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diff --git a/18021-h/18021-h.htm b/18021-h/18021-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7fde74f --- /dev/null +++ b/18021-h/18021-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6908 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" + content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta content="pg2html (binary v0.18)" name="generator" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of + China and the Chinese, + by Herbert Allen Giles, LL.D. +</title> +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[*/ + <!-- + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + p { text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 100%; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; } + hr { width: 50%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; } + img {border:none;} + a { text-decoration: none;} + .foot { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 85%; } + .poem { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left; } + .poem .stanza { margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; } + .poem p { margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; } + .poem p.i2 { margin-left: 1.5em; } + .poem p.i3 { margin-left: 2.0em; } + .poem p.i4 { margin-left: 2.5em; } + .poem p.i5 { margin-left: 3.0em; } + .poem p.i6 { margin-left: 3.5em; } + .poem p.i7 { margin-left: 4.0em; } + .poem p.i8 { margin-left: 4.5em; } + .poem p.i10 { margin-left: 5.5em; } + .quote { margin-left: 6%; margin-right: 6%; text-indent: 0em; } + .figure { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps; } + .toc { margin-left: 15%; font-size: 80%; margin-bottom: 0em;} + .sc { font-variant: small-caps; } + ul { list-style: none; } +span.pagenum {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 70%; color:gray; background-color: white; } +span.greek {font-size: 110%; border-bottom: thin dotted black;} +span.chinese {font-size: 200%;} +/* + The following class is used to hide Chinese Simplified characters where they + occur before the equivalent Traditional characters. Some fonts and browsers + will only display the Simplified character, although the Traditional one is + used in the original text. This class allows us to retain the Simplified + encoding in place without interefering with the presentation to the viewer. +*/ +span.s-chinese { font-size: 200%; display: none; } +p.center { text-align: center; text-indent:0; } + center { padding: 0.8em;} +/*]]>*/ + // --> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of China and the Chinese, by Herbert Allen Giles + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: China and the Chinese + +Author: Herbert Allen Giles + +Release Date: March 20, 2006 [EBook #18021] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINA AND THE CHINESE *** + + + + +Produced by R. Cedron, David Garcia and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="pagei" name="pagei"></a>[i]</span> +</p> +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> +<h1> +CHINA AND THE CHINESE +</h1> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageii" name="pageii"></a>[ii]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiii" name="pageiii"></a>[iii]</span> +</p> +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> +<h1> +CHINA AND THE CHINESE +</h1> +<center><b> +BY +</b></center> +<h2> +HERBERT ALLEN GILES, LL.D. +</h2> +<p class="center"> +PROFESSOR OF CHINESE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE<br /> +LECTURER (1902) ON THE DEAN LUNG FOUNDATION<br /> +IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY +</p> +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 75%;"> + NEW YORK<br /> + THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, <span class="sc">Agents.</span><br /> + <span class="sc">66 Fifth Avenue</span><br /> + 1902 +</p> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 75%;"> + <i>All rights reserved.</i> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageiv" name="pageiv"></a>[iv]</span> +</p> +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> +<p class="center" style="font-size: 75%;"> +Copyright, 1902, <br /> +By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:75%;"> +Set up and electrotyped October, 1902. +</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:75%;"> +Norwood Press <br /> +J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith <br /> +Norwood Mass. U.S.A. +</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pagev" name="pagev"></a>[v]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_PREF" id="h2H_PREF"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + PREFACE +</h2> +<p> +The following Lectures were delivered during March, 1902, at Columbia +University, in the city of New York, to inaugurate the foundation by +General Horace W. Carpentier of the Dean Lung Chair of Chinese. +</p> +<p> +By the express desire of the authorities of Columbia University these +Lectures are now printed, and they may serve to record an important and +interesting departure in Oriental studies. +</p> +<p> +It is not pretended that Chinese scholarship will be in any way advanced +by this publication. The Lectures, slight in themselves, were never +meant for advanced students, but rather to draw attention to, and +possibly arouse some interest in, a subject which will occupy a larger +space in the future than in the present or in the past. +</p> +<p style="text-align: right;"> +HERBERT A. GILES. +</p> +<p><br /> + <span class="sc">Cambridge, England</span>,<br /> + April 15, 1902. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevi" name="pagevi"></a>[vi]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevii" name="pagevii"></a>[vii]</span> +</p> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + CONTENTS +</h2> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<center> + <a href="#h2H_4_0003">LECTURE I</a> +<br /> + THE CHINESE LANGUAGE +</center> +<p> +Its Importance—​Its Difficulty—​The +Colloquial—​Dialects—​"Mandarin"—​Absence of +Grammar—​Illustrations—​Pidgin-English—​Scarcity of Vocables—​The +Tones—​Coupled Words—​The Written Language—​The Indicators—​Picture +Characters—​Pictures of Ideas—​The Phonetics—​Some Faulty Analyses ... <a href="#page3">3</a> +</p> +<center> +<a href="#h2H_4_0005">LECTURE II</a> +<br /> +A CHINESE LIBRARY +</center> +<p> +The Cambridge (Eng.) Library—​(A) The Confucian Canon—​(B) Dynastic +History—​The "Historical Record"—​The "Mirror of +History"—​Biography—​Encyclopædias—​How arranged—​Collections of +Reprints—​The Imperial Statutes—​The Penal Code—​(C) +Geography—​Topography—​An Old Volume—​Account of Strange Nations—​(D) +Poetry—​Novels—​Romance of the Three Kingdoms—​Plays—​(E) +Dictionaries—​The Concordance—​Its Arrangement—​Imperial +Catalogue—​Senior Classics ... <a href="#page37">37</a> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageviii" name="pageviii"></a>[viii]</span> +</p> +<center> +<a href="#h2H_4_0007">LECTURE III</a> +<br /> +DEMOCRATIC CHINA +</center> +<p> +The Emperor—​Provincial +Government—​Circuits—​Prefectures—​Magistracies—​Headboroughs—​The +People—​The Magistrate—​Other Provincial Officials—​The Prefect—​The +Intendant of Circuit (<i>Tao-t'ai</i>)—​Viceroy and +Governor—​Taxation—​Mencius on "the People"—​Personal Liberty—​New +Imposts—​Combination—​Illustrations ... <a href="#page73">73</a> +</p> +<center> +<a href="#h2H_4_0009">LECTURE IV</a> +<br /> +CHINA AND ANCIENT GREECE +</center> +<p> +Relative Values of Chinese and Greek in Mental and Moral Training—​Lord +Granville—​Wên T'ien-hsiang—​Han Yü—​An Emperor—​A Land of +Opposites—​Coincidences between Chinese and Greek Civilisations—​The +Question of Greek Influence—​Greek Words in Chinese—​Coincidences in +Chinese and Western Literature—​Students of Chinese wanted ... <a href="#page107">107</a> +</p> +<center> +<a href="#h2H_4_0011">LECTURE V</a> +<br /> +TAOISM +</center> +<p> +Religions in China—​What is Tao?—​Lao Tzŭ—​The <i>Tao Tê Ching</i>—​Its +Claims—​The Philosophy of Lao Tzŭ—​-Developed by Chuang Tzŭ—​His View of +Tao—​A Taoist Poet—​Symptoms of Decay—​The Elixir of Life—​Alchemy—​The +Black Art—​<span class="pagenum"><a id="pageix" name="pageix"></a>[ix]</span>Struggle +between Buddhism and Taoism—​They borrow from One Another—​The +Corruption of Tao—​Its Last State ... <a href="#page141">141</a> +</p> +<center> +<a href="#h2H_4_0013">LECTURE VI</a> +<br /> +SOME CHINESE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS +</center> +<p> +Origin of the Queue—​Social Life—​An Eyeglass—​Street Etiquette—​Guest +and Host—​The Position of Women—​Infanticide—​Training and Education of +Women—​The Wife's Status—​Ancestral +Worship—​Widows—​Foot-binding—​Henpecked Husbands—​The Chinaman a +Mystery—​Customs vary with Places—​Dog's Flesh—​Substitutes at +Executions—​Doctors—​Conclusion ... <a href="#page175">175</a> +</p> +<center> +<a href="#h2H_4_0015">INDEX</a> +</center> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page1" name="page1"></a>[1]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0003" id="h2H_4_0003"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + LECTURE I +</h2> +<h3> + THE CHINESE LANGUAGE +</h3> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page2" name="page2"></a>[2]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page3" name="page3"></a>[3]</span> +</p> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + CHINA AND THE CHINESE +</h2> +<h3> + THE CHINESE LANGUAGE +</h3> +<p> +If the Chinese people were to file one by one past a given point, the +interesting procession would never come to an end. Before the last man +of those living to-day had gone by, another and a new generation would +have grown up, and so on for ever and ever. +</p> +<p> +The importance, as a factor in the sum of human affairs, of this vast +nation,—of its language, of its literature, of its religions, of its +history, of its manners and customs,—goes therefore without saying. Yet +a serious attention to China and her affairs is of very recent growth. +Twenty-five years ago there was but one professor of Chinese in the +United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; and even that one spent his +time more in adorning his profession than in imparting his knowledge to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page4" name="page4"></a>[4]</span> +classes of eager students. Now there are all together five chairs of +Chinese, the occupants of which are all more or less actively employed. +But we are still sadly lacking in what Columbia University appears to +have obtained by the stroke of a generous pen,—adequate funds for +endowment. Meanwhile, I venture to offer my respectful congratulations +to Columbia University on having surmounted this initial difficulty, and +also to prophesy that the foresight of the liberal donor will be amply +justified before many years are over. +</p> +<p> +I have often been asked if Chinese is, or is not, a difficult language +to learn. To this question it is quite impossible to give a categorical +answer, for the simple reason that Chinese consists of at least two +languages, one colloquial and the other written, which for all practical +purposes are about as distinct as they well could be. +</p> +<p> +Colloquial Chinese is a comparatively easy matter. It is, in fact, more +easily acquired in the early stages than colloquial French or German. A +student will begin to speak from the very first, for the simple reason +that there is no other way. There are no Declensions or Conjugations +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page5" name="page5"></a>[5]</span> +to be learned, and consequently no Paradigms or Irregular Verbs. +</p> +<p> +In a day or two the student should be able to say a few simple things. +After three months he should be able to deal with his ordinary +requirements; and after six months he should be able to chatter away +more or less accurately on a variety of interesting subjects. A great +deal depends upon the method by which he is taught. +</p> +<p> +The written or book language, on the other hand, may fairly be regarded +as a sufficient study for a lifetime; not because of the peculiar +script, which yields when systematically attacked, but because the style +of the book language is often so extremely terse as to make it obscure, +and sometimes so lavishly ornate that without wide reading it is not +easy to follow the figurative phraseology, and historical and +mythological allusions, which confront one on every page. +</p> +<p> +There are plenty of men, and some women, nowadays, who can carry on a +conversation in Chinese with the utmost facility, and even with grace. +Some speak so well as to be practically indistinguishable from Chinamen. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page6" name="page6"></a>[6]</span> +There are comparatively few men, and I venture to say still fewer, if +any, women, who can read an ordinary Chinese book with ease, or write an +ordinary Chinese letter at all. +</p> +<p> +Speaking of women as students of Chinese, there have been so far only +two who have really placed themselves in the front rank. It gives me +great pleasure to add that both these ladies, lady missionaries, were +natives of America, and that it was my privilege while in China to know +them both. In my early studies of Chinese I received much advice and +assistance from one of them, the late Miss Lydia Fay. Later on, I came +to entertain a high respect for the scholarship and literary attainments +of Miss Adèle M. Fielde, a well-known authoress. +</p> +<p> +Before starting upon a course of colloquial Chinese, it is necessary for +the student to consider in what part of China he proposes to put his +knowledge into practice. If he intends to settle or do business in +Peking, it is absolute waste of time for him to learn the dialect of +Shanghai. Theoretically, there is but one language spoken by the Chinese +people in China proper,—over an area of some two million square miles, +say twenty-five times the area of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page7" name="page7"></a>[7]</span> +England and Scotland together. Practically, there are about eight +well-marked dialects, all clearly of a common stock, but so distinct as +to constitute eight different languages, any two of which are quite as +unlike as English and Dutch. +</p> +<p> +These dialects may be said to fringe the coast line of the Empire of +China. Starting from Canton and coasting northward, before we have left +behind us the province in which Canton is situated, Kuangtung, we reach +Swatow, where a totally new dialect is spoken. A short run now brings +us to Amoy, the dialect of which, though somewhat resembling that of +Swatow, is still very different in many respects. Our next stage is +Foochow, which is in the same province as Amoy, but possesses a special +dialect of its own. Then on to Wênchow, with another dialect, and so on +to Ningpo with yet another, widely spoken also in Shanghai, though the +latter place really has a <i>patois</i> of its own. +</p> +<p> +Farther north to Chefoo, and thence to Peking, we come at last into the +range of the great dialect, popularly known as Mandarin, which sweeps +round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied by the various dialects +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page8" name="page8"></a>[8]</span> +above mentioned, and dominates a hinterland constituting about +four-fifths of China proper. It is obvious, then, that for a person who +settles in a coast district, the dialect of that district must be his +chief care, while for the traveller and explorer Mandarin will probably +stand him in best stead. +</p> +<p> +The dialect of Peking is now regarded as standard "Mandarin"; but +previous to the year 1425 the capital was at Nanking, and the dialect of +Nanking was the Mandarin then in vogue. Consequently, Pekingese is the +language which all Chinese officials are now bound to speak. +</p> +<p> +Those who come from certain parts of the vast hinterland speak Mandarin +almost as a mother tongue, while those from the seaboard and certain +adjacent parts of the interior have nearly as much difficulty in +acquiring it, and quite as much difficulty in speaking it with a correct +accent, as the average foreigner. +</p> +<p> +The importance of Mandarin, the "official language" as the Chinese call +it, is beyond question. It is the vehicle of oral communication between +all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from the same part +of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page9" name="page9"></a>[9]</span> +country and speak the same <i>patois</i>, between officials and their +servants, between judge and prisoner. Thus, in every court of justice +throughout the Empire the proceedings are carried on in Mandarin, +although none of the parties to the case may understand a single word. +The prosecutor, on his knees, tells his story in his native dialect. +This story is rendered into Mandarin by an official interpreter for the +benefit of the magistrate; the magistrate asks his questions or makes +his remarks in Mandarin, and these are translated into the local dialect +for the benefit of the litigants. Even if the magistrate knows the +dialect himself,—as is often the case, although no magistrate may hold +office in his own province,—still it is not strictly permissible for +him to make use of the local dialect for magisterial purposes. +</p> +<p> +It may be added that in all large centres, such as Canton, Foochow, and +Amoy, there will be found, among the well-to-do tradesmen and merchants, +many who can make themselves intelligible in something which +approximates to the dialect of Peking, not to mention that two out of +the above three cities are garrisoned by +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page10" name="page10"></a>[10]</span> +Manchu troops, who of course speak that dialect as their native tongue. +</p> +<p> +Such is Mandarin. It may be compared to a limited extent with Urdu, the +camp language of India. It is obviously the form of colloquial which +should be studied by all, except those who have special interests in +special districts, in which case, of course, the <i>patois</i> of the +locality comes to the front. +</p> +<p> +We will now suppose that the student has made up his mind to learn +Mandarin. The most natural thing for him, then, to do will be to look +around him for a grammar. He may have trouble in finding one. Such works +do actually exist, and they have been, for the most part, to quote a +familiar trade-mark, "made in Germany." They are certainly not made by +the Chinese, who do not possess, and never have possessed, in their +language, an equivalent term for grammar. The language is quite beyond +reach of the application of such rules as have been successfully deduced +from Latin and Greek. +</p> +<p> +The Chinese seem always to have spoken in monosyllables, and these +monosyllables seem always to have been incapable of inflection, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page11" name="page11"></a>[11]</span> +agglutination, or change of any kind. They are in reality root-ideas, +and are capable of adapting themselves to their surroundings, and of +playing each one such varied parts as noun, verb (transitive, neuter, or +even causal), adverb, and conjunction. +</p> +<p> +The word <span class="chinese">我</span> <i>wo</i>, which for convenience' sake I call "I," +must be rendered into English by "me" whenever it is the object of some +other word, which, also for convenience' sake, I call a verb. It has +further such extended senses as "egoistic" and "subjective." +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i4"> For example: <span class="chinese">我爱他</span> <i>wo ai t'a</i>. </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +The first of these characters, which is really the root-idea of "self," +stands here for the pronoun of the first person; the last, which is +really the root-idea of "not self," "other," stands for the pronoun of +the third person; and the middle character for the root-idea of "love." +</p> +<p> +This might mean in English, "I love him," or "I love her," or "I love +it,"—for there is no gender in Chinese, any more than there is +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page12" name="page12"></a>[12]</span> +any other indication of grammatical susceptibilities. We can only decide +if "him," "her," or "it" is intended by the context, or by the +circumstances of the case. +</p> +<p> +Now if we were to transpose what I must still call the pronouns, +although they are not pronouns except when we make them so, we should +have— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">他爱我</span> <i>t'a ai wo</i> +</p> +<p> +"he, she, <i>or</i> it loves me," the only change which the Chinese words +have undergone being one of position; while in English, in addition to +the inflection of the pronouns, the "love" of the first person becomes +"loves" in the third person. +</p> +<p> +Again, supposing we wished to write down— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + "People love him (or her)," +</p> +<p><br /> +we should have— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">人爱他</span> <i>jen ai t'a</i>, +</p> +<p><br /> +in which once more the noticeable feature is that the middle character, +although passing from the singular to the plural number, suffers no +change of any kind whatever. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page13" name="page13"></a>[13]</span> +Further, the character for "man" is in the plural simply because such a +rendering is the only one which the genius of the Chinese language will +here tolerate, helped out by the fact that the word by itself does not +mean "<i>a</i> man," but rather what we may call the root-idea of humanity. +</p> +<p> +Such terms as "a man," or "six men," or "some men," or "many men," would +be expressed each in its own particular way. +</p> +<p> +"All men," for instance, would involve merely the duplication of the +character <i>jen:</i>— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">人人爱他</span> <i>jen jen ai t'a</i>. +</p> +<p> +It is the same with tenses in Chinese. They are not brought out by +inflection, but by the use of additional words. +</p> +<p> +<span class="chinese">来</span> <i>lai</i> is the root-idea of "coming," and lends itself as +follows to the exigencies of conjugation:— +</p> +<p> +Standing alone, it is imperative:— +</p> +<p class="quote"> +<span class="chinese">来</span> <i>Lai!</i> = "come!" "here!" +</p> +<p class="quote"> +<span class="chinese">我来</span> <i>wo lai</i> = "I come, <i>or</i> am coming." +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page14" name="page14"></a>[14]</span> +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">他来</span> <i>t'a lai</i> = "he comes, <i>or</i> is coming." +</p> +<p> +And by inserting <span class="chinese">不</span> <i>pu</i>, a root-idea of negation,— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">他不来</span> <i>t'a pu lai</i> = "he comes not, <i>or</i> is not coming." +</p> +<p> +To express an interrogative, we say,— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">他来不来</span> <i>t'a lai pu lai</i> = "he come no come?" <i>i.e.</i> "is he coming?" +</p> +<p> +submitting the two alternatives for the person addressed to choose from +in reply. +</p> +<p> +The indefinite past tense is formed by adding the word <span class="chinese">了</span> <i>liao</i> or +<i>lo</i> "finished":— +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">他来了</span> <i>t'a lai lo</i> = "he come finish," = "he has come." +</p> +<p> +This may be turned into the definite past tense by inserting some +indication of time; <i>e.g.</i> +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">他早上来了</span> = "he came this morning." +</p> +<p> +Here we see that the same words may be indefinite or definite according +to circumstances. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page15" name="page15"></a>[15]</span> +It is perhaps more startling to find that the same words may be both +active and passive. +</p> +<p> +Thus, <span class="chinese">丢</span> <i>tiu</i> is the root-idea of "loss," "to lose," and <span class="chinese">了</span> +puts it into the past tense. +</p> +<p> +Now <span class="chinese">我丢了</span> means, and can only mean, "I have lost"—something understood, +or to be expressed. Strike out <span class="chinese">我</span> and substitute <span class="s-chinese">书</span> +<span class="chinese">書</span> "a book." No Chinaman would think that the new sentence meant +"The book has lost"—something understood, or to be expressed, as for +instance its cover; but he would grasp at once the real sense, "The book +is or has been lost." +</p> +<p> +In the case of such, a phrase as "The book has lost" its cover, quite a +different word would be used for "lost." +</p> +<p> +We have the same phenomenon in English. In the <i>New York Times</i> of +February 13, I read, "Mr. So-and-so dined," meaning not that Mr. +So-and-so took his dinner, but had been entertained at dinner by a party +of friends,—a neuter verb transformed into a passive verb by the logic +of circumstances. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page16" name="page16"></a>[16]</span> +By a like process the word <span class="chinese">死</span> <i>ssŭ</i> "to die" may also mean "to make +to die" = "to kill." +</p> +<p> +The word <span class="chinese">金</span> <i>chin</i> which stands for "gold" as a substantive may also +stand, as in English, for an adjective, and for a verb, "to gold," +<i>i.e.</i> to regard as gold, to value highly. +</p> +<p> +There is nothing in Chinese like love, loving, lovely, as noun +substantive, verb, and adverb. The word, written or spoken, remains +invariably, so far as its own economy is concerned, the same. Its +function in a sentence is governed entirely by position and by the +influence of other words upon it, coupled with the inexorable logic of +attendant circumstances. +</p> +<p> +When a Chinaman comes up to you and says, "You wantchee my, no +wantchee," he is doing no foolish thing, at any rate from his own point +of view. To save himself the trouble of learning grammatical English, he +is taking the language and divesting it of all troublesome inflections, +until he has at his control a set of root-ideas, with which he can +juggle as in his own tongue. In other words, "you wantchee my, no +wantchee," is nothing more nor less than literally rendered Chinese:— +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page17" name="page17"></a>[17]</span> +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">你要我不要</span> <i>ni yao wo, pu yao</i> = do you want me or not? +</p> +<p> +In this "pidgin" English he can express himself as in Chinese by merely +changing the positions of the words:— +</p> +<p> +"He wantchee my." "My wantchee he." +</p> +<p> +"My belong Englishman." +</p> +<p> +"That knife belong my." +</p> +<p> +Some years back, when I was leaving China for England with young +children, their faithful Chinese nurse kept on repeating to the little +ones the following remarkable sentence, "My too muchey solly you go +steamah; you no solly my." +</p> +<p> +All this is very absurd, no doubt; still it is <i>bona fide</i> Chinese, and +illustrates very forcibly how an intelligible language may be +constructed of root-ideas arranged in logical sequence. +</p> +<p> +If the last word had now been said in reference to colloquial, it would +be as easy for us to learn to speak Chinese as it is for a Chinaman to +learn to speak Pidgin-English. There is, however, a great obstacle still +in the way of the student. The Chinese language is peculiarly lacking in +vocables; that is to say, it possesses +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page18" name="page18"></a>[18]</span> +very few sounds for the conveyance of speech. The dialect of Peking is +restricted to four hundred and twenty, and as every word in the language +must fall under one or other of those sounds, it follows that if there +are 42,000 words in the language (and the standard dictionary contains +44,000), there is an average of 100 words to each sound. Of course, if +any sound had less than 100 words attached to it, some other sound would +have proportionately more. Thus, accepting the average, we should have +100 things or ideas, all expressed in speech, for instance, by the one +single sound <i>I</i>. +</p> +<p> +The confusion likely to arise from such conditions needs not to be +enlarged upon; it is at once obvious, and probably gave rise to the +following sapient remark by a globe-trotting author, which I took from a +newspaper in England:— +</p> +<p> +"In China, the letter <i>I</i> has one hundred and forty-five different ways +of being pronounced, and each pronunciation has a different meaning." +</p> +<p> +It would be difficult to squeeze more misleading nonsense into a smaller +compass. Imagine the agonies of a Chinese infant school, struggling +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page19" name="page19"></a>[19]</span> +with the letter <i>I</i> pronounced in 145 different ways, with a different +meaning to each! It will suffice to say, what everybody here present +must know, that Chinese is not in any sense an alphabetic language, and +that consequently there can be no such thing as "the letter <i>I</i>." +</p> +<p> +When closely examined, this great difficulty of many words with but one +common sound melts rapidly away, until there is but a fairly small +residuum with which the student has to contend. The same difficulty +confronts us, to a slighter extent, even in English. If I say, "I met a +bore in Broadway," I may mean one of several things. I may mean a tidal +wave, which is at once put out of court by the logic of circumstances. +Or I may mean a wild animal, which also has circumstances against it. +</p> +<p> +To return to Chinese. In the first place, although there are no doubt +42,000 separate written characters in the Chinese language, about +one-tenth of that number, 4200, would more than suffice for the needs of +an average speaker. Adopting this scale, we have 420 sounds and 4200 +words, or ten words to each sound,—still a sufficient hindrance to +anything like certain intelligibility of speech. But this +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page20" name="page20"></a>[20]</span> +is not the whole case. The ten characters, for instance, under each +sound, are distributed over four separate groups, formed by certain +modulations of the voice, known as Tones, so that actually there would +be only an average of 2-1/2 words liable to absolute confusion. Thus <span class="chinese">烟</span> +yen<sup>1</sup> means "smoke"; <span class="s-chinese">盐</span> <span class="chinese">鹽</span> yen<sup>2</sup> means "salt"; <span class="chinese">眼</span> +yen<sup>3</sup> means "an eye"; and <span class="chinese">雁</span> yen<sup>4</sup> means "a goose." +</p> +<p> +These modulations are not readily distinguished at first; but the ear is +easily trained, and it soon becomes difficult to mistake them. +</p> +<p> +Nor is this all. The Chinese, although their language is monosyllabic, +do not make an extensive use of monosyllables in speech to express a +single thing or idea. They couple their words in pairs. +</p> +<p> +Thus, for "eye" they would say, not <i>yen</i>, which strictly means "hole," +or "socket," but <i>yen ching</i>, the added word <i>ching</i>, which means +"eyeball," tying down the term to the application required, namely, +"eye." +</p> +<p> +In like manner it is not customary to talk about <i>yen</i>, "salt," as we +do, but to restrict the term as required in each case by the addition of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page21" name="page21"></a>[21]</span> +some explanatory word; for instance, <span class="chinese">白盐</span> "white salt," <i>i.e.</i> "table +salt"; <span class="chinese">黑盐</span> "black salt," <i>i.e.</i> "coarse salt"; all of which tends very +much to prevent confusion with other words pronounced in the same tone. +</p> +<p> +There are also certain words used as suffixes, which help to separate +terms which might otherwise be confused. Thus <span class="chinese">裹</span> <i>kuo</i><sup>3</sup> means "to +wrap," and <span class="chinese">果</span> <i>kuo</i><sup>3</sup> means "fruit," the two being identical in sound +and tone. And <i>yao kuo</i> might mean either "I want fruit" or "I want to +wrap." No one, however, says <i>kuo</i> for "fruit," but <i>kuo tzŭ</i>. The +suffix <i>tzŭ</i> renders confusion impossible. +</p> +<p> +Of course there is no confusion in reading a book, where each thing or +idea, although of the same sound and tone, is represented by a different +symbol. +</p> +<p> +On the whole, it may be said that misconceptions in the colloquial are +not altogether due to the fact that the Chinese language is poorly +provided with sounds. Many persons, otherwise gifted, are quite unable +to learn any foreign tongue. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page22" name="page22"></a>[22]</span> +Let us now turn to the machinery by means of which the Chinese arrest +the winged words of speech, and give to mere thought and utterance a +more concrete and a more lasting form. +</p> +<p> +The written language has one advantage over the colloquial: it is +uniformly the same all over China; and the same document is equally +intelligible to natives of Peking and Canton, just as the Arabic and +Roman numerals are understood all over Europe, although pronounced +differently by various nations. +</p> +<p> +To this fact some have attributed the stability of the Chinese Empire +and the permanence of her political and social institutions. +</p> +<p> +If we take the written language of to-day, which is to all intents and +purposes the written language of twenty-five hundred years ago, we gaze +at first on what seems to be a confused mass of separate signs, each +sign being apparently a fortuitous concourse of dots and dashes. +Gradually, however, the eye comes to perceive that every now and again +there is to be found in one character a certain portion which has +already been observed in another, and this may well have given rise to +the idea that each character is built up of parts equivalent +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page23" name="page23"></a>[23]</span> +to our letters of the alphabet. These portions are of two kinds, and +must be considered under two separate heads. +</p> +<p> +Under the first head come a variety of words, which also occur as +substantive characters, such as dog, vegetation, tree, disease, metal, +words, fish, bird, man, woman. These are found to indicate the direction +in which the sense of the whole character is to be sought. +</p> +<p> +Thus, whenever <span class="chinese">犭</span> "dog" occurs in a character, the reader may +prepare for the name of some animal, as for instance <span class="chinese">狮</span> <i>shih</i> "lion," +<span class="chinese">猫</span> <i>mao</i> "cat," <span class="chinese">狼</span> <i>lang</i> "wolf", <span class="chinese">猪</span> <i>ehu</i> "pig." +</p> +<p> +Two of these are interesting words. (1) There are no lions in China; +<i>shih</i> is merely an imitation of the Persian word <i>shír</i>. (2) <i>Mao</i>, the +term for a "cat," is obviously an example of onomatopoeia. +</p> +<p> +The character <span class="chinese">犭</span> will also indicate in many cases such +attributes as <span class="chinese">猾</span> <i>hua</i> "tricky," +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page24" name="page24"></a>[24]</span> +<span class="chinese">狠</span> <i>hên</i>, "aggressive," <span class="chinese">猛</span> <i>mêng</i> "fierce," +and other characteristics of animals. +</p> +<p> +Similarly, <span class="chinese">艹</span> <i>ts'ao</i> "vegetation" will hint +at some plant; <i>e.g.</i> <span class="chinese">草</span> <i>ts'ao</i> "grass," <span class="chinese">荷</span> <i>ho</i> +"the lily," <span class="chinese">芝</span> <i>chih</i> "the plant of immortality." +</p> +<p> +<span class="chinese">木</span> <i>mu</i> "a tree" usually points toward some species of tree; <i>e.g.</i> +<span class="chinese">松</span> <i>sung</i> "a fir tree," <span class="chinese">桑</span> <i>sang</i> "a mulberry tree"; +and by extension it points toward anything of wood, as <span class="chinese">板</span> <i>pan</i> "a +board," <span class="chinese">桌</span> <i>cho</i> "a table," <span class="chinese">椅</span> <i>i</i> "a chair," and so on. +</p> +<p> +So <span class="s-chinese">鱼</span> <span class="chinese">魚</span> <i>yü</i> "a fish" and <span class="chinese">鸟</span> <span class="chinese">鳥</span> <i>niao</i> +"a bird" are found in all characters of ichthyological or ornithological +types, respectively. +</p> +<p> +<span class="chinese">人</span> <i>jen</i> "a man" is found in a large number of characters dealing with +humanity under varied aspects; <i>e.g.</i> <span class="chinese">你</span> <i>ni</i> "thou," <span class="chinese">他</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page25" name="page25"></a>[25]</span> +<i>t'a</i> "he," <span class="chinese">作</span> <i>tso</i> "to make," <span class="chinese">仗</span> <i>chang</i> "a weapon," +<span class="chinese">傑</span> <i>chieh</i> "a hero," <span class="chinese">儒</span> <i>ju</i> "a scholar," "a Confucianist"; +while it has been pointed out that such words as <span class="chinese">奸</span> <i>chien</i> +"treacherous," <span class="chinese">媚</span> <i>mei</i> "to flatter," and <span class="chinese">妒</span> <i>tu</i> +"jealousy," are all written with the indicator <span class="chinese">女</span> <i>nü</i> "woman" at the +side. +</p> +<p> +The question now arises how these significant parts got into their +present position. Have they always been there, and was the script +artificially constructed off-hand, as is the case with Mongolian and +Manchu? The answer to this question can hardly be presented in a few +words, but involves the following considerations. +</p> +<p> +It seems to be quite certain that in very early times, when the +possibility and advantage of committing thought to writing first +suggested themselves to the Chinese mind, rude pictures of <i>things</i> +formed the whole stock in trade. Such were +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page26" name="page26"></a>[26]</span> +</p> +<div class="figure"> +<img src="images/ill-031.png" style="width:400px;" +alt="Sun, moon, mountains, hand, child, wood, bending official, mouth, ox, and claws." /> +<br /> +Sun, moon, mountains, hand, child, wood, bending official, +mouth, ox, and claws. +</div> +<p><br /> +in many of which it is not difficult to trace the modern forms of +to-day, +</p> +<p style="text-align:center;"> +<span class="chinese">日 月 山 手 子 木 臣 口 牛 爪</span> +</p> +<p> +It may here be noted that there was a tendency to curves so long as the +characters were scratched on bamboo tablets with a metal stylus. With +the invention of paper in the first century A.D., and the substitution +of a hair-pencil for the stylus, verticals and horizontals came more +into vogue. +</p> +<p> +The second step was the combination of two pictures to make a third; for +instance, a mouth with something coming out of it is "the tongue," <span class="chinese">舌</span>; +a mouth with something else coming out of it is "speech," "words," <span class="chinese">言</span>; +two trees put side by side make the picture of a "forest," <span class="chinese">林</span>. +</p> +<p> +The next step was to produce pictures of ideas. For instance, there +already existed in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page27" name="page27"></a>[27]</span> +speech a word <i>ming</i>, meaning "bright." To express this, the Chinese +placed in juxtaposition the two brightest things known to them. Thus <span class="chinese">日</span> +the "sun" and <span class="chinese">月</span> the "moon" were combined to form <span class="chinese">明</span> <i>ming</i> "bright." +There is as yet no suggestion of phonetic influence. The combined +character has a sound quite different from that of either of its +component parts, which are <i>jih</i> and <i>yüeh</i> respectively. +</p> +<p> +In like manner, <span class="chinese">日</span> "sun" and <span class="chinese">木</span> "tree," combined as <span class="chinese">東</span>, "the +sun seen rising through trees," signified "the east"; <span class="chinese">言</span> "words" and +<span class="chinese">舌</span> "tongue" = <span class="s-chinese">话</span> <span class="chinese">話</span> "speech"; <span class="chinese">友</span> (old form <img src="images/ill-032.png" style="height:2em;" alt=""two hands"" />) "two +hands" = "friendship"; <span class="chinese">女</span> "woman" and <span class="chinese">子</span> "child" = <span class="chinese">好</span> "good"; <span class="chinese">女</span> +"woman" and <span class="chinese">生</span> "birth," "born of a woman" = <span class="chinese">姓</span> "clan name," showing +that the ancient Chinese traced through the mother and not through the +father; <span class="chinese">勿</span> streamers used in signalling a negative = "do +not!" +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page28" name="page28"></a>[28]</span> +From <span class="chinese">林</span> "two trees," the picture of a forest, we come to <span class="chinese">森</span> "three +trees," suggesting the idea of density of growth and darkness; <span class="chinese">孝</span> "a +child at the feet of an old man" = "filial piety"; <span class="chinese">戈</span> "a spear" and +<span class="chinese">手</span> "to kill," suggesting the defensive attitude of +individuals in primeval times = <span class="chinese">我</span> "I, me"; <span class="chinese">我</span> "I, my," and <span class="chinese">羊</span> +"sheep," suggesting the obligation to respect another man's flocks = +<span class="chinese">義</span> "duty toward one's neighbour"; <span class="chinese">大</span> "large" and <span class="chinese">羊</span> +"sheep" = <span class="chinese">美</span> "beautiful"; and <span class="chinese">善</span>, "virtuous," also has +"sheep" as a component part,—why we do not very satisfactorily make +out, except that of course the sheep would play an important rôle among +early pastoral tribes. The idea conveyed by what we call the conjunction +"and" is expressed in Chinese by an ideogram, viz. <span class="chinese">及</span>, which was +originally the picture of a hand, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page29" name="page29"></a>[29]</span> +seizing what might be the tail of the coat of a man preceding, +<i>scilicet</i> following. +</p> +<p> +The third and greatest step in the art of writing was reached when the +Chinese, who had been trying to make one character do for several +similar-sounding words of different meanings, suddenly bethought +themselves of distinguishing these several similar-sounding words by +adding to the original character employed some other character +indicative of the special sense in which each was to be understood. +Thus, in speech the sound <i>ting</i> meant "the sting of an insect," and was +appropriately pictured by what is now written <span class="chinese">丁</span>. +</p> +<p> +There were, however, other words also expressed by the sound <i>ting</i>, +such as "a boil," "the top or tip," "to command," "a nail," "an ingot," +and "to arrange." These would be distinguished in speech by the tones +and suffixes, as already described; but in writing, if <span class="chinese">丁</span> were used for +all alike, confusion would of necessity arise. To remedy this, it +occurred to some one in very early ages to make <span class="chinese">丁</span>, and other similar +pictures of things or ideas, serve as what we now call Phonetics, <i>i.e.</i> +the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page30" name="page30"></a>[30]</span> +part which suggests the sound of the character, and to add in each case +an indicator of the special sense intended to be conveyed. Thus, taking +<span class="chinese">丁</span> as the phonetic base, in order to express <i>ting</i>, "a boil," the +indicator for "disease," <span class="chinese">疒</span>, was added, making <span class="chinese">疔</span>; for <i>ting</i>, +"the top," the indicator for "head," <span class="chinese">页</span>, was added, making <span class="chinese">顶</span>; +for "to command," the symbol for "mouth," <span class="chinese">口</span> was added, making <span class="chinese">叮</span>; +for "nail," and also for "ingot," the symbol +for "metal," <span class="chinese">金</span>, was added, making <span class="s-chinese">钉</span> <span class="chinese">釘</span>; and for "to arrange," the +symbol for "speech," <span class="chinese">言</span>, was added, making <span class="chinese">訂</span>. We thus obtain +five new words, which, so far as the written language is concerned, are +easily distinguishable one from another, namely, <i>ting</i> "a sting," +disease-<i>ting</i> = "a boil," head-<i>ting</i> = "the top," mouth-<i>ting</i> = "to +command," metal-<i>ting</i> = "a nail," speech-<i>ting</i> = "to arrange." In like +manner, the words for "mouth," "to rap," and "a button," were all +pronounced <i>k'ou</i>. Having got <span class="chinese">口</span> <i>k'ou</i> as the picture of a mouth, that +was taken as the phonetic base, and to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page31" name="page31"></a>[31]</span> +express "to rap," the symbol for "hand," <span class="chinese">手</span> or <span class="chinese">扌</span>, was +added, making <span class="chinese">扣</span>; while to express "button," the symbol for +"metal," <span class="chinese">金</span> was added, making <span class="chinese">釦</span>. So that we have +<i>k'ou</i> = "mouth," hand-<i>k'ou</i> = "to rap," and metal-<i>k'ou</i> = "button." +</p> +<p> +Let us take a picture of an idea. We have <span class="chinese">東</span> <i>tung</i> = the sun seen +through the trees,—"the east." When the early Chinese wished to write +down <i>tung</i> "to freeze," they simply took the already existing +<span class="chinese">東</span> as the phonetic base, and added to it "an icicle," <span class="chinese">冫</span>, +thus <span class="chinese">凍</span>. And when they wanted to write down <i>tung</i> "a beam," instead +of "icicle," they put the obvious indicator <span class="chinese">木</span> "wood," thus <span class="s-chinese">栋</span> <span class="chinese">棟</span>. +</p> +<p> +We have now got the two portions into which the vast majority of Chinese +characters can be easily resolved. +</p> +<p> +There is first the phonetic base, itself a character originally intended +to represent some thing or idea, and then borrowed to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page32" name="page32"></a>[32]</span> +represent other things and ideas similarly pronounced; and secondly, the +indicator, another character added to the phonetic base in order to +distinguish between the various things and ideas for which the same +phonetic base was used. +</p> +<p> +All characters, however, do not yield at once to the application of our +rule. <span class="chinese">要</span> <i>yao</i> "to will, to want," is composed of <span class="chinese">西</span> "west" and <span class="chinese">女</span> +"woman." What has western woman to do with the sign of the future? In +the days before writing, the Chinese called the waist of the body <i>yao</i>. +By and by they wrote <span class="chinese">要</span>, a rude picture of man with his arms +akimbo and his legs crossed, thus accentuating the narrower portion, the +waist. Then, when it was necessary to write down <i>yao</i>, "to will," they +simply borrowed the already existing word for "waist." In later times, +when writing became more exact, they took the indicator <span class="chinese">月</span> +"flesh," and added it wherever the idea of waist had to be conveyed. And +thus <span class="chinese">腰</span> it is +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page33" name="page33"></a>[33]</span> +still written, while <i>yao</i>, "to will, to want," has usurped the +character originally invented for "waist." +</p> +<p> +In some of their own identifications native Chinese scholars have often +shown themselves hopelessly at sea. For instance, <span class="chinese">天</span> "the sky," +figuratively God, was explained by the first Chinese lexicographer, +whose work has come down to us from about one hundred years after the +Christian era, as composed of <span class="chinese">一</span> "one" and <span class="chinese">大</span> +"great," the "one great" thing; whereas it was simply, under +its oldest form, <img src="images/ill-038.png" style="height:2em;" alt="" />, a rude anthropomorphic +picture of the Deity. +</p> +<p> +Even the early Jesuit Fathers of the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries, to whom we owe so much for pioneer work in the domain of +Sinology, were not without occasional lapses of the kind, due no doubt +to a laudable if excessive zeal. Finding the character <span class="chinese">船</span>, which is the +common word for "a ship," as indicated by <span class="chinese">舟</span>, the earlier +picture-character for "boat" seen on the left-hand side, one ingenious +Father proceeded to analyse it as follows:— +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page34" name="page34"></a>[34]</span> +</p> +<p class="quote"> + <span class="chinese">舟</span> "ship," <span class="chinese">八</span> "eight," <span class="chinese">口</span> "mouth" = eight mouths on a ship—"the Ark." +</p> +<p> +But the right-hand portion is merely the phonetic of the character; it +was originally <span class="chinese">铅</span> "lead," which gave the sound required; then +the indicator "boat" was substituted for "metal." +</p> +<p> +So with the word <span class="chinese">禁</span> "to prohibit." Because it could be analysed into +two <span class="chinese">木木</span> "trees" and <span class="chinese">示</span> "a divine proclamation," an allusion +was discovered therein to the two trees and the proclamation of the +Garden of Eden; whereas again the proper analysis is into indicator and +phonetic. +</p> +<p> +Nor is such misplaced ingenuity confined to the Roman Catholic Church. +In 1892 a Protestant missionary published and circulated broadcast what +he said was "evidence in favour of the Gospels," being nothing less than +a prophecy of Christ's coming hidden in the Chinese character <span class="s-chinese">来</span> <span class="chinese">來</span> +"to come." He pointed out that this was composed of <img src="images/ill-039.png" style="height:2em;" alt=""a cross"" /> "a cross," with two <span class="chinese">人人</span> 'men,' one on each +side, and a 'greater man' <span class="chinese">人</span> in the middle. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page35" name="page35"></a>[35]</span> +That analysis is all very well for the character as it stands now; but +before the Christian era this same character was written <img src="images/ill-040.png" style="height:2em;" alt=""sheaf of corn"" /> +and was a picture, not of men and of a cross, but +of a sheaf of corn. It came to mean "come," says the Chinese +etymologist, "because corn <i>comes</i> from heaven." +</p> +<p> +Such is the written language of China, and such indeed it was, already +under the dominion of the phonetic system, by which endless new +combinations may still be formed, at the very earliest point to which +history, as distinguished from legend, will carry us,—some eight or +nine centuries B.C. There are no genuine remains of pure +picture-writing, to enable us to judge how far the Chinese had got +before the phonetic system was invented, though many attempts have been +made to palm off gross forgeries as such. +</p> +<p> +The great majority of characters, as I have said, are capable of being +easily resolved into the two important parts which I have attempted to +describe—the original phonetic portion, which guides toward +pronunciation, and the added indicator, which guides toward the sense. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page36" name="page36"></a>[36]</span> +Even the practical student, who desires to learn to read and write +Chinese for purely business purposes, will find himself constrained to +follow out this analysis, if he wishes to commit to memory a serviceable +number of characters. With no other hold upon them beyond their mere +outlines, he will find the characters so bewildering, so elusive, as to +present almost insuperable difficulties. +</p> +<p> +But under the influence of systematic study, coupled with a fair amount +of perseverance, these difficulties disappear, and leave the triumphant +student amply rewarded for his pains. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page37" name="page37"></a>[37]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0005" id="h2H_4_0005"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + LECTURE II +</h2> +<h3> + A CHINESE LIBRARY +</h3> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page38" name="page38"></a>[38]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page39" name="page39"></a>[39]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0006" id="h2H_4_0006"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + A CHINESE LIBRARY +</h2> +<p> +The endowment of a Chinese chair at Columbia University naturally +suggests the acquisition of a good Chinese library. At the University of +Cambridge, England, there is what I can only characterise as an ideal +Chinese library. It was not bought off-hand in the market,—such a +collection indeed would never come into the market,—but the books were +patiently and carefully brought together by my predecessor in the +Chinese chair during a period of over forty years' residence in China. +The result is an admirable selection of representative works, always in +good, and sometimes in rare, editions, covering the whole field of what +is most valuable in Chinese literature. +</p> +<p> +I now propose, with your approval, to give a slight sketch of the +Cambridge Library, in which I spend a portion of almost every day of my +life, and which I further venture to recommend as the type of that +collection which Columbia +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page40" name="page40"></a>[40]</span> +University should endeavour to place upon her shelves. +</p> +<p> +The Chinese library at Cambridge consists of 4304 volumes, roughly +distributed under seven heads. These volumes, it should be stated, are +not the usual thin, paper-covered volumes of an ordinary Chinese work, +but they consist each of several of the original Chinese volumes bound +together in cloth or leather, lettered on the back, and standing on the +shelves, as our books do, instead of lying flat, as is the custom in +China. +</p> +<p> +Division A contains, first of all, the Confucian Canon, which now +consists of nine separate works. +</p> +<p> +There is the mystic <i>Book of Changes</i>, that is to say, the eight changes +or combinations which can be produced by a line and a broken line, +either one of which is repeated twice with the other, or three times by +itself. +</p> +<div class="figure" style="font-variant: normal;"> +<img src="images/ill-044.png" style="width: 300px;" alt="" /> etc. +</div> +<p> +These trigrams are said to have been copied from the back of a tortoise +by an ancient monarch, who doubled them into hexagrams, and so increased +the combinations to sixty-four, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page41" name="page41"></a>[41]</span> +each one of which represents some active or passive power in nature. +</p> +<p> +Confucius said that if he could devote fifty years to the study of this +work, he might come to be without great faults; but neither native nor +foreign scholars can really make anything out of it. Some regard it as a +Book of Fate. One erratic genius of the West has gone so far as to say +that it is only a vocabulary of the language of some old Central Asian +tribe. +</p> +<p> +We are on somewhat firmer ground with the <i>Book of History</i>, which is a +collection of very ancient historical documents, going back twenty +centuries B.C., arranged and edited by Confucius. These documents, mere +fragments as they are, give us glimpses of China's early civilisation, +centuries before the historical period, to which we shall come later on, +can fairly be said to begin. +</p> +<p> +Then we have the <i>Book of Odes</i>, consisting of some three hundred +ballads, also rescued by Confucius from oblivion, on which as a basis +the great superstructure of modern Chinese poetry has been raised. +</p> +<p> +Next comes an historical work by Confucius, known as the <i>Spring and +Autumn</i>: it should be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page42" name="page42"></a>[42]</span> +Springs and Autumns, for the title refers to the yearly records, to the +annals, in fact, of the native State of Confucius himself. +</p> +<p> +The fifth in the series is the <i>Book of Rites</i>. This deals, as its title +indicates, with ceremonial, and contains an infinite number of rules for +the guidance of personal conduct under a variety of conditions and +circumstances. It was compiled at a comparatively late date, the close +of the second century B.C., and scarcely ranks in authority with the +other four. +</p> +<p> +The above are called the Five Classics; they were for many centuries six +in number, a <i>Book of Music</i> being included, and they were engraved on +forty-six huge stone tablets about the year 170 A.D. Only mutilated +portions of these tablets still remain. +</p> +<p> +The other four works which make up the Confucian Canon are known as the +Four Books. They consist of a short moral treatise entitled the <i>Great +Learning</i>, or Learning for Adults; the <i>Doctrine of the Mean</i>, another +short philosophical treatise; the <i>Analects</i>, or conversations of +Confucius with his disciples, and other details of the sage's daily +life; and lastly, similar conversations of Mencius with his disciples +and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page43" name="page43"></a>[43]</span> +with various feudal nobles who sought his advice. +</p> +<p> +These nine works are practically learned by heart by the Chinese +undergraduate. But there are in addition many commentaries and +exegetical works—the best of which stand in the Cambridge +Library—designed to elucidate the true purport of the Canon; and these +must also be studied. They range from the commentary of K'ung An-kuo of +the second century B.C., a descendant of Confucius in the twelfth +degree, down to that of Yüan Yüan, a well-known scholar who only died so +recently as 1849. These commentaries include both of the two great +schools of interpretation, the earlier of which was accepted until the +twelfth century A.D., when it was set aside by China's most brilliant +scholar, Chu Hsi, who substituted the interpretation still in vogue, and +obligatory at the public competitive examinations which admit to an +official career. +</p> +<p> +Archæological works referring to the Canon have been published in great +numbers. The very first book in our Catalogue is an account of every +article mentioned in these old records, accompanied in all cases by +woodcuts. Thus +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page44" name="page44"></a>[44]</span> +the foreign student may see not only the robes and caps in which ancient +worthies of the Confucian epoch appeared, but their chariots, their +banners, their weapons, and general paraphernalia of everyday life. +</p> +<p> +Side by side with the sacred books of Confucianism stand the heterodox +writings of the Taoist philosophers, the nominal founder of which +school, known as Lao Tzŭ, flourished at an unknown date before +Confucius. Some of these are deeply interesting; others have not escaped +the suspicion of forgery—a suspicion which attaches more or less to any +works produced before the famous Burning of the Books, in B.C. 211, from +which the Confucian Canon was preserved almost by a miracle. An Emperor +at that date made an attempt to destroy all literature, so that a fresh +start might be made from himself. +</p> +<p> +But I do not intend to detain you at present over Taoism, about which I +hope to say more on a subsequent occasion. Still less shall I have +anything to say on the few Buddhist works which are also to be found in +the Cambridge collection. It is rather along less well-beaten paths that +I shall ask you to accompany me now. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page45" name="page45"></a>[45]</span> +In Division B, the first thing which catches the eye is a long line of +217 thick volumes, about a foot in height. These are the dynastic +histories of China, in a uniform edition published in the year 1747, +under the auspices of the famous Emperor Ch'ien Lung, who himself +contributed a Preface. +</p> +<p> +The first of this series, known as <i>The Historical Record</i>, was produced +by a very remarkable man, named Ssŭ-ma Ch'ien, sometimes called the +Father of History, the Herodotus of China, who died nearly one hundred +years B.C.; and over his most notable work it may not be unprofitable to +linger awhile. +</p> +<p> +Starting with the five legendary Emperors, some 2700 years B.C., the +historian begins by giving the annals of each reign under the various +more or less legendary dynasties which succeeded, and thence onward +right down to his own times, the last five or six hundred years, <i>i.e.</i> +from about 700 B.C., belonging to a genuinely historical period. These +annals form Part I of the five parts into which the historian divides +his scheme. +</p> +<p> +Part II is occupied by chronological tables of the Emperors and their +reigns, of the suzerains +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page46" name="page46"></a>[46]</span> +and vassal nobles under the feudal system which was introduced about +1100 B.C., and also of the nobles created to form an aristocracy after +the feudal system had been swept away and replaced by the old Imperial +rule, about 200 B.C. +</p> +<p> +Part III consists of eight important and interesting chapters: (1) on +the Rites and Ceremonies of the period covered, (2) on Music, (3) on the +Pitch-pipes, a series of twelve bamboo tubes of varying lengths, the +notes from which were supposed to be bound up in some mysterious way +with the good and bad fortunes of mankind, (4) on the Calendar, (5) on +the Stars, (6) on the Imperial Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, (7) on +the Waterways of the Empire, and lastly (8) on Commerce, Coinage, etc. +</p> +<p> +Part IV deals with the reigns, so to speak, of the vassal nobles under +the feudal system, the reigns of the suzerains having been already +included in Part I. +</p> +<p> +Part V consists of biographies of the most eminent men who came to the +front during the whole period covered. +</p> +<p> +These biographies are by no means confined to virtuous statesmen or +heroic generals, as we might very reasonably have expected. The +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page47" name="page47"></a>[47]</span> +Chinese historian took a much broader view of his responsibilities to +future ages, and along with the above virtuous statesmen and heroic +generals he included lives of famous assassins, of tyrannical officials, +of courtiers, of flatterers, of men with nothing beyond the gift of the +gab, of politicians, of fortune-tellers, and the like. +</p> +<p> +This principle seems now to be widely recognised in the compilation of +biographical collections. It was initiated by a Chinese historian one +hundred years B.C. +</p> +<p> +His great work has come down to us as near as possible intact. To the +Chinese it is, and always has been, a priceless treasure; so much so +that every succeeding Dynastic History has been modelled pretty much +upon the same lines. +</p> +<p> +The custom has always been for the incoming dynasty to issue the history +of the dynasty it has overthrown, based upon materials which have been +gathered daily during the latter's lease of power. At this moment the +Historiographer's Department in Peking should be noting down current +events for the use of posterity, in the established belief that all +dynasties, even the most powerful, come to an end some day. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page48" name="page48"></a>[48]</span> +In addition to the Dynastic History proper, a custom has grown up of +compiling what is called the "Veritable Record" of the life of the +reigning Emperor. This is supposed to be written up every day, and with +an absolute fidelity which it is unnecessary to suspect, since the +Emperors are never allowed under any circumstances to cast an eye over +their own records. +</p> +<p> +When the Hanlin College was burnt down, in 1900, some said that the +"Veritable Records" of the present dynasty were destroyed. Others +alleged that they had been carted away several days previously. However +this may be, the "Veritable Records" of the great Ming dynasty, which +came to a close in 1644, after three hundred years of power, are safe in +Division B of the Cambridge Library, filling eighty-four large volumes +of manuscript. +</p> +<p> +The next historical epoch is that of Ssŭ-ma Kuang, a leading +statesman and scholar of the eleventh century A.D., who, after nineteen +years of continuous labour, produced a general history of China, in the +form of a chronological narrative, beginning with the fourth century +B.C. and ending with the middle of the tenth +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page49" name="page49"></a>[49]</span> +century A.D. This work, which is popularly known as <i>The Mirror of +History</i>, and is quite independent of the dynastic histories, fills +thirty-three of our large bound-up volumes. +</p> +<p> +There is a quaint passage in the old man's Preface, dated 1084, and +addressed to the Emperor:— +</p> +<p> +"Your servant's physical strength is now relaxed; his eyes are +short-sighted and dim; of his teeth but a few remain. His memory is so +impaired that the events of the moment are forgotten as he turns away +from them, his energies having been wholly exhausted in the production +of this book. He therefore hopes that your Majesty will pardon his vain +attempt for the sake of his loyal intention, and in moments of leisure +will deign to cast the Sacred Glance over this work, so as to learn from +the rise and fall of former dynasties the secret of the successes and +failures of the present hour. Then, if such knowledge shall be applied +for the advantage of the Empire, even though your servant may lay his +bones in the Yellow Springs, the aim and ambition of his life will be +fulfilled." +</p> +<p> +Biography, as we have already seen, is to some extent provided for under +the dynastic +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page50" name="page50"></a>[50]</span> +histories. Its scope, however, has been limited in later times, so far +as the Historiographer's Department is concerned, to such officials as +have been named by Imperial edict for inclusion in the national records. +Consequently, there has always been a vast output of private +biographical literature, dealing with the lives of poets, painters, +priests, hermits, villains, and others, whose good and evil deeds would +have been long since forgotten, like those of the heroes before +Agamemnon, but for the care of some enthusiastic biographer. +</p> +<p> +Among our eight or ten collections of this kind, there is one which +deserves a special notice. This work is entitled <i>Biographies of Eminent +Women</i>, and it fills four extra-large volumes, containing 310 lives in +all. The idea of thus immortalising the most deserving of his +countrywomen first occurred to a writer named Liu Hsiang, who flourished +just before the Christian era. I am not aware that his original work is +still procurable; the present work was based upon one by another writer, +of the third century A.D., and is brought down to modern times, being +published in 1779. Each biography is accompanied by a full-page +illustration +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page51" name="page51"></a>[51]</span> +of some scene in which the lady distinguished herself,—all from the +pencil of a well-known artist. +</p> +<p> +Three good-sized encyclopædias, uniformly bound up in ninety-eight large +volumes, may fairly claim a moment's notice, not only as evidencing the +persistent literary industry of the Chinese, but because they are all +three perfect mines of information on subjects of interest to the +foreign student. +</p> +<p> +The first dates from the very beginning of the ninth century, and deals +chiefly with the Administration of Government, Political Economy, and +National Defences, besides Rites, Music, and subordinate questions. +</p> +<p> +The second dates from the twelfth century, and deals with the same +subjects, having additional sections on History and Chronology, Writing, +Pronunciation, Astronomy, Bibliography, Prodigies, Fauna and Flora, +Foreign Nations, etc. +</p> +<p> +The third, and best known to foreign scholars, is the encyclopædia of +Ma Tuan-lin of the fourteenth century. It is on much the same lines as +the other two, being actually based upon the first, but has of course +the advantage of being some centuries later. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page52" name="page52"></a>[52]</span> +The above three works are in a uniform edition, published in the middle +of the eighteenth century under orders from the Emperor Ch'ien Lung. +</p> +<p> +There are also several other encyclopædias of information on general +topics, extending to a good many volumes in each case. +</p> +<p> +One of these contains interesting extracts on all manner of subjects +taken from the lighter literature of China, such as Dreams, Palmistry, +Reminiscences of a Previous State of Existence, and even Resurrection +after Death. It was cut on blocks for printing in A.D. 981, only fifty +years after the first edition of the Confucian Canon was printed. The +Cambridge copy cannot claim to date from 981, but it does date from +1566. +</p> +<p> +Another work of the same kind was the <i>San Ts'ai T'u Hui</i>, issued in +1609, which is bound up in seventeen thick volumes. It is especially +interesting for the variety of topics on which information is given, and +also because it is profusely illustrated with full-page woodcuts. It has +chapters on Geography, with maps; on Ethnology, Language, the Arts and +Sciences, and even on various forms of Athletics, including +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page53" name="page53"></a>[53]</span> +the feats of rope-dancers and acrobats, sword-play, boxing, wrestling, +and foot-ball. +</p> +<p> +Under Tricks and Magic we see a man swallowing a sword, or walking +through fire, while hard by an acrobat is bending backward and drinking +from cups arranged upon the ground. +</p> +<p> +The chapters on Drawing are exceptionally good; they contain some +specimen landscapes of almost faultless perspective, and also clever +examples of free-hand drawing. Portrait-painting is dealt with, and ten +illustrations are given of the ten angles at which a face may be drawn. +The first shows one-tenth of the face from the right side, the second +two-tenths, and so on, waxing to full-face five-tenths; then waning sets +in on the left side, four, three, and two-tenths, until ten-tenths shows +nothing more than the back of the sitter's head. +</p> +<p> +There is a well-known Chinese story which tells how a very stingy man +took a paltry sum of money to an artist—payment is always exacted in +advance—and asked him to paint his portrait. The artist at once +complied with his request, but in an hour or so, when the portrait was +finished, nothing was visible save the back of the sitter's head. "What +does this +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page54" name="page54"></a>[54]</span> +mean?" cried the latter, indignantly. "Oh," replied the artist, "I +thought a man who paid so little as you wouldn't care to show his face!" +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +Perhaps some one may wonder how it is possible to arrange an +encyclopædia for reference when the language in which it is written +happens to possess no alphabet. +</p> +<p> +Arrangement under Categories is the favourite method, and it is employed +in the following way:— +</p> +<p> +A number of such words as Heaven, Earth, Time, Man, Plants, Beasts, +Birds, Fishes, Minerals, and others are chosen, and the subjects are +grouped under these headings. Thus, Eclipses would come under Heaven, +Geomancy under Earth, the Passions under Man, though all classification +is not quite so simple as these specimens, and search is often prolonged +by failing to hit upon the right Category. Even when the Category is the +right one, many pages of Index have frequently to be turned over; but +once fix the reference in the Index, and the rest is easy, the +catch-word in each case being printed on the margin of each page, just +where the finger comes when turning the pages rapidly over. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page55" name="page55"></a>[55]</span> +The Chinese are very fond of collections of reprints, published in +uniform editions and often extending to several hundred volumes. My +earliest acquaintance with literature is associated with such a +collection in English. It was called <i>The Family Library</i>, and ran to +over a hundred volumes, if I recollect rightly, and included the works +of Washington Irving and the immortal story of <i>Rip Van Winkle</i>. There +is also a Chinese Rip Van Winkle, a tale of a man who, wandering one day +in the mountains, came upon two boys playing checkers; and after +watching them for some time, and eating some dates they gave him, he +discovered that the handle of an axe he was carrying had mouldered into +dust. Returning home, he found, as the Chinese poet puts it, +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "City and suburb as of old,</p> +<p class="i3"> But hearts that loved him long since cold."</p> +</div> +</div> +<p> +Seven generations had passed away in the interim. +</p> +<p> +The Cambridge Library possesses several of these collections of +reprints. One of them is perhaps extra valuable because the wooden +blocks from which it was printed were destroyed +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page56" name="page56"></a>[56]</span> +during the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion, some forty years ago. +</p> +<p> +I may mention here, though not properly belonging to this section, that +we possess a good collection of the curious pamphlets issued by the +T'ai-p'ing rebels. +</p> +<p> +Other interesting works to be found in Division B are the Statutes of +the present dynasty, which began in 1644, and even those of the previous +dynasty, the latter being an edition of 1576. +</p> +<p> +Then there is the Penal Code of this dynasty, in several editions; +various collections of precedents; handbooks for magistrates, with +recorded decisions and illustrative cases. +</p> +<p> +A magistrate or judge in China is not expected to know anything about +law. +</p> +<p> +Attached to the office of every official who may be called upon to try +criminal cases is a law expert, to whom the judge or magistrate may +refer, when he has any doubt, in private, just as our unpaid justices of +the peace in England refer for guidance to the qualified official +attached to the court. +</p> +<p> +Before passing on to the next section, one last volume, taken at +haphazard, bears the weird +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page57" name="page57"></a>[57]</span> +title, <i>A Record in Dark Blood</i>. This work contains notices of eminent +statesmen and others, who met violent deaths, each accompanied by a +telling illustration of the tragic scene. Some of the incidents go far +to dispose of the belief that patriotism is quite unknown to the +Chinese. +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +Division C is devoted to Geography and to Topography. Here stands the +Imperial Geography of the Empire, in twenty-four large volumes, with +maps, in the edition of 1745. Here, too, stand many of the Topographies +for which China is justly celebrated. Every Prefecture and every +District, or Department,—and the latter number about fifteen +hundred,—has its Topography, a kind of local history, with all the +noticeable features of the District, its bridges, temples, and like +buildings, duly described, together with biographies of all natives of +the District who have risen to distinction in any way. Each Topography +would occupy about two feet of shelf; consequently a complete collection +of all the Topographies of China, piled one upon the other, would form a +vertical column as high as the Eiffel Tower. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page58" name="page58"></a>[58]</span> +Yet Topography is only an outlying branch of Chinese literature. +</p> +<p> +Division C further contains the oldest printed book in the Cambridge +University Library, and a very interesting one to boot. It is entitled +<i>An Account of Strange Nations</i>, and was published between 1368 and +1398. Its contents consist of short notices of about 150 nationalities +known more or less to the Chinese, and the value of these is much +enhanced by the woodcuts which accompany each notice. +</p> +<p> +Among the rest we find Koreans, Japanese, Hsiung-nu (the forefathers of +the Huns), Kitan Tartars, tribes of Central Asia, Arabs, Persians, and +even Portuguese, Jean de Montecorvino, who had been appointed archbishop +of Peking in 1308, having died there in 1330. Of course there are a few +pictures of legendary peoples, such as the Long-armed Nation, the +One-eyed Nation, the Dog-headed Nation, the Anthropophagi, +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i10"> "and men whose heads</p> +<p class="i3"> Do grow beneath their shoulders."</p> +</div> +</div> +<p> +There is also an account of Fusang, the country where grew the famous +plant which some have tried to identify with the Mexican +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page59" name="page59"></a>[59]</span> +aloe, thus securing the discovery of America for the Chinese. +</p> +<p> +The existence of many of these nations is duly recorded by Pliny in his +<i>Natural History</i>, in words curiously identical with those we find in +the Chinese records. +</p> +<p> +Some strange birds and animals are given at the end of this book, the +most interesting of all being an accurate picture of the zebra, here +called the <i>Fu-lu</i>, which means "Deer of Happiness," but which is +undoubtedly a rough attempt at <i>fara</i>, an old Arabic term for the wild +ass. Now, the zebra being quite unknown in Asia, the puzzle is, how the +Chinese came to be so well acquainted with it at that early date. +</p> +<p> +The condition of the book is as good as could be expected, after six +hundred years of wear and tear. Each leaf, here and there defective, is +carefully mounted on sheets of stiff paper, and all together very few +characters are really illegible, though sometimes the paper has slipped +upon the printing-block, and has thus given, in several cases, a double +outline. +</p> +<p> +Alongside of this stands the modern work of the kind, published in 1761, +with an introductory poem from the pen of the Emperor Ch'ien +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page60" name="page60"></a>[60]</span> +Lung. It contains a much longer list of nations, including the British, +French, Spanish, Dutch, Russians, Swedes, and others, and the +illustrations—a man and woman of each country—are perfect triumphs of +the block-cutter's art, the lines being inconceivably fine. +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +Division D contains Poetry, Novels, and Plays. Under Poetry, in addition +to collections of the works of this or that writer, there are numerous +anthologies, to which the Chinese are very partial. The mass of Chinese +poetry is so vast, that it is hopeless for the general reader to do much +more than familiarise himself with the best specimens of the greatest +poets. It is interesting to note that all the more extensive anthologies +include a considerable number of poems by women, some of quite a high +order. +</p> +<p> +Two years ago, an eminent scientist at Cambridge said to me, "Have the +Chinese anything in the nature of poetry in their language?" In reply to +this, I told him of a question once put to me by a friendly Mandarin in +China: "Have you foreigners got books in your honourable country?" We +are apt to smile at +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page61" name="page61"></a>[61]</span> +Chinese ignorance of Western institutions; but if we were Chinamen, the +smile perhaps would sometimes be the other way about. +</p> +<p> +Such novels as we have in our library belong entirely to what may be +called the classical school, and may from many points of view be +regarded as genuine works of art. Besides these, there is in the market +a huge quantity of fiction which appeals to the less highly educated +classes, and even to those who are absolutely unable to read. For the +latter, there are professional readers and story-tellers, who may often +be seen at some convenient point in a Chinese town, delighting large +audiences of coolies with tales of love, and war, and heroism, and +self-sacrifice. These readers do not read the actual words of the book, +which no coolie would understand, but transpose the book-language into +the colloquial as they go along. +</p> +<p> +<i>À propos</i> of novels, I should like just to mention one, a romantic +novel of war and adventure, based upon the <i>History of the Three +Kingdoms</i>, third century A.D., an epoch when China was split up under +three separate sovereigns, who fought one another very much after the +style of the Wars of the Roses in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page62" name="page62"></a>[62]</span> +English history. This novel, a very long one, occupies perhaps the +warmest corner in the hearts of the Chinese people. They never tire of +listening to its stirring episodes, its hair-breadth escapes, its +successful ruses, and its appalling combats. +</p> +<p> +Some twelve years ago, a friend of mine undertook to translate it into +English. After writing out a complete translation,—a gigantic task,—he +rewrote the whole from beginning to end, revising every page thoroughly. +In the spring of 1900, after ten years of toil, it was ready for the +press; three months later it had been reduced to ashes by the Boxers at +Peking. +</p> +<p class="quote"> + "Sunt lacrymae rerum ..." +</p> +<p> +Chinese plays in the acting editions may be bought singly at +street-stalls for less than a cent apiece. For the library, many good +collections have been made, and published in handsome editions. +</p> +<p> +This class of literature, however, does not stand upon a high level, but +corresponds with the low social status of the actor; and it is a curious +fact—true also of novels—that many of the best efforts are anonymous. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page63" name="page63"></a>[63]</span> +Plays by women are also to be found; but I have never yet come across, +either on the stage or in literature, any of those remarkable dramas +which are supposed to run on month after month, even into years. +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +Division E is a very important one for students of the Chinese language. +Here we find a number of works of reference, most of which may be +characterised as indispensable, and the great majority of which are +easily procurable at the present day. +</p> +<p> +Beginning with dictionaries, we have the famous work of Hsü Shên, who +died about A.D. 120. There was at that date no such thing as a Chinese +dictionary, although the language had already been for some centuries +ripe for such a production, and accordingly Hsü Shên set to work to fill +the void. He collected 9353 written characters,—presumably all that +were in existence at the time,—to which he added 1163 duplicates, +<i>i.e.</i> various forms of writing the same character, and then arranged +them in groups under those parts which, as we have already seen in the +preceding Lecture, are indicators of the direction in which the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page64" name="page64"></a>[64]</span> +sense of a character is to be looked for. Thus, all characters +containing the element <span class="chinese">犭</span> "dog" were brought together; all +those containing <span class="chinese">艹</span> "vegetation," <span class="chinese">疒</span> "disease," +etc. +</p> +<p> +So far as we know, this system originated with him; and we are therefore +not surprised to find that in his hands it was on a clumsier scale than +that in vogue to-day. Hsü Shên uses no fewer than 540 of these +indicators, and even when the indicator to a character is satisfactorily +ascertained, it still remains to search through all the characters under +that particular group. Printing from movable types would have been +impossible under such a system. +</p> +<p> +In the modern standard dictionary, published in 1716, under the +direction of the Emperor K'ang Hsi, there are only 214 indicators +employed, and there is a further sub-arrangement of these groups +according to the number of strokes in the other, the phonetic portion of +the character. Thus, the indicators "hand," "wood," "fire," "water," or +whatever it may be, settle the group in which a given character will be +found, and the number of strokes in the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page65" name="page65"></a>[65]</span> +remaining portion will refer it to a comparatively small sub-group, from +which it can be readily picked out. For instance, <span class="chinese">松</span> "a fir +tree" will be found under the indicator <span class="chinese">木</span> "tree," sub-group No. 4, +because the remaining portion <span class="chinese">公</span> consists of four strokes in +writing. +</p> +<p> +Good copies of this dictionary are not too easily obtained nowadays. The +"Palace" edition, as it is called, is on beautifully white paper, and is +a splendid specimen of typography. +</p> +<p> +A most wonderful literary feat was achieved under the direction of the +before-mentioned Emperor K'ang Hsi, when a general Concordance to the +phraseology of all literature was compiled and published for general +use. Word-concordances to the Bible and to Shakespeare are generally +looked upon as no small undertakings, but what about a +phrase-concordance to all literature? Well, in 1711 this was +successfully carried out, and remains to-day as a monument of the +literary enterprise of the great Manchu-Tartar monarch with whose name +it is inseparably associated. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page66" name="page66"></a>[66]</span> +The term "literature" here means serious literature, the classics, +histories, poetry, and the works of philosophers, of recognised +authorities, and of brilliant writers generally. +</p> +<p> +It was not possible, for obvious reasons, to arrange this collection of +phrases according to the 214 indicators, as in a dictionary of words. It +is arranged according to the Tones and Rhymes. +</p> +<p> +Let me try to express all this in terms of English literature. Reading +a famous poem, I come across the lines +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "And every shepherd tells his tale</p> +<p class="i3"> Under the hawthorn in the dale."</p> +</div> +</div> +<p> +Now suppose that I do not know the meaning of "tells his tale." [I +recollect perfectly that as a boy I thought it meant "whispered the old +story into the ear of a shepherdess."] I determine to hunt it up in the +Concordance. First of all, I find out from the Dictionary, if I do not +know, to what Tone <i>tale</i>, always the last word of the phrase, belongs. +Under that tone will be found various groups of words, each with a +key-word which is called the Rhyme, that is to say, a key-word with +which all the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page67" name="page67"></a>[67]</span> +words in this group rhyme. There are only 106 of these key-words all +together distributed over the Tones, and every word in the Chinese +language must rhyme with one of them. +</p> +<p> +The question of rhyme in Chinese is a curious one, and before going any +farther it may be as well to try to clear it up a little. All Chinese +poetry is in rhyme; there is no such thing as blank verse. The <i>Odes</i>, +collected and edited by Confucius, provide the standard of rhyme. Any +words which are found to rhyme there may be used as rhymes anywhere +else, and no others. The result is, that the number of rhyme-groups is +restricted to 106; and not only that, but of course words which rhymed +to the ear five hundred years B.C. do so no longer in 1902. Yet such are +the only authorised rhymes to be used in poetry, and any attempt to +ignore the rule would insure disastrous failure at the public +examinations. +</p> +<p> +This point may to some extent be illustrated in English. The first two +lines of the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>, which I will take to represent the +<i>Odes</i>, run thus in modern speech:— +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "When that Aprilis with his showers sweet,</p> +<p class="i3"> The drought of March hath pierced to the root."</p> +</div> +</div> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page68" name="page68"></a>[68]</span> +No one nowadays rhymes <i>sweet</i> with <i>root</i>. Neither did Chaucer; the two +words, <i>sote</i> and <i>rote</i>, were in his days perfect rhymes. But if we +were Chinese, we should now rhyme <i>sweet</i> with <i>root</i>, because, so to +speak, Chaucer did so. +</p> +<p> +When the Tone of a word is known, it is also known in which quarter of +the whole work to look; and when the Rhyme is known, it is also known in +which part of that quarter the key-word, or rhyme, will be found. Suppose +the key-word to be <i>gale</i>, it might be necessary to turn over a good many +pages before finding, neatly printed in the margin, the required word, +<i>tale</i>. Under <i>tale</i> I should first of all find phrases of two words, +<i>e.g.</i> "traveller's tale," "fairy-tale"; and I should have to look on +until I came to groups of three characters, <i>e.g.</i> "old wife's tale," +"tells his tale," and so forth. Finally, under "tells his tale" I should +still not find, what all students would like so much, a plain +explanation of what the phrase means, but only a collection of the chief +passages in literature in which "tells his tale" occurs. In one of these +there would probably be some allusion to sheep, and in another to +counting, and so it would become pretty plain that when a shepherd +"tells +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page69" name="page69"></a>[69]</span> +his tale," he does not whisper soft nothings into the ear of a +shepherdess, but is much more prosaically engaged in counting the number +of his sheep. +</p> +<p> +Our Cambridge copy of the Concordance is bound up in 44 thick volumes. +Each volume contains on an average 840 pages, and each page about 400 +characters. This gives a sum total of about 37,000 pages, and about +15,000,000 characters. Translated into English, this work would be +one-third as large again, 100 pages of Chinese text being equal to about +130 of English. +</p> +<p> +In the year 1772 the enlightened Emperor Ch'ien Lung, who then sat upon +the throne, gave orders that a descriptive Catalogue should be prepared +of the books in the Imperial Library. And in order to enhance its +literary value, his Majesty issued invitations to the leading provincial +officials to take part in the enterprise by securing and forwarding to +Peking any rare books they might be able to come across. +</p> +<p> +The scheme proved in every way successful. Many old works were rescued +from oblivion and ultimate destruction, and in 1795 a very +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page70" name="page70"></a>[70]</span> +wonderful Catalogue was laid before the world in print. It fills +twenty-six octavo volumes of about five hundred pages to each, the works +enumerated being divided into four classes,—the Confucian Canon, +History, Philosophy, and General Literature. Under each work we have +first of all an historical sketch of its origin, with date of +publication, etc., when known; and secondly, a careful critique dealing +with its merits and defects. All together, some eight thousand to ten +thousand works are entered and examined as above, and the names of those +officials who responded to the Imperial call are always scrupulously +recorded in connection with the books they supplied. +</p> +<p> +Among many illustrated books, there is a curious volume in the Library +published about twenty-five years ago, which contains short notices of +all the Senior Classics of the Ming dynasty, A.D. 1368-1644. They number +only seventy-six in all, because the triennial examination had not then +come into force; whereas during the present dynasty, between 1644 and +twenty-five years ago, a shorter period, there have been no fewer than +one hundred Senior Classics, whose names are all duly recorded in a +Supplement. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page71" name="page71"></a>[71]</span> +The pictures which accompany the letterpress are sometimes of quite +pathetic interest. +</p> +<p> +In one instance, the candidate, after his journey to Peking, where the +examination is held, has gone home to await the result, and is sitting +at dinner with his friends, when suddenly the much-longed-for messenger +bursts in with the astounding news. In the old days this news was +carried to all parts of the country by trained runners; nowadays the +telegraph wires do the business at a great saving of time and muscle, +with the usual sacrifice of romance. +</p> +<p> +Another student has gone home, and settled down to work again, not +daring even to hope for success; but overcome with fatigue and anxiety, +he falls asleep over his books. In the accompanying picture we see his +dream,—a thin curl, as it were of vapour, coming forth from the top of +his head and broadening out as it goes, until wide enough to contain the +representation of a man, in feature like himself, surrounded by an +admiring crowd, who acclaim him Senior Classic. With a start the +illusion is dispelled, and the dreamer awakes to find himself famous. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page72" name="page72"></a>[72]</span> +To those who have followed me so far, it must, I hope, be clear that, +whatever else the Chinese may be, they are above all a literary people. +They have cultivated literature as no other people ever has done, and +they cultivate it still. +</p> +<p> +Literary merit leads to an official career, the only career worth +anything in the eyes of the Chinese nation. +</p> +<p> +From his earliest school days the Chinese boy is taught that men without +education are but horses or cows in coats and trousers, and that success +at the public examinations is the greatest prize this world has to +offer. +</p> +<p> +To be among the fortunate three hundred out of about twelve thousand +candidates, who contend once every three years for the highest degree, +is to be enrolled among the Immortals for ever; while the Senior Classic +at a final competition before the Emperor not only covers himself, but +even his remote ancestors, his native village, his district, his +prefecture, and even his province, with a glory almost of celestial +splendour. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page73" name="page73"></a>[73]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0007" id="h2H_4_0007"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + LECTURE III +</h2> +<h3> + DEMOCRATIC CHINA +</h3> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page74" name="page74"></a>[74]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page75" name="page75"></a>[75]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0008" id="h2H_4_0008"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + DEMOCRATIC CHINA +</h2> +<p> +Theoretically speaking, the Empire of China is ruled by an autocratic +monarch, responsible only to God, whose representative he is on earth. +</p> +<p> +Once every year the Emperor prays at the Temple of Heaven, and +sacrifices in solemn state upon its altar. He puts himself, as it were, +into communication with the Supreme Being, and reports upon the fidelity +with which he has carried out his Imperial trust. +</p> +<p> +If the Emperor rules wisely and well, with only the happiness of his +people at heart, there will be no sign from above, beyond peace and +plenty in the Empire, and now and then a double ear of corn in the +fields—a phenomenon which will be duly recorded in the <i>Peking +Gazette</i>. But should there be anything like laxness or incapacity, or +still worse, degradation and vice, then a comet may perhaps appear, a +pestilence may rage, or a famine, to warn the erring ruler to give up +his evil ways. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page76" name="page76"></a>[76]</span> +And just as the Emperor is responsible to Heaven, so are the viceroys +and governors of the eighteen provinces—to speak only of China +proper—nominally responsible to him, in reality to the six departments +of state at Peking, which constitute the central government, and to +which a seventh has recently been added—a department for foreign +affairs. +</p> +<p> +So long as all goes well—and in ordinary times that "all" is confined +to a regular and sufficient supply of revenue paid into the Imperial +Treasury—viceroys and governors of provinces are, as nearly as can be, +independent rulers, each in his own domain. +</p> +<p> +For purposes of government, in the ordinary sense of the term, the 18 +provinces are subdivided into 80 areas known as "circuits," and over +each of these is set a high official, who is called an intendant of +circuit, or in Chinese a <i>Tao-t'ai</i>. His circuit consists of 2 or more +prefectures, of which there are in all 282 distributed among the 80 +circuits, or about an average of 3 prefectures to each. +</p> +<p> +Every prefecture is in turn subdivided into several magistracies, of +which there are 1477 in all, distributed among the 282 prefectures, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page77" name="page77"></a>[77]</span> +or about an average of 5 magistracies to each. +</p> +<p> +Immediately below the magistrates may be said to come the people; though +naturally an official who rules over an area as big as an average +English county can scarcely be brought into personal touch with all +those under his jurisdiction. This difficulty is bridged over by the +appointment of a number of head men, or headboroughs, who are furnished +with wooden seals, and who are held responsible for the peace and good +order of the wards or boroughs over which they are set. The post is +considered an honourable one, involving as it does a quasi-official +status. It is also more or less lucrative, as it is necessary that all +petitions to the magistrate, all conveyances of land, and other legal +instruments, should bear the seal of the head man, as a guarantee of +good faith, a small fee being payable on each notarial act. +</p> +<p> +On the other hand, the post is occasionally burdensome and trying in the +extreme. For instance, if a head man fails to produce any criminals or +accused persons, either belonging to, or known to be, in his district, +he is liable to be bambooed or otherwise severely punished. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page78" name="page78"></a>[78]</span> +In ordinary life the head man is not distinguishable from the masses of +his fellow-countrymen. He may often be seen working like the rest, and +even walking about with bare legs and bare feet. +</p> +<p> +Thus in a descending scale we have the Emperor, the viceroys and +governors of the 18 provinces, the intendants, or <i>Tao-t'ais</i>, of the 80 +circuits, the prefects of the 282 prefectures, the magistrates of the +1477 magistracies, the myriad headboroughs, and the people. +</p> +<p> +The district magistrates, so far as officials are concerned, are the +real rulers of China, and in conjunction with the prefects are popularly +called "father-and-mother" officials, as though they stood <i>in loco +parentium</i> to the people, whom, by the way, they in turn often speak of, +even in official documents, as "the babies." +</p> +<p> +The ranks of these magistrates are replenished by drafts of those +<i>literati</i> who have succeeded in taking the third, or highest, degree. +Thus, the first step on the ladder is open to all who can win their way +by successful competition at certain literary examinations, so long as +each candidate can show that none +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page79" name="page79"></a>[79]</span> +of his ancestors for three generations have been either actors, barbers +and chiropodists, priests, executioners, or official servants. +</p> +<p> +Want of means may be said to offer no obstacle in China to ambition and +desire for advancement. The slightest aptitude in a boy for learning +would be carefully noted, and if found to be the genuine article, would +be still more carefully fostered. Not only are there plenty of free +schools in China, but there are plenty of persons ready to help in so +good a cause. Many a high official has risen from the furrowed fields, +his educational expenses as a student, and his travelling expenses as a +candidate, being paid by subscription in his native place. Once +successful, he can easily find a professional money-lender who will +provide the comparatively large sums required for his outfit and journey +to his post, whither this worthy actually accompanies him, to remain +until he is repaid in full, with interest. +</p> +<p> +A successful candidate, however, is not usually sent straight from the +examination-hall to occupy the important position of district +magistrate. He is attached to some magistracy as an expectant official, +and from time +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page80" name="page80"></a>[80]</span> +to time his capacity is tested by a case, more or less important, which +is entrusted to his management as deputy. +</p> +<p> +The duties of a district magistrate are so numerous and so varied that +one man could not possibly cope with them all. At the same time he is +fully responsible. In addition to presiding over a court of first +instance for all criminal trials in his district, he has to act as +coroner (without a jury) at all inquests, collect and remit the +land-tax, register all conveyances of land and house-property, act as +preliminary examiner of candidates for literary degrees, and perform a +host of miscellaneous offices, even to praying for rain or fine weather +in cases of drought or inundation. He is up, if anything, before the +lark; and at night, often late at night, he is listening to the +protestations of prisoners or bambooing recalcitrant witnesses. +</p> +<p> +But inasmuch as the district may often be a large one, and two inquests +may be going on in two different directions on the same day, or there +may be other conflicting claims upon his time, he has constantly to +depute his duties to a subordinate, whose usual duties, if he has +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page81" name="page81"></a>[81]</span> +any, have to be taken by some one else, and so on. Thus it is that the +expectant official every now and then gets his chance. +</p> +<p> +This scheme leaves out of consideration a number of provincial +officials, who preside over departments which branch, as it were, from +the main trunk, and of whom a few words only need now be said. +</p> +<p> +There are several "commissioners," as they are sometimes called; for +instance, the commissioner of finance, otherwise known as the provincial +treasurer, who is charged with the fiscal administration of his +particular province, and who controls the nomination of nearly all the +minor appointments in the civil service, subject to the approval of the +governor. +</p> +<p> +Then there is the commissioner of justice, or provincial judge, +responsible for the due administration of justice in his province. +</p> +<p> +There is also the salt commissioner, who collects the revenue derived +from the government monopoly of the salt trade; and the grain +commissioner, who looks after the grain-tax, and sees that the tribute +rice is annually forwarded to Peking, for the use of the Imperial Court. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page82" name="page82"></a>[82]</span> +There are also military officials, belonging to two separate and +distinct army organisations. +</p> +<p> +The Manchus, when they conquered the Empire, placed garrisons of their +own troops, under the command of Manchu generals, at various important +strategic points; and the Tartar generals, as they are called, still +remain, ranking nominally just above the viceroy of the province, over +whose actions they are supposed to keep a careful watch. +</p> +<p> +Then there is a provincial army, with a provincial commander-in-chief, +etc. +</p> +<p> +Now let us return to the main trunk, working upward by way of +recapitulation. +</p> +<p> +We have reached the people and their head men, or headboroughs, over +whom is set the magistrate, with a nominal salary which would be quite +insufficient for his needs, even if he were ever to draw it. For he has +a large staff to keep up; some few of whom, no doubt, keep themselves by +fees and <i>douceurs</i> of various kinds obtained from litigants and others +who have business to transact. +</p> +<p> +The income on which the magistrate lives, and from which, after a life +of incessant toil, he saves a moderate competence for the requirements +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page83" name="page83"></a>[83]</span> +of his family, is deducted from the gross revenues of his magistracy, +leaving a net amount to be forwarded to the Imperial Treasury. So long +as his superiors are satisfied with what he remits, no questions are +asked as to original totals. It is recognised that he must live, and the +value of every magistracy is known within a few hundred ounces of silver +one way or the other. +</p> +<p> +Above the magistrate, and in control of several magistracies, comes the +prefect, who has to satisfy his superiors in the same way. He has the +general supervision of all civil business in his prefecture, and to him +must be referred every appeal case from the magistracies under his +jurisdiction, before it can be filed in a higher court. +</p> +<p> +Above him comes the intendant of circuit, or <i>Tao-t'ai</i>, in control of +several prefectures, to whom the same rule applies as to satisfying +demands of superiors; and above him come the governor and viceroy, who +must also satisfy the demands of the state departments in Peking. +</p> +<p> +It would now appear, from what has been already stated, that all a +viceroy or governor has to do is to exact sufficient revenue from +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page84" name="page84"></a>[84]</span> +immediate subordinates, and leave them to exact the amounts necessary +from <i>their</i> subordinates, and so on down the scale until we reach the +people. The whole question therefore resolves itself into this, What can +the people be made to pay? +</p> +<p> +The answer to that question will be somewhat of a staggerer to those who +from distance, or from want of close observation, regard the Chinese as +a down-trodden people, on a level with the Fellahin of Egypt in past +times. For the answer, so far as my own experience goes, is that only so +much can be got out of the Chinese people as the people themselves are +ready and willing to pay. In other words, with all their show of an +autocratic ruler and a paternal government, the people of China tax +themselves. +</p> +<p> +I am now about to do more than state this opinion; I am going to try to +prove it. +</p> +<p> +The philosopher Mencius, who flourished about one hundred years after +Confucius, and who is mainly responsible for the final triumph of the +Confucian doctrine, was himself not so much a teacher of ethics as a +teacher of political science. He spent a great part of his life +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page85" name="page85"></a>[85]</span> +wandering from feudal state to feudal state, advising the various vassal +nobles how to order their dominions with the maximum of peace and +prosperity and the minimum of misery and bloodshed. +</p> +<p> +One of these nobles, Duke Wên, asked Mencius concerning the proper way +to govern a state. +</p> +<p> +"The affairs of the people," replied the philosopher, "must not be +neglected. For the way of the people is thus: If they have a fixed +livelihood, their hearts will also be fixed; but if they have not a +fixed livelihood, neither will their hearts be fixed. And if they have +not fixed hearts, there is nothing in the way of crime which they will +not commit. Then, when they have involved themselves in guilt, to follow +up and punish them,—this is but to ensnare them." +</p> +<p> +In another passage Mencius says: "The tyrants of the last two dynasties, +Chieh and Chou, lost the Empire because they lost the people, by which I +mean that they lost the hearts of the people. There is a way to get the +Empire;—get the people, and you have the Empire. There is a way to get +the people;—get +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page86" name="page86"></a>[86]</span> +their hearts, and you have them. There is a way to get their hearts;—do +for them what they wish, and avoid doing what they do not wish." +</p> +<p> +Those are strong words, especially when we consider that they come from +one of China's most sacred books, regarded by the Chinese with as much +veneration as the Bible by us,—a portion of that Confucian Canon, the +principles of which it is the object of every student to master, and +should be the object of every Chinese official to carry into practice. +</p> +<p> +But those words are mild compared with another utterance by Mencius in +the same direction. +</p> +<p> +"The people are the most important element in a nation; the gods come +next; the sovereign is the least important of all." +</p> +<p> +We have here, in Chinese dress, wherein indeed much of Western wisdom +will be found, if students will only look for it, very much the same +sentiment as in the familiar lines by Oliver Goldsmith:— +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "Princes and lords may flourish or may fade,— </p> +<p class="i3"> A breath can make them, as a breath has made; </p> +<p class="i3"> But a bold peasantry, their country's pride </p> +<p class="i3"> When once destroyed, can never be supplied." </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page87" name="page87"></a>[87]</span> +The question now arises, Are all these solemn sayings of Mencius to be +regarded as nothing more than mere literary rodomontade, wherewith to +beguile an enslaved people? Do the mandarins keep the word of promise to +the ear and break it to the hope? Or do the Chinese people enjoy in real +life the recognition which should be accorded to them by the terms of +the Confucian Canon? +</p> +<p> +Every one who has lived in China, and has kept his eyes open, must have +noticed what a large measure of personal freedom is enjoyed by even the +meanest subject of the Son of Heaven. Any Chinaman may travel all over +China without asking any one's leave to start, and without having to +report himself, or be reported by his innkeeper, at any place at which +he may choose to stop. He requires no passport. He may set up any +legitimate business at any place. He is not even obliged to be educated, +or to follow any particular calling. He is not obliged to serve as a +soldier or sailor. There are no sumptuary laws, nor even any municipal +laws. Outside the penal code, which has been pronounced by competent +Western lawyers to be a very ably constructed instrument +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page88" name="page88"></a>[88]</span> +of government, there is nothing at all in the way of law, civil law +being altogether absent as a state institution. Even the penal code is +not too rigidly enforced. So long as a man keeps clear of secret +societies and remains a decent and respectable member of his family and +of his clan, he has very little to fear from the officials. The old +ballad of the husbandman, which has come down to us from a very early +date indeed, already hints at some such satisfactory state of things. It +runs thus:— +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "Work, work,—from the rising sun </p> +<p class="i3"> Till sunset comes and the day is done </p> +<p class="i7"> I plough the sod, </p> +<p class="i7"> And harrow the clod, </p> +<p class="i3"> And meat and drink both come to me,— </p> +<p class="i3"> Ah, what care I for the powers that be?" </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +Many petty offences which are often dealt with very harshly in England, +pass in China almost unnoticed. No shopkeeper or farmer would be fool +enough to charge a hungry man with stealing food, for the simple reason +that no magistrate would convict. It is the shopkeeper's or farmer's +business to see that such petty thefts cannot occur. Various other +points +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page89" name="page89"></a>[89]</span> +might be noticed; but we must get back to taxation, which is really the +<i>crux</i> of the whole position. +</p> +<p> +All together the Chinese people may be said to be lightly taxed. There +is the land-tax, in money and in kind; a tax on salt; and various +<i>octroi</i> and customs-duties, all of which are more or less fixed +quantities, so that the approximate amount which each province should +contribute to the central government is well known at Peking, just as it +is well known in each province what amounts, approximately speaking, +should be handed up by the various grades of territorial officials. +</p> +<p> +I have already stated that municipal government is unknown; consequently +there are no municipal rates to be paid, no water-rate, no poor-rate, +and not a cent for either sanitation or education. And so long as the +Imperial taxes are such as the people have grown accustomed to, they are +paid cheerfully, even if sometimes with difficulty, and nothing is said. +</p> +<p> +A curious instance of this conservative spirit in the Chinese people, +even when operating against their own interests, may be found in the tax +known as <i>likin</i>, against which foreign +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page90" name="page90"></a>[90]</span> +governments have struggled so long in vain. This tax, originally +one-tenth per cent on all sales, was voluntarily imposed upon themselves +by the people, among whom it was at first very popular, with a view of +making up the deficiency in the land-tax of China caused by the +T'ai-p'ing Rebellion and subsequent troubles. It was to be set apart for +military purposes only,—hence its common name "war-tax,"—and was +alleged by the Tsung-li Yamên to be adopted merely as a temporary +measure. Yet, though forty years have elapsed, it still continues to be +collected as if it were one of the fundamental taxes of the Empire, and +the objections to it are raised, not by the people of China, but by +foreign merchants with whose trade it interferes. +</p> +<p> +Here we have already one instance of voluntary self-taxation on the part +of the people; what I have yet to show is that all taxation, even though +not initiated as in this case by the people, must still receive the +stamp of popular approval before being put into force. On this point I +took a good many notes during a fairly long residence in China, leading +to conclusions which seem to me irresistible. +</p> +<p> +Let us suppose that the high authorities of a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page91" name="page91"></a>[91]</span> +province have determined, for pressing reasons, to make certain changes +in the incidence of taxation, or have called upon their subordinates to +devise means for causing larger sums to find their way into the +provincial treasury. The invariable usage, previous to the imposition of +a new tax, or change in the old, is for the magistrate concerned to send +for the leading merchants whose interests may be involved, or for the +headboroughs and village elders, according to the circumstances in each +case, and to discuss the proposition in private. Over an informal +entertainment, over tea and pipes, the magistrate pleads the necessities +of the case, and the peremptory orders of his superiors; the merchants +or village elders, feeling that, as in the case of <i>likin</i> above +mentioned, when taxes come they come to stay, resist on principle the +new departure by every argument at their control. The negotiation ends, +in ninety-nine instances out of a hundred, in a compromise. In the +hundredth instance the people may think it right to give way, or the +mandarin may give way, in which case things remain <i>in statu quo</i>, and +nothing further is heard of the matter. +</p> +<p> +There occur cases, however, happily rare, in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page92" name="page92"></a>[92]</span> +which neither will give way—at first. Then comes the tug of war. A +proclamation is issued, describing the tax, or the change, or whatever +it may be, and the people, if their interests are sufficiently involved, +prepare to resist. +</p> +<p> +Combination has been raised in China to the level of a fine art. Nowhere +on earth can be found such perfect cohesion of units against forces +which would crush each unit, taken individually, beyond recognition. +Every trade, every calling, even the meanest, has its guild, or +association, the members of which are ever ready to protect one another +with perfect unanimity, and often great self-sacrifice. And combination +is the weapon with which the people resist, and successfully resist, any +attempt on the part of the governing classes to lay upon them loads +greater than they can or will bear. The Chinese are withal an +exceptionally law-abiding people, and entertain a deep-seated respect +for authority. But their obedience and their deference have pecuniary +limits. +</p> +<p> +I will now pass from the abstract to the concrete, and draw upon my +note-book for illustrations of this theory that the Chinese are a +self-taxing and self-governing people. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page93" name="page93"></a>[93]</span> +Under date October 10, 1880, from Chung-king in the province of +Ssŭch'uan, the following story will be found in the <i>North China +Herald</i>, told by a correspondent:— +</p> +<p> +"Yesterday the Pah-shien magistrate issued a proclamation, saying that +he was going to raise a tax of 200 <i>cash</i> on each pig killed by the +pork-butchers of this city, and the butchers were to reimburse +themselves by adding 2 <i>cash</i> per <i>pound</i> to the price of pork. The +butchers, who had already refused to pay 100 <i>cash</i> per hog, under the +late magistrate, were not likely to submit to the payment of 200 under +this one, and so resolved not to kill pigs until the grievance was +removed; and this morning a party of them went about the town and seized +all the pork they saw exposed for sale. Then the whole of the butchers, +over five hundred at least, shut themselves up in their guild, where the +magistrate tried to force an entry with two hundred or three hundred of +his runners. The butchers, however, refused to open the door, and the +magistrate had to retire very much excited, threatening to bring them to +terms. People are inclined to think the magistrate acted wrongly in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page94" name="page94"></a>[94]</span> +taking a large force with him, saying he ought to have gone alone." +</p> +<p> +Three days later, October 13:— +</p> +<p> +"There is great excitement throughout the city, and I am told that the +troops are under arms. I have heard several volleys of small arms being +fired off, as if in platoon exercise. All the shops are shut, people +being afraid that the authorities may deal severely with the butchers, +and that bad characters will profit by the excitement to rob and plunder +the shops." +</p> +<p> +Two days later, October 15:— +</p> +<p> +"The pork-butchers are still holding out in their guild-house, and +refuse to recommence business until the officials have promised that the +tax on pigs will not be enforced now or hereafter. The prefect has been +going the rounds of the city calling on the good people of his +prefecture to open their shops and transact business as usual, saying +that the tax on pigs did not concern other people, but only the +butchers." +</p> +<p> +One day later, October 16:— +</p> +<p> +"The Pah-shien magistrate has issued a proclamation apologising to the +people generally, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page95" name="page95"></a>[95]</span> +and to the butchers particularly, for his share of the work in trying to +increase the obnoxious tax on pigs. So the officials have all miserably +failed in squeezing a <i>cash</i> out of the 'sovereign people' of +Ssŭch'uan." +</p> +<p> +I have a similar story from Hangchow, in Chehkiang, under date April 10, +1889, which begins as follows:— +</p> +<p> +"The great city of Hangchow is extremely dry. There are probably seven +hundred thousand people here, but not a drop of tea can be bought in any +of the public tea-houses. There is a strike in tea. The tea-houses are +all closed by common agreement, to resist a tax, imposed in the +beginning of the year, to raise money for the sufferers by famine." +</p> +<p> +In the next communication from this correspondent, we read, "The strike +of the keepers of tea-shops ended very quietly a few days after it +began, by the officials agreeing to accept the sum of fifteen hundred +dollars once for all, and release tea from taxation." +</p> +<p> +This is what happened recently in Pakhoi, in the province of +Kuangtung:— +</p> +<p> +"Without the consent of the dealers, a new local tax was imposed on the +raw opium in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page96" name="page96"></a>[96]</span> +preparation for use in the opium shops. The imposition of this tax +brought to light the fact, hitherto kept secret, that of the opium +consumed in Pakhoi and its district, only sixty-two per cent was +imported drug, the remaining third being native opium, which was +smuggled into Pakhoi, and avoided all taxation. The new tax brought this +smuggled opium under contribution, and this was more than the local +opium interest would stand. The opium dealers adopted the usual tactics +of shutting their shops, thus transferring the <i>onus</i> of opposition to +their customers. These last paid a threatening visit to the chief +authority of Pakhoi, and then wrecked the newly established tax-office. +This indication of popular feeling was enough for the local authorities +at Lien-chou, the district city, and the tax was changed so as to fall +on the foreign opium, the illicit native supply being discreetly +ignored, and all rioters forgiven." +</p> +<p> +So much for taxation. Let us take an instance of interference with +prescriptive rights, in connection with the great incorruptible viceroy, +Chang Chih-tung, to whom we are all so much indebted for his attitude +during the Siege of the Legations in 1900. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page97" name="page97"></a>[97]</span> +Ten years ago, when starting his iron-works at Wuchang, in the province +of Hupeh, he ordered the substitution of a drawbridge over a creek for +the old bridge which had stood there from time immemorial, the object +being to let steamers pass freely up and down. Unfortunately, the old +bridge was destroyed before the new one was ready. What was the result? +</p> +<p> +"The people rushed to the Yamên, and insisted by deputation and +mass-brawling on the restoration of the bridge. +</p> +<p> +"Finally, the viceroy thought it worth his while to issue a rhyming +proclamation, assuring the people that what he was doing was for their +good, and justifying his several schemes." +</p> +<p> +Yet Chang Chih-tung always has been, and is still, one of the strongest +officials who ever sat upon a viceroy's throne. +</p> +<p> +In November, 1882, there was a very serious military riot in Hankow, on +the opposite side of the Yang-tsze to Wuchang. It arose out of a report +that four soldiers had been arrested and were to be secretly beheaded +the same night. This rising might have assumed very serious dimensions, +but for the prompt submission of the viceroy to the soldiers' demands. +As it +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page98" name="page98"></a>[98]</span> +was, the whole city was thrown into a state of the utmost alarm. Few of +the inhabitants slept through the night. The streets were filled with a +terror-stricken population, expecting at any moment to hear that the +prison doors had been forced, and the criminals let loose to join the +soldiers in their determination to kill the officials, plunder the +treasury, and sack the city. Many citizens are said to have fled from +the place; and the sudden rush upon the <i>cash</i> shops, to convert paper +notes into silver, brought some of them to the verge of bankruptcy. +</p> +<p> +I have recorded, under March, 1891, a case in which several Manchus were +sentenced by the magistrate of Chinkiang, at the instance of the local +general, to a bambooing for rowdy behaviour. This is what followed:— +</p> +<p> +"The friends of the prisoners, to the number of about three hundred, +assembled at the city temple, vowing vengeance on the magistrate and +general. They proceeded to the yamên of the general, wrecked the wall +and part of the premises, and put the city in an uproar. The magistrate +fled with his family to the Tao-t'ai's yamên, where two hundred regular +troops were sent to protect him against the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page99" name="page99"></a>[99]</span> +fury of the Manchus, who threatened his life." +</p> +<p> +This is what happened to another magistrate in Kiangsu. He had +imprisoned a tax-collector for being in arrears with his money; and the +tax-collector's wife, frantic with rage, rushed to the magistracy and +demanded his release. Unfortunately, she was suffering from severe +asthma; and this, coupled with her anger, caused her death actually in +the magistrate's court. The people then smashed and wrecked the +magistracy, and pummelled and bruised the magistrate himself, who +ultimately effected his escape in disguise and hid himself in a private +dwelling. +</p> +<p> +Every one who has lived in China knows how dangerous are the periods +when vast numbers of students congregate for the public examinations. +Here is an example. +</p> +<p> +At Canton, in June, 1880, a student took back a coat he had purchased +for half a dollar at a second-hand clothes shop, and wished to have it +changed. The shopkeeper gave him rather an impatient answer, and +thereupon the student called in a band of his brother B.A.'s to claim +justice for literature. They seized +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>[100]</span> +a reckoning-board, or abacus, that lay on the counter, struck one of the +assistants in the shop, and drew blood. The shopkeeper then beat an +alarm on his gong, and summoned friends and neighbours to the rescue. +Word was at once passed to bands of students in the neighbourhood, who +promptly obeyed the call of a distressed comrade, and blows were +delivered right and left. The shopkeepers summoned the district +magistrate to the scene. Upon his arrival he ordered several of the +literary ringleaders, who had been seized and bound by the shopkeepers, +to be carried off and impounded. In the course of the evening he +sentenced them to be beaten. A body of more than a hundred students then +went to his yamên and demanded the immediate release of the prisoners. +The magistrate grew nervous, yielded to their threats, and sent several +of the offending students home in sedan-chairs. The magistrate then +seized the assistants in the shop where the row began and sentenced them +to be beaten on the mouth. +</p> +<p> +Next morning ten thousand shops were closed in the city and suburbs. The +shopkeepers said they could not do business under such an administration +of law. In the course of the morning +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>[101]</span> +a large meeting of the students was held in a college adjoining the +examination hall. The district magistrate went out to confer with them. +The students cracked his gong, and shattered his sedan-chair with +showers of stones, and then prodded him with their fans and umbrellas, +and bespattered him with dirt as his followers tried to carry him away +on their shoulders. He was quite seriously hurt. +</p> +<p> +The prefect then met a large deputation of the shopkeepers in their +guild-house in the course of the day, and expressed his dissatisfaction +at the way in which the district magistrate had acted. A settlement was +thus reached, which included fireworks for the students, and business +was resumed. +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +Any individual who is aggrieved by the action, or inaction, of a Chinese +official may have immediate recourse to the following method for +obtaining justice, witnessed by me twice during my residence in China, +and known as "crying one's wrongs." +</p> +<p> +Dressed in the grey sackcloth garb of a mourner, the injured party, +accompanied by as many friends as he or she can collect +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>[102]</span> +together, will proceed to the public residence of the offending +mandarin, and there howl and be otherwise objectionable, day and night, +until some relief is given. The populace is invariably on the side of +the wronged person; and if the wrong is deep, or the delay in righting +it too long, there is always great risk of an outbreak, with the usual +scene of house-wrecking and general violence. +</p> +<p> +It may now well be asked, how justice can ever be administered under +such circumstances, which seem enough to paralyse authority in the +presence of any evil-doer who can bring up his friends to the rescue. +</p> +<p> +To begin with, there is in China, certainly at all great centres, a +large criminal population without friends,—men who have fallen from +their high estate through inveterate gambling, indulgence in +opium-smoking, or more rarely alcohol. No one raises a finger to protect +these from the utmost vengeance of the law. +</p> +<p> +Then again, the Chinese, just as they tax themselves, so do they +administer justice to themselves. Trade disputes, petty and great alike, +are never carried into court, there being no recognised civil law in +China beyond +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>[103]</span> +custom; they are settled by the guilds or trades-unions, as a rule to +the satisfaction of all parties. Many criminal cases are equally settled +out of court, and the offender is punished by agreement of the +clan-elders or heads of families, and nothing is said; for compounding a +felony is not a crime, but a virtue, in the eyes of the Chinese, who +look on all litigation with aversion and contempt. +</p> +<p> +In the case of murder, however, and some forms of manslaughter, the +ingrained conviction that a life should always be given for a life often +outweighs any money value that could be offered, and the majesty of the +law is upheld at any sacrifice. +</p> +<p> +It is not uncommon for an accused person to challenge his accuser to a +kind of trial by ordeal, at the local temple. +</p> +<p> +Kneeling before the altar, at midnight, in the presence of a crowd of +witnesses, the accused man will solemnly burn a sheet of paper, on which +he has written, or caused to be written, an oath, totally denying his +guilt, and calling upon the gods to strike him dead upon the spot, or +his accuser, if either one is deviating in the slightest degree from the +actual truth. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>[104]</span> +This is indeed a severe ordeal to a superstitious people, whatever it +may seem to us. Even the mandarins avail themselves of similar devices +in cases where they are unable to clear up a mystery in the ordinary +way. +</p> +<p> +In a well-known case of a murder by a gang of ruffians, the magistrate, +being unable to fix the guilt of the fatal blow upon any one of the +gang, told them that he was going to apply to the gods. He then caused +them all to be dressed in black coats, as is usual with condemned +criminals, and arranged them in a dark shed, with their faces to the +wall, saying that, in response to his prayers, a demon would be sent to +mark the back of the guilty man. When at length the accused were brought +out of the shed, one of them actually had a white mark on his back, and +he at once confessed. In order to outwit the demon he had slily placed +his back against the wall, which by the magistrate's secret orders had +previously received a coat of whitewash. +</p> +<p> +I will conclude with a case which came under my own personal +observation, and which first set me definitely on the track of +democratic government in China. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>[105]</span> +In 1882 I was vice-consul at Pagoda Anchorage, a port near the famous +Foochow Arsenal which was bombarded by Admiral Courbet in 1884. My house +and garden were on an eminence overlooking the arsenal, which was about +half a mile distant. One morning, after breakfast, the head official +servant came to tell me there was trouble at the arsenal. A military +mandarin, employed there as superintendent of some department, had that +morning early kicked his cook, a boy of seventeen, in the stomach, and +the boy, a weakly lad, had died within an hour. The boy's widowed mother +was sitting by the body in the mandarin's house, and a large crowd of +workmen had formed a complete ring outside, quietly awaiting the arrival +and decision of the authorities. +</p> +<p> +By five o'clock in the afternoon, a deputy had arrived from the +magistracy at Foochow, twelve miles distant, empowered to hold the usual +inquest on behalf of the magistrate. The inquest was duly held, and the +verdict was "accidental homicide." +</p> +<p> +In shorter time than it takes me to tell the story, the deputy's +sedan-chair and paraphernalia +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>[106]</span> +of office were smashed to atoms. He himself was seized, his official hat +and robe were torn to shreds, and he was bundled unceremoniously, not +altogether unbruised, through the back door and through the ring of +onlookers, into the paddy-fields beyond. Then the ring closed up again, +and a low, threatening murmur broke out which I could plainly hear from +my garden. There was no violence, no attempt to lynch the man; the crowd +merely waited for justice. That crowd remained there all night, +encircling the murderer, the victim, and the mother. Bulletins were +brought to me every hour, and no one went to bed. +</p> +<p> +Meanwhile the news had reached the viceroy, and by half-past nine next +morning the smoke of a steam-launch was seen away up the bends of the +river. This time it bore the district magistrate himself, with +instructions from the viceroy to hold a new inquest. +</p> +<p> +At about ten o'clock he landed, and was received with respectful +silence. By eleven o'clock the murderer's head was off and the crowd had +dispersed. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>[107]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0009" id="h2H_4_0009"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + LECTURE IV +</h2> +<h3> + CHINA AND ANCIENT GREECE +</h3> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>[108]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>[109]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0010" id="h2H_4_0010"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + CHINA AND ANCIENT GREECE +</h2> +<p> +The study of Chinese presents at least one advantage over the study of +the Greek and Roman classics; I might add, of Hebrew, of Syriac, and +even of Sanskrit. It may be pursued for two distinct objects. The first, +and most important object to many, is to acquire a practical +acquaintance with a <i>living</i> language, spoken and written by about +one-third of the existing population of the earth, with a view to the +extension of commercial enterprise, and to the profits and benefits +which may legitimately accrue therefrom. The second is precisely that +object in pursuit of which we apply ourselves so steadily to the +literatures and civilisations of Greece and Rome. +</p> +<p> +Sir Richard Jebb, in his essay on "Humanism in Education," points out +that even less than a hundred years ago the classics still held a +virtual monopoly, so far as literary studies were concerned, in the +public schools and universities +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>[110]</span> +of England. "The culture which they supplied," he argues, "while limited +in the sphere of its operation, had long been an efficient and vital +influence, not only in forming men of letters and learning, but in +training men who afterwards gained distinction in public life and in +various active careers." +</p> +<p> +Long centuries had fixed so firmly in the minds of our forefathers a +belief, and no doubt to some extent a justifiable belief, in the perfect +character of the languages, the literatures, the arts, and some of the +social and political institutions of ancient Greece and Rome, that a +century or so ago there seemed to be nothing else worth the attention of +an intellectual man. The comparatively recent introduction of Sanskrit +was received in the classical world, not merely with coldness, but with +strenuous opposition; and all the genius of its pioneer scholars was +needed to secure the meed of recognition which it now enjoys as an +important field of research. The Regius Professorship of Greek in the +University of Cambridge, England, was founded in 1540; but it was not +until 1867, more than three centuries later, that Sanskrit was admitted +into the university curriculum. It +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>[111]</span> +is still impossible to gain a degree through the medium of Chinese, but +signs are not wanting that the necessity for such a step will be more +widely recognised in the near future. +</p> +<p> +All the material lies ready to hand. There is a written language, which +for difficulty is unrivalled, polished and perfected by centuries of the +minutest scholarship, until it is impossible to conceive anything more +subtly artistic as a vehicle of human thought. Those mental gymnastics, +of such importance in the training of youth, which were once claimed +exclusively for the languages of Greece and Rome, may be performed +equally well in the Chinese language. The educated classes in China +would be recognised anywhere as men of trained minds, able to carry on +sustained and complex arguments without violating any of the +Aristotelian canons, although as a matter of fact they never heard of +Aristotle and possess no such work in all their extensive literature as +a treatise on logic. The affairs of their huge empire are carried on, +and in my opinion very successfully carried on—with some reservations, +of course—by men who have had to get their mental gymnastics wholly and +solely out of Chinese. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>[112]</span> +I am not aware that their diplomatists suffer by comparison with ours. +The Marquis Tsêng and Li Hung-chang, for instance, representing opposite +schools, were admitted masters of their craft, and made not a few of our +own diplomatists look rather small beside them. +</p> +<p> +Speaking further of the study of the Greek and Roman classics, Sir +Richard Jebb says: "There can be no better proof that such a discipline +has penetrated the mind, and has been assimilated, than if, in the +crises of life, a man recurs to the great thoughts and images of the +literature in which he has been trained, and finds there what braces and +fortifies him, a comfort, an inspiration, an utterance for his deeper +feelings." +</p> +<p> +Sir Richard Jebb then quotes a touching story of Lord Granville, who was +President of the Council in 1762, and whose last hours were rapidly +approaching. In reply to a suggestion that, considering his state of +health, some important work should be postponed, he uttered the +following impassioned words from the Iliad, spoken by Sarpedon to +Glaucus: "Ah, friend, if, once escaped from this battle, we were for +ever to be ageless and immortal, I +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>[113]</span> +would not myself fight in the foremost ranks, nor would I send thee into +the war that giveth men renown; but now,—since ten thousand fates of +death beset us every day, and these no mortal may escape or avoid,—now +let us go forward." +</p> +<p> +Such was the discipline of the Greek and Roman classics upon the mind of +Lord Granville at a great crisis in his life. +</p> +<p> +Let us now turn to the story of a Chinese statesman, nourished only upon +what has been too hastily stigmatised as "the dry bones of Chinese +literature." +</p> +<p> +Wên T'ien-hsiang was born in A.D. 1236. At the age of twenty-one he came +out first on the list of successful candidates for the highest literary +degree. Upon the draft-list submitted to the Emperor he had been placed +seventh; but his Majesty, after looking over the essays, drew the grand +examiner's attention to the originality and excellence of that of Wên +T'ien-hsiang, and the examiner—himself a great scholar and no +sycophant—saw that the Emperor was right, and altered the places +accordingly. +</p> +<p> +Four or five years later Wên T'ien-hsiang +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>[114]</span> +attracted attention by demanding the execution of a statesman who had +advised that the Court should quit the capital and flee before the +advance of the victorious Mongols. Then followed many years of hard +fighting, in the course of which his raw levies were several times +severely defeated, and he himself was once taken prisoner by the Mongol +general, Bayan, mentioned by Marco Polo. He managed to escape on that +occasion; but in 1278 the plague broke out in his camp, and he was again +defeated and taken prisoner. He was sent to Peking, and every effort was +made to induce him to own allegiance to the Mongol conqueror, but +without success. He was kept several years in prison. Here is a +well-known poem which he wrote while in captivity:— +</p> +<p> +"There is in the universe an <i>Aura</i>, an influence which permeates all +things, and makes them what they are. Below, it shapes forth land and +water; above, the sun and the stars. In man it is called spirit; and +there is nowhere where it is not. +</p> +<p> +"In times of national tranquillity, this spirit lies hidden in the +harmony which prevails. Only at some great epoch is it manifested widely +abroad." +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>[115]</span> +Here Wên T'ien-hsiang recalls, and dwells lovingly upon, a number of +historical examples of loyalty and devotion. He then proceeds:— +</p> +<p> +"Such is this grand and glorious spirit which endureth for all +generations; and which, linked with the sun and moon, knows neither +beginning nor end. The foundation of all that is great and good in +heaven and earth, it is itself born from the everlasting obligations +which are due by man to man. +</p> +<p> +"Alas! the fates were against me; I was without resource. Bound with +fetters, hurried away toward the north, death would have been sweet +indeed; but that boon was refused. +</p> +<p> +"My dungeon is lighted by the will-o'-the-wisp alone: no breath of +spring cheers the murky solitude in which I dwell. The ox and the barb +herd together in one stall: the rooster and the phoenix feed together +from one dish. Exposed to mist and dew, I had many times thought to die; +and yet, through the seasons of two revolving years, disease hovered +around me in vain. The dark, unhealthy soil to me became Paradise +itself. For there was that within me which misfortune could not steal +away. And so I remained firm, gazing at the white clouds floating +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>[116]</span> +over my head, and bearing in my heart a sorrow boundless as the sky. +</p> +<p> +"The sun of those dead heroes has long since set, but their record is +before me still. And, while the wind whistles under the eaves, I open my +books and read; and lo! in their presence my heart glows with a borrowed +fire." +</p> +<p> +At length, Wên T'ien-hsiang was summoned into the presence of Kublai +Khan, who said to him, "What is it you want?" "By the grace of his late +Majesty of the Sung dynasty," he replied, "I became his Majesty's +minister. I cannot serve two masters. I only ask to die." Accordingly he +was executed, meeting his death with composure, and making a final +obeisance toward the south, as though his own sovereign was still +reigning in his capital. +</p> +<p> +May we not then plead that this Chinese statesman, equally with Lord +Granville, at a crisis of his life, recurred to the great thoughts and +images of the literature in which he had been trained, and found there +what braced and fortified him, a comfort, an inspiration, an utterance +for his deeper feelings? +</p> +<p> +Chinese history teems with the names of men who, with no higher source +of inspiration than +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>[117]</span> +the Confucian Canon, have yet shown that they can nobly live and bravely +die. +</p> +<p> +Han Yü of the eighth and ninth centuries was one of China's most +brilliant statesmen and writers, and rose rapidly to the highest offices +of State. When once in power, he began to attack abuses, and was +degraded and banished. Later on, when the Court, led by a weak Emperor, +was going crazy over Buddhism, he presented a scathing Memorial to the +Throne, from the effect of which it may well be said that Buddhism has +not yet recovered. The Emperor was furious, and Han Yü narrowly escaped +with his life. He was banished to the extreme wilds of Kuangtung, not +far from the now flourishing Treaty Port of Swatow, where he did so much +useful work in civilising the aborigines, that he was finally recalled. +</p> +<p> +Those wilds have long since disappeared as such, but the memory of +Han Yü remains, a treasure for ever. In a temple which contains his +portrait, and which is dedicated to him, a grateful posterity has put +up a tablet bearing the following legend, "Wherever he passed, he +purified." +</p> +<p> +The last Emperor of the Ming dynasty, which +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>[118]</span> +was overthrown by rebels and then supplanted by the Manchus in 1644, was +also a man who in the Elysian fields might well hold up his head among +monarchs. He seems to have inherited with the throne a legacy of +national disorder similar to that which eventually brought about the +ruin of Louis XVI of France. With all the best intentions possible, he +was unable to stem the tide. Over-taxation brought in its train, as it +always does in China, first resistance and then rebellion. The Emperor +was besieged in Peking by a rebel army; the Treasury was empty; there +were too few soldiers to man the walls; and the capital fell. +</p> +<p> +On the previous night, the Emperor, who had refused to flee, slew the +eldest Princess, commanded the Empress to commit suicide, and sent his +three sons into hiding. At dawn the bell was struck for the Court to +assemble; but no one came. His Majesty then ascended the well-known hill +in the Palace grounds, and wrote a last decree on the lapel of his +robe:— +</p> +<p> +"Poor in virtue, and of contemptible personality, I have incurred the +wrath of high Heaven. My ministers have deceived me. I am ashamed to +meet my ancestors; and therefore I myself +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>[119]</span> +take off my cap of State, and with my hair covering my face, await +dismemberment at the hands of you rebels." +</p> +<p> +Instead of the usual formula, "Respect this!" the Emperor added, "Spare +my people!" +</p> +<p> +He then hanged himself, and the great Ming dynasty was no more. +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +Chinese studies have always laboured under this disadvantage,—that the +ludicrous side of China and her civilisation was the one which first +attracted the attention of foreigners; and to a great extent it does so +still. There was a time when China was regarded as a Land of Opposites, +<i>i.e.</i> diametrically opposed to us in every imaginable direction. For +instance, in China the left hand is the place of honour; men keep their +hats on in company; use fans; mount their horses on the off side; begin +dinner with fruit and end it with soup; shake their own instead of their +friends' hands when meeting; begin at what we call the wrong end of a +book and read from right to left down vertical columns; wear white for +mourning; have huge visiting-cards instead of small ones; prevent +criminals from having their hair cut; +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>[120]</span> +regard the south as the standard point of the compass; begin to build a +house by putting on the roof first; besides many other nicer +distinctions, the mere enumeration of which would occupy much of the +time at my disposal. +</p> +<p> +The other side of the medal, showing the similarities, and even the +identities, has been unduly neglected; and yet it is precisely from a +study of these similarities and identities that the best results can be +expected. +</p> +<p> +A glance at any good dictionary of classical antiquities will at once +reveal the minute and painstaking care with which even the small details +of life in ancient Greece have been examined into and discussed. The +Chinese have done like work for themselves; and many of their +beautifully illustrated dictionaries of archæology would compare not +unfavourably with anything we have to show. +</p> +<p> +There are also many details of modern everyday existence in China which +may fairly be quoted to show that Chinese civilisation is not, after +all, that comic condition of topsy-turvey-dom which the term usually +seems to connote. +</p> +<p> +The Chinese house may not be a facsimile of a Greek house,—far from it. +Still, we may +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>[121]</span> +note its position, facing south, in order to have as much sun in winter +and as little in summer as possible; its division into men's and women's +apartments; the fact that the doors are in two leaves and open inward; +the rings or handles on the doors; the portable braziers used in the +rooms in cold weather; and the shrines of the household gods;—all of +which characteristics are to be found equally in the Greek house. +</p> +<p> +There are also points of resemblance between the lives led by Chinese +and Athenian ladies, beyond the fact that the former occupy a secluded +portion of the house. The Chinese do not admit their women to social +entertainments, and prefer, as we are told was the case with Athenian +husbands, to dine by themselves rather than expose their wives to the +gaze of their friends. If the Athenian dame "went out at all, it was to +see some religious procession, or to a funeral; and if sufficiently +advanced in years she might occasionally visit a female friend, and take +breakfast with her." +</p> +<p> +And so in China, it is religion which breaks the monotony of female +life, and collects within the temples, on the various festivals, an +array of painted faces and embroidered skirts that +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>[122]</span> +present, even to the European eye, a not unpleasing spectacle. +</p> +<p> +That painting the face was universal among the women of Greece, much +after the fashion which we now see in China, has been placed beyond all +doubt, the pigments used in both cases being white lead and some kind of +vegetable red, with lampblack for the eyebrows. +</p> +<p> +In marriage, we find the Chinese aiming, like the Greeks, at equality of +rank and fortune between the contracting parties, or, as the Chinese put +it, in the guise of a household word, at a due correspondence between +the doorways of the betrothed couple. As in Greece, so in China, we find +the marriage arranged by the parents; the veiled bride; the ceremony of +fetching her from her father's house; the equality of man and wife; the +toleration of subordinate wives, and many other points of contact. +</p> +<p> +The same sights and scenes which are daily enacted at any of the great +Chinese centres of population seem also to have been enacted in the +Athenian market-place, with its simmering kettles of boiled peas and +other vegetables, and its chapmen and retailers of all kinds of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>[123]</span> +miscellaneous goods. In both we have the public story-teller, surrounded +by a well-packed group of fascinated and eager listeners. +</p> +<p> +The puppet-shows, <span class="greek" title="[agalmata neurospasta]">ἀγάλματα νευρόσπαστα</span>, which Herodotus tells +us were introduced into Greece from Egypt, are constantly to be seen in +Chinese cities, and date from the second century B.C.,—a suggestive +period, as I shall hope to show later on. +</p> +<p> +The Chinese say that these puppets originated in China as follows:— +</p> +<p> +The first Emperor of the Han dynasty was besieged, about 200 B.C., in a +northern city, by a vast army of Hsiung-nu, the ancestors of the Huns, +under the command of the famous chieftain, Mao-tun. One of the Chinese +generals with the besieged Emperor discovered that Mao-tun's wife, who +was in command on one side of the city, was an extremely jealous woman; +and he forthwith caused a number of wooden puppets, representing +beautiful girls and worked by strings, to be exhibited on the wall +overlooking the chieftain's camp. At this, we are told, the lady's fears +for her husband's fidelity were aroused, and she drew off her forces. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>[124]</span> +The above account may be dismissed as a tale, in which case we are left +with Punch and Judy on our hands. +</p> +<p> +To return to city sights. The tricks of street-jugglers as witnessed in +China seem to be very much those of ancient Greece. In both countries we +have such feats as jumping about amongst naked swords, spitting fire +from the mouth, and passing a sword down the throat. +</p> +<p> +Then there are the advertisements on the walls; the mule-carts and +mule-litters; the sunshades, or umbrellas, carried by women in Greece, +by both sexes in China. +</p> +<p> +The Japanese language is said to contain no terms of abuse, so refined +are the inhabitants of that earthly paradise. The Chinese language more +than makes up for this deficiency; and it is certainly curious that, as +in ancient Greece, the names of animals are not frequently used in this +connection, with the sole exception of the dog. No Chinaman will stand +being called a dog, although he really has a great regard for the +animal, as a friend whose fidelity is proof even against poverty. +</p> +<p> +In the ivory shops in China will be found many specimens of the carver's +craft which will +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>[125]</span> +bear comparison, for the patience and skill required, with the greatest +triumphs of Greek workmen. Both nations have reproduced the human hand +in ivory; the Greeks used it as an ornament for a hairpin; the Chinese +attach it to a slender rod about a foot and a half in length, and use it +as a back-scratcher. +</p> +<p> +The Chinese drama, which we can only trace vaguely to Central Asian +sources, and no farther back than the twelfth century of our era, has +some points of contact with the Greek drama. In Greece the plays began +at sunrise and continued all day, as they do still on the open-air +stages of rural districts in China, in both cases performed entirely by +men, without interval between the pieces, without curtain, without +prompter, and without any attempt at realism. +</p> +<p> +As formerly in Greece, so now in China, the words of the play are partly +spoken and partly sung, the voice of the actor being, in both countries, +of the highest importance. Like the Greek actor before masks were +invented, the Chinese actor paints his face, and the thick-soled boot +which raises the Chinese tragedian from the ground is very much the +counterpart of the cothurnus. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>[126]</span> +The arrangement by which the Greek gods appeared in a kind of balcony, +looking out as it were from the heights of Olympus, is well known to the +Chinese stage; while the methodical character of Greek tragic dancing, +with the chorus moving right and left, is strangely paralleled in the +dances performed at the worship of Confucius in the Confucian temples, +details of which may be seen in any illustrated Chinese encyclopædia. +</p> +<p> +Games with dice are of a high antiquity in Greece; they date in China +only from the second century A.D., having been introduced from the West +under the name of <i>shu p'u</i>, a term which has so far defied +identification. +</p> +<p> +The custom of fighting quails was once a political institution in +Athens, and under early dynasties it was a favourite amusement at the +Imperial Court of China. +</p> +<p> +The game of "guess-fingers" is another form of amusement common to both +countries. So also is the custom of drinking by rule, under the guidance +of a toast-master, with fines of deep draughts of wine to be swallowed +by those who fail in capping verses, answering conundrums, recognising +quotations; to which may +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>[127]</span> +be added the custom of introducing singing-girls toward the close of the +entertainment. +</p> +<p> +At Athens, too, it was customary to begin a drinking-bout with small +cups, and resort to larger ones later on, a process which must be +familiar to all readers of Chinese novels, wherein, toward the close of +the revel, the half-drunken hero invariably calls for more capacious +goblets. Neither does the ordinary Chinaman approve of a short allowance +of wine at his banquets, as witness the following story, translated from +a Chinese book of anecdotes. +</p> +<p> +A stingy man, who had invited some guests to dinner, told his servant +not to fill up their wine-cups to the brim, as is usual. During the +meal, one of the guests said to his host, "These cups of yours are too +deep; you should have them cut down." "Why so?" inquired the host. +"Well," replied the guest, "you don't seem to use the top part for +anything." +</p> +<p> +There is another story of a man who went to dine at a house where the +wine-cups were very small, and who, on taking his seat at table, +suddenly burst out into groans and lamentations. "What is the matter +with you?" cried the host, in alarm. "Ah," replied his guest, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>[128]</span> +"my feelings overcame me. My poor father, when dining with a friend who +had cups like yours, lost his life, by accidentally swallowing one." +</p> +<p> +The water-clock, or <i>clepsydra</i>, has been known to the Chinese for +centuries. Where did it come from? Is it a mere coincidence that the +ancient Greeks used water-clocks? +</p> +<p> +Is it a coincidence that the Greeks used an abacus, or counting-board, +on which the beads slid up and down in vertical grooves, while on the +Chinese counting-board the only difference is that the beads slide up +and down on vertical rods? +</p> +<p> +Is it a mere coincidence that the olive should be associated in China, +as in Greece, with propitiation? To this day, a Chinaman who wishes to +make up a quarrel will send a piece of red paper containing an olive, in +token of friendly feeling; and the acceptance of this means that the +quarrel is at an end. +</p> +<p> +The olive was supposed by the Greeks to have been brought by Hercules +from the land of the Hyperboreans; the Chinese say it was introduced +into China in the second century B.C. +</p> +<p> +The extraordinary similarities between the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>[129]</span> +Chinese and Pythagorean systems of music place it beyond a doubt that +one must have been derived from the other. The early Jesuit fathers +declared that the ancient Greeks borrowed their music from the Chinese; +but we know now that the music in question did not exist in China until +two centuries after its appearance in Greece. +</p> +<p> +The music of the Confucian age perished, books and instruments together, +at the Burning of the Books, in B.C. 212; and we read that in the first +part of the second century B.C. the hereditary music-master was +altogether ignorant of his art. Where did the new art come from? And how +are its Greek characteristics to be accounted for? +</p> +<p> +There are also equally extraordinary similarities between the Chinese +and Greek calendars. +</p> +<p> +For instance, in B.C. 104 the Chinese adopted a cycle of nineteen years, +a period which was found to bring together the solar and the lunar +years. +</p> +<p> +But this is precisely the cycle, <span class="greek" title="[enneakaidekaetêris]">ἐννεακαιδεκαετηρίς</span>, said to +have been introduced by Meton in the fifth century B.C., and adopted at +Athens about B.C. 330. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>[130]</span> +Have we here another coincidence of no particular importance? +</p> +<p> +The above list might be very much extended. Meanwhile, the question +arises: Are there any records of any kind in China which might lead us +to suppose that the Chinese ever came into contact in any way with the +civilisation of ancient Greece? +</p> +<p> +We know from Chinese history that, so far back as the second century +B.C., victorious Chinese generals carried their arms far into Central +Asia, and succeeded in annexing such distant regions as Khoten, Kokand, +and the Pamirs. About B.C. 138 a statesman named Chang Ch'ien was sent +on a mission to Bactria, but was taken prisoner by the Hsiung-nu, the +forebears of the Huns, and detained in captivity for over ten years. He +finally managed to escape, and proceeded to Fergana, and thence on to +Bactria, returning home in B.C. 126, after having been once more +captured by the Hsiung-nu and again detained for about a year. +</p> +<p> +Now Bactria was then a Greek kingdom, which had been founded by Diodotus +in B.C. 256; and it would appear to have had, already for some time, +commercial relations with China, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>[131]</span> +for Chang Ch'ien reported that he had seen Chinese merchandise exposed +there in the markets for sale. We farther learn that Chang Ch'ien +brought back with him the walnut and the grape, previously unknown in +China, and taught his countrymen the art of making wine. +</p> +<p> +The wine of the Confucian period was like the wine of to-day in China, +an ardent spirit distilled from rice. There is no grape-wine in China +now, although grapes are plentiful and good. But we know from the poetry +which has been preserved to us, as well as from the researches of +Chinese archæologists, that grape-wine was largely used in China for +many centuries subsequent to the date of Chang Ch'ien; in fact, down to +the beginning of the fifteenth century, if not later. +</p> +<p> +One writer says it was brought, together with the "heavenly horse," from +Persia, when the extreme West was opened up, a century or so before the +Christian era, as already mentioned. +</p> +<p> +I must now make what may well appear to be an uncalled-for digression; +but it will only be a temporary digression, and will bring us back in a +few minutes to the grape, the heavenly horse, and to Persia. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>[132]</span> +Mirrors seem to have been known to the Chinese from the earliest ages. +One authority places them so far back as 2500 B.C. They are at any rate +mentioned in the <i>Odes</i>, say 800 B.C., and were made of polished copper, +being in shape, according to the earliest dictionary, like a large +basin. +</p> +<p> +About one hundred years B.C., a new kind of mirror comes into vogue, +called by an entirely new name, not before used. In common with the word +previously employed, its indicator is "metal," showing under which +kingdom it falls,—<i>i.e.</i> a mirror of metal. These new mirrors were +small disks of melted metal, highly polished on one side and profusely +decorated with carvings on the other,—a description which exactly +tallies with that of the ancient Greek mirror. Specimens survived to +comparatively recent times, and it is even alleged that many of these +old mirrors are in existence still. A large number of illustrations of +them are given in the great encyclopædia of the eighteenth century, and +the fifth of these, in chronological order, second century B.C., is +remarkable as being ornamented with the well-known "key," or Greek +pattern, so common in Chinese decoration. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>[133]</span> +Another is covered with birds flying about among branches of pomegranate +laden with fruit cut in halves to show the seeds. +</p> +<p> +Shortly afterward we come to a mirror so lavishly decorated with bunches +of grapes and vine-leaves that the eye is arrested at once. Interspersed +with these are several animals, among others the lion, which is unknown +in China. The Chinese word for "lion," as I stated in my first lecture, +is <i>shih</i>, an imitation of the Persian <i>shír</i>. There is also a lion's +head with a bar in its mouth, recalling the door-handles to temples in +ancient Greece. Besides the snake, the tortoise, and the sea-otter, +there is what is far more remarkable than any of these, namely, a horse +with wings. +</p> +<p> +On comparing the latter with Pegasus as he appears in sculpture, it is +quite impossible to doubt that the Chinese is a copy of the Greek +animal. The former is said to have come down from heaven, and was +caught, according to tradition, on the banks of a river in B.C. 120. +</p> +<p> +The name for pomegranate in China is "the Parthian fruit," showing that +it was introduced from Parthia, the Chinese equivalent for Parthia +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>[134]</span> +being <span class="chinese">安息</span> <i>Ansik</i>, which is an easy corruption of the Greek +<span class="greek" title="[Arsakês]">Ἀρσάκης</span>, the first king of Parthia. +</p> +<p> +The term for grape is admittedly of foreign origin, like the fruit +itself. It is <span class="chinese">葡萄</span> <i>pu t'ou</i>. Here it is easy to recognise the Greek +word <span class="greek" title="[Botrus]">Βότρυς</span>, a cluster, or bunch, of grapes. +</p> +<p> +Similarly, the Chinese word for "radish," <span class="chinese">蘿蔔</span> <i>lo po</i>, also +of foreign origin, is no doubt a corruption of <span class="greek" title="[raphê]">ῥάφη</span>, it being +of course well known that the Chinese cannot pronounce an initial <i>r</i>. +</p> +<p> +There is one term, especially, in Chinese which at once carries +conviction as to its Greek origin. This is the term for watermelon. The +two Chinese characters chosen to represent the sound mean "Western +gourd," <i>i.e.</i> the gourd which came from the West. Some Chinese say, on +no authority in particular, that it was introduced by the Kitan Tartars; +others say that it was introduced by the first Emperor of the so-called +Golden Tartars. But the Chinese term +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>[135]</span> +is still pronounced <i>si kua</i>, which is absolutely identical with the +Greek word <span class="greek" title="[sikua]">σικύα</span>, of which Liddell and Scott say, "perhaps the +melon." For these three words it would now scarcely be rash to +substitute "the watermelon." +</p> +<p> +We are not on quite such firm ground when we compare the Chinese kalends +and ides with similar divisions of the Roman month. +</p> +<p> +Still it is interesting to note that in ancient China, the first day of +every month was publicly proclaimed, a sheep being sacrificed on each +occasion; also, that the Latin word <i>kalendae</i> meant the day when the +order of days was proclaimed. +</p> +<p> +Further, that the term in Chinese for ides means to look at, to see, +because on that day we can see the moon; and also that the Latin word +<i>idus</i>, the etymology of which has not been absolutely established, may +possibly come from the Greek <span class="greek" title="[idein]">ἰδεῖν</span> "to see," just as <i>kalendae</i> +comes from <span class="greek" title="[kalein]">καλεῖν</span> "to proclaim." +</p> +<p> +As to many of the analogies, more or less interesting, to be found in +the literatures of China and of Western nations, it is not difficult to +say how they got into their Chinese setting. +</p> +<p> +For instance, we read in the History of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>[136]</span> +Ming Dynasty, A.D. 1368-1644, a full account of the method by which the +Spaniards, in the sixteenth century, managed to obtain first a footing +in, and then the sovereignty over, some islands which have now passed +under the American flag. The following words, not quite without interest +at the present day, are translated from the above-mentioned account of +the Philippines:— +</p> +<p> +"The Fulanghis (<i>i.e.</i> the Franks), who at that time had succeeded by +violence in establishing trade relations with Luzon (the old name of the +Philippines), saw that the nation was weak, and might easily be +conquered. Accordingly, they sent rich presents to the king of the +country, begging him to grant them a piece of land as big as a bull's +hide, for building houses to live in. The king, not suspecting guile, +conceded their request, whereupon the Fulanghis cut the hide into strips +and joined them together, making many hundreds of ten-foot measures in +length; and then, having surrounded with these a piece of ground, called +upon the king to stand by his promise. The king was much alarmed; but +his word had been pledged, and there was no alternative but +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>[137]</span> +to submit. So he allowed them to have the ground, charging a small +ground-rent as was the custom. But no sooner had the Fulanghis got the +ground than they put up houses and ramparts and arranged their +fire-weapons (cannon) and engines of attack. Then, seizing their +opportunity, they killed the king, drove out the people, and took +possession of the country." +</p> +<p> +It is scarcely credible that Chinese historians would have recorded such +an incident unless some trick of the kind had actually been carried out +by the Spaniards, in imitation of the famous classical story of the +foundation of Carthage. +</p> +<p> +A professional writer of marvellous tales who flourished in the +seventeenth century tells a similar story of the early Dutch settlers:— +</p> +<p> +"Formerly, when the Dutch were permitted to trade with China, the +officer in command of the coast defences would not allow them, on +account of their great numbers, to come ashore. The Dutch begged very +hard for the grant of a piece of land such as a carpet would cover; and +the officer above mentioned, thinking that this could not be very large, +acceded to their request. A carpet was accordingly laid down, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>[138]</span> +big enough for about two people to stand on; but by dint of stretching, +it was soon able to accommodate four or five; and so the foreigners went +on, stretching and stretching, until at last it covered about an acre, +and by and by, with the help of their knives, they had filched a piece +of ground several miles in extent." +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +These two stories must have sprung from one and the same source. It is +not, however, always so simple a matter to see how other Western +incidents found their way into Chinese literature. For instance, there +is a popular anecdote to be found in a Chinese jest-book, which is +almost word for word with another anecdote in Greek literature:— +</p> +<p> +A soldier, who was escorting a Buddhist priest, charged with some crime, +to a prison at a distance, being very anxious not to forget anything, +kept saying over and over the four things he had to think about, viz.: +himself, his bundle, his umbrella, and the priest. At night he got +drunk, and the Buddhist priest, after first shaving the soldier's head, +ran away. When the soldier awaked, he began his formula, "Myself, +bundle, umbrella—O dear!" cried he, putting +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>[139]</span> +his hands to his head, "the priest has gone. Stop a moment," he added, +finding his hands in contact with a bald head, "here's the priest; it is +I who have run away." +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +As found in Greek literature, the story, attributed to Hierocles, but +probably much later, says that the prisoner was a bald-headed man, a +condition which is suggested to the Chinese reader by the introduction +of a Buddhist priest. +</p> +<p> +Whether the Chinese got this story from the Greeks, or the Greeks got it +from the Chinese, I do not pretend to know. The fact is that we students +of Chinese at the present day know very little beyond the vague outlines +of what there is to be known. Students of Greek have long since divided +up their subject under such heads as pure scholarship, history, +philosophy, archæology, and then again have made subdivisions of these. +In the Chinese field nothing of the kind has yet been done. The +consequence is that the labourers in that field, compelled to work over +a large superficies, are only able to turn out more or less superficial +work. The cry is for more students, practical students of the written +and colloquial languages, for the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>[140]</span> +purposes of diplomatic intercourse and the development of commerce; and +also students of the history, philosophy, archæology, and religions of +China, men whose contributions to our present stock of knowledge may +throw light upon many important points, which, for lack of workmen, have +hitherto remained neglected and unexplored. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>[141]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0011" id="h2H_4_0011"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + LECTURE V +</h2> +<h3> + TAOISM +</h3> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>[142]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>[143]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0012" id="h2H_4_0012"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + TAOISM +</h2> +<p> +China is popularly supposed to have three religions,—Confucianism, +Buddhism, and Taoism. +</p> +<p> +The first is not, and never has been, a religion, being nothing more +than a system of social and political morality; the second is indeed a +religion, but an alien religion; only the last, and the least known, is +of native growth. +</p> +<p> +The Chinese themselves get over the verbal difficulty by calling these +the Three Doctrines. +</p> +<p> +There have been, at various epochs, other religions in China, and some +still remain; the above, however, is the classification commonly in use, +all other religions having been regarded up to recent times as devoid of +spiritual importance. +</p> +<p> +Mahommedanism appeared in China in 628 A.D., and is there to this day, +having more than once threatened the stability of the Empire. +</p> +<p> +In 631 the Nestorian Christians arrived, to become later on a +flourishing sect, though all +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>[144]</span> +trace of them, beyond their famous Tablet, has long since vanished. +</p> +<p> +It has also been established in recent years that the Zoroastrians, and +subsequently the Manichæans, were in China in these early centuries, +but nothing now remains of them except the name, a specially invented +character, which was equally applied to both. +</p> +<p> +In the twelfth century the Jews had a synagogue at K'ai-fêng Fu, in +Central China, but it is not absolutely certain when they first reached +the country. Some say, immediately after the Captivity; others put it +much later. In 1850 several Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch, in +the square character, with vowel-points, were obtained from the above +city. There were then no professing Jews to be found, but in recent +years a movement has been set on foot to revive the old faith. +</p> +<p> +Roman Catholicism may be said to have existed in China since the close +of the sixteenth century, though there was actually an Archbishop of +Peking, Jean de Montecorvino, who died there in 1330. +</p> +<p> +In the last year of the eighteenth century the first Protestant +missionary arrived. The first +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>[145]</span> +American missionaries followed in 1830. They found China, as it is now, +nominally under the sway of the Three Doctrines. +</p> +<p> +So much has been written on Confucianism, and so much more on Buddhism, +that I propose to confine myself entirely to Taoism, which seems to have +attracted too little the attention of the general public. In fact, a +quite recent work, which professes to deal among other things with the +history of China, omits all discussion of this particular religion. +</p> +<p> +Taoism is the religion of Tao; as to what Tao is, or what it means, we +are told upon the highest authority that it is quite impossible to say. +This does not seem a very hopeful beginning; but +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "even the weariest river</p> +<p class="i3"> Winds somewhere safe to sea,"</p> +</div> +</div> +<p> +and I shall therefore make an effort to set before you a clue, which, I +trust, will lead toward at any rate a partial elucidation of the +mystery. +</p> +<p> +At some unknown period in remote antiquity, there appears to have lived +a philosopher, known to posterity as Lao Tzŭ, who taught men, among +other things, to return good for evil. His parentage, birth, and life +have been overloaded +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>[146]</span> +in the course of centuries with legend. Finally, he is said to have +foreseen a national cataclysm, and to have disappeared into the West, +leaving behind him a book, now called the <i>Tao-Tê-Ching</i>, which, for +many reasons, he could not possibly have written. +</p> +<p> +The little we really know of Lao Tzŭ is gathered from traditional +utterances of his, scattered here and there in the works of later +disciples of his school. Many of these sayings, though by no means all +of them, with much other matter of a totally different character, have +been brought together in the form of a treatise, and the heterogeneous +whole has been ascribed to Lao Tzŭ himself. +</p> +<p> +Before proceeding with our examination of Tao, it is desirable to show +why this work may safely be regarded as a forgery of a later age. +</p> +<p> +Attempts have been made, by the simple process of interpolation in +classical texts, to prove that Lao Tzŭ lived in the same century as that +in which Confucius was born; and also that, when the former was a very +old man, the two sages met; and further that the interviews ended very +much to the astonishment of Confucius. All this, however, has been set +aside by +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>[147]</span> +the best native scholarship ever produced in China, as the work of later +hands. +</p> +<p> +Further, there was another philosopher of the same name, who really was +contemporary with Confucius, and it is held by many Chinese critics that +the two have been confused, perhaps with malice aforethought. +</p> +<p> +We can only say for certain that after Lao Tzŭ came Confucius—at what +interval we do not know. Now, in all the works of Confucius, whether as +writer or as editor, and throughout all his posthumously published +Discourses, there is not a single word of allusion either to Lao Tzŭ or +to this treatise. The alleged interviews have been left altogether +unnoticed. +</p> +<p> +One hundred years after Confucius came Mencius, China's second sage. In +all his pages of political advice to feudal nobles, and all his +conversations with his disciples, much more voluminous than the +Discourses of Confucius, there is equally no allusion to Lao Tzŭ, nor to +the treatise. +</p> +<p> +It has been pointed out by an eminent Chinese critic of the fifteenth +and sixteenth centuries, that Mencius spent his life chiefly in +attacking the various heterodox systems which then prevailed, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>[148]</span> +such as the extreme altruistic system of Mo Ti and the extreme egoistic +system of Yang Chu; and it is urged—in my opinion with overwhelming +force—that if the <i>Tao-Tê-Ching</i> had existed in the days of Mencius, it +must necessarily have been recognised and treated as a mischievous work, +likely to alienate men's minds from the one perfect and orthodox +teaching—Confucianism. +</p> +<p> +Chuang Tzŭ, a philosopher of the fourth century B.C., devoted himself to +elucidating and illuminating the teaching of Lao Tzŭ. His work, which +has survived to the present day, will shortly occupy our attention. For +the moment it is only necessary to say that it contains many of the +Master's traditional sayings, but never once mentions a treatise. +</p> +<p> +In the third century B.C. there lived another famous Taoist writer, Han +Fei Tzŭ, who devotes the best part of two whole sections of his work to +explaining and illustrating the sayings of Lao Tzŭ. Yet he never +mentions the treatise. He deals with many sayings of Lao Tzŭ now to be +found in the treatise, but he does not take them in the order in which +they now stand, and he introduces several others which do not occur +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>[149]</span> +at all in the treatise, having apparently been overlooked by the +compiler. +</p> +<p> +In the second century B.C. there lived another famous Taoist writer, +Huai-nan Tzŭ, who devotes a long chapter to illustrating the doctrines +of Lao Tzŭ. He never mentions a book. +</p> +<p> +One hundred years B.C. comes the historian Ssŭ-ma Ch'ien, whose +brilliant work, the first of the Dynastic Histories, I have already had +occasion to bring to your notice. In his brief memoir of Lao Tzŭ, he +does mention a book in five thousand and more characters; but he +mentions it in such a way as to make it clear beyond all doubt that he +himself could never have seen it; and moreover, in addition to the fact +that no date is given, either of the birth or death of Lao Tzŭ, the +account is so tinged with the supernatural as to raise a strong +suspicion that some part of it did not really come from the pen of the +great historian. +</p> +<p> +About two hundred years later appeared the first Chinese dictionary, +already alluded to in a previous lecture. This work was intended as a +collection of all the written characters known at date of publication; +and we can well imagine +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>[150]</span> +that, with Lao Tzŭ's short treatise before him, there would be no +difficulty in including all the words found therein. Such, however, is +not the case. There are many characters in the treatise which are not to +be found in the dictionary, and in one particular instance the omission +is very remarkable. +</p> +<p> +Much other internal evidence against the genuineness of this work might +here be adduced. I will content myself with a single, and a ludicrous, +item, which shows how carelessly it was pieced together. +</p> +<p> +Sentences occur in the <i>Tao-Tê-Ching</i> which positively contain, in +addition to some actual words by Lao Tzŭ, words from a commentator's +explanation, which have been mistaken by the forger for a part of Lao +Tzŭ's own utterance. +</p> +<p> +Add to this the striking fact that the great mass of Chinese critical +scholarship is entirely adverse to the claims put forward on behalf of +the treatise,—a man who believes in it as the genuine work of Lao Tzŭ +being generally regarded among educated Chinese as an amiable crank, +much as many people now regard any one who credits the plays of +Shakespeare to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>[151]</span> +Lord Bacon,—and I think we may safely dismiss the question without +further ado. +</p> +<p> +It will be more interesting to turn to any sayings of Lao Tzŭ which we +can confidently regard as genuine; and those are such as occur in the +writings of some of the philosophers above-mentioned, from which they +were evidently collected by a pious impostor, and, with the aid of +unmistakable padding, were woven into the treatise, of which we may now +take a long leave. +</p> +<p> +Lao Tzŭ imagined the universe to be informed by an omnipresent, +omnipotent Principle, which he called <i>Tao</i>. Now this word <i>Tao</i> means +primarily "a road," "a way"; and Lao Tzŭ's Principle may therefore be +conveniently translated by "the Way." +</p> +<p> +Fearing, however, some confusion from the use of this term, the +philosopher was careful to explain that "the way which can be walked +upon is not the eternal Way." But he never tells us definitely what the +Way is. In one place he says it cannot find expression in words; in +another he says, "Those who know do not tell; those who tell do not +know." +</p> +<p> +The latter saying was used by a famous poet +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>[152]</span> +as a weapon of ridicule against the treatise. "If those who know," he +argued, "do not tell, how comes it that Lao Tzŭ put his own knowledge +into a book of five thousand and more words?" +</p> +<p> +We are assured, however, by Lao Tzŭ that "just as without going out of +doors we can know the whole world, so without looking out of window we +can know the Way." +</p> +<p> +Again we have, "Without moving, you shall know; without looking, you +shall see; without doing, you shall achieve." +</p> +<p> +Meanwhile, we are left to gather from isolated maxims some shadowy idea +of what Lao Tzŭ meant by the Way. +</p> +<p> +It seems to have been a perpetual accommodation of self to one's +surroundings, with the minimum of effort, all progress being spontaneous +and in the line of least resistance. +</p> +<p> +From this it is a mere step to doing nothing at all, the famous doctrine +of Inaction, with all its paradoxes, which is really the criterion of +Lao Tzŭ's philosophy and will be always associated with Lao Tzŭ's name. +</p> +<p> +Thus he says, "Perfect virtue does nothing, and consequently there is +nothing which it does not do." +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>[153]</span> +Again, "The softest things in the world overcome the hardest; that which +has no substance enters where there is no crevice." +</p> +<p> +"Leave all things to take their natural courses, and do not interfere." +</p> +<p> +"Only he who does nothing for his life's sake can be truly said to value +his life." +</p> +<p> +"Govern a great nation as you would cook a small fish,"—do not overdo +it. Do not try to force results. The well-known Greek injunction, "not +to go beyond one's destiny," <span class="greek" title="[ouk huper moron]">οὐκ ὑπὲρ μόρον</span>, +might well have fallen from Lao Tzŭ's lips. +</p> +<p> +All this is the Way, which Lao Tzŭ tells us is "like the drawing of a +bow,—it brings down the high and exalts the low," reducing all things +to a uniform plane. +</p> +<p> +He also says that if the Way prevails on earth, horses will be used for +agricultural purposes; if the Way does not prevail, they will be used +for war. +</p> +<p> +Many of Lao Tzŭ's sayings are mere moral maxims for use in everyday +life. +</p> +<p> +"Put yourself behind, and the world will put you in front; put yourself +in front, and the world will put you behind." +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>[154]</span> +"To the good I would be good; to the not-good I would also be good, in +order to make them good." +</p> +<p> +All together, with the comparatively few scraps of Lao Tzŭ's wisdom to +be found in the treatise, we should be hard put to understand the value +of Tao, and still more to find sufficient basis for a philosophical +system, were it not for his disciple, Chuang Tzŭ, of the fourth century +B.C., who produced a work expanding and illustrating the Way of his +great Master, so rich in thought and so brilliant from a literary point +of view that, although branded since the triumph of Confucianism with +the brand of heterodoxy, it still remains a storehouse of current +quotation and a model of composition for all time. +</p> +<p> +Let us go back to <i>Tao</i>, in which, Chuang Tzŭ tells us, man is born, as +fishes are born in water; for, as he says in another place, there is +nowhere where <i>Tao</i> is not. But <i>Tao</i> cannot be heard; heard, it is not +<i>Tao</i>. It cannot be seen; seen, it is not <i>Tao</i>. It cannot be spoken; +spoken, it is not <i>Tao</i>. Although it imparts form, it is itself +formless, and cannot therefore have a name, since form precedes name. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>[155]</span> +The unsubstantiality of <i>Tao</i> is further dwelt upon as follows:— +</p> +<p> +"Were <i>Tao</i> something which could be presented, there is no man but +would present it to his sovereign or to his parents. Could it be +imparted or given, there is no man but would impart it to his brother or +give it to his child. But this is impossible. For unless there is a +suitable endowment within, <i>Tao</i> will not abide; and unless there is +outward correctness, <i>Tao</i> will not operate." +</p> +<p> +It would seem therefore that <i>Tao</i> is something which altogether +transcends the physical senses of man and is correspondingly difficult +of attainment. Chuang Tzŭ comes thus to the rescue:— +</p> +<p> +"By absence of thought, by absence of cogitation, <i>Tao</i> may be known. By +resting in nothing, by according in nothing, <i>Tao</i> may be approached. By +following nothing, by pursuing nothing, <i>Tao</i> may be attained." +</p> +<p> +What there was before the universe, was <i>Tao</i>. <i>Tao</i> makes things what +they are, but is not itself a thing. Nothing can produce <i>Tao</i>; yet +everything has Tao within it, and continues to produce it without end. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>[156]</span> +"Rest in Inaction," says Chuang Tzŭ, "and the world will be good of +itself. Cast your slough. Spit forth intelligence. Ignore all +differences. Become one with the Infinite. Release your mind. Free your +soul. Be vacuous. Be nothing!" +</p> +<p> +Chuang Tzŭ lays especial emphasis on the cultivation of the natural as +opposed to the artificial. +</p> +<p> +"Horses and oxen have four feet; that is the natural. Put a halter on a +horse's head, a string through a bullock's nose; that is the +artificial." +</p> +<p> +"A drunken man who falls out of a cart, though he may suffer, does not +die. His bones are the same as other people's; but he meets his accident +in a different way. His spirit is in a condition of security. He is not +conscious of riding in the cart; neither is he conscious of falling out +of it. Ideas of life, death, fear, etc., cannot penetrate his breast; +and so he does not suffer from contact with objective existences. And if +such security is to be got from wine, how much more is it to be got from +<i>Tao</i>?" +</p> +<p> +The doctrine of Relativity in space and time, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>[157]</span> +which Chuang Tzŭ deduces from Lao Tzŭ's teachings, is largely introduced +by the disciple. +</p> +<p> +"There is nothing under the canopy of Heaven greater than an autumn +spikelet. A vast mountain is a small thing. The universe and I came into +being together; and all things therein are One. +</p> +<p> +"In the light of <i>Tao</i>, affirmative is reconciled with negative; +objective is identified with subjective. And when subjective and +objective are both without their correlates, that is the very axis of +<i>Tao</i>. And when that axis passes through the centre at which all +infinities converge, positive and negative alike blend into an infinite +One." +</p> +<p> +Thus, morally speaking, we can escape from the world and self, and can +reverse and look down upon the world's judgments; while in the +speculative region we get behind and beyond the contradictions of +ordinary thought and speech. A perfect man is the result. He becomes, as +it were, a spiritual being. As Chuang Tzŭ puts it:— +</p> +<p> +"Were the ocean itself scorched up, he would not feel hot. Were the +Milky Way frozen hard, he would not feel cold. Were the mountains +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>[158]</span> +to be riven with thunder, and the great deep to be thrown up by storm, +he would not tremble. In such case, he would mount upon the clouds of +Heaven, and driving the sun and moon before him, would pass beyond the +limits of this external world, where death and life have no more victory +over man." +</p> +<p> +We have now an all-embracing One, beyond the limits of this world, and +we have man perfected and refined until he is no longer a prey to +objective existences. Lao Tzŭ has already hinted at "the Whence, and oh, +Heavens, the Whither." He said that to emerge was life, and to return +was death. Chuang Tzŭ makes it clear that what man emerges from is some +transcendental state in the Infinite; and that to the Infinite he may +ultimately return. +</p> +<p> +"How," he asks, "do I know that love of life is not a delusion after +all? How do I know that he who dreads to die is not like a child who has +lost the way, and cannot find his home? +</p> +<p> +"Those who dream of the banquet wake to lamentation and sorrow. Those +who dream of lamentation and sorrow wake to join the hunt. While they +dream, they do not know that they dream. Some will even interpret the +very dream +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>[159]</span> +they are dreaming; and only when they awake do they know it was a dream. +By and by comes the Great Awakening, and then we find out that this life +is really a great dream. Fools think they are awake now, and flatter +themselves they know if they are really princes or peasants. Confucius +and you are both mere dreams; and I, who say you are dreams,—I am but a +dream myself. +</p> +<p> +"Take no heed," he adds, "of time, nor of right and wrong; but passing +into the realm of the Infinite, find your final rest therein." +</p> +<p> +An abstract Infinite, however, soon ceased to satisfy the natural +cravings of the great body of Taoist followers. Chuang Tzŭ had already +placed the source of human life beyond the limits of our visible +universe; and in order to secure a return thither, it was only necessary +to refine away the grossness of our material selves according to the +doctrine of the Way. It thus came about that the One, in whose +obliterating unity all seemingly opposed conditions were to be +indistinguishably blended, began to be regarded as a fixed point of +dazzling intellectual luminosity, in remote ether, around which circled +for ever and ever, in the supremest glory of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>[160]</span> +motion, the souls of those who had successfully passed through the +ordeal of life, and who had left the slough of humanity behind them. +</p> +<p> +Let me quote some lines from a great Taoist poet, Ssŭ-k'ung T'u, written +to support this view. His poem consists of twenty-four stanzas, each +twelve lines in length, and each dealing with some well-known phase of +Taoist doctrine. +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "Expenditure of force leads to outward decay, </p> +<p class="i3"> Spiritual existence means inward fulness. </p> +<p class="i3"> Let us revert to Nothing and enter the Absolute, </p> +<p class="i3"> Hoarding up strength for Energy. </p> +<p class="i3"> Freighted with eternal principles, </p> +<p class="i3"> Athwart the mighty void, </p> +<p class="i3"> Where cloud-masses darken, </p> +<p class="i3"> And the wind blows ceaseless around, </p> +<p class="i3"> Beyond the range of conceptions, </p> +<p class="i3"> Let us gain the Centre, </p> +<p class="i3"> And there hold fast without violence, </p> +<p class="i3"> Fed from an inexhaustible supply." </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +In this, the first, stanza we are warned against taxing, or even using, +our physical powers, instead of aiming, as we should, at a purely +spiritual existence, by virtue of which we shall ultimately be wafted +away to the distant Centre in the Infinite. +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "Lo, the Immortal, borne by spirituality, </p> +<p class="i3"> His hand grasping a lotus-flower, </p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>[161]</span> +<p class="i3"> Away to Time everlasting, </p> +<p class="i3"> Trackless through the regions of Space!" </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +These four lines from stanza v give us a glimpse of the liberated mortal +on his upward journey. The lotus-flower, which the poet has placed in +his hand, is one of those loans from Buddhism to which I shall recur by +and by. +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "As iron from the mines, </p> +<p class="i3"> As silver from lead, </p> +<p class="i3"> So purify thy heart, </p> +<p class="i3"> Loving the limpid and clean. </p> +<p class="i3"> Like a clear pool in spring, </p> +<p class="i3"> With its wondrous mirrored shapes, </p> +<p class="i3"> So make for the spotless and true, </p> +<p class="i3"> And riding the moonbeam revert to the Spiritual." </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +These eight lines from stanza vii, which might be entitled "Smelting," +show us the refining process by which spirituality is to be attained. +</p> +<p> +Seclusion and abandonment of the artificial are also extolled in stanza +xv:— +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "Following our own bent, </p> +<p class="i3"> Let us enjoy the Natural, free from curb, </p> +<p class="i3"> Rich with what comes to hand, </p> +<p class="i3"> Hoping some day to be with the Infinite. </p> +<p class="i3"> To build a hut beneath the pines, </p> +<p class="i3"> With uncovered head to pore over poetry, </p> +<p class="i3"> Knowing only morning and eve, </p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page162" name="page162"></a>[162]</span> +<p class="i3"> But not what season it may be ... </p> +<p class="i3"> Then, if happiness is ours </p> +<p class="i3"> Why must there be Action? </p> +<p class="i3"> If of our own selves we can reach this point, </p> +<p class="i3"> Can we not be said to have attained?" </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +Utterances of this kind are responsible for the lives of many Taoist +hermits who from time to time have withdrawn from the world, devoting +themselves to the pursuit of true happiness, on the mountains. +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "After gazing abstractedly upon expression and substance, </p> +<p class="i3"> The mind returns with a spiritual image, </p> +<p class="i3"> As when seeking the outlines of waves, </p> +<p class="i3"> As when painting the glory of spring. </p> +<p class="i3"> The changing shapes of wind-swept clouds, </p> +<p class="i3"> The energies of flowers and plants, </p> +<p class="i3"> The rolling breakers of ocean, </p> +<p class="i3"> The crags and cliffs of mountains, </p> +<p class="i3"> All these are like mighty TAO, </p> +<p class="i3"> Skilfully woven into earthly surroundings ... </p> +<p class="i3"> To obtain likeness without form </p> +<p class="i3"> Is not that to possess the man?" </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +This stanza means that man should become like the contour of waves, like +the glory of spring,—something which to a beholder is a mental image, +without constant physical form or substance. Then motion supervenes; not +motion as we know it, but a transcendental +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>[163]</span> +state of revolution in the Infinite. This is the subject of stanza +xxiv:— +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<p class="i2"> "Like a whirling water-wheel, </p> +<p class="i3"> Like rolling pearls,— </p> +<p class="i3"> Yet how are these worthy to be named? </p> +<p class="i3"> They are but adaptations for fools. </p> +<p class="i3"> There is the mighty axis of Earth, </p> +<p class="i3"> The never resting pole of Heaven; </p> +<p class="i3"> Let us grasp <i>their</i> clue, </p> +<p class="i3"> And with <i>them</i> be blended in One, </p> +<p class="i3"> Beyond the bounds of thought, </p> +<p class="i3"> Circling for ever in the great Void, </p> +<p class="i3"> An orbit of a thousand years,— </p> +<p class="i3"> Yes, this is the key to my theme." </p> +</div> +</div> + +<p> +All that might be dignified by the name of pure Taoism ends here. From +this point the descent to lower regions is both easy and rapid. +</p> +<p> +I am not speaking now in a chronological sense, but of the highest +intellectual point reached by the doctrines of Taoism, which began to +decline long before the writer of this poem, himself a pure Taoist of +the tenth century, was born. +</p> +<p> +The idea mentioned above, that the grosser elements of man's nature +might be refined away and immortality attained, seems to have suggested +an immortality, not merely in an unseen +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page164" name="page164"></a>[164]</span> +world, but even in this one, to be secured by an imaginary elixir of +life. Certain at any rate it is, that so far back as a century or so +before the Christian era, the desire to discover this elixir had become +a national craze. +</p> +<p> +The following story is historical, and dates from about 200 B.C.:— +</p> +<p> +"A certain person having forwarded some elixir of immortality to the +Prince of Ching, it was received as usual by the doorkeeper. 'Is this to +be swallowed?' enquired the Chief Warden of the palace. 'It is,' replied +the doorkeeper. Thereupon, the Chief Warden purloined and swallowed it. +At this, the Prince was exceedingly angry and ordered his immediate +execution; but the Chief Warden sent a friend to plead for him, saying, +'Your Highness's servant asked the doorkeeper if the drug was to be +swallowed, and as he replied in the affirmative, your servant +accordingly swallowed it. The blame rests entirely with the doorkeeper. +Besides, if the elixir of life is presented to your Highness, and +because your servant swallows it, your Highness slays him, that elixir +is clearly the elixir of death; and for your Highness thus to put to +death an innocent +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>[165]</span> +official is simply for your Highness to be made the sport of men.' The +Prince spared his life." +</p> +<p> +The later Taoist was not content with attempts to compound an elixir. He +invented a whole series of physical exercises, consisting mostly of +positions, or postures, in which it was necessary to sit or stand, +sometimes for an hour or so at a time, in the hope of prolonging life. +Such absurdities as swallowing the saliva three times in every two hours +were also held to be conducive to long life. +</p> +<p> +There is perhaps more to be said for a system of deep breathing, +especially of morning air, which was added on the strength of the +following passage in Chuang Tzŭ:— +</p> +<p> +"The pure men of old slept without dreams, and waked without anxiety. +They ate without discrimination, breathing deep breaths. For pure men +draw breath from their uttermost depths; the vulgar only from their +throats." +</p> +<p> +A Chinese official with whom I became acquainted in the island of +Formosa was outwardly a Confucianist, but inwardly a Taoist of the +deepest dye. He used to practise the above exercises and deep breathing +in his spare moments, and strongly urged me to try them. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>[166]</span> +Apparently they were no safeguard against malarial fever, of which he +died about a year or so afterward. +</p> +<p> +Associated closely with the elixir of immortality is the practice of +alchemy, which beyond all doubt was an importation from Greece by way of +Bactria. +</p> +<p> +We read in the Historical Record, under date 133 B.C., of a man who +appeared at court and persuaded the Emperor that gold could be made out +of cinnabar or red sulphide of mercury; and that if dishes made of the +gold thus produced were used for food, the result would be prolongation +of life, even to immortality. He pretended to be immortal himself; and +when he died, as he did within the year, the infatuated Emperor +believed, in the words of the historian, "that he was only transfigured +and not really dead," and accordingly gave orders to continue the +experiments. +</p> +<p> +For many centuries the attempt to turn base metal into gold occupied a +leading place in the researches of Chinese philosophers. Volumes have +been written on the subject, and are still studied by a few. +</p> +<p> +The best-known of these has been attributed +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>[167]</span> +to a Taoist hermit who flourished in the second century A.D., and was +summoned to court, but refused the invitation, being, as he described +himself, a lowly man, living simply, and with no love for power and +glory. The work in question was actually mistaken for a commentary on +the <i>Book of Changes</i>, mentioned in a former lecture, though it is in +reality a treatise upon alchemy, and also upon the concoction of pills +of immortality. It was forwarded to me some years ago by a gentleman in +America, with a request that I would translate it as a labour of love; +but I was obliged to decline what seemed to me a useless task, +especially as the book was really written by another man, of the same +name as the hermit, who lived more than twelve hundred years later. +</p> +<p> +The author is said to have ultimately succeeded in compounding these +pills of immortality, and to have administered one by way of experiment +to a dog, which at once fell down dead. He then swallowed one himself, +with the same result; whereupon his elder brother, with firm faith, and +undismayed by what he saw before him, swallowed a third pill. The same +fate overtook him, and this shook the confidence +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>[168]</span> +of a remaining younger brother, who went off to make arrangements for +burying the bodies. But by the time he had returned the trio had +recovered, and were straightway enrolled among the ranks of the +immortals. +</p> +<p> +As another instance of the rubbish in which the modern Taoist delights +to believe, I may quote the story of the Prince of Huai-nan, second +century B.C., who is said, after years of patient experiment, to have +finally discovered the elixir of life. Immediately on tasting the drug, +his body became imponderable, and he began to rise heavenward. Startled +probably by this new sensation, he dropped the cup out of which he had +been drinking, into the courtyard; whereupon his dogs and poultry +finished up the dregs, and were soon sailing up to heaven after him. +</p> +<p> +It was an easy transition from alchemy and the elixir of life to magic +and the black art in general. Those Taoists who, by their manner of +life, or their reputed successes in the above two fields of research, +attracted public attention, came to be regarded as magicians or wizards, +in communication with, and in control of, the unseen powers of darkness. +The accounts of their +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>[169]</span> +combats with evil spirits, to be found in many of the lower-class +novels, are eagerly devoured by the Chinese, who even now frequently +call in Taoist priests to exorcise some demon which is supposed to be +exerting an evil influence on the family. +</p> +<p> +As a specimen, there is a story of a young man who had fallen under the +influence of a beautiful young girl, when he met a Taoist priest in the +street, who started on seeing him, and said that his face showed signs +that he had been bewitched. Hurrying home, the young man found his door +locked; and on creeping softly up to the window and looking in, he saw a +hideous devil, with a green face and jagged teeth like a saw, spreading +a human skin on the bed, and painting it with a paint-brush. The devil +then threw aside the brush, and giving the skin a shake-out, just as you +would a coat, cast it over its shoulders, when lo! there stood the girl. +</p> +<p> +The story goes on to say that the devil-girl killed the young man, +ripping him open and tearing out his heart; after which the priest +engaged in terrible conflict with her. Finally—and here we seem to be +suddenly transported +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>[170]</span> +to the story of the fisherman in the <i>Arabian Nights</i>—she became a +dense column of smoke curling up from the ground, and then the priest +took from his vest an uncorked gourd, and threw it right into the midst +of the smoke. A sucking noise was heard, and the whole column was drawn +into the gourd; after which the priest corked it up closely, and carried +it away with him. +</p> +<p> +The search for the elixir of life was too fascinating to be readily +given up. It was carried on with more or less vigour for centuries, as +we learn from the following Memorial to the Throne, dating from the +ninth century A.D., presented by an aggrieved Confucianist:— +</p> +<p> +"Of late years the court has been overrun by a host of 'professors,' who +pretend to have the secret of immortality. +</p> +<p> +"Now supposing that such beings as immortals really did exist—would +they not be likely to hide themselves in deep mountain recesses, far +from the ken of man? On the other hand, persons who hang about the +vestibules of the rich and great, and brag of their wonderful powers in +big words,—what are they more than common adventurers in search of +pelf? How should +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>[171]</span> +their nonsense be credited, and their drugs devoured? Besides, even +medicines to cure bodily ailments are not to be swallowed casually, +morning, noon, and night. How much less, then, this poisonous, fiery +gold-stone, which the viscera of man must be utterly unable to digest?" +</p> +<p> +Thus gradually Taoism lost its early simple characteristics associated +with the name of Lao Tzŭ. The <i>Tao</i> developed by Chuang Tzŭ, in the +light of which all things became one, paved the way for One Concrete +Ruler of the universe; and the dazzling centre, far away in space, +became the heaven which was to be the resting-place of virtuous mortals +after death. Then came Buddhism, with its attractive ritual and its +manifold consolations, and put an end once for all to the ancient +glories of the teachings of Lao Tzŭ. +</p> +<p> +The older text-books date the first appearance of Buddhism in China from +67 A.D., when in consequence of a dream the reigning Emperor sent a +mission to the West, and was rewarded by obtaining copies of parts of +the Canon, brought to China by Kashiapmadunga, an Indian priest, who, +after translating a portion into Chinese, fell ill and died. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>[172]</span> +But we know now that Buddhist monks had already appeared in China so +early as 230 B.C. The monks were thrown into prison, but were said to +have been released in the night by an angel. +</p> +<p> +Still, it was not until the third or fourth century of our era that the +new religion began to make itself appreciably felt. "When this came +about, there ensued a long and fierce struggle between the Buddhists and +the Taoists, resulting, after alternating triumphs and defeats on both +sides, in that mutual toleration which obtains at the present day. +</p> +<p> +Each religion began early to borrow from the other. In the words of the +philosopher Chu Hsi, of the eleventh century, "Buddhism stole the best +features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism. It is +as though one took a jewel from the other, and the loser recouped the +loss with a stone." +</p> +<p> +From Buddhism the Taoists borrowed their whole scheme of temples, +priests, nuns, and ritual. They drew up liturgies to resemble the +Buddhist <i>sûtras</i>; and also prayers for the dead. They adopted the idea +of a Trinity, consisting of Lao Tzŭ, the mythological Adam of China, and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page173" name="page173"></a>[173]</span> +the Ruler of the Universe, before mentioned; and they further +appropriated the Buddhist Purgatory with all its frightful terrors and +tortures after death. +</p> +<p> +Nowadays it takes an expert to distinguish between the temples and +priests of the two religions, and members of both hierarchies are often +simultaneously summoned by persons needing religious consolation or +ceremonial of any kind. +</p> +<p> +The pure and artless <i>Tao</i> of Lao Tzŭ, etherealised by the lofty +speculations of Chuang Tzŭ, has long since become the vehicle of base +and worthless superstition. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>[174]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page175" name="page175"></a>[175]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0013" id="h2H_4_0013"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + LECTURE VI +</h2> +<h3> + SOME CHINESE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS +</h3> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>[176]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>[177]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0014" id="h2H_4_0014"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + SOME CHINESE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS +</h2> +<p> +A foreigner arriving for the first time in China will be especially +struck by three points to which he is not accustomed at home. +</p> +<p> +The people will consist almost entirely of men; they will all wear their +hair plaited in queues; and they will all be exactly alike. +</p> +<p> +The seclusion of women causes the traveller least surprise of the three, +being a custom much more rigorously enforced in other Oriental +countries; and directly he gets accustomed to the uniform absence of +beard and moustache, he soon finds out that the Chinese people are not +one whit more alike facially than his own countrymen of the West. +</p> +<p> +A Chinaman cannot wear a beard before he is forty, unless he happens to +have a married son. He also shaves the whole head with the exception of +a round patch at the back, from which the much-prized queue is grown. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>[178]</span> +There are some strange misconceptions as to the origin and meaning of +the queue, more perhaps on the other side of the Atlantic, where we are +not so accustomed to Chinamen as you are in America. Some associate the +queue with religion, and gravely state that without it no Chinaman could +be hauled into Paradise. Others know that queues have only been worn by +the Chinese for about two hundred and fifty years, and that they were +imposed as a badge of conquest by the Manchu-Tartars, the present rulers +of China. Previous to 1644 the Chinese clothed their bodies and dressed +their hair in the style of the modern Japanese,—of course I mean those +Japanese who still wear what is wrongly known as "the beautiful native +dress of Japan,"—wrongly, because as a matter of fact the Japanese +borrowed their dress, as well as their literature, philosophy, and early +lessons in art, from China. The Japanese dress is the dress of the Ming +period in China, 1368-1644. +</p> +<p> +It remains still to be seen whence and wherefore the Manchu-Tartars +obtained this strange fashion of the queue. +</p> +<p> +The Tartars may be said to have depended almost for their very existence +upon the horse; +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>[179]</span> +and in old pictures the Tartar is often seen lying curled up asleep with +his horse, illustrating the mutual affection and dependence between +master and beast. Out of sheer gratitude and respect for his noble ally, +the man took upon himself the form of the animal, growing a queue in +imitation of the horse's tail. +</p> +<p> +Unsupported by any other evidence, this somewhat grotesque theory would +fall to the ground. But there <i>is</i> other evidence, of a rather striking +character, which, taken in conjunction with what has been said, seems to +me to settle the matter. +</p> +<p> +Official coats, as seen in China at the present day, are made with very +peculiar sleeves, shaped like a horse's leg, and ending in what is an +unmistakable hoof, completely covering the hand. These are actually +known to the Chinese as "horse-shoe sleeves"; and, encased therein, a +Chinaman's arms certainly look very much like a horse's forelegs. The +tail completes the picture. +</p> +<p> +When the Tartars conquered China two hundred and fifty years ago, there +was at first a strenuous fight against the queue, and it has been said +that the turbans still worn by the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>[180]</span> +Southern Chinese were originally adopted as a means of concealing the +hateful Manchu badge. Nowadays every Chinaman looks upon his queue as an +integral and honourable part of himself. If he cannot grow one, he must +have recourse to art, for he could not appear tailless, either in this +world or the next. +</p> +<p> +False queues are to be seen hanging in the streets for sale. They are +usually worn by burglars, and come off in your hand when you think you +have caught your man. Prisoners are often led to, and from, gaol by +their queues, sometimes three or four being tied together in a gang. +</p> +<p> +False hair is not confined entirely to the masculine queue. Chinese +ladies often use it as a kind of chignon; and it is an historical fact +that a famous Empress, who set aside the Emperor and ruled China with an +Elizabethan hand from A.D. 684 to 705, used to present herself in the +Council Chamber, before her astonished ministers, fortified by an +artificial beard. +</p> +<p> +Dyeing the hair, too, has been practised in China certainly from the +Christian era, if not earlier, chiefly by men whose hair and beards +begin to grow grey too soon. One of the proudest +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>[181]</span> +titles of the Chinese, carrying them back as it does to prehistoric +times, is that of the Black-haired People, also a title, perhaps a mere +coincidence, of the ancient Accadians. In spite, however, of the +universality of black hair in both men and women, there are exceptions +to the rule, and I myself have seen a Chinese albino, with the usual +light-coloured hair and pink eyes. +</p> +<hr /> +<p> +The Rev. Dr. Arthur Smith, an American missionary, has long been known +for his keen insight into the workings of the Chinese mind. In his last +book, <i>China in Convulsion</i>, under the head of "Protestant Missions," he +makes the following important statement,—important not only to those +who intend to take part in missionary work, but also to the official, to +the explorer, and to the merchant:— +</p> +<p> +"It would be unfair," he says, "not to point out that when a large body +of Occidentals, imperfectly acquainted with the Chinese language, +etiquette, modes of thought, and intellectual presuppositions, begins on +a large and universal scale the preaching of an uncompromising system of +morals and doctrines like Christianity, there must be much which, +unconsciously to themselves, rouses Chinese prejudices." +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>[182]</span> +The following maxim comes from Confucius:— +</p> +<p> +"If you visit a foreign State, ask what the prohibitions are; if you go +into a strange neighbourhood, enquire what the manners and customs are." +Certainly it is altogether desirable that a foreigner going to China, +whether in an official capacity, or as merchant, missionary, or +traveller, should have some acquaintance with the ordinary rules and +ceremonial of Chinese social life. Such knowledge will often go far to +smooth away Chinese prejudices against the barbarian, and on occasions +might conceivably aid in averting a catastrophe. +</p> +<p> +It is true that Lao Tzŭ said, "Ceremonies are but the veneer of loyalty +and good faith." His words, however, have not prevailed against the +teaching of Confucius, who was an ardent believer in the value of +ceremonial. One of the latter's disciples wished, as a humanitarian, to +abolish the sacrifice of a sheep upon the first day of every month; but +Confucius rebuked him, saying, "My son, you love the sheep; I love the +ceremony." +</p> +<p> +When, during his last visit to England, Li Hung-chang made remarks about +Mr. Chamberlain's +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>[183]</span> +eyeglass, he was considered by many to be wanting in common politeness. +But from the Chinese point of view it was Mr. Chamberlain who was +offending—quite unwittingly, of course—against an important canon of +good taste. It is a distinct breach of Chinese etiquette to wear +spectacles while speaking to an equal. The Chinese invariably remove +their glasses when conversing; for what reason I have never been able to +discover. One thing is quite certain: they do not like being looked at +through a medium of glass or crystal, and it costs the foreigner nothing +to fall in with their harmless prejudice. +</p> +<p> +Chinese street etiquette is also quite different from our own, a fact +usually ignored by blustering foreigners, who march through a Chinese +town as if the place belonged to them, and not infrequently complain +that coolies and others will not "get out of their way." Now there is a +graduated scale of Chinese street rights in this particular respect, to +which, as being recognised by the Chinese themselves, it would be +advisable for foreigners to pay some attention. In England it has been +successfully maintained that the roadway belongs to all equally, +foot-passengers, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>[184]</span> +equestrians, and carriage-passengers alike. Not so in China; the +ordinary foot-passenger is bound to "get out of the way" of the lowest +coolie who is carrying a load; that same coolie must make way, even at +great inconvenience to himself, for a sedan-chair; an empty chair yields +the way to a chair with somebody inside; a chair, inasmuch as being more +manageable, gets out of the way of a horse; and horse, chair, coolie, +and foot-passenger, all clear the road for a wedding or other +procession, or for the retinue of a mandarin. +</p> +<p> +At the same time a Chinaman may stop his cart or barrow, or dump down +his load, just where-ever he pleases, and other persons have to make the +best of what is left of the road. I have even seen a theatrical stage +built right across a street, completely blocking it, so that all traffic +had to be diverted from its regular course. There are no municipal +regulations and no police in China, so that the people have to arrange +things among themselves; and, considering the difficulties inherent in +such an absence of government, it may fairly be said that they succeed +remarkably well. +</p> +<p> +When two friends meet in the street, either +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>[185]</span> +may put up his fan and screen his face; whereupon the other will pass by +without a sign of recognition. The meaning is simply, "Too busy to stop +for a chat," and the custom, open and above-board as it is, compares +favourably perhaps with the "Not at home" of Western civilisation. +</p> +<p> +I do not know of any Chinese humorist who ever, as in the old story, +shouted out to a visitor, "I am not at home." Confucius himself +certainly came very near to doing so. It is on record that when an +unwelcome visitor came to call, the sage sent out to say that he was too +ill to receive guests, at the same time seizing his harpsichord and +singing to it from an open window, in order to expose the hollowness of +his own plea. +</p> +<p> +Any one on horseback, or riding in a sedan-chair, who happens to meet a +friend walking, must dismount before venturing to salute him. However to +obviate the constant inconvenience of so doing, the foot-passenger is in +duty bound to screen his face as above; and thus, by a fiction which +deceives nobody, much unnecessary trouble is saved. +</p> +<p> +When two mandarins of equal rank find +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>[186]</span> +themselves face to face in their sedan-chairs, those attendants among +their retinues who carry the enormous wooden fans rush forward and +insert these between the passing chairs, so that their masters may be +presumed not to see each other and consequently not be obliged to get +out. +</p> +<p> +No subordinate can ever meet a higher mandarin in this way; the former +must turn down some by-street immediately on hearing the approaching +gong of his superior officer. A mandarin's rank can be told by the +number of consecutive strokes on the gong, ranging from thirteen for a +viceroy to seven for a magistrate. +</p> +<p> +Take the case of a Chinese visitor. He should be received at the front +door, and be conducted by the host to a reception-room, the host being +careful to see that the visitor is always slightly in advance. The act +of sitting down should be simultaneous, so that neither party is +standing while the other is seated. If the host wishes to be very +attentive, he may take a cup of tea from his servant's hands and himself +arrange it for his guest. +</p> +<p> +Here comes another most important and universal rule: in handing +anything to, or receiving +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>[187]</span> +anything from, an equal both hands must be used. A servant should hand a +cup of tea with both hands, except when serving his master and a guest. +Then he takes one cup in each hand, and hands them with the arms +crossed. I was told that the crossing was in order to exhibit to each +the "heart," <i>i.e.</i> the palm, of the hand, in token of loyalty. +</p> +<p> +There is a curious custom in connection with the invariable cup of tea +served to a visitor on arrival which is often violated by foreigners, to +the great amusement of the Chinese. The tea in question, known as +guest-tea, is not intended for ordinary drinking purposes, for which +wine is usually provided. No sooner does the guest raise the cup of tea +to his lips, or even touch it with his hand, than a shout is heard from +the servants, which means that the interview is at an end and that the +visitor's sedan-chair is to be got ready. Drinking this tea is, in fact, +a signal for departure. A host may similarly, without breach of good +manners, be the first to drink, and thus delicately notify the guest +that he has business engagements elsewhere. +</p> +<p> +Then again, it is the rule to place the guest at one's left hand, though +curiously enough +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>[188]</span> +this only dates from the middle of the fourteenth century, previous to +which the right hand was the place of honour. +</p> +<p> +Finally, when the guest takes his leave, it is proper to escort him back +to the front door. That, at any rate, is sufficient, though it is not +unusual to accompany a guest some part of his return journey. In fact, +the Chinese proverb says, "If you escort a man at all, escort him all +the way." This, however, is rhetorical rather than practical, somewhat +after the style of another well-known Chinese proverb, "If you bow at +all, bow low." +</p> +<p> +A Chinese invitation to dinner differs somewhat from a similar +compliment in the West. You will receive a red envelope containing a red +card,—red being the colour associated with festivity,—on which it is +stated that by noon on a given day the floor will be swept, the +wine-cups washed, and your host in waiting to meet your chariot. Later +on, a second invitation will arrive, couched in the same terms; and +again another on the day of the banquet, asking you to be punctual to +the minute. To this you pay no attention, but make preparations to +arrive about 4 P.M., previous to which another +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>[189]</span> +and more urgent summons may very possibly have been sent. All this is +conventional, and the guests assemble at the same hour, to separate +about 9 P.M. +</p> +<p> +Women take no part in Chinese social entertainments except among their +own sex. It is not even permissible to enquire after the wife of one's +host. Her very existence is ignored. A man will talk with pleasure about +his children, especially if his quiver is well stocked with boys. +</p> +<p> +In this connection I may say that the position of women in China still +seems to be very widely misunderstood. Not only that, but a very +frightful crime is alleged against the Chinese people as a common +practice in everyday life, which, if not actually approved, meets +everywhere with toleration. +</p> +<p> +I allude to the charge of infanticide, confined of course to girls, for +it has not often been suggested that Chinese parents do away with such a +valuable asset as a boy. +</p> +<p> +Miss Gordon Cumming, the traveller, in her <i>Wanderings in China</i>, has +the following impassioned paragraph in reference to her visit to +Ningpo:— +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>[190]</span> +"The delicate fragrance (of the roses and honeysuckle), alas! cannot +overpower the appalling odours which here and there assail us, poisoning +the freshness of the evening breezes. +</p> +<p> +"These are wafted from the Baby Towers, two of which we had to pass. +These are square towers, with small windows, about twelve feet from the +ground, somewhat resembling pigeon-towers; these strange dove-cotes are +built to receive the bodies of such babies as die too young to have +fully developed souls, and therefore there is no necessity to waste +coffins on them, or even to take the trouble of burying them in the +bosom of mother earth. So the insignificant little corpse is handed over +to a coolie, who, for the sum of forty <i>cash</i>, equal to about five +cents, carries it away, ostensibly to throw it into one of these towers; +but if he should not choose to go so far, he gets rid of it somehow,—no +questions are asked, and there are plenty of prowling dogs ever on the +watch seeking what they may devour. To-day several poor uncoffined mites +were lying outside the towers, shrouded only in a morsel of old +matting—apparently they had been brought by some one who had failed to +throw them in at +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>[191]</span> +the window ('about twelve feet from the ground'), in which, by the way, +one had stuck fast! +</p> +<p> +"Some of these poor little creatures are brought here alive and left to +die, and some of these have been rescued and carried to foundling +hospitals. The neighbourhood was so pestiferous that we could only pause +a moment to look at 'an institution' which, although so horrible, is so +characteristic of this race, who pay such unbounded reverence to the +powerful dead who could harm them. Most of the bodies deposited here are +those of girl babies who have been intentionally put to death, but older +children are often thrown in." +</p> +<p> +With regard to this, I will only say that I lived all together for over +four years within a mile or so of these Towers, which I frequently +passed during the evening walk; and so far from ever seeing "several +poor uncoffined mites lying outside the towers, shrouded only in a +morsel of old matting," which Miss Gordon Cumming has described, I never +even saw one single instance of a tower being put to the purpose for +which it was built, viz.: as a burying-place for the dead infants of +people too poor to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>[192]</span> +spend money upon a grave. As for living children being thrown in, I +think I shall be able to dispose of that statement a little later on. +Miss Gordon Cumming did not add that these towers are cleared out at +regular intervals by a Chinese charitable society which exists for that +purpose, the bodies burnt, and the ashes reverently buried. +</p> +<p> +Mrs. Bird-Bishop, the traveller, is reported to have stated at a public +lecture in 1897, that "one of the most distressing features of Chinese +life was the contempt for women. Of eleven Bible-women whom she had seen +at a meeting in China, there was not one who had not put an end to at +least five girl-babies." +</p> +<p> +A Jesuit missionary has published a quarto volume, running to more than +270 pages, and containing many illustrations of infanticide, and the +judgments of Heaven which always come upon those who commit this crime. +</p> +<p> +Finally, if you ask of any Chinaman, he will infallibly tell you that +infanticide exists to an enormous extent everywhere in China; and as +though in corroboration of his words, alongside many a pool in South +China may be found a stone tablet bearing an inscription to the effect +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>[193]</span> +that "Female children may not be drowned here." This would appear to end +the discussion; but it does not. +</p> +<p> +To begin with, the Chinese are very prone to exaggerate, especially to +foreigners, even their vices. They seem to think that some credit may be +extracted from anything, provided it is on a sufficiently imposing +scale, and I do not at all doubt the fact that eleven Bible-women told +Mrs. Bird-Bishop that they had each destroyed five girl-babies. It is +just what I should have expected. I remember, when I first went to Amoy, +it had been stated in print by a reckless foreigner that crucifixion of +a most horrible kind was one of the common punishments of the place. On +enquiring from the Chinese writer attached to the Consulate, the man +assured me that the story was quite true and that I could easily see for +myself. I told him that I was very anxious to do so, and promised him a +hundred dollars for the first case he might bring to my notice. Three +years later I left Amoy, with the hundred dollars still unclaimed. +</p> +<p> +Further, those Chinese who have any money to spare are much given to +good works, chiefly, I feel bound to add, in view of the recompense +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>[194]</span> +their descendants will receive in this world and they themselves in the +next; also, because a rich man who does nothing in the way of charity +comes to be regarded with disapprobation by his poorer neighbours. Such +persons print and circulate gratis all kinds of religious tracts, +against gambling, wine-drinking, opium-smoking, infanticide, and so +forth; and these are the persons who set up the stone tablets +above-mentioned, regardless whether infanticide happens to be practised +or not. +</p> +<p> +Of course infanticide is known in China, just as it is known, too well +known, in England and elsewhere. What I hope to be able to show is that +infanticide is not more prevalent in China than in the Christian +communities of the West. +</p> +<p> +Let me begin by urging, what no one who has lived in China will deny, +that Chinese parents seem to be excessively fond of all their children, +male and female. A son is often spoken of playfully as a little dog,—a +puppy, in fact; a girl is often spoken of as "a thousand ounces of +gold," a jewel, and so forth. Sons are no doubt preferred; but is that +feeling peculiar to the Chinese? +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>[195]</span> +A great deal too much has been made of a passage in the <i>Odes</i>, which +says that baby-sons should have sceptres to play with, while +baby-daughters should have tiles. +</p> +<p> +The allotment of these toys is not quite so disparaging as it seems. The +sceptre is indeed the symbol of rule; but the tile too has an honourable +signification, a tile being used in ancient China as a weight for the +spindle,—and consequently as a symbol of woman's work in the household. +</p> +<p> +Then, again, even a girl has a market value. Some will buy and rear them +to be servants; others, to be wives for their sons; while native +foundling hospitals, endowed by charitable Chinese, will actually pay a +small fee for every girl handed over them. +</p> +<p> +It is also curious to note how recent careful observers have several +times stated that they can find no trace of infanticide in their own +immediate districts, though they hear that it is extensively practised +in some other, generally distant, parts of the country. +</p> +<p> +After all, it is really a question which can be decided inferentially by +statistics. +</p> +<p> +Every Chinese youth, when he reaches the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>[196]</span> +age of eighteen, has a sacred duty to perform: he must marry. Broadly +speaking, every adult Chinaman in the Empire has a wife; well-to-do +merchants, mandarins, and others have subordinate wives, two, three, and +even four. The Emperor has seventy-two. This being the case, and +granting also a widespread destruction of female children, it must +follow that girls are born in an overwhelmingly large proportion to +boys, utterly unheard-of in any other part of the world. +</p> +<p> +Are, then, Chinese women the down-trodden, degraded creatures we used to +imagine Moslem women to be? +</p> +<p> +I think this question must be answered in the negative. The young +Chinese woman in a well-to-do establishment is indeed secluded, in the +sense that her circle is limited to the family and to mends of the same +sex. +</p> +<p> +From time immemorial it has been the rule in China that men and women +should not pass things to one another,—for fear their hands might +touch. A local Pharisee tried to entangle the great Mencius in his +speech, asking him if a man who saw his sister-in-law drowning might +venture to pull her out. "A man," replied +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>[197]</span> +the philosopher, "who failed to do so, would be no better than a wolf." +</p> +<p> +The Chinese lady may go out to pay calls, and even visit temples for +religious purposes, unveiled, veils for women having been abolished in +the first years of the seventh century of our era. Only brides wear them +now. +</p> +<p> +Girls are finally separated from boys at seven or eight years of age, +when the latter go to school. +</p> +<p> +Some say that Chinese girls receive no education. If so, what is the +explanation of the large educational literature provided expressly for +girls? +</p> +<p> +One Chinese authoress, who wrote a work on the education of women, +complains that women can never expect more than ten years for their +education, <i>i.e.</i> the years between childhood and marriage. +</p> +<p> +The fact is that among the literary classes girls often receive a fair +education, as witness the mass of poetry published by Chinese women. One +of the Dynastic Histories was partly written by a woman. Her brother, +who was engaged on it, died, and she completed his work. +</p> +<p> +About the year 235 A.D., women were actually +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>[198]</span> +admitted to official life, and some of them rose to important government +posts. By the eighth century, however, all trace of this system had +disappeared. +</p> +<p> +The women of the poorer classes are not educated at all; nor indeed are +the men. Both sexes have to work as burden-carriers and field labourers; +and of course in such cases the restrictions mentioned above cannot be +rigorously enforced. +</p> +<p> +Women of the shopkeeper class often display great aptitude for business, +and render invaluable assistance to their husbands. As in France, they +usually keep the cash-box. +</p> +<p> +A mandarin's seal of office is his most important possession. If he +loses it, he may lose his post. Without the seal, nothing can be done; +with it, everything. Extraordinary precautions are taken when +transmitting new seals from Peking to the provinces. Every official seal +is made with four small feet projecting from the four corners of its +face, making it look like a small table. Of these, the maker breaks off +one when he hands the seal over to the Board. Before forwarding to the +Viceroy of the province, another foot is removed by the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page199" name="page199"></a>[199]</span> +Board. A third is similarly disposed of by the Viceroy, and the last by +the official for whose use it is intended. This is to prevent its +employment by any other than the person authorised. The seal is then +handed over to the mandarin's wife, in whose charge it always remains, +she alone having the power to produce it, or withhold it, as required. +</p> +<p> +A Chinese woman shares the titles accorded to her husband. When the +latter is promoted, the title of the wife is correspondingly advanced. +She also shares all posthumous honours, and her spirit, equally with her +husband's, is soothed by the ceremonies of ancestral worship. +</p> +<p> +"Ancestral worship" is a phrase of ominous import, suggesting as it does +the famous dispute which began to rage early in the eighteenth century +and is still raging to-day. +</p> +<p> +In every Chinese house stand small wooden tablets, bearing the names of +deceased parents, grandparents, and earlier ancestors. Plates of meat +and cups of wine are on certain occasions set before these tablets, in +the belief that the spirits of the dead occupy the tablets and enjoy the +offerings. The latter are afterward eaten +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>[200]</span> +by the family; but pious Chinese assert that the flavour of the food and +wine has been abstracted. Similar offerings are made once a year at the +tombs where the family ancestors lie buried. +</p> +<p> +The question now arises, Are these offerings set forth in the same +spirit which prompts us to place flowers on graves, adorn statues, and +hold memorial services? +</p> +<p> +If so, a Chinese convert to Christianity may well be permitted to embody +these old observances with the ceremonial of his new faith. +</p> +<p> +Or do these observances really constitute worship? <i>i.e.</i> are the +offerings made with a view to propitiate the spirits of the dead, and +obtain from them increase of worldly prosperity and happiness? +</p> +<p> +In the latter case, ministers of the Christian faith would of course be +justified in refusing to blend ancestral worship with the teachings of +Christianity. +</p> +<p> +It would no doubt be very desirable to bring about a compromise, and +discover some <i>modus vivendi</i> for the Chinese convert, other than that +of throwing over Confucianism with all its influence for good, and of +severing all family and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>[201]</span> +social ties, and beginning life again as an outcast in his own country; +but I feel bound to say that in my opinion these ancestral observances +can only be regarded, strictly speaking, as worship and as nothing else. +</p> +<p> +To return to the Chinese woman. She enjoys some privileges not shared by +men. She is exempt from the punishment of the bamboo, and, as a party to +a case, is always more or less a source of anxiety to the presiding +magistrate. No Chinaman will enter into a dispute with a woman if he can +help it,—not from any chivalrous feeling, but from a conviction that he +will surely be worsted in the end. +</p> +<p> +If she becomes a widow, a Chinese woman is not supposed to marry again, +though in practice she very often does so. A widow who remains unmarried +for thirty years may be recommended to the Throne for some mark of +favour, such as an honorary tablet, or an ornamental archway, to be put +up near her home. It is essential, however, that her widowhood should +have begun before she was thirty years of age. +</p> +<p> +Remarriage is viewed by many widows with horror. In my own family I once +employed +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>[202]</span> +a nurse—herself one of seven sisters—who was a widow, and who had also +lost half the little finger of her left hand. The connecting link +between these two details is not so apparent to us as it might be to the +Chinese. After her husband's death the widow decided that she would +never marry again, and in order to seal irrevocably her vow, she seized +a meat-chopper and lopped off half her finger on the spot. The +finger-top was placed in her husband's coffin, and the lid was closed. +</p> +<p> +This woman, who was a Christian, and the widow of a native preacher, had +large, <i>i.e.</i> unbound, feet. Nevertheless, she bound the feet of her +only daughter, because, as she explained, it is so difficult to get a +girl married unless she has small feet. +</p> +<p> +Here we have the real obstacle to the abolition of this horrible custom, +which vast numbers of intelligent Chinese would be only too glad to get +rid of, if fashion did not stand in the way. +</p> +<p> +There has been in existence now for some years a well-meaning +association, known as the Natural Foot Society, supported by both +Chinese and foreigners, with the avowed object of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>[203]</span> +putting an end to the practice of foot-binding. We hear favourable +accounts of its progress; but until there is something like a national +movement, it will not do to be too sanguine. +</p> +<p> +We must remember that in 1664 one of China's wisest and greatest +Emperors, in the plenitude of his power issued an Imperial edict +forbidding parents in future to bind the feet of their girls. Four years +later the edict was withdrawn. +</p> +<p> +The Emperor was K'ang Hsi, whose name you have already heard in +connection with the standard dictionary of the Chinese language and +other works brought out under his patronage. A Tartar himself, +unaccustomed to the sight of Tartar women struggling in such fetters, he +had no sympathy with the custom; but against the Chinese people, banded +together to safeguard their liberty of action in a purely domestic +matter, he was quite unable to prevail. +</p> +<p> +Within the last few weeks another edict has gone forth, directed against +the practice of foot-binding. Let us hope it will have a better fate. +</p> +<p> +Many years ago the prefect of T'ai-wan Fu +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>[204]</span> +said to me, in the course of an informal conversation after a friendly +dinner, "Do you foreigners fear the inner ones?"—and on my asking what +was meant, he told me that a great many Chinese stood in absolute awe of +their wives. "<i>He</i> does," added the prefect, pointing to the district +magistrate, a rather truculent-looking individual, who was at the +dinner-party; and the other guests went into a roar of laughter. +</p> +<p> +The general statement by the prefect is borne out by the fact that the +"henpecked husband" is constantly held up to ridicule in humorous +literature, which would be quite impossible if there were no foundation +of fact. +</p> +<p> +I have translated one of these stories, trivial enough in itself, but, +like the proverbial straw, well adapted for showing which way the wind +blows. Here it is:— +</p> +<p> +Ten henpecked husbands agreed to form themselves into a society for +resisting the oppression of their wives. At the first meeting they were +sitting talking over their pipes, when suddenly the ten wives, who had +got wind of the movement, appeared on the scene. +</p> +<p> +There was a general stampede, and nine of the husbands incontinently +bolted through another +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page205" name="page205"></a>[205]</span> +door, only one remaining unmoved to face the music. The ladies merely +smiled contemptuously at the success of their raid, and went away. +</p> +<p> +The nine husbands them all agreed that the bold tenth man, who had not +run away, should be at once appointed their president; but on coming to +offer him the post, they found that he had died of fright! +</p> +<p> +To judge by the following story, the Chinese woman's patience is +sometimes put to a severe test. +</p> +<p> +A scholar of old was so absent-minded, that on one occasion, when he was +changing houses, he forgot to take his wife. This was reported to +Confucius as a most unworthy act. "Nay," replied the Master, "it is +indeed bad to forget one's wife; but 'tis worse to forget one's self!" +</p> +<p> +Points of this kind are, no doubt, trivial, as I have said above, and +may be regarded by many even as flippant; but the fact is that a +successful study of the Chinese people cannot possibly be confined to +their classics and higher literature, and to the problem of their origin +and subsequent development where we now find them. It must embrace the +lesser, not to say +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>[206]</span> +meaner, details of their everyday life, if we are ever to pierce the +mystery which still to a great extent surrounds them. +</p> +<p> +In this sense an Italian student of Chinese, Baron Vitale, has gone so +far as to put together and publish a collection of Chinese nursery +rhymes, from which it is not difficult to infer that Chinese babies are +very much as other babies are in other parts of the world. +</p> +<p> +And it has always seemed to me that the Chinese baby's father and +mother, so far as the ordinary springs of action go, are very much of a +pattern with the rest of mankind. +</p> +<p> +One reason why the Chinaman remains a mystery to so many is due, no +doubt, to the vast amount of nonsense which is published about him. +</p> +<p> +First of all, China is a very large country, and from want of proper +means of communication for many centuries, there has been nothing like +extensive intercourse between North, South, East, West, and Central. Of +course the officials visit all parts of the Empire, as they are +transferred from post to post; but the bulk of the people never get far +beyond the range of their own district city. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>[207]</span> +The consequence is that as regards manners and customs, while retaining +an indelible national imprint, the Chinese people have drifted apart +into separate local communities; so that what is true of one part of the +country is by no means necessarily true of another. +</p> +<p> +The Chinese themselves say that manners, which they think are due to +climatic influences, change every thirty miles; customs, which they +attribute to local idiosyncrasies, change every three hundred miles. +</p> +<p> +Now, a globe-trotter goes to Canton, and as one of the sights of that +huge collection of human beings, he is taken to shops,—there used to be +three,—where the flesh of dogs, fed for the purpose, is sold as food. +</p> +<p> +He comes home, and writes a book, and says that the Chinese people live +on dogs' flesh. +</p> +<p> +When I was a boy, I thought that every Frenchman had a frog for +breakfast. Each statement would be about equally true. In the north of +China, dogs' flesh is unknown; and even in the south, during all my +years in China I never succeeded in finding any Chinaman who either +could, or would, admit that he had actually tasted it. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>[208]</span> +Take the random statement that any rich man condemned to death can +procure a substitute by payment of so much. So long as we believe stuff +of that kind, so long will the Chinese remain a mystery for us, it being +difficult to deduce true conclusions from false premises. +</p> +<p> +As a matter of fact, that is, so far as my own observations go, the +Chinese people value life every whit as highly as we do, and a +substitute of the kind would be quite unprocurable under ordinary +circumstances. It is thinkable that some poor wretch, himself under +sentence of death, might be substituted with the connivance of the +officials, to hoodwink foreigners; but even then the difficulties would +be so great as to render the scheme almost impracticable. +</p> +<p> +For in China everything leaks out. There is none of that secrecy +necessary to conceal and carry out such a plot. +</p> +<p> +At any rate, the uncertainty which gathers around many of these points +emphasises the necessity of more and more accurate scholarship in +Chinese, and more and more accurate information on the people of China +and their ways. +</p> +<p> +How the latter article is supplied to us in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>[209]</span> +England, you may judge from some extracts which I have recently taken +from respectable daily and weekly newspapers. +</p> +<p> +For instance, "China has only one hundred physicians to a population of +four hundred millions." +</p> +<p> +To me it is inconceivable how such rubbish can be printed, especially +when it is quite easy to find out that there is no medical diploma in +China, and that any man who chooses is free to set up as a doctor. +</p> +<p> +By a pleasant fiction, he charges no fees; a fixed sum, however, is paid +to him for each visit, as "horse-money,"—I need hardly add, in advance. +</p> +<p> +There are, as with us, many successful, and consequently fashionable, +doctors whose "horse-money" runs well into double figures. Their success +must be due more to good luck and strictly innocent prescriptions than +to any guidance they can find in the extensive medical literature of +China. +</p> +<p> +All together, medicine is a somewhat risky profession, as failure to +cure is occasionally resented by surviving relatives. +</p> +<p> +There is a story of a doctor who had mismanaged +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>[210]</span> +a case, and was seized by the patient's family and tied up. In the night +he managed to free himself, and escaped by swimming across a river. When +he got home, he found his son, who had just begun to study medicine, and +he said to him, "Don't be in a hurry with your books; the first and most +important thing is to learn to swim!" +</p> +<p> +Here is another newspaper gem: "In China, the land of opposites, the +dials of the clocks are made to turn round, while the hands stand +still." +</p> +<p> +Personally, I never noticed this arrangement. +</p> +<p> +Again: "Some of the tops with which the Chinese amuse themselves are as +large as barrels. It takes three men to spin one, and it gives off a +sound that may be heard several hundred yards away." +</p> +<p> +"The Chinese National Anthem is so long that it takes half a day to sing +it." +</p> +<p> +"Chinese women devote very little superfluous time to hair-dressing. +Their tresses are arranged once a month, and they sleep with their heads +in boxes." +</p> +<p> +What we want in place of all this is a serious and systematic +examination of the manners and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>[211]</span> +customs, and modes of thought, of the Chinese people. +</p> +<p> +Their long line of Dynastic Histories must be explored and their +literature ransacked by students who have got through the early years of +drudgery inseparable from the peculiar nature of the written language, +and who are prepared to devote themselves, not, as we do now, to a +general knowledge of the whole, but to a thorough acquaintance with some +particular branch. +</p> +<p> +The immediate advantages of such a course, as I must point out once +more, for the last time, to commerce and to diplomatic relations will be +incalculable. And they will be shared in by the student of history, +philosophy, and religion, who will then for the first time be able to +assign to China her proper place in the family of nations. +</p> +<p> +The founder of this Chinese Chair has placed these advantages within the +grasp of Columbia University. +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>[212]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>[213]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0015" id="h2H_4_0015"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + INDEX +</h2> +<p> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>[214]</span> +</p> +<p> + <!-- [Blank Page] --> +</p> +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>[215]</span> +</p> +<a name="h2H_4_0016" id="h2H_4_0016"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> + +<div style="height: 4em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<h2> + INDEX +</h2> + +<ul style="list-style: none;"> +<li> <i>Account of Strange Nations</i>, book in Cambridge collection, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</li> +<li> Albinos, Chinese, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li> +<li> Alchemy, Taoist practice, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Analects</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Ancestral worship, China, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li> +<li> Ancestry of Chinese traced through mother in ancient times, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</li> +<li> Ancient Greece, <i>see</i> Greece. </li> +<li> "And," idea in Chinese written character, <a href="#page28">28</a>.</li> +<li> Archæology— +<ul> +<li> Chinese dictionaries and work, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</li> +<li> Confucian Canon, archæological works referring to, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li> +<li> "Ark," erroneous analysis of Chinese written character, <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Athenian and Chinese women, points of resemblance, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li> Baby Towers, Chinese infanticide, <a href="#page190">190</a>.</li> +<li> Bactria— +<ul> +<li> Alchemy, practice imported into China, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</li> +<li> Mission of Chang Ch'ien, <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Bamboo tables, style of Chinese writing, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</li> +<li> Biographies— +<ul> +<li> <i>Historical Record</i>, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</li> +<li> National and private records, <a href="#page49">49</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> <i>Biographies of Eminent Women</i>, description, <a href="#page50">50</a>.</li> +<li> Bird-Bishop, Mrs., statement as to infanticide, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> Black art, Taoism, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</li> +<li> Black-haired People, title of Chinese, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of Changes</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of History</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of Odes, see Odes</i>. </li> +<li> <i>Book of Music</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Books of Rites</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Books, Chinese, <i>see</i> Library, Cambridge University. </li> +<li> Buddhism in China— +<ul> +<li> Borrowing from Tao, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</li> +<li> Buddhist priest anecdote, <a href="#page138">138</a>.</li> +<li> Cambridge collection, Buddhist works, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</li> +<li> Date of appearance, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</li> +<li> Struggle with Taoism, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Burning of the Books, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> Butchers, tax on, resisted, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>[216]</span> </li> + +<li> Calendars, Greek and Chinese, similarities, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> Cambridge University library, <i>see</i> Library. </li> +<li> Canon, <i>see</i> Confucian Canon. </li> +<li> Canton— +<ul> +<li> Dogs' flesh shops, <a href="#page207">207</a>.</li> +<li> Riot, 1880, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Catalogue of books in Imperial Library, China, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Ceremonies, valued by Confucius, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</li> +<li> Chamberlain, J., eyeglass remarked on by Li Hung-chang, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</li> +<li> Chang Ch'ien, mission to Bactria, <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li> +<li> Chang Chih-tung, viceroy, bridge incident, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li> +<li> Changes, Book of, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> Charities, Chinese, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> Characters of Chinese language, <i>see</i> Language. </li> +<li> Ch'ien Lung, Emperor, catalogue enterprise, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Children— +<ul> +<li> Fondness of parents for, <a href="#page194">194</a>.</li> +<li> Girls, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Infanticide, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Nursery rhymes published by Baron Vitale, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</li> +<li> Toys, passage in the <i>Odes</i>, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li> China— +<ul> +<li> Albinos, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li> +<li> Alchemy, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</li> +<li> Ancestral worship, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li> +<li> Ancestry traced through mother in ancient times, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</li> +<li> Anecdote, Grecian, in Chinese jest-book, <a href="#page138">138</a>.</li> +<li> Archæology, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Bactria, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Biographies, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Black art, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</li> +<li> Buddhism, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Burning of the Books, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> Calendars, Grecian characteristics, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> Cambridge University library, <i>see</i> Library. </li> +<li> Canton, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Chang Ch'ien, mission to Bactria, <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li> +<li> Charities, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> Children, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> City sights resembling Grecian, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li> +<li> Clocks, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Columbia University, endowment of Chinese chair, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</li> +<li> Combination, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> +<li> Confucius <i>and</i> Confucian Canon, <i>see those titles</i>. </li> +<li> Counting board, likeness to Grecian, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Crucifixion, alleged punishment, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> "Crying one's wrongs," <a href="#page101">101</a>.</li> +<li> Customs varying with places, <a href="#page207">207</a>.</li> +<li> Dictionaries, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Diplomatists, <i>see</i> Statesmen. </li> +<li> Doctors, "horse-money," etc., <a href="#page209">209</a>.</li> +<li> Dogs' flesh, Canton shops, <a href="#page207">207</a>.</li> +<li> Drama, <i>see</i> Plays. </li> +<li> Dress, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Dutch settlement, story of, <a href="#page137">137</a>.</li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page217" name="page217"></a>[217]</span> + Dynasties and Dynastic histories, <i>see those titles</i>. </li> +<li> Education, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Elixir of life, <a href="#page163">163</a>.</li> +<li> Emperors, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Encyclopædias, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Entertainments, Grecian points of contact, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Erroneous ideas of Chinese life, <a href="#page189">189</a>.</li> +<li> Etiquette, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Exaggeration, fault of Chinese, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> Execution substitutes, erroneous idea, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li> +<li> Eyeglasses, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Facial differences of Chinese, <a href="#page177">177</a>.</li> +<li> First impressions of foreigners, <a href="#page177">177</a>.</li> +<li> Foot-binding, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Games, Grecian similarities, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Girls, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Government, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Greek influence, <i>see</i> Greece. </li> +<li> Guests, <i>see</i> Visitors. </li> +<li> Hair, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Han Yü, great works of, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</li> +<li> Hankow military riot, 1882, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li> +<li> "Heavenly horse", <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li> +<li> "Henpecked husbands", <a href="#page204">204</a>.</li> +<li> History, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Horses, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> House, Greek characteristics, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</li> +<li> Huai-nan, Prince of, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Immortality, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Infanticide, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Ivory carvings, Grecian resemblances, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +<li> Jesuits in China, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Jews, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Jugglers similar to Grecian, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +<li> Justice, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> K'ang Hsi, Emperor, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Kiangsu riot, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</li> +<li> Language, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Lao Tzŭ, <i>see</i> Taoism. </li> +<li> Library, Cambridge University, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Library, Imperial, catalogue, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Li Hung-chang, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> "Lion," word for, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +<li> Literary qualities of nation, <a href="#page72">72</a>.</li> +<li> Literature, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Magic, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Magistrates, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Mahommedanism, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> +<li> Manchus, imprisonment, 1891, people's fury, <a href="#page98">98</a>.</li> +<li> Mandarin language <i>and</i> Mandarins, <i>see those titles</i>. </li> +<li> Manichæans, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Marriage customs, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Mencius, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Mental and moral training, relative values of Greek and Chinese, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> Mirrors, ancient Chinese and Greek, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</li> +<li> Murder, conviction for, illustrations, <a href="#page103">103</a>.</li> +<li> Music, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Mystery—the Chinaman a mystery, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>[218]</span> + Nestorian Christians, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> +<li> Newspaper extracts, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</li> +<li> Novels, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> +<li> Official coats, "horse-shoe sleeves," <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li> +<li> Official positions, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Olive, Greek and Chinese associations, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Opposites—China regarded as land of opposites, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page210">210</a>.</li> +<li> Penal code, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page87">87</a>.</li> +<li> Personal freedom, <a href="#page87">87</a>.</li> +<li> Plays, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Poetry, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Population, vastness of, <a href="#page3">3</a>.</li> +<li> Portrait-painting, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Protestant missionaries, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Puppet shows, alleged origin, <a href="#page123">123</a>.</li> +<li> Quails, fighting, common custom in Greece and China, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Queue <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Readers, professional, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> +<li> Religions, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Rhyme, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> +<li> Riots—people's self-government, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li> +<li> Rip Van Winkle, story of, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li> +<li> Roman Catholicism, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Romance of Three Kingdoms</i>, novel, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> +<li> Self-government, illustrations, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Self-taxation, <i>see</i> Taxation. </li> +<li> Senior Classics <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Social life, knowledge of, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li> +<li> Spanish seizure of islands, method of, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> +<li> Statesmen, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Statutes of present dynasty, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> Story-tellers, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a>.</li> +<li> Street etiquette and rights, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</li> +<li> Study of Chinese affairs— +<ul> +<li> Advantages of study, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</li> +<li> Columbia University endowment, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</li> +<li> Language, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> People, study of, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</li> +<li> Recent growth of study, <a href="#page3">3</a>.</li> +<li> Students needed, <a href="#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Taoism, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Taxation <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Viceroys, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Visitors, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Water-clocks, Grecian, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Watermelon, term for, Greek origin, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li> +<li> Wên T'ien-hsiang, influence of Chinese literature and training on, <a href="#page113">113</a>.</li> +<li> Western incidents in literature, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</li> +<li> Widows, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</li> +<li> Wine, introduction of grape-wine, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li> +<li> Wine-drinking, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Women, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Wuchang bridge incident, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li> +<li> Zebra, picture of, in ancient Chinese book, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li> +<li> Zoroastrians in, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Christians, Nestorian, in China, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>[219]</span> + Christianity and ancestral worship in China, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> Chuang Tzŭ, Taoist writer, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page154">154-160</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>.</li> +<li> Chu Hsi, commentary, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li> +<li> Chung-king, tax on pigs resisted, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</li> +<li> Circuits, division of provinces into, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Classics, study of, relative values of Chinese and Greek training, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> Clocks, Chinese— +<ul> +<li> Newspaper extract, <a href="#page210">210</a>.</li> +<li> Water-clocks, Grecian and Chinese, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Coats, official, "horse-shoe sleeves," <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li> +<li> Colloquial language, <i>see</i> Language. </li> +<li> Columbia University, endowment of Chinese chair, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</li> +<li> Combination against taxation, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> +<li> Commentaries, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li> +<li> Commissioners, provincial government, <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li> +<li> Concordance to phraseology of Chinese literature, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> +<li> Confucian Canon, Cambridge University Library— +<ul> +<li> <i>Analects</i>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Archæological works, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of Changes</i>, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of History</i>, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of Music</i>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of Odes</i>, <i>see Odes</i>. </li> +<li> <i>Book of Rites</i>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Commentaries, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li> +<li> Conversations of Mencius with disciples, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Doctrine of the Mean</i>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Five Classics, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> Four Books, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Great Learning</i>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Spring and Autumn</i>, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Confucius— +<ul> +<li> Acquaintance with Lao Tzŭ alleged, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</li> +<li> Confucian Canon, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Maxims and sayings, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>.</li> +<li> Unwelcome visitor anecdote, <a href="#page185">185</a>.</li> +<li> Value of ceremonial, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Counting-board, Chinese, likeness to Grecian, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Crucifixion, alleged punishment in China, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> "Crying one's wrongs," <a href="#page101">101</a>.</li> +<li> Cumming, Miss G.—infanticide in China, <a href="#page189">189</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> +<li> Dialects, Chinese language, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li> +<li> Dice games in Greece and China, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Dictionaries, Chinese— +<ul> +<li> Cambridge library collection— +<ul> +<li> Concordance to phraseology, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> +<li> Hsü Shên, work of, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</li> +<li> Modern standard dictionary, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Encyclopædias, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Lao Tzŭ's treatise, characters not found in dictionary, <a href="#page149">149</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Dinner, invitation to, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</li> +<li> Diplomatists, <i>see</i> Statesmen. </li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>[220]</span> + Doctors, Chinese, "horse-money," etc., <a href="#page209">209</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Doctrine of the Mean</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Doctrines, <i>see</i> Religions. </li> +<li> Dogs' flesh, Canton shops, <a href="#page207">207</a>.</li> +<li> Drama, <i>see</i> Plays. </li> +<li> Drawing, chapters on, in Chinese encyclopædia, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li> +<li> Dress, Chinese— +<ul> +<li> Official coats, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li> +<li> Veils for women, abolition of, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Dress, Japanese, misconception as to, <a href="#page178">178</a>.</li> +<li> Dutch settlement in China, story of, <a href="#page137">137</a>.</li> +<li> Dyeing the hair, practice of, <a href="#page180">180</a>.</li> + +<li> Dynastic histories— +<ul> +<li> Cambridge collection— +<ul> +<li> Biographies, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Edition of 1747, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</li> +<li> Encyclopædias, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> <i>Historical Record, see that title</i>. </li> +<li> <i>Mirror of History</i>, by Tsŭma Kuang. </li> +<li> Penal Code, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Record in Dark Blood</i>, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</li> +<li> Reprints, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li> +<li> Statutes of present dynasty, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> "Veritable Record", <a href="#page48">48</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Woman's work, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Dynasties of China— +<ul> +<li> Histories, <i>see</i> Dynastic histories. </li> +<li> History compilation custom, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</li> +<li> Ming dynasty, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Statutes of present dynasty, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Education— +<ul> +<li> Value of, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a>.</li> +<li> Women, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Elixir of life, Taoist doctrine, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</li> +<li> Emperors of China— +<ul> +<li> Ch'ien Lung, catalogue enterprise, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Government of the Emperor, <a href="#page75">75</a>.</li> +<li> K'ang Hsi, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Ming dynasty, character and end of last Emperor, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Encyclopædias, Cambridge collection, <a href="#page51">51</a> +<ul> +<li> Arrangement, <a href="#page54">54</a>.</li> +<li> Drawing, chapters on, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li> +<li> Portrait-painting topic, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li> +<li> <i>San T'sai Tu Hui</i>, <a href="#page52">52</a>.</li> +<li> [<i>See also</i> Dictionaries.] </li> +</ul></li> +<li> England, Cambridge University library, <i>see</i> Library. </li> +<li> English—"pidgin" English, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</li> +<li> Entertainments, Chinese and Grecian, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Etiquette— +<ul> +<li> Glasses, removal when conversing, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</li> +<li> Street etiquette, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</li> +<li> Visitors, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Exaggeration, Chinese, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> Execution substitutes, erroneous idea, <a href="#page208">208</a>.</li> +<li> Eyeglasses— +<ul> +<li> Chamberlain's, J., remarks by Li Hung-chang, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese etiquette, removal of spectacles, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> <i>Family Library</i>, Chinese reprints. </li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>[221]</span> + Fay, Miss, student of Chinese, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li> +<li> Fielde, Miss, student of Chinese, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li> +<li> Finance commissioner, provincial official, <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li> +<li> Five Classics, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> Foot-binding— +<ul> +<li> Edicts prohibiting, <a href="#page203">203</a>.</li> +<li> Fashion, obstacle to abolition, <a href="#page202">202</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Fulangbis, seizure of islands from China, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> +<li> Fusang, account of, in Chinese book, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Games, Chinese, similarity to Grecian, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Geography, Chinese, Cambridge collection, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</li> +<li> Girls— +<ul> +<li> Education, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +<li> Foot-binding, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Market value, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li> +<li> [<i>See also</i> Women] </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Glasses, <i>see</i> Eyeglasses. </li> +<li> "God," analysis of Chinese written character, <a href="#page33">33</a>.</li> +<li> Government— +<ul> +<li> Circuits, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> "Crying one's wrongs," <a href="#page101">101</a>.</li> +<li> Dynasties, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Emperors, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Headboroughs, <a href="#page77">77</a>.</li> +<li> Justice, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Magistrates, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Mandarins, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Mencius, quotations from, <a href="#page84">84</a>.</li> +<li> Ming dynasty, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Official positions, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Penal Code, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page87">87</a>.</li> +<li> Prefectures, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Provincial government, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Scale of governors, <a href="#page78">78</a>.</li> +<li> Self-government illustrations, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</li> +<li> Viceroys, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Governors of provinces, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Grain commissioner, provincial official, <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li> +<li> Granville, Lord, influence of the classics on, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li> +<li> Grammar, Chinese, absence of, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</li> +<li> Grape-wine introduced into China, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Great Learning</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Greece, ancient Greece and China— +<ul> +<li> Archæology, Greek and Chinese, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</li> +<li> Bactria, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Buddhist priest anecdote in Chinese jest-book, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</li> +<li> Calendars, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> City sights in China, <a href="#page123">123</a>.</li> +<li> Classics, relative values of Chinese and Greek training, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> Coincidences between Chinese and Greek civilisations, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</li> +<li> Counting-board, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Entertainments, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Games, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> "Heavenly horse," <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +<li> House, Chinese, Greek characteristics, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</li> +<li> Ivory carvings, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>[222]</span> + Language, terms of abuse, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +<li> Literatures of China and western nations, analogies, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</li> +<li> Marriage, similar customs, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li> +<li> Mirrors, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</li> +<li> Music, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> Olives, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Plays, <a href="#page125">125</a>.</li> +<li> Quails, fighting, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Question of Greek influence, <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li> +<li> Water-clock, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Wine-drinking, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Women, points of resemblance, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li> +<li> Words, Chinese, Greek origin, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> "Guess-fingers," game of, common to Greece and China, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Guests, <i>see</i> Visitors. </li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Hair— +<ul> +<li> Black-haired People, title of Chinese, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li> +<li> Dyeing, <a href="#page180">180</a>.</li> +<li> False hair, <a href="#page180">180</a>.</li> +<li> Queue, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Han Fei Tzŭ, writer on Taoism, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</li> +<li> Hangchow tea strike, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li> +<li> Hankow military riot, 1882, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li> +<li> Han Yü, statesman, great works of, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</li> +<li> Headboroughs, government of Chinese boroughs, <a href="#page77">77</a>.</li> +<li> "Heavenly horse," origin of, <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +<li> Hebrews in China, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> "Henpecked husbands," <a href="#page204">204</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Historical Record</i>— +<ul> +<li> Alchemy, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</li> +<li> Sketch of contents, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> History— +<ul> +<li> B.C., <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Book of History</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li> +<li> Dynastic histories, <i>see that title.</i> </li> +<li> <i>Mirror of History</i>, <a href="#page49">49</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Holland—story of Dutch settlement in China, <a href="#page137">137</a>.</li> +<li> "Horse-money," Chinese doctors' fees, <a href="#page209">209</a>.</li> +<li> Horses— +<ul> +<li> "Heavenly horse," <a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +<li> Official coats, "horse-shoe sleeves," <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li> +<li> Respect for, origin of queue, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> House, Chinese, Greek characteristics, <a href="#page120">120</a>.</li> +<li> Hsü Shên dictionary, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</li> +<li> Huai-nan, Prince of— +<ul> +<li> Discovery of elixir of life, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</li> +<li> Taoist writings, <a href="#page149">149</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Husbands, "henpecked," <a href="#page204">204</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Immortality, Taoist doctrine— +<ul> +<li> Elixir of life, <a href="#page163">163</a>.</li> +<li> Memorial of aggrieved Confucianist, <a href="#page170">170</a>.</li> +<li> Pills of immortality concocted, effect of, <a href="#page167">167</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Imperial Library catalogue, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Imperial statutes, present Chinese dynasty, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> Inaction, doctrine of, Lao Tzŭ's philosophy, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>.</li> +<li> Infanticide— +<ul> +<li> Baby Towers, <a href="#page190">190</a>.</li> +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>[223]</span> + Bird-Bishop, Mrs., statement of, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Chinese exaggeration, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Cumming, Miss G., writings of, <a href="#page189">189</a>.</li> +<li> Drowning children in pools, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Jesuit writings, illustrations, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Market value of girls, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li> +<li> Negative argument, <a href="#page193">193</a>.</li> +<li> [See also <i>Children.</i>] </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Intendant of circuit, official, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Invitation to dinner, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</li> +<li> Ivory carvings, Greek and Chinese, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Japan— +<ul> +<li> Dress, misconception as to, <a href="#page178">178</a>.</li> +<li> Language, absence of terms of abuse, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Jebb, Sir K., influence of the classics in mental training, case of Lord Granville, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> Jesuits in China— +<ul> +<li> Infanticide illustrations in writings, <a href="#page192">192</a>.</li> +<li> Music of Greeks borrowed from Chinese, alleged, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> Translation of Chinese character into "ark," <a href="#page34">34</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Jews in China, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Jugglers, Chinese and Grecian, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +<li> Justice— +<ul> +<li> Administration of, <a href="#page102">102</a>.</li> +<li> Commissioner of, <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> K'ang Hsi, Emperor— +<ul> +<li> Dictionary and phrase-concordance ordered, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> +<li> Foot-binding prohibited by, <a href="#page203">203</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Kiangsu riot, <a href="#page99">99</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Language, Chinese— +<ul> +<li> Colloquial— +<ul> +<li> Coupling of words, <a href="#page20">20</a>.</li> +<li> Dialects, number and distinction of, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li> +<li> Lack of vocables, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</li> +<li> Mandarin, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Monosyllables, incapable of inflection, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</li> +<li> Rhyme, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> +<li> Simpleness of study, <a href="#page4">4</a>.</li> +<li> Suffixes, <a href="#page21">21</a>.</li> +<li> Tenses, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</li> +<li> Tones, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Dialects, number and distinction of, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li> +<li> Dictionaries, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Grammar, absence of, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</li> +<li> Greek words, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +<li> "Lion," word for, <a href="#page23">23</a>.</li> +<li> Mandarin language, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> "Pidgin" English, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</li> +<li> Study of— +<ul> +<li> Advantages and objects of study, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</li> +<li> Relative values of Chinese and Greek, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> Students of Chinese wanted, <a href="#page139">139</a>.</li> +<li> Women students—Misses Fay and Fielde, <a href="#page6">6</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Terms of abuse, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +<li> Tones, <i>see that title</i>. </li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>[224]</span> + Written— +<ul> +<li> Bamboo tablets, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</li> +<li> Conjunction "and," <a href="#page28">28</a>.</li> +<li> Difficulty of study, <a href="#page5">5</a>.</li> +<li> Errors in analysis of words, <a href="#page33">33</a>.</li> +<li> Non-application of rule in cases, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</li> +<li> Number of words, <a href="#page18">18</a>, <a href="#page19">19</a>.</li> +<li> Origin and development, <a href="#page25">25</a>.</li> +<li> Paper, invention of, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</li> +<li> Parts of written characters, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</li> +<li> Phonetic basis and indicator, <a href="#page29">29</a> +<ul> +<li> Hsü Shên dictionary, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</li> +<li> Modern standard dictionary, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Pictures of words and ideas, <a href="#page25">25</a>.</li> +<li> Uniformity all over China, <a href="#page22">22</a>.</li> +</ul></li></ul></li> +<li> Language, Japanese, absence of terms of abuse, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +<li> Lao Tzŭ, <i>see</i> Taoism. </li> + +<li> Library, Cambridge University, collection of Chinese books— +<ul> +<li> Account of strange nations, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</li> +<li> Binding of volumes, etc., <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> Biographies, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Buddhist works, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</li> +<li> Catalogue of Imperial Chinese Library, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Collection of the books, <a href="#page39">39</a>.</li> +<li> Concordance to phraseology of all literature, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> +<li> Confucian Canon, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Dictionaries, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Division A, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> Division B, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</li> +<li> Division C, <a href="#page47">47</a>.</li> +<li> Division D, <a href="#page60">60</a>.</li> +<li> Division E, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</li> +<li> Dynastic histories, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Encyclopædias, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Geography of the Empire, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</li> +<li> Historical collection, <i>see</i> Dynastic histories. </li> +<li> Illustrated books—notices of Senior Classics of Ming dynasty, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</li> +<li> Novels, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> +<li> Number of volumes, <a href="#page40">40</a>.</li> +<li> Oldest printed book in the library, <a href="#page58">58</a>.</li> +<li> Plays, <a href="#page62">62</a>.</li> +<li> Poetry, <a href="#page60">60</a>.</li> +<li> Reference works, <a href="#page63">63</a>.</li> +<li> Reprints, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li> +<li> T'ai-p'ing rebels, pamphlets, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> Taoist writings, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</li> +<li> Topographies, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Library, Imperial, China, catalogue, <a href="#page69">69</a>.</li> +<li> Life, elixir of, Taoist doctrine, <a href="#page163">163</a>.</li> +<li> Li Hung-chang— +<ul> +<li> Diplomatic abilities, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li> +<li> Remark on Mr. Chamberlain's eyeglass, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> <i>Likin</i>, self-taxation of Chinese, <a href="#page89">89</a>.</li> +<li> "Lion," Chinese word for, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +<li> Literary qualities of Chinese nation, <a href="#page72">72</a>.</li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>[225]</span> + Literature, Chinese— +<ul> +<li> Cambridge University library, <i>see</i> Library. </li> +<li> Concordance to phraseology, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> +<li> Relative values of Chinese and Greek in mental and moral training, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> Western incidents in, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Liu Hsiang, <i>Biographies of Eminent Women,</i> <a href="#page50">50</a>.</li> +<li> Luzon (Philippines), Spanish seizure, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Magic— +<ul> +<li> Jugglers, Chinese and Grecian, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</li> +<li> Taoist black art, <a href="#page168">168</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Magistrates— +<ul> +<li> Advancement in ranks, <a href="#page78">78</a>.</li> +<li> Deputy official, test of, <a href="#page79">79</a>.</li> +<li> Division of prefectures into magistracies, <a href="#page76">76</a>.</li> +<li> Duties, <a href="#page80">80</a>.</li> +<li> Expenses of education no obstacle, <a href="#page79">79</a>.</li> +<li> Income, <a href="#page82">82</a>.</li> +<li> Law experts in offices, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> Real rulers of China, <a href="#page78">78</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Mahommedanism in China, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> +<li> Manchus, imprisonment, 1891, people's fury, <a href="#page98">98</a>.</li> +<li> Mandarin language— +<ul> +<li> Importance of "official language," <a href="#page7">7</a>.</li> +<li> Sounds for conveyance of speech, lack of, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</li> +<li> Study of, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</li> +<li> [<i>See also</i> Language.] </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Mandarins— +<ul> +<li> Meeting in street, <a href="#page186">186</a>.</li> +<li> Seal of office, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Manichæans in China, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Marriage customs— +<ul> +<li> Grecian customs, similarity of, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li> +<li> Widows, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</li> +<li> Wives, number of, <a href="#page196">196</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Mencius— +<ul> +<li> Attacks on heterodox systems, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</li> +<li> Conversations with disciples, book of Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Lao Tzŭ, no allusion to, in writings, <a href="#page147">147</a>.</li> +<li> Quotations from, <a href="#page84">84-87</a>, <a href="#page196">196</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Ming dynasty— +<ul> +<li> Emperor, character and end of last Emperor, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</li> +<li> History, quotations, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> +<li> Overthrow, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</li> +<li> Senior Classics, illustrated books, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> <i>Mirror of History</i>, by Ssŭ-ma Kuang, <a href="#page49">49</a>.</li> +<li> Mirrors, ancient Chinese and Greek, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</li> +<li> Missionaries, Protestant, in China, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Monosyllables, Chinese language, incapable of inflection, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</li> +<li> Murder, conviction for, illustrations, <a href="#page103">103</a>.</li> +<li> Music— +<ul> +<li> <i>Book of Music</i>, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Burning of the Books, music destroyed, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +<li> Greek characteristics, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>[226]</span> + Nestorian Christians in China, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> +<li> Netherlands—story of Dutch settlement in China, <a href="#page137">137</a>.</li> +<li> Novels, Chinese, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Odes, Book of, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page41">41</a> +<ul> +<li> Mirrors mentioned in, <a href="#page132">132</a>.</li> +<li> Standard of rhyme, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> +<li> Toys of boy and girl babies, <a href="#page195">195</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Official coats, "horse-shoe sleeves," <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li> +<li> Official positions in China— +<ul> +<li> Law experts in offices of judge of criminal cases, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> Senior Classics, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Value of, <a href="#page72">72</a>.</li> +<li> Women once admitted to, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</li> +<li> [<i>See also</i> Government.] </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Olives, Greek and Chinese associations, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Opposites, China regarded as land of, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page210">210</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Painting the face, custom of Chinese and Grecian women, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li> +<li> Pakhoi, opium tax resisted, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li> +<li> Paper, invention of, effect on style of Chinese writing, <a href="#page26">26</a>.</li> +<li> Pegasus—Chinese "heavenly horse" compared, <a href="#page133">133</a>.</li> +<li> Peking, dialect of, standard Mandarin, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</li> +<li> Penal Code, Chinese, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page87">87</a>.</li> +<li> Persia—"heavenly horse" in China, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li> +<li> Philippines, Spanish seizure from China, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> +<li> Phonetic basis and indicator, <i>see</i> Language—Written. </li> +<li> Phraseology concordance, Chinese, <a href="#page65">65</a>.</li> +<li> "Pidgin" English, <a href="#page17">17</a>.</li> +<li> Pigs, tax on, resisted, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</li> +<li> Pills of immortality, concoction and effect of, <a href="#page107">107</a>.</li> +<li> Plays— +<ul> +<li> Editions of, <a href="#page62">62</a>.</li> +<li> Grecian similarities, <a href="#page125">125</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Poetry— +<ul> +<li> Cambridge collection, <a href="#page60">60</a>.</li> +<li> Taoist poet, quotations from, <a href="#page160">160</a>.</li> +<li> Women writers, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Population, Chinese, vastness of, <a href="#page3">3</a>.</li> +<li> Portrait-painting, Chinese— +<ul> +<li> Encyclopædia topic, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li> +<li> Story, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Prefectures, division of circuits, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Priest, Buddhist priest anecdote, <a href="#page138">138</a>.</li> +<li> Prince Huai-nan, <i>see</i> Huai-nan. </li> +<li> Protestant missionaries in China, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Provincial government— +<ul> +<li> Division of provinces, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page78">78</a>.</li> +<li> Governors, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Officials, commissioners, etc., <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li> +<li> Viceroys, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Puppet-shows, China, alleged origin of, <a href="#page123">123</a>.</li> +<li> Pythagorean and Chinese systems of music, similarity of, <a href="#page129">129</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>[227]</span> + Quails, fighting, Grecian and Chinese custom, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Queue— +<ul> +<li> False hair, <a href="#page180">180</a>.</li> +<li> Tartars, fight against queue, <a href="#page179">179</a>.</li> +<li> Theories as to origin, <a href="#page178">178</a>.</li> +</ul></li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Readers, professional, Chinese, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Record in Dark Blood</i>, historical section, Cambridge, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</li> +<li> Relativity, doctrine of, Lao Tzŭ's teachings, <a href="#page156">156</a>.</li> +<li> Religions— +<ul> +<li> Buddhism, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Classification—Three Doctrines, <a href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</li> +<li> Confucian Canon, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Jews, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Lao Tzŭ, <i>see</i> Taoism. </li> +<li> Mahommedanism, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> +<li> Manichæans, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Nestorian Christians, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> +<li> Protestant missionaries, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Roman Catholicism, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Taoism, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Zoroastrians, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Reprints, Chinese— +<ul> +<li> Cambridge collection, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Family Library</i>, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Rhyme, Chinese, <a href="#page67">67</a>.</li> +<li> Riots, Chinese, people's self-government, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li> +<li> Rip Van Winkle, Chinese, story of, <a href="#page55">55</a>.</li> +<li> Rites, Book of, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page42">42</a>.</li> +<li> Roman Catholicism in China, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +<li> Roman classics, relative values of Chinese and Greek training, <a href="#page109">109</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Romance of Three Kingdoms</i>, novel, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Salt commissioner, provincial official, <a href="#page81">81</a>.</li> +<li> Sanskrit, introduction of, <a href="#page110">110</a>.</li> +<li> <i>San Ts'ai T'u Hui</i> encyclopædia, <a href="#page52">52</a>.</li> +<li> Seal of office of mandarin, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</li> +<li> Self-government illustrations, <a href="#page96">96</a>.</li> +<li> Self-taxation, <i>see</i> Taxation. </li> +<li> Senior Classics— +<ul> +<li> Honours of, <a href="#page72">72</a>.</li> +<li> Illustrated book in Cambridge collection, <a href="#page70">70</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Shopkeepers, women's business ability, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</li> +<li> Smith, Rev. Dr. A., statement as to prejudice against Christianity, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li> +<li> Social life, knowledge of, necessary to foreigner in China, <a href="#page181">181</a>.</li> +<li> Spanish seizure of islands from China, <a href="#page136">136</a>.</li> +<li> Spectacles, <i>see</i> Eyeglasses. </li> +<li> Speech, Chinese, <i>see</i> Language. </li> +<li> Spring and Autumn, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</li> +<li> Ssŭ-k'ung T'u, Taoist poet, quotations from, <a href="#page160">160</a>.</li> +<li> Ssŭ-ma Ch'ien— +<ul> +<li> <i>Historical Record</i>, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</li> +<li> Memoir of Lao Tzŭ, <a href="#page149">149</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Ssŭ-ma Kuang, author of <i>The Mirror of History</i>, <a href="#page48">48</a>.</li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>[228]</span> + Statesmen— +<ul> +<li> Chang Ch'ien, mission to Bactria, <a href="#page130">130</a>.</li> +<li> Compared with men from other countries, <a href="#page112">112</a>.</li> +<li> Han Yü, great works of, <a href="#page117">117</a>.</li> +<li> Li Hung-chang, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Wên T'ien-hsiang, influence of Chinese literature on, <a href="#page113">113</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Statutes, present Chinese dynasty, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> Story-tellers in Chinese towns, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page123">123</a>.</li> +<li> Street etiquette and rights, <a href="#page183">183</a>.</li> +<li> Strikes—tea strike, Hangchow, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li> +<li> Study of Chinese affairs, <i>see</i> China. </li> +<li> Suffixes, Chinese language, <a href="#page21">21</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> T'ai-p'ing rebels, pamphlets of, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</li> +<li> Taoism— +<ul> +<li> Alchemy, <a href="#page166">166</a>.</li> +<li> Black art, <a href="#page186">186</a>.</li> +<li> Borrowing from Buddhists, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</li> +<li> Cambridge Library, collection of writings, <a href="#page44">44</a>.</li> +<li> Chuang Tzŭ, writer on Taoism, <a href="#page148">148</a>, <a href="#page154">154-160</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>.</li> +<li> Corruption of the Tao, <a href="#page171">171</a>.</li> +<li> Decline, <a href="#page163">163</a>.</li> +<li> Elixir of life, <a href="#page163">163</a>.</li> +<li> Genuineness of <i>Tao-Tê-Ching</i>, evidences against, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</li> +<li> Han Fei Tzŭ, writer on Taoism, <a href="#page148">148</a>.</li> +<li> Huai-nan Tzŭ, writer on Taoism, <a href="#page149">149</a>.</li> +<li> Immortality, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Inaction doctrine, <a href="#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page156">156</a>.</li> +<li> Last state, <a href="#page143">143</a>.</li> +<li> Legends of Lao Tzŭ, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</li> +<li> Philosophy of, <a href="#page151">151-163</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>.</li> +<li> Poet, quotations from, <a href="#page160">160</a>.</li> +<li> Relativity doctrine, <a href="#page156">156</a>.</li> +<li> Struggle with Buddhists, <a href="#page172">172</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Tao-t'ai, intendant of circuit, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Tao-Té-Ching</i>, evidences against genuineness, <a href="#page146">146</a>.</li> +<li> Tartar generals, provincial governors, <a href="#page82">82</a>.</li> +<li> Taxation— +<ul> +<li> Combination and resistance, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> +<li> Lightness of taxation, <a href="#page89">89</a>.</li> +<li> New imposts, people's approval necessary before enforcement, <a href="#page90">90</a>.</li> +<li> Opium tax resisted, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li> +<li> Pigs, tax on, resisted, <a href="#page93">93</a>.</li> +<li> Self-taxation, <a href="#page84">84</a> +<ul> +<li> Illustrations, <a href="#page92">92</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Likin</i> tax, <a href="#page89">89</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Tea strike, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Tea, serving and drinking, <a href="#page187">187</a>.</li> +<li> Tea strike, Hangchow, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</li> +<li> Tenses, Chinese language, <a href="#page13">13</a>.</li> +<li> "Three Doctrines," <a href="#page143">143</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>.</li> +<li> Tones, Chinese language, <a href="#page20">20</a> +<ul> +<li> Arrangement of concordance to phraseology, <a href="#page66">66</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Topographies, Chinese, Cambridge collection, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>[229]</span> + University, Columbia, endowment of Chinese chair, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page211">211</a>.</li> +<li> University of Cambridge, Library, <i>see</i> Library. </li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Veils for women, abolition of, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +<li> "Veritable Record," Cambridge collection, <a href="#page48">48</a>.</li> +<li> Viceroys, Chinese, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page83">83</a>.</li> +<li> Visitors, Chinese etiquette, <a href="#page186">186</a> +<ul> +<li> Invitation to dinner, <a href="#page188">188</a>.</li> +<li> Left-hand, place of honour, <a href="#page187">187</a>.</li> +<li> Tea, serving and drinking, <a href="#page187">187</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Vitale, Baron, publication of Chinese nursery rhymes, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Water-clocks, Chinese and Grecian, <a href="#page128">128</a>.</li> +<li> Watermelon, Chinese term for, Greek origin, <a href="#page134">134</a>.</li> +<li> Wên Tien-hsiang, influence of Chinese literature and training on, <a href="#page113">113</a>.</li> +<li> Western incidents in Chinese literature, <a href="#page135">135</a>.</li> +<li> Widows, Chinese, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</li> +<li> Wine, introduction of grape-wine into China, <a href="#page131">131</a>.</li> +<li> Wine-drinking— +<ul> +<li> Anecdotes, <a href="#page127">127</a>.</li> +<li> Grecian resemblances, <a href="#page126">126</a>.</li> +<li> Guest-tea, <a href="#page187">187</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> Wives— +<ul> +<li> "Henpecked husbands," <a href="#page204">204</a>.</li> +<li> Status, etc., <a href="#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page198">198</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>.</li> +<li> [<i>See also</i> Women.] </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Women— +<ul> +<li> Ancestry of ancient Chinese traced through mother, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</li> +<li> <i>Biographies of Eminent Women</i>, <a href="#page50">50</a>.</li> +<li> Disregard of, <a href="#page189">189</a>.</li> +<li> Education, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +<li> False hair, <a href="#page180">180</a>.</li> +<li> Foot-binding, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Girls, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +<li> Greek similarities, <a href="#page121">121</a>.</li> +<li> "Henpecked husbands," <a href="#page204">204</a>.</li> +<li> Official life, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</li> +<li> Painting the face, custom, <a href="#page122">122</a>.</li> +<li> Poems by, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +<li> Privileges not shared by men, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</li> +<li> Seclusion, <a href="#page177">177</a>, <a href="#page196">196</a>.</li> +<li> Shopkeepers, business ability, <a href="#page198">198</a>.</li> +<li> Veils, abolition of, <a href="#page197">197</a>.</li> +<li> Widows, <a href="#page201">201</a>.</li> +<li> Wives, <i>see that title</i>. </li> +</ul></li> +<li> Written Chinese language, <i>see</i> Language. </li> +<li> Wuchang bridge incident, <a href="#page97">97</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Yüan Yüan, commentary, Confucian Canon, <a href="#page43">43</a>.</li> + +<li> </li> + +<li> Zebra, picture of, in ancient Chinese book, <a href="#page59">59</a>.</li> +<li> Zoroastrians in China, <a href="#page144">144</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<div style="height: 6em;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's 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