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diff --git a/17855-h/17855-h.htm b/17855-h/17855-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f7408f --- /dev/null +++ b/17855-h/17855-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1881 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material, by Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + img {border:0;} + b {font-weight:bold; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + td {border-right: solid 1px; padding-right:0.25em;} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-spacing:0px; border: solid 1px;} + thead {text-align: center; vertical-align:middle; margin-top: 1em;font-size:80%;} + tbody {text-align: right;} + div.banner {border: solid 2px;} + + .nobox {border: solid 0px;} + .portrait {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .bigbrace {font-size:200%; text-align:left;} + .midit {text-indent: 2em; text-align: left;} + .bdit {text-indent: 2em; text-align: left;} + .deft {text-align:right;} + .titl {text-align:left; } + .titl a {position:relative; text-align: left; text-indent: .5em; font-size:120%; text-decoration:none;} + .toc {text-align:left; text-indent: 3em;} + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .pagenum {font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */ + .bb {border-bottom: solid 1px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + .right {text-align: right;} + .center {position:relative; text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + .caption {text-align: center; font-size: 0.9em; width:85%; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;} + .figcenter {text-align: center; width:95%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .figcenter2 {text-align: center; width:50%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .figleft {float: left; margin-bottom:-12px; padding:0; text-align: center;width:20%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-bottom:-12px;text-align: center;width:20%;} + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right; clear:right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + .bighead {position:relative; text-align: center; font-size: 300%; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;} + .pnm {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material, by +Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material + United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 404 + +Author: Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill + +Release Date: February 25, 2006 [EBook #17855] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEMP HURDS AS PAPER-MAKING *** + + + + +Produced by K.D. Thornton and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"> -1- </a></span></p> + +<div class="banner"> +<h2>UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</h2> +<p><a href="images/001.jpg"><img src="images/001t.jpg" width="100" class="figleft" alt="USDA logo" /></a> +<a href="images/001.jpg"><img src="images/001t.jpg" class="figright" alt="USDA logo" width="100" /></a><br /></p> +<p class="bighead">BULLETIN No. 404</p> +<p style="position:relative; text-align: center; margin-left:auto; +margin-right:auto; font-weight:bold;">Contribution from the Bureau of +Plant Industry<br /> +WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief</p><br /> +</div> + + +<div class="bb"> +<span class="figright">October 14, 1916</span> +<span class="figleft">Washington, D.C.</span> +<p style="position:relative; text-align: center; margin-left:auto; +margin-right:auto;">PROFESSIONAL PAPER</p> +</div> + + +<h2>HEMP HURDS AS PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.</h2> +<p><a name="HEMP_HURDS_AS_PAPER-MAKING_MATERIAL" +id="HEMP_HURDS_AS_PAPER-MAKING_MATERIAL"></a></p> +<p>By <span class="smcap">Lyster H. Dewey</span>, <i>Botanist in +Charge of Fiber-Plant Investigations</i>, and <span +class="smcap">Jason L. +Merrill</span>, <i>Paper-Plant Chemist, Paper-Plant Investigations</i>.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<table class="nobox" width="100%" summary="table of contents"> +<tr> +<td colspan="2">Page</td> +<td colspan="2" style="border-right:0px;">Page</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="titl"><a href="#THE_PRODUCTION_AND_HANDLING_OF_HEMP_HURDS">The production and +handling of hemp hurds.</a></td> +<td colspan="2" class="titl" style="border-right:0px;"><a href="#THE_MANUFACTURE_OF_PAPER_FROM_HEMP_HURDS">The manufacture of +paper from hemp hurds.</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="toc">by Lyster H. Dewey:</td><td +colspan="2" class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">by Jason L. +Merrill:</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">What hemp hurds +are</td><td><span class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span> +</td><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Introduction </td><td +style="border-right:0px;"><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_7">7</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Pith, wood, and +fiber</td><td><span class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></span> +</td><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Factors justifying an +investigation of hemp hurds </td><td style="border-right:0px;"><span +class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Character of hurds +affected by retting </td><td><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_2">2</a></span> </td><td class="toc" +style="border-right:0px;">Character of the material </td><td +style="border-right:0px;"><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_11">11</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Proportion of hurds to +fiber and yield per acre </td><td><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_3">3</a></span> </td><td class="toc" +style="border-right:0px;">Character of the tests </td><td +style="border-right:0px;"><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_12">12</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Hurds available from +machine-broken hemp </td><td><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_3">3</a></span> </td><td class="toc" +style="border-right:0px;">Operations involved in a test </td><td +style="border-right:0px;"><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_13">13</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Present uses of hemp +hurds </td><td><span class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></span> +</td><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Description of tests +</td><td style="border-right:0px;"><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_16">16</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Present supplies of +hurds available </td><td><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_5">5</a></span> </td><td class="toc" +style="border-right:0px;">Comparison of the tests and commercial +practice </td><td style="border-right:0px;"><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_21">21</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Baling for shipment +</td><td><span class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></span> +</td><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Physical tests of the +papers produced </td><td style="border-right:0px;"><span +class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Cost of baling +</td><td><span class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></span> +</td><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Conclusions </td><td +style="border-right:0px;"><span class="pagenum"><a +href="#Page_25">25</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc" style="border-right:0px;">Summary </td><td><span +class="pagenum"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></span></td><td style="border-right:0px;"> </td><td style="border-right:0px;"> </td></tr></table> + + + +<p>In preparing the report on the manufacture of paper from hemp +hurds it became evident that a short discussion of the agricultural +aspects of this material should be included in the publication. Such +an article was prepared, therefore, and the two reports are here presented +together.</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="footnote"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>. +—This bulletin should be useful to all persons who are +interested in the economic phases of paper +making, especially to print and book paper manufacturers. It also +should be of interest to scientific investigators +and chemists.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="THE_PRODUCTION_AND_HANDLING_OF_HEMP_HURDS" +id="THE_PRODUCTION_AND_HANDLING_OF_HEMP_HURDS"></a> +THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF HEMP HURDS.</h2> + +<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">Lyster H. Dewey</span>, +<i>Botanist in Charge of Fiber-Plant Investigations</i>.</p> + + +<h3>WHAT HEMP HURDS ARE.</h3> + +<p>The woody inner portion of the hemp stalk, broken into pieces and +separated from the fiber in the processes of breaking and scutching, +is called hemp hurds. These hurds correspond to shives in flax, but +are much coarser and are usually softer in texture.</p> + + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"> -2- </a></span>The +hemp stalk grown in a broadcast crop for fiber production is +from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch in diameter and from 4 +to 10 feet tall. The stalk is hollow, with a cylindrical woody shell, thick +near the base, where the stalk is nearly solid, and thinner above, where +the hollow is relatively wider.</p> + +<p>In the process of breaking, the woody cylinder inside of the fiber-bearing +bark is broken into pieces one-half of an inch to 3 inches long +and usually split into numerous segments. The thicker lower sections +are split less than the thin-shelled upper ones, and they are often +left quite solid.</p> + + +<h3>PITH, WOOD, AND FIBER.</h3> + +<p>The inner surface of the hurds usually bears a layer of pith, consisting +of thin-walled cells nearly spherical or angular, but not elongated. +They are more or less crushed and torn. They are probably of little +value for paper, but they constitute less than 1 per cent of the weight +of the hurds. The principal weight and bulk consist of slender elongated +woody cells. The outer surface is covered with fine secondary +fibers composed of slender elongated cells, tougher than those of the +wood but finer and shorter than those of the hemp fiber of commerce. +No method has been devised thus far which completely separates +from the hurds all of the long fiber. From 5 to 15 per cent of the +weight of the hurds consists of hemp fiber, in strands from 3 inches +to 8 feet in length. Some fragments of the bark, made up of short +cubical cells, usually dark in color, cling to the strands of fiber.</p> + + +<h3>CHARACTER OF HURDS AFFECTED BY RETTING.</h3> + +<p>Nearly all of the hemp in the United States is dew retted. The +stalks are spread on the ground in swaths as grain is laid by the cradle. +The action of the weather, dew, and rain, aided by bacteria, dissolves +and washes out the green coloring matter (chlorophyll) and most of +the gums, leaving only the fibrous bark and the wood. The plants in +this process lose about 60 per cent of their green weight, or about 40 +per cent of their air-dry weight.</p> + +<p>The stalks are sometimes set up in shocks to cure before retting, +and after retting they are set up in shocks to dry. Each time the +stalks are handled they are chucked down on the ground to keep the +butts even. In these operations sand and clay are often driven up +into the hollow at the base of the stalks, and this dirt, which often +clings tenaciously, may constitute all objectionable feature in the use +of hemp hurds for paper stock.</p> + +<p>In Italy and in most localities in Russia and Austria-Hungary +where hemp is extensively cultivated, it is retted in water, but water +retting has never been practiced in the United States except to a +limited extent before the middle of the last century. Hurds from +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"> -3- +</a></span>water-retted hemp are cleaner and softer than those from +dew-retted +hemp.</p> + +<p>The fiber is sometimes broken from dry hemp stalks without retting. +The hurds thus produced contain a small percentage of soluble gums, +chiefly of the pectose series. Comparatively little hemp is prepared +in this manner in America.</p> + +<p>Process retting by means of weak solutions of chemicals or oils in +hot water is practiced to a limited extent. The hurds from these +processes may contain traces of the chemicals or oils and also soluble +gums in greater degree than those of the dew-retted or water-retted +hemp.</p> + + +<h3>PROPORTION OF HURDS TO FIBER AND YIELD PER ACRE.</h3> + +<p>The yield of hemp fiber varies from 400 to 2,500 pounds per acre, +averaging 1,000 pounds under favorable conditions. The weight of +hurds is about five times that of the fiber, or somewhat greater from +hemp grown on peaty soils. A yield of 2½ tons of hurds per acre may +be taken as a fair average.</p> + +<p class="caption"><a href="images/fig1.jpg"><img +src="images/fig1t.jpg" alt="The stalks are fed sidewise in a +continuous layer 2 to 3 inches thick, +turning out about 4,000 pounds of clean fiber per day and five times +as much hurds." title="The stalks are fed sidewise in a continuous +layer 2 to 3 inches thick, +turning out about 4,000 pounds of clean fiber per day and five times +as much hurds." class="figcenter" /></a><br /><span +class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Hemp-breaking machine. +The stalks are fed sidewise in a continuous layer 2 to 3 inches thick, +turning out about 4,000 pounds of clean fiber per day and five times +as much hurds.</p> + + + +<h3>HURDS AVAILABLE FROM MACHINE-BROKEN HEMP.</h3> + +<p>Hemp hurds are available only from hemp which is broken by +machines, when the hurds may be collected in quantity in one place +(figs. 1 and 2). Most of the hemp in Kentucky is still broken by +hand brakes. These small brakes are moved from shock to shock, so +that the hurds are scattered all over the field in small piles of less +than 50 pounds each, and it is the common practice to set fire to them +as soon as the brake is moved. It would be difficult to collect them +at a cost which would permit their use for paper stock.</p> + +<p>Where machine brakes are used, the hemp stalks are brought to the +machine as grain is brought to a thrashing machine, and the hurds +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"> -4- +</a></span>accumulate in large piles, being blown from the machine by +wind +stackers.</p> + +<p>Machine brakes are used in Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, and California, +but to only a limited extent in Kentucky. Five different kinds +of machine brakes are now in actual use in this country, and still +others are used in Europe. All of the best hemp in Italy, commanding +the highest market price paid for any hemp, is broken by machines. +The better machine brakes now in use in this country prepare the +fiber better and much more rapidly than the hand brakes, and they +will undoubtedly be used in all localities where hemp raising is introduced +as a new industry. They may also be used in Kentucky when +their cost is reduced to more reasonable rates, so that they may +compete with the hand brake. Hemp-breaking machines are being +improved and their use is increasing. The hemp-growing industry +can increase in this country only as machine brakes are developed to +prepare the fiber. A profitable use for the hurds will add an incentive +to the use of the machine brake.</p> + +<p class="caption"><a href="images/fig2.jpg"><img +src="images/fig2t.jpg" alt="Machine brake and hemp hurds. +Hemp hurds from machine brakes quickly accumulate in +large piles." title="Machine brake and hemp hurds. +Hemp hurds from machine brakes quickly accumulate in +large piles." class="figcenter" /></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Machine brake and hemp hurds. +Hemp hurds from machine brakes quickly accumulate in +large piles.</p> + + +<h3>PRESENT USES OF HEMP HURDS.</h3> + +<p>Hemp hurds are used to a limited extent for barnyard litter and +stable bedding, as a substitute for sawdust in packing ice, and, in +rare instances, for fuel. They are not regarded as having a commercial +value for any of these uses, though they are doubtless worth at +least $1 per ton on the farm when used for stable bedding. They are +a waste product, without value for other purposes which might compete +with their use for paper stock.</p> + + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"> -5- </a></span></p> +<h3>PRESENT SUPPLIES OF HURDS AVAILABLE.</h3> + +<p>During the last season, 1915, about 1,500 acres of hemp have been +harvested outside of Kentucky and in regions where machine brakes +are used. Estimating the yield of hurds at 2½ tons per acre, this +should give a total quantity of about 3,750 tons. Large quantities of +hemp from the crop of 1914, which are still unbroken in these areas, +and large piles of hurds undisturbed where the machines have been +used during the last two or three years, increase the total to more +than 7,000 tons. Hemp is now grown outside of Kentucky in the +vicinity of McGuffey, east of Lima, Ohio; around Nappanee, Elkhart +County, and near Pierceton, in Kosciusko County, Ind.; about Waupun +and Brandon, Wis.; and at Rio Vista and Stockton, Cal.</p> + +<p>In Kentucky, hemp is grown in most of the counties within a radius +of 50 miles of Lexington. No accurate statistics of the acreage are +collected, but the crop harvested in 1915 is estimated at 7,000 acres. +A machine brake will probably be used in Bourbon County and also +in Clark County, but most of the hemp in Kentucky will be broken on +hand brakes.</p> + + +<h3>BALING FOR SHIPMENT.</h3> + +<p>The hurds will have to be baled to facilitate handling in transportation +and to economize storage space at the paper mills. The bales +will need to be covered with burlap or some material to keep them +from shaking out. They may be baled in the same presses that are +used for baling hemp fiber, but care must be exercised to avoid breaking +the press, for the hurds are more resistant than hemp fiber. A +bale of hemp 2 by 3 by 4 feet weighs about 500 pounds. A bale of +hurds of the same size will weigh about one-third less, or approximately +six bales per ton.</p> + +<p>Rough hemp fiber as it is shipped from the farm is not covered; +therefore, the covering material must be purchased especially for the +hurds. A piece of burlap about 36 by 48 inches placed on either side +of the bale will be sufficient, but these pieces, weighing about 3 +pounds each, cost about 40 cents a pair. Baling rope, in addition to +jute covering, will cost at least 5 cents per bale, making the total cost +of covering and ties $2.70 or more per ton. Possibly chip-board, +costing about $33 per ton, or not more than 5 cents for the two pieces +for each bale, may be used in place of burlap. Chip-board, burlap, +and also rope ties may all be used for paper stock. Burlap covers +might be returned, to be used repeatedly until worn out, but chip-board +could not be used more than once.</p> + + +<h3>COST OF BALING.</h3> + +<p>If burlap covers are used the cost of baling, including covering, ties, +use of baling press, power, and labor will amount to at least 60 cents +per bale, or about $3.75 per ton. If chip-board can be used the cost +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"> -6- </a></span>may be +reduced to about $2 per ton. The cost of hauling and loading +on the cars will vary from $1 to $3 per ton, depending upon the distance +and the roads. The farmer must therefore receive from $4 to +$6 per ton for the hurds, baled, on board cars at his home station.</p> + + +<h3>SUMMARY.</h3> + +<p>Hemp hurds are the woody inner portion of the hemp stalk, broken +into pieces in removing the fiber.</p> + +<p>They are not used at present for any purpose that would compete +with their use for paper.</p> + +<p>Hurds are available only from machine-broken hemp, for the cost +of collecting them from the hand brakes would be too great.</p> + +<p>About 7,000 tons are now available in restricted localities in Ohio, +Indiana, Wisconsin, and California.</p> + +<p>The quantity is likely to increase as the use of machine brakes +increases.</p> + +<p>The hurds may be baled in hemp-fiber presses, with partial burlap +covers like those on cotton bales, or possibly chip-board covers.</p> + +<p>It is estimated that the farmers may deliver the bales on board +cars profitably at $4 to $6 per ton.</p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_7" +id="Page_7"> -7- </a></span></p> +<h2><a name="THE_MANUFACTURE_OF_PAPER_FROM_HEMP_HURDS" +id="THE_MANUFACTURE_OF_PAPER_FROM_HEMP_HURDS"></a> +THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM HEMP HURDS.</h2> + +<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">Jason L. Merrill</span>, +<i>Paper-Plant Chemist, Paper-Plant Investigations</i>.</p> + + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + +<p>The purpose of this paper is to report upon preliminary tests which +were conducted to determine the paper-making value of hemp hurds, +a crop waste of the hemp-fiber industry.</p> + +<p>The search for plant materials capable of being utilized in paper +manufacture is a comparatively recent but world-wide activity which +has for its object the husbanding of present sources of paper-stock +supply by the substitution of new materials for some of those which +are rapidly becoming less plentiful and more costly.</p> + +<p>The abstract idea of utilizing that which is at present a waste can +play no important rôle in such activities, the successful commercial +outcome of which must be based on the three fundamental factors—market +or demand for product, satisfactory raw material, and cost.</p> + +<p>Since hemp hurds are to be treated in this report as a raw material +for the manufacture of book and printing papers, the qualities, supply, +probable future, and cost of the material will be considered in comparison +with wood, with which it must compete. There seems to be +little doubt that the present wood supply can not withstand indefinitely +the demands placed upon it, and with increased scarcity +economy in the use of wood will become imperative. This effect is +already apparent in many wood-using industries, and although the +paper industry consumes only about 3 per cent of the total forest cut, +it is probable that it will be affected through this economy. Our +forests are being cut three times as fast as they grow, and as wood +becomes more expensive proper growing and reforesting will receive +more attention. Thus, naturally, a balance will be established between +production and consumption, but as this condition approaches +its limiting values the price of wood may rise to such levels that there +will be a demand for other raw materials.</p> + +<p>The use of waste paper in conjunction with chemical wood pulp +has increased to enormous proportions, and it is probable that the +increase will continue. Although it is a cheaper raw material than +wood, it is reasonable to suppose that as the wood supply decreases +and the price of wood pulp advances, the price of waste paper will +advance somewhat proportionately.</p> + +<p>In view of these conditions it is advisable to investigate the paper-making +value of the more promising plant materials before a critical +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"> -8- +</a></span>situation arises. To be of substantial value the +investigations should +include not only a determination of the quality and quantity of pulp +and paper which the material is capable of producing, but should +embrace a consideration of such relevant factors as agricultural conditions, +farm practice, assembling conditions, transportation, and +probable future supply.</p> + +<p>Certain cultivated plants seem particularly promising, because in +the harvesting of the regular crop that portion which might be utilized +for paper manufacture necessarily is either wholly or partially assembled. +To this class of plants belong corn, broom corn, sorghum, +sugar cane, bagasse, flax, hemp, and the cereal straws. +<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" +class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>It is generally conceded that the employment of different raw +materials would probably yield products of a somewhat different +quality than those now prevailing in the markets, but the qualities of +papers and the public demands are so diversified and numerous that +this possible objection should not be serious. Ten years ago sulphite +manufacturers would not accept consignments of spruce logs +if they contained over 5 per cent of fir, while to-day many manufacturers +tolerate 50 per cent. Rope papers are found to contain not +only jute, but when this raw material is not plentiful, chemical pulp +of various kinds. "Linen paper" is often no more than a trade term. +Not long ago printing papers were made entirely from chemical wood +pulp, but to-day if it is desired to secure paper which is free from +ground wood the specifications must so stipulate. Writing papers, +formerly made entirely from rags, now are likely to contain either +chemical or even ground-wood pulp unless the specifications prohibit +it. Without doubt, many paper manufacturers have maintained certain +papers up to a fixed standard for a long series of years, but it +is equally true that competition has lowered the standard of a great +many papers, some of which had acquired a distinctive recognition. +The employment of plant fibers will not necessarily lower the present +quality of papers, but if their employment does result in products +whose qualities are somewhat different from our so-called standard +papers it does not necessarily follow that such papers will not find +a ready market.</p> + + + +<h3>FACTORS JUSTIFYING AN INVESTIGATION OF HEMP HURDS.</h3> + +<p>Hemp hurds form a crop waste, in that they necessarily are produced +in the raising and preparation of hemp fiber, and their present +use and value are comparatively insignificant.</p> + +<p>The assembling of the hurds may be effected with economy, since +the area in which hemp is handled with the use of machine brakes is +restricted. Although it must be stated that the present annual +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"> -9- </a></span>supply +would not be sufficient to justify the installation of a pulp mill +nor would its transportation to existing mills appear feasible, it +is expected that the available annual tonnage, especially in certain +general sections, will increase, due to the increased use of the machine +brake. The present tonnage per annum is approximately as follows: +In the region of Ohio and Indiana, 2,500 tons; in the Wisconsin section, +1,000 tons; in the California region, 1,400 tons.</p> + +<p>In years of adverse weather conditions there are often large areas +of hemp which are not harvested on account of its poor quality; +there are also large areas of cut hemp which become overretted, due +to inclement weather. It has been suggested by some of the hemp +raisers that this large amount of material might be utilized as a paper +stock. In these cases the cost of the whole material would probably +be somewhat higher than that of the hurds, because either all or part +of the cost of harvesting and the total cost of breaking would have to +be borne by the paper maker. Moreover, the quality of this material +would be so very irregular and the supply so uncertain that it probably +would not appeal to the paper manufacturer.</p> + +<p>Without doubt, hemp will continue to be one of the staple agricultural +crops of the United States. The wholesale destruction of +the supply by fire, as frequently happens in the case of wood, is precluded +by the very nature of the hemp-raising industry. Since +only one year's growth can be harvested annually the supply is not +endangered by the pernicious practice of overcropping, which has +contributed so much to the present high and increasing cost of pulp +wood. The permanency of the supply of hemp hurds thus seems +assured.</p> + +<p>The favorable location geographically of the hemp regions in relation +to the pulp and paper industry is a factor of considerable +importance. The Kentucky region is not at present in a position +to supply hurds, as machine methods have not been adopted there +to any appreciable degree. The Ohio and Indiana region, which at +present has the greatest annual tonnage, with the prospect of an increase, +is situated south of the Wisconsin and Michigan wood-pulp +producing region and at a distance from the eastern wood-pulp +producing regions; therefore, it is in a favorable position to compete +in the large Ohio and Indiana markets. Since, as will be shown, +the hurd pulp acts far more like soda poplar stock than sulphite +stock, competition would be strongest from the eastern mills; in +fact, the hurd stock might very possibly meet with favor as a book-stock +furnish in the Michigan and Wisconsin paper mills, which are +within the sulphite fiber-producing region. Because of its very close +proximity to paper mills, this latter possibility applies with far +greater force to the Wisconsin hemp region, where a considerable +extension of the hemp industry is anticipated.</p> + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"> -10- </a></span></p> +<p class="caption"><a href="images/fig3.jpg"><img +src="images/fig3t.jpg" alt="A representative sample of hemp hurds, +natural size, showing hemp fiber and pieces of wood tissue." +title="A representative sample of hemp hurds, +natural size, showing hemp fiber and pieces of wood tissue." +class="figcenter2" /></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—A representative sample of hemp hurds, +natural size, showing hemp fiber and pieces of wood tissue.</p> + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"> -11- </a></span></p> +<h3>CHARACTER OF THE MATERIAL.</h3> + +<p>As received from Pierceton, Ind., the hurds consisted of a mixture of +tangled hemp bast fibers and pieces of broken wood of the hemp +stalk. (Fig. 3.) No reliable data were secured as to the proportion +of bast fiber in the total shipment of 4 tons, although two +hand separations of small representative samples gave results averaging +8 per cent. The chemical character of the material was such +and the quantity was so small that any appreciable variation of the +proportion should not affect materially the treating processes finally +adopted, yet its presence in varying proportions undoubtedly would +modify to some extent the quality of the resulting paper product. +Since the length of the ultimate bast fiber averages about 22 mm. and +the length of the ultimate hemp wood fiber averages 0.7 mm., it is +natural to assume that the bast fiber would tend to increase the +strength of paper produced from the hurds. (Fig. 4.)</p> + +<p class="caption"><a href="images/fig4.jpg"><img +src="images/fig4t.jpg" alt="Fiber derived from the woody portion of +the hurds. ×75. From a microphotograph." + title="Fiber derived from the woody portion of the hurds. ×75. + From a microphotograph." class="figcenter" /></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> +—Fiber derived from the woody portion of the hurds. ×75. + From a microphotograph.</p> + +<p>The broken pieces of wood contained in the hurds varied in length +from mere particles which were somewhat finer than sawdust to pieces +about 3½ inches long, exceptional pieces being found which measured +6 inches in length. The majority of the long pieces were between 2 +and 3 inches in length. In thickness the pieces ranged from one-eighth +of an inch, in case they were derived from the base of the hemp stalks, +to about one sixty-fourth of an inch in those pieces which were +derived from the top and branches of the stalks. In cross section the +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"> -12- +</a></span>pieces often were found to be a quarter or half of the +rounded rectangular +woody shell of the stalk, although there appeared to be no +regularity in this respect.</p> + +<p>From the pulp-maker's standpoint the great irregularity in thickness, +length, and mass of the woody pieces militates decidedly against +economy in pulp production. The smaller pieces reduce by chemical +treatment sooner than the larger fragments and are thereby overtreated, +which results in a lower yield of cellulose fiber and a product +composed of undertreated and overtreated fibers, the production and +use of which are not satisfactory or economical. It probably would +be found more satisfactory, therefore, to screen or sort the hurds and +treat the various sizes separately and differently.</p> + +<p>Associated with the hurds was a small quantity of chaff and dirt, +composed chiefly of sand, soil, particles of hemp leaves and flowers, +and other extraneous matter. The sand and soil were present +because of the practice of placing the stalks in shocks in the field, the +butts of the stalks being in contact with the soil. It is a simple +matter, however, to remove the chaff and dirt by sieving, and this +practice was followed in most of the paper tests conducted with this +material.</p> + + +<h3>CHARACTER OF THE TESTS.</h3> + +<p>Because of the similarity of hemp hurds to other materials which have +been tested by the Office of Paper-Plant Investigations, semicommercial +tests were conducted in cooperation with a paper manufacturer +without preliminary laboratory tests. Laboratory pulp and +paper tests are regarded only as a preliminary to semicommercial +tests and therefore are not employed unless the material in question +presents new features which should receive investigation before +larger sized tests are undertaken.</p> + +<p>The advantages of cooperative mill tests are many, among which +may be mentioned the counsel and advice of the mill management +and employees, the services of specialized and skilled labor, facilities +for comparing the processes and the results of tests with commercial +processes and results, and the use of commercial or semicommercial +types and sizes of machinery. Tests conducted in this +manner and on this scale are of a different quality than is possible +in those conducted in a laboratory, and the results are susceptible +of commercial interpretation with a fair degree of reliability. +It is found, in general, that the cost of securing such equipment and +service for a complete and comprehensive test does not exceed $500, +while the installation of an equally satisfactory equipment alone +would cost at least $50,000 and in many cases very much more. +Tests conducted in this manner constitute a direct demonstration to +the manufacturer, and the results obtained are found to carry more +weight when presented to other manufacturers for consideration.</p> + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"> -13- +</a></span>It is well known that the method of conducting tests +necessarily +varies with the size of the test. In the matter of yield determination, +for example, laboratory tests may be on such a small scale that the +weighing and sampling of the resulting cellulose fibers may be conducted +by means of chemical laboratory apparatus and analytical +balance, while in tests involving a matter of 5 to 10 pounds of material +larger and different types of equipment are necessary. When +the tests are so increased in size as to employ 300 or 400 pounds, +still other types of equipment are necessary for the treatment of +the material and for a determination of the yield of fiber. In +tests involving tons of material the equipment involves the use of +machines. Accuracy in degree of control and in results will vary +materially with the size of the test. As the size of the test increases, +certain factors will vary in a beneficial manner, while others will vary +in a detrimental manner, so it is a question for each investigator to +decide, after taking all factors into consideration, as to the size of +test which will give the most satisfactory results. In work of this +nature it is found, on the whole, that better results are obtained in +large tests, although the control of the factors and the determination +of the yield of fiber are more difficult than in smaller tests.</p> + +<p>In the tests described in this bulletin, the Department of Agriculture +employed a rotary digester of its own design,<a name="FNanchor_1_3" +id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +comprising a shell +5 feet 5 inches in length by 4 feet in diameter, capable of holding +about 300 pounds of air-dry hurds. It is believed that a test of this +size is large enough to give satisfactory results and that the results +are susceptible of commercial interpretation, while at the same time +they are sufficiently small for complete control and to afford fiber-yield +figures which are both accurate and reliable. Two such rotary +charges gave enough fiber for one complete paper-making test.</p> + + +<h3>OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN A TEST.</h3> + +<p>A complete test on hurds comprises seven distinct operations, and +the method will be described, operation by operation, in the order +in which they were conducted.</p> + +<p><i>Sieving.</i>—The hurds for the first test were not sieved to remove +sand and dirt, but the resulting paper was so dirty that sieving was +practiced in all subsequent tests. The hurds were raked along a +horizontal galvanized-iron screen, 15 feet long and 3 feet wide, with +11½ meshes per linear inch, the screen being agitated by hand from +below. Various amounts of dirt and chaff could be removed, depending +on the degree of action, but it was found that if much more than +3 per cent of the material was removed it consisted chiefly of fine +pieces of wood with practically no additional sand or dirt; in most of +the tests, therefore, the material was screened so as to remove +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"> -14- +</a></span>approximately 3 per cent. It became apparent that a finer +screen +would probably serve as well and effect a saving of small but good +hurds.</p> + +<p><i>Cooking.</i>—Cooking is the technical term for the +operation by which +fibrous raw materials are reduced to a residue of cellulose pulp by +means of chemical treatment. In these tests about 300 pounds of +hurds were charged into the rotary with the addition of a caustic-soda +solution, such as is regularly employed in pulp mills and which +tested an average of 109.5 grams of caustic soda per liter, or 0.916 +pound per gallon, and averaged 85 per cent causticity. Sufficient +caustic solution was added to furnish 25 or 30 per cent of actual +caustic soda, calculated on the bone-dry weight of hurds in the charge. +After closing the rotary head, it was started rotating at the rate of +one-half revolution per minute, and in about five minutes steam at +120 pounds per square inch was admitted at such a rate that the charge +was heated in one hour to 170° C., which is the theoretical equivalent +of 100 pounds of steam pressure per square inch. It was found, +however, that when the temperature reached 170° C. the pressure +was usually 115 or 120 pounds instead of 100 pounds, due to air and +gases inclosed in the rotary. At this point the rotary was stopped +and steam and air relieved until the pressure dropped to 100 pounds, +or a solid steam pressure. The temperature was maintained at this +point for the number of hours required to reduce the hurds, which +was found to be about five, after which the rotary was stopped +and steam relieved until the pressure was reduced to zero, when the +head was removed and the stock was emptied into a tank underneath, +measuring 5½ by 6 by 2 feet deep, where it was drained and +washed. Samples of waste soda solution or "black liquor," which +were taken from some of the "cooks" for analysis, were drawn while +the stock was being thus emptied into the drainer.</p> + +<p><i>Determination of yield.</i>—For determining the yield of +cellulose fiber +the stock in the drain tank was washed with water until free from +waste soda solution, when, by means of a vacuum pump communicating +with the space between the bottom and the false perforated +bottom, the water was sucked from the stock, leaving the fiber with +a very uniform moisture content throughout its entire mass and in a +condition suitable for removing, sampling, and weighing for a yield +determination. Tests have shown that it is possible to sample and +calculate the yield of bone-dry fiber within 0.05 per cent of the actual +amount.</p> + +<p>It has been found that stocks from different materials vary greatly +in their ability to mat in the drain tank, thereby enabling a good +vacuum to be obtained, some stocks permitting a 25-inch vacuum to +be obtained, while others will not permit more than 5 inches. For +this reason the moisture content of the stock will vary from 65 to 85 +per cent.</p> + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"> -15- +</a></span><i>Washing and bleaching.</i>—Washing and bleaching +were performed +for the purpose of bleaching the brown-colored cooked stock to a +white product, since it was regarded as highly probable that the fiber +would be suitable for book-paper manufacture. The colored stock +was charged into a 400-pound beating and washing engine of regular +construction and washed about one hour, the cylinder washer being +covered with 60-mesh wire cloth in order to remove fine loose dirt +and chemical residues. The washer was then raised, the stock +heated by steam to about 40° C., and a solution of commercial +bleaching powder was added in the quantity judged to be necessary, +after which the stock was pumped to a large wooden tank, to remain +and bleach over night. If the stock was bleached sufficiently white +it was drained and washed from bleach residues, and if not more +bleach was added until a good color was obtained. The bleaching +powder used was estimated to contain 35 per cent of available +chlorin, as this is the commercial practice, and the amount required +was calculated to the bone-dry weight of the unbleached stock. +More bleach is required for undercooked stock than for stock which +is properly cooked or overcooked; therefore, the percentage of +bleach required is an indication of the quality of the cooked stock. +Since bleaching is usually more expensive than cooking, it is desirable +to cook to such a degree that the consumption of bleach will be held +within certain limits, depending on the raw materials used and the +quality of paper to be produced. In these tests it was desirable so to +cook the hurds that the consumption of bleach would not be over +about 10 per cent of the fiber.</p> + +<p><i>Furnishing.</i>—Furnishing is the operation of charging the beating +engine with the desired kind or kinds of fiber in the proper proportion +and amount and the adding of such loading and sizing agents as may +be necessary. As shown in the record of results, the furnish in these +tests consisted of hurd stock alone and of various proportions of +hurds, sulphite fiber, and soda fiber. The percentages to be given in +the record of the furnishes refer to the percentage of the total fiber +furnish, and this likewise applies to the loading and sizing agents. +In case sulphite or soda fiber was used, the commercial product in +the dry state was charged into the beating engine and disintegrated, +after which the hurd stock was added in the wet condition.</p> + +<p><i>Beating.</i>—Beating is that operation concerning which the paper +makers often say "there is where the paper is really made," and +although the statement may not be literally true it contains a great +deal of truth. It is the operation whereby the fibers are separated +from each other, reduced to the proper lengths, and put in such a +physical or chemical condition that they felt properly and form into a +satisfactory sheet. It is probable that the quality of the sheet +depends more upon the proper beater action than upon any other +single operation. The action consists in drawing a water suspension +of the fiber between two sets of rather blunt knives, one set being +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"> -16- +</a></span>located in the bottom of a circulating trough and the +other set on the +periphery of a roll revolving just above the former set of knives. It +is during this operation that the loading and sizing agents are incorporated +and the whole furnish is tinted either to produce a satisfactory +white or the desired color.</p> + +<p>The term "paper making," as used in this publication, means the +operation of forming the finished sheet of paper from stock which has +been furnished and prepared in the beater. In these tests a 30-inch +Fourdrinier machine of regular construction was used, a machine +which often is used for the production of paper for filling regular commercial +orders. The machine is designed to cause the water suspension +of fibers to flow on to a traveling wire cloth, whereby the water +drains away. More water is removed by passing the wet sheet through +a series of press rolls, after which the sheet is dried on steam-heated +drums and passed through polished iron rolls, which impart a finish +to the sheet. A Jordan refining machine was employed in conjunction +with the machine to improve further the quality of the fiber, and a +pulp screen was used in order to remove coarse and extraneous materials +from the fiber.</p> + + +<h3>DESCRIPTION OF TESTS.</h3> + +<p>The nature of each complete paper test and the dependence of +each operation on the others were such that it does not seem advisable +to submit the results of the seven tests in tabular form. The numerous +cooks, however, which furnished the pulp for the paper tests are +presented in Table I in all essential detail.</p> + +<p>TABLE I.—Data on cooking hemp hurds.</p> + + +<table summary="Data on cooking hemp hurds."> +<colgroup class="bdit" /> +<colgroup span="2" class="midit" /> +<colgroup span="4" class="def" /> +<thead><tr> +<td rowspan="2" class="bb">Cook No.</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="bb">Caustic soda used (percentage of bone-dry hurds).</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="bb">Strength of caustic soda (grams per liter).</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="bb">Causticity of soda solution.</td> +<td colspan="2" class="bb">Cooking</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="bb">Yield of bone-dry fiber (percentage of +bone-dry unsieved hurds).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bb">Time (hours). </td><td class="bb">Temperature +(°C.)</td></tr></thead> +<tbody> +<tr><td class="bdit">293</td><td class="midit">20.6</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>75.3</td><td>3</td><td>166</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">294</td><td class="midit">21</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>75.3</td><td>3</td><td>166</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">295</td><td class="midit">21.6</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>75.3</td><td>3</td><td>166</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">296</td><td class="midit">20.3</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>75.3</td><td>3</td><td>166</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">301</td><td class="midit">21.9</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>82.5</td><td>4</td><td>166</td><td><a +name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" +class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">302</td><td class="midit">24.4</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>82.5</td><td>4</td><td>166</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">303</td><td class="midit">24.2</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>84.3</td><td>4</td><td>166</td><td>44.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">304</td><td class="midit">25</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>84.3</td><td>4</td><td>170</td><td>39.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">305</td><td class="midit">25</td><td +class="midit">100</td><td>84.3</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td>39.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">306</td><td class="midit">27.8</td><td +class="midit">107.5</td><td>84.3</td><td>4</td><td>166</td><td>36.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">307</td><td class="midit">26.7</td><td +class="midit">107</td><td>84.4</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td>38.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">308</td><td class="midit">26</td><td +class="midit">107</td><td>84.4</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td +rowspan="2"><span class="bigbrace">} </span>37.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">309</td><td class="midit">27.3</td><td +class="midit">107</td><td>84.4</td><td>5</td><td>170</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">310</td><td class="midit">27.1</td><td +class="midit">107</td><td>84.4</td><td>6</td><td>170</td><td>37.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">311</td><td class="midit">27.2</td><td +class="midit">107</td><td>84.4</td><td>6</td><td>170</td><td>36.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">312</td><td class="midit">28.3</td><td +class="midit">116.5</td><td>85.5</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td>35.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">313</td><td class="midit">29.1</td><td +class="midit">113.1</td><td>84.9</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td +rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="bigbrace">} +</span>35.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">314</td><td class="midit">29.1</td><td +class="midit">109</td><td>83.9</td><td>5</td><td>170</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">315</td><td class="midit">29.4</td><td +class="midit">109</td><td>83.9</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td>34.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">316</td><td class="midit">30</td><td +class="midit">109.5</td><td>84.9</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td>37.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">317</td><td class="midit">29.6</td><td +class="midit">109.5</td><td>84.9</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td>37.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">318</td><td class="midit">29.6</td><td +class="midit">107</td><td>84.8</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td>37.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">319</td><td class="midit">29.4</td><td +class="midit">107.5</td><td>84.2</td><td>5</td><td>170</td><td +rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="bigbrace">} +</span>35.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bdit">320</td><td class="midit">29.3</td><td +class="midit">107.5</td><td>84.2</td><td>5</td><td>170</td></tr></tbody> +</table> + + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"> -17- +</a></span>Discussion of the various cooks will be given in +connection with +the descriptions of those paper tests in which the stocks from the cooks +were used, since a stock and its cooking condition can be judged adequately +only after it has been put through the various processes and +into the finished sheet of paper.</p> + +<p>The first test consisted in making four separate cooks, Nos. 293, 294, +295, and 296, of approximately 300 pounds each, dividing the total +stock into two parts and making two separate paper tests. The +first test was made primarily in order to learn some of the qualities +and characteristics of the stock and to get the machinery equipment +adjusted properly. The yield of fiber was not determined in this +preliminary test, since the knowledge of it was not essential at this +stage of the work. The cooked stock which was emptied into the +drainer to be washed free from black liquor was composed largely +of whole pieces of hurds, but only slight pressure between the fingers +was required to crush the pieces. In the case of wood, this condition +ordinarily would indicate undercooking, but might not in the case of +hurds. Further observation on the action of the cooked stock during +subsequent processes was necessary in order to judge of its quality or +the suitability of the cooking conditions. The total cooked stock, +about 500 pounds, was divided into two portions of 200 and 300 +pounds, respectively, and work was continued on them separately. +The 200-pound test, designated as run No. 135, was put into a 350-pound +washing engine, washed one hour, and given a total light brush +of 2¼ hours. The washing removed a great amount of dirt, but the +engine did not reduce the hurd stock as much as was desired. After +heating the stock in the beater to 40° C., it was bleached with +bleaching-powder +solution, 94 gallons at 0.418 pound bleach per gallon, +equivalent to 19.7 per cent of the fiber. This percentage of bleach is +regarded as too high for stock intended for book-paper manufacture, +and subsequent cooks therefore were given harder treatment in order +to reduce this figure. After draining and washing free from bleach +residues, the stock was furnished in the beater with 13 per cent of +clay, 1 per cent of resin size, and 2.5 per cent of alum, was tinted +blue, given one hour's light brush, and pumped to the stock chest. +When running it on the paper machine, the Jordan refiner seemed +to have little effect in reducing shives of undertreated wood, which +indicated further the necessity of harder cooking. The furnish acted +well on the paper machine at 70 feet per minute, but appeared somewhat +too "free" on the wire. The paper produced from this test is of +very low quality, due to the improper preparation of the stock, lack +of sufficient bleach, the use of too small an amount of blue tinting, and +the presence of an excessive amount of dirt, sand, and shives. The +excessive amount of dirt and sand suggested the sieving of the hurds +before cooking, and this was performed in all subsequent cooks.<span +class="pnm"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"> -18- </a></span> +The finish of the sheet is very poor, due to the fact that the calender +stack was composed of very light rolls which did not have a satisfactory +surface, yet the stack is known to be able to produce better finishes +if the proper stock is employed.</p> + +<p>Run No. 136 was made on the 300-pound portion of stock from +cooks Nos. 293, 294, 295, and 296, and in essentially the same manner +as run No. 135. The stock was washed one hour, but given a brush +of three hours, and this brush was harder than in run No. 135. +Bleach to the extent of 19.8 per cent of the fiber was used, assisted +by 1 pint of oil of vitriol, and the resulting color was an improvement +over that of run No. 135. After adding 13.5 per cent of clay and +sizing with 1.1 per cent of resin size, the furnish was given one-half +hour's light brush, tinted, and run on the machine, which was set +at 70 feet per minute. This stock acted better on the wire and gave +no trouble on the machine, but it still seemed to be impossible to +reduce the wood shives by manipulation of the Jordan refiner. The +resulting sheet is an improvement over that produced by No. 135, +but is far from satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Run No. 138 was made from hurds which, as in all subsequent tests, +were sieved on a 11½-mesh wire screen until practically all the loose +dirt and sand was removed, which operation caused a loss averaging +3 per cent of the hurds. Stock from cooks Nos. 302 and 303 was +used for this run and the increased amount of caustic soda and the +increase in the time of cooking gave a stock of better appearance than +those of preceding tests.</p> + +<p>The stock, amounting to 231 pounds dry weight, was washed and +at the same time given a light brush for one hour only, after which +it was bleached with 17 per cent of bleach without the addition of +acid. Since the preceding paper appeared somewhat weak and had +a low tearing quality, it was decided to use a furnish of 15.7 per cent +bleached sulphite and 84.3 per cent bleached hemp-hurd stock. +After loading with 13.1 per cent of clay and sizing with 1.1 per cent +of resin size, the furnish was given a medium brush for one hour, +tinted, and run on to the machine at 70 feet per minute. The stock +gave no trouble on the machine, but it was impossible to judge the +effect of the Jordan refiner, because through an oversight the machine +chest had not been cleaned since previous use on an unbleached +yucca material. It is believed, however, that sheet No. 138 shows +improvement in the preparation of the hurd pulp.</p> + +<p>Run No. 139 was made from stock of cooks Nos. 304 and 305, +in which still more caustic soda was employed and the time and temperature +of cooking were increased, giving a yield of total fiber of +40.7 per cent of the sieved or 39.4 per cent of the unsieved hurds. +The cooked stock still seemed to be undertreated, but it must be +remembered that in working with any new raw material it is impos<span +class="pnm"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"> -19- </a></span>sible +to know in advance how the properly treated material should +appear. A washing of one hour was given while the roll was lowered +from a light to a medium brush, after which the stock was bleached +with 17.1 per cent of bleach without the aid of acid. Since sulphite +stock improved the previous paper, this bleached stock was used +in a furnish of 16.6 per cent sulphite and 83.4 per cent hurds, loaded +with 16.7 per cent clay, sized with 1.4 per cent resin size, given a +medium brush of two hours, tinted, and run on to the machine at +70 feet per minute. The Jordan refiner seemed to have little effect +in reducing shives and was therefore left "just off." No trouble was +experienced with the stock on the machine, and the sheet is an +improvement over previous samples.</p> + +<p>Run No. 140 was made from cooks Nos. 306 and 307, in which +more caustic soda was employed than in any previous cooks and at a +higher concentration, the fiber yields of which averaged 37.3 per cent +of the unsieved hurds. Not much improvement was apparent in +the cooked stock, in spite of the increased severity of cooking. The +stock was washed and given a medium brush for one hour, bleached +with 11.9 per cent of bleach, assisted with one-half pint of oil of +vitriol, and made into a furnish of 14.9 per cent sulphite and 85.1 +per cent of the hurd stock. After loading with 14.7 per cent of clay +and sizing with 1.28 per cent of resin size, the furnish was given two +hours' medium brush, tinted, and run on to the paper machine at +70 feet per minute. Again the Jordan refiner did not seem to reduce +the wood shives sufficiently, and it was left "just off." No trouble +which could be attributed to the stock was experienced on the paper +machine. The color of the resulting paper is due to the use of too +little blue in tinting and probably in some measure to the use of too +low a percentage of bleach.</p> + +<p>Run No. 141 was made from the stock of cooks Nos. 308 and 309 +in practically the same manner as run No. 140. The stock was +washed and brushed one hour, bleached (the record of the amount +of bleach was lost), made into a furnish of 14.7 per cent of sulphite +and 85.3 per cent of hurd stock, loaded with 14.9 per cent of clay, +sized with 1.26 per cent of resin size, given one hour at a medium +brush, tinted, and run on to the machine. The Jordan refiner was +able to reduce the wood shives to a somewhat greater degree than in +previous runs and was held at a medium brush. The stock acted +well on the machine and produced a sheet of better quality than any +preceding, with the exception of the color, which was due to using too +small a quantity of blue.</p> + +<p>Among the cooks made for run No. 142 are Nos. 312 and 313, in +which the concentration of the caustic soda was raised to 113 and +116 grams per liter and the percentage employed was also increased. +In spite of these increases the stock from these two cooks did not +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"> -20- +</a></span>show any appreciable improvement when dumped from the +rotary. +Stock from cooks Nos. 310, 311, and 312 was given a medium brush +and washing of one hour, bleached with 10.95 per cent of bleach, +made into a furnish consisting of 15.2 per cent of sulphite and 84.8 +per cent of hurd stock, loaded with 15.2 per cent of clay, sized with +1.28 per cent of resin size, given a medium brush for one hour, tinted, +and pumped to the stock chest. Stock from cooks Nos. 313 and 314 +was treated in exactly the same manner, except that 11.4 per cent +of bleach was used. It was pumped to the stock chest and mixed +with the furnished stock from cooks Nos. 310, 311, and 312. A +medium Jordan brush was given the stock and it acted well on the +paper machine, which was speeded to 75 feet per minute. There +seems to be a tendency in the hurd stock to crush a little at the +"dandy roll," and although the marks are not removed by the calender +stack which was employed in those tests it was found that one +"nip" on the supercalenders renders them practically imperceptible +and it is believed that the proper size and weight of calender stack +would entirely remove these marks. All of the papers produced +up to this point are somewhat lacking in the bulk desired in a book +paper; therefore, in the two following runs soda-poplar stock was +included in the furnishes.</p> + +<p>In run No. 143 stock from cooks Nos. 315 and 316 was given a +medium brush and washing for one hour and was medium brushed +for one hour more, bleached with 11.3 per cent of bleach assisted +with one-half pint of oil of vitriol, made into a furnish of 16.5 per +cent of sulphite, 22.3 per cent of soda poplar, and 61.2 per cent of +hurd stock, loaded with 22 per cent of clay, sized with 1.38 per cent +of resin size, given a hard brush for one hour, tinted very strongly, +and pumped to the stock chest. This stock was beaten to a greater +extent than in previous runs. The stock was run on the paper +machine at a speed of 75 feet per minute, using a medium Jordan +brush, and no trouble whatsoever was experienced. Not over 2 +pounds of "broke" was produced during the whole run, and that +was in the "threading" of the machine. The color of the sheet is +entirely satisfactory for many uses. The wood shives apparently +were reduced to a satisfactory degree. Experienced paper makers +commented very favorably on the running of this furnish and the +quality of the paper produced.</p> + +<p>Run No. 144 was intended as a duplicate of run No. 143. Stock +from cooks Nos. 317 and 318 was given a medium brush and washing +for one hour and a further medium brush of one hour, bleached with +11.4 per cent of bleach, and made into a furnish composed of 15.5 +per cent of sulphite, 23.5 per cent of soda poplar, and 61 per cent of +hurd stock, loaded with 21.4 per cent of clay, sized with 1.17 per cent +of resin size, hard brushed for one hour, tinted by the expert colorer +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"> -21- </a></span>of +the company, and pumped to the stock chest. Stock from cooks +Nos. 319 and 320 was treated in exactly the same manner except +that the stock was bleached with 12.1 per cent of bleach and pumped +to the stock chest to mix with the former furnish. The stock acted +very well on the machine, which was speeded to 75 feet per minute, +with the Jordan refiner set at a medium brush. The sheet is as good, +if not better, than that of run No. 143, and it is also a good illustration +of the extent to which proper tinting will enhance the general +appearance of a paper. The poor appearance of the samples of +previous runs is due largely to lack of proper tinting. Various +degrees of whiteness, however, are demanded by the trade.</p> + + +<h3>COMPARISON OF THE TESTS AND COMMERCIAL PRACTICE.</h3> + +<p>In work of this nature and on this scale it is practically impossible +to arrive at a cost figure which would be susceptible of commercial +interpretation, and in this preliminary publication nothing will be +attempted beyond a comparison of the process used with the hurds +with that process commercially applied to poplar wood. The process +last used with the hurds should not be regarded as final, satisfactory, +or most suitable, as it has been shown that progress was being made +up to the conclusion of the work.</p> + +<p>In comparing the method of using hurds with the method of handling +poplar wood, a difference is apparent on the delivery of raw +material at the mill. Ordinarily, poplar is received at the mill in +the form of logs about 4 feet in length, which may be stored in piles +in the open. Hurds very likely would be received baled, and it would +seem advisable to store them under cover for the following reasons: +(<i>a</i>) Baled hurds would probably absorb and retain more water +during wet weather than logs of wood, thereby causing excessive +dilution of the caustic liquor; (<i>b</i>) prolonged excessive dampness +might create heating and deterioration unless the hemp were properly +retted; (<i>c</i>) wet hurds could not be sieved free from sand and chaff. +Should further work show that the first two reasons need not be +taken into consideration, the third objection might be overcome by +sieving the hurds before baling. Even then, it is probable that +baled hurds stored in the open would accumulate and retain considerable +dirt from factory chimneys, locomotives, and wind. +Checked pulp wood exposed in the open invariably suffers from +these causes.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of the raw material for the digesters there is +likewise considerable difference between hurds and poplar wood. +The former apparently requires only a moderate sieving to remove +sand and chaff, which operation doubtless would require only a +small amount of labor and the installation of some simple machinery +of low power consumption. In preparing poplar for digestion, the +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"> -22- +</a></span>4-foot logs are chipped by a heavy, comparatively +expensive chipper +of high power consumption, after which the chips are sorted by +sieving, the large pieces being rechipped. There would be a noteworthy +difference in the installation, operating, and depreciation +costs of the two equipments, and this difference would counterbalance +to a considerable extent the difference in cost of raw material +storage.</p> + +<p>It is possible that in the use of the chip loft more care would have +to be exercised in using hurds because of the tendency of the bast +fiber to cause lodgments, but this should not be considered a serious +difficulty.</p> + +<p>The weight of hurds which are capable of being charged into a +rotary is a decidedly unfavorable factor. The weight of a cubic +foot of hurds varies somewhat with the proportion of bast fiber, +but averages about 5.4 pounds, which, compared with a cubic foot +of poplar chips at 8.93 pounds, represents a digester charge of 60.5 +per cent of the weight of a poplar-wood charge, or, in terms of fiber +capacity, the hurds charge would yield 38.6 per cent as much fiber +as the wood charge. The hurds upon being baled for transportation +may be broken and crushed to such a degree that the weight +of the charge may be increased, and it might be found possible to +increase the charge weight by steaming or by the employment of +tamping devices. This small weight of charge constitutes one of the +most serious objections to the use of hurds in paper manufacture.</p> + +<p>In those tests in which the most satisfactory results were obtained, +the cooking conditions were 29.5 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration +of 107 grams per liter and a causticity of 84.0 per cent acting +at a temperature of 170° C. for five hours, or a total time of seven +hours. The steam condensation in the rotary used for these tests +was abnormally high, due to the fact that the steam supply pipe was +uncovered for a considerable distance and the rotary was entirely +uncovered. It is believed, therefore, that a larger amount of caustic +was necessary than would otherwise have been the case. This +belief is strengthened by the quality of the waste liquor from one of +the later cooks, which gave on analysis 16.85 grams per liter of free +caustic soda and showed a causticity of 27.75 per cent. These data +show that only 67.3 per cent of the total caustic employed was actually +consumed in the cooking operation, which percentage is lower +than obtains in practice. The stock from this cook was bleached +with 11.5 per cent of bleach. But even as the figures stand, the +comparison with poplar cooking practice is as follows: 29.5 per cent +caustic soda used as against 22 to 25 per cent; 107 grams per liter +as against 100 to 110; 84 per cent causticity is little different than +obtains in practice; 170° C. is about commercial practice; five hours +at pressure as against four to six hours; seven hours' total time as +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"> -23- +</a></span>against possibly six to eight hours; 11.5 per cent bleach +as against +8 to 10 per cent. Thus, it is evident that the cooking conditions +employed were slightly more severe and expensive than those in +commercial use with poplar wood.</p> + +<p>The yield of total fiber obtained from the hurds may be placed at +35 per cent of bone-dry fiber calculated on the bone-dry weight of +hurds used, or 33.1 per cent of air-dry fiber calculated on air-dry +hurds. The yield of bleached fiber was not determined in this preliminary +work, but may be safely estimated as 30 per cent, which is +low when compared with a yield of about 47 per cent of bone-dry +bleached fiber from bone-dry poplar wood. It is believed quite +possible that satisfactory cooking conditions may be found which will +give a higher yield than was obtained during these tests. The stock +should be classed as easy bleaching, and 11.4 per cent of bleach is a +satisfactory figure, although a little high.</p> + +<p>As to beating cost, in the last two and most satisfactory tests the +total washing and beating time was three hours, which may be about +an hour more than ordinarily is used in making papers of this grade, +although the practice varies to a considerable extent.</p> + +<p>In regard to furnish, there is such a diversity of practice that it is +difficult to make a comparison, but if the hurd stock can be produced +as cheaply as soda-poplar stock, the furnish used in these last two +tests should be regarded as satisfactory to the book and printing +paper manufacturer.</p> + +<p>The finish of the paper was not all that might be desired, but that +was due almost entirely to the calender stack available for the work, +which was composed of nine light rolls, many of which were about +6 inches in diameter and which had not been reground for some time. + From a small test on a large calender stack it was readily shown that +the paper produced is capable of taking a satisfactory finish.</p> + +<p>This comparison, satisfactory in many respects, develops two +factors which are decidedly unfavorable to hemp hurds, namely, raw-material +storage and digester capacity, and they must be taken into +full account in considering the paper-making value of this material, +although it should be recognized that investigation may result in the +material improvement of these conditions. Moreover, it is not at all +improbable that further investigation would develop more satisfactory +treating conditions and more suitable furnish compositions, and +the belief in this possibility is strengthened by the fact that material +progress was being made at the conclusion of this preliminary work.</p> + +<p>Calculations on the raw material and acreage for a permanent supply +for a pulp mill producing 25 tons of fiber a day for 300 days per +annum, or 7,500 tons per annum, give the comparison between hurds +and wood shown in Table II.</p> + +<p><span class="pnm"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"> -24- +</a></span><span class="smcap">Table II</span>.—<i>Comparison +between wood and hemp hurds</i>.</p> + +<table summary="Comparison between wood and hemp hurds" border="1" +cellpadding="4"><thead> +<tr><td rowspan="2" align="center"> Material. </td><td rowspan="2" +align="center"> Pulp yield. </td><td rowspan="2" align="center">Raw +material required per year.</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="center">Annual growth per acre. </td><td +colspan="2" align="center">Acres required for sustained +supply.</td></tr> +<tr><td> For 25-ton mill. </td><td> For 1 ton of fiber per +year.</td></tr></thead><tbody> + +<tr><td align="center">Wood </td><td> Two cords yield 1 ton of +fiber. </td><td> 15,000 cords </td><td> 0.37 cord (about 0.55 ton). +</td><td> 40,500 </td><td> 5.4</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Hemp hurds </td><td> One ton yields 600 +pounds of fiber. </td><td> 25,000 tons </td><td> 2.5 tons +</td><td> 10,000 </td><td> 1.33</td></tr> +</tbody></table> + +<p>The most important point derived from this calculation is in regard +to areas required for a sustained supply, which are in the ratio of 4 +to 1. Every tract of 10,000 acres which is devoted to hemp raising +year by year is equivalent to a sustained pulp-producing capacity of +40,500 acres of average pulp-wood lands. In other words, in order to +secure additional raw material for the production of 25 tons of fiber +per day there exists the possibility of utilizing the agricultural waste +already produced on 10,000 acres of hemp lands instead of securing, +holding, reforesting, and protecting 40,500 acres of pulp-wood land.</p> + +<p>The annual growth per acre, although decidedly in favor of hurds, +has little bearing on the project, because the utilization of the hurds +is subordinate to the raising of hemp, and the paper manufacturer +probably could afford to use only hurds resulting from the hemp +industry.</p> + + +<h3>PHYSICAL TESTS OF THE PAPERS PRODUCED.</h3> + +<p>Samples of paper produced in the seven tests were submitted to +the Leather and Paper Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. The +report of that bureau on its tests is given in Table III.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Table III</span>.—<i>Report of the +Leather and Paper Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry on +papers manufactured from hemp hurds</i>.</p> + +<table summary="Report of the Leather and Paper Laboratory of the +Bureau of Chemistry on +papers manufactured from hemp hurds"><thead><tr><td rowspan="2" +class="bb">Laboratory No.</td><td rowspan="2" class="bb">Run +No.</td><td rowspan="2" class="bb">Ash.</td> +<td colspan="2" class="bb">Weight of 500 sheets.</td><td rowspan="2" +class="bb">Thickness, 1/10000.</td> +<td colspan="3" class="bb">Strength (Mullen). </td><td rowspan="2" +class="bb">Strength factor (25 by 40, 500). </td> +<td colspan="2" class="bb">Folding endurance.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bb">25 by 38.</td><td class="bb">25 by 40.</td><td +class="bb">Average.</td><td class="bb">Maximum.</td><td +class="bb">Minimum.</td> +<td class="bb">Longitudinal.</td><td class="bb">Transverse.</td></tr></thead> +<tbody> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td><i>Per ct.</i></td><td><i>Pounds.</i></td><td><i>Pounds.</i></td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>31570</td><td>144</td><td>13.9</td><td>48</td><td>50½</td><td>33</td><td>15.0</td><td>17.0</td><td>11.0</td><td>0.30</td><td>5</td><td>3</td></tr> +<tr><td>31571</td><td>143</td><td>14.5</td><td>49</td><td>51½</td><td>35</td><td>14.0</td><td>14.0</td><td>13.0</td><td>.28</td><td>4</td><td>4</td></tr> +<tr><td>31573</td><td>141</td><td>10.9</td><td>48</td><td>50½</td><td>38</td><td>19.0</td><td>20.0</td><td>19.0</td><td>.37</td><td>8</td><td>6</td></tr> +<tr><td>31572</td><td>142</td><td>9.5</td><td>49½</td><td>52</td><td>33</td><td>16.5</td><td>18.0</td><td>11.0</td><td>.33</td><td>10</td><td>8</td></tr> +<tr><td>31574</td><td>140</td><td>11.4</td><td>42</td><td>44</td><td>30</td><td>14.5</td><td>16.0</td><td>13.0</td><td>.33</td><td>7</td><td>6</td></tr> +<tr><td>31575</td><td>139</td><td>13.4</td><td>55</td><td>58</td><td>40</td><td>19.5</td><td>20.0</td><td>17.0</td><td>.34</td><td>8</td><td>5</td></tr> +<tr><td>31576</td><td>138</td><td>10.4</td><td>56</td><td>59</td><td>40</td><td>20.0</td><td>20.0</td><td>19.0</td><td>.34</td><td>23</td><td>15</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p>There is no system of numerically recording the general appearance +and "look through" of a paper, but it can be stated that only papers +<span class="pnm"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"> -25- +</a></span>Nos. 143 and 144 are satisfactory in these respects, the +other samples +being more or less thickly specked with shives. The general +character and tests of these papers correspond very closely with +No. 1 machine-finish printing paper, according to the specifications +of the United States Government Printing Office, which call for a +sheet not exceeding 0.0035 inch in thickness, strength not less than +12 points, free from unbleached or ground wood pulp, and ash not +over 10 per cent. The strength factor of such papers is about 0.28. +The ash should not be over 10 per cent for this grade of paper, but +in spite of the larger amount used the physical tests are sufficiently +high. It is to be noted that the physical tests of samples Nos. 138 +to 142, inclusive, are higher than in Nos. 143 and 144, in which 23 +per cent of soda poplar was used, which shows clearly that hemp-hurd +stock imparts strength and folding endurance to a greater +extent than does soda-poplar stock. From these preliminary tests it +would be concluded, therefore, that hemp-hurd stock acts similarly +to soda-poplar stock, but will produce a somewhat harsher and +stronger sheet and one of higher folding endurance. Undoubtedly, +there is more dirt in the samples than would be tolerated by the +trade, but this was to be expected, since in this preliminary work the +raw material was sieved by hand screens instead of by automatic +machines which would sieve more thoroughly.</p> + + +<h3>CONCLUSIONS.</h3> + +<p>There appears to be little doubt that under the present system of +forest use and consumption the present supply can not withstand +the demands placed upon it. By the time improved methods of +forestry have established an equilibrium between production and +consumption, the price of pulp wood may be such that a knowledge +of other available raw materials may be imperative.</p> + +<p>Semicommercial paper-making tests were conducted, therefore, on +hemp hurds, in cooperation with a paper manufacturer. After +several trials, under conditions of treatment and manufacture which +are regarded as favorable in comparison with those used with pulp +wood, paper was produced which received very favorable comment +both from investigators and from the trade and which according to +official tests would be classed as a No. 1 machine-finish printing +paper.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h4>Footnotes</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For descriptions of +investigations of some of these crops, see the list of publications +at the end of this +bulletin.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" +id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"> +<span class="label">[2]</span></a> For a description of this rotary +digester, see Brand, C. J., and Merrill, J. L., Zacaton as a +paper-making +material, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 309, p. 28, 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>Stock not +used; dirty.</p></div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material, by +Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEMP HURDS AS PAPER-MAKING *** + +***** This file should be named 17855-h.htm or 17855-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/8/5/17855/ + +Produced by K.D. 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