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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material, by
+Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material
+       United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 404
+
+Author: Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill
+
+Release Date: February 25, 2006 [EBook #17855]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEMP HURDS AS PAPER-MAKING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by K.D. Thornton and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+=BULLETIN No. 404=
+
+Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
+
+[Illustration: USDA crests flanking bulletin banner]
+
+Washington, D.C.
+PROFESSIONAL PAPER
+October 14, 1916
+
+
+HEMP HURDS AS PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL.
+
+By LYSTER H. DEWEY, _Botanist in Charge of Fiber-Plant Investigations_,
+and JASON L. MERRILL, _Paper-Plant Chemist, Paper-Plant Investigations_.
+
+
+                          =CONTENTS.=
+                                                         Page.
+The production and handling of hemp hurds,
+  by Lyster H. Dewey:
+
+  What hemp hurds are                                       1
+  Pith, wood, and fiber                                     2
+  Character of hurds affected by retting                    2
+  Proportion of hurds to fiber and yield per acre           3
+  Hurds available from machine-broken hemp                  3
+  Present uses of hemp hurds                                4
+  Present supplies of hurds available                       5
+  Baling for shipment                                       5
+  Cost of baling                                            5
+  Summary                                                   6
+
+
+The manufacture of paper from hemp hurds,
+  by Jason L. Merrill:
+
+  Introduction                                              7
+  Factors justifying an investigation of hemp hurds         8
+  Character of the material                                11
+  Character of the tests                                   12
+  Operations involved in a test                            13
+  Description of tests                                     16
+  Comparison of the tests and commercial practice          21
+  Physical tests of the papers produced                    24
+  Conclusions                                              25
+
+
+In preparing the report on the manufacture of paper from hemp hurds it
+became evident that a short discussion of the agricultural aspects of
+this material should be included in the publication. Such an article was
+prepared, therefore, and the two reports are here presented together.
+
+[NOTE.--This bulletin should be useful to all persons who are interested
+in the economic phases of paper making, especially to print and book
+paper manufacturers. It also should be of interest to scientific
+investigators and chemists.]
+
+
+
+
+=THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF HEMP HURDS.=
+
+By LYSTER H. DEWEY, _Botanist in Charge of Fiber-Plant Investigations_.
+
+
+=WHAT HEMP HURDS ARE.=
+
+The woody inner portion of the hemp stalk, broken into pieces and
+separated from the fiber in the processes of breaking and scutching, is
+called hemp hurds. These hurds correspond to shives in flax, but are
+much coarser and are usually softer in texture.
+
+The hemp stalk grown in a broadcast crop for fiber production is from
+one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch in diameter and from 4 to 10 feet
+tall. The stalk is hollow, with a cylindrical woody shell, thick near
+the base, where the stalk is nearly solid, and thinner above, where the
+hollow is relatively wider.
+
+In the process of breaking, the woody cylinder inside of the
+fiber-bearing bark is broken into pieces one-half of an inch to 3 inches
+long and usually split into numerous segments. The thicker lower
+sections are split less than the thin-shelled upper ones, and they are
+often left quite solid.
+
+
+=PITH, WOOD, AND FIBER.=
+
+The inner surface of the hurds usually bears a layer of pith, consisting
+of thin-walled cells nearly spherical or angular, but not elongated.
+They are more or less crushed and torn. They are probably of little
+value for paper, but they constitute less than 1 per cent of the weight
+of the hurds. The principal weight and bulk consist of slender elongated
+woody cells. The outer surface is covered with fine secondary fibers
+composed of slender elongated cells, tougher than those of the wood but
+finer and shorter than those of the hemp fiber of commerce. No method
+has been devised thus far which completely separates from the hurds all
+of the long fiber. From 5 to 15 per cent of the weight of the hurds
+consists of hemp fiber, in strands from 3 inches to 8 feet in length.
+Some fragments of the bark, made up of short cubical cells, usually dark
+in color, cling to the strands of fiber.
+
+
+=CHARACTER OF HURDS AFFECTED BY RETTING.=
+
+Nearly all of the hemp in the United States is dew retted. The stalks
+are spread on the ground in swaths as grain is laid by the cradle. The
+action of the weather, dew, and rain, aided by bacteria, dissolves and
+washes out the green coloring matter (chlorophyll) and most of the gums,
+leaving only the fibrous bark and the wood. The plants in this process
+lose about 60 per cent of their green weight, or about 40 per cent of
+their air-dry weight.
+
+The stalks are sometimes set up in shocks to cure before retting, and
+after retting they are set up in shocks to dry. Each time the stalks are
+handled they are chucked down on the ground to keep the butts even. In
+these operations sand and clay are often driven up into the hollow at
+the base of the stalks, and this dirt, which often clings tenaciously,
+may constitute all objectionable feature in the use of hemp hurds for
+paper stock.
+
+In Italy and in most localities in Russia and Austria-Hungary where hemp
+is extensively cultivated, it is retted in water, but water retting has
+never been practiced in the United States except to a limited extent
+before the middle of the last century. Hurds from water-retted hemp are
+cleaner and softer than those from dew-retted hemp.
+
+The fiber is sometimes broken from dry hemp stalks without retting. The
+hurds thus produced contain a small percentage of soluble gums, chiefly
+of the pectose series. Comparatively little hemp is prepared in this
+manner in America.
+
+Process retting by means of weak solutions of chemicals or oils in hot
+water is practiced to a limited extent. The hurds from these processes
+may contain traces of the chemicals or oils and also soluble gums in
+greater degree than those of the dew-retted or water-retted hemp.
+
+
+=PROPORTION OF HURDS TO FIBER AND YIELD PER ACRE.=
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Hemp-breaking machine. The stalks are fed
+sidewise in a continuous layer 2 to 3 inches thick, turning out about
+4,000 pounds of clean fiber per day and five times as much hurds.]
+
+The yield of hemp fiber varies from 400 to 2,500 pounds per acre,
+averaging 1,000 pounds under favorable conditions. The weight of hurds
+is about five times that of the fiber, or somewhat greater from hemp
+grown on peaty soils. A yield of 2-1/2 tons of hurds per acre may be taken
+as a fair average.
+
+
+=HURDS AVAILABLE FROM MACHINE-BROKEN HEMP.=
+
+Hemp hurds are available only from hemp which is broken by machines,
+when the hurds may be collected in quantity in one place (figs. 1 and
+2). Most of the hemp in Kentucky is still broken by hand brakes. These
+small brakes are moved from shock to shock, so that the hurds are
+scattered all over the field in small piles of less than 50 pounds each,
+and it is the common practice to set fire to them as soon as the brake
+is moved. It would be difficult to collect them at a cost which would
+permit their use for paper stock.
+
+Where machine brakes are used, the hemp stalks are brought to the
+machine as grain is brought to a thrashing machine, and the hurds
+accumulate in large piles, being blown from the machine by wind
+stackers.
+
+Machine brakes are used in Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, and California, but
+to only a limited extent in Kentucky. Five different kinds of machine
+brakes are now in actual use in this country, and still others are used
+in Europe. All of the best hemp in Italy, commanding the highest market
+price paid for any hemp, is broken by machines. The better machine
+brakes now in use in this country prepare the fiber better and much more
+rapidly than the hand brakes, and they will undoubtedly be used in all
+localities where hemp raising is introduced as a new industry. They may
+also be used in Kentucky when their cost is reduced to more reasonable
+rates, so that they may compete with the hand brake. Hemp-breaking
+machines are being improved and their use is increasing. The
+hemp-growing industry can increase in this country only as machine
+brakes are developed to prepare the fiber. A profitable use for the
+hurds will add an incentive to the use of the machine brake.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Machine brake and hemp hurds. Hemp hurds from
+machine brakes quickly accumulate in large piles.]
+
+
+=PRESENT USES OF HEMP HURDS.=
+
+Hemp hurds are used to a limited extent for barnyard litter and stable
+bedding, as a substitute for sawdust in packing ice, and, in rare
+instances, for fuel. They are not regarded as having a commercial value
+for any of these uses, though they are doubtless worth at least $1 per
+ton on the farm when used for stable bedding. They are a waste product,
+without value for other purposes which might compete with their use for
+paper stock.
+
+
+=PRESENT SUPPLIES OF HURDS AVAILABLE.=
+
+During the last season, 1915, about 1,500 acres of hemp have been
+harvested outside of Kentucky and in regions where machine brakes are
+used. Estimating the yield of hurds at 2-1/2 tons per acre, this should
+give a total quantity of about 3,750 tons. Large quantities of hemp from
+the crop of 1914, which are still unbroken in these areas, and large
+piles of hurds undisturbed where the machines have been used during the
+last two or three years, increase the total to more than 7,000 tons.
+Hemp is now grown outside of Kentucky in the vicinity of McGuffey, east
+of Lima, Ohio; around Nappanee, Elkhart County, and near Pierceton, in
+Kosciusko County, Ind.; about Waupun and Brandon, Wis.; and at Rio Vista
+and Stockton, Cal.
+
+In Kentucky, hemp is grown in most of the counties within a radius of 50
+miles of Lexington. No accurate statistics of the acreage are collected,
+but the crop harvested in 1915 is estimated at 7,000 acres. A machine
+brake will probably be used in Bourbon County and also in Clark County,
+but most of the hemp in Kentucky will be broken on hand brakes.
+
+
+=BALING FOR SHIPMENT.=
+
+The hurds will have to be baled to facilitate handling in transportation
+and to economize storage space at the paper mills. The bales will need
+to be covered with burlap or some material to keep them from shaking
+out. They may be baled in the same presses that are used for baling hemp
+fiber, but care must be exercised to avoid breaking the press, for the
+hurds are more resistant than hemp fiber. A bale of hemp 2 by 3 by 4
+feet weighs about 500 pounds. A bale of hurds of the same size will
+weigh about one-third less, or approximately six bales per ton.
+
+Rough hemp fiber as it is shipped from the farm is not covered;
+therefore, the covering material must be purchased especially for the
+hurds. A piece of burlap about 36 by 48 inches placed on either side of
+the bale will be sufficient, but these pieces, weighing about 3 pounds
+each, cost about 40 cents a pair. Baling rope, in addition to jute
+covering, will cost at least 5 cents per bale, making the total cost of
+covering and ties $2.70 or more per ton. Possibly chip-board, costing
+about $33 per ton, or not more than 5 cents for the two pieces for each
+bale, may be used in place of burlap. Chip-board, burlap, and also rope
+ties may all be used for paper stock. Burlap covers might be returned,
+to be used repeatedly until worn out, but chip-board could not be used
+more than once.
+
+
+=COST OF BALING.=
+
+If burlap covers are used the cost of baling, including covering, ties,
+use of baling press, power, and labor will amount to at least 60 cents
+per bale, or about $3.75 per ton. If chip-board can be used the cost may
+be reduced to about $2 per ton. The cost of hauling and loading on the
+cars will vary from $1 to $3 per ton, depending upon the distance and
+the roads. The farmer must therefore receive from $4 to $6 per ton for
+the hurds, baled, on board cars at his home station.
+
+
+=SUMMARY.=
+
+Hemp hurds are the woody inner portion of the hemp stalk, broken into
+pieces in removing the fiber.
+
+They are not used at present for any purpose that would compete with
+their use for paper.
+
+Hurds are available only from machine-broken hemp, for the cost of
+collecting them from the hand brakes would be too great.
+
+About 7,000 tons are now available in restricted localities in Ohio,
+Indiana, Wisconsin, and California.
+
+The quantity is likely to increase as the use of machine brakes
+increases.
+
+The hurds may be baled in hemp-fiber presses, with partial burlap covers
+like those on cotton bales, or possibly chip-board covers.
+
+It is estimated that the farmers may deliver the bales on board cars
+profitably at $4 to $6 per ton.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM HEMP HURDS.
+
+By JASON L. MERRILL, _Paper-Plant Chemist, Paper-Plant Investigations_.
+
+
+=INTRODUCTION.=
+
+The purpose of this paper is to report upon preliminary tests which were
+conducted to determine the paper-making value of hemp hurds, a crop
+waste of the hemp-fiber industry.
+
+The search for plant materials capable of being utilized in paper
+manufacture is a comparatively recent but world-wide activity which has
+for its object the husbanding of present sources of paper-stock supply
+by the substitution of new materials for some of those which are rapidly
+becoming less plentiful and more costly.
+
+The abstract idea of utilizing that which is at present a waste can play
+no important role in such activities, the successful commercial outcome
+of which must be based on the three fundamental factors--market or
+demand for product, satisfactory raw material, and cost.
+
+Since hemp hurds are to be treated in this report as a raw material for
+the manufacture of book and printing papers, the qualities, supply,
+probable future, and cost of the material will be considered in
+comparison with wood, with which it must compete. There seems to be
+little doubt that the present wood supply can not withstand indefinitely
+the demands placed upon it, and with increased scarcity economy in the
+use of wood will become imperative. This effect is already apparent in
+many wood-using industries, and although the paper industry consumes
+only about 3 per cent of the total forest cut, it is probable that it
+will be affected through this economy. Our forests are being cut three
+times as fast as they grow, and as wood becomes more expensive proper
+growing and reforesting will receive more attention. Thus, naturally, a
+balance will be established between production and consumption, but as
+this condition approaches its limiting values the price of wood may rise
+to such levels that there will be a demand for other raw materials.
+
+The use of waste paper in conjunction with chemical wood pulp has
+increased to enormous proportions, and it is probable that the increase
+will continue. Although it is a cheaper raw material than wood, it is
+reasonable to suppose that as the wood supply decreases and the price of
+wood pulp advances, the price of waste paper will advance somewhat
+proportionately.
+
+In view of these conditions it is advisable to investigate the
+paper-making value of the more promising plant materials before a
+critical situation arises. To be of substantial value the investigations
+should include not only a determination of the quality and quantity of
+pulp and paper which the material is capable of producing, but should
+embrace a consideration of such relevant factors as agricultural
+conditions, farm practice, assembling conditions, transportation, and
+probable future supply.
+
+Certain cultivated plants seem particularly promising, because in the
+harvesting of the regular crop that portion which might be utilized for
+paper manufacture necessarily is either wholly or partially assembled.
+To this class of plants belong corn, broom corn, sorghum, sugar cane,
+bagasse, flax, hemp, and the cereal straws.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: For descriptions of investigations of some of these crops,
+see the list of publications at the end of this bulletin.]
+
+It is generally conceded that the employment of different raw materials
+would probably yield products of a somewhat different quality than those
+now prevailing in the markets, but the qualities of papers and the
+public demands are so diversified and numerous that this possible
+objection should not be serious. Ten years ago sulphite manufacturers
+would not accept consignments of spruce logs if they contained over 5
+per cent of fir, while to-day many manufacturers tolerate 50 per cent.
+Rope papers are found to contain not only jute, but when this raw
+material is not plentiful, chemical pulp of various kinds. "Linen paper"
+is often no more than a trade term. Not long ago printing papers were
+made entirely from chemical wood pulp, but to-day if it is desired to
+secure paper which is free from ground wood the specifications must so
+stipulate. Writing papers, formerly made entirely from rags, now are
+likely to contain either chemical or even ground-wood pulp unless the
+specifications prohibit it. Without doubt, many paper manufacturers have
+maintained certain papers up to a fixed standard for a long series of
+years, but it is equally true that competition has lowered the standard
+of a great many papers, some of which had acquired a distinctive
+recognition. The employment of plant fibers will not necessarily lower
+the present quality of papers, but if their employment does result in
+products whose qualities are somewhat different from our so-called
+standard papers it does not necessarily follow that such papers will not
+find a ready market.
+
+
+=FACTORS JUSTIFYING AN INVESTIGATION OF HEMP HURDS.=
+
+Hemp hurds form a crop waste, in that they necessarily are produced in
+the raising and preparation of hemp fiber, and their present use and
+value are comparatively insignificant.
+
+The assembling of the hurds may be effected with economy, since the area
+in which hemp is handled with the use of machine brakes is restricted.
+Although it must be stated that the present annual supply would not be
+sufficient to justify the installation of a pulp mill nor would its
+transportation to existing mills appear feasible, it is expected that
+the available annual tonnage, especially in certain general sections,
+will increase, due to the increased use of the machine brake. The
+present tonnage per annum is approximately as follows: In the region of
+Ohio and Indiana, 2,500 tons; in the Wisconsin section, 1,000 tons; in
+the California region, 1,400 tons.
+
+In years of adverse weather conditions there are often large areas of
+hemp which are not harvested on account of its poor quality; there are
+also large areas of cut hemp which become overretted, due to inclement
+weather. It has been suggested by some of the hemp raisers that this
+large amount of material might be utilized as a paper stock. In these
+cases the cost of the whole material would probably be somewhat higher
+than that of the hurds, because either all or part of the cost of
+harvesting and the total cost of breaking would have to be borne by the
+paper maker. Moreover, the quality of this material would be so very
+irregular and the supply so uncertain that it probably would not appeal
+to the paper manufacturer.
+
+Without doubt, hemp will continue to be one of the staple agricultural
+crops of the United States. The wholesale destruction of the supply by
+fire, as frequently happens in the case of wood, is precluded by the
+very nature of the hemp-raising industry. Since only one year's growth
+can be harvested annually the supply is not endangered by the pernicious
+practice of overcropping, which has contributed so much to the present
+high and increasing cost of pulp wood. The permanency of the supply of
+hemp hurds thus seems assured.
+
+The favorable location geographically of the hemp regions in relation to
+the pulp and paper industry is a factor of considerable importance. The
+Kentucky region is not at present in a position to supply hurds, as
+machine methods have not been adopted there to any appreciable degree.
+The Ohio and Indiana region, which at present has the greatest annual
+tonnage, with the prospect of an increase, is situated south of the
+Wisconsin and Michigan wood-pulp producing region and at a distance from
+the eastern wood-pulp producing regions; therefore, it is in a favorable
+position to compete in the large Ohio and Indiana markets. Since, as
+will be shown, the hurd pulp acts far more like soda poplar stock than
+sulphite stock, competition would be strongest from the eastern mills;
+in fact, the hurd stock might very possibly meet with favor as a
+book-stock furnish in the Michigan and Wisconsin paper mills, which are
+within the sulphite fiber-producing region. Because of its very close
+proximity to paper mills, this latter possibility applies with far
+greater force to the Wisconsin hemp region, where a considerable
+extension of the hemp industry is anticipated.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--A representative sample of hemp hurds, natural
+size, showing hemp fiber and pieces of wood tissue.]
+
+
+=CHARACTER OF THE MATERIAL.=
+
+As received from Pierceton, Ind., the hurds consisted of a mixture of
+tangled hemp bast fibers and pieces of broken wood of the hemp stalk.
+(Fig. 3.) No reliable data were secured as to the proportion of bast
+fiber in the total shipment of 4 tons, although two hand separations of
+small representative samples gave results averaging 8 per cent. The
+chemical character of the material was such and the quantity was so
+small that any appreciable variation of the proportion should not affect
+materially the treating processes finally adopted, yet its presence in
+varying proportions undoubtedly would modify to some extent the quality
+of the resulting paper product. Since the length of the ultimate bast
+fiber averages about 22 mm. and the length of the ultimate hemp wood
+fiber averages 0.7 mm., it is natural to assume that the bast fiber
+would tend to increase the strength of paper produced from the hurds.
+(Fig. 4.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Fiber derived from the woody portion of the
+hurds. x75. From a microphotograph.]
+
+The broken pieces of wood contained in the hurds varied in length from
+mere particles which were somewhat finer than sawdust to pieces about
+3-1/2 inches long, exceptional pieces being found which measured 6
+inches in length. The majority of the long pieces were between 2 and 3
+inches in length. In thickness the pieces ranged from one-eighth of an
+inch, in case they were derived from the base of the hemp stalks, to
+about one sixty-fourth of an inch in those pieces which were derived
+from the top and branches of the stalks. In cross section the pieces
+often were found to be a quarter or half of the rounded rectangular
+woody shell of the stalk, although there appeared to be no regularity in
+this respect.
+
+From the pulp-maker's standpoint the great irregularity in thickness,
+length, and mass of the woody pieces militates decidedly against economy
+in pulp production. The smaller pieces reduce by chemical treatment
+sooner than the larger fragments and are thereby overtreated, which
+results in a lower yield of cellulose fiber and a product composed of
+undertreated and overtreated fibers, the production and use of which are
+not satisfactory or economical. It probably would be found more
+satisfactory, therefore, to screen or sort the hurds and treat the
+various sizes separately and differently.
+
+Associated with the hurds was a small quantity of chaff and dirt,
+composed chiefly of sand, soil, particles of hemp leaves and flowers,
+and other extraneous matter. The sand and soil were present because of
+the practice of placing the stalks in shocks in the field, the butts of
+the stalks being in contact with the soil. It is a simple matter,
+however, to remove the chaff and dirt by sieving, and this practice was
+followed in most of the paper tests conducted with this material.
+
+
+=CHARACTER OF THE TESTS.=
+
+Because of the similarity of hemp hurds to other materials which have
+been tested by the Office of Paper-Plant Investigations, semicommercial
+tests were conducted in cooperation with a paper manufacturer without
+preliminary laboratory tests. Laboratory pulp and paper tests are
+regarded only as a preliminary to semicommercial tests and therefore are
+not employed unless the material in question presents new features which
+should receive investigation before larger sized tests are undertaken.
+
+The advantages of cooperative mill tests are many, among which may be
+mentioned the counsel and advice of the mill management and employees,
+the services of specialized and skilled labor, facilities for comparing
+the processes and the results of tests with commercial processes and
+results, and the use of commercial or semicommercial types and sizes of
+machinery. Tests conducted in this manner and on this scale are of a
+different quality than is possible in those conducted in a laboratory,
+and the results are susceptible of commercial interpretation with a fair
+degree of reliability. It is found, in general, that the cost of
+securing such equipment and service for a complete and comprehensive
+test does not exceed $500, while the installation of an equally
+satisfactory equipment alone would cost at least $50,000 and in many
+cases very much more. Tests conducted in this manner constitute a direct
+demonstration to the manufacturer, and the results obtained are found to
+carry more weight when presented to other manufacturers for
+consideration.
+
+It is well known that the method of conducting tests necessarily varies
+with the size of the test. In the matter of yield determination, for
+example, laboratory tests may be on such a small scale that the weighing
+and sampling of the resulting cellulose fibers may be conducted by means
+of chemical laboratory apparatus and analytical balance, while in tests
+involving a matter of 5 to 10 pounds of material larger and different
+types of equipment are necessary. When the tests are so increased in
+size as to employ 300 or 400 pounds, still other types of equipment are
+necessary for the treatment of the material and for a determination of
+the yield of fiber. In tests involving tons of material the equipment
+involves the use of machines. Accuracy in degree of control and in
+results will vary materially with the size of the test. As the size of
+the test increases, certain factors will vary in a beneficial manner,
+while others will vary in a detrimental manner, so it is a question for
+each investigator to decide, after taking all factors into
+consideration, as to the size of test which will give the most
+satisfactory results. In work of this nature it is found, on the whole,
+that better results are obtained in large tests, although the control of
+the factors and the determination of the yield of fiber are more
+difficult than in smaller tests.
+
+In the tests described in this bulletin, the Department of Agriculture
+employed a rotary digester of its own design,[2] comprising a shell 5
+feet 5 inches in length by 4 feet in diameter, capable of holding about
+300 pounds of air-dry hurds. It is believed that a test of this size is
+large enough to give satisfactory results and that the results are
+susceptible of commercial interpretation, while at the same time they
+are sufficiently small for complete control and to afford fiber-yield
+figures which are both accurate and reliable. Two such rotary charges
+gave enough fiber for one complete paper-making test.
+
+[Footnote 2: For a description of this rotary digester, see Brand, C.
+J., and Merrill, J. L., Zacaton as a paper-making material, U. S. Dept.
+Agr. Bul. 309, p. 28, 1915.]
+
+
+=OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN A TEST.=
+
+A complete test on hurds comprises seven distinct operations, and the
+method will be described, operation by operation, in the order in which
+they were conducted.
+
+_Sieving._--The hurds for the first test were not sieved to remove sand
+and dirt, but the resulting paper was so dirty that sieving was
+practiced in all subsequent tests. The hurds were raked along a
+horizontal galvanized-iron screen, 15 feet long and 3 feet wide, with
+11-1/2 meshes per linear inch, the screen being agitated by hand from
+below. Various amounts of dirt and chaff could be removed, depending on
+the degree of action, but it was found that if much more than 3 per cent
+of the material was removed it consisted chiefly of fine pieces of wood
+with practically no additional sand or dirt; in most of the tests,
+therefore, the material was screened so as to remove approximately 3 per
+cent. It became apparent that a finer screen would probably serve as
+well and effect a saving of small but good hurds.
+
+_Cooking._--Cooking is the technical term for the operation by which
+fibrous raw materials are reduced to a residue of cellulose pulp by
+means of chemical treatment. In these tests about 300 pounds of hurds
+were charged into the rotary with the addition of a caustic-soda
+solution, such as is regularly employed in pulp mills and which tested
+an average of 109.5 grams of caustic soda per liter, or 0.916 pound per
+gallon, and averaged 85 per cent causticity. Sufficient caustic solution
+was added to furnish 25 or 30 per cent of actual caustic soda,
+calculated on the bone-dry weight of hurds in the charge. After closing
+the rotary head, it was started rotating at the rate of one-half
+revolution per minute, and in about five minutes steam at 120 pounds per
+square inch was admitted at such a rate that the charge was heated in
+one hour to 170 deg. C., which is the theoretical equivalent of 100 pounds
+of steam pressure per square inch. It was found, however, that when the
+temperature reached 170 deg. C. the pressure was usually 115 or 120 pounds
+instead of 100 pounds, due to air and gases inclosed in the rotary. At
+this point the rotary was stopped and steam and air relieved until the
+pressure dropped to 100 pounds, or a solid steam pressure. The
+temperature was maintained at this point for the number of hours
+required to reduce the hurds, which was found to be about five, after
+which the rotary was stopped and steam relieved until the pressure was
+reduced to zero, when the head was removed and the stock was emptied
+into a tank underneath, measuring 5-1/2 by 6 by 2 feet deep, where it
+was drained and washed. Samples of waste soda solution or "black
+liquor," which were taken from some of the "cooks" for analysis, were
+drawn while the stock was being thus emptied into the drainer.
+
+_Determination of yield._--For determining the yield of cellulose fiber
+the stock in the drain tank was washed with water until free from waste
+soda solution, when, by means of a vacuum pump communicating with the
+space between the bottom and the false perforated bottom, the water was
+sucked from the stock, leaving the fiber with a very uniform moisture
+content throughout its entire mass and in a condition suitable for
+removing, sampling, and weighing for a yield determination. Tests have
+shown that it is possible to sample and calculate the yield of bone-dry
+fiber within 0.05 per cent of the actual amount.
+
+It has been found that stocks from different materials vary greatly in
+their ability to mat in the drain tank, thereby enabling a good vacuum
+to be obtained, some stocks permitting a 25-inch vacuum to be obtained,
+while others will not permit more than 5 inches. For this reason the
+moisture content of the stock will vary from 65 to 85 per cent.
+
+_Washing and bleaching._--Washing and bleaching were performed for the
+purpose of bleaching the brown-colored cooked stock to a white product,
+since it was regarded as highly probable that the fiber would be
+suitable for book-paper manufacture. The colored stock was charged into
+a 400-pound beating and washing engine of regular construction and
+washed about one hour, the cylinder washer being covered with 60-mesh
+wire cloth in order to remove fine loose dirt and chemical residues. The
+washer was then raised, the stock heated by steam to about 40 deg. C., and a
+solution of commercial bleaching powder was added in the quantity judged
+to be necessary, after which the stock was pumped to a large wooden
+tank, to remain and bleach over night. If the stock was bleached
+sufficiently white it was drained and washed from bleach residues, and
+if not more bleach was added until a good color was obtained. The
+bleaching powder used was estimated to contain 35 per cent of available
+chlorin, as this is the commercial practice, and the amount required was
+calculated to the bone-dry weight of the unbleached stock. More bleach
+is required for undercooked stock than for stock which is properly
+cooked or overcooked; therefore, the percentage of bleach required is an
+indication of the quality of the cooked stock. Since bleaching is
+usually more expensive than cooking, it is desirable to cook to such a
+degree that the consumption of bleach will be held within certain
+limits, depending on the raw materials used and the quality of paper to
+be produced. In these tests it was desirable so to cook the hurds that
+the consumption of bleach would not be over about 10 per cent of the
+fiber.
+
+_Furnishing._--Furnishing is the operation of charging the beating
+engine with the desired kind or kinds of fiber in the proper proportion
+and amount and the adding of such loading and sizing agents as may be
+necessary. As shown in the record of results, the furnish in these tests
+consisted of hurd stock alone and of various proportions of hurds,
+sulphite fiber, and soda fiber. The percentages to be given in the
+record of the furnishes refer to the percentage of the total fiber
+furnish, and this likewise applies to the loading and sizing agents. In
+case sulphite or soda fiber was used, the commercial product in the dry
+state was charged into the beating engine and disintegrated, after which
+the hurd stock was added in the wet condition.
+
+_Beating._--Beating is that operation concerning which the paper makers
+often say "there is where the paper is really made," and although the
+statement may not be literally true it contains a great deal of truth.
+It is the operation whereby the fibers are separated from each other,
+reduced to the proper lengths, and put in such a physical or chemical
+condition that they felt properly and form into a satisfactory sheet. It
+is probable that the quality of the sheet depends more upon the proper
+beater action than upon any other single operation. The action consists
+in drawing a water suspension of the fiber between two sets of rather
+blunt knives, one set being located in the bottom of a circulating
+trough and the other set on the periphery of a roll revolving just above
+the former set of knives. It is during this operation that the loading
+and sizing agents are incorporated and the whole furnish is tinted
+either to produce a satisfactory white or the desired color.
+
+The term "paper making," as used in this publication, means the
+operation of forming the finished sheet of paper from stock which has
+been furnished and prepared in the beater. In these tests a 30-inch
+Fourdrinier machine of regular construction was used, a machine which
+often is used for the production of paper for filling regular commercial
+orders. The machine is designed to cause the water suspension of fibers
+to flow on to a traveling wire cloth, whereby the water drains away.
+More water is removed by passing the wet sheet through a series of press
+rolls, after which the sheet is dried on steam-heated drums and passed
+through polished iron rolls, which impart a finish to the sheet. A
+Jordan refining machine was employed in conjunction with the machine to
+improve further the quality of the fiber, and a pulp screen was used in
+order to remove coarse and extraneous materials from the fiber.
+
+
+=DESCRIPTION OF TESTS.=
+
+The nature of each complete paper test and the dependence of each
+operation on the others were such that it does not seem advisable to
+submit the results of the seven tests in tabular form. The numerous
+cooks, however, which furnished the pulp for the paper tests are
+presented in Table I in all essential detail.
+
+
+TABLE I.--Data on cooking hemp hurds.
+
+------+-----------+------------+----------+--------------------+-----------
+      |           |            |          |                    |
+      |           |            |          |      Cooking       | Yield of
+      |  Caustic  |Strength of |          |                    | bone-dry
+      | soda used |caustic soda|Causticity+--------+-----------+   fiber
+ Cook |(percentage| (grams per |  of soda |        |           |(percentage
+  No. |of bone-dry|   liter).  | solution.|  Time  |Temperature|of bone-dry
+      |   hurds). |            |          |(hours).|   ( deg.C.)   | unsieved
+      |           |            |          |        |           |  hurds).
+------+-----------+------------+----------+--------+-----------+-----------
+293   |       20.6|       100  |      75.3|       3|        166|
+294   |       21  |       100  |      75.3|       3|        166|
+295   |       21.6|       100  |      75.3|       3|        166|
+296   |       20.3|       100  |      75.3|       3|        166|
+301   |       21.9|       100  |      82.5|       4|        166|  [3]
+302   |       24.4|       100  |      82.5|       4|        166|
+303   |       24.2|       100  |      84.3|       4|        166|     44.1
+304   |       25  |       100  |      84.3|       4|        170|     39.5
+305   |       25  |       100  |      84.3|       5|        170|     39.4
+306   |       27.8|       107.5|      84.3|       4|        166|     36.5
+307   |       26.7|       107  |      84.4|       5|        170|     38.1
+308   |       26  |       107  |      84.4|       5|        170|\_   37.3
+309   |       27.3|       107  |      84.4|       5|        170|/
+310   |       27.1|       107  |      84.4|       6|        170|     37.0
+311   |       27.2|       107  |      84.4|       6|        170|     36.8
+312   |       28.3|       116.5|      85.5|       5|        170|     35.9
+313   |       29.1|       113.1|      84.9|       5|        170|\_   35.2
+314   |       29.1|       109  |      83.9|       5|        170|/
+315   |       29.4|       109  |      83.9|       5|        170|     34.9
+316   |       30  |       109.5|      84.9|       5|        170|     37.2
+317   |       29.6|       109.5|      84.9|       5|        170|     37.0
+318   |       29.6|       107  |      84.8|       5|        170|     37.7
+319   |       29.4|       107.5|      84.2|       5|        170|\_   35.4
+320   |       29.3|       107.5|      84.2|       5|        170|/
+------+-----------+------------+----------+--------+-----------+-----------
+
+[Footnote 3: Stock not used; dirty.]
+
+Discussion of the various cooks will be given in connection with the
+descriptions of those paper tests in which the stocks from the cooks
+were used, since a stock and its cooking condition can be judged
+adequately only after it has been put through the various processes and
+into the finished sheet of paper.
+
+The first test consisted in making four separate cooks, Nos. 293, 294,
+295, and 296, of approximately 300 pounds each, dividing the total stock
+into two parts and making two separate paper tests. The first test was
+made primarily in order to learn some of the qualities and
+characteristics of the stock and to get the machinery equipment adjusted
+properly. The yield of fiber was not determined in this preliminary
+test, since the knowledge of it was not essential at this stage of the
+work. The cooked stock which was emptied into the drainer to be washed
+free from black liquor was composed largely of whole pieces of hurds,
+but only slight pressure between the fingers was required to crush the
+pieces. In the case of wood, this condition ordinarily would indicate
+undercooking, but might not in the case of hurds. Further observation on
+the action of the cooked stock during subsequent processes was necessary
+in order to judge of its quality or the suitability of the cooking
+conditions. The total cooked stock, about 500 pounds, was divided into
+two portions of 200 and 300 pounds, respectively, and work was continued
+on them separately. The 200-pound test, designated as run No. 135, was
+put into a 350-pound washing engine, washed one hour, and given a total
+light brush of 2-1/4 hours. The washing removed a great amount of dirt,
+but the engine did not reduce the hurd stock as much as was desired.
+After heating the stock in the beater to 40 deg. C., it was bleached with
+bleaching-powder solution, 94 gallons at 0.418 pound bleach per gallon,
+equivalent to 19.7 per cent of the fiber. This percentage of bleach is
+regarded as too high for stock intended for book-paper manufacture, and
+subsequent cooks therefore were given harder treatment in order to
+reduce this figure. After draining and washing free from bleach
+residues, the stock was furnished in the beater with 13 per cent of
+clay, 1 per cent of resin size, and 2.5 per cent of alum, was tinted
+blue, given one hour's light brush, and pumped to the stock chest. When
+running it on the paper machine, the Jordan refiner seemed to have
+little effect in reducing shives of undertreated wood, which indicated
+further the necessity of harder cooking. The furnish acted well on the
+paper machine at 70 feet per minute, but appeared somewhat too "free" on
+the wire. The paper produced from this test is of very low quality, due
+to the improper preparation of the stock, lack of sufficient bleach, the
+use of too small an amount of blue tinting, and the presence of an
+excessive amount of dirt, sand, and shives. The excessive amount of dirt
+and sand suggested the sieving of the hurds before cooking, and this was
+performed in all subsequent cooks.
+
+The finish of the sheet is very poor, due to the fact that the calender
+stack was composed of very light rolls which did not have a satisfactory
+surface, yet the stack is known to be able to produce better finishes if
+the proper stock is employed.
+
+Run No. 136 was made on the 300-pound portion of stock from cooks Nos.
+293, 294, 295, and 296, and in essentially the same manner as run No.
+135. The stock was washed one hour, but given a brush of three hours,
+and this brush was harder than in run No. 135. Bleach to the extent of
+19.8 per cent of the fiber was used, assisted by 1 pint of oil of
+vitriol, and the resulting color was an improvement over that of run No.
+135. After adding 13.5 per cent of clay and sizing with 1.1 per cent of
+resin size, the furnish was given one-half hour's light brush, tinted,
+and run on the machine, which was set at 70 feet per minute. This stock
+acted better on the wire and gave no trouble on the machine, but it
+still seemed to be impossible to reduce the wood shives by manipulation
+of the Jordan refiner. The resulting sheet is an improvement over that
+produced by No. 135, but is far from satisfactory.
+
+Run No. 138 was made from hurds which, as in all subsequent tests, were
+sieved on a 11-1/2-mesh wire screen until practically all the loose dirt
+and sand was removed, which operation caused a loss averaging 3 per cent
+of the hurds. Stock from cooks Nos. 302 and 303 was used for this run
+and the increased amount of caustic soda and the increase in the time of
+cooking gave a stock of better appearance than those of preceding tests.
+
+The stock, amounting to 231 pounds dry weight, was washed and at the
+same time given a light brush for one hour only, after which it was
+bleached with 17 per cent of bleach without the addition of acid. Since
+the preceding paper appeared somewhat weak and had a low tearing
+quality, it was decided to use a furnish of 15.7 per cent bleached
+sulphite and 84.3 per cent bleached hemp-hurd stock. After loading with
+13.1 per cent of clay and sizing with 1.1 per cent of resin size, the
+furnish was given a medium brush for one hour, tinted, and run on to the
+machine at 70 feet per minute. The stock gave no trouble on the machine,
+but it was impossible to judge the effect of the Jordan refiner, because
+through an oversight the machine chest had not been cleaned since
+previous use on an unbleached yucca material. It is believed, however,
+that sheet No. 138 shows improvement in the preparation of the hurd
+pulp.
+
+Run No. 139 was made from stock of cooks Nos. 304 and 305, in which
+still more caustic soda was employed and the time and temperature of
+cooking were increased, giving a yield of total fiber of 40.7 per cent
+of the sieved or 39.4 per cent of the unsieved hurds. The cooked stock
+still seemed to be undertreated, but it must be remembered that in
+working with any new raw material it is impossible to know in advance
+how the properly treated material should appear. A washing of one hour
+was given while the roll was lowered from a light to a medium brush,
+after which the stock was bleached with 17.1 per cent of bleach without
+the aid of acid. Since sulphite stock improved the previous paper, this
+bleached stock was used in a furnish of 16.6 per cent sulphite and 83.4
+per cent hurds, loaded with 16.7 per cent clay, sized with 1.4 per cent
+resin size, given a medium brush of two hours, tinted, and run on to the
+machine at 70 feet per minute. The Jordan refiner seemed to have little
+effect in reducing shives and was therefore left "just off." No trouble
+was experienced with the stock on the machine, and the sheet is an
+improvement over previous samples.
+
+Run No. 140 was made from cooks Nos. 306 and 307, in which more caustic
+soda was employed than in any previous cooks and at a higher
+concentration, the fiber yields of which averaged 37.3 per cent of the
+unsieved hurds. Not much improvement was apparent in the cooked stock,
+in spite of the increased severity of cooking. The stock was washed and
+given a medium brush for one hour, bleached with 11.9 per cent of
+bleach, assisted with one-half pint of oil of vitriol, and made into a
+furnish of 14.9 per cent sulphite and 85.1 per cent of the hurd stock.
+After loading with 14.7 per cent of clay and sizing with 1.28 per cent
+of resin size, the furnish was given two hours' medium brush, tinted,
+and run on to the paper machine at 70 feet per minute. Again the Jordan
+refiner did not seem to reduce the wood shives sufficiently, and it was
+left "just off." No trouble which could be attributed to the stock was
+experienced on the paper machine. The color of the resulting paper is
+due to the use of too little blue in tinting and probably in some
+measure to the use of too low a percentage of bleach.
+
+Run No. 141 was made from the stock of cooks Nos. 308 and 309 in
+practically the same manner as run No. 140. The stock was washed and
+brushed one hour, bleached (the record of the amount of bleach was
+lost), made into a furnish of 14.7 per cent of sulphite and 85.3 per
+cent of hurd stock, loaded with 14.9 per cent of clay, sized with 1.26
+per cent of resin size, given one hour at a medium brush, tinted, and
+run on to the machine. The Jordan refiner was able to reduce the wood
+shives to a somewhat greater degree than in previous runs and was held
+at a medium brush. The stock acted well on the machine and produced a
+sheet of better quality than any preceding, with the exception of the
+color, which was due to using too small a quantity of blue.
+
+Among the cooks made for run No. 142 are Nos. 312 and 313, in which the
+concentration of the caustic soda was raised to 113 and 116 grams per
+liter and the percentage employed was also increased. In spite of these
+increases the stock from these two cooks did not show any appreciable
+improvement when dumped from the rotary. Stock from cooks Nos. 310, 311,
+and 312 was given a medium brush and washing of one hour, bleached with
+10.95 per cent of bleach, made into a furnish consisting of 15.2 per
+cent of sulphite and 84.8 per cent of hurd stock, loaded with 15.2 per
+cent of clay, sized with 1.28 per cent of resin size, given a medium
+brush for one hour, tinted, and pumped to the stock chest. Stock from
+cooks Nos. 313 and 314 was treated in exactly the same manner, except
+that 11.4 per cent of bleach was used. It was pumped to the stock chest
+and mixed with the furnished stock from cooks Nos. 310, 311, and 312. A
+medium Jordan brush was given the stock and it acted well on the paper
+machine, which was speeded to 75 feet per minute. There seems to be a
+tendency in the hurd stock to crush a little at the "dandy roll," and
+although the marks are not removed by the calender stack which was
+employed in those tests it was found that one "nip" on the
+supercalenders renders them practically imperceptible and it is believed
+that the proper size and weight of calender stack would entirely remove
+these marks. All of the papers produced up to this point are somewhat
+lacking in the bulk desired in a book paper; therefore, in the two
+following runs soda-poplar stock was included in the furnishes.
+
+In run No. 143 stock from cooks Nos. 315 and 316 was given a medium
+brush and washing for one hour and was medium brushed for one hour more,
+bleached with 11.3 per cent of bleach assisted with one-half pint of oil
+of vitriol, made into a furnish of 16.5 per cent of sulphite, 22.3 per
+cent of soda poplar, and 61.2 per cent of hurd stock, loaded with 22 per
+cent of clay, sized with 1.38 per cent of resin size, given a hard brush
+for one hour, tinted very strongly, and pumped to the stock chest. This
+stock was beaten to a greater extent than in previous runs. The stock
+was run on the paper machine at a speed of 75 feet per minute, using a
+medium Jordan brush, and no trouble whatsoever was experienced. Not over
+2 pounds of "broke" was produced during the whole run, and that was in
+the "threading" of the machine. The color of the sheet is entirely
+satisfactory for many uses. The wood shives apparently were reduced to a
+satisfactory degree. Experienced paper makers commented very favorably
+on the running of this furnish and the quality of the paper produced.
+
+Run No. 144 was intended as a duplicate of run No. 143. Stock from cooks
+Nos. 317 and 318 was given a medium brush and washing for one hour and a
+further medium brush of one hour, bleached with 11.4 per cent of bleach,
+and made into a furnish composed of 15.5 per cent of sulphite, 23.5 per
+cent of soda poplar, and 61 per cent of hurd stock, loaded with 21.4 per
+cent of clay, sized with 1.17 per cent of resin size, hard brushed for
+one hour, tinted by the expert colorer of the company, and pumped to the
+stock chest. Stock from cooks Nos. 319 and 320 was treated in exactly
+the same manner except that the stock was bleached with 12.1 per cent of
+bleach and pumped to the stock chest to mix with the former furnish. The
+stock acted very well on the machine, which was speeded to 75 feet per
+minute, with the Jordan refiner set at a medium brush. The sheet is as
+good, if not better, than that of run No. 143, and it is also a good
+illustration of the extent to which proper tinting will enhance the
+general appearance of a paper. The poor appearance of the samples of
+previous runs is due largely to lack of proper tinting. Various degrees
+of whiteness, however, are demanded by the trade.
+
+
+=COMPARISON OF THE TESTS AND COMMERCIAL PRACTICE.=
+
+In work of this nature and on this scale it is practically impossible to
+arrive at a cost figure which would be susceptible of commercial
+interpretation, and in this preliminary publication nothing will be
+attempted beyond a comparison of the process used with the hurds with
+that process commercially applied to poplar wood. The process last used
+with the hurds should not be regarded as final, satisfactory, or most
+suitable, as it has been shown that progress was being made up to the
+conclusion of the work.
+
+In comparing the method of using hurds with the method of handling
+poplar wood, a difference is apparent on the delivery of raw material at
+the mill. Ordinarily, poplar is received at the mill in the form of logs
+about 4 feet in length, which may be stored in piles in the open. Hurds
+very likely would be received baled, and it would seem advisable to
+store them under cover for the following reasons: (_a_) Baled hurds
+would probably absorb and retain more water during wet weather than logs
+of wood, thereby causing excessive dilution of the caustic liquor; (_b_)
+prolonged excessive dampness might create heating and deterioration
+unless the hemp were properly retted; (_c_) wet hurds could not be
+sieved free from sand and chaff. Should further work show that the first
+two reasons need not be taken into consideration, the third objection
+might be overcome by sieving the hurds before baling. Even then, it is
+probable that baled hurds stored in the open would accumulate and retain
+considerable dirt from factory chimneys, locomotives, and wind. Checked
+pulp wood exposed in the open invariably suffers from these causes.
+
+In the preparation of the raw material for the digesters there is
+likewise considerable difference between hurds and poplar wood. The
+former apparently requires only a moderate sieving to remove sand and
+chaff, which operation doubtless would require only a small amount of
+labor and the installation of some simple machinery of low power
+consumption. In preparing poplar for digestion, the 4-foot logs are
+chipped by a heavy, comparatively expensive chipper of high power
+consumption, after which the chips are sorted by sieving, the large
+pieces being rechipped. There would be a noteworthy difference in the
+installation, operating, and depreciation costs of the two equipments,
+and this difference would counterbalance to a considerable extent the
+difference in cost of raw material storage.
+
+It is possible that in the use of the chip loft more care would have to
+be exercised in using hurds because of the tendency of the bast fiber to
+cause lodgments, but this should not be considered a serious difficulty.
+
+The weight of hurds which are capable of being charged into a rotary is
+a decidedly unfavorable factor. The weight of a cubic foot of hurds
+varies somewhat with the proportion of bast fiber, but averages about
+5.4 pounds, which, compared with a cubic foot of poplar chips at 8.93
+pounds, represents a digester charge of 60.5 per cent of the weight of
+a poplar-wood charge, or, in terms of fiber capacity, the hurds charge
+would yield 38.6 per cent as much fiber as the wood charge. The hurds
+upon being baled for transportation may be broken and crushed to such a
+degree that the weight of the charge may be increased, and it might be
+found possible to increase the charge weight by steaming or by the
+employment of tamping devices. This small weight of charge constitutes
+one of the most serious objections to the use of hurds in paper
+manufacture.
+
+In those tests in which the most satisfactory results were obtained, the
+cooking conditions were 29.5 per cent of caustic soda at a concentration
+of 107 grams per liter and a causticity of 84.0 per cent acting at a
+temperature of 170 deg. C. for five hours, or a total time of seven hours.
+The steam condensation in the rotary used for these tests was abnormally
+high, due to the fact that the steam supply pipe was uncovered for a
+considerable distance and the rotary was entirely uncovered. It is
+believed, therefore, that a larger amount of caustic was necessary than
+would otherwise have been the case. This belief is strengthened by the
+quality of the waste liquor from one of the later cooks, which gave on
+analysis 16.85 grams per liter of free caustic soda and showed a
+causticity of 27.75 per cent. These data show that only 67.3 per cent of
+the total caustic employed was actually consumed in the cooking
+operation, which percentage is lower than obtains in practice. The stock
+from this cook was bleached with 11.5 per cent of bleach. But even as
+the figures stand, the comparison with poplar cooking practice is as
+follows: 29.5 per cent caustic soda used as against 22 to 25 per cent;
+107 grams per liter as against 100 to 110; 84 per cent causticity is
+little different than obtains in practice; 170 deg. C. is about commercial
+practice; five hours at pressure as against four to six hours; seven
+hours' total time as against possibly six to eight hours; 11.5 per cent
+bleach as against 8 to 10 per cent. Thus, it is evident that the cooking
+conditions employed were slightly more severe and expensive than those
+in commercial use with poplar wood.
+
+The yield of total fiber obtained from the hurds may be placed at 35 per
+cent of bone-dry fiber calculated on the bone-dry weight of hurds used,
+or 33.1 per cent of air-dry fiber calculated on air-dry hurds. The yield
+of bleached fiber was not determined in this preliminary work, but may
+be safely estimated as 30 per cent, which is low when compared with a
+yield of about 47 per cent of bone-dry bleached fiber from bone-dry
+poplar wood. It is believed quite possible that satisfactory cooking
+conditions may be found which will give a higher yield than was obtained
+during these tests. The stock should be classed as easy bleaching, and
+11.4 per cent of bleach is a satisfactory figure, although a little
+high.
+
+As to beating cost, in the last two and most satisfactory tests the
+total washing and beating time was three hours, which may be about an
+hour more than ordinarily is used in making papers of this grade,
+although the practice varies to a considerable extent.
+
+In regard to furnish, there is such a diversity of practice that it is
+difficult to make a comparison, but if the hurd stock can be produced as
+cheaply as soda-poplar stock, the furnish used in these last two tests
+should be regarded as satisfactory to the book and printing paper
+manufacturer.
+
+The finish of the paper was not all that might be desired, but that was
+due almost entirely to the calender stack available for the work, which
+was composed of nine light rolls, many of which were about 6 inches in
+diameter and which had not been reground for some time. From a small
+test on a large calender stack it was readily shown that the paper
+produced is capable of taking a satisfactory finish.
+
+This comparison, satisfactory in many respects, develops two factors
+which are decidedly unfavorable to hemp hurds, namely, raw-material
+storage and digester capacity, and they must be taken into full account
+in considering the paper-making value of this material, although it
+should be recognized that investigation may result in the material
+improvement of these conditions. Moreover, it is not at all improbable
+that further investigation would develop more satisfactory treating
+conditions and more suitable furnish compositions, and the belief in
+this possibility is strengthened by the fact that material progress was
+being made at the conclusion of this preliminary work.
+
+Calculations on the raw material and acreage for a permanent supply for
+a pulp mill producing 25 tons of fiber a day for 300 days per annum, or
+7,500 tons per annum, give the comparison between hurds and wood shown
+in Table II.
+
+
+TABLE II.--_Comparison between wood and hemp hurds._
+
+-----------+-------------+--------------+-----------+--------------------
+           |             |              |           | Acres required for
+           |             |              |           | sustained supply.
+           |             |              |           |---------+----------
+           |             | Raw material |  Annual   |         |
+Material.  | Pulp yield. | required per |  growth   |   For   | For 1 ton
+           |             |    year.     | per acre. |  25-ton | of fiber
+           |             |              |           |  mill.  | per year.
+-----------+-------------+--------------+-----------+---------+----------
+Wood       | Two cords   | 15,000 cords | 0.37 cord |  40,500 |  5.4
+           | yield 1 ton |              | (about    |         |
+           | of fiber.   |              | 0.55 ton).|         |
+           |             |              |           |         |
+Hemp hurds | One ton     | 25,000 tons  | 2.5 tons  |  10,000 |  1.33
+           | yields 600  |              |           |         |
+           | pounds      |              |           |         |
+           | of fiber.   |              |           |         |
+-----------+-------------+--------------+-----------+---------+----------
+
+The most important point derived from this calculation is in regard to
+areas required for a sustained supply, which are in the ratio of 4 to 1.
+Every tract of 10,000 acres which is devoted to hemp raising year by
+year is equivalent to a sustained pulp-producing capacity of 40,500
+acres of average pulp-wood lands. In other words, in order to secure
+additional raw material for the production of 25 tons of fiber per day
+there exists the possibility of utilizing the agricultural waste already
+produced on 10,000 acres of hemp lands instead of securing, holding,
+reforesting, and protecting 40,500 acres of pulp-wood land.
+
+The annual growth per acre, although decidedly in favor of hurds, has
+little bearing on the project, because the utilization of the hurds is
+subordinate to the raising of hemp, and the paper manufacturer probably
+could afford to use only hurds resulting from the hemp industry.
+
+
+=PHYSICAL TESTS OF THE PAPERS PRODUCED.=
+
+Samples of paper produced in the seven tests were submitted to the
+Leather and Paper Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. The report of
+that bureau on its tests is given in Table III.
+
+
+TABLE III.--_Report of the Leather and Paper Laboratory of the Bureau of
+Chemistry on papers manufactured from hemp hurds._
+
+-----------+-----+------+-------------------+----------+
+           |     |      | Weight of 500     |          |
+Laboratory | Run |      |     sheets.       |Thickness,|
+No.        | No. | Ash. +---------+---------+ 1/10000. |
+           |     |      |         |         |          |
+           |     |      |25 by 38.|25 by 40.|          |
+           |     |      |         |         |          |
+-----------+-----+------+---------+---------+----------+
+           |     |_Per  |         |         |          |
+           |     | ct._ |_Pounds._|_Pounds._|          |
+31570      | 144 | 13.9 |  48     |  50-1/2 |     33   |
+31571      | 143 | 14.5 |  49     |  51-1/2 |     35   |
+31572      | 142 |  9.5 |  49-1/2 |  52     |     33   |
+31573      | 141 | 10.9 |  48     |  50-1/2 |     38   |
+31574      | 140 | 11.4 |  42     |  44     |     30   |[Transcriber's
+31575      | 139 | 13.4 |  55     |  58     |     40   | note: Table III
+31576      | 138 | 10.4 |  56     |  59     |     40   | continues below]
+-----------+-----+------+---------+---------+----------+
+
+-----------+--------------------------+----------+-------------------------
+           |    Strength (Mullen).    |          | Folding endurance.
+Laboratory |                          | Strength |
+No.        +--------+--------+--------+  factor  +-------------+-----------
+           |        |        |        |(25 by 40,|             |
+           |Average.|Maximum.|Minimum.|   500).  |Longitudinal.|Transverse.
+           |        |        |        |          |             |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+----------+-------------+-----------
+           |        |        |        |          |             |
+           |        |        |        |          |             |
+31570      |   15.0 |   17.0 |   11.0 |     0.30 |      5      |     3
+31571      |   14.0 |   14.0 |   13.0 |      .28 |      4      |     4
+31572      |   19.0 |   20.0 |   19.0 |      .37 |      8      |     6
+31573      |   16.5 |   18.0 |   11.0 |      .33 |     10      |     8
+31574      |   14.5 |   16.0 |   13.0 |      .33 |      7      |     6
+31575      |   19.5 |   20.0 |   17.0 |      .34 |      8      |     5
+31576      |   20.0 |   20.0 |   19.0 |      .34 |     23      |    15
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+----------+-------------+-----------
+
+
+There is no system of numerically recording the general appearance and
+"look through" of a paper, but it can be stated that only papers Nos.
+143 and 144 are satisfactory in these respects, the other samples being
+more or less thickly specked with shives. The general character and
+tests of these papers correspond very closely with No. 1 machine-finish
+printing paper, according to the specifications of the United States
+Government Printing Office, which call for a sheet not exceeding 0.0035
+inch in thickness, strength not less than 12 points, free from
+unbleached or ground wood pulp, and ash not over 10 per cent. The
+strength factor of such papers is about 0.28. The ash should not be over
+10 per cent for this grade of paper, but in spite of the larger amount
+used the physical tests are sufficiently high. It is to be noted that
+the physical tests of samples Nos. 138 to 142, inclusive, are higher
+than in Nos. 143 and 144, in which 23 per cent of soda poplar was used,
+which shows clearly that hemp-hurd stock imparts strength and folding
+endurance to a greater extent than does soda-poplar stock. From these
+preliminary tests it would be concluded, therefore, that hemp-hurd stock
+acts similarly to soda-poplar stock, but will produce a somewhat harsher
+and stronger sheet and one of higher folding endurance. Undoubtedly,
+there is more dirt in the samples than would be tolerated by the trade,
+but this was to be expected, since in this preliminary work the raw
+material was sieved by hand screens instead of by automatic machines
+which would sieve more thoroughly.
+
+
+=CONCLUSIONS.=
+
+There appears to be little doubt that under the present system of forest
+use and consumption the present supply can not withstand the demands
+placed upon it. By the time improved methods of forestry have
+established an equilibrium between production and consumption, the price
+of pulp wood may be such that a knowledge of other available raw
+materials may be imperative.
+
+Semicommercial paper-making tests were conducted, therefore, on hemp
+hurds, in cooperation with a paper manufacturer. After several trials,
+under conditions of treatment and manufacture which are regarded as
+favorable in comparison with those used with pulp wood, paper was
+produced which received very favorable comment both from investigators
+and from the trade and which according to official tests would be
+classed as a No. 1 machine-finish printing paper.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material, by
+Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill
+
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