + + + + +Chapter 15 + +TREE STORAGE + + +If it is necessary to store trees through the winter months, one of +several procedures may be followed. If the trees are quite small, their +tops may be dipped in melted paraffin or beeswax, not hot enough to +injure the buds. If the trees are too large for this to be practical, +wax may be painted on with a brush. Roots should be protected by heeling +them in dirt. + +An unheated cellar with a dirt floor is a very satisfactory place for +storing trees. Select a corner of the cellar far from any source of heat +or temperature change. Place the trees so that the roots are pointing +toward the basement wall. Cover the roots to a depth of six inches with +either sand or sandy loam, packing the soil firmly to eliminate air +pockets. Lastly, cover the trees completely with burlap sacks. Once +every two weeks, the earth around the roots should be watered. Trees +maintained in this way are conveniently ready to plant when the ground +thaws out in the spring. + +Another and better method of storing trees is to plant them outside in a +trench, preferably on the north side of a building, having first waxed +them as described above. One side of the trench should slope so that the +trees will lie in an oblique position with their branches touching the +ground. The roots of these trees should be covered with dirt, then more +trees set alongside them, until all have been planted and the earth made +firm about their roots. Trees will usually suffer no damage during such +winter storage if their roots have been properly packed in sand or sandy +loam. Six or more cans, each containing a little poisoned grain, should +be set among the branches. If these cans are laid on their sides, +rodents will have easier access to the poison. The branches of the trees +should then be well covered with straw or hay, with heavy boards laid on +top to keep it from blowing away. If trees are received for planting +after the ground has frozen, all that is necessary is to build a log +fire on the side where they are to be heeled in. This will thaw out the +soil enough so that a trench can be made to accommodate them. + + + + +Chapter 16 + +SUGGESTIONS ON GRAFTING METHODS + + +Grafting, including budding, may be defined as inserting a piece of wood +which carries buds of a desired variety, on a root stock sufficiently +compatible to accept it, for the purpose of propagation. Methods vary, +each nurseryman having one or more which he prefers, but the principle +is always the same. + +Scionwood may be cut the fall before grafting is to be done, after the +growing season has ended, but some prefer to cut the scions in early +spring. This means that the scions must be stored until time to graft, +and correct storage is so important that nurserymen make elaborate +provision for it. I have found that keeping scions underground in a +Harrington graft storage box is the safest method. An illustration of +this box is given, with directions for its construction and location. A +small quantity of scions may be kept in an icebox (not a mechanical +refrigerator), by cutting them into convenient lengths of one or two +feet, dipping them in melted beeswax, wrapping them in tar or asphalt +paper and placing them close to the ice. They will remain in good +condition for several months if there is always a good supply of ice. +Care must be taken in dipping the scions in melted wax, for if the wax +is too hot it will injure the buds. It should never become so hot that +it smokes. I find it advisable to keep an unmelted piece of wax in the +liquid wax to hold the temperature down. + +Another method of storing scions, after they have been dipped in +beeswax, is to place them on the earth of a cellar floor and cover them +with a few burlap sacks. They should never be allowed to become wet or +they will start to mold. If they are to be stored in this way, a watch +must be kept for mice which will molest them and destroy them if they +have an opportunity. + +Although bud wood may be stored in any of the three ways mentioned, it +should not be waxed. Because of this, it is more likely to deteriorate. +It must be examined frequently and if mold is found, the wood should be +dipped in a Bordeaux solution. After drying, it may be placed in storage +again. It is a good plan to wrap bud wood in tar or asphalt paper when +storing it. However, I have found that the best storage conditions for +all scionwood that I have yet discovered is in the use of peat moss. +Peat moss must be on the distinctly acid side in order to perform the +function of storing scionwood. Most peat moss is generally acid; however +the simple litmus paper test with which every high school pupil is +familiar, can be made. Having acquired good acid peat moss, dampen a +sufficient quantity to pack the scions in to give them liberal +protection. Do not make the bundles of scionwood too large, from 10 to +20 scions in a bundle is better than a large number and much easier to +handle. The moss should be prepared exactly the same as advised in +storing chestnuts (see chapter for storing seeds). In this case it is +not necessary to wax the scions at all. The moss should be applied by +sifting it into the open spaces between the scions and a larger wad at +the base of the cuttings, not at the terminal or bud ends as these would +be better left unpacked. The package is now rolled into a cylinder, +using tar paper or asphalt treated paper, and both ends left open. Do +not use ordinary paper or wax paper as it will turn moldy. Cylinders of +tar paper containing the packed scions should be placed in a damp room +like a cellar with a dirt floor which is cold enough to keep potatoes +and other roots in good condition throughout the winter. If the cellar +is not a good storage cellar for roots and herbs it will not be good +enough for the scionwood as it will be too warm generally. Neither +should they be frozen solid, therefore if a good root cellar is not +obtainable then these should be put in the Harrington graft box already +described or placed under the sawdust in an icehouse and close to the +ice. An old-fashioned ice refrigerator will also make a good storage +bin, placing them close to the ice at all times. + +[Illustration: Drwg by Wm. Kuehn. _Making a scarf with a plane +preparatory to grafting._] + +Selection of good scionwood and bud wood, a very important matter, is +made according to definite standards. Some plants graft better if wood +is used that has two seasons' growth, but, in general, wood of the +current season's growth is used. It must have reached its maximum +possible maturity before it is cut. Also, some attention should be paid +to the vigor of the growth which it has made during the season. For +instance, in choosing between wood which has made only two or three +inches' growth and that which has made a foot or more of growth, both +being equally sound and mature, the more vigorous should be chosen. +Attention should be paid to the development of the buds, which should be +plump and never immature. + +It is advisable to label scions before they are stored to avoid the +confusion that will result if they are mixed. I find that the best +method of doing this is to get a sheet of zinc, from 20 to 30 gauge +thick, and cut it into strips one inch wide by one and three-quarters +inches long. I bore a small hole in one corner of each tag, through +which I thread 18-gauge copper wire, doubled and with the bottom loop +folded over (see page 40). In preparing these tags, it is important to +remember that both wires must pass through the hole in the metal tag, +otherwise, the slight movement due to winds will cause the metal to wear +through. Two wires prevent this action indefinitely. Since a small wire +cuts through a zinc tag in one or two years, heavy wire must be used. +Wire such as I have indicated is satisfactory. I print the necessary +information on each tag with a small, steel awl, and such labels are +still legible after twenty-five years. Copper, brass or aluminum would +also make good tags, but these metals are more expensive. Of course, +these tags may be used for small trees as well as grafts and scionwood +and it is always well to do a good job of labeling all work, since many +errors may result from disregard to this important detail. + +In the north, the time to graft nut trees is when the cambium layer of +the host, or stock, is active, which is usually during the entire month +of May. This cambium layer consists of those cells lying just inside of +the outer bark, between it and the woody part of the tree. When these +cells are active, the inner side of the bark feels slippery and a +jelly-like substance can be scraped from it. Although this is the state +in which the stock should be for grafting, the condition of the scions +should be almost the opposite, rather dry and showing no signs of +cambium activity. The bark should cling firmly to the woody part of the +scions, whereas the bark of the stock should slip off readily. Another +good and fairly satisfactory rule is never to graft the stocks of nut +trees until after the young leaves appear. + +In grafting young nursery trees not more than an inch in diameter, the +whole tree is cut off at any distance from the ground convenient to the +nurseryman. Sometimes they are cut within a few inches of the ground, +sometimes two or three feet. In my work, I like to keep the scions as +high above the ground as I can. When the top of a stock is cut off, +there is a great deal of sap pressure and the tree bleeds. It is a poor +policy to attempt grafting while this is happening. Rather, one should +cut the tops off, then wait for several days before inserting any +grafts. Tools must be kept very sharp. A good grafting knife is +sharpened on one side only, so that the blade is flat along the side +which lies next to the cut made on the scion when it is trimmed. If +unaccustomed to handling a knife, one can obtain more accurate results +by using a small plane. I do this by holding the scion firmly in my +right hand and pulling it toward me, against the cutting edge of the +plane which is held in the left hand. Illustrations show how this is +done. + +The only disadvantage in using a plane is that one must exchange it for +a knife to make the receiving cut in the stock before inserting the +graft. This necessitates exposing the graft to the air for a longer time +than does using a single instrument. + +Spring budding is done during the same period as grafting. Bud wood is +usually much larger in diameter than scionwood, for it is easier to +remove buds from big branches than from wood only one-quarter inch in +diameter. When budding is to be done, take along only enough wood for +half a day's work, leaving the rest safely stored. A piece of wood +having a bud is prepared as shown in the illustrations "A" and "B" (next +page). A T-shaped slot is made in the stock to receive the bud, a +process called "shield budding." This is tied in place with either +string, raffia or gummed tape, as shown in "C" and "D" (next page). The +bud must be free to grow, and although it may be covered completely with +wax, no part of the binding material should be close to it. Since it is +not necessary to cut off all the tree in budding, enough of it may +remain above the bud to brace the shoot that develops. Later, it may be +necessary to cut back the tree to the bud so that a callus will form and +cause the wound to heal properly. + +[Illustration: Drwg by Wm. Kuehn _Shield Budding._] + +Best results are obtained when a graft union is coated with melted +beeswax. Another and cheaper wax may be made by combining four parts of +rosin, one part of beeswax and one-sixteenth part of raw linseed oil. To +this is sometimes added a little lampblack to color the mixture so that +it can be seen on the graft. Again, care must be taken to prevent +injuring the cells with wax that is too hot. + +I have used many kinds of tying materials, but the one which gives me +best results is gummed tape, which preparation I describe in another +chapter. By wrapping it in spirals around a graft union, I have a +material which holds the graft in place and at the same time excludes +air. The rubber also seems to encourage the formation of that tissue +which unites the stock and scion. In addition to tape, melted wax should +be brushed into those crevices and cracks which always occur in making a +graft. + +It is usually advisable, although not necessary, to shade new grafts. To +do this, cover them with light-colored or white paper sacks. Never use +glassine alone for it causes the grafts to overheat and so destroys +them. Whatever tying material is used, either to fasten on these bags or +to support the grafts, it should be inspected at intervals during the +summer, as it may constrict the graft or stock and injure or cut off the +cambium. + +After a scion begins to grow, it must be firmly braced against the force +of the wind, for a heavy gale can rip out grafts made years before. +Laths make good braces for growing shoots. They may be attached to the +main branch by stout waterproof twine such as binder twine, and the +growing graft tied with soft muslin strips to the lath. As the graft +grows more muslin strips should be used to keep the excessive growth +anchored to the lath. Grafts will often make three or more feet in +growth in one season. + +It is important to remember that sprouts or buds which start from the +stock must be rubbed off. If they are allowed to flourish, they may +prevent the scion from growing. When working over a tree several inches +in diameter, it becomes an art to keep the tree stock satisfied, yet to +encourage the growth of the scions. In large trees, a few sprouts must +grow to nourish the root system, but this is not necessary if the stock +is one inch, or less, in diameter. + + + + +Chapter 17 + +GRAFTING TAPE VERSUS RAFFIA + + +It is necessary that a person who is grafting trees and developing +hybrids experiment not only with the plants he is interested in, but +also with the equipment and materials he uses. For more than twelve +years, I used raffia to tie the grafts I made, becoming more annoyed and +irritated with its limitations each year. Finally, I began trying other +materials, until I found one which I think is very satisfactory. This is +a rubberized grafting tape. + +At my nursery, we make our own tape. We buy pure rubber gum, known as +Lotol NC-356, from the Naugatuck Chemical Company, at a cost of $7.50 +for five gallons, F.O.B. their factory. With this, we use unbleached +muslin of an 80 x 80 mesh, or finer. As the muslin is usually a yard +wide, we fold it and take it to a printing firm, where, for a small +charge, it is cut into both one-half and three-quarter inch strips by +being fed through a paper-cutting machine. We use the wider strips for +heavy work on large trees which have three to five-inch stubs; the +narrower strips we use in the nursery, grafting young seedlings. + +First, pour about a gallon of the rubber compound into a twelve or +sixteen-quart pail having a smooth, rolled edge. Next, separate a dozen +or so of the strips of muslin. Then, set out a pair of rails on which to +dry the tape after it has been dipped. I make these rails by using two +1" x 2" boards about twelve feet in length, nailed together at the ends +with boards two feet long. This frame, resting on carpenter's horses or +benches, makes a good drying rack. + +Holding a piece of tape by one end, submerge it in the rubber solution, +forcing it down with a spatula or knife. Swishing it around or moving it +up and down several times helps to fill the pores with rubber. Drag it +from the solution by pulling it sharply over the rolled edge of the +pail, using the spatula on the upper side of the strip to scrape off +superfluous rubber. A little practice soon enables one to judge the +amount of rubber needed on the tape. There should not be so much that it +drips off. Hang the tape on the rack so that the ends are attached to +the rails, the tape sagging slightly in the center. Space the pieces of +tape so that they do not touch, for, if they do, they will be very +difficult to separate later. After they have dried for twenty-four +hours, wind the tape on pieces of cardboard about one foot square, +being careful not to overlap the tape. The tape is now ready for +field-work. + +I want to mention some of the advantages I have found in using this +rubberized tape rather than raffia. The tape is uniform throughout and +is stronger than raffia. It does not fly around and frequently get +tangled as the latter does. There is no necessity for keeping it +slightly damp to be usable. It may easily be torn off at any convenient +length or it may be cut without injuring the edge of the grafting knife. +A last advantage is that it is self-sealing since it overlaps on itself +slightly when wound around a graft union. Because of this, there is no +necessity for painting the finished graft with melted wax as is +absolutely vital when using raffia. Personally, I use wax in addition to +the tape for I feel that it is probably safer with that extra +protection. Also it gives me an opportunity to wax over the tip end of +the scion when it is devoid of a terminal bud. + +The only disadvantage in using tape is its cost which, I must admit, is +very much higher than that of raffia. But if, by using tape, twice as +many grafts can be made each day, and if the resulting takes are 50% +better, as they have been in my experience, then the cost is justified +and raffia is actually the more expensive to use. + + + + +Chapter 18 + +EFFECTS OF GRAFTING ON UNLIKE STOCKS + + +It is unquestionably a great shock to a tree when 90% of its top is cut +off. If it is healthy and vigorous, the root system will try to recover, +using every means possible to do so. If a new top is grafted to it, the +stock must either accept and nourish that foreign and sometimes +incompatible new part, or give up its struggle for life. Nature and the +tree stock usually accept the challenge and the graft begins to grow. In +an attempt to continue with its own identity, the stock will bring into +activity adventitious buds. These are tiny microscopic buds imbedded in +the bark of a tree that are not apparent to the eye but are nature's +protection against destruction of the individual plant. But these must +be removed by the horticulturist to insure proper nourishment of the +grafts. + +Because the root system is striving hard to live, and because it is +usually the stronger, it may force the top to accept certain of its +characteristics. Occasionally, it may assume some qualities of the +original top. Such cooperation is necessary if either is to survive. +First of all, the grafted scions must accept the vital quality of +climatic hardiness, a powerful factor developed through ages spent in a +certain climate. To hasten the acclimatization of a tender variety, I +cut scionwood from such unions early in the winter, storing it until +spring. When these scions are grafted on new root systems, I find that +they are much more readily accepted than the first grafts were. The +following season, I allow the grafts of this later union to go through +their first winter of exposure. Early each spring I continue to cut +scions from the most recent unions and graft them to new root systems, +so hastening and setting the factor of hardiness through frequent +asexual propagation. + +Because my observations of the effects of scion on root and vice versa, +have not extended over a sufficient period of time, I think it is +possible that the changes I have seen may be only transient. In any +case, I do know that the phenomenon occurs, for I have seen many +examples of it. + +One instance in which the stock was apparently affecting the scions, +occurred in the case of several varieties of black walnuts which had +been grafted on wild butternut stock over a period of sixteen years. The +walnut top flourished but tended to outgrow the butternut, so that the +caliber of the walnut was greater than that of the stock a few inches +below the graft union. I also noticed that, although the graft began to +bear about as early as black walnuts do when they are grafted on their +own species, the nuts did not mature at all during the first few years +of bearing. In 1938, after a favorable season, I found mature nuts on +one variety, the Thomas. These nuts varied in size more than they do +when grafted on black walnut. The most surprising thing about them, +though, was that they did not have the characteristic black walnut +flavor. When properly dried and cured, they could have passed as an +entirely different nut since they tasted like neither the black walnut, +the butternut nor the Persian walnut. + +The overgrowth of the Ohio black walnut, grafted on butternut, was even +more apparent than that of the Thomas. These nuts were, as I have said, +immature the first few years they appeared and they, too, lacked the +usual black walnut flavor. In their case, however, the most striking +change was in the shape and structure of their shells which were +elongated like butternuts, with corrugations typical of those found on +butternuts and nearly as deep and sharp. (See Illustration in Chapter 1, +Page 5.) + +In 1937, I made experimental graftings on native black walnut stocks of +the Weschcke No. 4 butternut, a variety I found to be superior to +hundreds of other native trees tested. The grafts grew luxuriantly and +in 1940, produced about two pounds of nuts. These nuts were +approximately 30% larger than those on the parent tree. They cracked +well and the kernels were similar to those from the parent tree. They +definitely distinguished themselves, however, by being a free-hulling +nut, which is not true of the mother tree nor of most butternuts. Soon +after the nuts had dropped to the ground and were still green, they were +hulled and their hulls peeled off like those of the Persian walnut, +leaving the nuts clean and free from remnants. Apparently this +phenomenon was a transient one since later crops did not display this +free-hulling feature. + +I have mentioned, elsewhere, the seedling apricot which came into +bearing in St. Paul, and how I obtained grafts before it died during a +very cold winter. I have grafted scions of this apricot on both hybrid +and wild plum stocks repeatedly and this apricot now exhibits a material +gain in hardiness. It overgrows the plum stock, but this does not seem +to inhibit its bearing, the fruit growing to greater size than that of +the mother tree. + +These are some of the instances in which I have seen stock exert a +definite, and, mainly a beneficial influence on its grafted top. It may +easily be that these are only of a temporary nature and until I have +seen them maintained for many more years, I must consider them to be +transient effects. + + + + +Chapter 19 + +DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIONS + + +Loss of identification markings from my grafted trees has, on occasion, +caused me much confusion. There was one time when I had from six to ten +varieties of hickories and their hybrids grafted on wild bitternut +hickory stocks, totally lacking in identification. Although this +disconcerted me considerably, I knew of nothing I could do except to +wait for the grafts to bear nuts and determine the varieties from these. +As I continued my experimental grafting, I made sure that the tags I +used were not only indestructible, but also secured to the grafts in +such a way that the action of the wind could not wear them out nor cause +them to drop off. + +Not long after this had happened, I received from Dr. Deming a shipment +of about twenty varieties of hickory scions. While I was preparing this +material for grafting, I noticed that each variety could be readily +distinguished by its appearance in general and, specifically, by +differences in its leaf scars. I also noticed markings on the bark, +particularly the stomata, which differed with each variety. Color and +stripes added further differentiation. Although I also found variations +in the size and shape of the buds, I later discovered that these do not +always remain constant within a variety, but depend somewhat on each +season's growth. For instance, a second growth sometimes develops during +a favorable season with a large number of lateral buds growing out of it +like spines. + +It seemed to me that if scions could be maintained in an approximately +fresh state, they would furnish a key by which any variety of graft +could be determined as easily as it could by its nuts. I therefore set +myself to preserve scionwood in its fresh state. First, I cut five-inch +pieces of plump, healthy wood, each piece having a terminal bud. I +placed these buds downward in large test tubes which I then filled with +pure, strained honey. Such models did very well for a time, but after +about a year, the honey crystallized and of course the scions were no +longer visible. I emptied the tubes and washed them, cleaned the scions +in warm water, replaced them and refilled the tubes with pure glycerine. +I submerged a thin, zinc tag, stencilled with the varietal name and bent +to conform with the contour of the tube, inside of each one as a name +plate which could not easily be lost or removed. I also labeled each +cork with the name of the variety enclosed so that any one of them +could be located when looking down at a nest of tubes in a vertical +position. + +In order to display these preserved specimens at illustrated lectures, I +had a rack made of redwood, of a size to hold twenty tubes. The tubes +could easily be taken from the rack for closer observation by members of +an audience. I find this to be an interesting adjunct to various nut +culture exhibits I make in trying to promote nut culture education. + +Since I was able to identify my unlabeled, hickory grafts by means of +this catalogue of submerged scions, I consider it of great practical +worth. At the present time, I have about 50 hickory specimens, a good +catalogue, although not a complete one. I see no reason why the same +thing could not be done with black walnut or any other kind of nut +scions. + + + + +Chapter 20 + +HYBRIDIZING + + +Working with nature to develop new varieties of trees is fascinating +although it requires infinite patience and study combined with skill and +concentration. A person without experience may taste of this pleasure, +however, by trying his hand at cross-pollination, and there is no end to +the number of hybrids possible. + +In attempting to make crosses, one must necessarily understand the +botanical relationship between the trees to be crossed. Trees of the +same species cross readily in almost all cases; trees of the same genus +are not as easily crossed; trees belonging only to the same family are +usually difficult to cross. It is generally assumed that trees not in +the same family are impossible to hybridize. The plum serves as a +practical example of this. The American wild plum crosses readily with +almost any other plum and particularly well with the Japanese plum. +These crosses have resulted in such phenomenal fruit as the Underwood +plum, a cross made between species. If a cross were made between a +chestnut and a walnut, it would be between members of different +families. I recommend to anyone who is attempting to cross-pollinate for +the first time, that he limit his work to crosses made within species. +His chances of success will be greater and such success added to the +experience he is acquiring, will give him the background needed for more +difficult hybridizing. + +Crosses made between filberts and hazels usually produce great changes +in the resulting fruit. J. F. Jones won considerable horticultural fame +from crosses he made between the wild American hazel known as the Rush +hazel, and such varieties of the European filbert as the Italian Red and +Daviana. Hazel and filbert cross readily and the resulting seedlings +will usually bear after only three or four years. For both these +reasons, they are good material for a beginner to work with. If the wild +hazel is to be used as the female, or mother, of the cross, it is +necessary to pick off all the male blossoms, or staminate blooms. This +should be done long before they begin to expand. The pistillate, or +female blossoms, should be enclosed in bags, about six of the +three-pound, common kraft bags should be enough. These are slipped over +those branches which bear female blossoms and are tied around a heavy +packing of absorbent cotton, which has been wound around the branch at +approximately the place where the opening of the bag will be. In +fastening the mouth of the bag around the cotton, I find that No. 18 +copper wire, wrapped several times around and the ends twisted together, +is more satisfactory than string. This makes a pollen-tight house for +the pistillate blossoms but not one so air-tight as to cause any damage +to either the plant or blossoms. + +In order to have pollen available at the proper time, it is necessary to +cut a few filbert branches which bear staminate blooms and store them in +a dark, cold place to prevent the pollen from ripening too soon. I +recommend keeping such branches in dampened sphagnum moss until it is +time for the pollen to ripen, or if a cold cellar is available, burying +the cut ends of large branches carrying male catkins one foot deep in +clean, moist sand. When the pollen is wanted, the branches should be +placed in a container of water and set near a window where sunlight will +reach them. Usually, after one day of exposure to bright sunlight, the +staminate blooms will expand and begin to shed their pollen. The pollen +may easily be collected by allowing an extended catkin to droop inside a +vial or test tube and then, as the catkin rests against its inner wall, +tapping the outside of the tube sharply with a pencil to jar the pollen +grains loose. A separate test tube must be used for each variety of +pollen to be experimented with. By following this procedure for several +days with all the staminate blooms that have been gathered, the +experimenter should have enough pollen for work on a small scale. The +test tubes containing this pollen should never be stoppered with corks, +but with plugs of absorbent cotton, which will allow the passage of air. +Pollen may be stored in this manner for several days, possibly as long +as two weeks, if it is kept dry. By a close observation of the blooming +period of the wild hazels, one is able to determine the best time for +placing the filbert pollen on the pistillate blossoms. No attempt should +be made to do so until the male catkins of the wild hazel species are so +entirely exhausted that no amount of shaking will release any grains of +pollen. When this condition exists, it is time to move the stored +filbert branches to strong sunlight. A quiet day should be chosen to +pollinize the hazels for two reasons. If there is a wind, it will blow +away the pollen and so make the work more difficult. A wind will also +increase the danger of the hazels being fertilized by native hazel +pollen which may still be circulating in the air and which the flowers +may prefer to filbert pollen. + +When good conditions are present, then, the hybridizer proceeds to his +work. A brush with which to transfer pollen from the vial to the +pistillate blossoms is made by wrapping a little absorbent cotton around +the end of a match. The paper bag is removed from around a group of +hazel blossoms, a small amount of pollen is dabbed on each blossom and +the bag is immediately replaced, to remain on for two more weeks. When +the bags are finally taken off, the branches should be marked to +indicate that the nuts will be hybrids. Before receiving pollen, each +pistillate blossom has, emerging from its bud tip, a few delicate red or +pink spikes which are sticky enough to make pollen adhere to them. +Within a few days after receiving pollen, these spikes may dry up and +turn black, a fair indication that the pollen has been effective. If the +pollen does not take hold, the spikes of the staminate blooms are sure +to continue pink for a long time. I have seen them in the middle of the +summer, still blooming and waiting for pollen which would let them +continue on their cycle. This ability of hazel flowers to remain +receptive for a long period allows the nut-culturist ample time to +accomplish his work. It is not so true with all members of the nut tree +group, some, such as the English walnuts, being receptive for such a +short period that only by very frequent examination and many +applications of pollen can one be sure of making a cross. + +Early in the fall, the hybrid nuts should be enclosed in a wire screen +to prevent mice and squirrels from taking them before they are ripe. +Such wire screens may be used in the form of a bag and fastened around +each branch. When the husks turn brown and dry, the nuts are ripe, and +ready to be gathered and planted. Careful handling of the nuts is +advisable to preserve their viability. They should be planted in an +outdoor bed which has been fully protected against the invasion of +rodents. A screen such as I described for other nut seed is satisfactory +for these hybrid nuts but it need not be as large as that. After the +nuts have sprouted and the plants have grown for one season, they may be +transplanted into a permanent location where they should again be well +protected against mice by a trunk screen, and against rabbits by driving +a stout stake deep into the ground on the south side of the tree and +tying it to the tree. This use of a stake discourages rabbits from +cutting off the tree. + +There are innumerable other crosses that can be made as well as those +between hazels and filberts. It is possible, for example, to cross the +English walnut with the black walnut. Many such crosses have been made +although none of them is known to have produced superior nuts. Thousands +of crosses exist between butternuts and Japanese heartnuts. Many of +these are of some worth and are being propagated. Crosses between +heartnut and butternut are easily made, following the same procedure +used in crossing hazels and filberts, except that larger bags are +necessary for covering the female blossoms. Also, these bags should have +a small, celluloid window glued into a convenient place, so that the +progress of the female blossoms toward maturity can be observed. + +When hybridizing walnuts, it is necessary to use a pollen gun instead of +removing the bag from around the female blossoms and applying the pollen +with a cotton-covered applicator. Such a pollen gun can be made by using +a glass vial which does not hold more than an ounce of liquid. An +atomizer bulb, attached to a short copper or brass tube soldered into a +metal screw-cap, is fitted to the vial. Another small copper or brass +tube should also be inserted in the screw-cap close to the first one. +The second tube should be bent to a right angle above the stopper and +its projecting end filed to a sharp point. Without removing the bag from +around the pistillate blossoms, the hybridizer forces the point of the +atomizer through the cotton wadding between bag and branch. The pollen +in the vial is blown through the tube into the bag in a cloud, covering +all the enclosed blossoms. It is advisable to repeat this on several +successive days to make certain of reaching the female blossoms during +their most receptive period. + +[Illustration: _8 x 8 x 8 foot tightly woven sheet of unbleached muslin +stretched over mother hazel plant during pollination period in the +process of making controlled crosses between it and filbert parents. +Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +[Illustration: THE WESCHCKE POLLEN GUN + +Taper end of copper tube ... not absolutely necessary, but it saves +pollen. + +Long fibre cotton wad wired to intake side of bulb to strain out foreign +pollens that may be in atmosphere. + +De Vilbiss atomizer bulb. + +Pollen grains + +Any small glass bottle with a wide mouth and screw cap. + +Tubes A and B--3/16" outside diameter copper tubing can be purchased at +any garage. Solder both tubes to screw cover C. + +Drwg by Wm. Kuehn + +_How to make pollen gun._] + + + + +Chapter 21 + +TOXICITY AMONG TREES AND PLANTS + + +Although quack grass will grow luxuriantly up to the trunks of both +black walnut and butternut trees, I know, from things I have seen +myself, that the roots of the latter and probably of the former have a +deadly effect on members of the evergreen family. I have seen northern +white pine and other pines, too, suddenly lose their needles and die +when, as large trees, they have been transplanted to the vicinity of +butternut trees. To save as many of these transplanted trees as +possible, it was necessary for me to sacrifice almost one hundred fine +butternut trees by cutting them off close to the ground and pruning all +the sprouts that started. + +Other instances have also demonstrated to me this deleterious power of +butternut trees over evergreens. For years, I watched a struggle between +a small butternut tree and a large Mugho pine. Gradually the Mugho pine +was succumbing. At last, when the pine had lost over half its branches +on the side near the butternut, I decided to take an active part in the +fight. I cut off the trunk of the butternut and pruned off all of its +sprouts. The butternut surrendered and died. The Mugho pine took new +heart, lived and again flourished. + +At another time, I transplanted several thousand Montana pines, about +thirty or forty of which came within the branch limits of a medium size +butternut tree. Within a year, these thirty or more trees had turned +brown and were completely dead, while those immediately outside the +branch area were dwarfed and not at all thrifty. The trees farther from +the butternut were unaffected and grew consistently well. A similar +condition, although not to the same degree, developed under a white oak +where more Mugho pines were growing. Another instance occurred when a +planting of several thousand Colorado blue spruce were lined out and +fell within the area affected by two butternut trees. The spruce were +all dead within a few months. + +Many people have observed the detrimental effect of trees of the walnut +family on alfalfa, tomatoes and potatoes, resulting in wilting and +dying. It is the root systems of the walnut which are responsible for +this damage. Apparently, there is some chemical elaborated near the +surface of the roots, and sensitive plants, whose roots come in contact +with either roots or ground containing this factor, are injured and +sometimes killed by it. One must therefore be very cautious about +trusting these trees as protectors of many of the ornamental and garden +plants. I am certain, from my own observations, that their influence on +evergreens is strongly antagonistic. + +On another basis is the association between catalpas and chestnut trees +growing adjacent to one another. Constructive symbiosis apparently +develops when a young chestnut tree is planted within the radius of the +root system of a catalpa. The latter very definitely influences the +chestnut tree to grow more vigorously than it otherwise would. + +I have recorded my observations of these antagonisms and friendships +between trees and plants to show that they are a reality which should be +taken into consideration in grouping and transplanting. Such warnings +are infrequent because some people may mistake them as condemnations of +certain favorite trees. I do not intend them as such, for these plants +are often valuable and worthwhile. This ability which they have +developed through the many years of their existence is a guarantee of +the sturdiness and strength of their family and species, not at all a +quality to be condemned. + + + + +CONCLUSION + + +If I had written this book twenty years ago, I would have prophesied a +future for nut culture in the north, full of wonder, hope and profit. If +I had written it ten years ago, I should have filled it with +discouragement and disillusion. Now, after growing such trees for more +than 30 years, I realize that the truth lies somewhere between these +extremes, but nearer the first. + +It is seldom practical to move native trees very far from their natural +range, nor is it necessary to do so in this part of the north: We have +four fine, native nut trees: the hazel, the butternut, the black walnut +and the hickory. In my experience, these four have completely +demonstrated their practical worth. + +If commercialization is the primary hope of the nut tree planter, he +should first consider the large, hardy hybrids, known as hazilberts, +which I have produced between a large Wisconsin wild hazel and European +filberts. Hazilberts equal the best European filberts in every way, +without the latter's disadvantage of susceptibility to hazel blight and +its lack of hardiness. They are as hardy as the common wild hazel and +are more adaptable to environment and soil conditions than any other +native nut tree. They may be trained into trees or allowed to grow as +large bushes. Like all other filberts and hazels, they, too, need +companion plants for cross pollinization to obtain full crops of nuts. + +The butternut is also a very adaptable tree. No one who is acquainted +with it, questions the quality of the butternut kernel. In a good +variety, the nuts should crack out in halves and the kernels drop out +readily. + +So many good varieties of black walnuts are being propagated, I need not +say much about them, except that many of the best ones are not practical +for this climate. Nurserymen who grow them can give the best advice +about varieties to anyone selecting black walnuts for orchard planting. + +Hickories are the last of these native trees to be recommended from a +commercial standpoint, as they are the most particular about soil and +climate. However, with improved propagation methods and planting +technique they should become some day as valuable as pecan plantations +have become valuable to the south. + +Considering the nut tree as a dooryard tree, an ornament rather than a +business, makes it possible to include many more species as suitable for +growing in the north. For this purpose, I suggest heartnuts, chestnuts, +pecans and hiccans. The heartnut tree is always one to draw attention +and interest, picturesque in its leaves, blossoms and clusters of nuts. + +Last, but certainly not least in it potentialities, is the English +walnut. I am certain that we shall have some varieties of these which +will be hardy enough to plant in the north. When these have been +completely proven, they will be a delightful addition to the number of +trees flourishing here. What family would not receive enjoyment and +satisfaction from having, in its dooryard, a gracious English walnut +tree, its spreading branches laden with nuts? + +Although the commercial aspect of producing hazilberts is engrossing me +at the present time, my greatest pleasure in nut culture still comes, as +it always shall come, from actual work with these trees. It is both a +physical and mental tonic. I recommend nut tree culture to everyone who +enjoys spending his time out-of-doors, who is inspired by work of a +creative nature, and who appreciates having trees, or even one tree, of +his own. Suggested reading on Nut Tree Culture: + + Nut Growing by Morris + Nut Growers' Handbook by Bush + Tree Crops by J. Russell Smith + The Nut Culturist by Fuller + Improved Nut Tree of North America by Clarence Reed + Annual Reports of N.N.G.A. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Growing Nuts in the North, by Carl Weschcke + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH *** + +***** This file should be named 18189-8.txt or 18189-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/1/8/18189/ + +Produced by Stacy Brown, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Growing Nuts in the North + A Personal Story of the Author's Experience of 33 Years + with Nut Culture in Minnesota and Wisconsin + +Author: Carl Weschcke + +Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18189] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH *** + + + + +Produced by Stacy Brown, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/1.jpg" width="300" height="501" alt="Eat more nuts. Carl Weschcke, author." title="" /> +</div> + + +<h1>GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH</h1> +<p class="padbot"> </p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> + +<div style="margin-left: 25%; margin-right: 25%;"> +<p class="padtop">A personal story of the author's experience of 33 years with nut culture +in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Includes his failures as well as final +successes.</p> + +<hr style="width: 10%;" /> + +<p>Scientific as well as readable for the amateur horticulturist with many +illustrations. Tells how to grow and to propagate nut bearing trees and +shrubs.</p> +</div> + +<h2 class="padtop">By CARL WESCHCKE</h2> + +<h3 style="font-weight: normal;">Published<br /> +WEBB PUBLISHING CO.<br /> +ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA, U.S.A.<br /> +1953</h3> + + +<h3 class="padtop" style="font-weight: normal;">Copyright 1954<br /> +CARL WESCHCKE<br /> +ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA</h3> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Introduction" id="Introduction"></a><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></h2> + +<h3>GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH</h3> + + +<p>Only a few books have been written on the subject of nut trees and their +bearing habits, and very little of that material applies to their +propagation in cold climates. For these reasons I am relating some of +the experiences I have had in the last thirty-two years in raising nut +trees in Wisconsin. To me, this has been a hobby with results both +practical and ornamental far beyond my original conception. I hope that +the information I am giving will be of help and interest to those who, +like myself, enjoy having nut-bearing trees in their dooryards, and that +it will prevent their undergoing the failures and disappointments I +sometimes met with in pioneering along this line. Since my purpose is to +give advice and assistance to those whose interest parallels mine by +relating my successes and failures and what I learned from each, I have +included only those details of technique which are pertinent.</p> + +<p>It is a fine thing to have a hobby that takes one out-of-doors. That in +itself suggests healthful thought and living. The further association of +working with trees, as with any living things, brings one into the +closest association with nature and God. I hope this book may help +someone achieve that attitude of life, in which I have found such great +pleasure and inner satisfaction.</p> + +<p>Anyone wishing to make a planting of a few nut trees in his dooryard or +a small orchard planting should join the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. This Association can be joined by writing the current +secretary, but since that office may be changed from time to time, +persons applying for membership should write George L. Slate of Geneva +Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, or Dr. H. L. Crane, Principal +Horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant +Industry, Beltsville, Maryland, or the Author. The first president was +Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York City, N. Y., 1910-1911, the Association +being founded by Dr. W. C. Deming of Westchester, New York, who called +the first meeting in 1910.</p> + +<p>Each year a report was printed of the proceedings of the Annual Meeting +and exclusive of the 1952 meeting, the Reports which are in substantial +book form number forty-two. Most of these Reports can be obtained by +writing to the secretary, the total library of these Reports +constituting one of the best authorities for nut tree planting in the +northern hemisphere of the United States than any extant.</p> + +<p>The author acknowledges with thanks the consistent encouraging praise +from his father, Charles Weschcke, of the work involved in nut growing +experiments, also for his financial assistance, thus making the +publication of this book possible and available to readers at a nominal +price.</p> + +<p>The editor of the greater part of this book, Allison Burbank Hartman (a +descendent of the great Luther Burbank), is entitled to great praise and +thanks for the interest and work she put forth.</p> + +<p>Grateful acknowledgment is made to William Kuehn, the artist. He had +been associated with the author in Boy Scout work, also became a part of +the nut growing experiments in Northern Wisconsin, which work was +interrupted by World War II.</p> + +<p>Acknowledgment is hereby made with gratitude to Dr. J. W. McKay of the +U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.; Harry Weber of +Cincinnati, Ohio; Ford Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind.; Fayette Etter, +Lehmasters, Pa.; Dr. W. C. Deming, Litchfield, Conn.; Clarence A. Reed, +Washington, D. C.; Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa.; George S. +Slate, Urbana, Ill.; Herman Last, Steamboat Rock, Iowa, and many other +professors and horticulturists who lent their time and effort assisting +me in my experiments throughout the years. And last but not least, the +author is indebted to his secretary, Dorothy Downie, for tireless +efforts in re-writing the manuscript many times which was necessary in +compiling this book.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH</h2> + + +<h3 class="center"><span class="smcap">Contents</span></h3> + + +<table summary="contents" class="center" style="width: 40%;"><tbody> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Introduction">Introduction</a></td><td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_1">Chapter 1</a></td> <td class="tr">First Encounters</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_2">Chapter 2</a></td> <td class="tr">First Attempts</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_3">Chapter 3</a></td> <td class="tr">Black Walnuts</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_4">Chapter 4</a></td> <td class="tr">Hazels and Filberts</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_5">Chapter 5</a></td> <td class="tr">Hazels and/or Filberts</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_6">Chapter 6</a></td> <td class="tr">Pecans and Their Hybrids</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_7">Chapter 7</a></td> <td class="tr">Hickory the King</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_8">Chapter 8</a></td> <td class="tr">Butternut</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_9">Chapter 9</a></td> <td class="tr">Pioneering With English Walnuts in Wisconsin</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_10">Chapter 10</a></td> <td class="tr">Other Trees</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_11">Chapter 11</a></td> <td class="tr">Pests and Pets</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_12">Chapter 12</a></td> <td class="tr">Storing and Planting Seeds</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_13">Chapter 13</a></td> <td class="tr">Tree Planting Methods</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_14">Chapter 14</a></td> <td class="tr">Winter Protection of Grafts and Seedlings</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_15">Chapter 15</a></td> <td class="tr">Tree Storage</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_16">Chapter 16</a></td> <td class="tr">Suggestions on Grafting Methods</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_17">Chapter 17</a></td> <td class="tr">Grafting Tape Versus Raffia</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_18">Chapter 18</a></td> <td class="tr">Effects of Grafting on Unlike Stocks</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_19">Chapter 19</a></td> <td class="tr">Distinguishing Characteristics of Scions</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_20">Chapter 20</a></td> <td class="tr">Hybridizing</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#Chapter_21">Chapter 21</a></td> <td class="tr">Toxicity Among Trees and Plants</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tl"><a href="#CONCLUSION">Conclusion</a></td><td></td> +</tr></tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_1" id="Chapter_1"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 1</span></h2> + +<h3>FIRST ENCOUNTERS</h3> + + +<p>Almost everyone can remember from his youth, trips made to gather nuts. +Those nuts may have been any of the various kinds distributed throughout +the United States, such as the butternut, black walnut, beechnut, +chestnut, hickory, hazel or pecan. I know that I can recall very well, +when I was a child and visited my grandparents in New Ulm and St. Peter, +in southern Minnesota, the abundance of butternuts, black walnuts and +hazels to be found along the roads and especially along the Minnesota +and Cottonwood river bottoms. Since such nut trees were not to be found +near Springfield, where my parents lived, which was just a little too +far west, I still associate my first and immature interest in this kind +of horticulture with those youthful trips east.</p> + +<p>The only way we children could distinguish between butternut and black +walnut trees was by the fruit itself, either on the tree or shaken down. +This is not surprising, however, since these trees are closely related, +both belonging to the family <i>Juglans</i>. The black walnut is known as +<i>Juglans nigra</i> and the butternut or white walnut as <i>Juglans cinera</i>. +The similarity between the trees is so pronounced that the most +experienced horticulturist may confuse them if he has only the trees in +foliage as his guide. An experience I recently had is quite suggestive +of this. I wished to buy some furniture in either black walnut or +mahogany and I was hesitating between them. Noting my uncertainty, the +salesman suggested a suite of French walnut. My curiosity and interest +were immediately aroused. I had not only been raising many kinds of +walnut trees, but I had also run through my own sawmill, logs of walnut +and butternut. I felt that I knew the various species of walnut very +thoroughly. So I suggested to him:</p> + +<p>"You must mean Circassian or English walnut, which is the same thing. It +grows abundantly in France. You are wrong in calling it French walnut, +though, because there is no such species."</p> + +<p>He indignantly rejected the name I gave it, and insisted that it was +genuine French walnut.</p> + +<p>"Perhaps," I advised him, "that is a trade name to cover the real +origin, just as plucked muskrat is termed Hudson seal."</p> + +<p>That, too, he denied. We were both insistent. I was sure of my own +knowledge and stubborn enough to want to prove him wrong. I pulled a +drawer from the dresser of the "French<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> walnut" suite and asked him to +compare its weight with that of a similar drawer from a black walnut +suite nearby. Black walnut weighs forty pounds per cubic foot, while +butternut weighs only twenty-five. He was forced to admit the difference +and finally allowed my assertion to stand that "French walnut" was +butternut, stained and finished to simulate black walnut. Since it would +have been illegal to claim that it was black walnut, the attractive but +meaningless label of "French walnut" had been applied. Although it is +less expensive, I do not mean to imply that butternut is not an +excellent wood for constructing furniture. It ranks high in quality and +is probably as durable as black walnut. I do say, though, that it was +necessary for me to know both the species names and the relative weights +of each wood to be able to distinguish between them indisputably.</p> + +<p>An instance in which the nuts themselves were useless for purposes of +identification occurred when I sent some black walnuts to the Division +of Pomology at Washington, D. C. These were the Ohio variety which I had +grafted on butternut roots. The tree had been bearing for three or four +years but this was the first year the nuts had matured. During their +bearing period, these black walnuts had gradually changed in appearance, +becoming elongated and very deeply and sharply corrugated like +butternuts although they still retained the black walnut flavor. Because +of this mixture of characteristics, the government experts had great +difficulty in identifying the variety, although the Ohio was well known +to them.</p> + +<p>Another variety of black walnut, the Thomas, I have also known to be +influenced by the butternut stock on which it was grafted, when in 1938, +one of my trees bore black walnuts whose meat had lost its +characteristic flavor and assumed that of the butternut.</p> + +<table class="center" summary="images"> +<tr><td> +<img src="images/2.jpg" width="197" height="250" alt="A" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A</span> +</td> +<td> +<img src="images/3.jpg" width="179" height="250" alt="B" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">B</span> +</td> +</tr></table> + +<div class="illo"> +<p class="center"><i>A—Genuine original Ohio Black Walnut from parent tree</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>B—Nut produced by grafting Ohio on Butternut</i></p> +</div> + +<p>I also liked to pick hazelnuts when I was a boy. These are probably the +least interesting among the wild nuts since they are usually small and +hard to crack. There is much variation in wild hazels, however, and many +people may recall them as being reasonably large. One of the two species +abundant in Minnesota, <i>Corylus cornuta</i> or Beak hazel, has fine, +needle-like hairs on its husk which are sure to stick into one's fingers +disagreeably. When the husk is removed, <i>Corylus cornuta</i> resembles a +small acorn. It does not produce in southern Minnesota and central +Wisconsin as well as the common hazel, <i>Corylus Americana</i>, does, nor is +its flavor as pleasing to most people. It is lighter in color than the +common hazel and has a thinner shell. Of course, some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> hazels are +intermediate or natural hybrids between these two species, and if the +nuts of such hybrids are planted, they generally revert to one of the +parents when mature enough to bear. This natural hybridization occurs +among all plants, between those of the same species, the same genera or +the same family. It is very rare between plants of different families. +The process is a very important one in horticulture and I shall explain +some of the crosses which are well-known later in this book.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_2" id="Chapter_2"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 2</span></h2> + +<h3>FIRST ATTEMPTS</h3> + + +<p>When I was about fifteen years old, my family moved to St. Paul, +Minnesota, where my home now is and where my experimental work with nuts +was begun. St. Paul is in the 45th north parallel, but although it is +farther north, it is as favorable for the growth of nut trees as New Ulm +or St. Peter, because it lies in the Mississippi River valley and is +farther east. Bodies of water and altitudes have as great an influence +on plant life as latitude; at least, they can have, and these are +factors that must be understood thoroughly. Soil conditions also vitally +affect plant life, particularly deep-rooted trees such as nut trees +usually are. Each has its own requirements; hickory, Japanese heartnut +and Persian walnuts favor an alkaline soil, which chestnuts, wanting +acid will not grow in; chestnuts thrive best in a slightly acid, +well-drained soil; hazels will grow in either alkaline or acid soil as +will black walnuts and butternuts; almonds need a light sandy soil, +similar to that suitable to plums, pecans do well in either rich river +bottoms, which may be slightly acid, or in clay soil on high hillsides +which are alkaline. A deep, sandy or graveltype soil is usually accepted +by the chestnuts even though it may not be slightly acid, and successful +orchards have been grown on a deep clay soil on hillsides.</p> + +<p>It is not always easy to obtain black walnuts and butternuts to eat. +Hickory nuts have been a favorite of mine since I first tasted them and +I often have found it difficult to procure fresh ones, ones that were +not slightly rancid. Because I liked eating these nuts, I thought I +would try to grow some for my own consumption and so avoid having to +depend on a grocer's occasional supply of those shipped in, always a +little stale. Raising nuts appealed to me economically too, since +obviously trees would need little care, and after they had begun to bear +would supply nuts that could be sold at interesting prices.</p> + +<p>I turned the back yard of my home in St. Paul into an experimental plot. +Here I set out some of each kind of tree I planted or grafted at my farm +in Wisconsin. I had purchased a farm 35 miles east of St. Paul, beyond +the influence of the St. Croix River Valley. My experiments really began +there. The farm was covered with butternut trees, hazel bushes, and a +wild hickory called "bitternut." This last is well-named for I have +never found an animal other than a squirrel that could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> endure its nuts. +Possibly the white-footed mouse or deer-mouse could—I don't know. He +usually eats anything a squirrel does. I learned to appreciate these +bitternut trees later and they became a source of experience and +interest to me as I learned to graft on them many varieties, species and +hybrids of hickory. They served as a root-system and shortened the +length of time required to test dozens of hickory types, helping me in +that way, to learn within one lifetime what types of nuts are practical +for growing in the north.</p> + +<p>Remembering the nut trees in southern Minnesota, I first thought to +procure black walnut and hickory trees from some farmer in that +district. Through acquaintances in St. Peter, I did locate some black +walnut trees only to find that it was impractical to dig and transport +trees of the size I wanted. A nursery near St. Paul supplied me with +some and I bought twenty-eight large, seedling black walnut trees. I was +too eager to get ahead with my plans and I attempted, the first year +these trees were planted, to graft all of them. My ability to do this +was not equal to my ambition though, and all but two of the trees were +killed. I was successful in grafting one of them to a Stabler black +walnut; the other tree persisted so in throwing out its natural sprouts +that I decided it should be allowed to continue doing so. That native +seedling tree which I could not graft now furnishes me with bushels of +walnuts each year which are planted for understocks. This is the name +given to the root systems on which good varieties are grafted.</p> + +<p>In an effort to replace these lost trees, I inquired at the University +of Minnesota Farm and was given the addresses of several nurserymen who +were then selling grafted nut trees. Their catalogues were so inviting +that I decided it would be quite plausible to grow pecans and English +walnuts at this latitude. So I neglected my native trees that year for +the sake of more exotic ones. One year sufficed; the death of my whole +planting of English walnuts and pecans turned me back to my original +interest. My next order of trees included grafted black walnuts of four +accepted varieties to be planted in orchard form—the Stabler, Thomas, +Ohio and Ten Eyck.</p> + +<p>I ordered a few hickories at the same time but these eventually died. My +experience with hickories was very discouraging since they were my +favorite nuts and I had set my heart on growing some. I think I should +have given up attempting them had not one dealer, J. F. Jones, urged +that I buy just three more hickory trees of the Beaver variety. He gave +me special instructions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> on how to prepare them against winter. I have +always felt that what he told me was indeed special and very valuable +since those three trees lived. Subsequently, I bought several hundred +dollars worth of trees from him. More than that, we became friends. I +visited him at his nurseries in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and he again +demonstrated his interest and generosity by giving me both horticultural +information and the kindest hospitality. My friendship with him was but +one of many that I have formed while traveling and corresponding in the +interests of nut culture. True and lasting friends such men make, too, +with no circumstances of selfish import to taint the pleasure of the +relationship.</p> + +<p>Since I wanted to have many black walnut trees some day, I decided to +plant ten bushels of black walnuts in rows. I thought I could later +graft these myself and save expense. The theory was all right but when I +came to practice it, I found I had not taken squirrels into +consideration. These bushy-tailed rats dug up one complete bed which +contained two bushels of nuts and reburied them in haphazard places +around the farm. When the nuts started to sprout, they came up in the +fields, in the gardens, and on the lawn—everywhere except where I had +intended them to be. I later was grateful to those squirrels, though, +because, through their redistributing these nuts I learned a great deal +about the effect of soil on black walnut trees, even discovering that +what I thought to be suitable was not. The trees which the squirrels +planted for me are now large and lend themselves to experimental +grafting. On them I have proved, and am still proving, new varieties of +the English walnut.</p> + +<p>The other eight bushels had been planted near a roadside and close to +some farm buildings. The constant human activity thereabouts probably +made the squirrels less bold, for although they carried off at least a +bushel of walnuts, about two thousand seedlings grew. I had planted +these too close together and as the trees developed they became so +crowded that many died. The remaining seedlings supplied me with +root-stocks for experimental work which proved very valuable.</p> + +<p>I have always suspected the squirrels of having been responsible for the +fact that my first attempt to grow hickory seedlings was unsuccessful. I +planted a quart of these nuts and not one plant came up. No doubt the +squirrels dug them up as soon as I planted them and probably they +enjoyed the flavor as much as I always have.</p> + +<p>In 1924 I ordered one hundred small beechnut trees, <i>Fagus ferruginea</i>, +from the Sturgeon Bay Nurseries at Sturgeon Bay,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> Wisconsin. The company +was very generous and sent me three hundred of them. I planted these +trees in a heavy clay soil with limestone running near the surface. They +grew well the first year, except that there was heavy mortality during +cold weather. In working with these trees my lack of experience and +horticultural knowledge was against me. They could not tolerate the soil +and within three years they were all dead.</p> + +<p>To give variety to the landscape at my farm, I planted several other +kinds of trees. Among these were Kentucky coffee-trees which have +beautiful bronze foliage in the spring and honey locusts. I planted five +hundred Douglas fir but unfortunately, I put these deep in the woods +among heavy timber where they were so shaded that only a few lived. +Later, I moved the surviving fir trees into an open field where they +still flourish. About two hundred fifty pines of mixed varieties—white, +Norway and jack—that I planted in the woods, also died.</p> + +<p>I decided, then, that evergreens might do better if they were planted +from seeds. I followed instructions in James W. Toumey's "Seeding and +Planting in the Practice of Forestry," in bed culture and spot seeding. +In the latter one tears off the sod in favorable places and throws seed +on the unprotected ground. In doing this, I ignored the natural +requirements of forest practice which call for half-shade during the +first two to three years of growth. Thousands of seedlings sprouted but +they all died either from disease or from attacks by cows and sheep. One +should never attempt to raise trees and stock in the same field.</p> + +<p>Because of these misfortunes, I determined to study the growth of +evergreens. I invested in such necessary equipment as frames and lath +screening. Better equipped with both information and material, I grew +thousands of evergreen trees. Among the varieties of pine were:</p> + +<table summary="pine trees" style="margin-left: 20%;"><tbody> +<tr> +<td class="tlt">native White Pine </td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus strobus</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">Norway pine</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus silvestrus</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">Mugho pine</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus pumila montana</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">sugar pine</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus Lambertiana<br />(not hardy in northern Wisconsin)</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">Swiss stone</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus cembra<br />(not hardy in northern Wisconsin)</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">Italian stone</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus pinea<br />(not hardy in northern Wisconsin)</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">pinon</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus edulis<br />(not hardy in northern Wisconsin)</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">bull pine</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus Jeffreyi (hardy)</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">jack pine</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus banksiana (very hardy)</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tlt">limber pine</td> <td class="tlt">—Pinus flexilis<br />(semi-hardy, a fine nut pine).</td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +Many of the limber pines came into bearing about fifteen years after the +seed was planted. At that age they varied in height from three to +fifteen feet. One little three-foot tree had several large cones full of +seed. Each tree varied in the quality and size of its seeds. Although it +might be possible to graft the best varieties on young seedling stocks, +in all the hundreds of grafts I have made on pine, I have been +successful only once. I doubt that such a thing would ever be practical +from a commercial standpoint unless some new method were discovered by +which a larger percentage of successful grafts could be realized.</p> + +<p>I cultivated the Douglas fir, white, Norway, and Colorado blue varieties +of spruce. Besides these, I planted balsam fir, red cedar, <i>Juniperus +Virginiana</i>, and white cedar, <i>Arborvitae</i>. Practically all of these +trees are still growing and many of them bear seed.</p> + +<p>I wish to describe the limber pine, <i>Pinus flexilis</i>, for it is not only +a good grower and quite hardy but it is also a very ornamental nut pine +which grows to be a broad, stout-trunked tree 40 to 75 feet high. The +young bark is pale grey or silver; the old bark is very dark, in square +plates. The wood itself is light, soft and close-grained, having a color +that varies from yellow to red. The needles, which are found in clusters +of five, are slender, 1-1/2 to 3 inches long, and are dark green. They +are shed during the fifth or sixth year. The buds of the tree are found +bunched at the branch tips and are scaly and pointed. The limber pine +has flowers like those of the white pine, except that they are +rose-colored. Although the fruit is described as annual, I have found +that, in this locality, it takes about fifteen months from the time the +blossoms appear for it to reach maturity. That is, the fruit requires +two seasons for growth, maturing its seeds the second September. The +cones of the limber pine, which vary from three to seven inches in +length, are purple, having thick rounded scales and being abruptly +peaked at the apex. The seeds are wingless or have only very narrow +wings around them.</p> + +<p>With the idea of getting practical results sooner, since nut trees +mature slowly, I interplanted my nut trees with varieties of apple, plum +and cherry. Doing so also served to economize on ground, since +ultimately nut trees require a great deal of space<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> for best growth. +Walnut trees, for example, should be set 40 to 60 feet apart in each +direction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 236px;"> +<img src="images/4.jpg" width="236" height="204" alt="Pinus Flexilus" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Pinus Flexilus nut seeds, Natural Size</i></p> + +<p>I learned a variety of facts during these first years of trial and +error. I discovered, for instance, that iron fence posts rust away in an +acid soil; that one must use cedar or oak. Conversely, in alkaline soil, +iron will last indefinitely, but that the nitrogenous bacteria will +quickly rot wooden posts. I found that the secret of growing hickories +successfully lies in giving them plenty of room, with no forest trees +around to cut off their supply of sunlight and air. I learned that it is +impractical to graft a large forest tree of butternut or hickory. +Incidental to that, I learned that a branch of a butternut tree which +looks large enough to support a man's weight near the trunk, will not do +so when the branch is green and alive, but that a dead branch of similar +size will. Contrariwise, even a small green limb of a bitternut-hickory +will bear my weight, but an old limb, though several inches thick, +becomes so brittle after it is dead for several years that it will break +under slight pressure. Fortunately, falls from trees do not usually +result in serious injuries but I did acquire quite a few bruises +learning these distinctions.</p> + +<p>There is always a natural mortality in planting trees, but in those +first years, lacking badly-needed experience, I lost more than 75%. +Nearly all of them started to grow but died during the first few +winters. Those which survived were the start of a nursery filled with +hardy trees which can endure the climate of the north. In looking back, +I appreciate how fortunate I was in having sought and received advice +from experienced nurserymen. Had I not done so, frequent failures would +surely have discouraged me. As it was, the successes I did have were an +incentive which made me persist and which left me with faith enough in +an ultimate success to go on buying seeds and trees and to make greater +and more varied experiments.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_3" id="Chapter_3"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 3</span></h2> + +<h3>BLACK WALNUTS</h3> + + +<p>I have spent more of my time cultivating black walnuts than any other +kind of nut tree and given more of my ground area over to them. Yet it +was with no great amount of enthusiasm that I started working with these +trees. Obviously there could be nothing new or extraordinary resulting +from my planting trees of this species either on my farm or at my St. +Paul home, since there already were mature, bearing black walnut trees +at both places. It was only with the idea that they would be an +attractive addition to the native butternut groves that I decided to +plant some black walnut seedlings.</p> + +<p>This did not prove feasible as I first attempted it. I had engaged a Mr. +Miller at St. Peter to procure wild black walnut trees for me since they +grew near that town. He was to dig these trees with as much of the root +system included as possible and ship them to my farm. But the winter +season came before this had been accomplished and both Mr. Miller and I, +deciding the idea was not as practical as we had hoped it would be, +abandoned it. Later that same autumn I found that a nursery just outside +of St. Paul had several rows of overgrown black walnut trees which they +would sell me quite reasonably. I bought them and sent instructions to +the tenant at my farm to dig twenty-eight large holes in which to plant +them. Packed in straw and burlap, the trees weighed about 500 pounds, I +found. This was much too heavy and cumbersome to pack in my old touring +car, so I hunted around for some sort of vehicle I could attach to my +car as a trailer. In an old blacksmith shop, I came upon an antiquated +pair of buggy wheels. They looked as though they were ready to fall +apart but I decided that with repairs and by cautious driving, they +might last out the trip of thirty-five miles. So I paid the blacksmith +his asking price—twenty-five cents. The spokes rattled and the steel +tires were ready to roll off their wooden rims but the axles were +strong. My father-in-law and I puttered and pounded, strengthened and +tightened, until we felt our semi-trailer was in good-enough order. It +might have been, too, if the roads in the country hadn't been rough and +frozen so hard that they hammered on the solid, unresisting tires and +spokes until, almost within sight of the farm, one wheel dismally +collapsed. As the wheel broke, the trailer slid off the road into a +ditch, so that it was necessary to send on to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> farm for the plow +horses to haul out the car, the trailer and the trees. The horses +finished hauling the trees to that part of the farm where holes had been +dug for them. I had told my tenant to dig large holes and large holes he +had certainly dug! Most of them were big enough to bury one of the +horses in. Such was my amateurish first endeavor.</p> + +<p>It was not until December of that year, 1919, that the twenty-eight +trees were finally planted. Although the ground was already somewhat +frozen and the trees poorly planted as a result, most of them started to +grow in the spring. They would probably be living now if I had not been +too ambitious to convert them from seedlings into grafted varieties such +as the Ohio, Thomas and Stabler, which I had learned of during a +winter's study of available nut-culture lore. I obtained scionwood from +J. F. Jones, part of which I put on these abused trees and the remainder +of which I grafted on butternut trees. At that time, I must admit, I was +much more interested in trying the actual work of grafting than I was in +developing or even conceiving a methodical plan to be worked out over a +period of years.</p> + +<p>In order to facilitate my grafting work that spring, I pitched a tent in +the woods and lived there for a week at a time, doing my own cooking and +roughing it generally. Cows were being pastured in this part of the +woods and they were very interested in my activities. If I were absent +for a long time during the day, on my return I would find that +noticeable damage had been done to my tent and food supplies by these +curious cows. While preparing some scionwood inside the tent one day, I +heard a cow approaching and picked up a heavy hickory club which I had +for protection at night, intending to rush out and give the animal a +proper lesson in minding its own business. The cow approached the tent +from the side opposite the door and pushed solidly against the canvas +with its nose and head. This so aggravated me that I jumped over to that +part of the tent and gave the cow a hard whack over the nose with my +hickory stick. It jumped away fast for such a big animal. This seemed to +end all curiosity on the part of these cows and I was allowed to carry +on my work in peace.</p> + +<p>With beginner's luck, I succeeded with many of the butternut grafts, as +well as with some of the grafts on the twenty-eight planted black +walnuts. However, all of the grafted black walnut trees ultimately died +with the exception of one grafted Stabler. This large tree was a +monument of success for twenty years, bearing some nuts every year and +maturing them, and in a good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> season, producing bushels of them. One +other of these seedlings survived but as it would not accept any grafts, +I finally let it live as nature intended.</p> + +<p>In 1921, I began ordering grafted black walnut trees, as well as grafted +hickory trees from J. F. Jones, who had the largest and best known of +the nurseries handling northern nut trees. Some of these grafted trees +were also planted at my home in St. Paul, using the two locations as +checks against each other. The site in St. Paul eventually proved +unsatisfactory because of the gravelly soil and because the trees were +too crowded. The varieties of black walnuts I first experimented with +were the Thomas, Ohio, Stabler and Ten Eyck, which were planted by +hundreds year after year. If I had not worked on this large scale there +would be no reason for me to write about it today as the mortality of +these black walnuts was so high that probably none would have lived to +induce in me the ambition necessary to support a plan involving lengthy, +systematic experimentation. Some of these early trees survive today, +however, and although few in number, they have shown me that the +experiment was a worthy one since it laid the foundation for results +which came later. In fact, I feel that both the time and money I spent +during that initial era of learning were investments in which valuable +dividends of knowledge and development are still being paid.</p> + +<p>In grafting black walnuts on butternut trees, I very foolishly attempted +to work over a tree more than a foot in diameter and I did not succeed +in getting a single graft to grow on it. Other younger trees, from three +to six inches in diameter, I successfully grafted. Some of these are +still living but clearly show the incompatibility of the two species +when black walnut is grafted on butternut. The opposite combination of +butternut on black walnut is very successful and produces nuts earlier +and in greater abundance than butternut does when grafted on its own +species.</p> + +<p>The expense of buying trees by hundreds was so great that after a year I +decided that I could very easily plant black walnuts to obtain the young +trees needed as understocks. When they had grown large enough, I would +graft them over myself. I wrote to my friend in St. Peter, Mr. E. E. +Miller, and he told me where I could obtain walnuts by the bushel. Soon +I was making trips to the countryside around St. Peter buying walnuts +from the farmers there. I planted about five bushels of these at the +River Falls farm and the rest, another two bushels, at St. Paul. Soon I +had several thousand young walnut trees which all proved hardy to the +winters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> + +<p>When pruning the black walnut trees purchased from Mr. Jones for +transplanting, I saved the tops and grafted them to the young trees with +a fair degree of success. In a few years, I was using my own trees to +fill up spaces left vacant by the mortality of the Pennsylvania-grown +trees. I did not neglect seeding to provide stocks of the Eastern black +walnut also, which is almost a different species from the local black +walnut, but these seedling trees proved to be tender toward our winters +and only a few survived. After they had grown into large trees, these +few were grafted to English walnuts. The difference between the Eastern +black walnut and the local native black walnut is quite apparent when +the two trees are examined side by side. Even the type of fruit is +different, although I do not know of any botanical authority who will +confirm my theory that they are different species. They are probably to +be considered as geographically distinct rather than as botanically +different species.</p> + +<p>For several years I continued to graft black walnuts on butternut trees +with the intention of converting hundreds, perhaps thousands, of these +wild trees over to prolific, cultured black walnuts. I did not realize +my mistake in doing this until ten years had elapsed. I believed that +since the tops were growing, the trees would shortly produce nuts. Today +they are still growing, bigger and better, yet most of these grafted +trees bear no nuts, having only a crop of leaves. A few nuts result from +these grafts, however, and some of the trees bear a handful of nuts from +tops of such size that one would expect the crops to be measured in +bushels. The kind which bore the best was the Ohio variety. In another +chapter, I shall relate parallel experience in hickory grafting which I +carried on simultaneously with grafting of black walnut on butternut.</p> + +<p>My first big disappointment in my black walnut orchard was when, in +about 1930, having a fairly good crop of nuts, I unsuccessfully +attempted to sell them to local stores. They were not interested in +anything except walnut kernels and to them, a wild walnut kernel was the +same as a cultivated one as long as it was highly-flavored. This so +cooled my enthusiasm and hopes for a black walnut orchard that I ceased +experimenting with them except to try out new varieties being discovered +through nut contests carried on by the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. The 1926 contest produced a number of black walnut +possibilities, among them being such named varieties as the Rohwer, +Paterson, Throp, Vandersloot, Pearl and Adams.</p> + +<p>The neglected and over-grown walnut seedlings now began to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> serve a +useful purpose in grafting the new varieties which I obtained for +testing in this locality. These were propagated by obtaining scionwood +from the originators of the variety and grafting it on these seedling +trees. My technical knowledge had increased by this time to such an +extent that I was usually certain of one-half of the grafts growing. The +behavior of the Rohwer and Paterson in 1937 invited nursery propagation +on a greater scale than did other better-known types, because of their +qualities of hardiness and earlier-ripening.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1937, these native seedlings were again offered to the +spirit of propagation, when a large part of the scionwood of English +walnuts I had imported from the Carpathian mountains of Poland was +grafted on them. The success of my grafting in this instance was only +about 1-1/2%, showing that something was decidedly wrong. Two +conclusions were possible: Either the scionwood had been injured by +transportation and the severe winter temperatures during January and +February of 1937 during which they were stored, or incompatibility +existed between the imported walnuts and our local ones. My conclusion +now is that when these stocks are fifteen years old or more and are +thrifty, they will support grafting of the Carpathian English walnuts +much more successfully than they will in their first decade of growth. +Results have shown that these local stocks will accept such grafts, +however, and that crops of English walnuts will be produced. The +fertility of the soil must be maintained carefully, since the English +walnut top tends to overgrow its black walnut root-stock, and unless +nutritional substance for the support of these tops is fed to the +root-system, meager crops, if any, will result.</p> + +<p>I might note in comparison to the 1-1/2% success I had in this grafting, +that during the same season I put several hundred scions of these same +English walnuts on the Eastern black walnut stocks without a single +successful graft occurring.</p> + +<p>In 1933 and 1934, many of these experimentally grafted walnuts, such as +Vandersloot, Paterson, and Rohwer as well as others, were planted in +orchard formation. In digging these trees, we took care to get all of +the root possible and to take a ball of dirt with the root. In spite of +these precautions, some of the trees died, not having sufficient +vitality and root development to withstand transplantation. This was a +result not only of the crowded condition under which the stocks had +grown but also of the poor soil which had nourished them. The soil was +heavy blue clay underlaid with limestone within two feet of the top of +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> ground. Enough trees were set out in orchard formation which are +growing well and bearing annual crops, to give us the proof we need in +drawing conclusions of superiority among these varieties.</p> + +<p>Black walnuts will keep for several years if they are properly dried and +then stored in a cool, but not too damp, place. Storing nuts in attics +which are likely to become excessively hot in the summer time, causes +rancidity sooner than any other method. Nuts keep very well in attics +during the winter but they should be transferred to a basement during +hot weather. If the basement is very damp, though, nuts will mould +there. For general storage, without having to move them from one place +to another for different seasons, nuts can be kept most practically in a +barn or outside shed. The only precaution necessary under such +circumstances is that they should be in a box or steel barrel to prevent +squirrels and mice from feeding on them, since barns and sheds are +easily accessible to these animals.</p> + +<p>The kernels of black walnuts need not be discolored if the hulls of the +fresh nuts are removed as soon as the nuts are ripe. At my farm, we have +done this with an ordinary corn-sheller. The nuts, having been hulled +this way, are then soaked in water for a few hours to remove any excess +coloring matter left on their shells, after which they are dried for +several days out-of-doors, although not exposed to the sun since this +might cause them to crack open. Thorough drying is necessary before +sacking to prevent moulding. Kernels extracted from nuts treated this +way are very light in color like English walnuts. This enhances their +market value and they command a higher price when they are to be used +for culinary purposes such as cake frosting and candies where there is +exposure of large pieces or halves of the nut kernel. I find black +walnuts are exceptionally delicious when used in a candy called divinity +fudge. The strong flavor of the black walnut kernel although appreciated +by many people, is not as popular as that of the butternut, of which +more is said in another chapter.</p> + +<p>The food value of black walnut kernels is high since they are composed +of concentrated fat and protein, similar to the English walnut, the +hickory nut and the pecan. There is also the advantage, which John +Harvey Kellogg of Battle Creek, Michigan, has pointed out, that nuts are +a food of high purity being entirely free from disease bacteria. One +could safely say of unshelled nuts that there is not a disease germ in a +carload.</p> + +<p>There was a time when black walnut hulls were purchased by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> producers of +insecticides. The black walnut hull, when dried and pulverized, produces +a substance which gives body to the concentrated pyrethrum extract which +is the essential ingredient of many insecticides.</p> + +<p>One cannot leave a discussion of black walnuts without reflecting on the +furniture which has been possible only through the use of vast forests +of black walnut timber. Beautiful veneers have come from the burl +walnut, being formed by protuberances on the trunks of the trees near +the surface of the ground. There is a variety of black walnut which we +have been experimenting with for quite a few years, called the Lamb, +which has a beautifully figured grain. As this appears only in mature +timber, ours is not yet old enough to show it.</p> + +<p>I have found that the Ohio black walnut is prone to hybridize with +butternut trees in its vicinity and others have told me of its +hybridizing with English walnut trees near it, which shows it to be +almost as vacillating in character as our Japanese walnuts or heartnuts. +Ohio black walnuts, when planted, usually produce vigorous stocks, many +of which show hybridity of some sort. If one examines the nuts of the +Ohio and finds them dwarfed or deformed, he may be sure that they have +been pollinized by something other than a black walnut. Planting such +nuts, then, will grow hybrid trees. Most of us have enough curiosity to +want to try this as an experiment.</p> + +<p>Thomas walnut seedlings have produced more thrifty trees than Ohio nuts +have. However, the best understocks are those produced from seeds of +native grown trees. It is well understood that rarely does a specific +type such as the Ohio, Thomas or Stabler reproduce itself exactly from +seeds. In raising black walnut seedlings, my experience has taught me +that the nuts should be planted in the fall and not too deep, one to two +inches below the surface being all the depth necessary. They may never +sprout if they are four to six inches under ground. The black walnut +tree is a glutton for food seemingly, it will use all the fertilizer +that it is given although, no doubt, there is a practical limit. It must +have plenty of food to produce successive crops of nuts, and barnyard +manure is the safest and most practical kind to use. This can be put on +as a heavy mulch around the trees but some of it should also be spaded +into the ground. One must always remember that the feeding roots of a +tree are at about the same circumference as the tips of the branches so +that fertilizer put close to the trunk will do little good except in +very young trees. Since 1936 we have been watching a small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> native +walnut which came into bearing while in a nursery row. This tree bore +such fine thin-shelled easy-to-crack nuts and lent itself so readily to +being propagated by graftage and had so many other good characteristics +that we have selected it as representative of the black walnut varieties +for the north and have named it the Weschcke walnut and patented the +variety. A list is here appended to show the order of hardiness and +value based on our experience:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1—Weschcke—very hardy—excellent cracking and flavor</p> + +<p>2—Paterson—very hardy—excellent cracking and flavor (originating +in Iowa)</p> + +<p>3—Rohwer—very hardy—good cracker (originating in Iowa)</p> + +<p>4—Bayfield—very hardy—good cracker (originating in Northern +Wisconsin)</p> + +<p>5—Adams (Iowa)—fairly hardy—good cracker</p> + +<p>6—Ohio—semi-hardy, excellent cracking and flavor (parent tree in +Ohio)</p> + +<p>7—Northwestern—a new, good hardy nut</p> + +<p>8—Pearl—semi-hardy—good (from Iowa)</p> + +<p>9—Vandersloot—semi-hardy—very large</p> + +<p>10—Thomas—tender to our winters—otherwise very good (from +Pennsylvania)</p> + +<p>11—Stabler—tender—many nuts single-lobed</p> + +<p>12—Throp—tender, many nuts single-lobed</p></div> + +<p>A friend of mine, who lives in Mason, Wisconsin, discovered a black +walnut tree growing in that vicinity. Since Mason is in the northern +part of the state, about 47° parallel north, this tree grows the +farthest north of any large black walnut I know of. I would estimate its +height at about sixty-five feet and its trunk diameter at about sixteen +inches at breast-height. Because of the short growing season there, the +nuts do not mature, being barely edible, due to their shrinkage while +drying. Some seasons this failure to mature nuts also occurs in such +varieties as the Thomas, the Ohio and even the Stabler at my River Falls +farm, which is nearly 150 miles south of Mason. Such nuts will sprout, +however, and seedlings were raised from the immature nuts of this +northern tree. Incidentally these seedlings appear to be just as hardy +in wood growth as their parent tree. I have also grafted scionwood from +the original tree on black walnut stocks at my farm in order to +determine more completely the quality of this variety. Since grafted, +these trees have borne large, easy to crack mature nuts and are +propagated under the varietal name (Bay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>field) since the parent tree is +in sight of Lake Superior at Bayfield, Wisconsin.</p> + +<p>Many of our best nut trees, from man's point of view, have inherent +faults such as the inability of the staminate bloom of the Weschcke +hickory to produce any pollen whatsoever, as has been scientifically +outlined in the treatise by Dr. McKay under the chapter on hickories. In +the Weschcke walnut we have a peculiarity of a similar nature as it +affects fruiting when the tree is not provided with other varieties to +act as pollinators. It has been quite definitely established, by +observation over a period of ten or more years, that the pollen of the +Weschcke variety black walnut does not cause fruiting in its own +pistillate blooms. Although this is not uncommon among some plants, such +as the chestnut and the filbert where it is generally the rule instead +of the exception, yet in the black walnuts species the pollen from its +own male (or staminate) flowers is generally capable of exciting the +ovule of the female (pistillate) flower into growth. Such species are +known as self-fertile. As in the case of ordinary chestnuts which +receive no cross pollination, and the pistillate flowers develop into +perfect burrs with shrunken meatless, imperfect nuts, the Weschcke black +walnut, when standing alone or when the prevailing winds prevent other +nearby pollen from reaching any or but few of its pistillate bloom, goes +on to produce fine looking average-sized nuts practically all of which +are without seed or kernels. Such therefore is the importance of knowing +the correct pollinators for each variety of nut tree. In the +self-sterility of filberts the failure of self-pollination results in an +absence of nuts or in very few rather than a full crop of seedless +fruits such as the common chestnut and the Weschcke black walnuts +produces. This is the only black walnut that has come to the author's +attention where its pollen acting on its pistillate bloom has affected +the production of nuts in just this way but the variety of black walnut +known as the Ohio, one of the best sorts for this northern climate +except for hardiness, has often demonstrated that it has a peculiarity +which might be caused by lack of outside pollen or because of the action +of its own pollen on its pistillate bloom. This peculiarity is the often +found one-sided development of the Ohio walnut kernel when the tree is +isolated from other pollen bearing black walnuts. One lobe of the kernel +is therefore full-meated while the other half or lobe is very +undernourished or it may be a thin wisp of a kernel as is the appearance +of the Weschcke variety in similar circumstances.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/5.jpg" width="400" height="554" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Stabler variety of Black Walnut grafted on a Minnesota +seedling stock bore many years but was winter killed. Photo by C. +Weschcke</i></p> + +<p>Cutting scionwood early one spring, I noticed that the sap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> was running +very fast in the grafted Stabler tree previously referred to. Later when +I came back to inspect this tree, I noticed that the sap had congealed +to syrupy blobs at the ends of the cut branches. My curiosity led me to +taste this and I found it very sweet and heavy. I mean to experiment +some time in making syrup from the sap of this tree as I believe its +sugar content to be much higher than that of the local sugar maple. This +makes the Stabler a 3-purpose tree, the first being its nuts, the second +being the syrup, and the third being, at the end of its potentially long +life, a good-sized piece of timber of exceptionally high value. The tree +is one of beauty, having drooping foliage similar to that of the weeping +willow. This is another point in its favor, its being an ornamental tree +worthy of any lawn. However, the Stabler<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> is now considered as a tender +variety and is not recommended for northern planting.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/6.jpg" width="400" height="546" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Stabler graft on old seedling grafted in May, 1938 +bearing in August of the same year. Photo by C. Weschcke</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/7.jpg" width="400" height="292" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Cut Leaf Black Walnut. Scions furnished by Harry Weber +of Cincinnati, Ohio. Variety was hardy on Minnesota seedling for about 5 +years. Photo by C. Weschcke</i></p> + +<p>The aesthetic value of the black walnut does not cease here since there +are some varieties which are exceptionally attractive. One of these is +the cut-leaf black walnut which has the ordinary compound leaf but whose +individual leaflets are so scalloped and serrated that they resemble a +male fern. Everyone who has seen one of these has evinced pleasurable +surprise at this new form of leaf and it may become very popular with +horticulturists in the future. Another interestingly different variety +is the Deming Purple walnut which, although orthodox in leaf form, has a +purplish tint, bordering on red in some cases, coloring leaf, wood and +nuts, resulting in a distinctly decorative tree. This tree<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> was named +for Dr. W. C. Deming who was the founder of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. Neither the Laceleaf nor Deming Purple are hardy for this +climate but survived several years nevertheless before succumbing to one +of our periodical test winters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_4" id="Chapter_4"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 4</span></h2> + +<h3>HAZELS AND FILBERTS</h3> + + +<p>In October 1921, I ordered from J. F. Jones, one hundred plants of what +is known as the Rush hazel which was, at that time, the best known of +the propagated hazels. In ordering these, I mentioned the fact that I +expected to get layered plants or grafted ones. Mr. Jones wrote me at +once to say that the plants he had were seedlings of the Rush hazel +which are said to come very true to seed, but that if I did not want +them as seedlings he would cancel the order. Rather than lacking a +profitable filler between the orchard trees, I accepted the order of one +hundred plants and received from him a fine lot of hazels which took +good root and began to grow luxuriantly. It was several years before any +of them began to bear and when one or two did, the nuts were not hazels +at all, but filberts and hybrids. In most cases these nuts were larger +and better than those of the original Rush hazel.</p> + +<p>One of these seedlings grew into a bushy tree ten or twelve feet high. +For several years it bore a crop which, though meager, was composed of +large, attractive nuts shaped like those of the common American hazel +but very unlike the true Rush hazelnut. One year this tree began to fail +and I tried to save it or propagate it by layering and sprouting seeds. +Unfortunately it did not occur to me at that time to graft it to a wild +hazel to perpetuate it. I still lament my oversight as the tree finally +died and a very hardy plant was lost which was apparently able to +fertilize its own blossoms.</p> + +<p>I ordered four Winkler hazel bushes from Snyder Bros. of Center Point, +Iowa, in March 1927, asking them to send me plants that were extra +strong and of bearing size. I planted these that spring but the +following summer was so dry that all four died. I ordered twelve more +Winklers in September for spring delivery, requesting smaller ones this +time (two to three feet). Half of these were shipped to me with bare +roots, the others being balled in dirt for experimental purposes. Four +of the latter are still living and producing nuts.</p> + +<p>In April 1928, I planted a dozen Jones hybrid hazels but only two of +them survived more than two years. I think the reason they lasted as +well as they did was that around each plant I put a guard made of laths +four feet high, bound together with wire and filled with forest leaves. +I drove the laths several inches into the ground and covered them with +window screening fastened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> down with tacks to keep mice out of the +leaves. Although somewhat winter-killed, most of the plants lived during +the first winter these guards were used. The second winter, more plants +died, and I didn't use the guards after that.</p> + +<p>The two Jones hybrids that lived produced flowers of both sexes for +several years but they did not set any nuts. One day while reading a +report of one of the previous conventions of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association, I discovered an article by Conrad Vollertsen in which he +stressed the importance of training filberts into a single truncated +plant, allowing no root sprouts or suckers to spring up since such a +condition prevents the bearing of nuts. I followed his advice with my +two Jones hybrids and removed all surplus sprouts. This resulted in more +abundant flowers and some abortive involucres but still no nuts +developed. In the spring of 1940, I systematically fertilized numerous +pistillate flowers of these plants with a pollen mixture. On the +branches so treated, a fairly good crop of nuts similar to those of the +orthodox Jones hybrid appeared.</p> + +<p>I had cut off a few branches from the Jones hybrids when I received them +and grafted these to wild hazels. This had been suggested by Robert +Morris in his book, "Nut Growing," as an interesting experiment which +might prove to be practical. It did not prove to be so for me for +although the grafting itself was successful I found it tiresome to +prune, repeatedly, the suckers which constantly spring up during the +growing period and which are detrimental to grafts. Although they lived +for five years, these grafts suffered a great deal of winter-injury and +they never bore nuts. The one which lived for the longest time became +quite large and overgrew the stock of the wild hazel. This same plant +produced both staminate and pistillate blossoms very abundantly for +several seasons but it did not set any nuts in spite of the many wild +hazels growing nearby which gave it access to pollen. It is now known +that this hybrid is self-sterile and must have pollinators of the right +variety in order to bear.</p> + +<p>My next work with members of the genus Corylus was discouraging. In +April 1929, I bought one hundred hazel and filbert plants from Conrad +Vollertsen of Rochester, New York, which included specimens of the Rush +hazel and of the following varieties of filberts:</p> + +<div class="list"> +Italian Red<br /> +Merribrook<br /> +Kentish Cob<br /> +Early Globe<br /> +Zellernuts<br /> +White Lambert<br /> +Althaldensleben<br /> +Medium Long<br /> +Bony Bush<br /> +Large Globe<br /> +Minnas Zeller<br /> +Marveille de Bollwyller<br /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +Although many of these filberts bore nuts the first year they were +planted, within two years they were all completely winter-killed.</p> + +<p>In 1932, I received ten filbert bushes from J. U. Gellatly of West Bank, +British Columbia. These consisted of several varieties of Glover's best +introductions and some Pearson seedlings. I planted them on the south +side of a high stone wall, a favorable location for semi-hardy plants. +They appeared to be thrifty and only slightly winter-killed during the +first two years but by 1939, all but two of the bushes had died or were +dying. Although as nut-bearing plants they have been of little value to +me, their pollen has been of great service.</p> + +<p>I found an unusually fine wild hazel growing in the woods on my farm and +in 1934, I began an experiment in hybridizing it. I crossed the +pistillate flowers of the native hazel with pollen from a Gellatly +filbert and obtained four hybrid plants, which I have called hazilberts. +In the spring of 1940, three of these hybrids had pistillate flowers but +no staminate blooms. As I was very eager to see what the new crosses +would be like, I fertilized the blossoms with a gunshot mixture of +pollen from other plants such as the Winkler hazel, the European filbert +and the Jones hybrid hazel. Certain difficulties arose in making these +hybrids, mainly due to the curiosity of the squirrels who liked to rip +open the sacks covering the blossoms which were being treated. Deer +mice, too, I found, have a habit of climbing the stems of hazel bushes +and gnawing at the nuts long before they are mature enough to use for +seed. Later I learned to protect hybrid nuts by lacing flat pieces of +window screening over each branch, thus making a mouse-proof enclosure. +Even after gathering the nuts I discovered that precautions were +necessary to prevent rodents from reaching them. The best way I found to +do this is to plant nuts in cages of galvanized hardware cloth of 2 by 2 +mesh, countersunk in the ground one foot and covered completely by a +frame of the same material reinforced with boards and laths.</p> + +<p>The most interesting hazilbert that has developed bears nuts of +outstanding size, typically filberts in every detail of appearance, +although the plant itself looks more like a hazel, being bushy and +having many suckers. After more testing, this hybrid may prove to be a +definite asset to nursery culture in our cold northern climate, +fulfilling as it does, all the requirements for such a plant. The second +hazilbert resembles the first closely except that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> its nuts, which are +also large, are shaped like those of Corylus Americana. The third +hazilbert has smaller nuts but its shell is much thinner than that of +either of the others.</p> + +<p>In reference to the hazilberts, I am reminded of certain correspondence +I once had with J. F. Jones. He had sent me samples of the Rush hazel +and although I was impressed by them, I mentioned in replying to him +that we had wild hazels growing in our pasture which were as large or +larger than the Rush hazelnuts. I admitted that ours were usually very +much infested with the hazel weevil. Mr. Jones was immediately +interested in wild hazels of such size and asked me to send him samples +of them. He wrote that he had never seen wild hazels with worms in them +and would like to learn more about them. I sent him both good and wormy +nuts from the wild hazel bush to which I had referred. He was so +impressed by them that he wished me to dig up the plant and ship it to +him, writing that he wished to cross it with filbert pollen as an +experiment. I sent it as he asked but before he was able to make the +cross he intended, his death occurred. Several years later, his daughter +Mildred wrote to me about this hazel bush, asking if I knew where her +father had planted it. Unfortunately I could give her no information +about where, among his many experiments, this bush would be, so that the +plant was lost sight of for a time. Later Miss Jones sent me nuts from a +bush which she thought might be the one I had sent. I was glad to be +able to identify those nuts as being, indeed, from that bush.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1939, I crossed the Winkler hazel with filbert pollen; +the European hazel with Winkler pollen; the Gellatly filbert with Jones +hybrid pollen. These crosses produced many plants which will be new and +interesting types to watch and build from. I have already made certain +discoveries about them. By close examination of about forty plants, I +have been able to determine that at least five are definitely hybrids by +the color, shape and size of their buds. This is a very strong +indication of hybridity with wild hazel or Winkler. On one of these +plants, about one-foot high, I found staminate bloom which I consider +unusual after only two seasons' growth.</p> + +<p>During the fall of 1941, I became interested in a phenomenon of fruit +determination previous to actual fructification of the plant by detailed +examinations of its buds. I noticed, for instance, that large buds +generally meant that the plant would produce large nuts and small buds +indicated small nuts to come. The color of the buds, whether they were +green, bronze green or reddish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> brown, could be fairly well depended +upon to indicate their hybridity in many cases. These tests were not +wholly reliable but the percentage of indication was so high that I was +tempted to make predictions.</p> + +<p>At that time, hazilbert No. 1 had not borne nuts. The bush resembled a +wild hazel so much that I had begun to doubt its hybridity. Upon +examining its buds, I found indications in their color that it was a +hybrid, although the nuts apparently would not be large. It would be an +important plant to me only if its pollen should prove to be effective on +the other hazilberts. At the time this was only a wishful hope, because +the pollen of the wild hazel, which this plant resembles, apparently +does not act to excite the ovules of either filberts or filbert hybrids +with filbert characteristics. Pure filbert pollen seemed to be +necessary. In 1942, its pollen did prove to be acceptable to the other +hazilberts and my hope for a good pollinizer was realized in it.</p> + +<p>From the conclusions I reached through my study of the buds, I made +sketches of which I believed the nuts of No. 1 would be like in size and +shape. In March 1942, these sketches were used as the basis of the +drawing given here. A comparison of this drawing with the photograph +taken in September 1942, of the actual nuts of hazilbert No. 1 show how +accurate such a predetermination can be.</p> + +<p>I am convinced from the work I have done and am still doing, that we are +developing several varieties of hazilberts as hardy and adaptable to +different soils as the pasture hazel is, yet having the thin shell and +the size of a European filbert. As to the quality of the kernel of such +a nut, that of the wild hazel is as delicious as anyone could desire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/8.jpg" width="400" height="861" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>3/4 Natural size Filberts</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/9.jpg" width="400" height="839" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>3/4 Natural size Hazilberts and Winkler Hazel</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/10.jpg" width="400" height="235" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>31/32 of actual size Hazilberts. Left to right: No. 3, +No. 5, No. 4, No. 2</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/11.jpg" width="400" height="239" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>No. 1 Hazilbert about 9/15/42. Note almost identical +size and shape of this actual photograph of No. 1 compared to +predetermined size and shape in drawing made almost one year previous to +photograph. Plant had not produced any nuts prior to crop of 1942</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_5" id="Chapter_5"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 5</span></h2> + +<h3>HAZELS AND/OR FILBERTS</h3> + + +<p>There is a certain amount of confusion in the minds of many people +regarding the difference between filberts and hazels, both of which +belong to the genus Corylus. Some think them identical and call them all +hazels dividing them only into European and American types. I see no +reason for doing this. "Filbert" is the name of one species of genus +Corylus just as "English walnut" is the commercial name of one of the +members of the Juglans family. There is as much difference between a +well-developed filbert and a common wild hazelnut as there is between a +cultivated English walnut and wild black walnut.</p> + +<p>For ordinary purposes the nuts sold commercially, whether imported or +grown in this country, are called filberts while those nuts which may be +found growing prolifically in woodlands and pastures over almost the +whole United States but which are not to be found on the market are +called hazelnuts. This lack of commercialization of hazelnuts should be +recognized as due to the smallness of the nut and the thickness of its +shell rather than to its lacking flavor. Its flavor, which seldom varies +much regardless of size, shape or thickness of shell, is both rich and +nutty. The three main food components of the hazelnut, carbohydrate, +protein and oil, are balanced so well that they approach nearer than +most other nuts the ideal food make-up essential to man. The English +walnut contains much oil and protein while both chestnuts and acorns +consist largely of carbohydrates.</p> + +<p>One salient feature which definitely separates the species Corylus +Americana or wild hazel, from others of its genus, is its resistance to +hazel blight, a native fungus disease of which it is the host. +Controversies may occur over the application of the names "hazel" and +"filbert" but there is no dispute about the effect of this infection on +members of genus Corylus imported from Europe. Although there is wide +variety in appearance and quality within each of the species, especially +among the European filberts, and although filberts may resemble hazels +sufficiently to confuse even a horticulturist, the action of this fungus +is so specific that it divides Corylus definitely into two species. +Corylus Americana and Corylus cornuta, through long association, have +become comparatively immune to its effects and quickly wall off infected +areas while filbert plants are soon killed by contact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> with it. Hybrids +between filberts and hazels will usually be found to retain some of the +resistance of the hazel parent.</p> + +<p>The ideal nut of genus Corylus should combine qualities of both hazels +and filberts. Such a hybrid should have the bushy characteristics of the +American hazel with its blight-resisting properties and its ability to +reproduce itself by stolons or sucker-growth. It should bear fruit +having the size, general shape, cracking qualities and good flavor of +the filbert as popularly known. The hybrids I am growing at my farm, +which I call "hazilberts" and which are discussed later, seem to fulfill +these requirements. The plants may be grown as bushes or small trees. +They are blight-resistant and their nuts are like filberts in +appearance. Three varieties of these hazilberts have ivory-colored +kernels which are practically free of pellicle or fibre. They have a +good flavor.</p> + +<p>A comparison of the ripening habits and the effect of frost on the +various members of the genus Corylus growing in my nursery in the fall +of 1940, is shown by these extracts taken from daily records of the work +done there. It should be noted that the summer season that year was +rainy and not as hot as usual, so that most nuts ripened two to three +weeks later than they normally do.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"September 7 and 8: Wild hazels ripe and picked at this time. +(Their kernels showed no shrinkage by October 25.)</p> + +<p>September 14 and 15: I picked ripe nuts from hazilbert No. 5 which +seems to be the first to ripen. Also picked half of the European +filberts. (There was slight shrinkage in the kernels of the latter +a few weeks later showing that they could have stayed on the trees +another week to advantage.)</p> + +<p>All of the nuts of a Jones hybrid, which is a cross between Rush +and some European variety such as Italian Red, could have been +picked as they were ripe. Some were picked.</p> + +<p>The almond-shaped filbert classified as the White Aveline type, was +not quite ripe; neither were hazilberts No. 2 and No. 4, nor the +Gellatly filberts. Wild hazelnuts at this time had dry husks and +were falling off the bushes or being cut down by mice.</p> + +<p>September 21 and 22: The remaining European filberts of the +imported plants were picked. Also, I picked half of the White +Aveline type nuts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/12.jpg" width="400" height="527" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Carlola Hazilberts No. 5, about 8/10/42. This is +the earliest ripening and thinnest shell of the large type +hazilberts, not the largest size however. Carlola Weschcke shown in +picture. Photo by C. Weschcke</i></p> + +<p>September 28 and 29: We picked most of the nuts remaining on +hazilbert No. 5 and the remainder of the White Aveline type. At +this time we record a heavy frost which occurred during the +previous week, that is, between September 22 and 28th. Since it +froze water it was considered a "killing" frost. However, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +damage was spotty all over the orchard, most things continuing to +develop and ripen. Winkler hazels picked and examined at this time +showed them far from ripe. Hazilberts growing next to limestone +walls on the south side showed no signs of frost damage whereas the +Winkler, on higher ground, showed severe damage to the leaves and +the husks of the nuts which immediately started to turn brown. +Leaves of other filbert plants in the vicinity showed no frost +damage and the very few nuts that had been left on, such as those +of the Jones hybrid, were undamaged.</p> + +<p>October 5 and 6: Picked all of hazilbert No. 2 except the last two +nuts.</p> + +<p>Gellatly filberts were picked about October 10 and were ripe at +that time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> + +<p>October 11 to 13: Two English walnuts were picked and found to be +as ripe as they would get. These as well as the black walnuts +showed distinct signs of lacking summer heat needed for their +proper development. The last two nuts on hazilbert No. 2 and the +only nut on hazilbert No. 4 were picked at this time and were ripe. +Chestnut burrs had opened up and the nuts enclosed were fully +mature.</p> + +<p>October 19 and 20: I found the last of the Winkler hazelnuts had +been picked during the previous week, approximately October 14. +These were left the longest on the bush of any hazel and still were +not ripe although they were not entirely killed by the several +frosts occurring before that time. They are always much later than +the wild hazel."</p></div> + +<p>On October 20, I had an opportunity of comparing the action of frost on +the leaves of these plants. Those of the White Aveline type had not +changed color and were very green. The leaves of the Jones hybrid showed +some coloration but nothing to compare with those of the Winkler hazel, +many of which had the most beautiful colors of any of the trees on the +farm—red, orange and yellow bronze. Hazilbert No. 1, which resembles a +wild hazel in appearance and habits of growth, had colored much earlier +in reaction to the frost and was as brightly tinted as the wild hazel +and Winkler plants except that, like the wild hazel, it had already lost +much of its foliage. Some of the wild hazels were entirely devoid of +leaves at this time. Hazilbert No. 5 showed the best color effects with +No. 4 second and No. 2 last.</p> + +<p>The color of the leaves and the action of the frost on the plants during +the autumn is another thing, in my opinion, that helps to differentiate +between and to classify European filberts, American hazels and their +hybrids. My conclusion in regard to the effect of frost is that the +reaction of the Winkler hazel is very similar to that of the wild hazel +in color but exceeding it in beauty since its leaves do not drop as soon +after coloring. At this time, the leaves had not changed color on the +imported European plants, the Gellatly filberts from British Columbia or +the White Aveline type. They had turned only slightly on the Jones +hybrid. I think an accurate idea of the general hardiness of a plant is +indicated by the effect of frost and by early dropping of leaves, using +the sturdy wild hazel as the limit of hardiness and assuming that its +hardiness is shown by both degree of coloration and early dropping of +leaves.</p> + +<p>In noting the action of frost on the Winkler hazel, I have mentioned +that it was more like that on the American hazel than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> on the European +filberts. The Winkler has always been considered a native woodland +hazel, but, although it does show several similarities to Corylus +Americana, I have also noticed certain qualities which definitely +suggest some filbert heritage. I have based my theory on a study of the +Winkler hazels which have been bearing annually at my farm for six +years, bearing more regularly, in fact, than even the wild hazels +growing nearby. My comparisons have been made with wild hazels in both +Minnesota and Wisconsin and with European filberts.</p> + +<p>I found the first point of similarity with the filbert is in the +involucre covering the nut. In the wild hazel, this folds against itself +to one side of the nut, while in the filbert it is about balanced and if +not already exposing a large part of the end of the nut, is easily +opened. The involucre of the Winkler hazel is formed much more like that +of the filbert than that of the hazel. In Corylus Americana this +involucre is usually thick, tough and watery, while in the filbert it is +thinner and drier, so that while a person may be deceived in the size of +a hazelnut still in its husk, he can easily tell that of a filbert. This +is also true of the Winkler whose involucre is fairly thick but outlines +the form of the enclosed nut. Another feature about the involucre of the +Winkler which classes it with the filberts rather than the hazels is in +its appearance and texture, which is smooth and velvety while that of +the hazel is hairy and wrinkled.</p> + +<p>The staminate blooms of the Winkler hazel show similarity to those of +both filberts and hazels. Sometimes they appear in formation at the ends +of branches, much as those of the European filberts do, in overlapping +groups of three or four. Again, they may be found at regular intervals +at the axis of leaf stems very much as in the case of the American +hazel. The buds on the Winkler hazel are dull red which is also true of +those on the hybrid hazilberts, another indication of hybridity.</p> + +<p>The initial growth of the embryo nut is very slow in the Winkler as it +is in the filbert, as contrasted with the very rapid development of the +native hazel embryo which matures in this latitude about one month ahead +of the Winklers and some filberts. Although Winkler nuts are shaped like +hazels and have the typically thick shells of hazelnuts, their size is +more that of a filbert usually three times as large as a native hazel.</p> + +<p>During the years between 1942 and 1945 many new hybrids between filberts +and hazels were produced. Four wild varieties of hazels, which had +unusual characteristics such as tremendous bearing and large size nuts +and others having very early matur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>ing or very thin shelled nuts were +used as the female parents in making the crosses. Pollen was obtained +from other parts of the U. S. or from filbert bushes which were growing +on the place. Crosses included pollen of the Barcelona, Duchilly, Red +Aveline, White Aveline, Purple Aveline, the Italian Red, Daviana and +several hybrids between other filberts and hazels. By 1945 the number of +these plants were in the neighborhood of 2000 and by 1952 considerable +knowledge had been gained as to the hardiness, blight resistance to the +common hazel blight (known scientifically as cryptosporella anomala), +freedom from the curculio of the hazelnuts (commonly known as the hazel +weevil) and resistance to other insect pests. Also, considerable data +had been accumulated by cataloging over 650 trees each year for five +years; cataloging included varied and detailed studies of their growth, +bearing habits, ability to resist blight, curculio and other insects, +the size of the nut, the thinness of the shell and the flavor of the +kernel. Several books of all this detail were accumulated in trying to +nail down several commercial varieties that would be propagated from +this vast amount of material. Although some bushes produced good nuts at +the rate of as much as two tons to the acre, measured on the basis of +space that they took up in the test orchard, the most prolific kind +seemed to be the ones that had a tendency to revert to the wild hazel +type. The better and thinner-shelled types, more resembling the +filberts, seemed to be shy bearers so that there being a host of new +plants to catalog (more than 1000) which had not indicated their bearing +characteristics, we included these among the possible ideal plants we +were seeking. Although there were several plants that could be +considered commercial in the original group of over 650 it has been +thought that the waiting of a few more years to ascertain whether there +would be something better in the next 1000 plants to bear that would be +worthwhile waiting for and no attempt has been made to propagate the +earlier tested plants. Some of these 650 tested hybrids proved to have +nuts that were classed as Giants being much larger than the filberts +produced by male or pollen parent such as the Barcelona, Duchilly or +Daviana, and several times the size of the nuts of the female parent +which was the wild hazel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/13.jpg" width="400" height="529" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Wild Wisconsin Hazel discovered on Hazel Hills Farm near +River Falls. Note size of nuts in husks as compared to woman's hand. +This plant became the female parent in over 1,000 crosses by pollen +furnished from male blooms of Duchilly, Barcelona, Italian Red, White, +Red, and Purple Aveline and many other well known filberts. Photo by C. +Weschcke</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_6" id="Chapter_6"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 6</span></h2> + +<h3>PECANS AND THEIR HYBRIDS</h3> + + +<p>At the same time, October 1924, that I purchased Beaver hickory trees +from J. F. Jones, I also procured from him three specimens each of three +commercial varieties of pecan trees, the Posey, Indiana and Niblack, as +well as some hiccan trees, i.e., hybrids having pecan and hickory +parents. Only one tree survived, a Niblack pecan, which, after sixteen +years, was only about eighteen inches in height. Its annual growth was +very slight and it was killed back during the winter almost the full +amount of the year's growth. In the 17th year this tree was dead.</p> + +<p>In September 1925, at a convention of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association in St. Louis, Missouri, I became acquainted with a man whose +experience in the nut-growing industry was wide and who knew a great +deal about the types of hickory and pecan trees in Iowa. He was S. W. +Snyder of Center Point, Iowa. (He later became president of the +Association.) In one of his letters to me the following summer, Mr. +Snyder mentioned that there were wild pecan trees growing near Des +Moines and Burlington. I decided I wanted to know more about them and at +my request, he collected ten pounds of the nuts for me. I found they +were the long type of pecan, small, but surprisingly thin-shelled and +having a kernel of very high quality.</p> + +<p>I first planted these nuts in an open garden in St. Paul, but after a +year I moved them to my farm, where I set them out in nursery rows in an +open field. The soil there was a poor grade of clay, not really suited +to nut trees, but even so, most of the ones still remaining there have +made reasonably good growth. I used a commercial fertilizing compound +around about half of these seedlings which greatly increased their rate +of growth, although they became less hardy than the unfertilized ones. +After five years, I transplanted a number of them to better soil, in +orchard formation. Although I have only about fifty of the original +three hundred seedlings, having lost the others mainly during droughts, +these remaining ones have done very well. Some of these trees have been +bearing small crops of nuts during the years 1947 to date. The most +mature nuts of these were planted and to date I have 17 second +generation pure pecan trees to testify as to the ability of the northern +pecan to become acclimated.</p> + +<p>I gave several of the original seedlings to friends who planted them in +their gardens, where rich soil has stimulated them to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> grow at twice the +rate of those on my farm. There were four individual pecan trees growing +in or near St. Paul from my first planting, the largest being about 25 +feet high with a caliber of five inches a foot above ground. Although +this tree did not bear nuts I have used it as a source of scionwood for +several years. These graftings, made on bitternut hickory stock, have +been so successful that I am continuing their propagation at my nursery, +having named this variety the Hope pecan, for Joseph N. Hope, the man +who owns the parent tree and who takes such an interest in it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/14.jpg" width="400" height="456" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Shows the use of a zinc metal tag fastened by 16 or 18 +gauge copper wire to branch of tree.</i></p> + +<p>By the year 1950 the tree had such a straggly appearance, although still +healthy and growing but being too shaded by large trees on the +boulevard, that Mr. Hope caused it to be cut down. The variety is still +growing at my farm, grafted on bitternut stocks and although blossoming +it has never produced a nut up to this time.</p> + +<p>Another tree given to Joseph Posch of the city of St. Paul, Minnesota, +had made even better growth and was luxuriantly healthy and in bloom +when it was cut down by the owner because the branches overhung the +fence line into a neighbor's yard. This was done in about 1950.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another tree given to Mrs. Wm. Eldridge of St. Paul still flourishes and +is quite large (in 1952 at breast height, 6 inches in diameter) but +being in a dense shade, it has not borne any nuts.</p> + +<p>The fourth tree, given to John E. Straus, the famous skate maker, +presumably exists at his lake residence north of St. Paul. I have not +seen it in the last seven or eight years.</p> + +<p>Although they are not as hardy as bitternut stocks, I have found the +wild Iowa pecan seedlings satisfactory for grafting after five years' +growth. I use them as an understock for grafting the Posey, Indiana and +Major varieties of northern pecan and find them preferable to northern +bitternut stocks with which the pecans are not compatible for long, as a +rule, such a union resulting in a stunted tree which is easily +winter-killed. Although the Posey continued to live for several years +our severe winters finally put an end to all these fine pecans. The root +system of the seedling understock continued to live, however.</p> + +<p>I chanced to discover an interesting thing in the fall of 1941 which +suggests something new in pecan propagation. There were two small pecans +growing in the same rows as the large ones planted fifteen years +previously. When I noticed them, I thought they were some of this same +planting and that they had been injured or frozen back to such an extent +that they were mere sprouts again, for this has happened. I decided to +move them and asked one of the men on the farm to dig them up. When he +had dug the first, I was surprised to find that this was a sprout from +the main tap root of a large pecan tree which had been taken out and +transplanted. The same was true of the second one, except that in this +case we found three tap roots, the two outside ones both having shoots +which were showing above the ground. Another remarkable circumstance +about this was that these tap roots had been cut off twenty inches below +the surface of the ground and the sprouts had to come all that distance +to start new trees. All of this suggests the possibility of pecan +propagation by root cuttings. These two pecans, at least, show a natural +tendency to do this and I have marked them for further experimentation +along such lines.</p> + +<p>On the advice of the late Harry Weber of Cincinnati, Ohio, an eminent +nut culturist, who, after visiting my nursery in 1938, became very +anxious to try out some of the Indiana varieties of pecans in our +northern climate, I wrote to J. Ford Wilkinson, a noted propagator of +nut trees at Rockport, Indiana, suggesting that he make some +experimental graftings at my farm. Both Mr. Wilkinson and Mr. Weber +gathered scionwood from all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> black walnut, pecan, hiccan and hickory +trees at their disposal, for this trial. There was enough of it to keep +three of us busy for a week grafting it on large trees. Our equipment +was carried on a two-wheeled trailer attached to a Diesel-powered +tractor, and we were saved the trouble of having to carry personally, +scions, packing material, wax pots, knives, pruning shears, tying +material, canvas and ladders into the woods. Mr. Wilkinson remarked, on +starting out, that in the interests of experimental grafting, he had +travelled on foot, on horseback, by mule team and in rowboats, but that +this was his first experience with a tractor.</p> + +<p>When he saw the type of grafting with which I had been getting good +results, Mr. Wilkinson was astounded. He declared that using a side-slot +graft in the South resulted in 100% failure, while I had more than 50% +success with it. He was willing to discard his type of grafting for +mine, which was adequate for the work we were doing, but I wanted to +check his grafting performance and urged him to continue with his own +(an adaptation of the bark-slot graft to the end of a cut-off stub). We +both used paper sacks to shade our grafts. Although results proved that +my methods averaged a slightly higher percentage of successful graftings +in this latitude and for the type of work we were doing, his would +nonetheless be superior in working over trees larger than four inches in +diameter and having no lateral branches up to eight feet above ground, +at which height it is most convenient to cut off a large hickory +preparatory to working on it.</p> + +<p>In the late fall of that year, we cut scionwood of the season's growth +and inverted large burlap bags stuffed with leaves over the grafts, the +bags braced on the inside by laths to prevent their collapsing on the +grafts. So we have perpetuated the following varieties:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Hickories: Cedar Rapids, Taylor, Barnes, Fairbanks.</p> + +<p>Hiccans: McAlester, Bixby, Des Moines, Rockville, Burlington, Green +Bay.</p></div> + +<p>The Major and Posey pure pecans being incompatible on bitternut hickory +roots were grafted on pecan stocks, but they proved to be tender to our +winters and the varieties were finally lost.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/15.jpg" width="600" height="408" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Largest planted pecan in World having a record. About 17 +ft. circumference breast height, 125 ft. spread and 125 ft. height. Very +small worthless pecans. Easton, Maryland. Photo by Reed 1927</i></p> + +<p>Other experiments I have made with pecans include an attempt to grow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +Southern pecans from seed, but they seem to be no more hardy than an +orange tree would be. It is certain that they are not at all suited to +the climate of the 45th parallel. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> 1938, I received from Dr. W. C. +Deming of Connecticut, some very good nuts from a large pecan tree at +Hartford, Connecticut. Of the twelve pecans I planted, only six +sprouted, and of these, only one has survived up to this date and is now +a small weak tree. Apparently, the seedlings of this Hartford pecan are +not as hardy as those from Iowa.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/16.jpg" width="400" height="228" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Iowa seedling Pecans. Tree planted in 1926 as seed. +First crop October 29, 1953. 7/8 of actual size. Nuts were fully +matured. Photo by C. Weschcke</i></p> + +<p>Of the hiccans, hybrids between hickory and pecan, there are several +varieties, as I mentioned before. Of these, the McAlester is the most +outstanding, its nuts measuring over three inches in circumference and +about three inches long. Horticulturists believe that this hybrid is the +result of a cross between a shell-bark hickory, which produces the +largest nut of any hickory growing in the United States, and a large +pecan. I have experimented a number of times with the McAlester and my +conclusion is that it is not hardy enough to advocate its being grown in +this climate. There are other hiccans hardier than it is, however, such +as the Rockville, Burlington, Green Bay and Des Moines, and it is +certain that the North is assured of hardy pecans and a few hardy +hybrids, which, although they do not bear the choicest pecan nuts, make +interesting and beautiful lawn trees. Indeed, as an ornamental tree, the +pecan is superior to the native hickory in two definite ways: by its +exceedingly long life, which may often reach over 150 years as +contrasted with the average hickory span of 100 years, and by its +greater size. One pecan tree I saw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> growing in Easton, Maryland, in +1927, for example, was then seventeen feet in circumference at +breast-height, one hundred twenty-five feet in height and having a +spread of one hundred fifty feet. The wood of the pecan is similar to +that of the hickory in both toughness and specific gravity, although for +practical purposes, such as being used for tool handles, the shagbark +hickory is enough harder and tougher to make it the superior of the two.</p> + +<p>I was pleasantly surprised on October 30, 1953 when a pecan seedling of +the Iowa origin, which had not yet borne any nuts, showed a small crop. +These nuts were fully matured and were of sufficient size so that they +could be considered a valuable new variety of pecan nut for the North. A +plate showing a few of these pecans illustrates, by means of a ruler, +the actual size of these pecans, and the fact that they matured so well +by October 30 indicates that in many seasons they may be relied upon to +mature their crop. No other data has been acquired on this variety and +we can only be thankful that we can expect it to do a little better in +size as successive crops appear, which is the usual way of nut trees. +Also, by fertilizing this tree we can expect bigger nuts, as is +generally the case. The shell of this pecan is so thin that it can be +easily cracked with the teeth, which I have done repeatedly, and +although small is thinner-shelled than any standard pecan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_7" id="Chapter_7"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 7</span></h2> + +<h3>HICKORY THE KING</h3> + + +<p>The acknowledged autocrat of all the native nuts is the hickory. Perhaps +not all the experts admit this leadership but it is certainly the +opinion held by most people. Of course, when I speak of the hickory nut +in this high regard, I refer to the shagbark hickory which, as a wild +tree, is native as far north as the 43rd parallel in Minnesota and +Wisconsin, and somewhat farther in the eastern states.</p> + +<p>Wild hickory nuts have been commercialized only to a slight extent. Its +crops are almost entirely consumed in the locality in which they are +grown by those people who find great pleasure in spending fine autumn +days gathering them. The obvious reason why hickory nuts have not been +made a product of commerce lies in the nut itself, which is usually very +small and which has a shell so strong and thick that the kernel can be +taken out only in small pieces. The toughness of the shell makes +cracking difficult, too, and since only rarely is one found that can be +broken by a hand cracker, it is necessary to use the flatiron-and-hammer +method. It is quite possible, though, that some day the hickory will +rival or exceed its near relative, the wild pecan, in commercial favor. +The wild pecans which formerly came on the market at Christmastime in +mixtures of nuts were just as difficult to extract from their shells as +the wild shagbark hickory nuts are now. By means of selection and +cultivation, the pecan was changed from a small, hard-to-crack nut to +that of a large thin-shelled nut whose kernel was extractable in whole +halves. Among many thousands of wild pecan trees were a few which bore +exceptionally fine nuts, nuts similar to those now found at every +grocery store and called "papershell" pecans. These unusual nuts were +propagated by grafting twigs from their parent trees on ordinary wild +pecan trees whose own nuts were of less value. These grafted trees were +set out in orchards where they produce the millions of pounds of +high-grade pecans now on the market.</p> + +<p>The question which naturally occurs is, "Why hasn't this been done with +hickory nuts?" Hundreds of attempts have been made to do so, by the +greatest nut propagators in the United States. They have been successful +in grafting outstanding varieties of hickory to wild root stocks but the +time involved has prevented any practical or commercial success, since +most grafted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> hickories require a period of growth from ten to twenty +years before bearing any nuts. This length of time contrasts very +unfavorably with that required by grafted pecans which produce nuts on +quite young trees, frequently within three to five years after grafting. +This factor of slow growth has set the pecan far ahead of the tasty +shagbark hickory. Experimenters have long thought to reduce the time +required by the hickory to reach maturity by grafting it to fast-growing +hickory roots such as the bitternut or the closely related pecan. Both +of these grow rapidly and the bitternut has the additional advantage of +growing farther north and of being transplanted more easily. It has +always been thought that when a good variety of shagbark hickory had +been successfully grafted to bitternut root stocks, orchards of hickory +trees would soon appear. This takes me to my discovery of the variety +now known as the Weschcke hickory, which I have found fulfills the +necessary conditions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/17.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Shows exceptionally thin shell of Weschcke hickory +variety. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn</i></p> + +<p>One fall day in 1926, when I was at the home of a neighboring farmer, he +offered me some mixed hickory nuts he had received from an uncle in +Iowa. As he knew of my interest in nuts, he wanted my opinion of them. I +looked them over and explained that they were no better than little +nutmegs, having very hard shells and a small proportion of inaccessible +meat. To demonstrate this, I cracked some between hammer and flatiron. +My demonstration was conclusive until I hit one nut which almost melted +under the force I was applying. The shape of this nut was enough +different from the others to enable me to pick out a handful like it +from the mixture. I was amazed to see how very thin-shelled and full of +meat they were. Upon my re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>quest, this neighbor wrote to his uncle, John +Bailey, of Fayette, Iowa, asking if he knew from which tree such fine +nuts had come. Unfortunately he did not, because the nuts had been +gathered from quite a large area. After corresponding with Mr. Bailey +myself, I decided that I would go there and help him locate the tree, +although it was nearly Christmas and heavy snowfalls which already +covered the ground would make our search more difficult.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/18.jpg" width="400" height="536" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Carl Weschcke, Jr., hand holding Weschcke hickory in +hull. 9/15/42 Photo by C. Weschcke</i></p> + +<p>On my arrival in Fayette, I called on Mr. Bailey, who was glad to help +me hunt out the tree in which I had so much interest. We called A. C. +Fobes, the owner of the farm from which the nuts were believed to have +come, and arranged to go out there with him by bob sleigh. A rough ride +of six or seven miles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> brought us to the farm and we began our quest. +Once there, Mr. Bailey had a more definite idea of where to look for the +tree from which these particular nuts came than he had had before and we +had not been at our task for more than an hour before it was located. +There were still quite a few nuts on the ground beneath it, which +identified it accurately. It was a large shagbark whose first living +branch was fully sixteen feet off the ground and, since we had no ladder +with us, I had to shin up the tree to cut off some of the smaller +branches. This shagbark, true to its name, had rough bark which tore not +only my clothes but some of the skin on my legs as well and whereas the +climbing up was difficult, the coming down was equally so. Having +contracted verbally with Mr. Fobes to buy the tree, I packed the +branches I had cut in cardboard boxes with straw packing and carefully +brought them home to St. Paul.</p> + +<p>I wrote at once to my friend, J. F. Jones, of my expedition, telling him +of my plans to propagate this hickory. I also sent him some of the nuts +from the parent tree and samples of extra-good nuts from other trees +growing near it so that he could give me his opinion of them. Mr. Jones +responded by advising me about the kind of a contract to make with Mr. +Fobes in regard to both the purchasing and propagation of the original +hickory tree and he urged the latter enthusiastically. Of the Weschcke +hickory nuts themselves, he wrote: "This is practically identical with +the Glover. The Glover is usually a little larger but this varies in all +nuts from year to year. This is a fine nut and if it comes from Iowa, it +ought to be propagated. I suggest you keep the stock of it and propagate +the tree for northern planting, that is for Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, +etc., where most nuts grown here would not mature." A few years ago, I +saw the Glover hickory nut for the first time and I also thought it much +the same as the Weschcke in shape, as is also the Brill.</p> + +<p>Because I did not know how to preserve the scions I had cut, they dried +out during the winter to such an extent that they were worthless for +spring grafting. This meant losing a whole season. The next fall I +obtained more scionwood from Mr. Fobes and having kept it in good +condition during the winter by storing it in a Harrington graft box +shown by illustration, I was able to graft it in the spring. However, +these grafts did not take hold well, only two or three branches +resulting from all of it and these did not bear nor even grow as they +should have. I was disappointed and discouraged, writing to Mr. Fobes +that I did not believe the tree could be propagated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/19.jpg" width="400" height="451" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>This drawing illustrates how to build a Harrington graft +storage box</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +In the fall of 1932, Mr. Fobes sent me a large box of scions and +branches, explaining that he had sold his farm and, as the tree might be +cut down, this was my last opportunity to propagate it. Without much +enthusiasm, I grafted the material he had sent me on about a dozen +trees, some of them very large hickories and I was most agreeably +surprised to find the grafting successful and more than one branch +bearing nutlets. These nuts dropped off during the summer until only one +remained to mature, which it did in the latter part of October. But I +waited too long to pick that nut and some smart squirrel, which had +probably been watching it ripen as diligently as I had, secured it +first. I made a very thorough search of the ground nearby to find the +remains of it, for while I knew I would not get a taste of the +kernel—the squirrel would take care of that—I was interested in +finding out whether it followed the exact shape and thinness of shell of +the first nuts I had examined. I finally did find part of it, enough to +see that it was similar to the nuts from the parent tree.</p> + +<p>The grafts I made in 1932 have been bearing nuts every year since that +time. The Weschcke hickory makes a tremendous growth grafted on +bitternut hickory (Carya Cordiformis). The wood and buds are hardy to a +temperature of 47° below zero Fahrenheit, so that wherever the wild +bitternut hickory grow, this grafted tree will survive to bear its +thin-shelled nuts. The nuts have a fine flavor and the unusual quality +of retaining this flavor without becoming rancid, for three years. The +only fault to find with them is the commercial one of being only medium +in size, so that compared to English walnuts, for example, they become +unimpressive. I have noticed time and again that the average person will +pass over a small, sweet nut to choose a larger one even though the +latter may not have as attractive a flavor. This is noticeably true in +regard to pecans, when the large paper-shell types, which have a rather +dry, sweet kernel, are almost invariably preferred to the smaller ones +of finer flavor, which are plump and have slightly thicker shells.</p> + +<p>Previous to finding the Weschcke hickory, I experimented with several +varieties of hickory hybrids. In March 1924, I purchased twelve Beaver +and twelve Fairbanks hybrid hickories from J. F. Jones. I planted these +trees in April of that year but of the lot, only two Beaver trees lived +to bear nuts. One of these is still growing on my farm, in thin, clay +soil underlaid with limestone, and it bears nuts annually. It is only a +fair-sized tree but I think its slow growth has protected it from the +usual amount of winter damage. I also ordered from Mr. Jones, in July +1924,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> 12 Marquardt hiccans, 12 Laney, 12 Siers, 34 Beaver and 30 +Fairbanks. The last four are hybrids between species of hickories. Out +of the whole order, amounting to one hundred trees, none remains alive +now.</p> + +<p>The Marquardt hiccan mentioned above was the subject of dispute among +nut culturists for a time but it has been definitely agreed now, that +the Marquardt was never actually propagated, the tree having been lost +or cut down before scions were taken from it. Substitutes were taken +from the Burlington, a hybrid whose nut is similar to the Marquardt and +whose foliage and other attributes are thought to be like it. The name +of Marquardt persisted for several years, however, and it has been +entirely discarded only recently. The Burlington is now known to be the +representative of that part of Iowa. However, I grafted some of the tops +of the Marquardt trees from Jones to bitternut trees at the time that I +transplanted them; several of the grafts made successful growth and +resulted in several trees growing deep in the woods. After 28 years +these grafts are still alive and certainly have established their right +to be called compatible with bitternut hickory stocks. Close examination +of the branches, leaves and buds, particularly the leaf-scars, indicate +that this hiccan is enough different and more hardy than the Burlington, +which also grows well on the bitternut, to discredit the story that the +Marquardt is lost. It will not be determined, however, that this is the +genuine Marquardt until it has fruited.</p> + +<p>Altogether I have grafted about 70 varieties of hickory and its hybrids +on bitternut stocks in my attempts to increase the number of varieties +of cultured hickory trees in the North. Most of those I worked with were +compatible with the bitternut stock, but a few, perhaps a dozen, have +indicated that they would rather not live on the bitternut and have +died, either from incompatibility or winter-killing. Yet as a root +system, the bitternut is the hardiest and easiest to transplant of any +of the hickories and for these reasons it makes an ideal stock for the +amateur nut-grower to use. I did try, in 1926, to grow some shagbark +hickory stocks, which would be more compatible with those varieties I +could not get started on bitternut. I planted half a bushel of shagbark +hickory nuts from Iowa, but although they sprouted nicely, they were not +sufficiently hardy and were winter-killed so severely that, after twelve +years, the largest was not more than a foot high, nor thicker than a +lead pencil. Some of these, about 50, were transplanted into the orchard +and in other favorable locations. The largest of these, in 1952, is +about 4 inches in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> diameter, 1-foot off the ground, and about 15 feet +high. I have not grafted any yet and only one has borne any seedling +nuts so far. I am now reconciled to using my native bitternut trees for +most of my stock in spite of some disadvantages. A list of successfully +grafted varieties is appended, and indicates to what extent this stock +is a universal root stock for most of the hickories and their hybrids. A +successful union, however, and long life, does not mean that good +bearing habits will be established, since most of these trees grow in +the woods in dense shade and poor surroundings. Some varieties have not +borne many nuts, and some not at all. The following scions were cut this +fall (in 1952) from successfully grafted trees deep in the woods:</p> + + +<table border="0" summary="grafted trees" cellspacing="4"><tbody> +<tr><td class="tl">Bixby hiccan</td><td class="tl">(pecan by shellbark)</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Burlington hiccan</td><td class="tl">(pecan by shellbark)</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Green Bay hiccan</td><td class="tl">(pecan by shellbark)</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Des Moines hiccan </td><td class="tl">(pecan by shellbark)</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Burton hiccan</td><td class="tl">(pecan by shellbark)</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">McAlester hiccan</td><td class="tl">(pecan by shellbark)</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Anthony</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Barnes</td><td class="tl">Shagbark by mocker nut </td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Brill</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1936</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Brooks</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Camp No. 2</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938 (?)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Deveaux</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1936</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Fox</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Glover</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1936</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Gobble</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1940</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Hand</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Harman</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Leonard</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Lingenfelter</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1942</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Manahan</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Milford</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Murdock</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1941</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Netking</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Platman</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Pleas</td><td class="tl">Pecan by bitternut</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Schinnerling</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1942</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Stanley</td><td class="tl">Shellbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Swaim</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1941</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Taylor</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Triplett</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Woods</td><td class="tl"></td><td class="tl">grafted in 1939</td></tr> +</tbody></table> + +<p>The varieties below are growing in orchard or random locations out of +the woods:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + + + +<table summary="grafted wood trees" cellspacing="4"><tbody> +<tr><td class="tl">Beaver</td><td class="tl">Hybrid hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1924</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Cedar Rapids</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1926</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Clark</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Fairbanks hybrid </td><td class="tl">Shagbark by bitternut</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1924</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Herman Last</td><td class="tl">Hybrid</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1948</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Hope pecan</td><td class="tl">Pure pecan grafted to bitternut </td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Kirtland</td><td class="tl">Shagbark hickory</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1936</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Laney</td><td class="tl">Pecan by shellbark</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1936</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Marquardt</td><td class="tl">Hiccan</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1924</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Norton</td><td class="tl">Hiccan</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">River hickory</td><td class="tl">Undetermined hybrid</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1948</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Rockville hiccan</td><td class="tl">Pecan by shellbark</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1926</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Siers</td><td class="tl">Mockernut by bitternut</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1936</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Stratford</td><td class="tl">Shagbark by bitternut</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1938</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tl">Weiker hybrid</td><td class="tl">Shagbark by shellbark</td><td class="tl">grafted in 1936</td></tr> +</tbody></table> + + +<p>In addition to the above, several large and small trees of the Weschcke +variety are located in orchard and random locations, some having been +grafted in 1926 and later. Also, there is a sprinkling of Bridgewater +variety, grafted in 1936 and later, all bearing each year.</p> + +<p>For many years, I observed hickories and walnuts in bloom and +hand-pollinated them, yet I overlooked many things I should have +discovered earlier in study. It was only after ten years of observing +the Weschcke hickory, for example, that I realized the importance of +proper pollinization of it. In years when it produced only a few nuts, I +had blamed seasonal factors, rains and soil conditions, but I now +realize that it was due to lack of the right pollen. In the spring of +1941, I decided to make special pollen combinations with all the +hickories then in bloom. The information I acquired in return was great +reward for the work I did.</p> + +<p>I selected branches of the Weschcke hickory trees bearing a profuse +amount of pistillate (female) blossoms. I hand-pollinated these with a +special apparatus (the hand-pollen gun described later in this book), +using a magnifying glass so that both pollen and blossom could be +plainly seen. In doing this, I found it most practical to wear what +jewelers call a "double loupe," a light, fiber head-gear carrying lenses +well-suited to such work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> I treated the marked branches with pollen +gathered from the Bridgewater, the Kirtland and the Beaver, all very +good pollen-bearers. I also pollinated branches of the Cedar Rapids +variety, which bears little pollen in this locality, with Kirtland +pollen. However, the pollinization of the Cedar Rapids, which involved +treating from 35 to 50 pistillate blossoms, resulted in only two mature +nuts.</p> + +<p>The Weschcke hickory has an abortive staminate bloom so that it must +depend on some other variety for pollen. At the Northern Nut Growers' +Convention, held at Hershey, Pa. in 1941, (where I had the honor of +being elected president of that venerable organization and succeeded +myself thereafter for the next five years) I mentioned this abortive +staminate bloom of my hickory to my friend, Dr. J. W. McKay, Associate +Cytologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at that time. He was +very interested in this phenomenon and wanted specimens of the abortive +catkins for examination. These were sent to him in the spring of 1942. I +quote from Dr. McKay's report on his primary findings:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"I have just made a preliminary examination of the catkins from +your hickory tree received last May, and it seems that the +individual staminate flower of the catkin produces 4-5 undersized +stamens, the anthers of which are devoid of either pollen or +pollen-mother-cells. So far I have made only temporary preparations +of the crushed anthers in stain but careful study of these mounts +discloses no sign of pollen grains or mother cells, so we may +tentatively conclude that no pollen is produced by the tree; in +other words it is male-sterile. The stage at which degeneration of +the pollen-forming tissue occurs in the anthers and its nature will +have to be determined by means of a longer and more elaborate +technique and I will let you know what we find as soon as the +results are available. It may be that pollen-mother-cells are not +even formed in the anthers; the small size of these structures and +their more or less shriveled appearance lead me to believe that +this may be the case.</p> + +<p>"So far as I know there is no instance among nut species comparable +to that outlined above. We have two or three cases of male +sterility in chestnut but in these no stamens are formed in the +individual staminate flower. In one of the hybrid walnuts that I +reported on at the Hershey convention, imperfect pollen grains are +formed in the anthers but the latter structures never open, so no +pollen is shed.</p> + +<p>"Bear in mind that the above report is preliminary and other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +angles may turn up when permanent mounts are available for study."</p></div> + +<p>On December 14, 1943 I received a second, and final report from Dr. +McKay from which I quote, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Dear Mr. Weschcke:</p> + +<p>The enclosed pencil sketches will give you an idea of the results +obtained from sectioning four lots of material from the two samples +of catkins that you sent, two lots from each sample. Since the +sample collected May 25 at the time of catkin fall was old enough +to contain mature pollen and showed only anthers of the two types +described herewith I think we may safely conclude that the tree is +male sterile because of the failure of the mother cells to +function. It is odd that in some anthers the pollen-mother-cells +develop (type 2) while in others they do not (type 1). For this we +have no explanation; nor can we explain why the tree is male +sterile. I am afraid these phenomena will remain a matter of +conjecture for some time to come. Since sterilities of this and +other sorts in most other plants are largely genetic, that is, +controlled by one or more genes that are inherited in Mendelian +fashion, it is likely that such is the case here. You and I will +not live long enough, however, to grow the necessary number of +generations of trees to clear up these matters.</p> + +<p>"In the course of routine preparation of other material I plan to +run up other lots from your samples, and I will let you know if +anything different turns up. I believe we may safely conclude, +however, that the results reported herewith are representative."</p></div> + +<p>In further explanation, Dr. McKay submitted the drawings shown on page +57, and says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Four lots of material were sectioned, two from the collection of +May 6 and two from that of May 25. Of these, two gave anthers of +type one, and two of type two. More material will have to be +sectioned before we know which type is predominant.</p> + +<p>"The anthers of type one are greatly shriveled, and a band of +deeply-staining collapsed cells apparently represents the remains +of archesporial or pollen-forming tissue.</p> + +<p>"The anthers of type two are normal in appearance, but the +pollen-mother-cells degenerate before pollen grains are formed. A +comparison of the degenerate pollen-mother-cells of this plant with +normal pollen-mother-cells is given below:"</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/20.jpg" width="400" height="711" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Illustrations by Dr. McKay showing pollen degeneration in Weschcke +hickory.</i></p> + +<p>This substantiates the conclusion that I had arrived at previous to this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +report, that this hickory is able to mature its nuts early in the fall +by reason of not having to waste its energy in the production of pollen. +(There is only one other variety of hickory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> which I have grafted on +bitternut which has proved unable to mature pollen and it is the Creager +from Iowa.) I was immensely pleased to find that it responded very well +to Bridgewater pollen, a high percentage of the blooms treated with it +developing mature nuts. The results with the Kirtland pollen were almost +equally good, the poorest showing coming from those branches treated +with Beaver pollen on which only three mature nuts developed. (The +Beaver is presumed to be a hybrid between bitternut and shagbark +hickories.) Sixty-two nuts from these pollinizations were planted in the +fall of 1941 in rodent-proof seed beds. In the spring, counting +germination, I found 100% of these nuts had sprouted and grown into +small trees during the season.</p> + +<p>After finding the most suitable pollen for the Weschcke hickory, I +realized the necessity for including more than one variety of hickory in +a planting, just as there should be more than one variety of apple or +plum tree in an orchard. I think that it would always be well to have +three or more varieties of known compatibility within reasonable +distances, probably not more than 100 feet apart, nor less than 40 to 50 +feet for large hickories.</p> + +<p>Of the many varieties of hickory and hickory hybrids I have tested, +about twenty have, by now, proved to be sufficiently hardy to recommend +for this latitude. These include:</p> + +<table summary="hickory nuts" style="margin-left: 20%; width: 60%;"><tbody> +<tr> +<td class="tl">*Beaver</td> <td class="tl">hybrid hickory</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Fairbanks</td> <td class="tl">hybrid hickory</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Laney</td> <td class="tl">hybrid hickory</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">Burlington<br />Rockville</td> <td class="tl">hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">Hope pecan</td> <td class="tl">pure pecan grafted on to bitternut roots</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">Hand</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Bridgewater</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">Barnes</td> <td class="tl">hybrid hickory</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Cedar Rapids</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Weschcke</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Deveaux</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Brill</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Glover</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Kirtland</td> <td class="tl">pure shagbark</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Siers</td> <td class="tl">thought to be a hybrid between the mocker nut and bitternut</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Stratford hybrid </td> <td class="tl">(bitternut by shagbark)</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="tl">*Creager</td><td></td> +</tr> +</tbody></table> + +<div style="margin-left: 20%; margin-top: 1em;"> +*Have produced mature nuts +</div> + +<p>There are three or four others that are hardy but all means of +identification having been lost, it will be necessary to wait until they +come into bearing before their varieties will be known. As experiments +continue, more varieties of worthy, hardy hickories and hiccans will be +found which will justify completely the opinion of those of us who +always hail as king of all our native nuts, the hickory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/21.jpg" width="600" height="219" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="illo"> +<p class="center"><i>1930—Weschcke Hickory as borne by parent tree at +Fayette, Iowa.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>1939—After several years of bearing grafted on Northern Bitternut +hickory at River Falls, Wis.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>1940—Still further change in shape and size from graft on Bitternut.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>1941—Change and increase in size now is so pronounced as to almost +extinguish its original identity.</i></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/22.jpg" width="400" height="296" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Weschcke hickory nut natural size shows free splitting +hull. Photo by C. Weschcke.</i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_8" id="Chapter_8"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 8</span></h2> + +<h3>BUTTERNUT</h3> + + +<p>Like the hickory tree, the butternut shares in the childhood +reminiscences of those who have lived on farms or in the country where +butternuts are a treat to look forward to each fall. The nuts, which +mature early, have a rich, tender kernel of mild flavor. Only the +disadvantage of their heavy, corrugated shells prevents them from +holding the highest place in popularity, although a good variety cracks +easily into whole half-kernels.</p> + +<p>Butternuts grow over an extended range which makes them the most +northern of all our native wild nut trees, although their nuts do not +mature as far north as hazelnuts do. Butternut trees blossom so early +that in northern latitudes the blossoms are frequently killed in late +spring frosts. Only when the trees are growing near the summit of a +steep hillside will they be likely to escape such frosts and bear crops +regularly. I have found that really heavy crops appear in cycles in +natural groves of butternut trees. My observation of them over a period +of thirty-two years in their natural habitat in west-central Wisconsin +has led me to conclude that one may expect butternut trees to bear, on +an average, an enormous crop of nuts once in five years, a fairly large +crop once in three years, with little or no crop the remaining years.</p> + +<p>As a seedling tree of two or three years, the butternut is +indistinguishable from the black walnut except to a very discerning and +practiced eye, especially in the autumn after its leaves have fallen. As +the trees grow older, the difference in their bark becomes more +apparent, that of the butternut remaining smooth for many years, as +contrasted to the bark on black walnut trees which begins to roughen on +the main trunk early in its life. Bark on a butternut may still be +smooth when the tree is ten years old. Forest seedlings of butternut, +when one or two years old, are easily transplanted if the soil is +congenial to their growth. Although the tree will do well on many types +of soil, it prefers one having a limestone base, just as the English +walnut does.</p> + +<p>A butternut seedling usually requires several more years of growth than +a black walnut does before it comes into bearing, although this varies +with climate and soil. It is impossible to be exact, but I think I may +safely say that it requires at least ten years of growing before a +seedling butternut tree will bear any nuts. Of course, exceptions will +occasionally occur.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> + +<p>As a butternut tree matures, it spreads out much like an apple or +chestnut tree. Of course, it must have enough room to do so, an +important factor in raising any nut tree. Enough room and sunlight +hasten bearing-age and insure larger crops of finer nuts. Grafting +valuable varieties of butternut on black walnut stock will also hasten +bearing. I have had such grafts produce nuts the same year the grafting +was done and these trees continued to grow rapidly and produce annually. +However, they were not easy to graft, the stubborn reluctance of the +butternut top to accept transplantation to a foreign stock being well +known. This factor will probably always cause grafted butternut trees to +be higher in price than black walnut or hickory. The reverse graft, +i.e., black walnut on butternut should never be practiced for although +successful, the black walnut overgrows the stock and results in an +unproductive tree. Specimens 25 or more years old prove this to be a +fact.</p> + +<p>Butternut trees are good feeders. They respond well to cultivation and +lend themselves to being grafted upon, although, from my own experience, +I question their usefulness as a root stock. I have found that when I +grafted black walnuts, English walnuts or heartnuts on butternut stock, +the top or grafted part of the tree became barren except for an +occasional handful of nuts, even on very large trees. Since this has +occurred throughout the many years of my nut culture work, I think it +should be given serious consideration before butternut is used as a root +stock for other species of nut trees.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/23.jpg" width="400" height="321" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Weschcke Butternut. Smooth shallow convolutions of shell +allow kernels to drop out freely. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn.</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +I had the good luck to discover an easy-cracking variety of butternut in +River Falls, Wisconsin, in 1934, which I have propagated commercially +and which carries my name. A medium-sized nut, it has the requisite +properties for giving it a varietal name, for it cracks mostly along the +sutural lines and its internal structure is so shallow that the kernel +will fall out if a half-shell is turned upside down. I received one of +those surprises which sometimes occur when a tree is asexually +propagated when I grafted scions from this butternut on black walnut +stock. The resulting nuts were larger than those on the parent tree and +their hulls peeled off with almost no effort. Whether these features +continue after the trees become older is something I shall observe with +interest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/24.jpg" width="400" height="390" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Self hulling Butternut. Weschcke variety. Drawing by Wm. +Kuehn.</i></p> + +<p>The nearly self-hulling quality of these nuts makes them very clean to +handle. The absence of hulls in cracking butternuts not only does away +with the messiness usually involved, but also it allows more accurate +cracking and more sanitary handling of the kernels. In 1949 I noticed a +new type of butternut growing near the farm residence. This butternut +was fully twice as large as the Weschcke and had eight prominent ridges. +The nut proved to be even better than the older variety and we intend to +test it further by grafting it on butternuts and black walnut stocks. +Although hand-operated nutcrackers have been devised to crack these and +other wild nuts, they are not as fast as a hammer. If one protects the +hand by wearing a glove and stands the butternut on a solid iron base, +hitting the pointed end with a hammer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> it is quite possible to +accumulate a pint of clean nut meats in half an hour.</p> + +<p>The butternut tree is one whose lumber may be put to many uses. It is +light but very tough and stringy and when planed and sanded, it absorbs +varnish and finishes very well. Although not as dark in natural color as +black walnut, butternut resembles it in grain. When butternut has been +stained to represent black walnut, it is only by their weight that they +can be distinguished. In late years, natural butternut has become +popular as an interior finish and for furniture, being sold as "blonde +walnut," "French walnut," or "white walnut," in my opinion very improper +names. I see no reason for calling it by other than its own. Depletion +of forests of butternut trees brings its lumber value up in price nearly +to that of fine maple or birch, approaching that of black walnut in some +places.</p> + +<p>I have run several thousand feet of butternut lumber from my farmland +through my own sawmill and used it for a variety of purposes. It is +probably the strongest wood for its weight except spruce. I have used it +successfully to make propellers which operate electric generators for +deriving power from the wind. Because butternut is so light and, +properly varnished, resists weathering and decay to so great an extent, +I have found it the best material I have ever tried for such +construction. In building a small electric car for traveling around the +orchards, I used butternut rather than oak or metal, which saved at +least 100 pounds of weight, an important matter since the source of the +car's power is automobile storage batteries.</p> + +<p>Butternut is very durable in contact with the ground and is used for +fence posts on farms where it is plentiful. Bird houses built of this +wood will last indefinitely, even a lifetime if they are protected with +paint or varnish. Butternut is like red cedar in this respect, although +much stronger. Stories have been told of black walnut logs which, after +lying unused for fifty years, have been sawed into lumber and found to +be still in excellent condition. It is quite likely that the same could +be said of butternut for these woods are very much alike in the degree +of their durability and resistance to weather.</p> + +<p>An incidental value butternut trees have is their ability to bleed +freely in the spring if the outer bark is cut. Therefore, they can be +tapped like maple trees and their sap boiled down to make a sweet syrup. +It does not have the sugar content that the Stabler black walnut has, +however. Another possible use is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> suggested by the shells of butternuts +which, even when buried in the ground, show great resistance to decay. I +have found them to be still intact and possessing some strength after +being covered by earth for fifteen years. This indicates that they might +be used with a binder in a composition material. Their extreme hardness +also offers a good wearing surface.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/25.jpg" width="400" height="279" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Electrically operated wagon constructed of native +butternut wood known for strength and light weight as well as +durability. Author's sons aboard. Photo by C. Weschcke 1941.</i></p> + +<p>Not only good things can be said of the butternut tree and it would be +wrong to avoid mentioning the deleterious effect that a butternut tree +may have on other trees planted within the radius of its root system. I +have had several experiences of this kind. One butternut tree on my +farm, having a trunk six inches in diameter, killed every Mugho pine +within the radius of its root system. This amounted to between 50 and +100 pines. Their death could not be attributed to the shade cast by the +butternut as Mugho pines are very tolerant of shade. As the first +branches of the butternut were more than three feet off the ground, the +pines could not have been influenced by the top system of the tree nor +do I believe that it was due to fallen leaves, but rather directly to +the greatly ramified roots. Large evergreens, such as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> Colorado blue +spruce, native white pine, limber pine and Jeffrey pine are known to +have been similarly influenced. While small butternut trees do not, in +my experience, have this effect, this may be explained by the fact that +the radius of their root systems is much more limited. Most plants, +other than pines, thrive within the influence of butternut roots, +however, and it certainly does not damage pasture grass as some of the +country's best grazing land is among such trees. The damage results from +a chemical known as Juglone which is elaborated by the root system and +when the roots of the butternut cross those of its evergreen neighbor, +this acts as a poison to the evergreen and may kill it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/26.jpg" width="400" height="412" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>An 8-foot propeller of butternut wood is the prime mover +for wind power generator which in a brisk wind generated 110 volts and +10 amperes at 300 RPM.</i></p> + +<p>The butternut is attacked by one serious disease which is in the nature +of a blight (melanconium oblongum), since it is transmitted through +spores. It usually attacks old trees, the branches of the top part +dying, and the bark on the main trunk becoming loose. The disease +progresses slowly and I have seen large trees infected for twelve or +fifteen years, continuing to bear fine crops. It does have a very +weakening effect, though, and eventually saps the life from the tree +long before its natural span of life of about fifty years is over.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_9" id="Chapter_9"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 9</span></h2> + +<h3>PIONEERING WITH ENGLISH WALNUTS IN WISCONSIN</h3> + + +<p>The convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association at Geneva, New +York, in 1936, brought many interesting subjects to the attention of nut +enthusiasts. None, however, commanded as much attention as an exhibit by +Paul C. Crath, of Toronto, of walnuts from the Carpathian Mountains in +Europe. There were more than forty varieties of walnuts represented in +it, in sizes ranging from that of a large filbert to that of a very +large hen's egg, and in shape being globular, ovate or rectangular. The +exhibitor had these identified by varietal numbers until testing and +propagation should suggest appropriate names. In several talks which +Rev. Crath gave during the convention, he described his trips and +findings in the walnut-producing sections of the Polish Carpathians. The +subject remained in prominence during the three days of the convention +and the idea was suggested that the Association sponsor another trip to +Europe to obtain walnuts growing there which Rev. Crath considered even +hardier and finer than the ones he had. The plan was tabled, however, +for only two of us were eager to contribute to the venture.</p> + +<p>On my return home, I thought more about what a splendid opportunity this +would be to procure hardy English walnuts to grow in this part of the +country. I interested my father in the idea, and, with his backing, +corresponded with Rev. Crath. This was not the first or the last time +that my father, Charles Weschcke, had encouraged me and had backed his +good wishes and advice with money. A professional man and a graduate of +pharmacy and chemistry of the University of Wisconsin, he showed an +unusual interest in my horticultural endeavors. The immediate outcome +was Rev. Crath's visit to my nursery at River Falls, to determine +whether material that he might collect could be properly tested there. +To my satisfaction, he found that temperature, soil conditions and stock +material were adequate for such work.</p> + +<p>We contracted with Rev. Crath to reproduce asexually all the varieties +that he could discover and ship to us, agreeing to finance his trip and +to pay him a royalty whenever we sold trees resulting from the plant +material he sent us. We decided that the material which he was to gather +should include not only English walnuts but also the hazels or filberts +native to Poland. The walnuts were to consist of about six hundred +pounds of seeds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> representing some forty varieties, several thousand +scions and about five hundred trees. We planned that the filberts should +consist of both trees and nuts, but because of a total failure of this +crop the year that Rev. Crath was there, only trees were available.</p> + +<p>Rev. Crath left Canada in October 1936, and spent all of the following +winter in Poland. While he was there, I began the task of arranging for +the receipt of the walnuts and hazels he was to send, and so began a +wearisome, exasperating experience. First, it was necessary to obtain +permits from the Bureau of Plant Industry in Washington. Because of the +vast quantity of material expected, these permits had to be issued in +the names of five people. Next, I engaged a New York firm of importers, +so that no time would be lost in re-routing the shipment to the proper +authorities for inspection. This firm, in turn, hired brokers who were +responsible for paying all duty, freight and inspection charges. I +certainly thought that we had everything in such readiness that there +would be nothing to delay the shipment when it arrived. How wrong I was!</p> + +<p>Although Rev. Crath had written me that the shipment had been sent on a +certain Polish steamer, I learned of its arrival only from a letter I +received from the importing company, which requested that the original +bill of lading and invoice be sent to them at once, as the shipment had +already been in the harbor for a week but could not be released by the +customs office until they had these documents. I had received the bill +of lading from Rev. Crath but not the invoice, for he had not known that +I would need it. So my valuable, but perishable, shipment remained in +port storage day after day while I frantically sought for some way to +break through the "red tape" holding it there. Cables to Rev. Crath were +undeliverable as he was back in the mountains seeking more material. In +desperation, I wrote to Clarence A. Reed, an old friend, member of the +Northern Nut Growers' Association and in charge of government nut +investigations in the Division of Pomology at Washington. Through his +efforts and under heavy bond pending receipt of the invoice, the walnut +and filbert material was released and sent to Washington, D. C. As there +was too much of it to be inspected through the usual facilities for this +work, it was necessary to employ a firm of seed and plant importers to +do the necessary inspecting and fumigating. At last, terminating my +concern and distress over the condition in which the trees and scions +would be after such great delays and so many repackings, the shipment +arrived<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> in St. Paul. There remained only the requirement of getting +permission from the Bureau of Plant Inspection of the State of Minnesota +to take it to Wisconsin, where, if there was anything left, I intended +to plant it. This permission being readily granted, we managed, by truck +and, finally, by sled, to get it to the nursery about the middle of the +winter.</p> + +<p>The following spring, we planted the nuts and trees and grafted the +scions on black walnut and butternut stocks. The mortality of these +grafts was the greatest I have ever known. Of about four thousand +English walnut grafts, representing some twenty varieties, only one +hundred twenty-five took well enough to produce a good union with the +stock and to grow. Some of them grew too fast and in spite of my +precautions, were blown out; others died from winter injury the first +year. By the following spring, there were only ten varieties which had +withstood the rigor of the climate. Of the five hundred trees, only a +few dozen survived. Fortunately, this was not one of our severe, "test" +winters, or probably none of these plants would have withstood it.</p> + +<p>The walnuts which were planted showed a fairly high degree of hardiness. +Of 12,000 seedling trees, our nursery is testing more than 800 for +varietal classification. These have been set out in test orchard +formation on two locations, both high on the slope of a ravine, one +group on the north side, one on the south. It has been suggested that +from the remaining seedlings, which number thousands, we select 500 to +1000 representative specimens and propagate them on black walnut stocks +in some warmer climate, either in Oregon, Missouri or New York. This +would determine their value as semi-hardy trees worthy of propagation in +such localities. Such an experiment will probably be made eventually.</p> + +<p>The same year, 1937, in which I obtained the Polish nuts, I also bought +one hundred pounds of Austrian walnuts, to serve as a check. Eighty +pounds of these consisted of the common, commercial type of walnut, +while the remainder was of more expensive nuts having cream-colored +shells and recommended by the Austrian seed firm as particularly hardy. +Altogether these nuts included approximately one hundred varieties, +twenty of which were so distinctive that their nuts could be separated +from the others by size and shape.</p> + +<p>About two thousand seedlings grew from this planting, most of which +proved to be too tender for our winter conditions. The seedlings grown +from the light-colored nuts show about the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> degree of hardiness as +the Carpathian plants. Many of them have been set out in experimental +orchards to be brought into bearing.</p> + +<p>After the first year, the English walnuts progressed fairly well. Large +trees, which had not been entirely worked over at first, were trimmed so +that nothing remained of the original top, but only the grafted +branches. The winter of 1938-39 was not especially severe and mortality +was low, although it was apparent that all of the varieties were not +equally hardy. Even a few of the scions grafted on butternut stocks were +growing successfully. I had made these grafts realizing that the stock +was not a very satisfactory one, to learn if it could be used to produce +scionwood. As the results were encouraging, I decided it would be +worthwhile to give them good care and gradually to remove all of the +butternut top.</p> + +<p>Each fall, the first two years after I had grafted all these walnuts, I +cut and stored enough scionwood from each variety to maintain it if the +winter should be so severe as to destroy the grafts. Unfortunately, the +grafts had developed so well, even to the actual bearing of nuts by +three varieties, that in 1940 I did not think this precaution was +necessary. Then came our catastrophic Armistice Day blizzard, the most +severe test of hardiness and adaptability ever to occur in the north. +Many of our hardiest trees suffered great injury from it, such trees, +for instance, as Colorado blue spruce, limber pine, arborvitae; cultured +varieties of hickories, hiccans, heartnuts; fruit trees, including +apples, plums and apricots, which bore almost no fruit the next summer.</p> + +<p>Although not one variety of English walnut was entirely killed, all, +except one, suffered to some degree, and it was not until late the +following summer that several varieties began to produce new wood. The +variety which showed the greatest degree of hardiness is "Firstling," +originally known as Letter F. Although the primary buds on the Firstling +were nearly all killed, very few of the small branches were affected and +the union itself suffered no injury. Second in hardiness is Kremenetz, +much of its top being killed, but its union being only slightly +affected. No. 64 was affected in about the same amount as Kremenetz. +Increasing degrees of tenderness and, of course, decreasing degrees of +hardiness, were shown by the many other varieties, some of which may +never recover completely from the shock of that blizzard. The seedling +trees suffered only slight damage so that I expect that they are hardy +enough to produce fruit here.</p> + +<p>I cannot conclude this chapter without mentioning certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> observations +I have made regarding hardiness, which, although they require more +specific study, I wish to describe as a suggestion for further +experimentation by either amateur or professional horticulturists. My +theory is that a determination of the hardiness factor of an English +walnut tree can be made according to the color of its bark. I have seen +that a tree having thin bark which remains bright green late into the +fall is very likely to be of a tender variety. Conversely, among these +Carpathian walnuts, I have found that varieties whose bark becomes tan +or brown early in autumn show much more hardiness than those whose bark +remains green. One variety, Wolhynie, whose bark is chocolate brown, is +very resistant to winter injury. Another, whose green bark is heavily +dotted with lenticels, shows itself hardier than those having none or +only a trace of them. In testing almonds, I have found that trees whose +bark turns red early in the fall are definitely more hardy than those +whose bark remains green or tan. In observing apricots, I have learned +that young twigs with red bark are more resistant to cold than those +with brown. Of course, these findings cannot be considered as facts +until further studies have been made. I hope that others will find the +idea of investigating this more-than-possibility as interesting as I do.</p> + +<p>As the years increased, however, the growth of the seedling walnuts +decreased and some having made a nice tree-like form, with a trunk of +approximately an inch in diameter, within a succession of years were +reduced in size through the combination of winter injury and attacks by +the butternut curculio as well as a bacterial blight until by 1952 only +a fraction of the 12,000 seedlings remained, certainly less than 1,000. +All of the originally grafted specimens are dead with the exception of +one variety which has been kept alive by constantly re-grafting it on +black walnut. We have not named this variety as yet, although it has +borne both staminate and pistillate bloom, it has never borne any ripe +nuts. Some of the seedlings, however, still show persistent traits of +hardiness and of insect resistance and we still have hopes that after 15 +years these trees will yet overcome the adversities of this uncongenial +climate for this species.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_10" id="Chapter_10"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 10</span></h2> + +<h3>OTHER TREES</h3> + +<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold;">Heartnut</p> + +<p>The heartnut is a sport of the Japanese walnut (Juglans sieboldiana). +Since its nut is heart-shaped, it has the name of "cordiformis" added to +its species name. There are many of these sports, some of which have +been propagated under the varietal names of Faust, Lancaster, +Fodermaier, Wright, Walters, Canoka, Okay and Gellatly.</p> + +<p>I think this is the most ornamental of all nut trees. In shape, it is +similar to an apple tree, spreading out rather than growing tall, but +its long, compound leaves give it a tropical appearance. During the +autumn these leaves do not color any more than do those of the black +walnut. The tree produces long racemes of red blossoms and its staminate +blooms are catkins eight to ten inches long, which, when fully ripened, +swish in the wind and release clouds of yellow pollen. The heartnut tree +holds the interest of its owner closely during that time when the nuts +resulting from the racemes of blossoms are steadily increasing in size. +I have seen as many as sixteen nuts on one stem and doubtless, there +sometimes are more. The owner of such a tree, at least if he is at all +like me, will proudly exhibit it to all comers during the spring and +summer seasons. And then, at harvest time, after the nuts have gradually +changed from green to the dull yellow that indicates their maturity, he +will have the satisfaction of shaking them down for drying and storage.</p> + +<p>The heartnut kernel tastes much like that of the butternut and its +internal structure is almost the same but the outside shell is smooth. +Cultivated varieties usually crack easily and in such a way that the +kernel is released in halves. From all this, it is easy to see that the +heartnut is not only a beautiful tree but is definitely useful.</p> + +<p>In my own work with heartnuts I have found that, although they are to be +classed only as semi-hardy, there are a few varieties which are hardy +enough for northern temperatures. Only testing will determine which ones +can endure severe climates. In the spring of 1921, I planted a Lancaster +heartnut grafted on a black walnut, but the weather was cold that season +and it was killed down to the graft joint, where it threw out a sprout. +This was weak and succulent by fall and the graft was entirely killed +back that winter. I bought twelve more Lancaster heartnuts a year later. +They were interspersed in the orchard among some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> black walnuts. +Although a few survived the first winter, none ever lived to come into +bearing. From time to time, I also experimented with seedlings sent to +me by Professor James A. Neilson of Vineland, Ontario, who was +interested in having them tested in this latitude. These, too, were +always unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>I had my first success with several unnamed varieties of heartnuts I +purchased in 1933 from J. U. Gellatly of British Columbia. These were +grafted on black walnut stocks of considerable size. To insure their +surviving the first winter, I built wooden shelters which completely +enclosed them, filling these shelters with forest leaves and protecting +them against mice with screen covers. No doubt this was a decided help; +at least all of these heartnuts lived for many years until the invasion +of the butternut curculio and the damage done by the yellow bellied sap +sucker bird caused me the loss of all except one variety, the Gellatly. +This variety I have perpetuated by re-grafting on other black walnut +stocks and by spraying and covering the limbs with screen to prevent the +sap sucker from working on it, still have it in the nursery and at my +home in St. Paul where a young tree on the boulevard bears each year.</p> + +<p>I have found that heartnuts are difficult to propagate, the number of +successful grafts I have made being far below that of black walnuts on +black walnut stocks. The reason for this is not well understood any more +than is the fact, in my experience, that the Stabler walnut will graft +readily and the Ten Eyck persistently refuses to. A good feature that +these grafted trees do have, however, is their early productiveness. I +have seen them set nuts the second year after grafting and this has also +occurred in trees I have sold to others.</p> + +<p>When a nut of J. sieboldiana cordiformis is planted, it does not +reliably reproduce itself in true type, sometimes reverting to that of +the ordinary Japanese walnut, which looks more like a butternut and has +a rather rough shell as distinguished from the smooth shell of the +heartnut. In hulling my heartnut crop for 1940, I noticed many deformed +nuts.</p> + +<p>The season had been a prolific one for nut production of all kinds, and +I knew there had been a mixture of pollen in the air at the time these +nutlets were receptive (a mixture made up largely of pollen from black +walnuts, butternuts, with some English walnuts). Since irregularities in +size and shape indicate hybridity frequently and since heartnuts are +easily hybridized I have assumed that these were pollinized by the +mixture. I have planted these odd-shaped nuts and I expect them to +result in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> many new crosses of J. sieboldiana cordiformis, some five to +eight years from now.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/27.jpg" width="400" height="539" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Beautiful tropical looking Japanese Walnut (Juglans +sieboldiana cordiformis). Variety Gellatly, from Westbank, B. C., +Canada. Photo by C. Weschcke.</i></p> + +<p>To show how nature reacts to much interference I will follow through on +these nearly 100 small trees that resulted from this pollination. They +were transplanted into an orchard on a side hill and well taken care of +for several years, but during that time one after another was killed, +apparently by winter conditions or perhaps the site was too exposed or +the soil may have been uncongenial. Today there remains but three trees, +none of which have borne but all indicate that they are true heartnuts +from the shape of the leaves and color of the bark and general +formation. In order to hasten their bearing, scions have been taken from +these small trees and will be grafted on large black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> walnut stocks to +bring them into fruitfulness much earlier than if they were left to +their own slow growth. This system of testing out seedlings long before +they have reached a size sufficient to bear on their own roots is +applicable to all of the species of nut trees and is one way that the +plant breeder can hurry up his testing for varieties after making +crosses and obtaining young plants.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/28.jpg" width="400" height="306" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Natural size Heartnut. Photo 10/26/38 by C. Weschcke. +Gellatly variety.</i></p> + + +<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold;">Beechnut</p> + +<p>The beechnut, Fagus ferruginea, belonging to the oak family, is one of +the giants of the forest, growing to great size and age. Even very old +beech trees have smooth bark and this, in earlier and more rustic days, +was much used for the romantic carving of lovers' names, as scars still +visible on such ancient trees testify. The wood itself is dense and +hard, even more so than hard maple, and is considered good lumber. +Beechnut is one of the few nut trees with a more shallow and ramified +root system as contrasted with that of most, which, as in the oak, +walnut and hickory, is a tap root system. This fact suggests that in +those localities where beeches grow wild, grafts made on such trees, and +transplanted, would survive and grow well.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> + +<p>Perhaps one of the reasons why very little propagation is done with +beeches is that no outstanding variety has ever been discovered. +Although the nut shell is thin and the meat sweet and oily, the kernel +is so small that one must crack dozens of them to get a satisfying +sample of their flavor. This, of course, prevents their having any +commercial value as a nut. There is also the fact that the beechnut is +the slowest growing of all the common nut trees, requiring from twenty +to thirty years to come into bearing as a seedling. Of course this could +be shortened, just as it is in propagating hickories and pecans, by +making grafts on root systems which are ten or more years old, as +explained in the chapter on heartnuts. However, I know of no nursery in +which beechnuts are propagated in this way.</p> + +<p>My attempts to grow beechnut trees in Wisconsin have met with little +success. About the year 1922, I obtained 150 trees from the Sturgeon Bay +Nurseries. I planted these on level ground which had clay near the +surface with limestone about a foot under it. Although all of these +trees seemed to start satisfactorily, some even growing about a foot, +within two or three years they had all died. I decided they were not +hardy but I now realize that the character of the soil was responsible +for their gradual death; they should be planted in a limestone or +calcareous soil, preferably of the fine sandy type, the main requisite +being plenty of moisture because of their shallow root system. Since +then, I have purchased beechnut seeds several times from various +seedsmen, but none of these seeds has ever sprouted. I think this is +because beechnuts, like chestnuts, must be handled with great care to +retain their viability.</p> + +<p>In 1938, I ordered 100 beechnut trees from the Hershey Nurseries of +Downingtown, Pennsylvania. Although these trees were set in sandy soil, +there are now only about five of them alive, and of these, only four are +growing well enough to suggest that they will some day become big trees.</p> + +<p>Beechnuts must be protected against mice and rabbits as these species of +rodents are very fond of bark and young growth of these trees and I have +every reason to believe that deer are in the same category.</p> + + +<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold;">Oaks</p> + +<p>Although the acorns produced by the red oak are very bitter and +consistently wormy, those from the white oak are more edible. In my own +exploring, I have found one tree, apparently a hybrid between the red +and white oaks, which bears good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> acorns. The nuts, which are long and +thin, are generally infested with weevils. If there were a demand for +such a nut tree, I'm sure that it could easily be grafted on oak roots. +During favorable seasons, when these edible nuts were of good size and +free from worms, I have carried them in my pocket and enjoyed munching +on them. I found that their flavor, like that of chestnuts, was improved +by roasting.</p> + +<p>Acorns are a balanced food and contain enough starch to make them +readily assimilated, except for their bitterness. They are a good food +for farm animals and chickens. I have kept a flock of goats in good +condition by feeding them acorns during the winter. It isn't necessary +to grind them for such use. I have read that Indians at one time +prepared acorns for their own use by storing them in bags submerged in +cold running water. This not only extracted the bitterness but also it +probably discouraged the development of weevil eggs.</p> + +<p>Oak trees are generally prolific and are regular bearers, but of course, +what they are widely known and loved for is the beauty of their leaves +in the autumn. No one doubts their esthetic value, which will keep them +forever popular whether they come into demand as a grafted nut tree or +not.</p> + + +<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold;">Chestnuts</p> + +<p>Another of our ornamental nut trees is the chestnut, also of the oak +family, classified under the genus Castanea, which grows into a large, +beautiful tree with wide-spread branches. Chestnuts do not grow well on +limestone soil and always fail in the heavy blue clay so common on farm +lands in this part of the country. It is best for their growth that the +soil be gravelly and slightly acid.</p> + +<p>The chestnut has always been a good timber tree. Its wood, although not +as hard as the red oak, resembles it in grain. The beams of many old +pioneer homes are found to be chestnut. It is said that this is one of +few woods to give a warning groan under too heavy a burden before it +cracks or breaks. Chestnut wood is very durable in contact with the +soil, outlasting all others except possibly black walnut and cedar. It +contains so much siliceous matter in its pores that it quickly dulls +chisels and saws used in working it.</p> + +<p>The chestnut trees at my nursery were grown from mixed hybrid seeds +which I obtained from Miss Amelia Riehl of Godfrey, Illinois. Almost all +of the seeds she first sent me, in 1926, spoiled while they were stored +during the winter. But Miss Riehl sent me more the following spring, +many of which proved hardy. In 1937, the oldest of these trees produced +staminate bloom for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> the first time. I naturally expected a crop of nuts +from it that year, but none developed. The same thing happened in 1938. +I then wrote to Miss Riehl about it, also asking her where to look for +the pistillate blossoms. Her reply was a very encouraging one in which +she wrote that the pistillate blossoms appear at the base of the catkins +or staminate blooms, but that it is quite a common thing for chestnut +trees to carry the latter for several years before producing pistillate +blossoms. She also explained that it was very unlikely that the tree +would fertilize its own blooms, so that I should not expect one tree to +bear until other nearby chestnuts were also shedding pollen. This +occurred the next year and another chestnut close to the first one set a +few nuts. It was not until 1940 that the tree which had blossomed first, +actually bore nuts.</p> + +<p>In 1940, I crossed the pistillate blossoms of this tree with pollen from +a Chinese variety called Carr, resulting in half a dozen nuts which I +planted.</p> + +<p>Since the chestnuts in these parts do not bloom usually until early July +we can expect chestnuts to be a more reliable crop than butternuts, for +instance, which bloom very early in the spring about May 1 to 15th.</p> + +<p>Having had this reward for my efforts I took much more interest in +chestnut growing and ordered trees of the Chinese varieties, Castanea +mollissma from J. Russell Smith, H. F. Stoke, and John Hershey. Some of +these were seedlings and some were grafted trees, not over a dozen of +them alive today and none have produced mature nuts. Seemingly they have +not been hardy although they have grown large enough to produce both +staminate and pistillate blooms; they have never winter killed back to +the ground, however.</p> + +<p>Also, I have been planting nuts from all sources from which I could +obtain them, mostly of the Chinese chestnut type. Some of these nuts +were results of crosses, and showed their hybridity in the young +seedlings that resulted there from. Today I have perhaps 150 of such +young seedlings which I am pampering with the hope of getting something +worthwhile from them. One of the big thrills of chestnut growing was the +result of a chestnut that I picked up from a plant that was no higher +than 2 feet, growing at Beltsville, Maryland in the government testing +ground there, in 1937. My records show that this plant began to bear +nuts in 1943 and have subsequently borne several crops in between the +times that it was frozen to the ground and grew up again, which happened +at least three times. Like most chestnuts this one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> has to be pollinated +by taking the staminate bloom from a dwarfed chestnut nearby whose bloom +coincides with the blossoming of the female flowers of this Chinese +hybrid. Chestnuts rarely set any nuts that produce mature seed from +their own pollen but depend on cross-pollination. The nut from this +hybrid is also the largest of any that I have grown and to my taste is a +palatable one. It may not rank among the best ones of known varieties +today, but for our climate I would consider it unusually large and good. +Experimentally, I have been able to produce new plants from this tree by +layering young shoots coming from the roots. This generally requires two +years to make a well-rooted plant before they are cut off and +transplanted. This alternative of propagating by grafting or budding is +considered a better method if it can be practiced, as it gives a plant +on its own roots instead of the roots of some unknown seedling stock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/29.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Hybrid Chestnut; natural size, one of the two survivors +of several dozen trees sent by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for +testing this far north. Fair size nut and it resembles the American +Sweet Chestnut. Photo by C. Weschcke.</i></p> + +<p>Another tree that surprised me when it came into bearing proved to bear +one nut in a burr which led me to believe that it was a chinquapin +hybrid. Later on, the habit of this tree changed somewhat and some of +the burrs had more than one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> nut. I have found this to be the experience +of others who have observed so-called chinquapin trees of a hybrid +nature. It is my belief that the kind of pollen with which these +blossoms are fertilized directly influences the number of nuts in a burr +and sometimes the size of the nuts, again showing the importance of the +cross-pollinating varieties when setting out an orchard of trees. This +particular chinquapin type chestnut has upright growing habits different +from a tree bearing similar nuts but having a very dwarfed habit. All of +the nuts of the latter after six years of bearing can be picked off this +tree by standing on the ground. There are several other trees bearing +chestnuts, some large and some small nuts, all of which are interesting +to me and may be important in the future of the chestnuts this far north +since they indicate without doubt that the chestnut can accommodate +itself to our climate, providing it has the right type of soil to grow +in. In 1952 I acquired a 20-acre adjoining piece of land which has a +much better chestnut growing site, being deep sandy soil, well drained, +and yet not ever being dry. New varieties will be tested on this piece +and should give much better results than the old trees which already +were good enough to indicate success in chestnuts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/30.jpg" width="400" height="229" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>A hybrid chestnut presumed to be a cross between +European Chestnut (Castanea Sativa) and its American cousin (Castanea +Americana). Actual size. Photo by C. Weschcke.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/31.jpg" width="400" height="236" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Chinquapin hybrids from a tall growing tree. Nuts grow +in racemes of burrs with as many as 10 burrs on one stem. Photo by C. +Weschcke.</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold; margin-top: 2em;">Apricot</p> + +<p>If it were not that an apricot is a nut as well as a fruit, I should +hesitate to include a description of my work with it. But the apricot +seed has a rich kernel which, in many countries, for example, China, is +used as a substitute for the almond to which it is closely related.</p> + +<p>It was in 1933 that my aunt, Margaret Weschcke, told me of an apricot +tree growing in a yard on the Mississippi River bluff in St. Paul and +said to be bearing fruit. I was quite skeptical until I saw the tree and +also saw fruit from it which had been preserved by the woman who owned +it. Convinced of the hardiness of the tree, I was anxious to obtain +scionwood but it was not until late that winter that I received +permission to do so. It happened that a truck had broken off a large +branch from the tree while delivering coal, and the owner very +reasonably decided that taking a few twigs from it would not hurt it any +more. I not only took the small branches that she was willing to +sacrifice from her tree but also as many as possible from the branch +which had been torn off, as its terminals were still in a fresh +condition.</p> + +<p>I grafted these scions on hybrid plum trees where they took<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> hold +readily, and in 1938, they began to bear prolifically. The apricots, +which I have named Harriet, in honor of my mother, are a fine-flavored +fruit, medium in size. Their cheeks are a mottled red with raised +surfaces. Their pits are well-formed and fairly edible. Although the +parent tree died the winter I took scions from it, my grafts have proved +quite hardy, having received no injury when temperatures as low as 47° +below zero have occurred. Since the parent tree died because its roots +were severely frozen, it would seem that the top of the tree, in this +case, was more hardy than the root system. This does occur sometimes, +although it is unusual.</p> + +<p>In developing the factor of hardiness further in this apricot variety, I +have taken advantage of something I had observed about other fruit +trees. When one combines parts of two trees by grafting, it is a simple +thing to select a hardy root stock from the available plants, just as I +selected hardy plum stock on which to graft my apricot scions. This is +not always possible in choosing scionwood, however, since scionwood is +usually selected for such reasons as the quality of its fruit. It may +happen that the top part of a tree is limited in its climatic scope +because of its inability to withstand precipitate or otherwise +unfavorable temperatures. Having observed that certain grafted varieties +of fruit trees, such as the Wealthy apple, for instance, have gradually +come to be planted much farther north than they originally were, I +reasoned that this was because only the hardiest of them survived and +these hardy ones therefore became the mother blocks for future grafting. +This was an inescapable procedure which acted as a method of bud +selection. I therefore assumed that by a careful choice of the hardiest +among surviving twigs of the most recent graft of the Harriet apricot, +when particularly severe winter weather had caused some injury, I could +induce extra-hardiness in future grafts.</p> + +<p>I also believe that I have added to the hardiness factor of the apricot +by making frequent grafts. It is my theory that the root stock is able +to exert some influence over the top other than mere maintenance of +life. By frequently uniting a hardy stock with a less hardy top, I think +that the individuality of the top part may be somewhat broken down and +the extra characteristic of hardiness added to it. After the fifth +re-graft of this apricot made in eight years, I am convinced by its +appearance and behavior that it is capable of becoming a reliable +apricot for the region around St. Paul. Today the apricot still exists +grafted on plum at my nursery at River Falls, Wisconsin, and the +weakness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> of the tree seems to be in the union between the top and the +plum stock. If this union were not so corky and large and succulent it +might be less injured by our winters; therefore it is quite apparent +that the plum is not a congenial stock for an apricot, at least it does +not produce a satisfactory union. I am now making tests with this same +variety by grafting it on more hardy apricot seedling stock such as the +Prof. N. E. Hansen of Brookings, South Dakota, introduces.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_11" id="Chapter_11"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 11</span></h2> + +<h3>PESTS AND PETS</h3> + +<p>The pocket gopher is an herbivorous animal which attains approximately +the size of a gray squirrel. It has a sleek, grey-brown coat of fur +which is almost as fine as that of the mole and would, I think, make a +good quality fur except that the skin is too tender to stand either +sewing or the wear that fur coats have to undergo. I learned this by +trapping them and having a furrier try them out, as I knew that the +quickest way to get rid of a pest is to eat it or use its hide. Since I +found its hide to be of no practical value, I enjoined my troop of Boy +Scouts, a willing group of boys, to carry out my suggestions that they +skin and prepare one of these animals in a stew. Gophers are purely +herbivorous and I thought they should be quite edible, but as I am a +strict vegetarian myself, I had to depend on them to make this +experiment. The boys followed instructions up to the point of cooking, +but by that time the appearance of the animal had so deprived them of +their enthusiasm and appetites that I had no heart to urge them to +continue. I am still of the opinion, however, that to meat-eating +people, the pocket gopher would taste as good as squirrel or pigeon.</p> + +<p>The first introduction I had to the devastating work that these animals +can do in an orchard was when I was working among my young apple and +plum trees one spring. I noticed that the foliage was turning yellow on +many of them and upon investigation I found that the trees were very +loose in the ground. At first I thought that planting operations and +heaving of the ground by frost in the spring might be the cause, but in +testing the looseness of one of these trees, I found that I could pull +it out of the ground easily. There I saw what appeared to be the marks +of an axe. I was completely convinced that I had personal enemies who +went around nights chopping off the roots of my trees, for I knew that +most of my neighbors were completely out of sympathy with my tree +cultivation. In fact, farmers living in that section of the country were +always poking fun at my nut tree plantings and orchard work, for their +idea of what was proper on a farm was a treeless field of plowed ground. +As I thought of all these things, I pulled up many other trees; in fact, +there were dozens that were chopped off so that they could be completely +pulled out. Others still had one or two roots clinging<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> to the main +trunk and these I carefully replanted so that they would continue to +live and grow.</p> + +<p>Not long after the tragic day on which I found all these ravaged trees, +I noticed, winding in and out close to the young orchard trees, the +mounds which pocket gophers make when they tunnel under the ground. I +followed some of these by digging into them with a shovel, and +discovered that they led to the roots of trees, the very trees that had +been chopped off and killed. My enemies were not human after all.</p> + +<p>Sending for a pamphlet from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, I +studied the material given about pocket gophers and their habits. I then +began their systematic eradication, using about twelve steel muskrat +traps. I succeeded in trapping, in one season, over thirty of them, at a +time when they were so prolific and their holes so numerous that I could +not drive a horse through the orchard without danger of breaking one of +its legs. I also used poisoned grains and gases but I do not recommend +them. Trapping is the only method in which one obtains actual evidence +of elimination. It took me many years to force the gophers out of my +orchards and I still must set traps every fall, during September and +October when they are most active. Their habits are such that they do +most of their tunnelling in the early fall months, before frost, during +which time they expose and isolate the roots on which they intend to +feed during the winter months when the ground is so hard that they +cannot burrow further. This period is when they are most easily trapped.</p> + +<p>It was with the idea of establishing a balance of nature against these +animals that I conceived the idea of importing bull snakes. Almost +everyone has heard of the bull snake, but its name is a poor one, for it +has the wrong connotation. These snakes are actually a fine friend to +the farmer since each snake accounts for the death of many rodents each +year. Their presence certainly was of definite value in decreasing the +number at my farm. Bull snakes have the long body typical of +constrictors, sometimes reaching a length of nearly six feet at +maturity, and being at the most an inch and one-half in diameter. This +country had a natural abundance of such snakes at one time but ignorance +and superstition have lessened their number so that it is now a rare +thing to find one. During the early days of automobiles, these huge bull +snakes, or gopher snakes, as I prefer to call them, would lie across the +sunny, dusty roads, and drivers of cars delighted in running them down. +Since they are very docile, they are the least afraid of man of any +members of the local snake<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> family. They are slow in movement until they +sense the immediate presence of their natural food, which is live mice, +rats, gophers, squirrels, young rabbits, and sometimes, though rarely, +birds. Then it is they become alert, and the horny appendage on their +tails vibrates with a high-pitched, buzzing sound, simulating, although +not similar to, the sound of a poisonous rattlesnake.</p> + +<p>When I first brought some of these snakes to my farm, I loosed them and +they wandered off to a neighbor's premises where they were promptly +found and killed. Later importations I confined to my basement, where I +built an artificial pool with frogs and fish in it. However, I could +never induce the bull snakes to eat any of these batrachians. They +would, almost playfully, stalk the frogs, but at the moment when one was +within reach, the snake would glide away. Neither would the snakes, +unless force-fed, eat anything they had not caught themselves.</p> + +<p>My children were delighted to have the snakes there and made pets of +them. Only once was one of the girls bitten when she attempted +force-feeding. The bite was a mere scratch but we feared that it might +be slightly poisonous. However, it healed so promptly that it was quite +apparent that the bull snake's bite is not toxic. I, too, have had my +skin slightly punctured by their teeth, but always the wound healed with +no more pain or trouble than a pin prick. Such is not at all the case +when a person is nipped by a squirrel or gopher. I have purposely +allowed a pocket gopher to bite me, to determine what the effects are. +The pain was severe and healing was slow. Once, bitten by a gray +squirrel when I reached into a hollow tree to get it, I received such a +wound that fever started in my whole hand. Its teeth punctured a +finger-nail and were stopped only by meeting the bone. Such bites I +consider rather poisonous.</p> + +<p>Rabbits also committed much damage at my nursery by gnawing the bark of +my trees, especially during times of deep snow. They did not bother the +walnuts particularly, but were very fond of hickories and pecan trees. +On the smallest ones, they cut branches off and carried them away to +their nests. On larger trees, they gnawed the bark off of most of the +lower branches. This was dangerous but seldom fatal, whereas the gnawing +of mice, near the base of the trunks, was such that in some cases when +complete girdling occurred, it was necessary to use bridge-grafting to +save the trees. This consists of connecting the bark immediately above +the roots with the bark above the girdled portion, so that the tree can +receive and send the food substances it elaborates to its upper and +lower parts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + +<p>Rabbits and mice, therefore, had to be dealt with. Of course, one could +go hunting for rabbits and later eat them. This was one task I had my +employees do. I, myself, was unwilling to take an active part in it, +although still intent on saving my trees in spite of my pity for the +little animals. Placing hundreds of cans in the orchard, with a pinch of +poisoned wheat and oat mixture in each, helped to eradicate the mice. +The bait was placed inside the cans to prevent birds from being +poisoned, and the cans were tipped at an angle so that water would not +enter them.</p> + +<p>To be absolutely sure of preventing mice damage, one should provide each +tree with a screen guard. I have made about 10,000 screen protectors for +my trees for this purpose. I have also trapped rabbits which we were not +able to shoot and I conceived the idea of painting the traps with white +enamel. When these were set on the snow around those trees which the +rabbits attacked, they worked very successfully. The traps were a size +larger than the common gopher trap, but were not expensive. There are +other ways of catching rabbits or curtailing their activities, but on my +list, shooting comes first, with trapping as a second effective measure.</p> + +<p>Squirrels, although they do no damage to the trees themselves, except on +rare occasions, are a definite nuisance when they come in large numbers +and cut down nuts before they are ripe. They do this to hickory nuts, +and apparently are very fond of the half-ripened nuts. I have seen +squirrels chew hickory buds and young sprouts of hickory grafts and I +had to trap several before I stopped them from doing this to certain +ornamental trees in our garden. In fact, when one has a large nut +orchard, squirrels will be attracted in number that preclude the +possibility of harvesting a crop unless measures are taken to banish +them. They are very active early in the morning and my experiences +indicate that two or three people should hunt them together, as they are +very clever at dodging a single hunter. I also have built galvanized +metal guards around isolated trees which prevent squirrels from climbing +them.</p> + +<p>In speaking of mice, we have two important species commonly known as the +meadow mouse and the other species known as the white-footed mouse. The +meadow mouse is the one that does so much damage to the orchard trees +and young nursery stock if unprotected, and the white-footed mouse may +be responsible for some of this when present in great numbers, but of +the white-footed mouse this much good can be said:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/32.jpg" width="400" height="537" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Squirrel guards.</i></p> + +<p>Much of its diet, especially of the mother mouse during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> time that +she is nursing her young ones, is made up of insects. A personal +experience accentuates this. Since these are such pretty little +creatures, having such cunning ways, it was my ambition to catch a +complete family of mother and young ones which sometimes numbered as +high as ten. My ambition was finally gratified and I was able to get a +mother of eight and her tiny<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> mouslings, which have a habit of fastening +themselves securely to her breasts while she runs about, and drags them +all along in a most ludicrous fashion. At times, under these +circumstances, the combined weight of the brood exceeds that of the +mother mouse but they are exceptionally strong creatures for their size, +a mature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> mouse being able to jump out of a 3-foot barrel with one leap. +In observing this brood of mice, I was particularly anxious to see what +kind of a diet they throve on and tried the mother's appetite with +tidbits from the table. While she ate most everything, it soon became +apparent that something was wrong because the young ones became weaker, +finally to the extent that they were unable to nurse, and one morning I +found several on their backs with their feet feebly waving in the air +indicating that they were dying of starvation. At about that time I was +drying some hazelnuts on a flat back porch floor and in sweeping them up +found a lot of alive and dried up larvae which had escaped from the +shells. Just for fun, I swept this material up and threw it into the +mouse cage. The reaction of this treatment was gratifying, for the +mother mouse pounced upon this insect life greedily devouring +everything. Within three days, the young mice were all in good health +and running around showing that the milk produced from the diet that I +had been giving the mother was inadequate for the baby mice. It is +therefore to their credit to state that these mice and probably at times +the meadow mice do consume large quantities of larvae and grubs in the +surface soil, as well as mature active insects, such as crickets and +grasshoppers.</p> + + +<p>HOW TO PREPARE RODENT PROTECTORS FOR TREES</p> + +<p>1. Cut 6" strips from 24" wide roll of galvanized screen with a 12 x 12 +mesh.</p> + +<p>2. Cut strips in half to make two protectors from each strip.</p> + +<p>3. Make bundles of 25 each by running wire through protectors.</p> + +<p>4. Dip these bundles in a solution containing 5 pounds of red lead per +gallon of linseed oil. Use from 3 to 5 gallons of this solution.</p> + +<p>5. Remove bundles and hang them on a pole with a drip pan beneath to +catch the solution, which can be used again. Allow bundles to drip for 8 +hours, then separate each protector and place on grass for a few days to +dry.</p> + +<p>6. Roll each protector around a 3/4" pipe or broomstick and it is ready +for the tree.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/33.jpg" width="400" height="906" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Preparation of screen guards.</i></p> + +<p>In dealing with wild creatures, one must forebear condemning a whole +species of animals merely because at times they become troublesome, for +the main purpose of their existence, like owls, hawks and crows, they +may be more beneficial than otherwise.</p> + +<p>A good word should be said here for skunks and moles. A great deal of +the skunk diet is insect life. The same is true of the mole whose diet +probably consists of 75% insects, mostly in their larval state. This is +an important feature of mole and skunk as they dig these insects out +before they mature into winged female adults which may lay hundreds of +eggs. If these larvae should be allowed to develop into a mature winged +insect that would lay eggs, this particular insect would multiply itself +hundreds of times over and it would take many more birds than at present +exist to take over the big job of keeping the balance between necessary +insect life and a surplus which would be destructive to all plant life. +We can never hope to eradicate all insect life which we deplore as being +deleterious to the interests of mankind, and it is mighty well that we +cannot do this for the insects are as important to us as all other life, +for without them we would be unable to produce the vast quantities of +foods that are now dependent upon such insect life. It is true that +they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> take their toll of the food that they are instrumental in +sometimes producing but when one attempts to unravel the mystery of +balance of nature one is confronted by the big question of how far to go +in the eradication of both animals and insect pests. Before man's +interference the wild crops were plentiful and balances were kept in +harmony by vast multitudes of frogs and toads, birds and rodents, all of +which have been slaughtered and reduced by such amounts as to endanger +man's food supply, forcing him to resort to poison sprays and other +measures in order to hold destruction in check. All of this expense and +trouble he could have avoided if he had been sensible enough to observe +the natural checks and foster the natural procedure of which nature is +the best guide.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_12" id="Chapter_12"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 12</span></h2> + +<h3>STORING AND PLANTING SEEDS</h3> + + +<p>Most nut tree seed requires ideal storage conditions to preserve its +germinating power or viability. Under natural circumstances, such nuts +as black walnuts, English walnuts, butternuts, hickory nuts, pecans, +hazelnuts, filberts and almost all other nuts, will be planted by +squirrels, mice and other rodents. Although most of these will be eaten +by the animals who buried them, a large percentage of the ones which are +not eaten will sprout. The sprouts which achieve maturity and bearing +age, however, will be only a very small percentage—some say only a +fraction of 1%—of the number that sprouted. This is an expensive and +wasteful method, horticulturally speaking, but it does indicate that it +is best to plant nuts as soon as possible after they have properly +ripened and been dried.</p> + +<p>After walnuts, hickory nuts, butternuts and hazels have been gathered, +they should be dried until the hulls have lost most of their moisture. +The husks should be removed from filberts before they are dried. While +this preparation is not essential, nuts are less likely to mold if they +are dried somewhat before they are planted. However, I have planted +freshly-gathered black walnuts and butternuts and most of them sprouted. +If nuts are to be stored in large quantities, the drying-out process is +absolutely essential and should be carried to the point of completely +drying the hulls. The system I followed in doing this is to gather the +nuts after they have fallen and spread them out in the sunlight on roofs +or floors where air can circulate around them. After the hulls are dry, +such nuts as black walnuts, English walnuts and butternuts may be put in +barrels or burlap bags and stored in an unheated basement without +seriously deteriorating. English walnuts are most safely stored when +they are hulled before being packed in burlap bags. These bags should be +suspended above the floor of the cellar by a rope or wire. These are +additional precautions which allow better circulation of air, further +prevention of mold, and safety from mice and squirrels.</p> + +<p>Chestnuts, beechnuts and acorns require more care when they are to be +stored, for their viability is very sensitive to dryness. I have found +that these soft-shelled species of nuts should be treated in a different +manner than the walnut and hickory types of seeds if we are to get the +most out of their germination. Since chestnuts are very prone to molding +or rotting,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> the best way to maintain their viability and freshness over +winter is to stratify them in a can or box between layers of a peat +moss. This peat moss must be decidedly on the acid side and must be +dampened, but must not be so wet that you can wring any water out of it. +The best way to prepare this dry peat moss is to soak it in water and +wring as much water out of it as possible by squeezing with your hands. +Then mix it with half as much of the undampened peat. This will give you +approximately the right moisture coefficient. If stored in cans, the +bottom of the can must be punctured with a few holes about 1/4 of an +inch in diameter, well distributed on the bottom to act as a drain and +to admit some slight circulation of air. The same thing should be done +with the cover.</p> + +<p>First, put down an even layer about 1-1/2 inches of this dampened moss, +then put in a layer of chestnuts or other nuts to be stratified, placed +evenly or well distributed but not touching each other. After the first +layer, carefully sift in more dampened moss about 1 inch thick and +repeat the process until either the can is full or all the seeds have +been stored. The last layer should be a 2-inch layer of peat moss before +the cover is placed on. Now the important thing about all this is to +place this can in a storage room of low temperature and yet it should +not freeze solid. But in a temperature of from 32 to 40 degrees is ideal +and preferably it should be on the ground floor so as to maintain the +moisture that is already stored in the seed and the moss. A mechanical +refrigerator which would constantly dehydrate might eventually dry them +out too much for good germination; otherwise such a refrigerator would +be ideal for the storage of small amount of seeds of this kind.</p> + +<p>It would be well from time to time to inspect these seeds to see whether +they were in good condition and check the temperatures as well. If they +start to sprout all the better; they can then be planted with the sprout +downward and the nut barely covered with earth. Some years I have had +sprouts nearly six inches long on my chestnuts which had been so stored +and care will have to be taken not to break the sprout when +transplanting the nuts.</p> + +<p>In planting nuts, great care must be taken not to plant them too deeply. +Large nuts, such as black walnuts, butternuts and English walnuts, are +often planted with a small part of the nut still exposed. Certainly, the +depth of the soil over a nut should never exceed the thickness of the +nut. Most seeds develop best when they are planted just under the +surface of the soil. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> earth should be lightly tamped around the +planted seeds to eliminate air-pockets. A thin coating of manure, not +more than three inches deep, is valuable if large seeds are planted but +it is detrimental to the development of small seeds and manure should +never be used for evergreens. Seeds of the nut pines, usually purchased +from seedsmen and received in a dry state, should be planted no deeper +than their own diameter in a light, sandy loam. A seed bed, +incidentally, is a very necessary protection against rodents in the case +of nut pine seed. I have used a mixture of bone meal on such seeds with +good results. Four quarts of bone meal carefully worked into the first +two or three inches of the surface soil of a 4 x 12 seed bed greatly +increases its fertility. Sifted hardwood ashes scattered over the bed +after the seed is in, will discourage cutworms and increase the potash +content of the soil.</p> + +<p>Proper drying and storage are of no use if nuts are not planted where +they will have protection against rodents, improper drainage, and other +hazards. To keep them from being eaten by rodents, nut seeds should be +planted under wire screens inside a deep frame. The seed beds I have +made for use in my nursery are four feet wide and twelve feet long. By +using heavy galvanized hardware cloth 2 x 2 mesh, which means that it +has 1/2-inch square holes, is ideal for the top and sides of this frame. +By using this wire cloth 2 feet wide, 18 inches is sunk under the ground +surface, and only 6 inches protrudes above. This is to prevent burrowing +rodents from going underneath and extracting the seeds which you will +find they will do unless the screen protection goes down deep enough +into the ground to discourage them. A stout frame of rot-resisting wood, +such as cedar or fir should be placed on the inside of this countersunk +screen. This should also be 4 feet wide, 12 feet long so that a similar +frame, which is removable, can be placed over this. The edges of the +frame should match perfectly so that no rodents can reach the interior +of the seed bed without going down 1-1/2 feet under ground to burrow +under the countersunk screen. Several thousand evergreens or several +hundred walnut trees can be raised in a seed bed this size.</p> + +<p>The soil is now removed from the inside of this enclosure or stationary +part of the bed to the depth of 6 inches so that the plants will have +head room to develop leaves and stems and still be protected under the +top or removable frame part. The top frame made of the same material and +covered also by the 2 x 2 hardware cloth should be about 6 inches in +height so that there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> will actually be 18 inches of head room for the +plants to grow in before touching the screen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/34.jpg" width="400" height="284" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>This 60 x 30 foot corrugated galvanized iron fence 3-1/2 +feet tall and sunk 6 inches into ground protects valuable hybrids +against invasion by rodents. Photo by C. Weschcke.</i></p> + +<p>There are several important points to remember in starting a seed bed. +It must be in a well-drained site, so that the seeds will not be under +water or water-logged for any length of time. It should be in an open +place where sunlight is plentiful, unless evergreens are being grown. +Evergreens must be in half-shade the first season to avoid a condition +known as "damping off." The top six inches of soil in the bed should be +the best garden soil obtainable, the growth resulting from using good, +clean soil, free from weed seeds, being worth the trouble of preparing +it. By having the bed in two parts, with a cover that may be taken off, +proper weeding can be done when necessary. The cover should always be +replaced afterward, though, as rodents will sometimes attack the young +shoots and the remainder of the seed kernel.</p> + +<p>In the spring of the second season of growth, the young plants may be +dug up and lined out in nursery rows. After two or three years more, +they may be planted in permanent locations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_13" id="Chapter_13"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 13</span></h2> + +<h3>TREE PLANTING METHODS</h3> + + +<p>Since nut trees usually have deep, well-developed root systems of the +taproot type, they are more difficult to transplant than such trees as +plum, apple, elm or maple which have many small fibrous roots. Taproots +have a long, main trunk like a parsnip, from which lateral roots branch. +These roots are heavy and may extend deep into the ground even in trees +only two or three years old. In moving such a tree, the lower part of +the central taproot must, of course, be cut off, but as many of the side +roots as possible are retained. Because such roots have no fibrous or +hair-root system, their handling during transplantation necessarily +differs from that of the ordinary shade or fruit tree.</p> + +<p>If trees having a taproot system, such as the English walnut, black +walnut, butternut, hickory or pecan, are received with bare roots, they +should be treated in the following way: Immediately after the trees have +been unpacked, their roots should be submerged in a barrel of water for +several hours. After their thirst has been quenched, the roots should be +dipped into a mixture of clay and water made to the consistency of thick +paint. With a heavy coating of wet clay around them, the roots may then +be wrapped in wet burlap sacks. They are now ready to be transported to +their planting site.</p> + +<p>Selecting a favorable location for nut trees is very important. They +should never be planted at the bottom of a gulch or valley because, in +such places, frost pockets may occur which will interfere with both +blossoming in the spring and ripening of nuts in the fall. Nut trees +grow best near the summit of a hill. Although such soils are difficult +to plant in, stony soil or soil overlaid with limestone results in good +growth. Shallow surface soil, underlaid with heavy clay, will usually +slow down the growth of a young tree so that it remains dwarfed for many +years. It is more satisfactory to have at least three feet of soil +before clay is reached. If the soil is light and sandy, it will be +improved by adding black dirt immediately around the roots of each tree.</p> + +<p>As most nut trees ultimately grow to be very large, they should be +planted at least forty feet apart. The hole dug to receive each tree +should be wide and deep enough to accommodate the roots without bending +or twisting them. If the excavated soil is of poor quality, it should be +discarded, and good,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> rich soil brought in for setting the tree. Trees +should not be planted too deeply. The collar of a tree, which is a +discoloration of its trunk resulting from contact with the ground, +indicates how much of the tree was previously underground. Although it +is a good idea to plant so that this collar is a little lower than the +surface to allow access to extra moisture, the actual planting depth +should be about as it was previously in the nursery. All broken or +damaged parts on the roots should be trimmed smoothly with pruning +shears. Such clean cuts will send out new rootlets to replace the lost +ones. After a tree has been set into the hole made for it, the soil, +which should be thoroughly mixed with a quart of bone meal to increase +its fertility, is replaced a little at a time. It must be packed very +solidly about the roots with a rounded tamping stick to avoid leaving +air pockets. I find it advisable to retamp the earth about each tree two +or three times during the first year's growing season, to insure +intimate contact between soil and roots.</p> + +<p>Planting should be delayed if the soil is very wet. Trees will stay in +good condition for several days, if the burlap sacks are kept moistened. +Wet, soggy soil is certain to shrink away from the roots and leave air +pockets which will, in time, kill the trees. If trees are transplanted +during a very dry season, they should be thoroughly watered. To do this, +remove several shovelfuls of dirt from the ground about a foot from the +tree, being careful not to cut any roots. Fill this hole with water and +after the water has seeped away, fill it two more times. The tree should +receive about five gallons of water. Sprinkling with a hose does not +suffice. If dry weather continues, each tree should be watered in this +way every week.</p> + +<p>Nurserymen in the future will have to deal with this transplanting +problem in a different way than the old time nurserymen who handles +fruit trees. A suggested way to improve the root system and at the same +time make it easy to lift the tree with a ball of dirt, similar to the +way an evergreen is transplanted, is to prepare a pocket of special +transplanting soil previous to the lining out (which is the term used by +nurserymen in setting out seedlings preparatory to grafting them in +nursery rows). A suggested balanced soil for making the method practical +is to use 1/2 by volume of peat moss; the other half should be rich, +black sandy loam with very little clay mixture in it. In other words, +each nut tree should be allowed about a bushel of soil for its +development, 1/2 bushel to be peat moss, the other half bushel to be +represented by rich black loam. This mixture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> will encourage many +fibrous roots to develop and when the tree is dug, approximately all of +this bushel of soil will be retained around the roots. Having such a +high proportion of peat moss makes it lighter than ordinary ground; such +a ball and the tree will weigh approximately from 100 to 125 pounds +which can be shipped by freight at a low rate and is well worth the +extra price that nurserymen must ask for a specimen of this kind. Such +trees have really never been unplanted and for this reason do not suffer +the shock which is inevitable in the usual transplanting process. +Although pre-planted trees are more expensive to buy and to transport, +their improved chances of living make them worth the price. The above +recommendation is especially applicable to young grafted hickory trees +since they are among the most difficult trees to transplant +satisfactorily. The English walnut (Persian), black walnut, butternut +and especially the hickory are improved by the use of a handful of +ground lime mixed with the soil in preparing these pockets which will +later constitute the ball surrounding the roots of the tree to be +transplanted.</p> + +<p>There is a tendency in grafted trees to produce sprouts below the graft. +Unless these are rubbed off, the grafted portion will become discouraged +and the tree will revert to a seedling variety. Filberts should never be +allowed more than two or three stems, or trunks, while one is more +preferable. If they are allowed to have more, they will produce a rank +growth of wood but only a few, if any, nuts. I stress, by repeating, +that trees should not be planted too deeply and that great care must be +taken to eliminate air pockets. Extra effort and nursing of transplanted +trees during the first season will be repaid by their successful +development and growth.</p> + +<p>It is a wise precaution to place a protective screen around the trunk of +each tree to prevent rodents from attacking it. Mice gnaw off the bark +near the ground, sometimes girdling a tree and so killing it. Rabbits +chew off branches and they, too, may girdle the upper part of a tree. +Rabbits are very fond of pecan and hickory bark. In some places, it may +be necessary to encircle each pecan and hickory tree with a three or +four-foot rabbit fence until the tree is large enough to lose its appeal +to these nuisances.</p> + +<p>Compared with the number of insects which infest fruit trees, very few +attack nut trees. One of those which does is the walnut-leaf +caterpillar. These appear as a closely congregated group of small worms +which feed on the leaves of black walnut and hickory trees during the +latter half of the summer season. Very often they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> are all to be found +on a single leaf, which should be picked from the tree and crushed +underfoot. A simple spray of lead arsenate of the strength recommended +by companies selling spray material, will effectively rid trees of these +pests. Another insect often found in a nut orchard is the oak tree +girdler, which also is active in the latter part of the summer. It often +causes limbs as large as an inch in diameter to be cut through and to +fall to the ground. By removing such freshly girdled branches and +cutting into the hollow made by the larva, it is possible to find the +live worm and destroy it. A good way to combat this pest is to keep each +tree pruned of all dead branches and to burn all broken and dead wood +each fall. While some nut trees are subject to other insects, the two +described here are the most frequently found. Fortunately, they are +easily controlled if a watch is kept for them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_14" id="Chapter_14"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 14</span></h2> + +<h3>WINTER PROTECTION OF GRAFTS AND SEEDLINGS</h3> + + +<p>It is not enough to make a successful graft and to watch it carefully +during the growing season, picking all sprouts off the stock, spraying +it so that insects will not chew the tender leaves and bark, bracing it +against windstorms and perching birds. Each graft must also be protected +from winter injury. For many years I have studied and experimented to +find a successful way of achieving such protection. To enumerate my many +experiments, from simple to far-fetched, would be to write another book +quite as long as this one. My conclusion, now, is that there is little +one can do to assist nature in the process of acclimatizing grafted +plants and seedlings.</p> + +<p>I have repeatedly noticed that the place where most damage is done by +the cold is at the union between stock and graft. For example, I +observed this on the European walnuts, imported from Poland, grafted to +Minnesota black walnut stocks. Although both the buds and the wood of +the top remained fresh and green, the unions suffered severe, and +sometimes total winter injury. In grafts where the latter occurred, the +dead cells soon caused the wood to ferment and sour. Occasionally, a +small group of healthy cells succeeded in re-establishing circulation +with the unharmed, grafted top and the graft, continuing its growth, +would eventually overcome the injury it had suffered. I have seen this +occur with grafts of English walnut, apricot and pecan.</p> + +<p>A blackbird's nest in the crotch of a small tree suggested to me the +most satisfactory guard I have yet found against this greatest of +dangers to all exotic, grafted varieties of nut trees. The nest, which +enclosed over half of the graft union, was partly composed of woolen +fibers which its builder had gathered from barbed-wire fences that sheep +had brushed against. On the exposed portion of the graft union, +discoloration indicated injury and dead cells, but on that part covered +by the nest, all the cells were alive and green. I have improved on the +bird's nest by wrapping a large wad of wool loosely around each graft +union. The value of wool is that it will not collect moisture and so +start fermentation. It allows the cells to breathe, yet protects the +union from the shock of temperature extremes. Birds will inevitably +steal some of the strands of wool but this activity in and about the +trees means a decrease in injuries from insects—a worthwhile exchange.</p> + +<p>When an unusually large swelling at the graft union appears, it is +certain that the plant needs protection such as I have de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>scribed. Such +swellings result from a too-rapid multiplication of cells, a condition +which leaves the union weak and susceptible to injury. Although a union +is never entirely safe, even after many seasons of growth, each year +adds to the safety factor by the development of rough, cork-like bark. I +suggest the use of a woolen guard for several winters, by which time +this outer bark should be able to do its protective work alone.</p> + +<p>A successful but rather expensive method of winter protection, both to +the graft itself and its union with its host, is to enclose the entire +tree with a box-like structure consisting of four corrugated aluminum +roofing sheets set up on their ends and countersunk into the ground +about six inches. The purpose of countersinking these below the ground +surface is two-fold: it stiffens and braces the structure and prevents +the intrusion of mice and other rodents, which may also appreciate both +the shelter and possible food supply contained therein. By fastening +these sheets together with a stout wire you can depend on the structure +to stand up against wind and snow pressures. Fill the entire inside with +forest leaves, oak leaves preferred, as their insulating quality is the +best and they are slow to rot and ferment.</p> + +<p>When working with semi-hardy plants in a cold climate, avoid fertilizing +and cultivating the ground after the first of August. Doing so +stimulates late growth and such growth is very likely to be badly +injured during the winter months. If fertilizer is used, it should be +early in the spring, as soon as the ground is free from frost. Trees +which persist in growing late into the fall are more subject to winter +injury. Protective measures to avoid their doing so by inducing an +earlier dormancy, include keeping the soil around them dry and exposing, +somewhat, the roots near the trunk of each tree.</p> + +<p>My last word of advice in raising what might be termed semi-hardy trees, +is to grow them in sod, the ordinary quack grass, June grass, bluegrass +or other natural grass sods which can be found on your planting site. +Although this will probably hold back your tree development for a few +years, until the roots are thoroughly established in the deeper soil +beneath the sod roots, it is surprising how many species of trees will +thrive in sod and perish on open cultivated ground. I can give no better +example of this than relating a circumstance which bears this out in a +most convincing way. In 1941 I purchased about 250 filbert seedlings +from Samuel Graham of Ithaca, New York. These were planted out on a +field site and practically all of the plants made good growth the first +year. They were thoroughly cultivated. The next year a second batch of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +plants of a like amount were purchased from the same man and of the same +kind of seedlings. Mr. Graham told me that these were seedling trees +from Jones hybrid seeds which he had growing in his orchard. These +plants were put on heavy sod ground; all plants were protected by +screens, but the plants on the sod ground were subject to a very wet +season and it was necessary to build up the soil around some of the +plants in order to save them from being drowned out. Today about 45 +plants are living on the sod culture and two or three barely alive exist +in the open field culture. Although the plants remaining alive on the +sod culture plot are almost pure filbert strain they are therefore very +subject to the common hazel blight. Some have grown into bushes 10 feet +high which later were hit by blight and have been reduced to small +bushes. Others are producing good filbert-type nuts and are somewhat +blight resistant, but the main fact to remember is that about 1/4 of the +plants on sod culture lived, whereas not over 2% are alive of the open +field culture plants. The distance between these plantings is +approximately 1/8 of a mile. In addition to being placed in sod these +filberts which have survived are sheltered by rows of evergreen trees +both on the south and on the north side which may be construed as of +some assistance but is not altogether the reason for the tremendous +difference between the winter protection value of sod and open field +culture. This is not the only example that I could cite but is one of +the most outstanding ones which has come to my attention. Sod culture is +now being recommended to fruit orchardists in this part of the country +and in my own experience, I can highly recommend it for apples, plums, +pears, mulberries and nut trees.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_15" id="Chapter_15"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 15</span></h2> + +<h3>TREE STORAGE</h3> + + +<p>If it is necessary to store trees through the winter months, one of +several procedures may be followed. If the trees are quite small, their +tops may be dipped in melted paraffin or beeswax, not hot enough to +injure the buds. If the trees are too large for this to be practical, +wax may be painted on with a brush. Roots should be protected by heeling +them in dirt.</p> + +<p>An unheated cellar with a dirt floor is a very satisfactory place for +storing trees. Select a corner of the cellar far from any source of heat +or temperature change. Place the trees so that the roots are pointing +toward the basement wall. Cover the roots to a depth of six inches with +either sand or sandy loam, packing the soil firmly to eliminate air +pockets. Lastly, cover the trees completely with burlap sacks. Once +every two weeks, the earth around the roots should be watered. Trees +maintained in this way are conveniently ready to plant when the ground +thaws out in the spring.</p> + +<p>Another and better method of storing trees is to plant them outside in a +trench, preferably on the north side of a building, having first waxed +them as described above. One side of the trench should slope so that the +trees will lie in an oblique position with their branches touching the +ground. The roots of these trees should be covered with dirt, then more +trees set alongside them, until all have been planted and the earth made +firm about their roots. Trees will usually suffer no damage during such +winter storage if their roots have been properly packed in sand or sandy +loam. Six or more cans, each containing a little poisoned grain, should +be set among the branches. If these cans are laid on their sides, +rodents will have easier access to the poison. The branches of the trees +should then be well covered with straw or hay, with heavy boards laid on +top to keep it from blowing away. If trees are received for planting +after the ground has frozen, all that is necessary is to build a log +fire on the side where they are to be heeled in. This will thaw out the +soil enough so that a trench can be made to accommodate them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_16" id="Chapter_16"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 16</span></h2> + +<h3>SUGGESTIONS ON GRAFTING METHODS</h3> + + +<p>Grafting, including budding, may be defined as inserting a piece of wood +which carries buds of a desired variety, on a root stock sufficiently +compatible to accept it, for the purpose of propagation. Methods vary, +each nurseryman having one or more which he prefers, but the principle +is always the same.</p> + +<p>Scionwood may be cut the fall before grafting is to be done, after the +growing season has ended, but some prefer to cut the scions in early +spring. This means that the scions must be stored until time to graft, +and correct storage is so important that nurserymen make elaborate +provision for it. I have found that keeping scions underground in a +Harrington graft storage box is the safest method. An illustration of +this box is given, with directions for its construction and location. A +small quantity of scions may be kept in an icebox (not a mechanical +refrigerator), by cutting them into convenient lengths of one or two +feet, dipping them in melted beeswax, wrapping them in tar or asphalt +paper and placing them close to the ice. They will remain in good +condition for several months if there is always a good supply of ice. +Care must be taken in dipping the scions in melted wax, for if the wax +is too hot it will injure the buds. It should never become so hot that +it smokes. I find it advisable to keep an unmelted piece of wax in the +liquid wax to hold the temperature down.</p> + +<p>Another method of storing scions, after they have been dipped in +beeswax, is to place them on the earth of a cellar floor and cover them +with a few burlap sacks. They should never be allowed to become wet or +they will start to mold. If they are to be stored in this way, a watch +must be kept for mice which will molest them and destroy them if they +have an opportunity.</p> + +<p>Although bud wood may be stored in any of the three ways mentioned, it +should not be waxed. Because of this, it is more likely to deteriorate. +It must be examined frequently and if mold is found, the wood should be +dipped in a Bordeaux solution. After drying, it may be placed in storage +again. It is a good plan to wrap bud wood in tar or asphalt paper when +storing it. However, I have found that the best storage conditions for +all scionwood that I have yet discovered is in the use of peat moss. +Peat moss must be on the distinctly acid side in order to perform the +function of storing scionwood. Most peat moss is generally acid; however +the simple litmus paper test with which every high school<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> pupil is +familiar, can be made. Having acquired good acid peat moss, dampen a +sufficient quantity to pack the scions in to give them liberal +protection. Do not make the bundles of scionwood too large, from 10 to +20 scions in a bundle is better than a large number and much easier to +handle. The moss should be prepared exactly the same as advised in +storing chestnuts (see chapter for storing seeds). In this case it is +not necessary to wax the scions at all. The moss should be applied by +sifting it into the open spaces between the scions and a larger wad at +the base of the cuttings, not at the terminal or bud ends as these would +be better left unpacked. The package is now rolled into a cylinder, +using tar paper or asphalt treated paper, and both ends left open. Do +not use ordinary paper or wax paper as it will turn moldy. Cylinders of +tar paper containing the packed scions should be placed in a damp room +like a cellar with a dirt floor which is cold enough to keep potatoes +and other roots in good condition throughout the winter. If the cellar +is not a good storage cellar for roots and herbs it will not be good +enough for the scionwood as it will be too warm generally. Neither +should they be frozen solid, therefore if a good root cellar is not +obtainable then these should be put in the Har<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>rington graft box already +described or placed under the sawdust in an icehouse and close to the +ice. An old-fashioned ice refrigerator will also make a good storage +bin, placing them close to the ice at all times.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/35.jpg" width="400" height="337" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Making a scarf with a plane +preparatory to grafting.</i></p> + +<p>Selection of good scionwood and bud wood, a very important matter, is +made according to definite standards. Some plants graft better if wood +is used that has two seasons' growth, but, in general, wood of the +current season's growth is used. It must have reached its maximum +possible maturity before it is cut. Also, some attention should be paid +to the vigor of the growth which it has made during the season. For +instance, in choosing between wood which has made only two or three +inches' growth and that which has made a foot or more of growth, both +being equally sound and mature, the more vigorous should be chosen. +Attention should be paid to the development of the buds, which should be +plump and never immature.</p> + +<p>It is advisable to label scions before they are stored to avoid the +confusion that will result if they are mixed. I find that the best +method of doing this is to get a sheet of zinc, from 20 to 30 gauge +thick, and cut it into strips one inch wide by one and three-quarters +inches long. I bore a small hole in one corner of each tag, through +which I thread 18-gauge copper wire, doubled and with the bottom loop +folded over (see page 40). In preparing these tags, it is important to +remember that both wires must pass through the hole in the metal tag, +otherwise, the slight movement due to winds will cause the metal to wear +through. Two wires prevent this action indefinitely. Since a small wire +cuts through a zinc tag in one or two years, heavy wire must be used. +Wire such as I have indicated is satisfactory. I print the necessary +information on each tag with a small, steel awl, and such labels are +still legible after twenty-five years. Copper, brass or aluminum would +also make good tags, but these metals are more expensive. Of course, +these tags may be used for small trees as well as grafts and scionwood +and it is always well to do a good job of labeling all work, since many +errors may result from disregard to this important detail.</p> + +<p>In the north, the time to graft nut trees is when the cambium layer of +the host, or stock, is active, which is usually during the entire month +of May. This cambium layer consists of those cells lying just inside of +the outer bark, between it and the woody part of the tree. When these +cells are active, the inner side of the bark feels slippery and a +jelly-like substance can be scraped from it. Although this is the state +in which the stock should be for grafting,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> the condition of the scions +should be almost the opposite, rather dry and showing no signs of +cambium activity. The bark should cling firmly to the woody part of the +scions, whereas the bark of the stock should slip off readily. Another +good and fairly satisfactory rule is never to graft the stocks of nut +trees until after the young leaves appear.</p> + +<p>In grafting young nursery trees not more than an inch in diameter, the +whole tree is cut off at any distance from the ground convenient to the +nurseryman. Sometimes they are cut within a few inches of the ground, +sometimes two or three feet. In my work, I like to keep the scions as +high above the ground as I can. When the top of a stock is cut off, +there is a great deal of sap pressure and the tree bleeds. It is a poor +policy to attempt grafting while this is happening. Rather, one should +cut the tops off, then wait for several days before inserting any +grafts. Tools must be kept very sharp. A good grafting knife is +sharpened on one side only, so that the blade is flat along the side +which lies next to the cut made on the scion when it is trimmed. If +unaccustomed to handling a knife, one can obtain more accurate results +by using a small plane. I do this by holding the scion firmly in my +right hand and pulling it toward me, against the cutting edge of the +plane which is held in the left hand. Illustrations show how this is +done.</p> + +<p>The only disadvantage in using a plane is that one must exchange it for +a knife to make the receiving cut in the stock before inserting the +graft. This necessitates exposing the graft to the air for a longer time +than does using a single instrument.</p> + +<p>Spring budding is done during the same period as grafting. Bud wood is +usually much larger in diameter than scionwood, for it is easier to +remove buds from big branches than from wood only one-quarter inch in +diameter. When budding is to be done, take along only enough wood for +half a day's work, leaving the rest safely stored. A piece of wood +having a bud is prepared as shown in the illustrations "A" and "B" (next +page). A T-shaped slot is made in the stock to receive the bud, a +process called "shield budding." This is tied in place with either +string, raffia or gummed tape, as shown in "C" and "D" (next page). The +bud must be free to grow, and although it may be covered completely with +wax, no part of the binding material should be close to it. Since it is +not necessary to cut off all the tree in budding, enough of it may +remain above the bud to brace the shoot that develops. Later, it may be +necessary to cut back the tree to the bud so that a callus will form and +cause the wound to heal properly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/36.jpg" width="400" height="560" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>Shield Budding.</i></p> + +<p>Best results are obtained when a graft union is coated with melted +beeswax. Another and cheaper wax may be made by combining four parts of +rosin, one part of beeswax and one-sixteenth part of raw linseed oil. To +this is sometimes added a little lampblack to color the mixture so that +it can be seen on the graft. Again, care must be taken to prevent +injuring the cells with wax that is too hot.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + +<p>I have used many kinds of tying materials, but the one which gives me +best results is gummed tape, which preparation I describe in another +chapter. By wrapping it in spirals around a graft union, I have a +material which holds the graft in place and at the same time excludes +air. The rubber also seems to encourage the formation of that tissue +which unites the stock and scion. In addition to tape, melted wax should +be brushed into those crevices and cracks which always occur in making a +graft.</p> + +<p>It is usually advisable, although not necessary, to shade new grafts. To +do this, cover them with light-colored or white paper sacks. Never use +glassine alone for it causes the grafts to overheat and so destroys +them. Whatever tying material is used, either to fasten on these bags or +to support the grafts, it should be inspected at intervals during the +summer, as it may constrict the graft or stock and injure or cut off the +cambium.</p> + +<p>After a scion begins to grow, it must be firmly braced against the force +of the wind, for a heavy gale can rip out grafts made years before. +Laths make good braces for growing shoots. They may be attached to the +main branch by stout waterproof twine such as binder twine, and the +growing graft tied with soft muslin strips to the lath. As the graft +grows more muslin strips should be used to keep the excessive growth +anchored to the lath. Grafts will often make three or more feet in +growth in one season.</p> + +<p>It is important to remember that sprouts or buds which start from the +stock must be rubbed off. If they are allowed to flourish, they may +prevent the scion from growing. When working over a tree several inches +in diameter, it becomes an art to keep the tree stock satisfied, yet to +encourage the growth of the scions. In large trees, a few sprouts must +grow to nourish the root system, but this is not necessary if the stock +is one inch, or less, in diameter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_17" id="Chapter_17"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 17</span></h2> + +<h3>GRAFTING TAPE VERSUS RAFFIA</h3> + + +<p>It is necessary that a person who is grafting trees and developing +hybrids experiment not only with the plants he is interested in, but +also with the equipment and materials he uses. For more than twelve +years, I used raffia to tie the grafts I made, becoming more annoyed and +irritated with its limitations each year. Finally, I began trying other +materials, until I found one which I think is very satisfactory. This is +a rubberized grafting tape.</p> + +<p>At my nursery, we make our own tape. We buy pure rubber gum, known as +Lotol NC-356, from the Naugatuck Chemical Company, at a cost of $7.50 +for five gallons, F.O.B. their factory. With this, we use unbleached +muslin of an 80 x 80 mesh, or finer. As the muslin is usually a yard +wide, we fold it and take it to a printing firm, where, for a small +charge, it is cut into both one-half and three-quarter inch strips by +being fed through a paper-cutting machine. We use the wider strips for +heavy work on large trees which have three to five-inch stubs; the +narrower strips we use in the nursery, grafting young seedlings.</p> + +<p>First, pour about a gallon of the rubber compound into a twelve or +sixteen-quart pail having a smooth, rolled edge. Next, separate a dozen +or so of the strips of muslin. Then, set out a pair of rails on which to +dry the tape after it has been dipped. I make these rails by using two +1" x 2" boards about twelve feet in length, nailed together at the ends +with boards two feet long. This frame, resting on carpenter's horses or +benches, makes a good drying rack.</p> + +<p>Holding a piece of tape by one end, submerge it in the rubber solution, +forcing it down with a spatula or knife. Swishing it around or moving it +up and down several times helps to fill the pores with rubber. Drag it +from the solution by pulling it sharply over the rolled edge of the +pail, using the spatula on the upper side of the strip to scrape off +superfluous rubber. A little practice soon enables one to judge the +amount of rubber needed on the tape. There should not be so much that it +drips off. Hang the tape on the rack so that the ends are attached to +the rails, the tape sagging slightly in the center. Space the pieces of +tape so that they do not touch, for, if they do, they will be very +difficult to separate later. After they have dried for twenty-four +hours, wind the tape on pieces of cardboard about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> one foot square, +being careful not to overlap the tape. The tape is now ready for +field-work.</p> + +<p>I want to mention some of the advantages I have found in using this +rubberized tape rather than raffia. The tape is uniform throughout and +is stronger than raffia. It does not fly around and frequently get +tangled as the latter does. There is no necessity for keeping it +slightly damp to be usable. It may easily be torn off at any convenient +length or it may be cut without injuring the edge of the grafting knife. +A last advantage is that it is self-sealing since it overlaps on itself +slightly when wound around a graft union. Because of this, there is no +necessity for painting the finished graft with melted wax as is +absolutely vital when using raffia. Personally, I use wax in addition to +the tape for I feel that it is probably safer with that extra +protection. Also it gives me an opportunity to wax over the tip end of +the scion when it is devoid of a terminal bud.</p> + +<p>The only disadvantage in using tape is its cost which, I must admit, is +very much higher than that of raffia. But if, by using tape, twice as +many grafts can be made each day, and if the resulting takes are 50% +better, as they have been in my experience, then the cost is justified +and raffia is actually the more expensive to use.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_18" id="Chapter_18"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 18</span></h2> + +<h3>EFFECTS OF GRAFTING ON UNLIKE STOCKS</h3> + + +<p>It is unquestionably a great shock to a tree when 90% of its top is cut +off. If it is healthy and vigorous, the root system will try to recover, +using every means possible to do so. If a new top is grafted to it, the +stock must either accept and nourish that foreign and sometimes +incompatible new part, or give up its struggle for life. Nature and the +tree stock usually accept the challenge and the graft begins to grow. In +an attempt to continue with its own identity, the stock will bring into +activity adventitious buds. These are tiny microscopic buds imbedded in +the bark of a tree that are not apparent to the eye but are nature's +protection against destruction of the individual plant. But these must +be removed by the horticulturist to insure proper nourishment of the +grafts.</p> + +<p>Because the root system is striving hard to live, and because it is +usually the stronger, it may force the top to accept certain of its +characteristics. Occasionally, it may assume some qualities of the +original top. Such cooperation is necessary if either is to survive. +First of all, the grafted scions must accept the vital quality of +climatic hardiness, a powerful factor developed through ages spent in a +certain climate. To hasten the acclimatization of a tender variety, I +cut scionwood from such unions early in the winter, storing it until +spring. When these scions are grafted on new root systems, I find that +they are much more readily accepted than the first grafts were. The +following season, I allow the grafts of this later union to go through +their first winter of exposure. Early each spring I continue to cut +scions from the most recent unions and graft them to new root systems, +so hastening and setting the factor of hardiness through frequent +asexual propagation.</p> + +<p>Because my observations of the effects of scion on root and vice versa, +have not extended over a sufficient period of time, I think it is +possible that the changes I have seen may be only transient. In any +case, I do know that the phenomenon occurs, for I have seen many +examples of it.</p> + +<p>One instance in which the stock was apparently affecting the scions, +occurred in the case of several varieties of black walnuts which had +been grafted on wild butternut stock over a period of sixteen years. The +walnut top flourished but tended to outgrow the butternut, so that the +caliber of the walnut was greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> than that of the stock a few inches +below the graft union. I also noticed that, although the graft began to +bear about as early as black walnuts do when they are grafted on their +own species, the nuts did not mature at all during the first few years +of bearing. In 1938, after a favorable season, I found mature nuts on +one variety, the Thomas. These nuts varied in size more than they do +when grafted on black walnut. The most surprising thing about them, +though, was that they did not have the characteristic black walnut +flavor. When properly dried and cured, they could have passed as an +entirely different nut since they tasted like neither the black walnut, +the butternut nor the Persian walnut.</p> + +<p>The overgrowth of the Ohio black walnut, grafted on butternut, was even +more apparent than that of the Thomas. These nuts were, as I have said, +immature the first few years they appeared and they, too, lacked the +usual black walnut flavor. In their case, however, the most striking +change was in the shape and structure of their shells which were +elongated like butternuts, with corrugations typical of those found on +butternuts and nearly as deep and sharp. (See Illustration in Chapter 1, +Page 5.)</p> + +<p>In 1937, I made experimental graftings on native black walnut stocks of +the Weschcke No. 4 butternut, a variety I found to be superior to +hundreds of other native trees tested. The grafts grew luxuriantly and +in 1940, produced about two pounds of nuts. These nuts were +approximately 30% larger than those on the parent tree. They cracked +well and the kernels were similar to those from the parent tree. They +definitely distinguished themselves, however, by being a free-hulling +nut, which is not true of the mother tree nor of most butternuts. Soon +after the nuts had dropped to the ground and were still green, they were +hulled and their hulls peeled off like those of the Persian walnut, +leaving the nuts clean and free from remnants. Apparently this +phenomenon was a transient one since later crops did not display this +free-hulling feature.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned, elsewhere, the seedling apricot which came into +bearing in St. Paul, and how I obtained grafts before it died during a +very cold winter. I have grafted scions of this apricot on both hybrid +and wild plum stocks repeatedly and this apricot now exhibits a material +gain in hardiness. It overgrows the plum stock, but this does not seem +to inhibit its bearing, the fruit growing to greater size than that of +the mother tree.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<p>These are some of the instances in which I have seen stock exert a +definite, and, mainly a beneficial influence on its grafted top. It may +easily be that these are only of a temporary nature and until I have +seen them maintained for many more years, I must consider them to be +transient effects.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_19" id="Chapter_19"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 19</span></h2> + +<h3>DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIONS</h3> + + +<p>Loss of identification markings from my grafted trees has, on occasion, +caused me much confusion. There was one time when I had from six to ten +varieties of hickories and their hybrids grafted on wild bitternut +hickory stocks, totally lacking in identification. Although this +disconcerted me considerably, I knew of nothing I could do except to +wait for the grafts to bear nuts and determine the varieties from these. +As I continued my experimental grafting, I made sure that the tags I +used were not only indestructible, but also secured to the grafts in +such a way that the action of the wind could not wear them out nor cause +them to drop off.</p> + +<p>Not long after this had happened, I received from Dr. Deming a shipment +of about twenty varieties of hickory scions. While I was preparing this +material for grafting, I noticed that each variety could be readily +distinguished by its appearance in general and, specifically, by +differences in its leaf scars. I also noticed markings on the bark, +particularly the stomata, which differed with each variety. Color and +stripes added further differentiation. Although I also found variations +in the size and shape of the buds, I later discovered that these do not +always remain constant within a variety, but depend somewhat on each +season's growth. For instance, a second growth sometimes develops during +a favorable season with a large number of lateral buds growing out of it +like spines.</p> + +<p>It seemed to me that if scions could be maintained in an approximately +fresh state, they would furnish a key by which any variety of graft +could be determined as easily as it could by its nuts. I therefore set +myself to preserve scionwood in its fresh state. First, I cut five-inch +pieces of plump, healthy wood, each piece having a terminal bud. I +placed these buds downward in large test tubes which I then filled with +pure, strained honey. Such models did very well for a time, but after +about a year, the honey crystallized and of course the scions were no +longer visible. I emptied the tubes and washed them, cleaned the scions +in warm water, replaced them and refilled the tubes with pure glycerine. +I submerged a thin, zinc tag, stencilled with the varietal name and bent +to conform with the contour of the tube, inside of each one as a name +plate which could not easily be lost or removed. I also labeled each +cork with the name of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> the variety enclosed so that any one of them +could be located when looking down at a nest of tubes in a vertical +position.</p> + +<p>In order to display these preserved specimens at illustrated lectures, I +had a rack made of redwood, of a size to hold twenty tubes. The tubes +could easily be taken from the rack for closer observation by members of +an audience. I find this to be an interesting adjunct to various nut +culture exhibits I make in trying to promote nut culture education.</p> + +<p>Since I was able to identify my unlabeled, hickory grafts by means of +this catalogue of submerged scions, I consider it of great practical +worth. At the present time, I have about 50 hickory specimens, a good +catalogue, although not a complete one. I see no reason why the same +thing could not be done with black walnut or any other kind of nut +scions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_20" id="Chapter_20"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 20</span></h2> + +<h3>HYBRIDIZING</h3> + + +<p>Working with nature to develop new varieties of trees is fascinating +although it requires infinite patience and study combined with skill and +concentration. A person without experience may taste of this pleasure, +however, by trying his hand at cross-pollination, and there is no end to +the number of hybrids possible.</p> + +<p>In attempting to make crosses, one must necessarily understand the +botanical relationship between the trees to be crossed. Trees of the +same species cross readily in almost all cases; trees of the same genus +are not as easily crossed; trees belonging only to the same family are +usually difficult to cross. It is generally assumed that trees not in +the same family are impossible to hybridize. The plum serves as a +practical example of this. The American wild plum crosses readily with +almost any other plum and particularly well with the Japanese plum. +These crosses have resulted in such phenomenal fruit as the Underwood +plum, a cross made between species. If a cross were made between a +chestnut and a walnut, it would be between members of different +families. I recommend to anyone who is attempting to cross-pollinate for +the first time, that he limit his work to crosses made within species. +His chances of success will be greater and such success added to the +experience he is acquiring, will give him the background needed for more +difficult hybridizing.</p> + +<p>Crosses made between filberts and hazels usually produce great changes +in the resulting fruit. J. F. Jones won considerable horticultural fame +from crosses he made between the wild American hazel known as the Rush +hazel, and such varieties of the European filbert as the Italian Red and +Daviana. Hazel and filbert cross readily and the resulting seedlings +will usually bear after only three or four years. For both these +reasons, they are good material for a beginner to work with. If the wild +hazel is to be used as the female, or mother, of the cross, it is +necessary to pick off all the male blossoms, or staminate blooms. This +should be done long before they begin to expand. The pistillate, or +female blossoms, should be enclosed in bags, about six of the +three-pound, common kraft bags should be enough. These are slipped over +those branches which bear female blossoms and are tied around a heavy +packing of absorbent cotton, which has been wound around the branch at +approximately the place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> where the opening of the bag will be. In +fastening the mouth of the bag around the cotton, I find that No. 18 +copper wire, wrapped several times around and the ends twisted together, +is more satisfactory than string. This makes a pollen-tight house for +the pistillate blossoms but not one so air-tight as to cause any damage +to either the plant or blossoms.</p> + +<p>In order to have pollen available at the proper time, it is necessary to +cut a few filbert branches which bear staminate blooms and store them in +a dark, cold place to prevent the pollen from ripening too soon. I +recommend keeping such branches in dampened sphagnum moss until it is +time for the pollen to ripen, or if a cold cellar is available, burying +the cut ends of large branches carrying male catkins one foot deep in +clean, moist sand. When the pollen is wanted, the branches should be +placed in a container of water and set near a window where sunlight will +reach them. Usually, after one day of exposure to bright sunlight, the +staminate blooms will expand and begin to shed their pollen. The pollen +may easily be collected by allowing an extended catkin to droop inside a +vial or test tube and then, as the catkin rests against its inner wall, +tapping the outside of the tube sharply with a pencil to jar the pollen +grains loose. A separate test tube must be used for each variety of +pollen to be experimented with. By following this procedure for several +days with all the staminate blooms that have been gathered, the +experimenter should have enough pollen for work on a small scale. The +test tubes containing this pollen should never be stoppered with corks, +but with plugs of absorbent cotton, which will allow the passage of air. +Pollen may be stored in this manner for several days, possibly as long +as two weeks, if it is kept dry. By a close observation of the blooming +period of the wild hazels, one is able to determine the best time for +placing the filbert pollen on the pistillate blossoms. No attempt should +be made to do so until the male catkins of the wild hazel species are so +entirely exhausted that no amount of shaking will release any grains of +pollen. When this condition exists, it is time to move the stored +filbert branches to strong sunlight. A quiet day should be chosen to +pollinize the hazels for two reasons. If there is a wind, it will blow +away the pollen and so make the work more difficult. A wind will also +increase the danger of the hazels being fertilized by native hazel +pollen which may still be circulating in the air and which the flowers +may prefer to filbert pollen.</p> + +<p>When good conditions are present, then, the hybridizer proceeds to his +work. A brush with which to transfer pollen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> from the vial to the +pistillate blossoms is made by wrapping a little absorbent cotton around +the end of a match. The paper bag is removed from around a group of +hazel blossoms, a small amount of pollen is dabbed on each blossom and +the bag is immediately replaced, to remain on for two more weeks. When +the bags are finally taken off, the branches should be marked to +indicate that the nuts will be hybrids. Before receiving pollen, each +pistillate blossom has, emerging from its bud tip, a few delicate red or +pink spikes which are sticky enough to make pollen adhere to them. +Within a few days after receiving pollen, these spikes may dry up and +turn black, a fair indication that the pollen has been effective. If the +pollen does not take hold, the spikes of the staminate blooms are sure +to continue pink for a long time. I have seen them in the middle of the +summer, still blooming and waiting for pollen which would let them +continue on their cycle. This ability of hazel flowers to remain +receptive for a long period allows the nut-culturist ample time to +accomplish his work. It is not so true with all members of the nut tree +group, some, such as the English walnuts, being receptive for such a +short period that only by very frequent examination and many +applications of pollen can one be sure of making a cross.</p> + +<p>Early in the fall, the hybrid nuts should be enclosed in a wire screen +to prevent mice and squirrels from taking them before they are ripe. +Such wire screens may be used in the form of a bag and fastened around +each branch. When the husks turn brown and dry, the nuts are ripe, and +ready to be gathered and planted. Careful handling of the nuts is +advisable to preserve their viability. They should be planted in an +outdoor bed which has been fully protected against the invasion of +rodents. A screen such as I described for other nut seed is satisfactory +for these hybrid nuts but it need not be as large as that. After the +nuts have sprouted and the plants have grown for one season, they may be +transplanted into a permanent location where they should again be well +protected against mice by a trunk screen, and against rabbits by driving +a stout stake deep into the ground on the south side of the tree and +tying it to the tree. This use of a stake discourages rabbits from +cutting off the tree.</p> + +<p>There are innumerable other crosses that can be made as well as those +between hazels and filberts. It is possible, for example, to cross the +English walnut with the black walnut. Many such crosses have been made +although none of them is known to have produced superior nuts. Thousands +of crosses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> exist between butternuts and Japanese heartnuts. Many of +these are of some worth and are being propagated. Crosses between +heartnut and butternut are easily made, following the same procedure +used in crossing hazels and filberts, except that larger bags are +necessary for covering the female blossoms. Also, these bags should have +a small, celluloid window glued into a convenient place, so that the +progress of the female blossoms toward maturity can be observed.</p> + +<p>When hybridizing walnuts, it is necessary to use a pollen gun instead of +removing the bag from around the female blossoms and applying the pollen +with a cotton-covered applicator. Such a pollen gun can be made by using +a glass vial which does not hold more than an ounce of liquid. An +atomizer bulb, attached to a short copper or brass tube soldered into a +metal screw-cap, is fitted to the vial. Another small copper or brass +tube should also be inserted in the screw-cap close to the first one. +The second tube should be bent to a right angle above the stopper and +its projecting end filed to a sharp point. Without removing the bag from +around the pistillate blossoms, the hybridizer forces the point of the +atomizer through the cotton wadding between bag and branch. The pollen +in the vial is blown through the tube into the bag in a cloud, covering +all the enclosed blossoms. It is advisable to repeat this on several +successive days to make certain of reaching the female blossoms during +their most receptive period.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/37.jpg" width="400" height="314" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>8 x 8 x 8 foot tightly woven sheet of unbleached muslin +stretched over mother hazel plant during pollination period in the +process of making controlled crosses between it and filbert parents. +Photo by C. Weschcke.</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/38.jpg" width="400" height="532" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="illo"><i>How to make a pollen gun</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Chapter_21" id="Chapter_21"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter 21</span></h2> + +<h3>TOXICITY AMONG TREES AND PLANTS</h3> + + +<p>Although quack grass will grow luxuriantly up to the trunks of both +black walnut and butternut trees, I know, from things I have seen +myself, that the roots of the latter and probably of the former have a +deadly effect on members of the evergreen family. I have seen northern +white pine and other pines, too, suddenly lose their needles and die +when, as large trees, they have been transplanted to the vicinity of +butternut trees. To save as many of these transplanted trees as +possible, it was necessary for me to sacrifice almost one hundred fine +butternut trees by cutting them off close to the ground and pruning all +the sprouts that started.</p> + +<p>Other instances have also demonstrated to me this deleterious power of +butternut trees over evergreens. For years, I watched a struggle between +a small butternut tree and a large Mugho pine. Gradually the Mugho pine +was succumbing. At last, when the pine had lost over half its branches +on the side near the butternut, I decided to take an active part in the +fight. I cut off the trunk of the butternut and pruned off all of its +sprouts. The butternut surrendered and died. The Mugho pine took new +heart, lived and again flourished.</p> + +<p>At another time, I transplanted several thousand Montana pines, about +thirty or forty of which came within the branch limits of a medium size +butternut tree. Within a year, these thirty or more trees had turned +brown and were completely dead, while those immediately outside the +branch area were dwarfed and not at all thrifty. The trees farther from +the butternut were unaffected and grew consistently well. A similar +condition, although not to the same degree, developed under a white oak +where more Mugho pines were growing. Another instance occurred when a +planting of several thousand Colorado blue spruce were lined out and +fell within the area affected by two butternut trees. The spruce were +all dead within a few months.</p> + +<p>Many people have observed the detrimental effect of trees of the walnut +family on alfalfa, tomatoes and potatoes, resulting in wilting and +dying. It is the root systems of the walnut which are responsible for +this damage. Apparently, there is some chemical elaborated near the +surface of the roots, and sensitive plants, whose roots come in contact +with either roots or ground containing this factor, are injured and +sometimes killed by it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> One must therefore be very cautious about +trusting these trees as protectors of many of the ornamental and garden +plants. I am certain, from my own observations, that their influence on +evergreens is strongly antagonistic.</p> + +<p>On another basis is the association between catalpas and chestnut trees +growing adjacent to one another. Constructive symbiosis apparently +develops when a young chestnut tree is planted within the radius of the +root system of a catalpa. The latter very definitely influences the +chestnut tree to grow more vigorously than it otherwise would.</p> + +<p>I have recorded my observations of these antagonisms and friendships +between trees and plants to show that they are a reality which should be +taken into consideration in grouping and transplanting. Such warnings +are infrequent because some people may mistake them as condemnations of +certain favorite trees. I do not intend them as such, for these plants +are often valuable and worthwhile. This ability which they have +developed through the many years of their existence is a guarantee of +the sturdiness and strength of their family and species, not at all a +quality to be condemned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONCLUSION" id="CONCLUSION"></a>CONCLUSION</h2> + + +<p>If I had written this book twenty years ago, I would have prophesied a +future for nut culture in the north, full of wonder, hope and profit. If +I had written it ten years ago, I should have filled it with +discouragement and disillusion. Now, after growing such trees for more +than 30 years, I realize that the truth lies somewhere between these +extremes, but nearer the first.</p> + +<p>It is seldom practical to move native trees very far from their natural +range, nor is it necessary to do so in this part of the north: We have +four fine, native nut trees: the hazel, the butternut, the black walnut +and the hickory. In my experience, these four have completely +demonstrated their practical worth.</p> + +<p>If commercialization is the primary hope of the nut tree planter, he +should first consider the large, hardy hybrids, known as hazilberts, +which I have produced between a large Wisconsin wild hazel and European +filberts. Hazilberts equal the best European filberts in every way, +without the latter's disadvantage of susceptibility to hazel blight and +its lack of hardiness. They are as hardy as the common wild hazel and +are more adaptable to environment and soil conditions than any other +native nut tree. They may be trained into trees or allowed to grow as +large bushes. Like all other filberts and hazels, they, too, need +companion plants for cross pollinization to obtain full crops of nuts.</p> + +<p>The butternut is also a very adaptable tree. No one who is acquainted +with it, questions the quality of the butternut kernel. In a good +variety, the nuts should crack out in halves and the kernels drop out +readily.</p> + +<p>So many good varieties of black walnuts are being propagated, I need not +say much about them, except that many of the best ones are not practical +for this climate. Nurserymen who grow them can give the best advice +about varieties to anyone selecting black walnuts for orchard planting.</p> + +<p>Hickories are the last of these native trees to be recommended from a +commercial standpoint, as they are the most particular about soil and +climate. However, with improved propagation methods and planting +technique they should become some day as valuable as pecan plantations +have become valuable to the south.</p> + +<p>Considering the nut tree as a dooryard tree, an ornament rather than a +business, makes it possible to include many more species as suitable for +growing in the north. For this purpose, I suggest heartnuts, chestnuts, +pecans and hiccans. The heartnut tree is always one to draw attention +and interest, picturesque in its leaves, blossoms and clusters of nuts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p> + +<p>Last, but certainly not least in it potentialities, is the English +walnut. I am certain that we shall have some varieties of these which +will be hardy enough to plant in the north. When these have been +completely proven, they will be a delightful addition to the number of +trees flourishing here. What family would not receive enjoyment and +satisfaction from having, in its dooryard, a gracious English walnut +tree, its spreading branches laden with nuts?</p> + +<p>Although the commercial aspect of producing hazilberts is engrossing me +at the present time, my greatest pleasure in nut culture still comes, as +it always shall come, from actual work with these trees. It is both a +physical and mental tonic. I recommend nut tree culture to everyone who +enjoys spending his time out-of-doors, who is inspired by work of a +creative nature, and who appreciates having trees, or even one tree, of +his own. Suggested reading on Nut Tree Culture:</p> + +<div class="list"> +Nut Growing by Morris<br /> +Nut Growers' Handbook by Bush<br /> +Tree Crops by J. Russell Smith<br /> +The Nut Culturist by Fuller<br /> +Improved Nut Tree of North America by Clarence Reed<br /> +Annual Reports of N.N.G.A.<br /> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Growing Nuts in the North, by Carl Weschcke + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH *** + +***** This file should be named 18189-h.htm or 18189-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/1/8/18189/ + +Produced by Stacy Brown, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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in the North, by Carl Weschcke + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Growing Nuts in the North + A Personal Story of the Author's Experience of 33 Years + with Nut Culture in Minnesota and Wisconsin + +Author: Carl Weschcke + +Release Date: April 17, 2006 [EBook #18189] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH *** + + + + +Produced by Stacy Brown, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +[Illustration: Eat more nuts +Carl Weschcke author] + +GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH + + + + +A personal story of the author's experience of 33 years with nut culture +in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Includes his failures as well as final +successes. + +Scientific as well as readable for the amateur horticulturist with many +illustrations. Tells how to grow and to propagate nut bearing trees and +shrubs. + + +By CARL WESCHCKE + + + + +Published + +WEBB PUBLISHING CO. + +ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA, U.S.A. + +1953 + +Copyright 1954 + +CARL WESCHCKE + +ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA + + + + +Introduction + +GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH + + +Only a few books have been written on the subject of nut trees and their +bearing habits, and very little of that material applies to their +propagation in cold climates. For these reasons I am relating some of +the experiences I have had in the last thirty-two years in raising nut +trees in Wisconsin. To me, this has been a hobby with results both +practical and ornamental far beyond my original conception. I hope that +the information I am giving will be of help and interest to those who, +like myself, enjoy having nut-bearing trees in their dooryards, and that +it will prevent their undergoing the failures and disappointments I +sometimes met with in pioneering along this line. Since my purpose is to +give advice and assistance to those whose interest parallels mine by +relating my successes and failures and what I learned from each, I have +included only those details of technique which are pertinent. + +It is a fine thing to have a hobby that takes one out-of-doors. That in +itself suggests healthful thought and living. The further association of +working with trees, as with any living things, brings one into the +closest association with nature and God. I hope this book may help +someone achieve that attitude of life, in which I have found such great +pleasure and inner satisfaction. + +Anyone wishing to make a planting of a few nut trees in his dooryard or +a small orchard planting should join the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. This Association can be joined by writing the current +secretary, but since that office may be changed from time to time, +persons applying for membership should write George L. Slate of Geneva +Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, or Dr. H. L. Crane, Principal +Horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant +Industry, Beltsville, Maryland, or the Author. The first president was +Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York City, N. Y., 1910-1911, the Association +being founded by Dr. W. C. Deming of Westchester, New York, who called +the first meeting in 1910. + +Each year a report was printed of the proceedings of the Annual Meeting +and exclusive of the 1952 meeting, the Reports which are in substantial +book form number forty-two. Most of these Reports can be obtained by +writing to the secretary, the total library of these Reports +constituting one of the best authorities for nut tree planting in the +northern hemisphere of the United States than any extant. + +The author acknowledges with thanks the consistent encouraging praise +from his father, Charles Weschcke, of the work involved in nut growing +experiments, also for his financial assistance, thus making the +publication of this book possible and available to readers at a nominal +price. + +The editor of the greater part of this book, Allison Burbank Hartman (a +descendent of the great Luther Burbank), is entitled to great praise and +thanks for the interest and work she put forth. + +Grateful acknowledgment is made to William Kuehn, the artist. He had +been associated with the author in Boy Scout work, also became a part of +the nut growing experiments in Northern Wisconsin, which work was +interrupted by World War II. + +Acknowledgment is hereby made with gratitude to Dr. J. W. McKay of the +U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.; Harry Weber of +Cincinnati, Ohio; Ford Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind.; Fayette Etter, +Lehmasters, Pa.; Dr. W. C. Deming, Litchfield, Conn.; Clarence A. Reed, +Washington, D. C.; Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa.; George S. +Slate, Urbana, Ill.; Herman Last, Steamboat Rock, Iowa, and many other +professors and horticulturists who lent their time and effort assisting +me in my experiments throughout the years. And last but not least, the +author is indebted to his secretary, Dorothy Downie, for tireless +efforts in re-writing the manuscript many times which was necessary in +compiling this book. + + + + +GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH + + + + +Contents + + +Introduction + +Chapter 1 First Encounters + +Chapter 2 First Attempts + +Chapter 3 Black Walnuts + +Chapter 4 Hazels and Filberts + +Chapter 5 Hazels and/or Filberts + +Chapter 6 Pecans and Their Hybrids + +Chapter 7 Hickory the King + +Chapter 8 Butternut + +Chapter 9 Pioneering With English Walnuts in Wisconsin + +Chapter 10 Other Trees + +Chapter 11 Pests and Pets + +Chapter 12 Storing and Planting Seeds + +Chapter 13 Tree Planting Methods + +Chapter 14 Winter Protection of Grafts and Seedlings + +Chapter 15 Tree Storage + +Chapter 16 Suggestions on Grafting Methods + +Chapter 17 Grafting Tape Versus Raffia + +Chapter 18 Effects of Grafting on Unlike Stocks + +Chapter 19 Distinguishing Characteristics of Scions + +Chapter 20 Hybridizing + +Chapter 21 Toxicity Among Trees and Plants + +Conclusion + + + + +Chapter 1 + +FIRST ENCOUNTERS + + +Almost everyone can remember from his youth, trips made to gather nuts. +Those nuts may have been any of the various kinds distributed throughout +the United States, such as the butternut, black walnut, beechnut, +chestnut, hickory, hazel or pecan. I know that I can recall very well, +when I was a child and visited my grandparents in New Ulm and St. Peter, +in southern Minnesota, the abundance of butternuts, black walnuts and +hazels to be found along the roads and especially along the Minnesota +and Cottonwood river bottoms. Since such nut trees were not to be found +near Springfield, where my parents lived, which was just a little too +far west, I still associate my first and immature interest in this kind +of horticulture with those youthful trips east. + +The only way we children could distinguish between butternut and black +walnut trees was by the fruit itself, either on the tree or shaken down. +This is not surprising, however, since these trees are closely related, +both belonging to the family _Juglans_. The black walnut is known as +_Juglans nigra_ and the butternut or white walnut as _Juglans cinera_. +The similarity between the trees is so pronounced that the most +experienced horticulturist may confuse them if he has only the trees in +foliage as his guide. An experience I recently had is quite suggestive +of this. I wished to buy some furniture in either black walnut or +mahogany and I was hesitating between them. Noting my uncertainty, the +salesman suggested a suite of French walnut. My curiosity and interest +were immediately aroused. I had not only been raising many kinds of +walnut trees, but I had also run through my own sawmill, logs of walnut +and butternut. I felt that I knew the various species of walnut very +thoroughly. So I suggested to him: + +"You must mean Circassian or English walnut, which is the same thing. It +grows abundantly in France. You are wrong in calling it French walnut, +though, because there is no such species." + +He indignantly rejected the name I gave it, and insisted that it was +genuine French walnut. + +"Perhaps," I advised him, "that is a trade name to cover the real +origin, just as plucked muskrat is termed Hudson seal." + +That, too, he denied. We were both insistent. I was sure of my own +knowledge and stubborn enough to want to prove him wrong. I pulled a +drawer from the dresser of the "French walnut" suite and asked him to +compare its weight with that of a similar drawer from a black walnut +suite nearby. Black walnut weighs forty pounds per cubic foot, while +butternut weighs only twenty-five. He was forced to admit the difference +and finally allowed my assertion to stand that "French walnut" was +butternut, stained and finished to simulate black walnut. Since it would +have been illegal to claim that it was black walnut, the attractive but +meaningless label of "French walnut" had been applied. Although it is +less expensive, I do not mean to imply that butternut is not an +excellent wood for constructing furniture. It ranks high in quality and +is probably as durable as black walnut. I do say, though, that it was +necessary for me to know both the species names and the relative weights +of each wood to be able to distinguish between them indisputably. + +An instance in which the nuts themselves were useless for purposes of +identification occurred when I sent some black walnuts to the Division +of Pomology at Washington, D. C. These were the Ohio variety which I had +grafted on butternut roots. The tree had been bearing for three or four +years but this was the first year the nuts had matured. During their +bearing period, these black walnuts had gradually changed in appearance, +becoming elongated and very deeply and sharply corrugated like +butternuts although they still retained the black walnut flavor. Because +of this mixture of characteristics, the government experts had great +difficulty in identifying the variety, although the Ohio was well known +to them. + +Another variety of black walnut, the Thomas, I have also known to be +influenced by the butternut stock on which it was grafted, when in 1938, +one of my trees bore black walnuts whose meat had lost its +characteristic flavor and assumed that of the butternut. + +[Illustration: _A--Genuine original Ohio Black Walnut from parent tree_ + +_B--Nut produced by grafting Ohio on Butternut_] + +I also liked to pick hazelnuts when I was a boy. These are probably the +least interesting among the wild nuts since they are usually small and +hard to crack. There is much variation in wild hazels, however, and many +people may recall them as being reasonably large. One of the two species +abundant in Minnesota, _Corylus cornuta_ or Beak hazel, has fine, +needle-like hairs on its husk which are sure to stick into one's fingers +disagreeably. When the husk is removed, _Corylus cornuta_ resembles a +small acorn. It does not produce in southern Minnesota and central +Wisconsin as well as the common hazel, _Corylus Americana_, does, nor is +its flavor as pleasing to most people. It is lighter in color than the +common hazel and has a thinner shell. Of course, some hazels are +intermediate or natural hybrids between these two species, and if the +nuts of such hybrids are planted, they generally revert to one of the +parents when mature enough to bear. This natural hybridization occurs +among all plants, between those of the same species, the same genera or +the same family. It is very rare between plants of different families. +The process is a very important one in horticulture and I shall explain +some of the crosses which are well-known later in this book. + + + + +Chapter 2 + +FIRST ATTEMPTS + + +When I was about fifteen years old, my family moved to St. Paul, +Minnesota, where my home now is and where my experimental work with nuts +was begun. St. Paul is in the 45th north parallel, but although it is +farther north, it is as favorable for the growth of nut trees as New Ulm +or St. Peter, because it lies in the Mississippi River valley and is +farther east. Bodies of water and altitudes have as great an influence +on plant life as latitude; at least, they can have, and these are +factors that must be understood thoroughly. Soil conditions also vitally +affect plant life, particularly deep-rooted trees such as nut trees +usually are. Each has its own requirements; hickory, Japanese heartnut +and Persian walnuts favor an alkaline soil, which chestnuts, wanting +acid will not grow in; chestnuts thrive best in a slightly acid, +well-drained soil; hazels will grow in either alkaline or acid soil as +will black walnuts and butternuts; almonds need a light sandy soil, +similar to that suitable to plums, pecans do well in either rich river +bottoms, which may be slightly acid, or in clay soil on high hillsides +which are alkaline. A deep, sandy or graveltype soil is usually accepted +by the chestnuts even though it may not be slightly acid, and successful +orchards have been grown on a deep clay soil on hillsides. + +It is not always easy to obtain black walnuts and butternuts to eat. +Hickory nuts have been a favorite of mine since I first tasted them and +I often have found it difficult to procure fresh ones, ones that were +not slightly rancid. Because I liked eating these nuts, I thought I +would try to grow some for my own consumption and so avoid having to +depend on a grocer's occasional supply of those shipped in, always a +little stale. Raising nuts appealed to me economically too, since +obviously trees would need little care, and after they had begun to bear +would supply nuts that could be sold at interesting prices. + +I turned the back yard of my home in St. Paul into an experimental plot. +Here I set out some of each kind of tree I planted or grafted at my farm +in Wisconsin. I had purchased a farm 35 miles east of St. Paul, beyond +the influence of the St. Croix River Valley. My experiments really began +there. The farm was covered with butternut trees, hazel bushes, and a +wild hickory called "bitternut." This last is well-named for I have +never found an animal other than a squirrel that could endure its nuts. +Possibly the white-footed mouse or deer-mouse could--I don't know. He +usually eats anything a squirrel does. I learned to appreciate these +bitternut trees later and they became a source of experience and +interest to me as I learned to graft on them many varieties, species and +hybrids of hickory. They served as a root-system and shortened the +length of time required to test dozens of hickory types, helping me in +that way, to learn within one lifetime what types of nuts are practical +for growing in the north. + +Remembering the nut trees in southern Minnesota, I first thought to +procure black walnut and hickory trees from some farmer in that +district. Through acquaintances in St. Peter, I did locate some black +walnut trees only to find that it was impractical to dig and transport +trees of the size I wanted. A nursery near St. Paul supplied me with +some and I bought twenty-eight large, seedling black walnut trees. I was +too eager to get ahead with my plans and I attempted, the first year +these trees were planted, to graft all of them. My ability to do this +was not equal to my ambition though, and all but two of the trees were +killed. I was successful in grafting one of them to a Stabler black +walnut; the other tree persisted so in throwing out its natural sprouts +that I decided it should be allowed to continue doing so. That native +seedling tree which I could not graft now furnishes me with bushels of +walnuts each year which are planted for understocks. This is the name +given to the root systems on which good varieties are grafted. + +In an effort to replace these lost trees, I inquired at the University +of Minnesota Farm and was given the addresses of several nurserymen who +were then selling grafted nut trees. Their catalogues were so inviting +that I decided it would be quite plausible to grow pecans and English +walnuts at this latitude. So I neglected my native trees that year for +the sake of more exotic ones. One year sufficed; the death of my whole +planting of English walnuts and pecans turned me back to my original +interest. My next order of trees included grafted black walnuts of four +accepted varieties to be planted in orchard form--the Stabler, Thomas, +Ohio and Ten Eyck. + +I ordered a few hickories at the same time but these eventually died. My +experience with hickories was very discouraging since they were my +favorite nuts and I had set my heart on growing some. I think I should +have given up attempting them had not one dealer, J. F. Jones, urged +that I buy just three more hickory trees of the Beaver variety. He gave +me special instructions on how to prepare them against winter. I have +always felt that what he told me was indeed special and very valuable +since those three trees lived. Subsequently, I bought several hundred +dollars worth of trees from him. More than that, we became friends. I +visited him at his nurseries in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and he again +demonstrated his interest and generosity by giving me both horticultural +information and the kindest hospitality. My friendship with him was but +one of many that I have formed while traveling and corresponding in the +interests of nut culture. True and lasting friends such men make, too, +with no circumstances of selfish import to taint the pleasure of the +relationship. + +Since I wanted to have many black walnut trees some day, I decided to +plant ten bushels of black walnuts in rows. I thought I could later +graft these myself and save expense. The theory was all right but when I +came to practice it, I found I had not taken squirrels into +consideration. These bushy-tailed rats dug up one complete bed which +contained two bushels of nuts and reburied them in haphazard places +around the farm. When the nuts started to sprout, they came up in the +fields, in the gardens, and on the lawn--everywhere except where I had +intended them to be. I later was grateful to those squirrels, though, +because, through their redistributing these nuts I learned a great deal +about the effect of soil on black walnut trees, even discovering that +what I thought to be suitable was not. The trees which the squirrels +planted for me are now large and lend themselves to experimental +grafting. On them I have proved, and am still proving, new varieties of +the English walnut. + +The other eight bushels had been planted near a roadside and close to +some farm buildings. The constant human activity thereabouts probably +made the squirrels less bold, for although they carried off at least a +bushel of walnuts, about two thousand seedlings grew. I had planted +these too close together and as the trees developed they became so +crowded that many died. The remaining seedlings supplied me with +root-stocks for experimental work which proved very valuable. + +I have always suspected the squirrels of having been responsible for the +fact that my first attempt to grow hickory seedlings was unsuccessful. I +planted a quart of these nuts and not one plant came up. No doubt the +squirrels dug them up as soon as I planted them and probably they +enjoyed the flavor as much as I always have. + +In 1924 I ordered one hundred small beechnut trees, _Fagus ferruginea_, +from the Sturgeon Bay Nurseries at Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin. The company +was very generous and sent me three hundred of them. I planted these +trees in a heavy clay soil with limestone running near the surface. They +grew well the first year, except that there was heavy mortality during +cold weather. In working with these trees my lack of experience and +horticultural knowledge was against me. They could not tolerate the soil +and within three years they were all dead. + +To give variety to the landscape at my farm, I planted several other +kinds of trees. Among these were Kentucky coffee-trees which have +beautiful bronze foliage in the spring and honey locusts. I planted five +hundred Douglas fir but unfortunately, I put these deep in the woods +among heavy timber where they were so shaded that only a few lived. +Later, I moved the surviving fir trees into an open field where they +still flourish. About two hundred fifty pines of mixed varieties--white, +Norway and jack--that I planted in the woods, also died. + +I decided, then, that evergreens might do better if they were planted +from seeds. I followed instructions in James W. Toumey's "Seeding and +Planting in the Practice of Forestry," in bed culture and spot seeding. +In the latter one tears off the sod in favorable places and throws seed +on the unprotected ground. In doing this, I ignored the natural +requirements of forest practice which call for half-shade during the +first two to three years of growth. Thousands of seedlings sprouted but +they all died either from disease or from attacks by cows and sheep. One +should never attempt to raise trees and stock in the same field. + +Because of these misfortunes, I determined to study the growth of +evergreens. I invested in such necessary equipment as frames and lath +screening. Better equipped with both information and material, I grew +thousands of evergreen trees. Among the varieties of pine were: + + native White Pine --Pinus strobus + Norway pine --Pinus silvestrus + Mugho pine --Pinus pumila montana + sugar pine --Pinus Lambertiana + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + Swiss stone --Pinus cembra + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + Italian stone --Pinus pinea + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + pinon --Pinus edulis + (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) + bull pine --Pinus Jeffreyi (hardy) + jack pine --Pinus banksiana (very hardy) + limber pine --Pinus flexilis + (semi-hardy, a fine nut pine). + +Many of the limber pines came into bearing about fifteen years after the +seed was planted. At that age they varied in height from three to +fifteen feet. One little three-foot tree had several large cones full of +seed. Each tree varied in the quality and size of its seeds. Although it +might be possible to graft the best varieties on young seedling stocks, +in all the hundreds of grafts I have made on pine, I have been +successful only once. I doubt that such a thing would ever be practical +from a commercial standpoint unless some new method were discovered by +which a larger percentage of successful grafts could be realized. + +I cultivated the Douglas fir, white, Norway, and Colorado blue varieties +of spruce. Besides these, I planted balsam fir, red cedar, _Juniperus +Virginiana_, and white cedar, _Arborvitae_. Practically all of these +trees are still growing and many of them bear seed. + +I wish to describe the limber pine, _Pinus flexilis_, for it is not only +a good grower and quite hardy but it is also a very ornamental nut pine +which grows to be a broad, stout-trunked tree 40 to 75 feet high. The +young bark is pale grey or silver; the old bark is very dark, in square +plates. The wood itself is light, soft and close-grained, having a color +that varies from yellow to red. The needles, which are found in clusters +of five, are slender, 1-1/2 to 3 inches long, and are dark green. They +are shed during the fifth or sixth year. The buds of the tree are found +bunched at the branch tips and are scaly and pointed. The limber pine +has flowers like those of the white pine, except that they are +rose-colored. Although the fruit is described as annual, I have found +that, in this locality, it takes about fifteen months from the time the +blossoms appear for it to reach maturity. That is, the fruit requires +two seasons for growth, maturing its seeds the second September. The +cones of the limber pine, which vary from three to seven inches in +length, are purple, having thick rounded scales and being abruptly +peaked at the apex. The seeds are wingless or have only very narrow +wings around them. + +With the idea of getting practical results sooner, since nut trees +mature slowly, I interplanted my nut trees with varieties of apple, plum +and cherry. Doing so also served to economize on ground, since +ultimately nut trees require a great deal of space for best growth. +Walnut trees, for example, should be set 40 to 60 feet apart in each +direction. + +[Illustration: _Pinus Flexilus nut seeds, Natural Size_] + +I learned a variety of facts during these first years of trial and +error. I discovered, for instance, that iron fence posts rust away in an +acid soil; that one must use cedar or oak. Conversely, in alkaline soil, +iron will last indefinitely, but that the nitrogenous bacteria will +quickly rot wooden posts. I found that the secret of growing hickories +successfully lies in giving them plenty of room, with no forest trees +around to cut off their supply of sunlight and air. I learned that it is +impractical to graft a large forest tree of butternut or hickory. +Incidental to that, I learned that a branch of a butternut tree which +looks large enough to support a man's weight near the trunk, will not do +so when the branch is green and alive, but that a dead branch of similar +size will. Contrariwise, even a small green limb of a bitternut-hickory +will bear my weight, but an old limb, though several inches thick, +becomes so brittle after it is dead for several years that it will break +under slight pressure. Fortunately, falls from trees do not usually +result in serious injuries but I did acquire quite a few bruises +learning these distinctions. + +There is always a natural mortality in planting trees, but in those +first years, lacking badly-needed experience, I lost more than 75%. +Nearly all of them started to grow but died during the first few +winters. Those which survived were the start of a nursery filled with +hardy trees which can endure the climate of the north. In looking back, +I appreciate how fortunate I was in having sought and received advice +from experienced nurserymen. Had I not done so, frequent failures would +surely have discouraged me. As it was, the successes I did have were an +incentive which made me persist and which left me with faith enough in +an ultimate success to go on buying seeds and trees and to make greater +and more varied experiments. + + + + +Chapter 3 + +BLACK WALNUTS + + +I have spent more of my time cultivating black walnuts than any other +kind of nut tree and given more of my ground area over to them. Yet it +was with no great amount of enthusiasm that I started working with these +trees. Obviously there could be nothing new or extraordinary resulting +from my planting trees of this species either on my farm or at my St. +Paul home, since there already were mature, bearing black walnut trees +at both places. It was only with the idea that they would be an +attractive addition to the native butternut groves that I decided to +plant some black walnut seedlings. + +This did not prove feasible as I first attempted it. I had engaged a Mr. +Miller at St. Peter to procure wild black walnut trees for me since they +grew near that town. He was to dig these trees with as much of the root +system included as possible and ship them to my farm. But the winter +season came before this had been accomplished and both Mr. Miller and I, +deciding the idea was not as practical as we had hoped it would be, +abandoned it. Later that same autumn I found that a nursery just outside +of St. Paul had several rows of overgrown black walnut trees which they +would sell me quite reasonably. I bought them and sent instructions to +the tenant at my farm to dig twenty-eight large holes in which to plant +them. Packed in straw and burlap, the trees weighed about 500 pounds, I +found. This was much too heavy and cumbersome to pack in my old touring +car, so I hunted around for some sort of vehicle I could attach to my +car as a trailer. In an old blacksmith shop, I came upon an antiquated +pair of buggy wheels. They looked as though they were ready to fall +apart but I decided that with repairs and by cautious driving, they +might last out the trip of thirty-five miles. So I paid the blacksmith +his asking price--twenty-five cents. The spokes rattled and the steel +tires were ready to roll off their wooden rims but the axles were +strong. My father-in-law and I puttered and pounded, strengthened and +tightened, until we felt our semi-trailer was in good-enough order. It +might have been, too, if the roads in the country hadn't been rough and +frozen so hard that they hammered on the solid, unresisting tires and +spokes until, almost within sight of the farm, one wheel dismally +collapsed. As the wheel broke, the trailer slid off the road into a +ditch, so that it was necessary to send on to the farm for the plow +horses to haul out the car, the trailer and the trees. The horses +finished hauling the trees to that part of the farm where holes had been +dug for them. I had told my tenant to dig large holes and large holes he +had certainly dug! Most of them were big enough to bury one of the +horses in. Such was my amateurish first endeavor. + +It was not until December of that year, 1919, that the twenty-eight +trees were finally planted. Although the ground was already somewhat +frozen and the trees poorly planted as a result, most of them started to +grow in the spring. They would probably be living now if I had not been +too ambitious to convert them from seedlings into grafted varieties such +as the Ohio, Thomas and Stabler, which I had learned of during a +winter's study of available nut-culture lore. I obtained scionwood from +J. F. Jones, part of which I put on these abused trees and the remainder +of which I grafted on butternut trees. At that time, I must admit, I was +much more interested in trying the actual work of grafting than I was in +developing or even conceiving a methodical plan to be worked out over a +period of years. + +In order to facilitate my grafting work that spring, I pitched a tent in +the woods and lived there for a week at a time, doing my own cooking and +roughing it generally. Cows were being pastured in this part of the +woods and they were very interested in my activities. If I were absent +for a long time during the day, on my return I would find that +noticeable damage had been done to my tent and food supplies by these +curious cows. While preparing some scionwood inside the tent one day, I +heard a cow approaching and picked up a heavy hickory club which I had +for protection at night, intending to rush out and give the animal a +proper lesson in minding its own business. The cow approached the tent +from the side opposite the door and pushed solidly against the canvas +with its nose and head. This so aggravated me that I jumped over to that +part of the tent and gave the cow a hard whack over the nose with my +hickory stick. It jumped away fast for such a big animal. This seemed to +end all curiosity on the part of these cows and I was allowed to carry +on my work in peace. + +With beginner's luck, I succeeded with many of the butternut grafts, as +well as with some of the grafts on the twenty-eight planted black +walnuts. However, all of the grafted black walnut trees ultimately died +with the exception of one grafted Stabler. This large tree was a +monument of success for twenty years, bearing some nuts every year and +maturing them, and in a good season, producing bushels of them. One +other of these seedlings survived but as it would not accept any grafts, +I finally let it live as nature intended. + +In 1921, I began ordering grafted black walnut trees, as well as grafted +hickory trees from J. F. Jones, who had the largest and best known of +the nurseries handling northern nut trees. Some of these grafted trees +were also planted at my home in St. Paul, using the two locations as +checks against each other. The site in St. Paul eventually proved +unsatisfactory because of the gravelly soil and because the trees were +too crowded. The varieties of black walnuts I first experimented with +were the Thomas, Ohio, Stabler and Ten Eyck, which were planted by +hundreds year after year. If I had not worked on this large scale there +would be no reason for me to write about it today as the mortality of +these black walnuts was so high that probably none would have lived to +induce in me the ambition necessary to support a plan involving lengthy, +systematic experimentation. Some of these early trees survive today, +however, and although few in number, they have shown me that the +experiment was a worthy one since it laid the foundation for results +which came later. In fact, I feel that both the time and money I spent +during that initial era of learning were investments in which valuable +dividends of knowledge and development are still being paid. + +In grafting black walnuts on butternut trees, I very foolishly attempted +to work over a tree more than a foot in diameter and I did not succeed +in getting a single graft to grow on it. Other younger trees, from three +to six inches in diameter, I successfully grafted. Some of these are +still living but clearly show the incompatibility of the two species +when black walnut is grafted on butternut. The opposite combination of +butternut on black walnut is very successful and produces nuts earlier +and in greater abundance than butternut does when grafted on its own +species. + +The expense of buying trees by hundreds was so great that after a year I +decided that I could very easily plant black walnuts to obtain the young +trees needed as understocks. When they had grown large enough, I would +graft them over myself. I wrote to my friend in St. Peter, Mr. E. E. +Miller, and he told me where I could obtain walnuts by the bushel. Soon +I was making trips to the countryside around St. Peter buying walnuts +from the farmers there. I planted about five bushels of these at the +River Falls farm and the rest, another two bushels, at St. Paul. Soon I +had several thousand young walnut trees which all proved hardy to the +winters. + +When pruning the black walnut trees purchased from Mr. Jones for +transplanting, I saved the tops and grafted them to the young trees with +a fair degree of success. In a few years, I was using my own trees to +fill up spaces left vacant by the mortality of the Pennsylvania-grown +trees. I did not neglect seeding to provide stocks of the Eastern black +walnut also, which is almost a different species from the local black +walnut, but these seedling trees proved to be tender toward our winters +and only a few survived. After they had grown into large trees, these +few were grafted to English walnuts. The difference between the Eastern +black walnut and the local native black walnut is quite apparent when +the two trees are examined side by side. Even the type of fruit is +different, although I do not know of any botanical authority who will +confirm my theory that they are different species. They are probably to +be considered as geographically distinct rather than as botanically +different species. + +For several years I continued to graft black walnuts on butternut trees +with the intention of converting hundreds, perhaps thousands, of these +wild trees over to prolific, cultured black walnuts. I did not realize +my mistake in doing this until ten years had elapsed. I believed that +since the tops were growing, the trees would shortly produce nuts. Today +they are still growing, bigger and better, yet most of these grafted +trees bear no nuts, having only a crop of leaves. A few nuts result from +these grafts, however, and some of the trees bear a handful of nuts from +tops of such size that one would expect the crops to be measured in +bushels. The kind which bore the best was the Ohio variety. In another +chapter, I shall relate parallel experience in hickory grafting which I +carried on simultaneously with grafting of black walnut on butternut. + +My first big disappointment in my black walnut orchard was when, in +about 1930, having a fairly good crop of nuts, I unsuccessfully +attempted to sell them to local stores. They were not interested in +anything except walnut kernels and to them, a wild walnut kernel was the +same as a cultivated one as long as it was highly-flavored. This so +cooled my enthusiasm and hopes for a black walnut orchard that I ceased +experimenting with them except to try out new varieties being discovered +through nut contests carried on by the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. The 1926 contest produced a number of black walnut +possibilities, among them being such named varieties as the Rohwer, +Paterson, Throp, Vandersloot, Pearl and Adams. + +The neglected and over-grown walnut seedlings now began to serve a +useful purpose in grafting the new varieties which I obtained for +testing in this locality. These were propagated by obtaining scionwood +from the originators of the variety and grafting it on these seedling +trees. My technical knowledge had increased by this time to such an +extent that I was usually certain of one-half of the grafts growing. The +behavior of the Rohwer and Paterson in 1937 invited nursery propagation +on a greater scale than did other better-known types, because of their +qualities of hardiness and earlier-ripening. + +In the spring of 1937, these native seedlings were again offered to the +spirit of propagation, when a large part of the scionwood of English +walnuts I had imported from the Carpathian mountains of Poland was +grafted on them. The success of my grafting in this instance was only +about 1-1/2%, showing that something was decidedly wrong. Two +conclusions were possible: Either the scionwood had been injured by +transportation and the severe winter temperatures during January and +February of 1937 during which they were stored, or incompatibility +existed between the imported walnuts and our local ones. My conclusion +now is that when these stocks are fifteen years old or more and are +thrifty, they will support grafting of the Carpathian English walnuts +much more successfully than they will in their first decade of growth. +Results have shown that these local stocks will accept such grafts, +however, and that crops of English walnuts will be produced. The +fertility of the soil must be maintained carefully, since the English +walnut top tends to overgrow its black walnut root-stock, and unless +nutritional substance for the support of these tops is fed to the +root-system, meager crops, if any, will result. + +I might note in comparison to the 1-1/2% success I had in this grafting, +that during the same season I put several hundred scions of these same +English walnuts on the Eastern black walnut stocks without a single +successful graft occurring. + +In 1933 and 1934, many of these experimentally grafted walnuts, such as +Vandersloot, Paterson, and Rohwer as well as others, were planted in +orchard formation. In digging these trees, we took care to get all of +the root possible and to take a ball of dirt with the root. In spite of +these precautions, some of the trees died, not having sufficient +vitality and root development to withstand transplantation. This was a +result not only of the crowded condition under which the stocks had +grown but also of the poor soil which had nourished them. The soil was +heavy blue clay underlaid with limestone within two feet of the top of +the ground. Enough trees were set out in orchard formation which are +growing well and bearing annual crops, to give us the proof we need in +drawing conclusions of superiority among these varieties. + +Black walnuts will keep for several years if they are properly dried and +then stored in a cool, but not too damp, place. Storing nuts in attics +which are likely to become excessively hot in the summer time, causes +rancidity sooner than any other method. Nuts keep very well in attics +during the winter but they should be transferred to a basement during +hot weather. If the basement is very damp, though, nuts will mould +there. For general storage, without having to move them from one place +to another for different seasons, nuts can be kept most practically in a +barn or outside shed. The only precaution necessary under such +circumstances is that they should be in a box or steel barrel to prevent +squirrels and mice from feeding on them, since barns and sheds are +easily accessible to these animals. + +The kernels of black walnuts need not be discolored if the hulls of the +fresh nuts are removed as soon as the nuts are ripe. At my farm, we have +done this with an ordinary corn-sheller. The nuts, having been hulled +this way, are then soaked in water for a few hours to remove any excess +coloring matter left on their shells, after which they are dried for +several days out-of-doors, although not exposed to the sun since this +might cause them to crack open. Thorough drying is necessary before +sacking to prevent moulding. Kernels extracted from nuts treated this +way are very light in color like English walnuts. This enhances their +market value and they command a higher price when they are to be used +for culinary purposes such as cake frosting and candies where there is +exposure of large pieces or halves of the nut kernel. I find black +walnuts are exceptionally delicious when used in a candy called divinity +fudge. The strong flavor of the black walnut kernel although appreciated +by many people, is not as popular as that of the butternut, of which +more is said in another chapter. + +The food value of black walnut kernels is high since they are composed +of concentrated fat and protein, similar to the English walnut, the +hickory nut and the pecan. There is also the advantage, which John +Harvey Kellogg of Battle Creek, Michigan, has pointed out, that nuts are +a food of high purity being entirely free from disease bacteria. One +could safely say of unshelled nuts that there is not a disease germ in a +carload. + +There was a time when black walnut hulls were purchased by producers of +insecticides. The black walnut hull, when dried and pulverized, produces +a substance which gives body to the concentrated pyrethrum extract which +is the essential ingredient of many insecticides. + +One cannot leave a discussion of black walnuts without reflecting on the +furniture which has been possible only through the use of vast forests +of black walnut timber. Beautiful veneers have come from the burl +walnut, being formed by protuberances on the trunks of the trees near +the surface of the ground. There is a variety of black walnut which we +have been experimenting with for quite a few years, called the Lamb, +which has a beautifully figured grain. As this appears only in mature +timber, ours is not yet old enough to show it. + +I have found that the Ohio black walnut is prone to hybridize with +butternut trees in its vicinity and others have told me of its +hybridizing with English walnut trees near it, which shows it to be +almost as vacillating in character as our Japanese walnuts or heartnuts. +Ohio black walnuts, when planted, usually produce vigorous stocks, many +of which show hybridity of some sort. If one examines the nuts of the +Ohio and finds them dwarfed or deformed, he may be sure that they have +been pollinized by something other than a black walnut. Planting such +nuts, then, will grow hybrid trees. Most of us have enough curiosity to +want to try this as an experiment. + +Thomas walnut seedlings have produced more thrifty trees than Ohio nuts +have. However, the best understocks are those produced from seeds of +native grown trees. It is well understood that rarely does a specific +type such as the Ohio, Thomas or Stabler reproduce itself exactly from +seeds. In raising black walnut seedlings, my experience has taught me +that the nuts should be planted in the fall and not too deep, one to two +inches below the surface being all the depth necessary. They may never +sprout if they are four to six inches under ground. The black walnut +tree is a glutton for food seemingly, it will use all the fertilizer +that it is given although, no doubt, there is a practical limit. It must +have plenty of food to produce successive crops of nuts, and barnyard +manure is the safest and most practical kind to use. This can be put on +as a heavy mulch around the trees but some of it should also be spaded +into the ground. One must always remember that the feeding roots of a +tree are at about the same circumference as the tips of the branches so +that fertilizer put close to the trunk will do little good except in +very young trees. Since 1936 we have been watching a small native +walnut which came into bearing while in a nursery row. This tree bore +such fine thin-shelled easy-to-crack nuts and lent itself so readily to +being propagated by graftage and had so many other good characteristics +that we have selected it as representative of the black walnut varieties +for the north and have named it the Weschcke walnut and patented the +variety. A list is here appended to show the order of hardiness and +value based on our experience: + + 1--Weschcke--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor + + 2--Paterson--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor (originating + in Iowa) + + 3--Rohwer--very hardy--good cracker (originating in Iowa) + + 4--Bayfield--very hardy--good cracker (originating in Northern + Wisconsin) + + 5--Adams (Iowa)--fairly hardy--good cracker + + 6--Ohio--semi-hardy, excellent cracking and flavor (parent tree in + Ohio) + + 7--Northwestern--a new, good hardy nut + + 8--Pearl--semi-hardy--good (from Iowa) + + 9--Vandersloot--semi-hardy--very large + + 10--Thomas--tender to our winters--otherwise very good (from + Pennsylvania) + + 11--Stabler--tender--many nuts single-lobed + + 12--Throp--tender, many nuts single-lobed + +A friend of mine, who lives in Mason, Wisconsin, discovered a black +walnut tree growing in that vicinity. Since Mason is in the northern +part of the state, about 47 deg. parallel north, this tree grows the +farthest north of any large black walnut I know of. I would estimate its +height at about sixty-five feet and its trunk diameter at about sixteen +inches at breast-height. Because of the short growing season there, the +nuts do not mature, being barely edible, due to their shrinkage while +drying. Some seasons this failure to mature nuts also occurs in such +varieties as the Thomas, the Ohio and even the Stabler at my River Falls +farm, which is nearly 150 miles south of Mason. Such nuts will sprout, +however, and seedlings were raised from the immature nuts of this +northern tree. Incidentally these seedlings appear to be just as hardy +in wood growth as their parent tree. I have also grafted scionwood from +the original tree on black walnut stocks at my farm in order to +determine more completely the quality of this variety. Since grafted, +these trees have borne large, easy to crack mature nuts and are +propagated under the varietal name (Bayfield) since the parent tree is +in sight of Lake Superior at Bayfield, Wisconsin. + +Many of our best nut trees, from man's point of view, have inherent +faults such as the inability of the staminate bloom of the Weschcke +hickory to produce any pollen whatsoever, as has been scientifically +outlined in the treatise by Dr. McKay under the chapter on hickories. In +the Weschcke walnut we have a peculiarity of a similar nature as it +affects fruiting when the tree is not provided with other varieties to +act as pollinators. It has been quite definitely established, by +observation over a period of ten or more years, that the pollen of the +Weschcke variety black walnut does not cause fruiting in its own +pistillate blooms. Although this is not uncommon among some plants, such +as the chestnut and the filbert where it is generally the rule instead +of the exception, yet in the black walnuts species the pollen from its +own male (or staminate) flowers is generally capable of exciting the +ovule of the female (pistillate) flower into growth. Such species are +known as self-fertile. As in the case of ordinary chestnuts which +receive no cross pollination, and the pistillate flowers develop into +perfect burrs with shrunken meatless, imperfect nuts, the Weschcke black +walnut, when standing alone or when the prevailing winds prevent other +nearby pollen from reaching any or but few of its pistillate bloom, goes +on to produce fine looking average-sized nuts practically all of which +are without seed or kernels. Such therefore is the importance of knowing +the correct pollinators for each variety of nut tree. In the +self-sterility of filberts the failure of self-pollination results in an +absence of nuts or in very few rather than a full crop of seedless +fruits such as the common chestnut and the Weschcke black walnuts +produces. This is the only black walnut that has come to the author's +attention where its pollen acting on its pistillate bloom has affected +the production of nuts in just this way but the variety of black walnut +known as the Ohio, one of the best sorts for this northern climate +except for hardiness, has often demonstrated that it has a peculiarity +which might be caused by lack of outside pollen or because of the action +of its own pollen on its pistillate bloom. This peculiarity is the often +found one-sided development of the Ohio walnut kernel when the tree is +isolated from other pollen bearing black walnuts. One lobe of the kernel +is therefore full-meated while the other half or lobe is very +undernourished or it may be a thin wisp of a kernel as is the appearance +of the Weschcke variety in similar circumstances. + +[Illustration: _Stabler variety of Black Walnut grafted on a Minnesota +seedling stock bore many years but was winter killed. Photo by C. +Weschcke_] + +Cutting scionwood early one spring, I noticed that the sap was running +very fast in the grafted Stabler tree previously referred to. Later when +I came back to inspect this tree, I noticed that the sap had congealed +to syrupy blobs at the ends of the cut branches. My curiosity led me to +taste this and I found it very sweet and heavy. I mean to experiment +some time in making syrup from the sap of this tree as I believe its +sugar content to be much higher than that of the local sugar maple. This +makes the Stabler a 3-purpose tree, the first being its nuts, the second +being the syrup, and the third being, at the end of its potentially long +life, a good-sized piece of timber of exceptionally high value. The tree +is one of beauty, having drooping foliage similar to that of the weeping +willow. This is another point in its favor, its being an ornamental tree +worthy of any lawn. However, the Stabler is now considered as a tender +variety and is not recommended for northern planting. + +[Illustration: _Stabler graft on old seedling grafted in May, 1938 +bearing in August of the same year. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +[Illustration: _Cut Leaf Black Walnut. Scions furnished by Harry Weber +of Cincinnati, Ohio. Variety was hardy on Minnesota seedling for about 5 +years. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +The aesthetic value of the black walnut does not cease here since there +are some varieties which are exceptionally attractive. One of these is +the cut-leaf black walnut which has the ordinary compound leaf but whose +individual leaflets are so scalloped and serrated that they resemble a +male fern. Everyone who has seen one of these has evinced pleasurable +surprise at this new form of leaf and it may become very popular with +horticulturists in the future. Another interestingly different variety +is the Deming Purple walnut which, although orthodox in leaf form, has a +purplish tint, bordering on red in some cases, coloring leaf, wood and +nuts, resulting in a distinctly decorative tree. This tree was named +for Dr. W. C. Deming who was the founder of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association. Neither the Laceleaf nor Deming Purple are hardy for this +climate but survived several years nevertheless before succumbing to one +of our periodical test winters. + + + + +Chapter 4 + +HAZELS AND FILBERTS + + +In October 1921, I ordered from J. F. Jones, one hundred plants of what +is known as the Rush hazel which was, at that time, the best known of +the propagated hazels. In ordering these, I mentioned the fact that I +expected to get layered plants or grafted ones. Mr. Jones wrote me at +once to say that the plants he had were seedlings of the Rush hazel +which are said to come very true to seed, but that if I did not want +them as seedlings he would cancel the order. Rather than lacking a +profitable filler between the orchard trees, I accepted the order of one +hundred plants and received from him a fine lot of hazels which took +good root and began to grow luxuriantly. It was several years before any +of them began to bear and when one or two did, the nuts were not hazels +at all, but filberts and hybrids. In most cases these nuts were larger +and better than those of the original Rush hazel. + +One of these seedlings grew into a bushy tree ten or twelve feet high. +For several years it bore a crop which, though meager, was composed of +large, attractive nuts shaped like those of the common American hazel +but very unlike the true Rush hazelnut. One year this tree began to fail +and I tried to save it or propagate it by layering and sprouting seeds. +Unfortunately it did not occur to me at that time to graft it to a wild +hazel to perpetuate it. I still lament my oversight as the tree finally +died and a very hardy plant was lost which was apparently able to +fertilize its own blossoms. + +I ordered four Winkler hazel bushes from Snyder Bros. of Center Point, +Iowa, in March 1927, asking them to send me plants that were extra +strong and of bearing size. I planted these that spring but the +following summer was so dry that all four died. I ordered twelve more +Winklers in September for spring delivery, requesting smaller ones this +time (two to three feet). Half of these were shipped to me with bare +roots, the others being balled in dirt for experimental purposes. Four +of the latter are still living and producing nuts. + +In April 1928, I planted a dozen Jones hybrid hazels but only two of +them survived more than two years. I think the reason they lasted as +well as they did was that around each plant I put a guard made of laths +four feet high, bound together with wire and filled with forest leaves. +I drove the laths several inches into the ground and covered them with +window screening fastened down with tacks to keep mice out of the +leaves. Although somewhat winter-killed, most of the plants lived during +the first winter these guards were used. The second winter, more plants +died, and I didn't use the guards after that. + +The two Jones hybrids that lived produced flowers of both sexes for +several years but they did not set any nuts. One day while reading a +report of one of the previous conventions of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association, I discovered an article by Conrad Vollertsen in which he +stressed the importance of training filberts into a single truncated +plant, allowing no root sprouts or suckers to spring up since such a +condition prevents the bearing of nuts. I followed his advice with my +two Jones hybrids and removed all surplus sprouts. This resulted in more +abundant flowers and some abortive involucres but still no nuts +developed. In the spring of 1940, I systematically fertilized numerous +pistillate flowers of these plants with a pollen mixture. On the +branches so treated, a fairly good crop of nuts similar to those of the +orthodox Jones hybrid appeared. + +I had cut off a few branches from the Jones hybrids when I received them +and grafted these to wild hazels. This had been suggested by Robert +Morris in his book, "Nut Growing," as an interesting experiment which +might prove to be practical. It did not prove to be so for me for +although the grafting itself was successful I found it tiresome to +prune, repeatedly, the suckers which constantly spring up during the +growing period and which are detrimental to grafts. Although they lived +for five years, these grafts suffered a great deal of winter-injury and +they never bore nuts. The one which lived for the longest time became +quite large and overgrew the stock of the wild hazel. This same plant +produced both staminate and pistillate blossoms very abundantly for +several seasons but it did not set any nuts in spite of the many wild +hazels growing nearby which gave it access to pollen. It is now known +that this hybrid is self-sterile and must have pollinators of the right +variety in order to bear. + +My next work with members of the genus Corylus was discouraging. In +April 1929, I bought one hundred hazel and filbert plants from Conrad +Vollertsen of Rochester, New York, which included specimens of the Rush +hazel and of the following varieties of filberts: + + Italian Red + Merribrook + Kentish Cob + Early Globe + Zellernuts + White Lambert + Althaldensleben + Medium Long + Bony Bush + Large Globe + Minnas Zeller + Marveille de Bollwyller + +Although many of these filberts bore nuts the first year they were +planted, within two years they were all completely winter-killed. + +In 1932, I received ten filbert bushes from J. U. Gellatly of West Bank, +British Columbia. These consisted of several varieties of Glover's best +introductions and some Pearson seedlings. I planted them on the south +side of a high stone wall, a favorable location for semi-hardy plants. +They appeared to be thrifty and only slightly winter-killed during the +first two years but by 1939, all but two of the bushes had died or were +dying. Although as nut-bearing plants they have been of little value to +me, their pollen has been of great service. + +I found an unusually fine wild hazel growing in the woods on my farm and +in 1934, I began an experiment in hybridizing it. I crossed the +pistillate flowers of the native hazel with pollen from a Gellatly +filbert and obtained four hybrid plants, which I have called hazilberts. +In the spring of 1940, three of these hybrids had pistillate flowers but +no staminate blooms. As I was very eager to see what the new crosses +would be like, I fertilized the blossoms with a gunshot mixture of +pollen from other plants such as the Winkler hazel, the European filbert +and the Jones hybrid hazel. Certain difficulties arose in making these +hybrids, mainly due to the curiosity of the squirrels who liked to rip +open the sacks covering the blossoms which were being treated. Deer +mice, too, I found, have a habit of climbing the stems of hazel bushes +and gnawing at the nuts long before they are mature enough to use for +seed. Later I learned to protect hybrid nuts by lacing flat pieces of +window screening over each branch, thus making a mouse-proof enclosure. +Even after gathering the nuts I discovered that precautions were +necessary to prevent rodents from reaching them. The best way I found to +do this is to plant nuts in cages of galvanized hardware cloth of 2 by 2 +mesh, countersunk in the ground one foot and covered completely by a +frame of the same material reinforced with boards and laths. + +The most interesting hazilbert that has developed bears nuts of +outstanding size, typically filberts in every detail of appearance, +although the plant itself looks more like a hazel, being bushy and +having many suckers. After more testing, this hybrid may prove to be a +definite asset to nursery culture in our cold northern climate, +fulfilling as it does, all the requirements for such a plant. The second +hazilbert resembles the first closely except that its nuts, which are +also large, are shaped like those of Corylus Americana. The third +hazilbert has smaller nuts but its shell is much thinner than that of +either of the others. + +In reference to the hazilberts, I am reminded of certain correspondence +I once had with J. F. Jones. He had sent me samples of the Rush hazel +and although I was impressed by them, I mentioned in replying to him +that we had wild hazels growing in our pasture which were as large or +larger than the Rush hazelnuts. I admitted that ours were usually very +much infested with the hazel weevil. Mr. Jones was immediately +interested in wild hazels of such size and asked me to send him samples +of them. He wrote that he had never seen wild hazels with worms in them +and would like to learn more about them. I sent him both good and wormy +nuts from the wild hazel bush to which I had referred. He was so +impressed by them that he wished me to dig up the plant and ship it to +him, writing that he wished to cross it with filbert pollen as an +experiment. I sent it as he asked but before he was able to make the +cross he intended, his death occurred. Several years later, his daughter +Mildred wrote to me about this hazel bush, asking if I knew where her +father had planted it. Unfortunately I could give her no information +about where, among his many experiments, this bush would be, so that the +plant was lost sight of for a time. Later Miss Jones sent me nuts from a +bush which she thought might be the one I had sent. I was glad to be +able to identify those nuts as being, indeed, from that bush. + +In the spring of 1939, I crossed the Winkler hazel with filbert pollen; +the European hazel with Winkler pollen; the Gellatly filbert with Jones +hybrid pollen. These crosses produced many plants which will be new and +interesting types to watch and build from. I have already made certain +discoveries about them. By close examination of about forty plants, I +have been able to determine that at least five are definitely hybrids by +the color, shape and size of their buds. This is a very strong +indication of hybridity with wild hazel or Winkler. On one of these +plants, about one-foot high, I found staminate bloom which I consider +unusual after only two seasons' growth. + +During the fall of 1941, I became interested in a phenomenon of fruit +determination previous to actual fructification of the plant by detailed +examinations of its buds. I noticed, for instance, that large buds +generally meant that the plant would produce large nuts and small buds +indicated small nuts to come. The color of the buds, whether they were +green, bronze green or reddish brown, could be fairly well depended +upon to indicate their hybridity in many cases. These tests were not +wholly reliable but the percentage of indication was so high that I was +tempted to make predictions. + +At that time, hazilbert No. 1 had not borne nuts. The bush resembled a +wild hazel so much that I had begun to doubt its hybridity. Upon +examining its buds, I found indications in their color that it was a +hybrid, although the nuts apparently would not be large. It would be an +important plant to me only if its pollen should prove to be effective on +the other hazilberts. At the time this was only a wishful hope, because +the pollen of the wild hazel, which this plant resembles, apparently +does not act to excite the ovules of either filberts or filbert hybrids +with filbert characteristics. Pure filbert pollen seemed to be +necessary. In 1942, its pollen did prove to be acceptable to the other +hazilberts and my hope for a good pollinizer was realized in it. + +From the conclusions I reached through my study of the buds, I made +sketches of which I believed the nuts of No. 1 would be like in size and +shape. In March 1942, these sketches were used as the basis of the +drawing given here. A comparison of this drawing with the photograph +taken in September 1942, of the actual nuts of hazilbert No. 1 show how +accurate such a predetermination can be. + +I am convinced from the work I have done and am still doing, that we are +developing several varieties of hazilberts as hardy and adaptable to +different soils as the pasture hazel is, yet having the thin shell and +the size of a European filbert. As to the quality of the kernel of such +a nut, that of the wild hazel is as delicious as anyone could desire. + +[Illustration: _3/4 Natural size Filberts_] + +[Illustration: _3/4 Natural size Hazilberts and Winkler Hazel_] + +[Illustration: _31/32 of actual size Hazilberts. Left to right: No. 3, +No. 5, No. 4, No. 2_] + +[Illustration: _No. 1 Hazilbert about 9/15/42. Note almost identical +size and shape of this actual photograph of No. 1 compared to +predetermined size and shape in drawing made almost one year previous to +photograph. Plant had not produced any nuts prior to crop of 1942_] + + + + +Chapter 5 + +HAZELS AND/OR FILBERTS + + +There is a certain amount of confusion in the minds of many people +regarding the difference between filberts and hazels, both of which +belong to the genus Corylus. Some think them identical and call them all +hazels dividing them only into European and American types. I see no +reason for doing this. "Filbert" is the name of one species of genus +Corylus just as "English walnut" is the commercial name of one of the +members of the Juglans family. There is as much difference between a +well-developed filbert and a common wild hazelnut as there is between a +cultivated English walnut and wild black walnut. + +For ordinary purposes the nuts sold commercially, whether imported or +grown in this country, are called filberts while those nuts which may be +found growing prolifically in woodlands and pastures over almost the +whole United States but which are not to be found on the market are +called hazelnuts. This lack of commercialization of hazelnuts should be +recognized as due to the smallness of the nut and the thickness of its +shell rather than to its lacking flavor. Its flavor, which seldom varies +much regardless of size, shape or thickness of shell, is both rich and +nutty. The three main food components of the hazelnut, carbohydrate, +protein and oil, are balanced so well that they approach nearer than +most other nuts the ideal food make-up essential to man. The English +walnut contains much oil and protein while both chestnuts and acorns +consist largely of carbohydrates. + +One salient feature which definitely separates the species Corylus +Americana or wild hazel, from others of its genus, is its resistance to +hazel blight, a native fungus disease of which it is the host. +Controversies may occur over the application of the names "hazel" and +"filbert" but there is no dispute about the effect of this infection on +members of genus Corylus imported from Europe. Although there is wide +variety in appearance and quality within each of the species, especially +among the European filberts, and although filberts may resemble hazels +sufficiently to confuse even a horticulturist, the action of this fungus +is so specific that it divides Corylus definitely into two species. +Corylus Americana and Corylus cornuta, through long association, have +become comparatively immune to its effects and quickly wall off infected +areas while filbert plants are soon killed by contact with it. Hybrids +between filberts and hazels will usually be found to retain some of the +resistance of the hazel parent. + +The ideal nut of genus Corylus should combine qualities of both hazels +and filberts. Such a hybrid should have the bushy characteristics of the +American hazel with its blight-resisting properties and its ability to +reproduce itself by stolons or sucker-growth. It should bear fruit +having the size, general shape, cracking qualities and good flavor of +the filbert as popularly known. The hybrids I am growing at my farm, +which I call "hazilberts" and which are discussed later, seem to fulfill +these requirements. The plants may be grown as bushes or small trees. +They are blight-resistant and their nuts are like filberts in +appearance. Three varieties of these hazilberts have ivory-colored +kernels which are practically free of pellicle or fibre. They have a +good flavor. + +A comparison of the ripening habits and the effect of frost on the +various members of the genus Corylus growing in my nursery in the fall +of 1940, is shown by these extracts taken from daily records of the work +done there. It should be noted that the summer season that year was +rainy and not as hot as usual, so that most nuts ripened two to three +weeks later than they normally do. + + "September 7 and 8: Wild hazels ripe and picked at this time. + (Their kernels showed no shrinkage by October 25.) + + September 14 and 15: I picked ripe nuts from hazilbert No. 5 which + seems to be the first to ripen. Also picked half of the European + filberts. (There was slight shrinkage in the kernels of the latter + a few weeks later showing that they could have stayed on the trees + another week to advantage.) + + All of the nuts of a Jones hybrid, which is a cross between Rush + and some European variety such as Italian Red, could have been + picked as they were ripe. Some were picked. + + The almond-shaped filbert classified as the White Aveline type, was + not quite ripe; neither were hazilberts No. 2 and No. 4, nor the + Gellatly filberts. Wild hazelnuts at this time had dry husks and + were falling off the bushes or being cut down by mice. + + September 21 and 22: The remaining European filberts of the + imported plants were picked. Also, I picked half of the White + Aveline type nuts. + + [Illustration: _Carlola Hazilberts No. 5, about 8/10/42. This is + the earliest ripening and thinnest shell of the large type + hazilberts, not the largest size however. Carlola Weschcke shown in + picture. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + + September 28 and 29: We picked most of the nuts remaining on + hazilbert No. 5 and the remainder of the White Aveline type. At + this time we record a heavy frost which occurred during the + previous week, that is, between September 22 and 28th. Since it + froze water it was considered a "killing" frost. However, the + damage was spotty all over the orchard, most things continuing to + develop and ripen. Winkler hazels picked and examined at this time + showed them far from ripe. Hazilberts growing next to limestone + walls on the south side showed no signs of frost damage whereas the + Winkler, on higher ground, showed severe damage to the leaves and + the husks of the nuts which immediately started to turn brown. + Leaves of other filbert plants in the vicinity showed no frost + damage and the very few nuts that had been left on, such as those + of the Jones hybrid, were undamaged. + + October 5 and 6: Picked all of hazilbert No. 2 except the last two + nuts. + + Gellatly filberts were picked about October 10 and were ripe at + that time. + + October 11 to 13: Two English walnuts were picked and found to be + as ripe as they would get. These as well as the black walnuts + showed distinct signs of lacking summer heat needed for their + proper development. The last two nuts on hazilbert No. 2 and the + only nut on hazilbert No. 4 were picked at this time and were ripe. + Chestnut burrs had opened up and the nuts enclosed were fully + mature. + + October 19 and 20: I found the last of the Winkler hazelnuts had + been picked during the previous week, approximately October 14. + These were left the longest on the bush of any hazel and still were + not ripe although they were not entirely killed by the several + frosts occurring before that time. They are always much later than + the wild hazel." + +On October 20, I had an opportunity of comparing the action of frost on +the leaves of these plants. Those of the White Aveline type had not +changed color and were very green. The leaves of the Jones hybrid showed +some coloration but nothing to compare with those of the Winkler hazel, +many of which had the most beautiful colors of any of the trees on the +farm--red, orange and yellow bronze. Hazilbert No. 1, which resembles a +wild hazel in appearance and habits of growth, had colored much earlier +in reaction to the frost and was as brightly tinted as the wild hazel +and Winkler plants except that, like the wild hazel, it had already lost +much of its foliage. Some of the wild hazels were entirely devoid of +leaves at this time. Hazilbert No. 5 showed the best color effects with +No. 4 second and No. 2 last. + +The color of the leaves and the action of the frost on the plants during +the autumn is another thing, in my opinion, that helps to differentiate +between and to classify European filberts, American hazels and their +hybrids. My conclusion in regard to the effect of frost is that the +reaction of the Winkler hazel is very similar to that of the wild hazel +in color but exceeding it in beauty since its leaves do not drop as soon +after coloring. At this time, the leaves had not changed color on the +imported European plants, the Gellatly filberts from British Columbia or +the White Aveline type. They had turned only slightly on the Jones +hybrid. I think an accurate idea of the general hardiness of a plant is +indicated by the effect of frost and by early dropping of leaves, using +the sturdy wild hazel as the limit of hardiness and assuming that its +hardiness is shown by both degree of coloration and early dropping of +leaves. + +In noting the action of frost on the Winkler hazel, I have mentioned +that it was more like that on the American hazel than on the European +filberts. The Winkler has always been considered a native woodland +hazel, but, although it does show several similarities to Corylus +Americana, I have also noticed certain qualities which definitely +suggest some filbert heritage. I have based my theory on a study of the +Winkler hazels which have been bearing annually at my farm for six +years, bearing more regularly, in fact, than even the wild hazels +growing nearby. My comparisons have been made with wild hazels in both +Minnesota and Wisconsin and with European filberts. + +I found the first point of similarity with the filbert is in the +involucre covering the nut. In the wild hazel, this folds against itself +to one side of the nut, while in the filbert it is about balanced and if +not already exposing a large part of the end of the nut, is easily +opened. The involucre of the Winkler hazel is formed much more like that +of the filbert than that of the hazel. In Corylus Americana this +involucre is usually thick, tough and watery, while in the filbert it is +thinner and drier, so that while a person may be deceived in the size of +a hazelnut still in its husk, he can easily tell that of a filbert. This +is also true of the Winkler whose involucre is fairly thick but outlines +the form of the enclosed nut. Another feature about the involucre of the +Winkler which classes it with the filberts rather than the hazels is in +its appearance and texture, which is smooth and velvety while that of +the hazel is hairy and wrinkled. + +The staminate blooms of the Winkler hazel show similarity to those of +both filberts and hazels. Sometimes they appear in formation at the ends +of branches, much as those of the European filberts do, in overlapping +groups of three or four. Again, they may be found at regular intervals +at the axis of leaf stems very much as in the case of the American +hazel. The buds on the Winkler hazel are dull red which is also true of +those on the hybrid hazilberts, another indication of hybridity. + +The initial growth of the embryo nut is very slow in the Winkler as it +is in the filbert, as contrasted with the very rapid development of the +native hazel embryo which matures in this latitude about one month ahead +of the Winklers and some filberts. Although Winkler nuts are shaped like +hazels and have the typically thick shells of hazelnuts, their size is +more that of a filbert usually three times as large as a native hazel. + +During the years between 1942 and 1945 many new hybrids between filberts +and hazels were produced. Four wild varieties of hazels, which had +unusual characteristics such as tremendous bearing and large size nuts +and others having very early maturing or very thin shelled nuts were +used as the female parents in making the crosses. Pollen was obtained +from other parts of the U. S. or from filbert bushes which were growing +on the place. Crosses included pollen of the Barcelona, Duchilly, Red +Aveline, White Aveline, Purple Aveline, the Italian Red, Daviana and +several hybrids between other filberts and hazels. By 1945 the number of +these plants were in the neighborhood of 2000 and by 1952 considerable +knowledge had been gained as to the hardiness, blight resistance to the +common hazel blight (known scientifically as cryptosporella anomala), +freedom from the curculio of the hazelnuts (commonly known as the hazel +weevil) and resistance to other insect pests. Also, considerable data +had been accumulated by cataloging over 650 trees each year for five +years; cataloging included varied and detailed studies of their growth, +bearing habits, ability to resist blight, curculio and other insects, +the size of the nut, the thinness of the shell and the flavor of the +kernel. Several books of all this detail were accumulated in trying to +nail down several commercial varieties that would be propagated from +this vast amount of material. Although some bushes produced good nuts at +the rate of as much as two tons to the acre, measured on the basis of +space that they took up in the test orchard, the most prolific kind +seemed to be the ones that had a tendency to revert to the wild hazel +type. The better and thinner-shelled types, more resembling the +filberts, seemed to be shy bearers so that there being a host of new +plants to catalog (more than 1000) which had not indicated their bearing +characteristics, we included these among the possible ideal plants we +were seeking. Although there were several plants that could be +considered commercial in the original group of over 650 it has been +thought that the waiting of a few more years to ascertain whether there +would be something better in the next 1000 plants to bear that would be +worthwhile waiting for and no attempt has been made to propagate the +earlier tested plants. Some of these 650 tested hybrids proved to have +nuts that were classed as Giants being much larger than the filberts +produced by male or pollen parent such as the Barcelona, Duchilly or +Daviana, and several times the size of the nuts of the female parent +which was the wild hazel. + +[Illustration: _Wild Wisconsin Hazel discovered on Hazel Hills Farm near +River Falls. Note size of nuts in husks as compared to woman's hand. +This plant became the female parent in over 1,000 crosses by pollen +furnished from male blooms of Duchilly, Barcelona, Italian Red, White, +Red, and Purple Aveline and many other well known filberts. Photo by C. +Weschcke_] + + + + +Chapter 6 + +PECANS AND THEIR HYBRIDS + + +At the same time, October 1924, that I purchased Beaver hickory trees +from J. F. Jones, I also procured from him three specimens each of three +commercial varieties of pecan trees, the Posey, Indiana and Niblack, as +well as some hiccan trees, i.e., hybrids having pecan and hickory +parents. Only one tree survived, a Niblack pecan, which, after sixteen +years, was only about eighteen inches in height. Its annual growth was +very slight and it was killed back during the winter almost the full +amount of the year's growth. In the 17th year this tree was dead. + +In September 1925, at a convention of the Northern Nut Growers' +Association in St. Louis, Missouri, I became acquainted with a man whose +experience in the nut-growing industry was wide and who knew a great +deal about the types of hickory and pecan trees in Iowa. He was S. W. +Snyder of Center Point, Iowa. (He later became president of the +Association.) In one of his letters to me the following summer, Mr. +Snyder mentioned that there were wild pecan trees growing near Des +Moines and Burlington. I decided I wanted to know more about them and at +my request, he collected ten pounds of the nuts for me. I found they +were the long type of pecan, small, but surprisingly thin-shelled and +having a kernel of very high quality. + +I first planted these nuts in an open garden in St. Paul, but after a +year I moved them to my farm, where I set them out in nursery rows in an +open field. The soil there was a poor grade of clay, not really suited +to nut trees, but even so, most of the ones still remaining there have +made reasonably good growth. I used a commercial fertilizing compound +around about half of these seedlings which greatly increased their rate +of growth, although they became less hardy than the unfertilized ones. +After five years, I transplanted a number of them to better soil, in +orchard formation. Although I have only about fifty of the original +three hundred seedlings, having lost the others mainly during droughts, +these remaining ones have done very well. Some of these trees have been +bearing small crops of nuts during the years 1947 to date. The most +mature nuts of these were planted and to date I have 17 second +generation pure pecan trees to testify as to the ability of the northern +pecan to become acclimated. + +I gave several of the original seedlings to friends who planted them in +their gardens, where rich soil has stimulated them to grow at twice the +rate of those on my farm. There were four individual pecan trees growing +in or near St. Paul from my first planting, the largest being about 25 +feet high with a caliber of five inches a foot above ground. Although +this tree did not bear nuts I have used it as a source of scionwood for +several years. These graftings, made on bitternut hickory stock, have +been so successful that I am continuing their propagation at my nursery, +having named this variety the Hope pecan, for Joseph N. Hope, the man +who owns the parent tree and who takes such an interest in it. + +[Illustration: _Shows the use of a zinc metal tag fastened by 16 or 18 +gauge copper wire to branch of tree._] + +By the year 1950 the tree had such a straggly appearance, although still +healthy and growing but being too shaded by large trees on the +boulevard, that Mr. Hope caused it to be cut down. The variety is still +growing at my farm, grafted on bitternut stocks and although blossoming +it has never produced a nut up to this time. + +Another tree given to Joseph Posch of the city of St. Paul, Minnesota, +had made even better growth and was luxuriantly healthy and in bloom +when it was cut down by the owner because the branches overhung the +fence line into a neighbor's yard. This was done in about 1950. + +Another tree given to Mrs. Wm. Eldridge of St. Paul still flourishes and +is quite large (in 1952 at breast height, 6 inches in diameter) but +being in a dense shade, it has not borne any nuts. + +The fourth tree, given to John E. Straus, the famous skate maker, +presumably exists at his lake residence north of St. Paul. I have not +seen it in the last seven or eight years. + +Although they are not as hardy as bitternut stocks, I have found the +wild Iowa pecan seedlings satisfactory for grafting after five years' +growth. I use them as an understock for grafting the Posey, Indiana and +Major varieties of northern pecan and find them preferable to northern +bitternut stocks with which the pecans are not compatible for long, as a +rule, such a union resulting in a stunted tree which is easily +winter-killed. Although the Posey continued to live for several years +our severe winters finally put an end to all these fine pecans. The root +system of the seedling understock continued to live, however. + +I chanced to discover an interesting thing in the fall of 1941 which +suggests something new in pecan propagation. There were two small pecans +growing in the same rows as the large ones planted fifteen years +previously. When I noticed them, I thought they were some of this same +planting and that they had been injured or frozen back to such an extent +that they were mere sprouts again, for this has happened. I decided to +move them and asked one of the men on the farm to dig them up. When he +had dug the first, I was surprised to find that this was a sprout from +the main tap root of a large pecan tree which had been taken out and +transplanted. The same was true of the second one, except that in this +case we found three tap roots, the two outside ones both having shoots +which were showing above the ground. Another remarkable circumstance +about this was that these tap roots had been cut off twenty inches below +the surface of the ground and the sprouts had to come all that distance +to start new trees. All of this suggests the possibility of pecan +propagation by root cuttings. These two pecans, at least, show a natural +tendency to do this and I have marked them for further experimentation +along such lines. + +On the advice of the late Harry Weber of Cincinnati, Ohio, an eminent +nut culturist, who, after visiting my nursery in 1938, became very +anxious to try out some of the Indiana varieties of pecans in our +northern climate, I wrote to J. Ford Wilkinson, a noted propagator of +nut trees at Rockport, Indiana, suggesting that he make some +experimental graftings at my farm. Both Mr. Wilkinson and Mr. Weber +gathered scionwood from all the black walnut, pecan, hiccan and hickory +trees at their disposal, for this trial. There was enough of it to keep +three of us busy for a week grafting it on large trees. Our equipment +was carried on a two-wheeled trailer attached to a Diesel-powered +tractor, and we were saved the trouble of having to carry personally, +scions, packing material, wax pots, knives, pruning shears, tying +material, canvas and ladders into the woods. Mr. Wilkinson remarked, on +starting out, that in the interests of experimental grafting, he had +travelled on foot, on horseback, by mule team and in rowboats, but that +this was his first experience with a tractor. + +When he saw the type of grafting with which I had been getting good +results, Mr. Wilkinson was astounded. He declared that using a side-slot +graft in the South resulted in 100% failure, while I had more than 50% +success with it. He was willing to discard his type of grafting for +mine, which was adequate for the work we were doing, but I wanted to +check his grafting performance and urged him to continue with his own +(an adaptation of the bark-slot graft to the end of a cut-off stub). We +both used paper sacks to shade our grafts. Although results proved that +my methods averaged a slightly higher percentage of successful graftings +in this latitude and for the type of work we were doing, his would +nonetheless be superior in working over trees larger than four inches in +diameter and having no lateral branches up to eight feet above ground, +at which height it is most convenient to cut off a large hickory +preparatory to working on it. + +In the late fall of that year, we cut scionwood of the season's growth +and inverted large burlap bags stuffed with leaves over the grafts, the +bags braced on the inside by laths to prevent their collapsing on the +grafts. So we have perpetuated the following varieties: + + Hickories: Cedar Rapids, Taylor, Barnes, Fairbanks. + + Hiccans: McAlester, Bixby, Des Moines, Rockville, Burlington, Green + Bay. + +The Major and Posey pure pecans being incompatible on bitternut hickory +roots were grafted on pecan stocks, but they proved to be tender to our +winters and the varieties were finally lost. + +[Illustration: _Largest planted pecan in World having a record. About 17 +ft. circumference breast height, 125 ft. spread and 125 ft. height. Very +small worthless pecans. Easton, Maryland. Photo by Reed 1927_] + +Other experiments I have made with pecans include an attempt to grow +Southern pecans from seed, but they seem to be no more hardy than an +orange tree would be. It is certain that they are not at all suited to +the climate of the 45th parallel. In 1938, I received from Dr. W. C. +Deming of Connecticut, some very good nuts from a large pecan tree at +Hartford, Connecticut. Of the twelve pecans I planted, only six +sprouted, and of these, only one has survived up to this date and is now +a small weak tree. Apparently, the seedlings of this Hartford pecan are +not as hardy as those from Iowa. + +[Illustration: _Iowa seedling Pecans. Tree planted in 1926 as seed. +First crop October 29, 1953. 7/8 of actual size. Nuts were fully +matured. Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +Of the hiccans, hybrids between hickory and pecan, there are several +varieties, as I mentioned before. Of these, the McAlester is the most +outstanding, its nuts measuring over three inches in circumference and +about three inches long. Horticulturists believe that this hybrid is the +result of a cross between a shell-bark hickory, which produces the +largest nut of any hickory growing in the United States, and a large +pecan. I have experimented a number of times with the McAlester and my +conclusion is that it is not hardy enough to advocate its being grown in +this climate. There are other hiccans hardier than it is, however, such +as the Rockville, Burlington, Green Bay and Des Moines, and it is +certain that the North is assured of hardy pecans and a few hardy +hybrids, which, although they do not bear the choicest pecan nuts, make +interesting and beautiful lawn trees. Indeed, as an ornamental tree, the +pecan is superior to the native hickory in two definite ways: by its +exceedingly long life, which may often reach over 150 years as +contrasted with the average hickory span of 100 years, and by its +greater size. One pecan tree I saw growing in Easton, Maryland, in +1927, for example, was then seventeen feet in circumference at +breast-height, one hundred twenty-five feet in height and having a +spread of one hundred fifty feet. The wood of the pecan is similar to +that of the hickory in both toughness and specific gravity, although for +practical purposes, such as being used for tool handles, the shagbark +hickory is enough harder and tougher to make it the superior of the two. + +I was pleasantly surprised on October 30, 1953 when a pecan seedling of +the Iowa origin, which had not yet borne any nuts, showed a small crop. +These nuts were fully matured and were of sufficient size so that they +could be considered a valuable new variety of pecan nut for the North. A +plate showing a few of these pecans illustrates, by means of a ruler, +the actual size of these pecans, and the fact that they matured so well +by October 30 indicates that in many seasons they may be relied upon to +mature their crop. No other data has been acquired on this variety and +we can only be thankful that we can expect it to do a little better in +size as successive crops appear, which is the usual way of nut trees. +Also, by fertilizing this tree we can expect bigger nuts, as is +generally the case. The shell of this pecan is so thin that it can be +easily cracked with the teeth, which I have done repeatedly, and +although small is thinner-shelled than any standard pecan. + + + + +Chapter 7 + +HICKORY THE KING + + +The acknowledged autocrat of all the native nuts is the hickory. Perhaps +not all the experts admit this leadership but it is certainly the +opinion held by most people. Of course, when I speak of the hickory nut +in this high regard, I refer to the shagbark hickory which, as a wild +tree, is native as far north as the 43rd parallel in Minnesota and +Wisconsin, and somewhat farther in the eastern states. + +Wild hickory nuts have been commercialized only to a slight extent. Its +crops are almost entirely consumed in the locality in which they are +grown by those people who find great pleasure in spending fine autumn +days gathering them. The obvious reason why hickory nuts have not been +made a product of commerce lies in the nut itself, which is usually very +small and which has a shell so strong and thick that the kernel can be +taken out only in small pieces. The toughness of the shell makes +cracking difficult, too, and since only rarely is one found that can be +broken by a hand cracker, it is necessary to use the flatiron-and-hammer +method. It is quite possible, though, that some day the hickory will +rival or exceed its near relative, the wild pecan, in commercial favor. +The wild pecans which formerly came on the market at Christmastime in +mixtures of nuts were just as difficult to extract from their shells as +the wild shagbark hickory nuts are now. By means of selection and +cultivation, the pecan was changed from a small, hard-to-crack nut to +that of a large thin-shelled nut whose kernel was extractable in whole +halves. Among many thousands of wild pecan trees were a few which bore +exceptionally fine nuts, nuts similar to those now found at every +grocery store and called "papershell" pecans. These unusual nuts were +propagated by grafting twigs from their parent trees on ordinary wild +pecan trees whose own nuts were of less value. These grafted trees were +set out in orchards where they produce the millions of pounds of +high-grade pecans now on the market. + +The question which naturally occurs is, "Why hasn't this been done with +hickory nuts?" Hundreds of attempts have been made to do so, by the +greatest nut propagators in the United States. They have been successful +in grafting outstanding varieties of hickory to wild root stocks but the +time involved has prevented any practical or commercial success, since +most grafted hickories require a period of growth from ten to twenty +years before bearing any nuts. This length of time contrasts very +unfavorably with that required by grafted pecans which produce nuts on +quite young trees, frequently within three to five years after grafting. +This factor of slow growth has set the pecan far ahead of the tasty +shagbark hickory. Experimenters have long thought to reduce the time +required by the hickory to reach maturity by grafting it to fast-growing +hickory roots such as the bitternut or the closely related pecan. Both +of these grow rapidly and the bitternut has the additional advantage of +growing farther north and of being transplanted more easily. It has +always been thought that when a good variety of shagbark hickory had +been successfully grafted to bitternut root stocks, orchards of hickory +trees would soon appear. This takes me to my discovery of the variety +now known as the Weschcke hickory, which I have found fulfills the +necessary conditions. + +[Illustration: _Shows exceptionally thin shell of Weschcke hickory +variety. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn_] + +One fall day in 1926, when I was at the home of a neighboring farmer, he +offered me some mixed hickory nuts he had received from an uncle in +Iowa. As he knew of my interest in nuts, he wanted my opinion of them. I +looked them over and explained that they were no better than little +nutmegs, having very hard shells and a small proportion of inaccessible +meat. To demonstrate this, I cracked some between hammer and flatiron. +My demonstration was conclusive until I hit one nut which almost melted +under the force I was applying. The shape of this nut was enough +different from the others to enable me to pick out a handful like it +from the mixture. I was amazed to see how very thin-shelled and full of +meat they were. Upon my request, this neighbor wrote to his uncle, John +Bailey, of Fayette, Iowa, asking if he knew from which tree such fine +nuts had come. Unfortunately he did not, because the nuts had been +gathered from quite a large area. After corresponding with Mr. Bailey +myself, I decided that I would go there and help him locate the tree, +although it was nearly Christmas and heavy snowfalls which already +covered the ground would make our search more difficult. + +[Illustration: _Carl Weschcke, Jr., hand holding Weschcke hickory in +hull. 9/15/42 Photo by C. Weschcke_] + +On my arrival in Fayette, I called on Mr. Bailey, who was glad to help +me hunt out the tree in which I had so much interest. We called A. C. +Fobes, the owner of the farm from which the nuts were believed to have +come, and arranged to go out there with him by bob sleigh. A rough ride +of six or seven miles brought us to the farm and we began our quest. +Once there, Mr. Bailey had a more definite idea of where to look for the +tree from which these particular nuts came than he had had before and we +had not been at our task for more than an hour before it was located. +There were still quite a few nuts on the ground beneath it, which +identified it accurately. It was a large shagbark whose first living +branch was fully sixteen feet off the ground and, since we had no ladder +with us, I had to shin up the tree to cut off some of the smaller +branches. This shagbark, true to its name, had rough bark which tore not +only my clothes but some of the skin on my legs as well and whereas the +climbing up was difficult, the coming down was equally so. Having +contracted verbally with Mr. Fobes to buy the tree, I packed the +branches I had cut in cardboard boxes with straw packing and carefully +brought them home to St. Paul. + +I wrote at once to my friend, J. F. Jones, of my expedition, telling him +of my plans to propagate this hickory. I also sent him some of the nuts +from the parent tree and samples of extra-good nuts from other trees +growing near it so that he could give me his opinion of them. Mr. Jones +responded by advising me about the kind of a contract to make with Mr. +Fobes in regard to both the purchasing and propagation of the original +hickory tree and he urged the latter enthusiastically. Of the Weschcke +hickory nuts themselves, he wrote: "This is practically identical with +the Glover. The Glover is usually a little larger but this varies in all +nuts from year to year. This is a fine nut and if it comes from Iowa, it +ought to be propagated. I suggest you keep the stock of it and propagate +the tree for northern planting, that is for Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, +etc., where most nuts grown here would not mature." A few years ago, I +saw the Glover hickory nut for the first time and I also thought it much +the same as the Weschcke in shape, as is also the Brill. + +Because I did not know how to preserve the scions I had cut, they dried +out during the winter to such an extent that they were worthless for +spring grafting. This meant losing a whole season. The next fall I +obtained more scionwood from Mr. Fobes and having kept it in good +condition during the winter by storing it in a Harrington graft box +shown by illustration, I was able to graft it in the spring. However, +these grafts did not take hold well, only two or three branches +resulting from all of it and these did not bear nor even grow as they +should have. I was disappointed and discouraged, writing to Mr. Fobes +that I did not believe the tree could be propagated. + +[Illustration: _This drawing illustrates how to build a Harrington graft +storage box_] + +In the fall of 1932, Mr. Fobes sent me a large box of scions and +branches, explaining that he had sold his farm and, as the tree might be +cut down, this was my last opportunity to propagate it. Without much +enthusiasm, I grafted the material he had sent me on about a dozen +trees, some of them very large hickories and I was most agreeably +surprised to find the grafting successful and more than one branch +bearing nutlets. These nuts dropped off during the summer until only one +remained to mature, which it did in the latter part of October. But I +waited too long to pick that nut and some smart squirrel, which had +probably been watching it ripen as diligently as I had, secured it +first. I made a very thorough search of the ground nearby to find the +remains of it, for while I knew I would not get a taste of the +kernel--the squirrel would take care of that--I was interested in +finding out whether it followed the exact shape and thinness of shell of +the first nuts I had examined. I finally did find part of it, enough to +see that it was similar to the nuts from the parent tree. + +The grafts I made in 1932 have been bearing nuts every year since that +time. The Weschcke hickory makes a tremendous growth grafted on +bitternut hickory (Carya Cordiformis). The wood and buds are hardy to a +temperature of 47 deg. below zero Fahrenheit, so that wherever the wild +bitternut hickory grow, this grafted tree will survive to bear its +thin-shelled nuts. The nuts have a fine flavor and the unusual quality +of retaining this flavor without becoming rancid, for three years. The +only fault to find with them is the commercial one of being only medium +in size, so that compared to English walnuts, for example, they become +unimpressive. I have noticed time and again that the average person will +pass over a small, sweet nut to choose a larger one even though the +latter may not have as attractive a flavor. This is noticeably true in +regard to pecans, when the large paper-shell types, which have a rather +dry, sweet kernel, are almost invariably preferred to the smaller ones +of finer flavor, which are plump and have slightly thicker shells. + +Previous to finding the Weschcke hickory, I experimented with several +varieties of hickory hybrids. In March 1924, I purchased twelve Beaver +and twelve Fairbanks hybrid hickories from J. F. Jones. I planted these +trees in April of that year but of the lot, only two Beaver trees lived +to bear nuts. One of these is still growing on my farm, in thin, clay +soil underlaid with limestone, and it bears nuts annually. It is only a +fair-sized tree but I think its slow growth has protected it from the +usual amount of winter damage. I also ordered from Mr. Jones, in July +1924, 12 Marquardt hiccans, 12 Laney, 12 Siers, 34 Beaver and 30 +Fairbanks. The last four are hybrids between species of hickories. Out +of the whole order, amounting to one hundred trees, none remains alive +now. + +The Marquardt hiccan mentioned above was the subject of dispute among +nut culturists for a time but it has been definitely agreed now, that +the Marquardt was never actually propagated, the tree having been lost +or cut down before scions were taken from it. Substitutes were taken +from the Burlington, a hybrid whose nut is similar to the Marquardt and +whose foliage and other attributes are thought to be like it. The name +of Marquardt persisted for several years, however, and it has been +entirely discarded only recently. The Burlington is now known to be the +representative of that part of Iowa. However, I grafted some of the tops +of the Marquardt trees from Jones to bitternut trees at the time that I +transplanted them; several of the grafts made successful growth and +resulted in several trees growing deep in the woods. After 28 years +these grafts are still alive and certainly have established their right +to be called compatible with bitternut hickory stocks. Close examination +of the branches, leaves and buds, particularly the leaf-scars, indicate +that this hiccan is enough different and more hardy than the Burlington, +which also grows well on the bitternut, to discredit the story that the +Marquardt is lost. It will not be determined, however, that this is the +genuine Marquardt until it has fruited. + +Altogether I have grafted about 70 varieties of hickory and its hybrids +on bitternut stocks in my attempts to increase the number of varieties +of cultured hickory trees in the North. Most of those I worked with were +compatible with the bitternut stock, but a few, perhaps a dozen, have +indicated that they would rather not live on the bitternut and have +died, either from incompatibility or winter-killing. Yet as a root +system, the bitternut is the hardiest and easiest to transplant of any +of the hickories and for these reasons it makes an ideal stock for the +amateur nut-grower to use. I did try, in 1926, to grow some shagbark +hickory stocks, which would be more compatible with those varieties I +could not get started on bitternut. I planted half a bushel of shagbark +hickory nuts from Iowa, but although they sprouted nicely, they were not +sufficiently hardy and were winter-killed so severely that, after twelve +years, the largest was not more than a foot high, nor thicker than a +lead pencil. Some of these, about 50, were transplanted into the orchard +and in other favorable locations. The largest of these, in 1952, is +about 4 inches in diameter, 1-foot off the ground, and about 15 feet +high. I have not grafted any yet and only one has borne any seedling +nuts so far. I am now reconciled to using my native bitternut trees for +most of my stock in spite of some disadvantages. A list of successfully +grafted varieties is appended, and indicates to what extent this stock +is a universal root stock for most of the hickories and their hybrids. A +successful union, however, and long life, does not mean that good +bearing habits will be established, since most of these trees grow in +the woods in dense shade and poor surroundings. Some varieties have not +borne many nuts, and some not at all. The following scions were cut this +fall (in 1952) from successfully grafted trees deep in the woods: + + Bixby hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Burlington hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Green Bay hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Des Moines hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Burton hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1939 + McAlester hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 + Anthony Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Barnes Shagbark by mocker nut grafted in 1938 + Brill Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Brooks Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Camp No. 2 Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 (?) + Deveaux Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Fox Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Glover Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Gobble Shagbark hickory grafted in 1940 + Hand Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Harman Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Leonard Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Lingenfelter Shagbark hickory grafted in 1942 + Manahan Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Milford Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Murdock Shagbark hickory grafted in 1941 + Netking Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Platman Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Pleas Pecan by bitternut grafted in 1938 + Schinnerling Shagbark hickory grafted in 1942 + Stanley Shellbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Swaim Shagbark hickory grafted in 1941 + Taylor Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Triplett Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 + Woods grafted in 1939 + +The varieties below are growing in orchard or random locations out of +the woods: + + Beaver Hybrid hickory grafted in 1924 + Cedar Rapids Shagbark hickory grafted in 1926 + Clark Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 + Fairbanks hybrid Shagbark by bitternut grafted in 1924 + Herman Last Hybrid grafted in 1948 + Hope pecan Pure pecan grafted to bitternut grafted in 1938 + Kirtland Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 + Laney Pecan by shellbark grafted in 1936 + Marquardt Hiccan grafted in 1924 + Norton Hiccan grafted in 1938 + River hickory Undetermined hybrid grafted in 1948 + Rockville hiccan Pecan by shellbark grafted in 1926 + Siers Mockernut by bitternut grafted in 1936 + Stratford Shagbark by bitternut grafted in 1938 + Weiker hybrid Shagbark by shellbark grafted in 1936 + +In addition to the above, several large and small trees of the Weschcke +variety are located in orchard and random locations, some having been +grafted in 1926 and later. Also, there is a sprinkling of Bridgewater +variety, grafted in 1936 and later, all bearing each year. + +For many years, I observed hickories and walnuts in bloom and +hand-pollinated them, yet I overlooked many things I should have +discovered earlier in study. It was only after ten years of observing +the Weschcke hickory, for example, that I realized the importance of +proper pollinization of it. In years when it produced only a few nuts, I +had blamed seasonal factors, rains and soil conditions, but I now +realize that it was due to lack of the right pollen. In the spring of +1941, I decided to make special pollen combinations with all the +hickories then in bloom. The information I acquired in return was great +reward for the work I did. + +I selected branches of the Weschcke hickory trees bearing a profuse +amount of pistillate (female) blossoms. I hand-pollinated these with a +special apparatus (the hand-pollen gun described later in this book), +using a magnifying glass so that both pollen and blossom could be +plainly seen. In doing this, I found it most practical to wear what +jewelers call a "double loupe," a light, fiber head-gear carrying lenses +well-suited to such work. I treated the marked branches with pollen +gathered from the Bridgewater, the Kirtland and the Beaver, all very +good pollen-bearers. I also pollinated branches of the Cedar Rapids +variety, which bears little pollen in this locality, with Kirtland +pollen. However, the pollinization of the Cedar Rapids, which involved +treating from 35 to 50 pistillate blossoms, resulted in only two mature +nuts. + +The Weschcke hickory has an abortive staminate bloom so that it must +depend on some other variety for pollen. At the Northern Nut Growers' +Convention, held at Hershey, Pa. in 1941, (where I had the honor of +being elected president of that venerable organization and succeeded +myself thereafter for the next five years) I mentioned this abortive +staminate bloom of my hickory to my friend, Dr. J. W. McKay, Associate +Cytologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at that time. He was +very interested in this phenomenon and wanted specimens of the abortive +catkins for examination. These were sent to him in the spring of 1942. I +quote from Dr. McKay's report on his primary findings: + + "I have just made a preliminary examination of the catkins from + your hickory tree received last May, and it seems that the + individual staminate flower of the catkin produces 4-5 undersized + stamens, the anthers of which are devoid of either pollen or + pollen-mother-cells. So far I have made only temporary preparations + of the crushed anthers in stain but careful study of these mounts + discloses no sign of pollen grains or mother cells, so we may + tentatively conclude that no pollen is produced by the tree; in + other words it is male-sterile. The stage at which degeneration of + the pollen-forming tissue occurs in the anthers and its nature will + have to be determined by means of a longer and more elaborate + technique and I will let you know what we find as soon as the + results are available. It may be that pollen-mother-cells are not + even formed in the anthers; the small size of these structures and + their more or less shriveled appearance lead me to believe that + this may be the case. + + "So far as I know there is no instance among nut species comparable + to that outlined above. We have two or three cases of male + sterility in chestnut but in these no stamens are formed in the + individual staminate flower. In one of the hybrid walnuts that I + reported on at the Hershey convention, imperfect pollen grains are + formed in the anthers but the latter structures never open, so no + pollen is shed. + + "Bear in mind that the above report is preliminary and other + angles may turn up when permanent mounts are available for study." + +On December 14, 1943 I received a second, and final report from Dr. +McKay from which I quote, as follows: + + "Dear Mr. Weschcke: + + The enclosed pencil sketches will give you an idea of the results + obtained from sectioning four lots of material from the two samples + of catkins that you sent, two lots from each sample. Since the + sample collected May 25 at the time of catkin fall was old enough + to contain mature pollen and showed only anthers of the two types + described herewith I think we may safely conclude that the tree is + male sterile because of the failure of the mother cells to + function. It is odd that in some anthers the pollen-mother-cells + develop (type 2) while in others they do not (type 1). For this we + have no explanation; nor can we explain why the tree is male + sterile. I am afraid these phenomena will remain a matter of + conjecture for some time to come. Since sterilities of this and + other sorts in most other plants are largely genetic, that is, + controlled by one or more genes that are inherited in Mendelian + fashion, it is likely that such is the case here. You and I will + not live long enough, however, to grow the necessary number of + generations of trees to clear up these matters. + + "In the course of routine preparation of other material I plan to + run up other lots from your samples, and I will let you know if + anything different turns up. I believe we may safely conclude, + however, that the results reported herewith are representative." + +In further explanation, Dr. McKay submitted the drawings shown on page +57, and says: + + "Four lots of material were sectioned, two from the collection of + May 6 and two from that of May 25. Of these, two gave anthers of + type one, and two of type two. More material will have to be + sectioned before we know which type is predominant. + + "The anthers of type one are greatly shriveled, and a band of + deeply-staining collapsed cells apparently represents the remains + of archesporial or pollen-forming tissue. + + "The anthers of type two are normal in appearance, but the + pollen-mother-cells degenerate before pollen grains are formed. A + comparison of the degenerate pollen-mother-cells of this plant with + normal pollen-mother-cells is given below:" + +[Illustration: Sections of anthers of the Weschcke Hickory Carya ovata + +_Illustrations by Dr. McKay showing pollen degeneration in Weschcke +hickory._] + +This substantiates the conclusion that I had arrived at previous to this +report, that this hickory is able to mature its nuts early in the fall +by reason of not having to waste its energy in the production of pollen. +(There is only one other variety of hickory which I have grafted on +bitternut which has proved unable to mature pollen and it is the Creager +from Iowa.) I was immensely pleased to find that it responded very well +to Bridgewater pollen, a high percentage of the blooms treated with it +developing mature nuts. The results with the Kirtland pollen were almost +equally good, the poorest showing coming from those branches treated +with Beaver pollen on which only three mature nuts developed. (The +Beaver is presumed to be a hybrid between bitternut and shagbark +hickories.) Sixty-two nuts from these pollinizations were planted in the +fall of 1941 in rodent-proof seed beds. In the spring, counting +germination, I found 100% of these nuts had sprouted and grown into +small trees during the season. + +After finding the most suitable pollen for the Weschcke hickory, I +realized the necessity for including more than one variety of hickory in +a planting, just as there should be more than one variety of apple or +plum tree in an orchard. I think that it would always be well to have +three or more varieties of known compatibility within reasonable +distances, probably not more than 100 feet apart, nor less than 40 to 50 +feet for large hickories. + +Of the many varieties of hickory and hickory hybrids I have tested, +about twenty have, by now, proved to be sufficiently hardy to recommend +for this latitude. These include: + + *Beaver hybrid hickory + *Fairbanks hybrid hickory + *Laney hybrid hickory + Burlington hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory + Rockville hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory + Hope pecan pure pecan grafted on to bitternut roots + Hand pure shagbark + *Bridgewater pure shagbark + Barnes hybrid hickory + *Cedar Rapids pure shagbark + *Weschcke pure shagbark + *Deveaux pure shagbark + *Brill pure shagbark + *Glover pure shagbark + *Kirtland pure shagbark + *Siers thought to be a hybrid between + the mocker nut and bitternut + *Stratford hybrid (bitternut by shagbark) + *Creager + + *Have produced mature nuts + +There are three or four others that are hardy but all means of +identification having been lost, it will be necessary to wait until they +come into bearing before their varieties will be known. As experiments +continue, more varieties of worthy, hardy hickories and hiccans will be +found which will justify completely the opinion of those of us who +always hail as king of all our native nuts, the hickory. + +[Illustration: _1930--Weschcke Hickory as borne by parent tree at +Fayette, Iowa._ + +_1939--After several years of bearing grafted on Northern Bitternut +hickory at River Falls, Wis._ + +_1940--Still further change in shape and size from graft on Bitternut._ + +_1941--Change and increase in size now is so pronounced as to almost +extinguish its original identity._] + +[Illustration: _Weschcke hickory nut natural size shows free splitting +hull. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + + + + +Chapter 8 + +BUTTERNUT + + +Like the hickory tree, the butternut shares in the childhood +reminiscences of those who have lived on farms or in the country where +butternuts are a treat to look forward to each fall. The nuts, which +mature early, have a rich, tender kernel of mild flavor. Only the +disadvantage of their heavy, corrugated shells prevents them from +holding the highest place in popularity, although a good variety cracks +easily into whole half-kernels. + +Butternuts grow over an extended range which makes them the most +northern of all our native wild nut trees, although their nuts do not +mature as far north as hazelnuts do. Butternut trees blossom so early +that in northern latitudes the blossoms are frequently killed in late +spring frosts. Only when the trees are growing near the summit of a +steep hillside will they be likely to escape such frosts and bear crops +regularly. I have found that really heavy crops appear in cycles in +natural groves of butternut trees. My observation of them over a period +of thirty-two years in their natural habitat in west-central Wisconsin +has led me to conclude that one may expect butternut trees to bear, on +an average, an enormous crop of nuts once in five years, a fairly large +crop once in three years, with little or no crop the remaining years. + +As a seedling tree of two or three years, the butternut is +indistinguishable from the black walnut except to a very discerning and +practiced eye, especially in the autumn after its leaves have fallen. As +the trees grow older, the difference in their bark becomes more +apparent, that of the butternut remaining smooth for many years, as +contrasted to the bark on black walnut trees which begins to roughen on +the main trunk early in its life. Bark on a butternut may still be +smooth when the tree is ten years old. Forest seedlings of butternut, +when one or two years old, are easily transplanted if the soil is +congenial to their growth. Although the tree will do well on many types +of soil, it prefers one having a limestone base, just as the English +walnut does. + +A butternut seedling usually requires several more years of growth than +a black walnut does before it comes into bearing, although this varies +with climate and soil. It is impossible to be exact, but I think I may +safely say that it requires at least ten years of growing before a +seedling butternut tree will bear any nuts. Of course, exceptions will +occasionally occur. + +As a butternut tree matures, it spreads out much like an apple or +chestnut tree. Of course, it must have enough room to do so, an +important factor in raising any nut tree. Enough room and sunlight +hasten bearing-age and insure larger crops of finer nuts. Grafting +valuable varieties of butternut on black walnut stock will also hasten +bearing. I have had such grafts produce nuts the same year the grafting +was done and these trees continued to grow rapidly and produce annually. +However, they were not easy to graft, the stubborn reluctance of the +butternut top to accept transplantation to a foreign stock being well +known. This factor will probably always cause grafted butternut trees to +be higher in price than black walnut or hickory. The reverse graft, +i.e., black walnut on butternut should never be practiced for although +successful, the black walnut overgrows the stock and results in an +unproductive tree. Specimens 25 or more years old prove this to be a +fact. + +Butternut trees are good feeders. They respond well to cultivation and +lend themselves to being grafted upon, although, from my own experience, +I question their usefulness as a root stock. I have found that when I +grafted black walnuts, English walnuts or heartnuts on butternut stock, +the top or grafted part of the tree became barren except for an +occasional handful of nuts, even on very large trees. Since this has +occurred throughout the many years of my nut culture work, I think it +should be given serious consideration before butternut is used as a root +stock for other species of nut trees. + +[Illustration: _Weschcke Butternut. Smooth shallow convolutions of shell +allow kernels to drop out freely. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn._] + +I had the good luck to discover an easy-cracking variety of butternut in +River Falls, Wisconsin, in 1934, which I have propagated commercially +and which carries my name. A medium-sized nut, it has the requisite +properties for giving it a varietal name, for it cracks mostly along the +sutural lines and its internal structure is so shallow that the kernel +will fall out if a half-shell is turned upside down. I received one of +those surprises which sometimes occur when a tree is asexually +propagated when I grafted scions from this butternut on black walnut +stock. The resulting nuts were larger than those on the parent tree and +their hulls peeled off with almost no effort. Whether these features +continue after the trees become older is something I shall observe with +interest. + +[Illustration: _Self hulling Butternut. Weschcke variety. Drawing by Wm. +Kuehn._] + +The nearly self-hulling quality of these nuts makes them very clean to +handle. The absence of hulls in cracking butternuts not only does away +with the messiness usually involved, but also it allows more accurate +cracking and more sanitary handling of the kernels. In 1949 I noticed a +new type of butternut growing near the farm residence. This butternut +was fully twice as large as the Weschcke and had eight prominent ridges. +The nut proved to be even better than the older variety and we intend to +test it further by grafting it on butternuts and black walnut stocks. +Although hand-operated nutcrackers have been devised to crack these and +other wild nuts, they are not as fast as a hammer. If one protects the +hand by wearing a glove and stands the butternut on a solid iron base, +hitting the pointed end with a hammer, it is quite possible to +accumulate a pint of clean nut meats in half an hour. + +The butternut tree is one whose lumber may be put to many uses. It is +light but very tough and stringy and when planed and sanded, it absorbs +varnish and finishes very well. Although not as dark in natural color as +black walnut, butternut resembles it in grain. When butternut has been +stained to represent black walnut, it is only by their weight that they +can be distinguished. In late years, natural butternut has become +popular as an interior finish and for furniture, being sold as "blonde +walnut," "French walnut," or "white walnut," in my opinion very improper +names. I see no reason for calling it by other than its own. Depletion +of forests of butternut trees brings its lumber value up in price nearly +to that of fine maple or birch, approaching that of black walnut in some +places. + +I have run several thousand feet of butternut lumber from my farmland +through my own sawmill and used it for a variety of purposes. It is +probably the strongest wood for its weight except spruce. I have used it +successfully to make propellers which operate electric generators for +deriving power from the wind. Because butternut is so light and, +properly varnished, resists weathering and decay to so great an extent, +I have found it the best material I have ever tried for such +construction. In building a small electric car for traveling around the +orchards, I used butternut rather than oak or metal, which saved at +least 100 pounds of weight, an important matter since the source of the +car's power is automobile storage batteries. + +Butternut is very durable in contact with the ground and is used for +fence posts on farms where it is plentiful. Bird houses built of this +wood will last indefinitely, even a lifetime if they are protected with +paint or varnish. Butternut is like red cedar in this respect, although +much stronger. Stories have been told of black walnut logs which, after +lying unused for fifty years, have been sawed into lumber and found to +be still in excellent condition. It is quite likely that the same could +be said of butternut for these woods are very much alike in the degree +of their durability and resistance to weather. + +An incidental value butternut trees have is their ability to bleed +freely in the spring if the outer bark is cut. Therefore, they can be +tapped like maple trees and their sap boiled down to make a sweet syrup. +It does not have the sugar content that the Stabler black walnut has, +however. Another possible use is suggested by the shells of butternuts +which, even when buried in the ground, show great resistance to decay. I +have found them to be still intact and possessing some strength after +being covered by earth for fifteen years. This indicates that they might +be used with a binder in a composition material. Their extreme hardness +also offers a good wearing surface. + +[Illustration: _Electrically operated wagon constructed of native +butternut wood known for strength and light weight as well as +durability. Author's sons aboard. Photo by C. Weschcke 1941._] + +Not only good things can be said of the butternut tree and it would be +wrong to avoid mentioning the deleterious effect that a butternut tree +may have on other trees planted within the radius of its root system. I +have had several experiences of this kind. One butternut tree on my +farm, having a trunk six inches in diameter, killed every Mugho pine +within the radius of its root system. This amounted to between 50 and +100 pines. Their death could not be attributed to the shade cast by the +butternut as Mugho pines are very tolerant of shade. As the first +branches of the butternut were more than three feet off the ground, the +pines could not have been influenced by the top system of the tree nor +do I believe that it was due to fallen leaves, but rather directly to +the greatly ramified roots. Large evergreens, such as Colorado blue +spruce, native white pine, limber pine and Jeffrey pine are known to +have been similarly influenced. While small butternut trees do not, in +my experience, have this effect, this may be explained by the fact that +the radius of their root systems is much more limited. Most plants, +other than pines, thrive within the influence of butternut roots, +however, and it certainly does not damage pasture grass as some of the +country's best grazing land is among such trees. The damage results from +a chemical known as Juglone which is elaborated by the root system and +when the roots of the butternut cross those of its evergreen neighbor, +this acts as a poison to the evergreen and may kill it. + +[Illustration: _An 8-foot propeller of butternut wood is the prime mover +for wind power generator which in a brisk wind generated 110 volts and +10 amperes at 300 RPM._] + +The butternut is attacked by one serious disease which is in the nature +of a blight (melanconium oblongum), since it is transmitted through +spores. It usually attacks old trees, the branches of the top part +dying, and the bark on the main trunk becoming loose. The disease +progresses slowly and I have seen large trees infected for twelve or +fifteen years, continuing to bear fine crops. It does have a very +weakening effect, though, and eventually saps the life from the tree +long before its natural span of life of about fifty years is over. + + + + +Chapter 9 + +PIONEERING WITH ENGLISH WALNUTS IN WISCONSIN + + +The convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association at Geneva, New +York, in 1936, brought many interesting subjects to the attention of nut +enthusiasts. None, however, commanded as much attention as an exhibit by +Paul C. Crath, of Toronto, of walnuts from the Carpathian Mountains in +Europe. There were more than forty varieties of walnuts represented in +it, in sizes ranging from that of a large filbert to that of a very +large hen's egg, and in shape being globular, ovate or rectangular. The +exhibitor had these identified by varietal numbers until testing and +propagation should suggest appropriate names. In several talks which +Rev. Crath gave during the convention, he described his trips and +findings in the walnut-producing sections of the Polish Carpathians. The +subject remained in prominence during the three days of the convention +and the idea was suggested that the Association sponsor another trip to +Europe to obtain walnuts growing there which Rev. Crath considered even +hardier and finer than the ones he had. The plan was tabled, however, +for only two of us were eager to contribute to the venture. + +On my return home, I thought more about what a splendid opportunity this +would be to procure hardy English walnuts to grow in this part of the +country. I interested my father in the idea, and, with his backing, +corresponded with Rev. Crath. This was not the first or the last time +that my father, Charles Weschcke, had encouraged me and had backed his +good wishes and advice with money. A professional man and a graduate of +pharmacy and chemistry of the University of Wisconsin, he showed an +unusual interest in my horticultural endeavors. The immediate outcome +was Rev. Crath's visit to my nursery at River Falls, to determine +whether material that he might collect could be properly tested there. +To my satisfaction, he found that temperature, soil conditions and stock +material were adequate for such work. + +We contracted with Rev. Crath to reproduce asexually all the varieties +that he could discover and ship to us, agreeing to finance his trip and +to pay him a royalty whenever we sold trees resulting from the plant +material he sent us. We decided that the material which he was to gather +should include not only English walnuts but also the hazels or filberts +native to Poland. The walnuts were to consist of about six hundred +pounds of seeds, representing some forty varieties, several thousand +scions and about five hundred trees. We planned that the filberts should +consist of both trees and nuts, but because of a total failure of this +crop the year that Rev. Crath was there, only trees were available. + +Rev. Crath left Canada in October 1936, and spent all of the following +winter in Poland. While he was there, I began the task of arranging for +the receipt of the walnuts and hazels he was to send, and so began a +wearisome, exasperating experience. First, it was necessary to obtain +permits from the Bureau of Plant Industry in Washington. Because of the +vast quantity of material expected, these permits had to be issued in +the names of five people. Next, I engaged a New York firm of importers, +so that no time would be lost in re-routing the shipment to the proper +authorities for inspection. This firm, in turn, hired brokers who were +responsible for paying all duty, freight and inspection charges. I +certainly thought that we had everything in such readiness that there +would be nothing to delay the shipment when it arrived. How wrong I was! + +Although Rev. Crath had written me that the shipment had been sent on a +certain Polish steamer, I learned of its arrival only from a letter I +received from the importing company, which requested that the original +bill of lading and invoice be sent to them at once, as the shipment had +already been in the harbor for a week but could not be released by the +customs office until they had these documents. I had received the bill +of lading from Rev. Crath but not the invoice, for he had not known that +I would need it. So my valuable, but perishable, shipment remained in +port storage day after day while I frantically sought for some way to +break through the "red tape" holding it there. Cables to Rev. Crath were +undeliverable as he was back in the mountains seeking more material. In +desperation, I wrote to Clarence A. Reed, an old friend, member of the +Northern Nut Growers' Association and in charge of government nut +investigations in the Division of Pomology at Washington. Through his +efforts and under heavy bond pending receipt of the invoice, the walnut +and filbert material was released and sent to Washington, D. C. As there +was too much of it to be inspected through the usual facilities for this +work, it was necessary to employ a firm of seed and plant importers to +do the necessary inspecting and fumigating. At last, terminating my +concern and distress over the condition in which the trees and scions +would be after such great delays and so many repackings, the shipment +arrived in St. Paul. There remained only the requirement of getting +permission from the Bureau of Plant Inspection of the State of Minnesota +to take it to Wisconsin, where, if there was anything left, I intended +to plant it. This permission being readily granted, we managed, by truck +and, finally, by sled, to get it to the nursery about the middle of the +winter. + +The following spring, we planted the nuts and trees and grafted the +scions on black walnut and butternut stocks. The mortality of these +grafts was the greatest I have ever known. Of about four thousand +English walnut grafts, representing some twenty varieties, only one +hundred twenty-five took well enough to produce a good union with the +stock and to grow. Some of them grew too fast and in spite of my +precautions, were blown out; others died from winter injury the first +year. By the following spring, there were only ten varieties which had +withstood the rigor of the climate. Of the five hundred trees, only a +few dozen survived. Fortunately, this was not one of our severe, "test" +winters, or probably none of these plants would have withstood it. + +The walnuts which were planted showed a fairly high degree of hardiness. +Of 12,000 seedling trees, our nursery is testing more than 800 for +varietal classification. These have been set out in test orchard +formation on two locations, both high on the slope of a ravine, one +group on the north side, one on the south. It has been suggested that +from the remaining seedlings, which number thousands, we select 500 to +1000 representative specimens and propagate them on black walnut stocks +in some warmer climate, either in Oregon, Missouri or New York. This +would determine their value as semi-hardy trees worthy of propagation in +such localities. Such an experiment will probably be made eventually. + +The same year, 1937, in which I obtained the Polish nuts, I also bought +one hundred pounds of Austrian walnuts, to serve as a check. Eighty +pounds of these consisted of the common, commercial type of walnut, +while the remainder was of more expensive nuts having cream-colored +shells and recommended by the Austrian seed firm as particularly hardy. +Altogether these nuts included approximately one hundred varieties, +twenty of which were so distinctive that their nuts could be separated +from the others by size and shape. + +About two thousand seedlings grew from this planting, most of which +proved to be too tender for our winter conditions. The seedlings grown +from the light-colored nuts show about the same degree of hardiness as +the Carpathian plants. Many of them have been set out in experimental +orchards to be brought into bearing. + +After the first year, the English walnuts progressed fairly well. Large +trees, which had not been entirely worked over at first, were trimmed so +that nothing remained of the original top, but only the grafted +branches. The winter of 1938-39 was not especially severe and mortality +was low, although it was apparent that all of the varieties were not +equally hardy. Even a few of the scions grafted on butternut stocks were +growing successfully. I had made these grafts realizing that the stock +was not a very satisfactory one, to learn if it could be used to produce +scionwood. As the results were encouraging, I decided it would be +worthwhile to give them good care and gradually to remove all of the +butternut top. + +Each fall, the first two years after I had grafted all these walnuts, I +cut and stored enough scionwood from each variety to maintain it if the +winter should be so severe as to destroy the grafts. Unfortunately, the +grafts had developed so well, even to the actual bearing of nuts by +three varieties, that in 1940 I did not think this precaution was +necessary. Then came our catastrophic Armistice Day blizzard, the most +severe test of hardiness and adaptability ever to occur in the north. +Many of our hardiest trees suffered great injury from it, such trees, +for instance, as Colorado blue spruce, limber pine, arborvitae; cultured +varieties of hickories, hiccans, heartnuts; fruit trees, including +apples, plums and apricots, which bore almost no fruit the next summer. + +Although not one variety of English walnut was entirely killed, all, +except one, suffered to some degree, and it was not until late the +following summer that several varieties began to produce new wood. The +variety which showed the greatest degree of hardiness is "Firstling," +originally known as Letter F. Although the primary buds on the Firstling +were nearly all killed, very few of the small branches were affected and +the union itself suffered no injury. Second in hardiness is Kremenetz, +much of its top being killed, but its union being only slightly +affected. No. 64 was affected in about the same amount as Kremenetz. +Increasing degrees of tenderness and, of course, decreasing degrees of +hardiness, were shown by the many other varieties, some of which may +never recover completely from the shock of that blizzard. The seedling +trees suffered only slight damage so that I expect that they are hardy +enough to produce fruit here. + +I cannot conclude this chapter without mentioning certain observations +I have made regarding hardiness, which, although they require more +specific study, I wish to describe as a suggestion for further +experimentation by either amateur or professional horticulturists. My +theory is that a determination of the hardiness factor of an English +walnut tree can be made according to the color of its bark. I have seen +that a tree having thin bark which remains bright green late into the +fall is very likely to be of a tender variety. Conversely, among these +Carpathian walnuts, I have found that varieties whose bark becomes tan +or brown early in autumn show much more hardiness than those whose bark +remains green. One variety, Wolhynie, whose bark is chocolate brown, is +very resistant to winter injury. Another, whose green bark is heavily +dotted with lenticels, shows itself hardier than those having none or +only a trace of them. In testing almonds, I have found that trees whose +bark turns red early in the fall are definitely more hardy than those +whose bark remains green or tan. In observing apricots, I have learned +that young twigs with red bark are more resistant to cold than those +with brown. Of course, these findings cannot be considered as facts +until further studies have been made. I hope that others will find the +idea of investigating this more-than-possibility as interesting as I do. + +As the years increased, however, the growth of the seedling walnuts +decreased and some having made a nice tree-like form, with a trunk of +approximately an inch in diameter, within a succession of years were +reduced in size through the combination of winter injury and attacks by +the butternut curculio as well as a bacterial blight until by 1952 only +a fraction of the 12,000 seedlings remained, certainly less than 1,000. +All of the originally grafted specimens are dead with the exception of +one variety which has been kept alive by constantly re-grafting it on +black walnut. We have not named this variety as yet, although it has +borne both staminate and pistillate bloom, it has never borne any ripe +nuts. Some of the seedlings, however, still show persistent traits of +hardiness and of insect resistance and we still have hopes that after 15 +years these trees will yet overcome the adversities of this uncongenial +climate for this species. + + + + +Chapter 10 + +OTHER TREES + + +Heartnut + +The heartnut is a sport of the Japanese walnut (Juglans sieboldiana). +Since its nut is heart-shaped, it has the name of "cordiformis" added to +its species name. There are many of these sports, some of which have +been propagated under the varietal names of Faust, Lancaster, +Fodermaier, Wright, Walters, Canoka, Okay and Gellatly. + +I think this is the most ornamental of all nut trees. In shape, it is +similar to an apple tree, spreading out rather than growing tall, but +its long, compound leaves give it a tropical appearance. During the +autumn these leaves do not color any more than do those of the black +walnut. The tree produces long racemes of red blossoms and its staminate +blooms are catkins eight to ten inches long, which, when fully ripened, +swish in the wind and release clouds of yellow pollen. The heartnut tree +holds the interest of its owner closely during that time when the nuts +resulting from the racemes of blossoms are steadily increasing in size. +I have seen as many as sixteen nuts on one stem and doubtless, there +sometimes are more. The owner of such a tree, at least if he is at all +like me, will proudly exhibit it to all comers during the spring and +summer seasons. And then, at harvest time, after the nuts have gradually +changed from green to the dull yellow that indicates their maturity, he +will have the satisfaction of shaking them down for drying and storage. + +The heartnut kernel tastes much like that of the butternut and its +internal structure is almost the same but the outside shell is smooth. +Cultivated varieties usually crack easily and in such a way that the +kernel is released in halves. From all this, it is easy to see that the +heartnut is not only a beautiful tree but is definitely useful. + +In my own work with heartnuts I have found that, although they are to be +classed only as semi-hardy, there are a few varieties which are hardy +enough for northern temperatures. Only testing will determine which ones +can endure severe climates. In the spring of 1921, I planted a Lancaster +heartnut grafted on a black walnut, but the weather was cold that season +and it was killed down to the graft joint, where it threw out a sprout. +This was weak and succulent by fall and the graft was entirely killed +back that winter. I bought twelve more Lancaster heartnuts a year later. +They were interspersed in the orchard among some black walnuts. +Although a few survived the first winter, none ever lived to come into +bearing. From time to time, I also experimented with seedlings sent to +me by Professor James A. Neilson of Vineland, Ontario, who was +interested in having them tested in this latitude. These, too, were +always unsuccessful. + +I had my first success with several unnamed varieties of heartnuts I +purchased in 1933 from J. U. Gellatly of British Columbia. These were +grafted on black walnut stocks of considerable size. To insure their +surviving the first winter, I built wooden shelters which completely +enclosed them, filling these shelters with forest leaves and protecting +them against mice with screen covers. No doubt this was a decided help; +at least all of these heartnuts lived for many years until the invasion +of the butternut curculio and the damage done by the yellow bellied sap +sucker bird caused me the loss of all except one variety, the Gellatly. +This variety I have perpetuated by re-grafting on other black walnut +stocks and by spraying and covering the limbs with screen to prevent the +sap sucker from working on it, still have it in the nursery and at my +home in St. Paul where a young tree on the boulevard bears each year. + +I have found that heartnuts are difficult to propagate, the number of +successful grafts I have made being far below that of black walnuts on +black walnut stocks. The reason for this is not well understood any more +than is the fact, in my experience, that the Stabler walnut will graft +readily and the Ten Eyck persistently refuses to. A good feature that +these grafted trees do have, however, is their early productiveness. I +have seen them set nuts the second year after grafting and this has also +occurred in trees I have sold to others. + +When a nut of J. sieboldiana cordiformis is planted, it does not +reliably reproduce itself in true type, sometimes reverting to that of +the ordinary Japanese walnut, which looks more like a butternut and has +a rather rough shell as distinguished from the smooth shell of the +heartnut. In hulling my heartnut crop for 1940, I noticed many deformed +nuts. + +The season had been a prolific one for nut production of all kinds, and +I knew there had been a mixture of pollen in the air at the time these +nutlets were receptive (a mixture made up largely of pollen from black +walnuts, butternuts, with some English walnuts). Since irregularities in +size and shape indicate hybridity frequently and since heartnuts are +easily hybridized I have assumed that these were pollinized by the +mixture. I have planted these odd-shaped nuts and I expect them to +result in many new crosses of J. sieboldiana cordiformis, some five to +eight years from now. + +[Illustration: _Beautiful tropical looking Japanese Walnut (Juglans +sieboldiana cordiformis). Variety Gellatly, from Westbank, B. C., +Canada. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +To show how nature reacts to much interference I will follow through on +these nearly 100 small trees that resulted from this pollination. They +were transplanted into an orchard on a side hill and well taken care of +for several years, but during that time one after another was killed, +apparently by winter conditions or perhaps the site was too exposed or +the soil may have been uncongenial. Today there remains but three trees, +none of which have borne but all indicate that they are true heartnuts +from the shape of the leaves and color of the bark and general +formation. In order to hasten their bearing, scions have been taken from +these small trees and will be grafted on large black walnut stocks to +bring them into fruitfulness much earlier than if they were left to +their own slow growth. This system of testing out seedlings long before +they have reached a size sufficient to bear on their own roots is +applicable to all of the species of nut trees and is one way that the +plant breeder can hurry up his testing for varieties after making +crosses and obtaining young plants. + +[Illustration: _Natural size Heartnut. Photo 10/26/38 by C. Weschcke. +Gellatly variety._] + + +Beechnut + +The beechnut, Fagus ferruginea, belonging to the oak family, is one of +the giants of the forest, growing to great size and age. Even very old +beech trees have smooth bark and this, in earlier and more rustic days, +was much used for the romantic carving of lovers' names, as scars still +visible on such ancient trees testify. The wood itself is dense and +hard, even more so than hard maple, and is considered good lumber. +Beechnut is one of the few nut trees with a more shallow and ramified +root system as contrasted with that of most, which, as in the oak, +walnut and hickory, is a tap root system. This fact suggests that in +those localities where beeches grow wild, grafts made on such trees, and +transplanted, would survive and grow well. + +Perhaps one of the reasons why very little propagation is done with +beeches is that no outstanding variety has ever been discovered. +Although the nut shell is thin and the meat sweet and oily, the kernel +is so small that one must crack dozens of them to get a satisfying +sample of their flavor. This, of course, prevents their having any +commercial value as a nut. There is also the fact that the beechnut is +the slowest growing of all the common nut trees, requiring from twenty +to thirty years to come into bearing as a seedling. Of course this could +be shortened, just as it is in propagating hickories and pecans, by +making grafts on root systems which are ten or more years old, as +explained in the chapter on heartnuts. However, I know of no nursery in +which beechnuts are propagated in this way. + +My attempts to grow beechnut trees in Wisconsin have met with little +success. About the year 1922, I obtained 150 trees from the Sturgeon Bay +Nurseries. I planted these on level ground which had clay near the +surface with limestone about a foot under it. Although all of these +trees seemed to start satisfactorily, some even growing about a foot, +within two or three years they had all died. I decided they were not +hardy but I now realize that the character of the soil was responsible +for their gradual death; they should be planted in a limestone or +calcareous soil, preferably of the fine sandy type, the main requisite +being plenty of moisture because of their shallow root system. Since +then, I have purchased beechnut seeds several times from various +seedsmen, but none of these seeds has ever sprouted. I think this is +because beechnuts, like chestnuts, must be handled with great care to +retain their viability. + +In 1938, I ordered 100 beechnut trees from the Hershey Nurseries of +Downingtown, Pennsylvania. Although these trees were set in sandy soil, +there are now only about five of them alive, and of these, only four are +growing well enough to suggest that they will some day become big trees. + +Beechnuts must be protected against mice and rabbits as these species of +rodents are very fond of bark and young growth of these trees and I have +every reason to believe that deer are in the same category. + + +Oaks + +Although the acorns produced by the red oak are very bitter and +consistently wormy, those from the white oak are more edible. In my own +exploring, I have found one tree, apparently a hybrid between the red +and white oaks, which bears good acorns. The nuts, which are long and +thin, are generally infested with weevils. If there were a demand for +such a nut tree, I'm sure that it could easily be grafted on oak roots. +During favorable seasons, when these edible nuts were of good size and +free from worms, I have carried them in my pocket and enjoyed munching +on them. I found that their flavor, like that of chestnuts, was improved +by roasting. + +Acorns are a balanced food and contain enough starch to make them +readily assimilated, except for their bitterness. They are a good food +for farm animals and chickens. I have kept a flock of goats in good +condition by feeding them acorns during the winter. It isn't necessary +to grind them for such use. I have read that Indians at one time +prepared acorns for their own use by storing them in bags submerged in +cold running water. This not only extracted the bitterness but also it +probably discouraged the development of weevil eggs. + +Oak trees are generally prolific and are regular bearers, but of course, +what they are widely known and loved for is the beauty of their leaves +in the autumn. No one doubts their esthetic value, which will keep them +forever popular whether they come into demand as a grafted nut tree or +not. + + +Chestnuts + +Another of our ornamental nut trees is the chestnut, also of the oak +family, classified under the genus Castanea, which grows into a large, +beautiful tree with wide-spread branches. Chestnuts do not grow well on +limestone soil and always fail in the heavy blue clay so common on farm +lands in this part of the country. It is best for their growth that the +soil be gravelly and slightly acid. + +The chestnut has always been a good timber tree. Its wood, although not +as hard as the red oak, resembles it in grain. The beams of many old +pioneer homes are found to be chestnut. It is said that this is one of +few woods to give a warning groan under too heavy a burden before it +cracks or breaks. Chestnut wood is very durable in contact with the +soil, outlasting all others except possibly black walnut and cedar. It +contains so much siliceous matter in its pores that it quickly dulls +chisels and saws used in working it. + +The chestnut trees at my nursery were grown from mixed hybrid seeds +which I obtained from Miss Amelia Riehl of Godfrey, Illinois. Almost all +of the seeds she first sent me, in 1926, spoiled while they were stored +during the winter. But Miss Riehl sent me more the following spring, +many of which proved hardy. In 1937, the oldest of these trees produced +staminate bloom for the first time. I naturally expected a crop of nuts +from it that year, but none developed. The same thing happened in 1938. +I then wrote to Miss Riehl about it, also asking her where to look for +the pistillate blossoms. Her reply was a very encouraging one in which +she wrote that the pistillate blossoms appear at the base of the catkins +or staminate blooms, but that it is quite a common thing for chestnut +trees to carry the latter for several years before producing pistillate +blossoms. She also explained that it was very unlikely that the tree +would fertilize its own blooms, so that I should not expect one tree to +bear until other nearby chestnuts were also shedding pollen. This +occurred the next year and another chestnut close to the first one set a +few nuts. It was not until 1940 that the tree which had blossomed first, +actually bore nuts. + +In 1940, I crossed the pistillate blossoms of this tree with pollen from +a Chinese variety called Carr, resulting in half a dozen nuts which I +planted. + +Since the chestnuts in these parts do not bloom usually until early July +we can expect chestnuts to be a more reliable crop than butternuts, for +instance, which bloom very early in the spring about May 1 to 15th. + +Having had this reward for my efforts I took much more interest in +chestnut growing and ordered trees of the Chinese varieties, Castanea +mollissma from J. Russell Smith, H. F. Stoke, and John Hershey. Some of +these were seedlings and some were grafted trees, not over a dozen of +them alive today and none have produced mature nuts. Seemingly they have +not been hardy although they have grown large enough to produce both +staminate and pistillate blooms; they have never winter killed back to +the ground, however. + +Also, I have been planting nuts from all sources from which I could +obtain them, mostly of the Chinese chestnut type. Some of these nuts +were results of crosses, and showed their hybridity in the young +seedlings that resulted there from. Today I have perhaps 150 of such +young seedlings which I am pampering with the hope of getting something +worthwhile from them. One of the big thrills of chestnut growing was the +result of a chestnut that I picked up from a plant that was no higher +than 2 feet, growing at Beltsville, Maryland in the government testing +ground there, in 1937. My records show that this plant began to bear +nuts in 1943 and have subsequently borne several crops in between the +times that it was frozen to the ground and grew up again, which happened +at least three times. Like most chestnuts this one has to be pollinated +by taking the staminate bloom from a dwarfed chestnut nearby whose bloom +coincides with the blossoming of the female flowers of this Chinese +hybrid. Chestnuts rarely set any nuts that produce mature seed from +their own pollen but depend on cross-pollination. The nut from this +hybrid is also the largest of any that I have grown and to my taste is a +palatable one. It may not rank among the best ones of known varieties +today, but for our climate I would consider it unusually large and good. +Experimentally, I have been able to produce new plants from this tree by +layering young shoots coming from the roots. This generally requires two +years to make a well-rooted plant before they are cut off and +transplanted. This alternative of propagating by grafting or budding is +considered a better method if it can be practiced, as it gives a plant +on its own roots instead of the roots of some unknown seedling stock. + +[Illustration: _Hybrid Chestnut; natural size, one of the two survivors +of several dozen trees sent by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for +testing this far north. Fair size nut and it resembles the American +Sweet Chestnut. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +Another tree that surprised me when it came into bearing proved to bear +one nut in a burr which led me to believe that it was a chinquapin +hybrid. Later on, the habit of this tree changed somewhat and some of +the burrs had more than one nut. I have found this to be the experience +of others who have observed so-called chinquapin trees of a hybrid +nature. It is my belief that the kind of pollen with which these +blossoms are fertilized directly influences the number of nuts in a burr +and sometimes the size of the nuts, again showing the importance of the +cross-pollinating varieties when setting out an orchard of trees. This +particular chinquapin type chestnut has upright growing habits different +from a tree bearing similar nuts but having a very dwarfed habit. All of +the nuts of the latter after six years of bearing can be picked off this +tree by standing on the ground. There are several other trees bearing +chestnuts, some large and some small nuts, all of which are interesting +to me and may be important in the future of the chestnuts this far north +since they indicate without doubt that the chestnut can accommodate +itself to our climate, providing it has the right type of soil to grow +in. In 1952 I acquired a 20-acre adjoining piece of land which has a +much better chestnut growing site, being deep sandy soil, well drained, +and yet not ever being dry. New varieties will be tested on this piece +and should give much better results than the old trees which already +were good enough to indicate success in chestnuts. + +[Illustration: _A hybrid chestnut presumed to be a cross between +European Chestnut (Castanea Sativa) and its American cousin (Castanea +Americana). Actual size. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +[Illustration: _Chinquapin hybrids from a tall growing tree. Nuts grow +in racemes of burrs with as many as 10 burrs on one stem. Photo by C. +Weschcke._] + + +Apricot + +If it were not that an apricot is a nut as well as a fruit, I should +hesitate to include a description of my work with it. But the apricot +seed has a rich kernel which, in many countries, for example, China, is +used as a substitute for the almond to which it is closely related. + +It was in 1933 that my aunt, Margaret Weschcke, told me of an apricot +tree growing in a yard on the Mississippi River bluff in St. Paul and +said to be bearing fruit. I was quite skeptical until I saw the tree and +also saw fruit from it which had been preserved by the woman who owned +it. Convinced of the hardiness of the tree, I was anxious to obtain +scionwood but it was not until late that winter that I received +permission to do so. It happened that a truck had broken off a large +branch from the tree while delivering coal, and the owner very +reasonably decided that taking a few twigs from it would not hurt it any +more. I not only took the small branches that she was willing to +sacrifice from her tree but also as many as possible from the branch +which had been torn off, as its terminals were still in a fresh +condition. + +I grafted these scions on hybrid plum trees where they took hold +readily, and in 1938, they began to bear prolifically. The apricots, +which I have named Harriet, in honor of my mother, are a fine-flavored +fruit, medium in size. Their cheeks are a mottled red with raised +surfaces. Their pits are well-formed and fairly edible. Although the +parent tree died the winter I took scions from it, my grafts have proved +quite hardy, having received no injury when temperatures as low as 47 deg. +below zero have occurred. Since the parent tree died because its roots +were severely frozen, it would seem that the top of the tree, in this +case, was more hardy than the root system. This does occur sometimes, +although it is unusual. + +In developing the factor of hardiness further in this apricot variety, I +have taken advantage of something I had observed about other fruit +trees. When one combines parts of two trees by grafting, it is a simple +thing to select a hardy root stock from the available plants, just as I +selected hardy plum stock on which to graft my apricot scions. This is +not always possible in choosing scionwood, however, since scionwood is +usually selected for such reasons as the quality of its fruit. It may +happen that the top part of a tree is limited in its climatic scope +because of its inability to withstand precipitate or otherwise +unfavorable temperatures. Having observed that certain grafted varieties +of fruit trees, such as the Wealthy apple, for instance, have gradually +come to be planted much farther north than they originally were, I +reasoned that this was because only the hardiest of them survived and +these hardy ones therefore became the mother blocks for future grafting. +This was an inescapable procedure which acted as a method of bud +selection. I therefore assumed that by a careful choice of the hardiest +among surviving twigs of the most recent graft of the Harriet apricot, +when particularly severe winter weather had caused some injury, I could +induce extra-hardiness in future grafts. + +I also believe that I have added to the hardiness factor of the apricot +by making frequent grafts. It is my theory that the root stock is able +to exert some influence over the top other than mere maintenance of +life. By frequently uniting a hardy stock with a less hardy top, I think +that the individuality of the top part may be somewhat broken down and +the extra characteristic of hardiness added to it. After the fifth +re-graft of this apricot made in eight years, I am convinced by its +appearance and behavior that it is capable of becoming a reliable +apricot for the region around St. Paul. Today the apricot still exists +grafted on plum at my nursery at River Falls, Wisconsin, and the +weakness of the tree seems to be in the union between the top and the +plum stock. If this union were not so corky and large and succulent it +might be less injured by our winters; therefore it is quite apparent +that the plum is not a congenial stock for an apricot, at least it does +not produce a satisfactory union. I am now making tests with this same +variety by grafting it on more hardy apricot seedling stock such as the +Prof. N. E. Hansen of Brookings, South Dakota, introduces. + + + + +Chapter 11 + +PESTS AND PETS + + +The pocket gopher is an herbivorous animal which attains approximately +the size of a gray squirrel. It has a sleek, grey-brown coat of fur +which is almost as fine as that of the mole and would, I think, make a +good quality fur except that the skin is too tender to stand either +sewing or the wear that fur coats have to undergo. I learned this by +trapping them and having a furrier try them out, as I knew that the +quickest way to get rid of a pest is to eat it or use its hide. Since I +found its hide to be of no practical value, I enjoined my troop of Boy +Scouts, a willing group of boys, to carry out my suggestions that they +skin and prepare one of these animals in a stew. Gophers are purely +herbivorous and I thought they should be quite edible, but as I am a +strict vegetarian myself, I had to depend on them to make this +experiment. The boys followed instructions up to the point of cooking, +but by that time the appearance of the animal had so deprived them of +their enthusiasm and appetites that I had no heart to urge them to +continue. I am still of the opinion, however, that to meat-eating +people, the pocket gopher would taste as good as squirrel or pigeon. + +The first introduction I had to the devastating work that these animals +can do in an orchard was when I was working among my young apple and +plum trees one spring. I noticed that the foliage was turning yellow on +many of them and upon investigation I found that the trees were very +loose in the ground. At first I thought that planting operations and +heaving of the ground by frost in the spring might be the cause, but in +testing the looseness of one of these trees, I found that I could pull +it out of the ground easily. There I saw what appeared to be the marks +of an axe. I was completely convinced that I had personal enemies who +went around nights chopping off the roots of my trees, for I knew that +most of my neighbors were completely out of sympathy with my tree +cultivation. In fact, farmers living in that section of the country were +always poking fun at my nut tree plantings and orchard work, for their +idea of what was proper on a farm was a treeless field of plowed ground. +As I thought of all these things, I pulled up many other trees; in fact, +there were dozens that were chopped off so that they could be completely +pulled out. Others still had one or two roots clinging to the main +trunk and these I carefully replanted so that they would continue to +live and grow. + +Not long after the tragic day on which I found all these ravaged trees, +I noticed, winding in and out close to the young orchard trees, the +mounds which pocket gophers make when they tunnel under the ground. I +followed some of these by digging into them with a shovel, and +discovered that they led to the roots of trees, the very trees that had +been chopped off and killed. My enemies were not human after all. + +Sending for a pamphlet from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, I +studied the material given about pocket gophers and their habits. I then +began their systematic eradication, using about twelve steel muskrat +traps. I succeeded in trapping, in one season, over thirty of them, at a +time when they were so prolific and their holes so numerous that I could +not drive a horse through the orchard without danger of breaking one of +its legs. I also used poisoned grains and gases but I do not recommend +them. Trapping is the only method in which one obtains actual evidence +of elimination. It took me many years to force the gophers out of my +orchards and I still must set traps every fall, during September and +October when they are most active. Their habits are such that they do +most of their tunnelling in the early fall months, before frost, during +which time they expose and isolate the roots on which they intend to +feed during the winter months when the ground is so hard that they +cannot burrow further. This period is when they are most easily trapped. + +It was with the idea of establishing a balance of nature against these +animals that I conceived the idea of importing bull snakes. Almost +everyone has heard of the bull snake, but its name is a poor one, for it +has the wrong connotation. These snakes are actually a fine friend to +the farmer since each snake accounts for the death of many rodents each +year. Their presence certainly was of definite value in decreasing the +number at my farm. Bull snakes have the long body typical of +constrictors, sometimes reaching a length of nearly six feet at +maturity, and being at the most an inch and one-half in diameter. This +country had a natural abundance of such snakes at one time but ignorance +and superstition have lessened their number so that it is now a rare +thing to find one. During the early days of automobiles, these huge bull +snakes, or gopher snakes, as I prefer to call them, would lie across the +sunny, dusty roads, and drivers of cars delighted in running them down. +Since they are very docile, they are the least afraid of man of any +members of the local snake family. They are slow in movement until they +sense the immediate presence of their natural food, which is live mice, +rats, gophers, squirrels, young rabbits, and sometimes, though rarely, +birds. Then it is they become alert, and the horny appendage on their +tails vibrates with a high-pitched, buzzing sound, simulating, although +not similar to, the sound of a poisonous rattlesnake. + +When I first brought some of these snakes to my farm, I loosed them and +they wandered off to a neighbor's premises where they were promptly +found and killed. Later importations I confined to my basement, where I +built an artificial pool with frogs and fish in it. However, I could +never induce the bull snakes to eat any of these batrachians. They +would, almost playfully, stalk the frogs, but at the moment when one was +within reach, the snake would glide away. Neither would the snakes, +unless force-fed, eat anything they had not caught themselves. + +My children were delighted to have the snakes there and made pets of +them. Only once was one of the girls bitten when she attempted +force-feeding. The bite was a mere scratch but we feared that it might +be slightly poisonous. However, it healed so promptly that it was quite +apparent that the bull snake's bite is not toxic. I, too, have had my +skin slightly punctured by their teeth, but always the wound healed with +no more pain or trouble than a pin prick. Such is not at all the case +when a person is nipped by a squirrel or gopher. I have purposely +allowed a pocket gopher to bite me, to determine what the effects are. +The pain was severe and healing was slow. Once, bitten by a gray +squirrel when I reached into a hollow tree to get it, I received such a +wound that fever started in my whole hand. Its teeth punctured a +finger-nail and were stopped only by meeting the bone. Such bites I +consider rather poisonous. + +Rabbits also committed much damage at my nursery by gnawing the bark of +my trees, especially during times of deep snow. They did not bother the +walnuts particularly, but were very fond of hickories and pecan trees. +On the smallest ones, they cut branches off and carried them away to +their nests. On larger trees, they gnawed the bark off of most of the +lower branches. This was dangerous but seldom fatal, whereas the gnawing +of mice, near the base of the trunks, was such that in some cases when +complete girdling occurred, it was necessary to use bridge-grafting to +save the trees. This consists of connecting the bark immediately above +the roots with the bark above the girdled portion, so that the tree can +receive and send the food substances it elaborates to its upper and +lower parts. + +Rabbits and mice, therefore, had to be dealt with. Of course, one could +go hunting for rabbits and later eat them. This was one task I had my +employees do. I, myself, was unwilling to take an active part in it, +although still intent on saving my trees in spite of my pity for the +little animals. Placing hundreds of cans in the orchard, with a pinch of +poisoned wheat and oat mixture in each, helped to eradicate the mice. +The bait was placed inside the cans to prevent birds from being +poisoned, and the cans were tipped at an angle so that water would not +enter them. + +To be absolutely sure of preventing mice damage, one should provide each +tree with a screen guard. I have made about 10,000 screen protectors for +my trees for this purpose. I have also trapped rabbits which we were not +able to shoot and I conceived the idea of painting the traps with white +enamel. When these were set on the snow around those trees which the +rabbits attacked, they worked very successfully. The traps were a size +larger than the common gopher trap, but were not expensive. There are +other ways of catching rabbits or curtailing their activities, but on my +list, shooting comes first, with trapping as a second effective measure. + +Squirrels, although they do no damage to the trees themselves, except on +rare occasions, are a definite nuisance when they come in large numbers +and cut down nuts before they are ripe. They do this to hickory nuts, +and apparently are very fond of the half-ripened nuts. I have seen +squirrels chew hickory buds and young sprouts of hickory grafts and I +had to trap several before I stopped them from doing this to certain +ornamental trees in our garden. In fact, when one has a large nut +orchard, squirrels will be attracted in number that preclude the +possibility of harvesting a crop unless measures are taken to banish +them. They are very active early in the morning and my experiences +indicate that two or three people should hunt them together, as they are +very clever at dodging a single hunter. I also have built galvanized +metal guards around isolated trees which prevent squirrels from climbing +them. + +In speaking of mice, we have two important species commonly known as the +meadow mouse and the other species known as the white-footed mouse. The +meadow mouse is the one that does so much damage to the orchard trees +and young nursery stock if unprotected, and the white-footed mouse may +be responsible for some of this when present in great numbers, but of +the white-footed mouse this much good can be said: + +[Illustration: Drwg. by Wm. Kuehn. _Squirrel guards._] + +Much of its diet, especially of the mother mouse during the time that +she is nursing her young ones, is made up of insects. A personal +experience accentuates this. Since these are such pretty little +creatures, having such cunning ways, it was my ambition to catch a +complete family of mother and young ones which sometimes numbered as +high as ten. My ambition was finally gratified and I was able to get a +mother of eight and her tiny mouslings, which have a habit of fastening +themselves securely to her breasts while she runs about, and drags them +all along in a most ludicrous fashion. At times, under these +circumstances, the combined weight of the brood exceeds that of the +mother mouse but they are exceptionally strong creatures for their size, +a mature mouse being able to jump out of a 3-foot barrel with one leap. +In observing this brood of mice, I was particularly anxious to see what +kind of a diet they throve on and tried the mother's appetite with +tidbits from the table. While she ate most everything, it soon became +apparent that something was wrong because the young ones became weaker, +finally to the extent that they were unable to nurse, and one morning I +found several on their backs with their feet feebly waving in the air +indicating that they were dying of starvation. At about that time I was +drying some hazelnuts on a flat back porch floor and in sweeping them up +found a lot of alive and dried up larvae which had escaped from the +shells. Just for fun, I swept this material up and threw it into the +mouse cage. The reaction of this treatment was gratifying, for the +mother mouse pounced upon this insect life greedily devouring +everything. Within three days, the young mice were all in good health +and running around showing that the milk produced from the diet that I +had been giving the mother was inadequate for the baby mice. It is +therefore to their credit to state that these mice and probably at times +the meadow mice do consume large quantities of larvae and grubs in the +surface soil, as well as mature active insects, such as crickets and +grasshoppers. + + +HOW TO PREPARE RODENT PROTECTORS FOR TREES + +1. Cut 6" strips from 24" wide roll of galvanized screen with a 12 x 12 +mesh. + +2. Cut strips in half to make two protectors from each strip. + +3. Make bundles of 25 each by running wire through protectors. + +4. Dip these bundles in a solution containing 5 pounds of red lead per +gallon of linseed oil. Use from 3 to 5 gallons of this solution. + +5. Remove bundles and hang them on a pole with a drip pan beneath to +catch the solution, which can be used again. Allow bundles to drip for 8 +hours, then separate each protector and place on grass for a few days to +dry. + +6. Roll each protector around a 3/4" pipe or broomstick and it is ready +for the tree. + +[Illustration: Drwg. by Wm. Kuehn. _Preparation of screen guards._] + +In dealing with wild creatures, one must forebear condemning a whole +species of animals merely because at times they become troublesome, for +the main purpose of their existence, like owls, hawks and crows, they +may be more beneficial than otherwise. + +A good word should be said here for skunks and moles. A great deal of +the skunk diet is insect life. The same is true of the mole whose diet +probably consists of 75% insects, mostly in their larval state. This is +an important feature of mole and skunk as they dig these insects out +before they mature into winged female adults which may lay hundreds of +eggs. If these larvae should be allowed to develop into a mature winged +insect that would lay eggs, this particular insect would multiply itself +hundreds of times over and it would take many more birds than at present +exist to take over the big job of keeping the balance between necessary +insect life and a surplus which would be destructive to all plant life. +We can never hope to eradicate all insect life which we deplore as being +deleterious to the interests of mankind, and it is mighty well that we +cannot do this for the insects are as important to us as all other life, +for without them we would be unable to produce the vast quantities of +foods that are now dependent upon such insect life. It is true that +they take their toll of the food that they are instrumental in +sometimes producing but when one attempts to unravel the mystery of +balance of nature one is confronted by the big question of how far to go +in the eradication of both animals and insect pests. Before man's +interference the wild crops were plentiful and balances were kept in +harmony by vast multitudes of frogs and toads, birds and rodents, all of +which have been slaughtered and reduced by such amounts as to endanger +man's food supply, forcing him to resort to poison sprays and other +measures in order to hold destruction in check. All of this expense and +trouble he could have avoided if he had been sensible enough to observe +the natural checks and foster the natural procedure of which nature is +the best guide. + + + + +Chapter 12 + +STORING AND PLANTING SEEDS + + +Most nut tree seed requires ideal storage conditions to preserve its +germinating power or viability. Under natural circumstances, such nuts +as black walnuts, English walnuts, butternuts, hickory nuts, pecans, +hazelnuts, filberts and almost all other nuts, will be planted by +squirrels, mice and other rodents. Although most of these will be eaten +by the animals who buried them, a large percentage of the ones which are +not eaten will sprout. The sprouts which achieve maturity and bearing +age, however, will be only a very small percentage--some say only a +fraction of 1%--of the number that sprouted. This is an expensive and +wasteful method, horticulturally speaking, but it does indicate that it +is best to plant nuts as soon as possible after they have properly +ripened and been dried. + +After walnuts, hickory nuts, butternuts and hazels have been gathered, +they should be dried until the hulls have lost most of their moisture. +The husks should be removed from filberts before they are dried. While +this preparation is not essential, nuts are less likely to mold if they +are dried somewhat before they are planted. However, I have planted +freshly-gathered black walnuts and butternuts and most of them sprouted. +If nuts are to be stored in large quantities, the drying-out process is +absolutely essential and should be carried to the point of completely +drying the hulls. The system I followed in doing this is to gather the +nuts after they have fallen and spread them out in the sunlight on roofs +or floors where air can circulate around them. After the hulls are dry, +such nuts as black walnuts, English walnuts and butternuts may be put in +barrels or burlap bags and stored in an unheated basement without +seriously deteriorating. English walnuts are most safely stored when +they are hulled before being packed in burlap bags. These bags should be +suspended above the floor of the cellar by a rope or wire. These are +additional precautions which allow better circulation of air, further +prevention of mold, and safety from mice and squirrels. + +Chestnuts, beechnuts and acorns require more care when they are to be +stored, for their viability is very sensitive to dryness. I have found +that these soft-shelled species of nuts should be treated in a different +manner than the walnut and hickory types of seeds if we are to get the +most out of their germination. Since chestnuts are very prone to molding +or rotting, the best way to maintain their viability and freshness over +winter is to stratify them in a can or box between layers of a peat +moss. This peat moss must be decidedly on the acid side and must be +dampened, but must not be so wet that you can wring any water out of it. +The best way to prepare this dry peat moss is to soak it in water and +wring as much water out of it as possible by squeezing with your hands. +Then mix it with half as much of the undampened peat. This will give you +approximately the right moisture coefficient. If stored in cans, the +bottom of the can must be punctured with a few holes about 1/4 of an +inch in diameter, well distributed on the bottom to act as a drain and +to admit some slight circulation of air. The same thing should be done +with the cover. + +First, put down an even layer about 1-1/2 inches of this dampened moss, +then put in a layer of chestnuts or other nuts to be stratified, placed +evenly or well distributed but not touching each other. After the first +layer, carefully sift in more dampened moss about 1 inch thick and +repeat the process until either the can is full or all the seeds have +been stored. The last layer should be a 2-inch layer of peat moss before +the cover is placed on. Now the important thing about all this is to +place this can in a storage room of low temperature and yet it should +not freeze solid. But in a temperature of from 32 to 40 degrees is ideal +and preferably it should be on the ground floor so as to maintain the +moisture that is already stored in the seed and the moss. A mechanical +refrigerator which would constantly dehydrate might eventually dry them +out too much for good germination; otherwise such a refrigerator would +be ideal for the storage of small amount of seeds of this kind. + +It would be well from time to time to inspect these seeds to see whether +they were in good condition and check the temperatures as well. If they +start to sprout all the better; they can then be planted with the sprout +downward and the nut barely covered with earth. Some years I have had +sprouts nearly six inches long on my chestnuts which had been so stored +and care will have to be taken not to break the sprout when +transplanting the nuts. + +In planting nuts, great care must be taken not to plant them too deeply. +Large nuts, such as black walnuts, butternuts and English walnuts, are +often planted with a small part of the nut still exposed. Certainly, the +depth of the soil over a nut should never exceed the thickness of the +nut. Most seeds develop best when they are planted just under the +surface of the soil. The earth should be lightly tamped around the +planted seeds to eliminate air-pockets. A thin coating of manure, not +more than three inches deep, is valuable if large seeds are planted but +it is detrimental to the development of small seeds and manure should +never be used for evergreens. Seeds of the nut pines, usually purchased +from seedsmen and received in a dry state, should be planted no deeper +than their own diameter in a light, sandy loam. A seed bed, +incidentally, is a very necessary protection against rodents in the case +of nut pine seed. I have used a mixture of bone meal on such seeds with +good results. Four quarts of bone meal carefully worked into the first +two or three inches of the surface soil of a 4 x 12 seed bed greatly +increases its fertility. Sifted hardwood ashes scattered over the bed +after the seed is in, will discourage cutworms and increase the potash +content of the soil. + +Proper drying and storage are of no use if nuts are not planted where +they will have protection against rodents, improper drainage, and other +hazards. To keep them from being eaten by rodents, nut seeds should be +planted under wire screens inside a deep frame. The seed beds I have +made for use in my nursery are four feet wide and twelve feet long. By +using heavy galvanized hardware cloth 2 x 2 mesh, which means that it +has 1/2-inch square holes, is ideal for the top and sides of this frame. +By using this wire cloth 2 feet wide, 18 inches is sunk under the ground +surface, and only 6 inches protrudes above. This is to prevent burrowing +rodents from going underneath and extracting the seeds which you will +find they will do unless the screen protection goes down deep enough +into the ground to discourage them. A stout frame of rot-resisting wood, +such as cedar or fir should be placed on the inside of this countersunk +screen. This should also be 4 feet wide, 12 feet long so that a similar +frame, which is removable, can be placed over this. The edges of the +frame should match perfectly so that no rodents can reach the interior +of the seed bed without going down 1-1/2 feet under ground to burrow +under the countersunk screen. Several thousand evergreens or several +hundred walnut trees can be raised in a seed bed this size. + +The soil is now removed from the inside of this enclosure or stationary +part of the bed to the depth of 6 inches so that the plants will have +head room to develop leaves and stems and still be protected under the +top or removable frame part. The top frame made of the same material and +covered also by the 2 x 2 hardware cloth should be about 6 inches in +height so that there will actually be 18 inches of head room for the +plants to grow in before touching the screen. + +[Illustration: _This 60 x 30 foot corrugated galvanized iron fence 3-1/2 +feet tall and sunk 6 inches into ground protects valuable hybrids +against invasion by rodents. Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +There are several important points to remember in starting a seed bed. +It must be in a well-drained site, so that the seeds will not be under +water or water-logged for any length of time. It should be in an open +place where sunlight is plentiful, unless evergreens are being grown. +Evergreens must be in half-shade the first season to avoid a condition +known as "damping off." The top six inches of soil in the bed should be +the best garden soil obtainable, the growth resulting from using good, +clean soil, free from weed seeds, being worth the trouble of preparing +it. By having the bed in two parts, with a cover that may be taken off, +proper weeding can be done when necessary. The cover should always be +replaced afterward, though, as rodents will sometimes attack the young +shoots and the remainder of the seed kernel. + +In the spring of the second season of growth, the young plants may be +dug up and lined out in nursery rows. After two or three years more, +they may be planted in permanent locations. + + + + +Chapter 13 + +TREE PLANTING METHODS + + +Since nut trees usually have deep, well-developed root systems of the +taproot type, they are more difficult to transplant than such trees as +plum, apple, elm or maple which have many small fibrous roots. Taproots +have a long, main trunk like a parsnip, from which lateral roots branch. +These roots are heavy and may extend deep into the ground even in trees +only two or three years old. In moving such a tree, the lower part of +the central taproot must, of course, be cut off, but as many of the side +roots as possible are retained. Because such roots have no fibrous or +hair-root system, their handling during transplantation necessarily +differs from that of the ordinary shade or fruit tree. + +If trees having a taproot system, such as the English walnut, black +walnut, butternut, hickory or pecan, are received with bare roots, they +should be treated in the following way: Immediately after the trees have +been unpacked, their roots should be submerged in a barrel of water for +several hours. After their thirst has been quenched, the roots should be +dipped into a mixture of clay and water made to the consistency of thick +paint. With a heavy coating of wet clay around them, the roots may then +be wrapped in wet burlap sacks. They are now ready to be transported to +their planting site. + +Selecting a favorable location for nut trees is very important. They +should never be planted at the bottom of a gulch or valley because, in +such places, frost pockets may occur which will interfere with both +blossoming in the spring and ripening of nuts in the fall. Nut trees +grow best near the summit of a hill. Although such soils are difficult +to plant in, stony soil or soil overlaid with limestone results in good +growth. Shallow surface soil, underlaid with heavy clay, will usually +slow down the growth of a young tree so that it remains dwarfed for many +years. It is more satisfactory to have at least three feet of soil +before clay is reached. If the soil is light and sandy, it will be +improved by adding black dirt immediately around the roots of each tree. + +As most nut trees ultimately grow to be very large, they should be +planted at least forty feet apart. The hole dug to receive each tree +should be wide and deep enough to accommodate the roots without bending +or twisting them. If the excavated soil is of poor quality, it should be +discarded, and good, rich soil brought in for setting the tree. Trees +should not be planted too deeply. The collar of a tree, which is a +discoloration of its trunk resulting from contact with the ground, +indicates how much of the tree was previously underground. Although it +is a good idea to plant so that this collar is a little lower than the +surface to allow access to extra moisture, the actual planting depth +should be about as it was previously in the nursery. All broken or +damaged parts on the roots should be trimmed smoothly with pruning +shears. Such clean cuts will send out new rootlets to replace the lost +ones. After a tree has been set into the hole made for it, the soil, +which should be thoroughly mixed with a quart of bone meal to increase +its fertility, is replaced a little at a time. It must be packed very +solidly about the roots with a rounded tamping stick to avoid leaving +air pockets. I find it advisable to retamp the earth about each tree two +or three times during the first year's growing season, to insure +intimate contact between soil and roots. + +Planting should be delayed if the soil is very wet. Trees will stay in +good condition for several days, if the burlap sacks are kept moistened. +Wet, soggy soil is certain to shrink away from the roots and leave air +pockets which will, in time, kill the trees. If trees are transplanted +during a very dry season, they should be thoroughly watered. To do this, +remove several shovelfuls of dirt from the ground about a foot from the +tree, being careful not to cut any roots. Fill this hole with water and +after the water has seeped away, fill it two more times. The tree should +receive about five gallons of water. Sprinkling with a hose does not +suffice. If dry weather continues, each tree should be watered in this +way every week. + +Nurserymen in the future will have to deal with this transplanting +problem in a different way than the old time nurserymen who handles +fruit trees. A suggested way to improve the root system and at the same +time make it easy to lift the tree with a ball of dirt, similar to the +way an evergreen is transplanted, is to prepare a pocket of special +transplanting soil previous to the lining out (which is the term used by +nurserymen in setting out seedlings preparatory to grafting them in +nursery rows). A suggested balanced soil for making the method practical +is to use 1/2 by volume of peat moss; the other half should be rich, +black sandy loam with very little clay mixture in it. In other words, +each nut tree should be allowed about a bushel of soil for its +development, 1/2 bushel to be peat moss, the other half bushel to be +represented by rich black loam. This mixture will encourage many +fibrous roots to develop and when the tree is dug, approximately all of +this bushel of soil will be retained around the roots. Having such a +high proportion of peat moss makes it lighter than ordinary ground; such +a ball and the tree will weigh approximately from 100 to 125 pounds +which can be shipped by freight at a low rate and is well worth the +extra price that nurserymen must ask for a specimen of this kind. Such +trees have really never been unplanted and for this reason do not suffer +the shock which is inevitable in the usual transplanting process. +Although pre-planted trees are more expensive to buy and to transport, +their improved chances of living make them worth the price. The above +recommendation is especially applicable to young grafted hickory trees +since they are among the most difficult trees to transplant +satisfactorily. The English walnut (Persian), black walnut, butternut +and especially the hickory are improved by the use of a handful of +ground lime mixed with the soil in preparing these pockets which will +later constitute the ball surrounding the roots of the tree to be +transplanted. + +There is a tendency in grafted trees to produce sprouts below the graft. +Unless these are rubbed off, the grafted portion will become discouraged +and the tree will revert to a seedling variety. Filberts should never be +allowed more than two or three stems, or trunks, while one is more +preferable. If they are allowed to have more, they will produce a rank +growth of wood but only a few, if any, nuts. I stress, by repeating, +that trees should not be planted too deeply and that great care must be +taken to eliminate air pockets. Extra effort and nursing of transplanted +trees during the first season will be repaid by their successful +development and growth. + +It is a wise precaution to place a protective screen around the trunk of +each tree to prevent rodents from attacking it. Mice gnaw off the bark +near the ground, sometimes girdling a tree and so killing it. Rabbits +chew off branches and they, too, may girdle the upper part of a tree. +Rabbits are very fond of pecan and hickory bark. In some places, it may +be necessary to encircle each pecan and hickory tree with a three or +four-foot rabbit fence until the tree is large enough to lose its appeal +to these nuisances. + +Compared with the number of insects which infest fruit trees, very few +attack nut trees. One of those which does is the walnut-leaf +caterpillar. These appear as a closely congregated group of small worms +which feed on the leaves of black walnut and hickory trees during the +latter half of the summer season. Very often they are all to be found +on a single leaf, which should be picked from the tree and crushed +underfoot. A simple spray of lead arsenate of the strength recommended +by companies selling spray material, will effectively rid trees of these +pests. Another insect often found in a nut orchard is the oak tree +girdler, which also is active in the latter part of the summer. It often +causes limbs as large as an inch in diameter to be cut through and to +fall to the ground. By removing such freshly girdled branches and +cutting into the hollow made by the larva, it is possible to find the +live worm and destroy it. A good way to combat this pest is to keep each +tree pruned of all dead branches and to burn all broken and dead wood +each fall. While some nut trees are subject to other insects, the two +described here are the most frequently found. Fortunately, they are +easily controlled if a watch is kept for them. + + + + +Chapter 14 + +WINTER PROTECTION OF GRAFTS AND SEEDLINGS + + +It is not enough to make a successful graft and to watch it carefully +during the growing season, picking all sprouts off the stock, spraying +it so that insects will not chew the tender leaves and bark, bracing it +against windstorms and perching birds. Each graft must also be protected +from winter injury. For many years I have studied and experimented to +find a successful way of achieving such protection. To enumerate my many +experiments, from simple to far-fetched, would be to write another book +quite as long as this one. My conclusion, now, is that there is little +one can do to assist nature in the process of acclimatizing grafted +plants and seedlings. + +I have repeatedly noticed that the place where most damage is done by +the cold is at the union between stock and graft. For example, I +observed this on the European walnuts, imported from Poland, grafted to +Minnesota black walnut stocks. Although both the buds and the wood of +the top remained fresh and green, the unions suffered severe, and +sometimes total winter injury. In grafts where the latter occurred, the +dead cells soon caused the wood to ferment and sour. Occasionally, a +small group of healthy cells succeeded in re-establishing circulation +with the unharmed, grafted top and the graft, continuing its growth, +would eventually overcome the injury it had suffered. I have seen this +occur with grafts of English walnut, apricot and pecan. + +A blackbird's nest in the crotch of a small tree suggested to me the +most satisfactory guard I have yet found against this greatest of +dangers to all exotic, grafted varieties of nut trees. The nest, which +enclosed over half of the graft union, was partly composed of woolen +fibers which its builder had gathered from barbed-wire fences that sheep +had brushed against. On the exposed portion of the graft union, +discoloration indicated injury and dead cells, but on that part covered +by the nest, all the cells were alive and green. I have improved on the +bird's nest by wrapping a large wad of wool loosely around each graft +union. The value of wool is that it will not collect moisture and so +start fermentation. It allows the cells to breathe, yet protects the +union from the shock of temperature extremes. Birds will inevitably +steal some of the strands of wool but this activity in and about the +trees means a decrease in injuries from insects--a worthwhile exchange. + +When an unusually large swelling at the graft union appears, it is +certain that the plant needs protection such as I have described. Such +swellings result from a too-rapid multiplication of cells, a condition +which leaves the union weak and susceptible to injury. Although a union +is never entirely safe, even after many seasons of growth, each year +adds to the safety factor by the development of rough, cork-like bark. I +suggest the use of a woolen guard for several winters, by which time +this outer bark should be able to do its protective work alone. + +A successful but rather expensive method of winter protection, both to +the graft itself and its union with its host, is to enclose the entire +tree with a box-like structure consisting of four corrugated aluminum +roofing sheets set up on their ends and countersunk into the ground +about six inches. The purpose of countersinking these below the ground +surface is two-fold: it stiffens and braces the structure and prevents +the intrusion of mice and other rodents, which may also appreciate both +the shelter and possible food supply contained therein. By fastening +these sheets together with a stout wire you can depend on the structure +to stand up against wind and snow pressures. Fill the entire inside with +forest leaves, oak leaves preferred, as their insulating quality is the +best and they are slow to rot and ferment. + +When working with semi-hardy plants in a cold climate, avoid fertilizing +and cultivating the ground after the first of August. Doing so +stimulates late growth and such growth is very likely to be badly +injured during the winter months. If fertilizer is used, it should be +early in the spring, as soon as the ground is free from frost. Trees +which persist in growing late into the fall are more subject to winter +injury. Protective measures to avoid their doing so by inducing an +earlier dormancy, include keeping the soil around them dry and exposing, +somewhat, the roots near the trunk of each tree. + +My last word of advice in raising what might be termed semi-hardy trees, +is to grow them in sod, the ordinary quack grass, June grass, bluegrass +or other natural grass sods which can be found on your planting site. +Although this will probably hold back your tree development for a few +years, until the roots are thoroughly established in the deeper soil +beneath the sod roots, it is surprising how many species of trees will +thrive in sod and perish on open cultivated ground. I can give no better +example of this than relating a circumstance which bears this out in a +most convincing way. In 1941 I purchased about 250 filbert seedlings +from Samuel Graham of Ithaca, New York. These were planted out on a +field site and practically all of the plants made good growth the first +year. They were thoroughly cultivated. The next year a second batch of +plants of a like amount were purchased from the same man and of the same +kind of seedlings. Mr. Graham told me that these were seedling trees +from Jones hybrid seeds which he had growing in his orchard. These +plants were put on heavy sod ground; all plants were protected by +screens, but the plants on the sod ground were subject to a very wet +season and it was necessary to build up the soil around some of the +plants in order to save them from being drowned out. Today about 45 +plants are living on the sod culture and two or three barely alive exist +in the open field culture. Although the plants remaining alive on the +sod culture plot are almost pure filbert strain they are therefore very +subject to the common hazel blight. Some have grown into bushes 10 feet +high which later were hit by blight and have been reduced to small +bushes. Others are producing good filbert-type nuts and are somewhat +blight resistant, but the main fact to remember is that about 1/4 of the +plants on sod culture lived, whereas not over 2% are alive of the open +field culture plants. The distance between these plantings is +approximately 1/8 of a mile. In addition to being placed in sod these +filberts which have survived are sheltered by rows of evergreen trees +both on the south and on the north side which may be construed as of +some assistance but is not altogether the reason for the tremendous +difference between the winter protection value of sod and open field +culture. This is not the only example that I could cite but is one of +the most outstanding ones which has come to my attention. Sod culture is +now being recommended to fruit orchardists in this part of the country +and in my own experience, I can highly recommend it for apples, plums, +pears, mulberries and nut trees. + + + + +Chapter 15 + +TREE STORAGE + + +If it is necessary to store trees through the winter months, one of +several procedures may be followed. If the trees are quite small, their +tops may be dipped in melted paraffin or beeswax, not hot enough to +injure the buds. If the trees are too large for this to be practical, +wax may be painted on with a brush. Roots should be protected by heeling +them in dirt. + +An unheated cellar with a dirt floor is a very satisfactory place for +storing trees. Select a corner of the cellar far from any source of heat +or temperature change. Place the trees so that the roots are pointing +toward the basement wall. Cover the roots to a depth of six inches with +either sand or sandy loam, packing the soil firmly to eliminate air +pockets. Lastly, cover the trees completely with burlap sacks. Once +every two weeks, the earth around the roots should be watered. Trees +maintained in this way are conveniently ready to plant when the ground +thaws out in the spring. + +Another and better method of storing trees is to plant them outside in a +trench, preferably on the north side of a building, having first waxed +them as described above. One side of the trench should slope so that the +trees will lie in an oblique position with their branches touching the +ground. The roots of these trees should be covered with dirt, then more +trees set alongside them, until all have been planted and the earth made +firm about their roots. Trees will usually suffer no damage during such +winter storage if their roots have been properly packed in sand or sandy +loam. Six or more cans, each containing a little poisoned grain, should +be set among the branches. If these cans are laid on their sides, +rodents will have easier access to the poison. The branches of the trees +should then be well covered with straw or hay, with heavy boards laid on +top to keep it from blowing away. If trees are received for planting +after the ground has frozen, all that is necessary is to build a log +fire on the side where they are to be heeled in. This will thaw out the +soil enough so that a trench can be made to accommodate them. + + + + +Chapter 16 + +SUGGESTIONS ON GRAFTING METHODS + + +Grafting, including budding, may be defined as inserting a piece of wood +which carries buds of a desired variety, on a root stock sufficiently +compatible to accept it, for the purpose of propagation. Methods vary, +each nurseryman having one or more which he prefers, but the principle +is always the same. + +Scionwood may be cut the fall before grafting is to be done, after the +growing season has ended, but some prefer to cut the scions in early +spring. This means that the scions must be stored until time to graft, +and correct storage is so important that nurserymen make elaborate +provision for it. I have found that keeping scions underground in a +Harrington graft storage box is the safest method. An illustration of +this box is given, with directions for its construction and location. A +small quantity of scions may be kept in an icebox (not a mechanical +refrigerator), by cutting them into convenient lengths of one or two +feet, dipping them in melted beeswax, wrapping them in tar or asphalt +paper and placing them close to the ice. They will remain in good +condition for several months if there is always a good supply of ice. +Care must be taken in dipping the scions in melted wax, for if the wax +is too hot it will injure the buds. It should never become so hot that +it smokes. I find it advisable to keep an unmelted piece of wax in the +liquid wax to hold the temperature down. + +Another method of storing scions, after they have been dipped in +beeswax, is to place them on the earth of a cellar floor and cover them +with a few burlap sacks. They should never be allowed to become wet or +they will start to mold. If they are to be stored in this way, a watch +must be kept for mice which will molest them and destroy them if they +have an opportunity. + +Although bud wood may be stored in any of the three ways mentioned, it +should not be waxed. Because of this, it is more likely to deteriorate. +It must be examined frequently and if mold is found, the wood should be +dipped in a Bordeaux solution. After drying, it may be placed in storage +again. It is a good plan to wrap bud wood in tar or asphalt paper when +storing it. However, I have found that the best storage conditions for +all scionwood that I have yet discovered is in the use of peat moss. +Peat moss must be on the distinctly acid side in order to perform the +function of storing scionwood. Most peat moss is generally acid; however +the simple litmus paper test with which every high school pupil is +familiar, can be made. Having acquired good acid peat moss, dampen a +sufficient quantity to pack the scions in to give them liberal +protection. Do not make the bundles of scionwood too large, from 10 to +20 scions in a bundle is better than a large number and much easier to +handle. The moss should be prepared exactly the same as advised in +storing chestnuts (see chapter for storing seeds). In this case it is +not necessary to wax the scions at all. The moss should be applied by +sifting it into the open spaces between the scions and a larger wad at +the base of the cuttings, not at the terminal or bud ends as these would +be better left unpacked. The package is now rolled into a cylinder, +using tar paper or asphalt treated paper, and both ends left open. Do +not use ordinary paper or wax paper as it will turn moldy. Cylinders of +tar paper containing the packed scions should be placed in a damp room +like a cellar with a dirt floor which is cold enough to keep potatoes +and other roots in good condition throughout the winter. If the cellar +is not a good storage cellar for roots and herbs it will not be good +enough for the scionwood as it will be too warm generally. Neither +should they be frozen solid, therefore if a good root cellar is not +obtainable then these should be put in the Harrington graft box already +described or placed under the sawdust in an icehouse and close to the +ice. An old-fashioned ice refrigerator will also make a good storage +bin, placing them close to the ice at all times. + +[Illustration: Drwg by Wm. Kuehn. _Making a scarf with a plane +preparatory to grafting._] + +Selection of good scionwood and bud wood, a very important matter, is +made according to definite standards. Some plants graft better if wood +is used that has two seasons' growth, but, in general, wood of the +current season's growth is used. It must have reached its maximum +possible maturity before it is cut. Also, some attention should be paid +to the vigor of the growth which it has made during the season. For +instance, in choosing between wood which has made only two or three +inches' growth and that which has made a foot or more of growth, both +being equally sound and mature, the more vigorous should be chosen. +Attention should be paid to the development of the buds, which should be +plump and never immature. + +It is advisable to label scions before they are stored to avoid the +confusion that will result if they are mixed. I find that the best +method of doing this is to get a sheet of zinc, from 20 to 30 gauge +thick, and cut it into strips one inch wide by one and three-quarters +inches long. I bore a small hole in one corner of each tag, through +which I thread 18-gauge copper wire, doubled and with the bottom loop +folded over (see page 40). In preparing these tags, it is important to +remember that both wires must pass through the hole in the metal tag, +otherwise, the slight movement due to winds will cause the metal to wear +through. Two wires prevent this action indefinitely. Since a small wire +cuts through a zinc tag in one or two years, heavy wire must be used. +Wire such as I have indicated is satisfactory. I print the necessary +information on each tag with a small, steel awl, and such labels are +still legible after twenty-five years. Copper, brass or aluminum would +also make good tags, but these metals are more expensive. Of course, +these tags may be used for small trees as well as grafts and scionwood +and it is always well to do a good job of labeling all work, since many +errors may result from disregard to this important detail. + +In the north, the time to graft nut trees is when the cambium layer of +the host, or stock, is active, which is usually during the entire month +of May. This cambium layer consists of those cells lying just inside of +the outer bark, between it and the woody part of the tree. When these +cells are active, the inner side of the bark feels slippery and a +jelly-like substance can be scraped from it. Although this is the state +in which the stock should be for grafting, the condition of the scions +should be almost the opposite, rather dry and showing no signs of +cambium activity. The bark should cling firmly to the woody part of the +scions, whereas the bark of the stock should slip off readily. Another +good and fairly satisfactory rule is never to graft the stocks of nut +trees until after the young leaves appear. + +In grafting young nursery trees not more than an inch in diameter, the +whole tree is cut off at any distance from the ground convenient to the +nurseryman. Sometimes they are cut within a few inches of the ground, +sometimes two or three feet. In my work, I like to keep the scions as +high above the ground as I can. When the top of a stock is cut off, +there is a great deal of sap pressure and the tree bleeds. It is a poor +policy to attempt grafting while this is happening. Rather, one should +cut the tops off, then wait for several days before inserting any +grafts. Tools must be kept very sharp. A good grafting knife is +sharpened on one side only, so that the blade is flat along the side +which lies next to the cut made on the scion when it is trimmed. If +unaccustomed to handling a knife, one can obtain more accurate results +by using a small plane. I do this by holding the scion firmly in my +right hand and pulling it toward me, against the cutting edge of the +plane which is held in the left hand. Illustrations show how this is +done. + +The only disadvantage in using a plane is that one must exchange it for +a knife to make the receiving cut in the stock before inserting the +graft. This necessitates exposing the graft to the air for a longer time +than does using a single instrument. + +Spring budding is done during the same period as grafting. Bud wood is +usually much larger in diameter than scionwood, for it is easier to +remove buds from big branches than from wood only one-quarter inch in +diameter. When budding is to be done, take along only enough wood for +half a day's work, leaving the rest safely stored. A piece of wood +having a bud is prepared as shown in the illustrations "A" and "B" (next +page). A T-shaped slot is made in the stock to receive the bud, a +process called "shield budding." This is tied in place with either +string, raffia or gummed tape, as shown in "C" and "D" (next page). The +bud must be free to grow, and although it may be covered completely with +wax, no part of the binding material should be close to it. Since it is +not necessary to cut off all the tree in budding, enough of it may +remain above the bud to brace the shoot that develops. Later, it may be +necessary to cut back the tree to the bud so that a callus will form and +cause the wound to heal properly. + +[Illustration: Drwg by Wm. Kuehn _Shield Budding._] + +Best results are obtained when a graft union is coated with melted +beeswax. Another and cheaper wax may be made by combining four parts of +rosin, one part of beeswax and one-sixteenth part of raw linseed oil. To +this is sometimes added a little lampblack to color the mixture so that +it can be seen on the graft. Again, care must be taken to prevent +injuring the cells with wax that is too hot. + +I have used many kinds of tying materials, but the one which gives me +best results is gummed tape, which preparation I describe in another +chapter. By wrapping it in spirals around a graft union, I have a +material which holds the graft in place and at the same time excludes +air. The rubber also seems to encourage the formation of that tissue +which unites the stock and scion. In addition to tape, melted wax should +be brushed into those crevices and cracks which always occur in making a +graft. + +It is usually advisable, although not necessary, to shade new grafts. To +do this, cover them with light-colored or white paper sacks. Never use +glassine alone for it causes the grafts to overheat and so destroys +them. Whatever tying material is used, either to fasten on these bags or +to support the grafts, it should be inspected at intervals during the +summer, as it may constrict the graft or stock and injure or cut off the +cambium. + +After a scion begins to grow, it must be firmly braced against the force +of the wind, for a heavy gale can rip out grafts made years before. +Laths make good braces for growing shoots. They may be attached to the +main branch by stout waterproof twine such as binder twine, and the +growing graft tied with soft muslin strips to the lath. As the graft +grows more muslin strips should be used to keep the excessive growth +anchored to the lath. Grafts will often make three or more feet in +growth in one season. + +It is important to remember that sprouts or buds which start from the +stock must be rubbed off. If they are allowed to flourish, they may +prevent the scion from growing. When working over a tree several inches +in diameter, it becomes an art to keep the tree stock satisfied, yet to +encourage the growth of the scions. In large trees, a few sprouts must +grow to nourish the root system, but this is not necessary if the stock +is one inch, or less, in diameter. + + + + +Chapter 17 + +GRAFTING TAPE VERSUS RAFFIA + + +It is necessary that a person who is grafting trees and developing +hybrids experiment not only with the plants he is interested in, but +also with the equipment and materials he uses. For more than twelve +years, I used raffia to tie the grafts I made, becoming more annoyed and +irritated with its limitations each year. Finally, I began trying other +materials, until I found one which I think is very satisfactory. This is +a rubberized grafting tape. + +At my nursery, we make our own tape. We buy pure rubber gum, known as +Lotol NC-356, from the Naugatuck Chemical Company, at a cost of $7.50 +for five gallons, F.O.B. their factory. With this, we use unbleached +muslin of an 80 x 80 mesh, or finer. As the muslin is usually a yard +wide, we fold it and take it to a printing firm, where, for a small +charge, it is cut into both one-half and three-quarter inch strips by +being fed through a paper-cutting machine. We use the wider strips for +heavy work on large trees which have three to five-inch stubs; the +narrower strips we use in the nursery, grafting young seedlings. + +First, pour about a gallon of the rubber compound into a twelve or +sixteen-quart pail having a smooth, rolled edge. Next, separate a dozen +or so of the strips of muslin. Then, set out a pair of rails on which to +dry the tape after it has been dipped. I make these rails by using two +1" x 2" boards about twelve feet in length, nailed together at the ends +with boards two feet long. This frame, resting on carpenter's horses or +benches, makes a good drying rack. + +Holding a piece of tape by one end, submerge it in the rubber solution, +forcing it down with a spatula or knife. Swishing it around or moving it +up and down several times helps to fill the pores with rubber. Drag it +from the solution by pulling it sharply over the rolled edge of the +pail, using the spatula on the upper side of the strip to scrape off +superfluous rubber. A little practice soon enables one to judge the +amount of rubber needed on the tape. There should not be so much that it +drips off. Hang the tape on the rack so that the ends are attached to +the rails, the tape sagging slightly in the center. Space the pieces of +tape so that they do not touch, for, if they do, they will be very +difficult to separate later. After they have dried for twenty-four +hours, wind the tape on pieces of cardboard about one foot square, +being careful not to overlap the tape. The tape is now ready for +field-work. + +I want to mention some of the advantages I have found in using this +rubberized tape rather than raffia. The tape is uniform throughout and +is stronger than raffia. It does not fly around and frequently get +tangled as the latter does. There is no necessity for keeping it +slightly damp to be usable. It may easily be torn off at any convenient +length or it may be cut without injuring the edge of the grafting knife. +A last advantage is that it is self-sealing since it overlaps on itself +slightly when wound around a graft union. Because of this, there is no +necessity for painting the finished graft with melted wax as is +absolutely vital when using raffia. Personally, I use wax in addition to +the tape for I feel that it is probably safer with that extra +protection. Also it gives me an opportunity to wax over the tip end of +the scion when it is devoid of a terminal bud. + +The only disadvantage in using tape is its cost which, I must admit, is +very much higher than that of raffia. But if, by using tape, twice as +many grafts can be made each day, and if the resulting takes are 50% +better, as they have been in my experience, then the cost is justified +and raffia is actually the more expensive to use. + + + + +Chapter 18 + +EFFECTS OF GRAFTING ON UNLIKE STOCKS + + +It is unquestionably a great shock to a tree when 90% of its top is cut +off. If it is healthy and vigorous, the root system will try to recover, +using every means possible to do so. If a new top is grafted to it, the +stock must either accept and nourish that foreign and sometimes +incompatible new part, or give up its struggle for life. Nature and the +tree stock usually accept the challenge and the graft begins to grow. In +an attempt to continue with its own identity, the stock will bring into +activity adventitious buds. These are tiny microscopic buds imbedded in +the bark of a tree that are not apparent to the eye but are nature's +protection against destruction of the individual plant. But these must +be removed by the horticulturist to insure proper nourishment of the +grafts. + +Because the root system is striving hard to live, and because it is +usually the stronger, it may force the top to accept certain of its +characteristics. Occasionally, it may assume some qualities of the +original top. Such cooperation is necessary if either is to survive. +First of all, the grafted scions must accept the vital quality of +climatic hardiness, a powerful factor developed through ages spent in a +certain climate. To hasten the acclimatization of a tender variety, I +cut scionwood from such unions early in the winter, storing it until +spring. When these scions are grafted on new root systems, I find that +they are much more readily accepted than the first grafts were. The +following season, I allow the grafts of this later union to go through +their first winter of exposure. Early each spring I continue to cut +scions from the most recent unions and graft them to new root systems, +so hastening and setting the factor of hardiness through frequent +asexual propagation. + +Because my observations of the effects of scion on root and vice versa, +have not extended over a sufficient period of time, I think it is +possible that the changes I have seen may be only transient. In any +case, I do know that the phenomenon occurs, for I have seen many +examples of it. + +One instance in which the stock was apparently affecting the scions, +occurred in the case of several varieties of black walnuts which had +been grafted on wild butternut stock over a period of sixteen years. The +walnut top flourished but tended to outgrow the butternut, so that the +caliber of the walnut was greater than that of the stock a few inches +below the graft union. I also noticed that, although the graft began to +bear about as early as black walnuts do when they are grafted on their +own species, the nuts did not mature at all during the first few years +of bearing. In 1938, after a favorable season, I found mature nuts on +one variety, the Thomas. These nuts varied in size more than they do +when grafted on black walnut. The most surprising thing about them, +though, was that they did not have the characteristic black walnut +flavor. When properly dried and cured, they could have passed as an +entirely different nut since they tasted like neither the black walnut, +the butternut nor the Persian walnut. + +The overgrowth of the Ohio black walnut, grafted on butternut, was even +more apparent than that of the Thomas. These nuts were, as I have said, +immature the first few years they appeared and they, too, lacked the +usual black walnut flavor. In their case, however, the most striking +change was in the shape and structure of their shells which were +elongated like butternuts, with corrugations typical of those found on +butternuts and nearly as deep and sharp. (See Illustration in Chapter 1, +Page 5.) + +In 1937, I made experimental graftings on native black walnut stocks of +the Weschcke No. 4 butternut, a variety I found to be superior to +hundreds of other native trees tested. The grafts grew luxuriantly and +in 1940, produced about two pounds of nuts. These nuts were +approximately 30% larger than those on the parent tree. They cracked +well and the kernels were similar to those from the parent tree. They +definitely distinguished themselves, however, by being a free-hulling +nut, which is not true of the mother tree nor of most butternuts. Soon +after the nuts had dropped to the ground and were still green, they were +hulled and their hulls peeled off like those of the Persian walnut, +leaving the nuts clean and free from remnants. Apparently this +phenomenon was a transient one since later crops did not display this +free-hulling feature. + +I have mentioned, elsewhere, the seedling apricot which came into +bearing in St. Paul, and how I obtained grafts before it died during a +very cold winter. I have grafted scions of this apricot on both hybrid +and wild plum stocks repeatedly and this apricot now exhibits a material +gain in hardiness. It overgrows the plum stock, but this does not seem +to inhibit its bearing, the fruit growing to greater size than that of +the mother tree. + +These are some of the instances in which I have seen stock exert a +definite, and, mainly a beneficial influence on its grafted top. It may +easily be that these are only of a temporary nature and until I have +seen them maintained for many more years, I must consider them to be +transient effects. + + + + +Chapter 19 + +DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIONS + + +Loss of identification markings from my grafted trees has, on occasion, +caused me much confusion. There was one time when I had from six to ten +varieties of hickories and their hybrids grafted on wild bitternut +hickory stocks, totally lacking in identification. Although this +disconcerted me considerably, I knew of nothing I could do except to +wait for the grafts to bear nuts and determine the varieties from these. +As I continued my experimental grafting, I made sure that the tags I +used were not only indestructible, but also secured to the grafts in +such a way that the action of the wind could not wear them out nor cause +them to drop off. + +Not long after this had happened, I received from Dr. Deming a shipment +of about twenty varieties of hickory scions. While I was preparing this +material for grafting, I noticed that each variety could be readily +distinguished by its appearance in general and, specifically, by +differences in its leaf scars. I also noticed markings on the bark, +particularly the stomata, which differed with each variety. Color and +stripes added further differentiation. Although I also found variations +in the size and shape of the buds, I later discovered that these do not +always remain constant within a variety, but depend somewhat on each +season's growth. For instance, a second growth sometimes develops during +a favorable season with a large number of lateral buds growing out of it +like spines. + +It seemed to me that if scions could be maintained in an approximately +fresh state, they would furnish a key by which any variety of graft +could be determined as easily as it could by its nuts. I therefore set +myself to preserve scionwood in its fresh state. First, I cut five-inch +pieces of plump, healthy wood, each piece having a terminal bud. I +placed these buds downward in large test tubes which I then filled with +pure, strained honey. Such models did very well for a time, but after +about a year, the honey crystallized and of course the scions were no +longer visible. I emptied the tubes and washed them, cleaned the scions +in warm water, replaced them and refilled the tubes with pure glycerine. +I submerged a thin, zinc tag, stencilled with the varietal name and bent +to conform with the contour of the tube, inside of each one as a name +plate which could not easily be lost or removed. I also labeled each +cork with the name of the variety enclosed so that any one of them +could be located when looking down at a nest of tubes in a vertical +position. + +In order to display these preserved specimens at illustrated lectures, I +had a rack made of redwood, of a size to hold twenty tubes. The tubes +could easily be taken from the rack for closer observation by members of +an audience. I find this to be an interesting adjunct to various nut +culture exhibits I make in trying to promote nut culture education. + +Since I was able to identify my unlabeled, hickory grafts by means of +this catalogue of submerged scions, I consider it of great practical +worth. At the present time, I have about 50 hickory specimens, a good +catalogue, although not a complete one. I see no reason why the same +thing could not be done with black walnut or any other kind of nut +scions. + + + + +Chapter 20 + +HYBRIDIZING + + +Working with nature to develop new varieties of trees is fascinating +although it requires infinite patience and study combined with skill and +concentration. A person without experience may taste of this pleasure, +however, by trying his hand at cross-pollination, and there is no end to +the number of hybrids possible. + +In attempting to make crosses, one must necessarily understand the +botanical relationship between the trees to be crossed. Trees of the +same species cross readily in almost all cases; trees of the same genus +are not as easily crossed; trees belonging only to the same family are +usually difficult to cross. It is generally assumed that trees not in +the same family are impossible to hybridize. The plum serves as a +practical example of this. The American wild plum crosses readily with +almost any other plum and particularly well with the Japanese plum. +These crosses have resulted in such phenomenal fruit as the Underwood +plum, a cross made between species. If a cross were made between a +chestnut and a walnut, it would be between members of different +families. I recommend to anyone who is attempting to cross-pollinate for +the first time, that he limit his work to crosses made within species. +His chances of success will be greater and such success added to the +experience he is acquiring, will give him the background needed for more +difficult hybridizing. + +Crosses made between filberts and hazels usually produce great changes +in the resulting fruit. J. F. Jones won considerable horticultural fame +from crosses he made between the wild American hazel known as the Rush +hazel, and such varieties of the European filbert as the Italian Red and +Daviana. Hazel and filbert cross readily and the resulting seedlings +will usually bear after only three or four years. For both these +reasons, they are good material for a beginner to work with. If the wild +hazel is to be used as the female, or mother, of the cross, it is +necessary to pick off all the male blossoms, or staminate blooms. This +should be done long before they begin to expand. The pistillate, or +female blossoms, should be enclosed in bags, about six of the +three-pound, common kraft bags should be enough. These are slipped over +those branches which bear female blossoms and are tied around a heavy +packing of absorbent cotton, which has been wound around the branch at +approximately the place where the opening of the bag will be. In +fastening the mouth of the bag around the cotton, I find that No. 18 +copper wire, wrapped several times around and the ends twisted together, +is more satisfactory than string. This makes a pollen-tight house for +the pistillate blossoms but not one so air-tight as to cause any damage +to either the plant or blossoms. + +In order to have pollen available at the proper time, it is necessary to +cut a few filbert branches which bear staminate blooms and store them in +a dark, cold place to prevent the pollen from ripening too soon. I +recommend keeping such branches in dampened sphagnum moss until it is +time for the pollen to ripen, or if a cold cellar is available, burying +the cut ends of large branches carrying male catkins one foot deep in +clean, moist sand. When the pollen is wanted, the branches should be +placed in a container of water and set near a window where sunlight will +reach them. Usually, after one day of exposure to bright sunlight, the +staminate blooms will expand and begin to shed their pollen. The pollen +may easily be collected by allowing an extended catkin to droop inside a +vial or test tube and then, as the catkin rests against its inner wall, +tapping the outside of the tube sharply with a pencil to jar the pollen +grains loose. A separate test tube must be used for each variety of +pollen to be experimented with. By following this procedure for several +days with all the staminate blooms that have been gathered, the +experimenter should have enough pollen for work on a small scale. The +test tubes containing this pollen should never be stoppered with corks, +but with plugs of absorbent cotton, which will allow the passage of air. +Pollen may be stored in this manner for several days, possibly as long +as two weeks, if it is kept dry. By a close observation of the blooming +period of the wild hazels, one is able to determine the best time for +placing the filbert pollen on the pistillate blossoms. No attempt should +be made to do so until the male catkins of the wild hazel species are so +entirely exhausted that no amount of shaking will release any grains of +pollen. When this condition exists, it is time to move the stored +filbert branches to strong sunlight. A quiet day should be chosen to +pollinize the hazels for two reasons. If there is a wind, it will blow +away the pollen and so make the work more difficult. A wind will also +increase the danger of the hazels being fertilized by native hazel +pollen which may still be circulating in the air and which the flowers +may prefer to filbert pollen. + +When good conditions are present, then, the hybridizer proceeds to his +work. A brush with which to transfer pollen from the vial to the +pistillate blossoms is made by wrapping a little absorbent cotton around +the end of a match. The paper bag is removed from around a group of +hazel blossoms, a small amount of pollen is dabbed on each blossom and +the bag is immediately replaced, to remain on for two more weeks. When +the bags are finally taken off, the branches should be marked to +indicate that the nuts will be hybrids. Before receiving pollen, each +pistillate blossom has, emerging from its bud tip, a few delicate red or +pink spikes which are sticky enough to make pollen adhere to them. +Within a few days after receiving pollen, these spikes may dry up and +turn black, a fair indication that the pollen has been effective. If the +pollen does not take hold, the spikes of the staminate blooms are sure +to continue pink for a long time. I have seen them in the middle of the +summer, still blooming and waiting for pollen which would let them +continue on their cycle. This ability of hazel flowers to remain +receptive for a long period allows the nut-culturist ample time to +accomplish his work. It is not so true with all members of the nut tree +group, some, such as the English walnuts, being receptive for such a +short period that only by very frequent examination and many +applications of pollen can one be sure of making a cross. + +Early in the fall, the hybrid nuts should be enclosed in a wire screen +to prevent mice and squirrels from taking them before they are ripe. +Such wire screens may be used in the form of a bag and fastened around +each branch. When the husks turn brown and dry, the nuts are ripe, and +ready to be gathered and planted. Careful handling of the nuts is +advisable to preserve their viability. They should be planted in an +outdoor bed which has been fully protected against the invasion of +rodents. A screen such as I described for other nut seed is satisfactory +for these hybrid nuts but it need not be as large as that. After the +nuts have sprouted and the plants have grown for one season, they may be +transplanted into a permanent location where they should again be well +protected against mice by a trunk screen, and against rabbits by driving +a stout stake deep into the ground on the south side of the tree and +tying it to the tree. This use of a stake discourages rabbits from +cutting off the tree. + +There are innumerable other crosses that can be made as well as those +between hazels and filberts. It is possible, for example, to cross the +English walnut with the black walnut. Many such crosses have been made +although none of them is known to have produced superior nuts. Thousands +of crosses exist between butternuts and Japanese heartnuts. Many of +these are of some worth and are being propagated. Crosses between +heartnut and butternut are easily made, following the same procedure +used in crossing hazels and filberts, except that larger bags are +necessary for covering the female blossoms. Also, these bags should have +a small, celluloid window glued into a convenient place, so that the +progress of the female blossoms toward maturity can be observed. + +When hybridizing walnuts, it is necessary to use a pollen gun instead of +removing the bag from around the female blossoms and applying the pollen +with a cotton-covered applicator. Such a pollen gun can be made by using +a glass vial which does not hold more than an ounce of liquid. An +atomizer bulb, attached to a short copper or brass tube soldered into a +metal screw-cap, is fitted to the vial. Another small copper or brass +tube should also be inserted in the screw-cap close to the first one. +The second tube should be bent to a right angle above the stopper and +its projecting end filed to a sharp point. Without removing the bag from +around the pistillate blossoms, the hybridizer forces the point of the +atomizer through the cotton wadding between bag and branch. The pollen +in the vial is blown through the tube into the bag in a cloud, covering +all the enclosed blossoms. It is advisable to repeat this on several +successive days to make certain of reaching the female blossoms during +their most receptive period. + +[Illustration: _8 x 8 x 8 foot tightly woven sheet of unbleached muslin +stretched over mother hazel plant during pollination period in the +process of making controlled crosses between it and filbert parents. +Photo by C. Weschcke._] + +[Illustration: THE WESCHCKE POLLEN GUN + +Taper end of copper tube ... not absolutely necessary, but it saves +pollen. + +Long fibre cotton wad wired to intake side of bulb to strain out foreign +pollens that may be in atmosphere. + +De Vilbiss atomizer bulb. + +Pollen grains + +Any small glass bottle with a wide mouth and screw cap. + +Tubes A and B--3/16" outside diameter copper tubing can be purchased at +any garage. Solder both tubes to screw cover C. + +Drwg by Wm. Kuehn + +_How to make pollen gun._] + + + + +Chapter 21 + +TOXICITY AMONG TREES AND PLANTS + + +Although quack grass will grow luxuriantly up to the trunks of both +black walnut and butternut trees, I know, from things I have seen +myself, that the roots of the latter and probably of the former have a +deadly effect on members of the evergreen family. I have seen northern +white pine and other pines, too, suddenly lose their needles and die +when, as large trees, they have been transplanted to the vicinity of +butternut trees. To save as many of these transplanted trees as +possible, it was necessary for me to sacrifice almost one hundred fine +butternut trees by cutting them off close to the ground and pruning all +the sprouts that started. + +Other instances have also demonstrated to me this deleterious power of +butternut trees over evergreens. For years, I watched a struggle between +a small butternut tree and a large Mugho pine. Gradually the Mugho pine +was succumbing. At last, when the pine had lost over half its branches +on the side near the butternut, I decided to take an active part in the +fight. I cut off the trunk of the butternut and pruned off all of its +sprouts. The butternut surrendered and died. The Mugho pine took new +heart, lived and again flourished. + +At another time, I transplanted several thousand Montana pines, about +thirty or forty of which came within the branch limits of a medium size +butternut tree. Within a year, these thirty or more trees had turned +brown and were completely dead, while those immediately outside the +branch area were dwarfed and not at all thrifty. The trees farther from +the butternut were unaffected and grew consistently well. A similar +condition, although not to the same degree, developed under a white oak +where more Mugho pines were growing. Another instance occurred when a +planting of several thousand Colorado blue spruce were lined out and +fell within the area affected by two butternut trees. The spruce were +all dead within a few months. + +Many people have observed the detrimental effect of trees of the walnut +family on alfalfa, tomatoes and potatoes, resulting in wilting and +dying. It is the root systems of the walnut which are responsible for +this damage. Apparently, there is some chemical elaborated near the +surface of the roots, and sensitive plants, whose roots come in contact +with either roots or ground containing this factor, are injured and +sometimes killed by it. One must therefore be very cautious about +trusting these trees as protectors of many of the ornamental and garden +plants. I am certain, from my own observations, that their influence on +evergreens is strongly antagonistic. + +On another basis is the association between catalpas and chestnut trees +growing adjacent to one another. Constructive symbiosis apparently +develops when a young chestnut tree is planted within the radius of the +root system of a catalpa. The latter very definitely influences the +chestnut tree to grow more vigorously than it otherwise would. + +I have recorded my observations of these antagonisms and friendships +between trees and plants to show that they are a reality which should be +taken into consideration in grouping and transplanting. Such warnings +are infrequent because some people may mistake them as condemnations of +certain favorite trees. I do not intend them as such, for these plants +are often valuable and worthwhile. This ability which they have +developed through the many years of their existence is a guarantee of +the sturdiness and strength of their family and species, not at all a +quality to be condemned. + + + + +CONCLUSION + + +If I had written this book twenty years ago, I would have prophesied a +future for nut culture in the north, full of wonder, hope and profit. If +I had written it ten years ago, I should have filled it with +discouragement and disillusion. Now, after growing such trees for more +than 30 years, I realize that the truth lies somewhere between these +extremes, but nearer the first. + +It is seldom practical to move native trees very far from their natural +range, nor is it necessary to do so in this part of the north: We have +four fine, native nut trees: the hazel, the butternut, the black walnut +and the hickory. In my experience, these four have completely +demonstrated their practical worth. + +If commercialization is the primary hope of the nut tree planter, he +should first consider the large, hardy hybrids, known as hazilberts, +which I have produced between a large Wisconsin wild hazel and European +filberts. Hazilberts equal the best European filberts in every way, +without the latter's disadvantage of susceptibility to hazel blight and +its lack of hardiness. They are as hardy as the common wild hazel and +are more adaptable to environment and soil conditions than any other +native nut tree. They may be trained into trees or allowed to grow as +large bushes. Like all other filberts and hazels, they, too, need +companion plants for cross pollinization to obtain full crops of nuts. + +The butternut is also a very adaptable tree. No one who is acquainted +with it, questions the quality of the butternut kernel. In a good +variety, the nuts should crack out in halves and the kernels drop out +readily. + +So many good varieties of black walnuts are being propagated, I need not +say much about them, except that many of the best ones are not practical +for this climate. Nurserymen who grow them can give the best advice +about varieties to anyone selecting black walnuts for orchard planting. + +Hickories are the last of these native trees to be recommended from a +commercial standpoint, as they are the most particular about soil and +climate. However, with improved propagation methods and planting +technique they should become some day as valuable as pecan plantations +have become valuable to the south. + +Considering the nut tree as a dooryard tree, an ornament rather than a +business, makes it possible to include many more species as suitable for +growing in the north. For this purpose, I suggest heartnuts, chestnuts, +pecans and hiccans. The heartnut tree is always one to draw attention +and interest, picturesque in its leaves, blossoms and clusters of nuts. + +Last, but certainly not least in it potentialities, is the English +walnut. I am certain that we shall have some varieties of these which +will be hardy enough to plant in the north. When these have been +completely proven, they will be a delightful addition to the number of +trees flourishing here. What family would not receive enjoyment and +satisfaction from having, in its dooryard, a gracious English walnut +tree, its spreading branches laden with nuts? + +Although the commercial aspect of producing hazilberts is engrossing me +at the present time, my greatest pleasure in nut culture still comes, as +it always shall come, from actual work with these trees. It is both a +physical and mental tonic. I recommend nut tree culture to everyone who +enjoys spending his time out-of-doors, who is inspired by work of a +creative nature, and who appreciates having trees, or even one tree, of +his own. Suggested reading on Nut Tree Culture: + + Nut Growing by Morris + Nut Growers' Handbook by Bush + Tree Crops by J. Russell Smith + The Nut Culturist by Fuller + Improved Nut Tree of North America by Clarence Reed + Annual Reports of N.N.G.A. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Growing Nuts in the North, by Carl Weschcke + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH *** + +***** This file should be named 18189.txt or 18189.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/1/8/18189/ + +Produced by Stacy Brown, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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