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diff --git a/17817.txt b/17817.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93ad6de --- /dev/null +++ b/17817.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4251 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 312, +December 24, 1881, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 312, December 24, 1881 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 22, 2006 [EBook #17817] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 312 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 24, 1881. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XII., No. 312. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + + I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Fifteen Ton Traveling + Crane. Designed for service in the construction of Port + Alfred Harbor. South Africa. 3 figures. 4967 + + Improved Steam Boiler. 1 figure. 4968 + + The Elevated Railways of New York. 4968 + + Some of the Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the + Last Half Century. British Association Paper. By SIR FREDERICK + BRAMWELL. The steam engine.--Evaporative condenser.--Steam + navigation.--Marine governors.--Light engines and boilers.--The + Perkins system.--Ether engine.--Quicksilver engine.--Locomotive + engines.--Brakes.--Motors.--Transmission of power.--Compressed + air locomotives.--Hydraulic transmission of power.--Electric + transmission of power.--The manufacture of iron and steel.-- + Bridges.--Machine tools.--The sewing machine.--Agricultural + machinery.--Printing machinery. 4968 + + Amateur Mechanics: Metal turning, 29 figures. Rotary cutters, + 12 figures. Wood-working and lathe attachments, 9 figures. 4971 + + A New Method of Keeping Mechanical Drawings. 4978 + + Achard's Electric Brake for Railway Use. 2 figures. Plan and + elevation. 4974 + + II. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electricity. What it is and what may be + expected of it. By JACOB REESE. 4974 + + Electric Light Apparatus for Photographic Purposes. By A.J. + JARMAN. 2 figures. 4976 + + Desruelles's Electric Lighter. 1 figure. 4976 + + Solenoid Underground Wires in Philadelphia. 4976 + + Dr. Herz's Telephonic Systems. 2 figures. 4976 + + Decision of the Congress of Electricians on the Units of + Electric Measures. 4977 + + Secondary Batteries. By J. ROUSSE. 4977 + + III. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Domestic Sugar Production. 4980 + + M. Garnier's New Methods of Photo-Engraving. By Major J. + WATERHOUSE.--Photogravure.--Photograph printing by + vapor.--Atmography. 4982 + + Dangers of Pyrogallic Acid. By DR. T.L. PHIPSON. 4982 + + IV. ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--Artists' Homes, No. 12.--Wm. Emerson's + house, Little Sutton, Chiswick.--Full page illustration and + large size longitudinal section. 4978 + + Memorable English Houses. 4 figures.--Newton's house.-- + Flaxman's house.--Canning's house.--Johnson's house. 4980 + + V. GEOGRAPHY.--Herald Island.--On the summit.--A midnight + observation.--Plant life on Herald Island.--Inhabitants of + the cliffs. 4980 + + VI. METALLURGY.--The Treatment of Quicksilver Ores in Spain. 4977 + + VII. AERONAUTICS.--The Balloon in Aeronautics. 4977 + +VIII. BIOGRAPHY.--Franz Liszt.--Large Portrait. 4981 + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED FIFTEEN TON CRANE. + + +[Illustration: Engraving.] + +[Illustration: Side and Top View Plans. + IMPROVED FIFTEEN TON TRAVELING CRANE.] + +The machine illustrated on first page has been constructed for Port +Alfred Harbor, this being one of several harbors now being made by Sir +J. Coode in South Africa. The pier for the construction of which the +crane will be employed will consist of concrete blocks laid on what is +known as the "overend system." The blocks, being brought on trucks +direct from the block yard to within the sweep of the machine, are +raised by it, swung round, and accurately set, the machine being +continually traveled forward as the work advances. The bottom blocks +are laid on bags of concrete previously deposited by the crane out of +boxes with flap bottoms. + +The present machine has been specially designed throughout, and +represents the most complete development which block-setting plant has +yet attained. + +The most striking features of the crane are, the great range of all +the motions, the large radius, and the method of providing for the +latter by a horizontal jib suspended from a king-post. It was at first +intended to have a straight inclined jib, and to alter the radius by +pivoting this round its lower end, as is commonly done; it occurred, +however, to Mr. Matthews, M.I.C.E., representing Sir J. Coode, that +the plan eventually adopted would be in many ways preferable; the +crane was therefore constructed by Messrs. Stothert & Pitt with this +modification, and as far as can be judged from the trial with proof +load, the arrangements can hardly be surpassed for quick and accurate +block-setting. In cranes with "derricking" jibs it is necessary to +connect the derrick and hoisting gears in such a manner that a +variation of the radius may not affect the level of the load; this +plan answers sufficiently well for ordinary purposes, but for +block-setting it is requisite to have extreme accuracy in all the +movements and great quickness in changing from one to another; the +arrangements adopted in foundry cranes, in which all the motions are +entirely independent of one another, seems therefore more suited for +this kind of work. Other not inconsiderable advantages are also +secured by the adoption of the foundry crane type, the amount of clear +headway under the jib being much increased, and the difficulty avoided +of making a jib sixty feet long sufficiently stiff without undue +weight. + +The principal dimensions of the crane are, total height of lift 46 +feet, radius variable from 25 feet minimum to 45 feet maximum, height +from rail to underside of jib 22 feet 23/4 inches, radius of tail to +center of boiler 22 feet, working load 15 tons, proof load 19 tons. + +The general arrangement consists of a truck on which is fixed a post, +round which the crane revolves; the jib is supported midway by an +inclined strut, above which is placed the king-post; the strut is +curved round at the bottom and forms one piece with the side frames, +which are carried right back as a tail to support the boiler and +balance weight. + +The hoisting gear consists of a double system of chains 13/16 in. in +diameter placed side by side; each chain is anchored by an adjustable +screw to the end of the jib, and, passing round the traveling carriage +and down to the falling block, is taken along the jib over a sliding +pulley which leads it on to the grooved barrel, 3 ft. 9 in. in +diameter. In front of the barrel is placed an automatic winder which +insures a proper coiling of the chain in the grooves. The motive power +is derived from two cylinders 10 in. in diameter and 16 in. stroke, +one being bolted to each side frame; these cylinders, which are +provided with link motion and reversing gear, drive a steel crank +shaft 23/4 in. in diameter; on this shaft is a steel sliding pinion +which drives the barrel by a double purchase. + +In the center of the crank-shaft is a large reversing friction clutch, +which drives, through miter gear, a vertical shaft placed just in +front of the post; from the latter the slewing, racking, and traveling +motions are obtained. + +The crane can be turned through a complete circle by a pinion gearing +into a machine-moulded toothed ring bolted to the top of the truck; +this ring is 11 ft. 4-7/8 in. in diameter, and contains 172 teeth 21/2 +in pitch. The slewing pinion is driven by intermediate gearing from +the bottom of the vertical shaft mentioned above. For the turning +motion two distinct sets of rollers are provided; these are carried by +cross-girders placed between the side frames; one set runs against a +cast-iron roller path bolted round the bottom of the post, and the +other on the large horizontal roller path seen in the engraving. The +latter is 14 ft. in diameter; it is built up of two deep curved +channel irons with top and bottom plates forming a circular box +girder, on the top of which a heavy flat rail is riveted, and the +whole turned up in the lathe. The racking and traveling motions are +driven from the top end of the vertical shaft; the racking gear +consists of wire ropes attached to each side of the traveling carriage +and coiled round a large barrel, the outer rope being brought over a +pulley at the end of the jib. The rails for the carriage rest on +rolled joints bolted to the underside of jib. This arrangement +involves the use of an overhung traveling carriage, but enables the +jib to be of a stiff box section, the side stiffness being further +secured by wind ties. + +The traveling motion is worked by a second vertical shaft, which +passes down the center of the post, and by means of a cross shaft is +geared to the front axle, from which four of the ground wheels are +driven. + +The post is octagonal, built up of plates 3/4 in. thick; at the bottom +end it is secured to the girders of the truck, and at the top is +shrunk on to a large gudgeon 12 in. in diameter, which enters a +casting fixed in the back end of the jib; on the top of the gudgeon +are two steel disks on which an adjustable cap rests; by means of this +and the ties to the tail and the lower end of the strut a proportion +of the weight can be brought on to the post so as to relieve the +roller path to any desired extent, and enable the crane to be revolved +easily. + +The truck is 24 ft. long and 16 ft. 41/2 in. wide; it is constructed of +longitudinal and transverse box girders 2 ft. 8 in. deep, and rests on +two axles 6 in. in diameter; round these axles swivel the cast-iron +bogie frames which carry the ground wheels. This arrangement was +adopted because the crane has to travel up a gradient of 1 in 30, and +the bogies enable it to take the incline better; they also distribute +the weight more evenly on the wheels. The gauge of the rails is 15 ft, +the wheels are 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and have heavy steel tires. +The weight on each of the front wheels when running with the ballast, +but no load, is about 16 tons. A powerful brake is applied to the +wheels when descending the incline. + +All the clutch levers, break treadle, and handles are brought +together, so that one man has the crane under his entire control. An +iron house, of which the framing only is shown, extends from the +gearing right back to the boiler, forming a most spacious engine room +and stokehole. A separate donkey engine is provided for feeding the +boiler. The truck is furnished with legs under which packings can be +wedged so as to relieve the load on the wheels when block-setting. The +slings seen under the boiler are for hanging a concrete balance +weight; this will weigh about 20 tons. The weight of the crane itself +without load or ballast is about 80 tons. The crane was tested under +steam with a load of 19 tons with the most satisfactory results; the +whole machine appeared to be very rigid, an end often very difficult +to obtain with portable wrought-iron structures and live loads. The +result in the present case is probably greatly due to the careful +workmanship, and to the fact that the sides and ends of the plates are +planed throughout, so that the webs of the girders get a fair bearing +on the top and bottom plates. + +The crane showed itself to be very handy and quick in working, the +speeds with 19 tons load, as actually timed at the trial, are: lifting +16 ft. per minute, racking motion 46 ft. per minute, slewing through a +complete circle 90 ft. diameter, four minutes, equivalent to a speed +at load of 60 ft. per minute. The crane was constructed by Messrs. +Stothert & Pitt, of Bath, to the order of the Crown agents for the +colonies, and we understand that the design and construction have +given complete satisfaction to Sir J. Coode, the engineer to the +harbor works, under whose supervision the crane was +constructed.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED STEAM-BOILER. + + +An improvement in steam-boilers, best understood by reference to the +ordinary vertical form, has been introduced by Mr. T. Moy, London. +Here the flue is central, and, as shown in the accompanying +illustration, is crossed by a number of horizontal water-tubes at +different heights. The ends of these tubes are embraced, within the +steam chamber, by annular troughs. At the top domed part of the boiler +are two annular chambers, the outer one being intended to receive the +water upon entry from the feed-pump, and to contain any sedimentary +deposit which may be formed. The water next passes, by the pipe, _a_, +in the figure, into the inner chamber, surrounding the end of the +uptake flue, whence it flows through the pipe, _b_, down into the +first of the annular troughs above mentioned, and afterward overflows +these troughs in succession until it reaches the bottom. Mr. Moy +claims to have secured by this means a boiler of quick steaming +capacity, together with a reduction in the weight of metal, and +considerable economy of fuel. By the arrangement of the water in a +number of shallow layers a large steaming surface is obtained, and +there is a good steam space rendered available round the troughs. The +water also enters at a point where it may abstract as much heat as +possible from the furnace gases before they escape; and by the +separation of the top domed chamber from the rest of the boiler the +operation of scaling and cleaning is facilitated. The arrangement is +also adapted to horizontal and multitubular boilers, to be fired with +solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED BOILER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS OF NEW YORK. + + +But few persons who have not been in New York since the construction +of the elevated roads, and witnessed their equipments and operations, +can have any adequate idea of the extent of them, and of the people, +machinery, and appurtenances required in working them. A recent +inventory discloses the fact that there are 32 miles of roadway, 161 +stations, 203 engines, and 612 cars, while 3,480 trains a day are run. +There are 3,274 men employed on these roads, 309 of whom are +engineers, 258 ticket agents, 231 conductors, 308 firemen, 395 guards +or brakemen, 347 gatemen, 4 road inspectors, 106 porters, 33 +carpenters, 27 painters, 69 car inspectors, 140 car cleaners, 40 lamp +men, and 470 blacksmiths, boiler makers, and other mechanics employed +on the structure and in the shops. Most of the ticket agents are +telegraph operators, but there are 13 other operators employed. There +are four double-track lines in operation. The aggregate daily receipts +vary from $14,000 to $18,000; and as many as 274,023 passengers have +been carried in one day. Engineers are paid from $3 to $3.50 per day; +ticket agents, $1.75 to $2.25; conductors, $1.90 to $2.50; firemen, +$1.90 to $2; guards or brakemen, $1.50 to $1.65; and gatemen, $1.20 to +$1.50. The above items do not include machinists and other _employes_ +in the workshops, or the general officers, clerks, etc. + + * * * * * + + +AMERICAN ANTIMONY. + + +A Baltimore dispatch informs us that a carload of antimony, ten tons +in all, was lately received by C.L. Oudesluys & Co., from the southern +part of Utah Territory, being the first antimony received in the East +from the mines of that section. The antimony was mined about 140 miles +from Salt Lake City. The ore is a sulphide, bluish gray in color, and +yields from 60 to 65 per cent. of antimony. All antimony heretofore +came from Great Britain and the island of Borneo, and paid an import +duty of 10 per cent. ad valorem, and there is also some from Sonora. +It is believed that with proper rail facilities to the mines of the +West there will be no need of importations. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME OF THE DEVELOPMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DURING THE +LAST HALF-CENTURY.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Paper read in Section G (Mechanical) of the British + Association.] + +By SIR FREDERICK BRAMWELL, V.P. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., +Chairman of the Council of the Society of Arts. + + +I am quite sure the section will agree with me in thinking it was very +fortunate for us, and for science generally, that our president +refrained from occupying the time of the section by a retrospect, and +devoted himself, in that lucid and clear address with which he favored +us, to the consideration of certain scientific matters connected with +engineering, and to the foreshadowing of the directions in which he +believes it possible that further improvements may be sought for. But +I think it is desirable that some one should give to this section a +record, even although it must be but a brief and an imperfect one, of +certain of the improvements that have been made, and of some of the +progress that has taken place, during the last fifty years, in the +practical application of mechanical science, with which science and +its applications our section is particularly connected. I regret to +say that, like most of the gentlemen who sat on this platform +yesterday, who, I think, were, without exception, past presidents of +the section, I am old enough to give this record from personal +experience. Fifty years ago I had not the honor of being a member, nor +should I, it is true, have been eligible for membership of the +association; but I was at that time vigorously making models of +steam-engines, to the great annoyance of the household in which I +lived, and was looking forward to the day when I should be old enough +to be apprenticed to an engineer. Without further preface, I will +briefly allude to some of the principal developments of a few of the +branches of engineering. I am well aware that many branches will be +left unnoticed; but I trust that the omissions I may make will be +remedied by those present who may speak upon the subject after me. + +I will begin by alluding to + + +THE STEAM-ENGINE EMPLOYED FOR MANUFACTURING PURPOSES. + +In 1831, the steam-engine for these purposes was commonly the +condensing beam engine, and was supplied with steam from boilers, +known, from their shape, as wagon boilers; this shape appears to have +been chosen rather for the convenience of the sweeps, who periodically +went through the flues to remove the soot consequent on the imperfect +combustion, than for the purpose of withstanding any internal pressure +of steam. The necessary consequence was, that the manufacturing +engines of those days were compelled to work with steam of from only +31/2 lb. to 5 lb. per square inch of pressure above atmosphere. The +piston speed rarely exceeded 250 feet per minute, and as a result of +the feeble pressure, and of the low rate of speed, very large +cylinders indeed were needed relatively to the power obtained. The +consumption of fuel was heavy, being commonly from 7 lb. to 10 lb. per +gross indicated horsepower per hour. The governing of the engine was +done by pendulum governors, revolving slowly, and not calculated to +exert any greater effort than that of raising the balls at the end of +the pendulum arms, thus being, as will be readily seen, very +inefficient regulators. The connection of the parts of the engine +between themselves was derived from the foundation upon which the +engine was supported. Incident to the low piston speed was slowness of +revolution, rendering necessary heavy fly wheels, to obtain even an +approach to practical uniformity of rotation, and frequently rendering +necessary also heavy trains of toothed gearing, to bring up the speed +from that of the revolutions of the engine to that of the machinery it +was intended to drive. + +In 1881, the boilers are almost invariably cylindrical, and are very +commonly internally fired, either by one flue or by two; we owe it to +the late Sir William Fairbairn, President of the British Association +in 1861, that the danger, which at one time existed, of the collapse +of these fire flues, has been entirely removed by his application of +circumferential bands. Nowadays there are, as we know, modifications +of Sir William Fairbairn's bands, but by means of his bands, or by +modifications thereof, all internally flued boilers are so +strengthened that the risk of a collapse of the flue is at an end. +Boilers of this kind are well calculated to furnish--and commonly do +furnish--steam of from 40 lb. to 80 lb. pressure above atmosphere. + +The piston speed is now very generally 400 feet or more, so that, +notwithstanding that there is usually a liberal expansion, the mean +pressure upon the piston is increased, and this, coupled with its +increased speed, enables much more power to be obtained from a given +size of cylinder than was formerly obtainable. The revolutions of the +engine now are as many as from 60 to 200 per minute, and thus, with +far lighter fly-wheels, uniformity of rotation is much more nearly +attained. + + +THE EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER. + +Moreover, all the parts of the engine are self-contained; they no +longer depend upon the foundation, and in many cases the condensing is +effected either by surface condensers, or, where there is not +sufficient water, the condensation is, in a few instances, effected by +the evaporative condenser--a condenser which, I am sorry to say, is +not generally known, and is therefore but seldom used, although its +existence has been nearly as long as that of the association. +Notwithstanding the length of time during which the evaporative +condenser has been known to some engineers, it is a common thing to +hear persons say, when you ask them if they are using a condensing +engine, "I can not use it; I have not water enough." A very sufficient +answer indeed, if an injection condenser or an ordinary surface +condenser constituted the sole means by which a vacuous condition +might be obtained; but a very insufficient answer, having regard to +the existence of the evaporative condenser, as by its means, whenever +there is water enough for the feed of a non condensing engine, there +is enough to condense, and to produce a good vacuum. + +The evaporative condenser simply consists of a series of pipes, in +which is the steam to be condensed, and over which the water is +allowed to fall in a continuous rain. By this arrangement there is +evaporated from the outside of the condenser a weight of water which +goes away in a cloud of vapor, and is nearly equal to that which is +condensed, and is returned as feed into the boiler. The same water is +pumped up and used outside the condenser, over and over, needing no +more to supply the waste than would be needed as feed water. Although +this condenser has, as I have said, been in use for thirty or forty +years, one still sees engines working without condensation at all, or +with waterworks water, purchased at a great cost, and to the detriment +of other consumers who want it for ordinary domestic purposes; or one +sees large condensing ponds made, in which the injection water is +stored to be used over and over again, and frequently (especially +toward the end of the week) in so tepid a state as to be unfit for its +purpose. The governing is now done by means of quick-running +governors, which have power enough in them to raise not merely the +weight of the pendulum ball, which is now small, but a very heavy +weight, and in this way the governing is extremely effective. I +propose to say no more, looking at the magnitude of the whole of my +subject, upon the engine used for manufacturing purposes, but rather +to turn at once to those employed for other objects. + + +STEAM NAVIGATION. + +In 1831, there were a considerable number of paddle steamers running +along some of the rivers in England, and across the Channel to the +Continent. But there were no ocean steamers, properly so-called, and +there were no steamers used for warlike purposes. As in the case of +the wagon boilers, the boilers of the paddle steamers of 1831 were +most unsuited for resisting pressure. They were mere tanks, and there +was as much pressure when there was no steam in the boiler from the +weight of the water on the bottom, as there was at the top of the +boiler from the steam pressure when the steam was up. Under these +circumstances, again, from 31/2 lb. to 5 lb. was all the pressure the +boilers were competent to bear, and as the engines ran at a slow +speed, they developed but a small amount of horse-power in relation to +their size. Moreover, as in the land engine, the connection between +the parts of the marine engine was such as to be incompetent to stand +the strain that would come upon it if a higher pressure, with a +considerable expansion, were used, and thus the consumption of coal +was very heavy; and we know that, having regard to the then +consumption, it was said, on high authority, it would be impossible +for a steamboat to traverse the Atlantic, as it could not carry fuel +enough to take it across; and indeed it was not until 1838 that the +Sirius and the Great Western did make the passage. The passage had +been made before, but it was not until 1838 that the passenger service +can be said to have commenced. In 1831, the marine boiler was supplied +with salt water, the hulls were invariably of wood, and the speed was +probably from eight to nine knots an hour. In 1881, the vessels are as +invariably either of iron or of steel, and I believe it will not be +very long before the iron disappears, giving place entirely to the +last mentioned metal. With respect to the term "steel," I am ready to +agree that it is impossible to say where, chemically speaking, iron +ends and steel begins. But (leaving out malleable cast iron) I apply +this term "steel" to any malleable ductile metal of which iron forms +the principal element and which has been in fusion, and I do so in +contradistinction to the metal which may be similar chemically, but +which has been prepared by the puddling process. Applying the term +steel in that sense, I believe, as I have said, it will not be very +long before plate-iron produced by the puddling process will cease to +be used for the purpose of building vessels. With respect to marine +engines, they are now supplied with steam from multiple tubed boilers, +the shells of which are commonly cylindrical. They are of enormous +strength, and made with every possible care, and carry from 80 lb. to +100 lb. pressure on the square inch. + +It has been found, on the whole, more convenient to expand the steam +in two or more cylinders, rather than in one. I quite agree that, as a +mere matter of engineering science, there is no reason why the +expansion should not take place in a single cylinder, unless it be +that a single cylinder is cooled down to an extent which cannot be +overcome by jacketing, and which, therefore, destroys a portion of the +steam on its entering into the cylinder. + +As regards the propeller, as we know, except in certain cases, the +paddle-wheel has practically disappeared, and the screw propeller is +all but universally employed. The substitution of the screw propeller +for the paddle enables the engine to work at a much higher number of +revolutions per minute, and thus a very great piston speed, some 600 +ft. to 800 ft. per minute, is attained; and this, coupled with the +fairly high mean pressure which prevails, enables a large power to be +got from a comparatively small-sized engine. Speeds of 15 knots an +hour are now in many cases maintained, and on trial trips are not +uncommonly exceeded. Steam vessels are now the accepted vessels of +war. We have them in an armored state and in an unarmored state, but +when unarmored rendered so formidable, by the command which their +speed gives them of choosing their distance, as to make them, when +furnished with powerful guns, dangerous opponents even to the best +armored vessels. + + +MARINE GOVERNORS. + +We have also now marine engines, governed by governors of such extreme +sensitiveness as to give them the semblance of being endowed with the +spirit of prophecy, as they appear rather to be regulating the engine +for that which is about to take place than for that which is taking +place. This may sound a somewhat extravagant statement, but it is so +nearly the truth, that I have hardly gone outside of it in using the +words I have employed. For a marine governor to be of any use, it must +not wait till the stern of the vessel is out of the water before it +acts to check the engine and reduce the speed. Nothing but the most +sensitive, and, indeed, anticipatory action of the governors can +efficiently control marine propulsion. Instances are on record of +vessels having engines without marine governors being detained by +stress of weather at the mouth of the Thames, while vessels having +such governors, of good design, have gone to Newcastle, have come +back, and have found the other vessels still waiting for more +favorable weather. + +With respect to condensation in marine engines, it is almost +invariably effected by surface condensers, and thus it is that the +boilers, instead of being fed with salt water as they used to be, +involving continuous blowing off, and frequently the salting up, of +the boiler, are now fed with distilled water. It should be noticed, +however, that in some instances, owing to the absence of a thin +protecting scale upon the tubes and plates, very considerable +corrosion has taken place when distilled water, derived from +condensers having untinned brass tubes, has been used, and where the +water has carried into the boiler fatty acids, arising from the +decomposition of the grease used in the engine; but means are now +employed by which these effects are counteracted. + + +LIGHT ENGINES AND BOILERS. + +I wish, before quitting this section of my subject, to call your +attention to two very interesting but very different kinds of marine +engines. One is the high-speed torpedo vessel, or steam launch, of +which Messrs. Thornycroft's firm have furnished so many examples. In +these, owing to the rate at which the piston runs to the initial +pressure of 120 lb. and to very great skill in the design, Messrs. +Thornycroft have succeeded in obtaining a gross indicated horse-power +for as small a weight as half a cwt., including the boiler, the water +in the boiler, the engine, the propeller shaft, and the propeller +itself. + +To obtain the needed steam from the small and light boiler, recourse +has to be made to the aid of a fan blast driven into the stoke-hole. +From the use of a blast in this way advantages accrue. One is, as +already stated, that from a small boiler a large amount of steam is +produced. Another is that the stoke-hole is kept cool; and the third +is that artificial blasts thus applied are unaccompanied by the +dangers which arise, when under ordinary circumstances the blast is +supplied only to the ash-pit itself. + + +THE PERKINS SYSTEM. + +The second marine engine to which I wish to call your attention is one +that has been made with a view to great economy. The principles +followed in its construction are among those suggested by the +President (Sir W.G. Armstrong) in his address. He (you will remember) +pointed out that the direction in which economy in the steam engine +was to be looked for was that of increasing the initial pressure; +although at the same time he said that there were drawbacks in the +shape of greater loss, by radiation, and by the higher temperature at +which the products of combustion will escape. We must admit the fact +of the latter source of loss, when using very high steam, it being +inevitable that temperature of the products of combustion escaping +from a boiler under these conditions must be higher than those which +need be allowed to escape when lower steam is employed; although I +regret to say that in practice in marine boilers working at +comparatively low pressures the products are ordinarily suffered to +pass into the funnel at above the temperature of melted lead. But with +respect to the loss by radiation in the particular engine I am about +to mention--that of Perkins--there is not as much loss as that which +prevails in the ordinary marine boilers, because the Perkins boiler is +completely inclosed, with the result that while there is within the +case a boiler containing steam of 400 lb. on the square inch, and the +fire to generate that steam, the hand may be applied to the casting +itself, which contains the whole of the boiler, without receiving any +unpleasant sensation of warmth. By Mr. Perkins's arrangement, using +steam of 400 lb. in the boiler, it was found, as the result of very +severe trials, conducted by Mr. Rich, of Messrs. Easton and Anderson's +firm, and myself--trials which lasted for twelve hours--that the total +consumption of fuel, including that for getting up steam from cold +water, was just under 1.8, actually 1.79 lb. per gross indicated +horse-power per hour. That gross indicated horse-power was obtained in +a manner which it is desirable should always be employed in steamboat +trials. It was not got by using as a divisor the horse-power of the +most favorable diagram obtained during the day; but it was got from +diagrams taken during the regular work; then, every half-hour, when +the pressure began to die down, from coal being no longer put upon the +fire, diagrams taken every quarter of an hour, and then toward the +last, every five minutes; and the total number of foot pounds were +calculated from these diagrams, and were used to obtain the gross +indicated horse-power. + +Further, so far as could be ascertained by the process of commencing a +trial with a known fire, and closing that trial at the end of six +hours, with the fire as nearly as possible in the same condition, the +consumption was 1.66 lb. of coal per gross indicated horse-power per +hour. So that, without taking into account the coal consumed in +raising steam from cold water, the engine worked for 1-2/3 lb. of coal +per horse per hour. I think it well to give these details, because +undoubtedly it is an extremely economical result. + + +ETHER ENGINE. + +Our president alluded to the employment of ether as a means of +utilizing the heat which escaped into the condenser, and gave some +account of what was done by Mons. Du Tremblay in this direction. It so +happened that I had occasion to investigate the matter at the time of +Du Tremblay's experiments; very little was effected here in England, +one difficulty being the excise interference with the manufacture of +ether. Chloroform was used here, and it was also suggested to employ +bisulphide of carbon. In France, however, a great deal was done. Four +large vessels were fitted with the ether engines, and I went over to +Marseilles to see them at work. I took diagrams from these engines, +and there is no doubt that, by this system, the exhaust steam from the +steam cylinder, which was condensed by the application of ether to the +surface of the steam condenser (producing a respectable vacuum of +about 22 inches), gave an ether pressure of 15 lb. on the square inch +above atmosphere, and very economical results as regards fuel were +obtained. The scheme was, however, abandoned from practical +difficulties. It need hardly be said that ether vapor is very +difficult to deal with, and although ether is light, the vapor is +extremely heavy, and if there is any leakage, it goes down into the +bilges by gravitation, and being mixed with air, unless due care is +taken to prevent access to the flues, there would be a constant risk +of a violent explosion. In fact, it was necessary to treat the engine +room in the way in which a fiery colliery would be treated. The +lighting, for instance, was by lamps external to the engine room, and +shining through thick plate-glass. The hand lamps were Davy's. The +ether engine was a bold experiment in applied science, and one that +entitles Du Tremblay's name to be preserved, and to be mentioned as it +was by our president. + + +THE QUICKSILVER ENGINE. + +These was another kind of marine engine that I think should not be +passed over without notice; I allude to Howard's quicksilver engine. +The experiments with this engine were persevered in for some +considerable time, and it was actually used for practical purposes in +propelling a passenger steam-vessel called the Vesta, and running +between London and Ramsgate. In that engine the boiler had a double +bottom, containing an amalgam of quicksilver and lead. This amalgam +served as a reservoir of heat, which it took up from the fire below +the double-bottom, and gave forth at intervals to the water above it. +There was no water in the boiler, in the ordinary sense of the term, +but when steam was wanted to start the engine, a small quantity of +water was injected by means of a hand-pump, and after the engine was +started, there was pumped by it into the boiler, at each half +revolution, as much water as would make the steam needed. This water +was flashed on the top surface of the reservoir in which the amalgam +was confined, and was entirely turned into steam, the object of the +engineers in charge being to send in so much water as would just +generate the steam, but so as not to leave any water in the boiler. +The engines of the Vesta were made by Mr. Penn, for Mr. Howard, of +the King and Queen Ironworks, Rotherhithe. Mr. Howard was, I fear, a +considerable loser by his meritorious efforts to improve the +steam-engine. + +There was used, with this engine, an almost unknown mode of obtaining +fresh water for the boiler. Fresh water, it will be seen was a +necessity in this mode of evaporation. The presence of salt, or of any +other impurity, when the whole of the water was flashed into steam, +must have caused a deposit on the top of the amalgam chamber at each +operation. Fresh water, therefore, was needed; the problem arose how +to get it; and that problem was solved, not by the use of surface +condensation, but by the employment of reinjection, that is to say, +the water delivered from the hot well was passed into pipes external +to the vessel; after traversing them, it came back into the injection +tank sufficiently cooled to be used again. The boilers were worked by +coke fires, urged by a fan blast in their ashpits, but I am not aware +that this mode of firing was a needful part of the system. + + +LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. + +I come now to the engines used for railways. At the British +Association meeting of 1831, the Manchester and Liverpool Railway had +been opened only about a year. The Stockton and Darlington coal line, +it is true, had carried passengers by steam power as early as 1825, +but I think we may look upon the Manchester and Liverpool as being the +beginning of the passenger and mercantile railway system of the +present day. At that time the locomotives weighed from eight to ten +tons, and the speed was about 20 miles per hour, with a pressure of +from 40 to 50 lb. The rails were light; they were jointed in the +chairs, which were generally carried on stone blocks, thus affording +most excellent anvils for the battering to pieces of the ends of the +rails--that is to say, for the destruction of the very parts where +they were most vulnerable. The engines were not competent to draw +heavy trains, and it was a common practice to have at the foot of an +incline a shed containing a "bank engine," which ran out after the +trains as they passed, and pushed them up to the top of the hill. +Injectors were then unknown, and donkey-pumps were unknown, and +therefore, when it was necessary to fill up the boiler, if it had not +been properly pumped up before the locomotive came to rest, it had to +run about the line in order to work its feed-pumps. To get over this +difficulty, it was occasionally the practice to insert into a line of +rails, in a siding, a pair of wheels, with their tops level with that +of the rails so that the engine wheels could run upon the rims. Then, +the locomotive being fixed to prevent it from moving off the pair of +wheels thus endways, it was put into revolution, its driving wheels +bearing, as already stated, upon the rims of the pair of wheels in the +rails, and thus the engine worked its feed-pumps without interfering +(by its needless running up and down the line) with the traffic. It +should have been stated, that at this time there was no link motion, +no practical expansion of the steam, and that even the reversal of the +engine had to be effected by working the sides by hand gear, in the +manner in use in marine engines. When the British Association +originated, although the Manchester and Liverpool Railway had been +opened for a year, there is no doubt that the 300 members who then +came to this city found their way here by the slow process of the +stage-coach, the loss of which we so much deplore in the summer and in +fine weather, but the obligatory use of which we should so much regret +in the miserable weather now prevailing in these islands. + +In 1881, we know that railways are everywhere inserted. Steel rails, +double the weight of the original iron ones, are used. Wooden sleepers +have replaced the stone blocks, and they, in their turn, will probably +give way to sleepers of steel. The joints are now made by means of +fish-plates, and the most vulnerable part of the rail, the end, is no +longer laid on an anvil for a purpose of being smashed to pieces, but +the ends of the rails are now almost always over a void, and thereby +are not more affected by wear than is any other part of the rail. The +speed is now from 50 to 60 miles an hour for passenger trains, while +slow speed goods engines, weighing 45 tons, draw behind them coal +trains of 800 tons. The injector is now commonly employed, and, by its +aid, a careful driver of the engine of a stopping train can fill up +his boiler while at rest at the stations. The link motion is in common +use, to which, no doubt, is owing the very considerable economy with +which the locomotive engine now works. + +As regards the question of safety, it is a fact that, notwithstanding +the increased speed, railway accidents are fewer than they were at the +slow speed. It is also a fact, that if the whole population of London +were to take a railway journey, there would be but one death arising +out of it. Four millions of journeys for one death of a passenger from +causes beyond his own control is, I believe, a state of security which +rarely prevails elsewhere. As an instance, the street accidents in +London alone cause between 200 and 300 deaths per annum. This safety +in railway traveling is no doubt largely due to the block system, +rendered possible by the electric telegraph; and also to the efficient +interlocking of points and signals, which render it impossible now for +a signal man to give an unsafe signal. He may give a wrong one, in the +sense of inviting the wrong train to come in; but, although wrong in +this sense, it would still be safe for that train to do so. If he can +give a signal, that signal never invites to danger; before he can give +it, every one of the signals, which ought to be "at danger," must be +"at danger," and every "point" must have been previously set, so as to +make the road right; then, again, we have the facing point-lock, which +is a great source of safety. + + +BRAKES. + +Further, we have continuous brakes of various kinds, competent in +practice to absorb three miles of speed in every second of time; that +is to say, if a train were going 60 miles an hour, it can be pulled up +in 20 seconds; or, if at the rate of 30 miles, in 10 seconds. With a +train running at 50 miles an hour, it can be pulled up in from 15 to +20 seconds, and in a distance of from 180 to 240 yards. Moreover, in +the event of the train separating into two or more sections, the +brakes are automatically applied to each section, thereby bringing +them to rest in a short time. Another cause of safety is undoubtedly +the use of weldless tires. I was fortunate enough to attend the +British Association meeting many years ago at Birmingham, and I then +read a paper upon weldless tires, in which I ventured to prophesy +that, in ten years' time, there would not be a welded tire made; that +is one of the few prophecies that, being made before the event, have +been fulfilled. I may perhaps be permitted to mention, that at the +same time I laid before the section plans and suggestions for the +making of the cylindrical parts of boilers equally without seam, or +even welding. This is rarely done at the present time, but I am sure +that, in twenty years' time, such a thing as a longitudinal seam of +rivets in a boiler will be unknown. There is no reason why the +successive rings of boiler shells should not be made weldless, as +tires are now made weldless. + + +MOTORS. + +The next subject I intend to deal with is that of motors. In 1831, we +had the steam-engine, the water-wheel, the windmill, horse-power, +manual power, and Stirling's hot air engines. Gas engines, indeed, +were proposed in 1824, but were not brought to the really practical +stage. We had then tide mills; indeed, we have had them until quite +lately, and it may be that some still exist; they were sources of +economy in our fuel, and their abandonment is to me a matter of +regret. I remember tide mills on the coast between Brighton and +Newhaven, another between Greenwich and Woolwich, another at +Northfleet, and in many other places. Indeed, such mills were used +pretty extensively; they were generally erected at the mouth of a +stream, and in that way the river bed made the reservoir, and even +when they were erected in other situations, those were of a kind +suitable for the purpose, that is, lowlying lands were selected, and +were embanked to form reservoirs. In 1881, windmills and water-wheels +are much the same, but the turbines are greatly improved, and by means +of turbines we are enabled to make available the pressure derived from +heads of water which formerly could not be used at all, or if used, +involved the erection of enormous water-wheels, such as those at +Glasgow and in the Isle of Man, wheels of some eighty feet in +diameter. But now, by means of a small turbine, an excellent effect is +produced from high heads of water. The same effect is obtained from +the water-engines which our president has employed with such great +success. In addition to these motors, we have the gas-engine, which, +within the last few years only, has become a really useful working and +economical machine. With respect to horse-power motors, we have not +only the old horse engines, but we have a new application, as it seems +to me, of the work of the horse as a motor. I allude to those cases +where the horse drawing a reaping or thrashing machine, not only pulls +it forward as he might pull a cart, but causes its machinery to +revolve, so as to perform the desired kind of work. This species of +horse-engine, though known, was but little used in 1831. With respect +to hot-air engines there have been many attempts to improve them, and +some hot-air engines are working, and are working with considerable +success; but the amount of power they develop in relation to their +size is small, and I am inclined to doubt whether it can be much +increased. + + +TRANSMISSION OF POWER. + +I now come to the subject of the transmission of power. I do not mean +transmission in the ordinary sense by means of shafting, gearing, or +belting, but I mean transmission over long distances. In 1831, we had +for this purpose flat rods, as they were called, rods transmitting +power from pumping engines for a considerable distance to the pits +where the pumps were placed, and we had also the pneumatic, the +exhaustion system--the invention of John Hague, a Yorkshire-man, my +old master, to whom I was apprenticed--which mode of transmission was +then used to a very considerable extent. The recollection of it, I +find, however, has nearly died out, and I am glad to have this +opportunity of reviving it. But in 1881, we have, for the transmission +of power, first of all, quick moving ropes, and there is not, so far +as I know a better instance of this system than that at Schaffhausen. +Any one who has ever, in recent years, gone a mile or two above the +falls at Schaffhausen, must have seen there--in a house, on the bank +of the Rhine, opposite to that on which the town is situated--large +turbines driven by the river, which is slightly dammed up for the +purpose. These work quick-going ropes, carried on pulleys, erected at +intervals along the river bank, for the whole length of the town; and +power is delivered from them to shafting below the streets, and from +it into any house where it is required for manufacturing purposes. +Then we have the compressed air transmission of power, which is very +largely used for underground engines, and for the working of rock +drills in mines and tunnels. + + +COMPRESSED AIR LOCOMOTIVES. + +We have also compressed air in a portable form, and it is now employed +with great success in driving tram-cars. I had occasion last January +to visit Nantes, where, for eighteen months, tram-cars had been driven +by compressed air, carried on the cars themselves, coupled with an +extremely ingenious arrangement for overcoming the difficulties +commonly attendant on the use of compressed air engines. This consists +in the provision of a cylindrical vessel half filled with hot water +and half with steam, at a pressure of eighty pounds on the square +inch. The compressed air, on its way from the reservoir to the engine, +passes through the water and steam, becoming thereby heated and +moistened, and in that way all the danger of forming ice in the +cylinders was prevented, and the parts were susceptible of good +lubrication. These cars, which start every ten minutes from each end, +make a journey of 33/4 miles, and have proved to be a commercial and an +engineering success. I believe, moreover, that they are capable of +very considerable improvement. + + +HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSION OF POWER. + +Then there is, although not much used, the transmitting of power by +means of long steam pipes. There is also the transmission +hydraulically. This may be carried out in an intermittent manner, so +as to replace the reciprocating flat rods of old days; that is to say, +if two pipes containing water are laid down, and if the pressure in +those pipes at the one end be alternated, there will be produced an +alternating and a reciprocative effect at the other, to give motion to +pumps or other machinery. There is also that thoroughly well known +mode of transmission, hydraulically, for which the engineering world +owes so much to our president. We have, by Sir William Armstrong's +system, coupled with his accumulator, the means of transmitting +hydraulically the power of a central motor to any place requiring it, +and by the means of the principal accumulator, or if need be by that +aided by local accumulators, a comparatively small engine is enabled +to meet very heavy demands made upon it for a short time. I think I am +right in saying that, at the ordinary pressure which Sir William +Armstrong uses in practice, viz., 700 lb. to the square inch, one foot +a second of motion along an inch pipe would deliver at the rate to +produce one-horse power. Therefore, a ten-inch pipe, with the water +traveling at no greater pace than three feet in a second, would +deliver 300 horse-power. This 300 horse-power would no doubt be +somewhat reduced by the loss in the hydraulic engine, which would +utilize the water. But the total energy received would be equivalent +to producing 300 horse-power. Such a transmission would be effected +with an exceedingly small loss infliction in transit. I believe I am +right in saying that a 10 inch pipe a mile long would not involve much +more than about 14 or 15 lb. differential pressure to propel the +water through it at the rate of three feet in a second. If that be so, +then, with 700 lb. to the inch, the loss under such circumstances +would be only two per cent. in transmission. There is no doubt that +this transmission of power hydraulically has been of the greatest +possible use. It has enabled work to be done which could not be done +before. Enormous weights are raised with facility wherever required, +as by the aid of power hydraulically transmitted, it is perfectly easy +for one man to manage the heaviest cranes. Moreover, as I have said in +other places, the system which we owe to Sir William Armstrong has +gone far to elevate the human race, and it has done so in this manner. +So long as it is competent for a man to earn a living by mere +unintelligent exercise of his muscles, he is very likely to do it. You +may see in the old London docks the crane-heads covered by structures +that look like paddle-boxes. If you go to them, there is, I am glad to +say, nothing now to fill them up; but when the British Association +first met, these paddle-boxes covered large tread-wheels, in which men +trod, so as to raise a weight. Now, although I know that in fact there +is nothing more objectionable in a man turning a wheel by treading +inside of it than there is if he turn it round by a winch-handle, yet +somehow it strikes one more as being merely the work of an animal, a +turnspit, or a squirrel, or, indeed, as the task imposed on the +criminal. But, nevertheless, in this way there were a large number of +persons getting their living by the mere exercise of their muscles, +but, as might be expected, a very poor living, derived as it was from +unintelligent labor. That work is no longer possible, and is not so, +for the powerful reason that it does not pay. Those persons, +therefore, who would now have been thus occupied, are compelled to +elevate themselves, and to become competent to earn their living in a +manner which is more worthy of an intelligent human being. It is on +these grounds that I say we owe very much the elevation of the working +classes, especially of the class below the artisan, to this invention +of our distinguished president. + + +ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION OF POWER. + +In addition to the modes of transmission I have already mentioned, +there is the transmission of power by means of gas. I think that there +is a very large future indeed for gas engines. I do not know whether +this may be the place to state it, but I believe the way in which we +shall utilize our fuel hereafter will, in all probability, not be by +the way of the steam-engine. Sir William Armstrong alluded to this +probability in his address, and I entirely agree, if he will allow me +to say so, that such a change in the production of power from fuel +appears to be impending, if not in the immediate future, at all events +in a time not very far remote; and however much the Mechanical Section +of the British Association may to-day contemplate with regret, even +the mere distant prospect of the steam-engine being a thing of the +past, I very much doubt whether those who meet here fifty years hence +will then speak of it as anything more than a curiosity to be found in +a museum. With respect to the transmission of power electrically, I +won't venture to touch upon that; but will content myself by reminding +you that while Sir William Armstrong did say that there were +comparatively small streams which could be utilized, he did not inform +you of that which he himself had done in this direction; let me say +that Sir William Armstrong thus utilized a fall of water, situated +about a mile from his house, to work a turbine, which drives a dynamo +machine, generating electricity, for the illumination of the house. +When I was last at Crag Side, that illumination was being effected by +the arc light, but since then, as Sir William Armstrong has been good +enough to write to me, he has replaced the arc light by the +incandescent lamp (a form of electrical lighting far more applicable +than the arc light to domestic purposes), and with the greatest +possible success. Thus, in Sir William Armstrong's own case, a small +stream is made to afford light in a dwelling a mile away. Certainly +nothing could have seemed more improbable fifty years ago than that +the light of a house should be derived from a fall of water without +the employment of any kind or description of fuel. + +The next subject upon which I propose to touch is that of + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL. + +In 1831, Neilson's hot blast specification had been published for two +and a half years only. The Butterly Company had tried the hot blast +for the first time in the November preceding the meeting of the +British Association. The heating of the blast was coming very slowly +into use, and the temperature attained when it was employed was only +some 600 degrees. The ordinary blast furnace of those days was 35 to +40 feet high, and about 12 feet diameter at the boshes, and turned out +about 60 tons a week. It used about 21/2 tons of coal per ton of iron, +and no attempt was made to utilize the waste gases, whether escaping +in the form of gas or in the form of flame, the country being +illuminated for miles around at night by these fires. The furnaces +were also open at the hearth, and continuous fire poured out along +with the slag. + +In 1881, blast furnaces are from 90 ft. to 100 ft. high, and 25 ft. in +diameter at the boshes; they turn out from 500 to 800 tons a week. The +tops and also the hearths are closed, and the blast--thanks to the use +of Mr. E.A. Cowper's stoves--is at 1,200 degrees. The manufacture of +iron has also now enlisted in its service the chemist as well as the +engineer, and among those who have done much for the improvement of +the blast furnaces, to no one is greater praise due than to Mr. Isaac +Lowthian Bell, who has brought the manufacture of iron to the position +of a highly scientific operation. In the production of wrought iron by +the puddling process, and in the subsequent mill operations, there is +no very considerable change, except in the magnitude of the machines +employed, and, in the greater rapidity with which they now run. In +saying this, I am not forgetting the various "mechanical puddlers" +which have been put to work, nor the attempts that have been made by +the use of some of them to make wrought iron direct from the ore; but +neither the "mechanical puddler" nor the "direct process" has yet come +into general use; and I desire to be taken as speaking of that which +is the ordinary process pursued at the present in puddled iron +manufactures. In 1831, a few hundredweights was the limit of weight of +a plate, while in 1881, there may readily be obtained, for +boiler-making purposes, plates of at least four times the weight of +those that were made in 1831. I may, perhaps, be allowed to say that +there is an extremely interesting blue-book of the year 1818, +containing the report of a parliamentary committee which sat on boiler +explosions, and I recommend any mechanical engineer who is interested +in the history of the subject to read that book; he will find it there +stated that in the North of England there was a species of engines +called locomotives, the boilers of which were made of wrought iron, +beaten, not rolled, because the rolled plate was not considered fit; +it was added that if made of beaten iron the boiler would last at +least a year. + +In 1831, thirteen years later, the dimensions of rolled plates were no +doubt raised; but few then would have supposed it possible there +should be rolled such plates as are now produced for boiler purposes, +and still fewer would have believed that in the year 1881 we should +make, for warlike purposes, rolled plates 22 inches in thickness and +30 tons in weight. I have said there is very little alteration in the +process of making wrought iron by puddling, and I do not think there +is likely to be much further, if any, improvement in this process, +because I believe that, with certain exceptions, the manufacture of +iron by puddling is a doomed industry. I ventured to say, in a lecture +I delivered at the Royal Institution three years ago on "The Future of +Steel," that I believed puddled iron, except for the mere hand wrought +forge purposes of the country blacksmith, and for such like purposes, +would soon become a thing of the past. Mr. Harrison, the engineer of +the North-Eastern Railway, told me that about eighteen months ago the +North-Eastern Railway applied for tenders for rails in any quantities +between 2,000 and 10,000 tons, and they issued alternative +specifications for iron and for steel. They received about ten +tenders. Some did not care to tender for iron at all; but when they +did tender alternatively, the price quoted for the iron was greater +than for the steel. I have no doubt whatever that, in a short time, it +will be practically impossible to procure iron made by the puddling +process, of dimensions fit for many of the purposes for which a few +years ago it alone was used. + +With respect to steel, in 1831 the process in use was that of +cementation, producing blistered steel, which was either piled and +welded to make shear steel, or was broken into small pieces, melted in +pots, and run into an ingot weighing only some 50 lb. or 60 lb. At +that time steel was dealt in by the pound; nobody thought of steel in +tons. In 1881, we are all aware that, by Sir Henry Bessemer's +well-known discovery, carried out by him with such persistent vigor, +cast iron is, by the blowing process, converted into steel, and that +of Dr. Siemens' equally well-known process (now that, owing to his +invention of the regenerative furnace, it is possible to obtain the +necessary high temperature), steel is made upon the open hearth. We +are, moreover, aware that, by both of these processes, steel is +produced in quantities of many tons at a single operation, with the +result that as instanced in the case of the North-Eastern rails, steel +is a cheaper material than the wrought iron made by the puddling +process. One cannot pass away from the steel manufacture without +alluding to Sir Joseph Whitworth's process of putting a pressure on +the steel while in a tried state. By this means, the cavities which +are frequently to be found in the ingot of a large size are, while the +steel is fluid, rendered considerably smaller, and the steel is +thereby rendered much more sound. In conclusion of my observations on +the subject of iron and steel manufacture, I wish to call attention to +the invention of Messrs. Thomas & Gilchrist, by which ores of iron, +containing impurities that unfitted them to be used in the manufacture +of steel, are now freed from these impurities, and are thus brought +into use for steel-making purposes. + + +BRIDGES. + +In the year 1831, bridges of cast iron existed; but no attempt had +been made to employ wrought iron in girder bridges, although Telford +had employed it in the Menai Suspension Bridge; but in 1881, the +introduction of railways, and the improvement in iron manufactures, +have demanded, and have rendered possible the execution of such +bridges as the tubular one, spanning the Menai Straits, in span of 400 +feet, and the Saltash, over the Tamar, with spans of 435 feet; while +recent great improvements in the manufacture of steel have rendered +possible the contemplated construction of the Forth Bridge, where +there are to be spans of 1,700 feet, or one-third of a mile in length. +Mr. Barlow, one of the engineers of this bridge, has told me that +there will be used upwards of 2,000 more tons of material in the Forth +Bridge, to resist the wind pressure, than would have been needed if no +wind had to be taken into account, and if the question of the simple +weight to be carried had alone to be considered. With respect to the +foundation of bridges, that ingenious man, Lord Cochrane, patented a +mode of sinking foundations, even before the first meeting of the +British Association, viz., as far back, I believe, as 1825 or 1826; +and the improvements which he then invented are almost universally in +use in bridge construction at the present day. Cylinders sunk by the +aid of compressed air, airlocks to obtain access to the cylinder, and, +in fact, every means that I know of as having been used in the modern +sinking of cylinder foundations, were described by Lord Cochrane +(afterwards Earl of Dundonald) in that specification. + +The next subject I propose to touch on is that of + + +MACHINE TOOLS. + +In 1831, the mention of lathes, drilling machines, and screwing +machines brings me very nearly to the end of the list of the machine +tools used by turners and fitters, and at that time many lathes were +without slide rests. The boiler-maker had then his punching-press and +shearing machine; the smith, leaving on one side his forges and their +bellows, had nothing but hand tools, and the limit of these was a huge +hammer, with two handles, requiring two men to work it. In anchor +manufacture, it is true, a mechanical drop-hammer, known as a +Hercules, was employed, while in iron works, the Helve and the Tilt +hammer were in use. For ordinary smith's work, however, there were, as +has been said, practically no machine tools at all. + +This paucity or absence in some trades, as we have seen, of machine +tools, involved the need of very considerable skill on the part of the +workman. It required the smith to be a man not only of great muscular +power, but to be possessed of an accurate eye and a correct judgment, +in order to produce the forgings which were demanded of him, and to +make the sound work that was needed, especially when that soundness +was required in shafts, and in other pieces which, in those days, were +looked upon as of magnitude; which, indeed, they were, relatively to +the tools which could be brought to operate upon them. The +boiler-maker in his work had to trust almost entirely to the eye for +correctness of form and for regularity of punching, while all parts of +engines and machines which could not be dealt with in the lathe, in +the drilling, or in the screwing machine, had to be prepared by the +use of the chisel and the file. + +At the present day, the turning and fitting shops are furnished not +only with the slide lathe, self acting in both directions, and +screw-cutting, the drilling-machine, and the screwing machine, but +with planing machines competent to plane horizontally, vertically, or +at an angle; shaping machines, rapidly reciprocating, and dealing with +almost any form of work; nut shaping machines, slot drilling +machines, and slotting machines, while the drills have become multiple +and radial; and the accuracy of the work is insured by testing on +large surface plates, and by the employment of Whitworth internal and +external standard gauges. + +The boiler maker's tools now comprise the steam, compressed air, +hydraulic or other mechanical riveter, rolls for the bending of plates +while cold into the needed cylindrical or conical forms, multiple +drills for the drilling of rivet holes, planing machines to plane the +edges of the plates, ingenious apparatus for flanging them, thereby +dispensing with one row of rivets out of two, and roller expanders for +expanding the tubes in locomotive and in marine boilers; while the +punching press, where still used, is improved so as to make the holes +for seams of rivets in a perfect line, and with absolute accuracy of +pitch. + +With respect to the smith's shop, all large pieces of work are now +manipulated under heavy Nasmyth or other steam hammers; while smaller +pieces of work are commonly prepared either in forging machines or +under rapidly moving hammers, and when needed in sufficient numbers +are made in dies. And applicable to all the three industries of the +fitting shop, the boiler shop, and the smith's shop, and also to that +other industry carried on in the foundry, are the traveling and swing +cranes, commonly worked by shafting, or by quick moving ropes for the +travelers, and by hydraulic power or by steam engines for the swing +cranes. It may safely be said, that without the aid of these +implements, it would be impossible to handle the weights that are met +with in machinery of the present day. + +I now come to one class of machine which, humble and small as it is, +has probably had a greater effect upon industry and upon domestic life +than almost any other. I mean + + +THE SEWING MACHINE. + +In 1831, there was no means of making a seam except by the laborious +process of the hand needle. In 1846, Eldred Walker patented a machine +for parsing the basting thread through the gores of umbrellas, a +machine that was very ingenious and very simple, but was utterly +unlike the present sewing machine, with its eye-pointed needle, using +sometimes two threads (the second being put in by a shuttle or by +another needle), and making stitches at twenty-fold the rapidity with +which the most expert needlewoman could work. By means of the sewing +machine not only are all textile fabrics operated upon, but even the +thickest leather is dealt with, and as a _tour de force_, but as a +matter of fact, sheet-iron plates themselves have been pierced, and +have been united by a seam no boilermaker ever contemplated, the +piercing and the seam being produced by a Blake sewing machine. I +believe all in this section will agree that the use of the sewing +machine has been unattended by loss to those who earn their living by +the needle; in fact, it would not be too much to say that there has +been a positive improvement in their wages. + +The next matter I have to touch upon is + + +AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY. + +In 1831, we had thrashing machines and double plows, and even multiple +plows had been proposed, tried, and abandoned. Reaping machines had +been experimented with and abandoned; sowing machines were in use, but +not many of them; clod crushers and horse rakes were also in use; but +as a fact plowing was done by horse power with a single furrow at a +time, mowing and reaping were done by the scythe or the sickle, +sheaves were bound by hand, hay was tedded by hand-rakes, while all +materials and produce were moved about in carts and in wagons drawn by +horses. At the present time we have multiple plows, making five or six +furrows at a time, these and cultivators also, driven by steam, +commonly from two engines on the head lands, the plow being in +between, and worked by a rope from each engine, or if by one engine, a +capstan on the other head land, with a return rope working the plow +backward and forward; or by what is known as the roundabout system, +where the engine is fixed and the rope carried round about the field; +or else plows and cultivators are worked by ropes from two capstans +placed on the two head lands, and driven by means of a quick-going +rope, actuated by an engine, the position of which is not changed. And +then we have reaping machines, driven at present by horses; but how +long it will be before the energy residing in a battery, or that in a +reservoir of compressed air, will supersede horse power to drive the +reaping machine, I don't know, but I don't suppose it will be very +long. The mowing and reaping machines not only cut the crop and +distribute it in swaths, or, in the case of the reaping machine, in +bundles, but now, in the instance of these latter machines, are +competent to bind it into sheaves. In lieu of hand tedding, haymaking +machines are employed, tossing the grass into the air, so as to +thoroughly aerate it, taking advantage of every brief interval of fine +weather; and seed and manure are distributed by machine with unfailing +accuracy. The soil is drained by the aid of properly constructed plows +for preparing the trenches; roots are steamed and sliced as food for +cattle; and the thrashing machine no longer merely beats out the +grain, but it screens it, separates it, and elevates the straw, so as +to mechanically build it up into a stack. I do not know a better class +of machine than the agricultural portable engine. Every part of it is +perfectly proportioned and made; it is usually of the locomotive type, +and the economy of fuel in its use is extremely great. I cannot help +thinking that the improvement in this respect which has taken place in +these engines, and the improvement of agricultural machinery +generally, is very largely due to the Royal Agricultural Society, one +of the most enterprising bodies in England. + +I now come to the very last subject I propose to speak upon, and that +is + + +PRINTING MACHINERY, + +and especially as applied to the printing of newspapers. In 1831, we +had the steam press sending out a few hundred copies in an hour, and +doing that upon detached sheets, and thus many hours were required for +an edition of some thousands. The only way of expediting the matter +would have been to have recomposed the paper, involving, however, +double labor to the compositors, and a double chance of error. At the +present day, we have, by the Walter press, the paper printed on a +continuous sheet at a rate per hour at least three times as great as +that of the presses of 1831, and, by the aid of _papier mache_ moulds, +within five minutes from the starting of the first press, a second +press can be got to work from the stereotype plates, and a third one +in the next five minutes; and thus the wisdom of our senators, which +has been delivered as late as three o'clock in the morning, is able to +be transmitted by the newspaper train leaving Euston at 5:15 A.M. + +This is the last matter with which I shall trouble the Section. I have +purposely omitted telegraphy; I have purposely omitted artillery, +textile fabrics, and the milling and preparation of grain. These and +other matters I have omitted for several reasons. Some I have omitted +because I was incompetent to speak upon them, others because of the +want of time, and others because they more properly belong to Section +A. + +I hope, sir, although your address, dealing with the future, was +undoubtedly the right address for a president to deliver, and although +it is equally right that we should not content ourselves with merely +looking back in a "rest and be thankful" spirit at the various +progress which this paper records, it may nevertheless be thought well +that there should have been brought before the section, in however +cursory a manner, some notice of mechanical development during the +past fifty years. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 311, page 4954.] + + + + +AMATEUR MECHANICS. + +METAL TURNING. + + +In selecting a lathe an amateur may exercise more or less taste, and +he may be governed somewhat by the length of his purse; the same is +true in the matter of chucks; but when he comes to the selection or +making of turning tools he must conform to fundamental principles; he +must profit as far as possible by the experience of others, and will, +after all, find enough to be learned by practice. + +Tools of almost every description may be purchased at reasonable +prices, but the practice of making one's own tools cannot be too +strongly recommended. It affords a way out of many an emergency, and +where time is not too valuable, a saving will be realized. A few bars +of fine tool steel, a hammer, and a small anvil, are all that are +required, aside from fire and water. The steel should be heated to a +low red, and shaped with as little hammering as possible; it may then +be allowed to cool slowly, when it may be filed or ground to give it +the required form. It may now be hardened by heating it to a cherry +red and plunging it straight down into clean cool (not too cold) +water. It should then be polished on two of its sides, when the temper +may be drawn in the flame of an alcohol lamp or Bunsen gas burner; or, +if these are not convenient, a heated bar of iron may be used instead, +the tool being placed in contact with it until the required color +appears. This for tools to be used in turning steel, iron, and brass +may be a straw color. For turning wood it may be softer. The main +point to be observed in tempering a tool is to have it as hard as +possible without danger of its being broken while in use. By a little +experiment the amateur will be able to suit the temper of his tools to +the work in hand. + +In the engraving accompanying the present article a number of hand +turning tools are shown, also a few tools for the slide rest. These +tools are familiar to machinists and may be well known to many +amateurs; but we give them for the benefit of those who are +unacquainted with them and for the sake of completeness in this series +of articles. + +[Illustration: TURNING TOOLS.] + +Fig. 1 is the ordinary diamond tool, made from a square bar of steel +ground diagonally so as to give it two similar cutting edges. This +tool is perhaps more generally useful than any of the others. The +manner of using it is shown in Fig. 23; it is placed on the tool rest +and dexterously moved on the rest as a pivot, causing the point to +travel in a circular path along the metal in the lathe. Of course only +a small distance is traveled over before the tool is moved along on +the rest. After a little experience it will be found that by +exercising care a good job in plain turning may be done with the tool. + +Fig. 2 shows a sharp V shaped tool which will be found useful for many +purposes. Fig. 3 is a V shaped tool for finishing screw threads. Figs. +4 and 5 are round-nosed tools for concave surfaces; Fig. 6, a square +tool for turning convex and plane surfaces. The tool shown in Fig. 7 +should be made right and left; it is useful in turning brass, ivory, +hard wood, etc. Fig. 8 is a separating tool; Fig. 9 is an inside tool, +which should be made both right and left, and its point may be either +round, V shaped, or square. Fig. 24 shows the manner of holding an +inside tool. Fig. 10 is a tool for making curved undercuts. Fig. 11 is +a representative of a large class of tools for duplicating a given +form. + +These figures represent a series of tools which may be varied +infinitely to adapt them to different purposes. The user, if he is +wide awake, is not long in discovering what angle to give the cutting +edge, what shape to give the point, and what position to give the tool +in relation to the work to be done. + +Having had experience with hand tools it requires only a little +practice and observation to apply the same principles to slide rest +tools. + +A few examples of this class of tools are given. Fig. 12 is the +ordinary diamond pointed tool, which should be made right and left. +The cutting edge may have a more or less acute angle, according to the +work to be done, and the inclined or front end of the tool may be +slightly squared or rounded, according to the work. Fig. 13 is a +separating tool, which is a little wider at the cutting edge than any +where else, so that it will clear itself as it is forced into the +work. + +For brass this tool should be beveled downward slightly. By giving the +point the form shown in Fig. 3 it will be adapted to screw cutting. + +Fig. 14 shows an inside tool for the slide rest; its point may be +modified according to the work to be done. Fig. 15 is a side tool for +squaring the ends of shafts; Figs. 16, 17, 18, and 19 represent tools +for brass, Fig. 16 is a round-nosed tool for brass, Fig. 17 a V shaped +tool, Fig. 18 a screw thread tool, and Fig. 19 a side tool. In boring, +whether the object is cored or not, it is desirable, where the hole is +not too large, to take out the first cut with a drill. The drill for +the purpose is shown in Fig. 20, the drill holder in Fig. 21, and the +manner of using in Fig 22. The drill holder, B, is held by a mortised +post placed in the rest support. The slot of the drill holder is +placed exactly opposite the tail center and made secure. The drill, +which is flat, is drilled to receive the tail center, and it is kept +from turning by the holder, and is kept from lateral movement and +chattering by a wrench, C, which is turned so as to bind the drill in +the slot of the holder. + +The relative position of the tool and work is shown in Figs. 25, 26, +27, and 28; Fig. 25 shows the position for brass; Fig. 26 for iron and +steel; Fig. 27 the relative position of the engine rest tool and its +work; and Fig. 28 the position of the tool for soft metal and wood. + +In all of these cases the point of the tool is above the center of the +work. In the matter of the adjustment of the tool, as well as in all +other operations referred to, experiment is recommended as the best +means of gaining valuable knowledge in the matter of turning metals. + + +ROTARY CUTTERS. + +The saving of files, time, materials, and patience, by the employment +of such rotary cutters as may be profitably used in connection with a +foot lathe, can hardly be appreciated by one who has never attempted +to use this class of tools. It is astonishing how much very hard labor +may be saved by means of a small circular saw like that shown in Fig. +1. This tool, like many others described in this series of articles, +can, in most instances, be purchased cheaper than it can be made, and +the chances are in favor of its being a more perfect article. However, +it is not so difficult to make as one might suppose. A piece of sheet +steel may be chucked upon the face plate, or on a wooden block +attached to the face plate, where it may be bored to fit the saw +mandrel, and cut in circular form by means of a suitable hand tool. It +may then be placed upon the mandrel and turned true, and it is well +enough to make it a little thinner in the middle than at the +periphery. + +[Illustration: Rotary Cutting Tools.] + +There are several methods of forming the teeth on a circular saw. It +may be spaced and filed, or it may be knurled, as shown in Fig. 2, and +then filed, leaving every third or fourth tooth formed by the knurl, +or it may, for some purposes, be knurled and not filed at all. Another +way of forming the teeth is to employ a hub, something like that used +in making chasers, as shown in Fig. 3, the difference between this hub +and the other one referred to, is that the thread has one straight +side corresponding with the radial side of the tooth. The blank from +which the saw is made is placed on a stud projecting from a handle +made specially for the purpose, and having a rounded end which +supports the edge of the blank, as the teeth are formed by the cutters +on the hub. + +The saw, after the teeth are formed, may be hardened and tempered by +heating it slowly until it attains a cherry red, and plunging it +straight down edgewise into cool, clean water. On removing it from the +water it should be dried, and cleaned with a piece of emery paper, and +its temper drawn to a purple, over a Bunsen gas flame, over the flame +of an alcohol lamp, or over a hot plate of iron. The small saw shown +in Fig. 4 is easily made from a rod of fine steel. It is very useful +for slotting sheet brass and tubes, slotting small shafts, nicking +screws, etc. Being quite small it has the advantage of having few +teeth to keep in order, and it may be made harder than those of larger +diameter. A series of them, varying in diameter from one eighth to +three eighths of an inch, and varying considerably in thickness, will +be found very convenient. + +These cutters or saws, with the exception of the smaller one, may be +used to the best advantage in connection with a saw table, like that +shown in Fig. 8. This is a plane iron table having a longitudinal +groove in its face to receive the guiding rib of the carriage, shown +in Fig. 9, and a transverse groove running half way across, to receive +a slitting gauge, as shown in Fig. 8. The table is supported by a +standard or shank, which fits into the tool-rest socket. The saw +mandrel is supported between the centers of the lathe, and the saw +projects more or less through a slot formed in the table. The gauge +serves to guide the work to be slotted, and other kinds of work may be +placed on or against the carriage, shown in Fig. 9. + +It is a very simple matter to arrange guiding pieces for cutting at +any angle, and the saw table may be used for either metal or wood. The +saws for wood differ from those used for metal; the latter are filed +straight, the former diagonally or fleaming. Among the many uses to +which metal saws may be applied we mention the slitting of sheet +metals, splitting wires and rods, slotting and grooving, nicking +screws, etc. Fig. 10 shows a holder for receiving screws to be nicked. +It is used in connection with the saw table, and is moved over the saw +against the gauge. + +To facilitate the removal of the screws the holder may be split +longitudinally and hinged together. Another method of nicking screws +is illustrated by Fig. 11. A simple lever, fulcrumed on a bar held by +the tool post, is drilled and tapped in the end to receive the screw. +After adjusting the tool all that is required is to insert the screw +and press down the handle so as to bring the screw head into contact +with the saw. + +Where a lathe is provided with an engine rest, the cutter shown in +Fig. 6, mounted on the mandrel shown in Fig. 5, is very useful; it is +used by clamping the work to the slide rest and moving it under the +cutter by working the slide rest screw. + +To make a cutter of this kind is more difficult than to make a saw, +and to do it readily a milling machine would be required. It may be +done, however, on a plain foot lathe, by employing a V-shaped cutter +and using a holder (Fig. 7) having an angular groove for receiving the +cylinder on which the cutting edges are formed. The blank can be +spaced with sufficient accuracy, by means of a fine pair of dividers, +and after the first groove is cut there will be no difficulty in +getting the rest sufficiently accurate, as a nib inserted in the side +of the guide enters the first groove and all of the others in +succession and regulates the spacing. + +One of the best applications of this tool is shown in the small +engraving. In this case a table similar to the saw table before +described is supported in a vertical position, and arranged at right +angles with the cutter mandrel. The mandrel is of the same diameter as +the cutter, and serves as a guide to the pattern which carries the +work to be operated upon. The principal use of this contrivance is to +shape the edges of curved or irregular metal work. The casting to be +finished is fastened--by cement if small, and by clamps if large--to a +pattern having exactly the shape required in the finished work. + +[Illustration: METAL SHAPING.] + +By moving the pattern in contact with the table and the mandrel, while +the latter revolves, the edges of the work will be shaped and finished +at the same time. By substituting a conical cutter for a cylindrical +one, the work may be beveled; by using both, the edge may be made +smooth and square, while the corner is beveled. + +The tool shown in Fig. 12 might properly be called a barrel saw. It is +made by drilling in the end of a steel rod and forming the teeth with +a file. To avoid cracking in tempering a small hole should be drilled +through the side near the bottom of the larger hole. To insure the +free working of the tool it should be turned so that its cutting edge +will be rather thicker than the position behind it. This tool should +be made in various sizes. + +Tools for gear cutting and also cutters for wood have not been +mentioned in this paper; as they are proper subjects for separate +treatment. + + +WOOD WORKING. + +It is not the intention of the writer to enter largely into the +subject of wood working, but simply to suggest a few handy attachments +to the foot lathe which will greatly facilitate the operations of the +amateur wood worker, and will be found very useful by almost any one +working in wood. It is not an easy matter to split even thin lumber +into strips of uniform width by means of a handsaw, but by using the +circular saw attachment, shown in Fig. 1, the operation becomes rapid +and easy, and the stuff may be sawed or slit at any desired angle or +bevel. The attachment consists of a saw mandrel of the usual form, and +a wooden table supported by a right angled piece, A, of round iron +fitted to the toolpost and clamped by a wooden cleat, B, which is +secured to the under side of the table, split from the aperture to one +end, and provided with a thumbscrew for drawing the parts together. +By means of this arrangement the table may be inclined to a limited +angle in either direction, the slot through which the saw projects +being enlarged below to admit of this adjustment. + +[Illustration: WOODWORKING ATTACHMENTS FOR THE FOOT LATHE.] + +The back of the table is steadied by a screw which rests upon the back +end of the tool rest support, and enters a block attached to the under +side of the table. The gauge at the top of the table is used in +slitting and for other purposes which will be presently mentioned, and +it is adjusted by aid of lines made across the table parallel with the +saw. + +For the purpose of cross cutting or cutting on a bevel a thin sliding +table is fitted to slide upon the main table, and is provided with a +gauge which is capable of being adjusted at any desired angle. For +cutting slots for panels, etc., thick saws may be used, or the saw may +be made to wabble by placing it between two beveled washers, as shown +in Fig. 2. + +The saw table has an inserted portion, C, held in place by two screws +which may be removed when it is desired to use the saw mandrel for +carrying a sticker head for planing small strips of moulding or +reeding. The head for holding the moulding knives is best made of good +tough brass or steam metal. The knives can be made of good saw steel +about one-eighth inch thick. They may be filed into shape and +afterward tempered. They are slotted and held to their places on the +head by means of quarter-inch machine screws. It is not absolutely +necessary to use two knives, but when only one is employed a +counterbalance should be fastened to the head in place of the other. +All kinds of moulding, beading, tonguing, and grooving may be done +with this attachment, the gauge being used to guide the edge of the +stuff. If the boards are too thin to support themselves against the +action of the knives they must be backed up by a thick strip of wood +planed true. The speed for this cutter head should be as great as +possible. + +Fig. 5 shows an attachment to be used in connection with the cutter +head and saw table for cutting straight, spiral, or irregular flutes +on turned work. It consists of a bar, D, carrying a central fixed arm, +and at either end an adjustable arm, the purpose of the latter being +to adapt the device to work of different lengths. The arm projecting +from the center of the bar, D, supports an arbor having at one end a +socket for receiving the twisted iron bar, E, and at the other end a +center and a short finger or pin. A metal disk having three spurs, a +central aperture, and a series of holes equally distant from the +center and from each other, is attached by its spurs to the end of the +cylinder to be fluted, and the center of the arbor in the arm, D, +enters the central hole in the disk while its finger enters one of the +other holes. The opposite end of the cylinder is supported by a center +screw. A fork attached to the back of the table embraces the twisted +iron, E, so that as the wooden cylinder is moved diagonally over the +cutter it is slowly rotated, making a spiral cut. After the first cut +is made the finger of the arbor is removed from the disk and placed in +an adjoining hole, when the second cut is made, and so on. + +Figs. 6 and 7 show a convenient and easily made attachment for +moulding the edges of irregular work, such as brackets, frames, parts +of patterns, etc. It consists of a brass frame, F, supporting a small +mandrel turning at the top in a conical bearing in the frame, and at +the bottom upon a conical screw. A very small grooved pulley is +fastened to the mandrel and surrounded by a rubber ring which bears +against the face plate of the lathe, as shown in the engraving. The +frame, F, is let into a wooden table supported by an iron rod which is +received by the tool rest holder of the lathe. The cutter, G, is made +by turning upon a piece of steel the reverse of the required moulding, +and slotting it transversely to form cutting edges. The shank of the +cutter is fitted to a hole in the mandrel and secured in place by a +small set screw. The edge of the work is permitted to bear against the +shank of the cutter. Should the face plate of the lathe be too small +to give the required speed, a wooden disk may be attached to it by +means of screws and turned off. + +Figs. 8, 9, and 10 represent a cheaply and easily made scroll saw +attachment for the foot lathe. It is made entirely of wood and is +practically noiseless. The board, H, supports two uprights, I, between +which is pivoted the arm, J, whose under side is parallel with the +edge of the board. A block is placed between the uprights, I, to limit +the downward movement of the arm, and the arm is clamped by a bolt +which passes through it and through the two uprights and is provided +with a wing nut. + +A wooden table, secured to the upper edge of the board, H, is +perforated to allow the saw to pass through, and is provided with an +inserted hardwood strip which supports the back of the saw, and which +may be moved forward from time to time and cut off as it becomes worn. +The upper guide of the saw consists of a round piece of hard wood +inserted in a hole bored in the end of the arm, J. The upper end of +the saw is secured in a small steel clamp pivoted in a slot in the end +of a wooden spring secured to the top of the arm, J, and the lower end +of the saw is secured in a similar clamp pivoted to the end of the +wooden spring, K. Fig. 10 is an enlarged view showing the construction +of clamp. + +The relation of the spring, K, to the board, H, and to the other part +is shown in Fig. 9. It is attached to the side of the board and is +pressed upward by an adjusting screw near its fixed end. + +The saw is driven by a wooden eccentric placed on the saw mandrel +shown in Figs. 1 and 2, and the spring, K, always pressed upward +against the eccentric by its own elasticity, and it is also drawn in +an upward direction by the upper spring. This arrangement insures a +continuous contact between the spring, K, and the eccentric, and +consequently avoids noise. The friction surfaces of the eccentric and +spring may be lubricated with tallow and plumbago. The eccentric may, +with advantage, be made of metal. + +The tension of the upper spring may be varied by putting under it +blocks of different heights, or the screw which holds the back end may +be used for this purpose. + +The saw is attached to the lathe by means of an iron bent twice at +right angles, attached to the board, H, and fitted to the tool rest +support. The rear end of the sawing apparatus may be supported by a +brace running to the lower part of the lathe or to the floor. + +The simple attachments above described will enable the possessor to +make many small articles of furniture which he would not undertake +without them, and for making models of small patterns they are almost +invaluable. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW METHOD OF KEEPING MECHANICAL DRAWINGS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A Paper by Chas. T Porter, read before the American + Society of Mechanical Engineers.] + + +The system of keeping drawings now in use at the works of the +Southwark Foundry and Machine Company, in Philadelphia, has been found +so satisfactory in its operation that it seems worthy of being +communicated to the profession. + +The method in common use, and which may be called the natural method, +is to devote a separate drawer to the drawings of each machine, or of +each group or class of machines. The fundamental idea of this system, +and its only one, is, keeping together all drawings relating to the +same subject matter. + +Every draughtsman is acquainted with its practical working. It is +necessary to make the drawing of a machine, and of its separate parts, +on sheets of different sizes. The drawer in which all these are kept +must be large enough to accommodate the largest sheets. The smaller +ones cannot be located in the drawer, and as these find their way to +one side or to the back, and several of the smallest lie side by side +in one course, any arrangement of the sheets in the drawer is out of +the question. + +The operation of finding a drawing consists in turning the contents of +the drawer all up until it is discovered. In this way the smaller +sheets get out of sight or doubled up, and the larger ones are torn. +No amount of care can prevent confusion. + +Various plans have been adopted in different establishments intended +to remedy this state of things, but it is believed that none has been +hit upon so convenient, in all respects, as the one now to be +presented. + +The idea of keeping together drawings relating to the same machine, +or of classifying them according to subjects in any way, is entirely +abandoned, and in place of these is substituted the plan of keeping +together all drawings that are made on sheets of the same size, +without regard to the subject of them. + +Nine sizes of sheets were settled upon, as sufficient to meet our +requirements, and on a sheet that will trim to one of these sizes +every drawing must be made. They are distinguished by the first nine +letters of the alphabet. Size A is the antiquarian sheet trimmed, and +the smaller sizes will cut from this sheet, without waste, as follows: + + A, 51x30 in.; B, 37x30 in; C, 25x30 in.; D, 17x30 in.; E 121/2x30 + in.; F, 81/2x30 in.; G, 17x15 in.; H, 81/2x15 in.; I, 14x25 in. + +The drawers for the different sizes are made one inch longer and wider +than the sheets they are to contain, and are lettered as above. Those +of the same size, after the first one, are distinguished by a numeral +prefixed to the letter. The back part of each drawer is covered for a +width of from six to ten inches, to prevent drawings, and especially +tracings, from slipping over at the back. + +The introduction of the blue printing process has quite revolutionized +the drawing office, so far at least as we are concerned. Our drawings +are studies, left in pencil. When we can find nothing more to alter, +tracings are made on cloth. These become our originals, and are kept +in a fire-proof vault. This system is found admirably adapted to the +plan of making a separate drawing for each piece. The whole combined +drawing is not generally traced, but the separate pieces are picked +out from it. All our working copies are blue prints. + +Each drawer contains fifty tracings. They are two and a half inches +deep, which is enough to hold several times as many, but this number +is quite all that it is convenient to keep together. We would +recommend for these shallower drawers. + +Each drawing is marked in stencil in the lower right hand corner, and +also with inverted plates in the upper left hand corner, with the +letter and number of the drawer, and its own number in the drawer, as, +for example, 3F--31; so that whichever way the sheet is put in the +drawer, this appears at the front right hand corner. The drawings in +each drawer are numbered separately, fifty being thus the highest +number used. + +For reference we depend on our indices. Each tracing, when completed, +is entered under its letter in the numerical index, and is given the +next consecutive number, and laid in its place. + +From this index the title and the number are copied into other +indices, under as many different headings as possible. + +Thus all the drawings of any engine, or tool, or machine whatever, +become assembled by their titles under the heading of such particular +engine, or tool, or machine. So also the drawings of any particular +part, of all sizes and styles, become assembled by their titles under +the name of such piece. However numerous the drawings, and however +great the variety of their subjects, the location of any one is, by +this means, found as readily as a word in a dictionary. The stencil +marks copy, of course, on the blue prints, and these when not in use +are kept in the same manner as the tracings, except that only +twenty-five are placed in one drawer. + +We employ printed classified lists of the separate pieces constituting +every steam engine, the manufacture of which is the sole business of +these works, and on these, against the name of every piece, is given +the drawer and number of the drawing on which it is represented. The +office copies of these lists afford an additional mode of reference +and a very convenient one, used in practice almost exclusively. The +foreman sends for the prints by the stencil marks, and these are thus +got directly without reference to any index. They are charged in the +same way, and reference to the numerical index gives the title of any +missing print. + +We find the different sizes to be used quite unequal. The method of +making a separate tracing of each piece, which we carry to a great +extent, causes the smaller sizes to multiply quite rapidly. We are +marking our patterns with the stencil of the drawing of the same +piece; and also, gauges, templets, and jigs. + +It is found best to permit the sheets to be put away by one person +only, who also writes up the indices, which are kept in the fire +proof. + +We were ourselves surprised at the saving of room which this system +has effected. Probably less than one-fourth the space is occupied that +the same drawings would require if classified according to subjects. + +The system is completely elastic. Work of the most diverse character +might be undertaken every day, and the drawings of each article, +whether few or many, would find places ready to receive them. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACHARD'S ELECTRIC BRAKE. + + +[Illustration: ELEVATION.] + +[Illustration: PLAN. + ACHARD'S ELECTRIC BRAKE--EASTERN RAILWAY OF FRANCE.] + +The merits of a brake in which electric apparatus is used, that has +been adopted by one large railway company, and is about to be used on +the State railways, as well as the fact that arrangements are being +made to introduce it in England, demand consideration. It may be that +modifications will, under different circumstances, be introduced, or +that the system will ultimately be found too cumbersome or too +delicate, but before criticism it is necessary to know something of +the apparatus. We therefore endeavor to give somewhat in detail the +arrangement adopted by M.L. Regray, chief engineer of the Chemin de +Fer de l'Est, the electrical system being that of M. Achard. An +electro-magnet, A, is suspended on a hinged axis, so that the poles of +the magnet have for armatures cylinders of metal fixed upon the axle +of the carriage. Suppose now the poles, D D, of the magnet brought +into contact with the revolving armatures, the friction between them +causes the magnet to revolve. The chain attached to the brake is fixed +to the extended axle of the magnet, and consequently when that axle +revolves is wound up, bringing the brakes upon the wheels. The +friction between the poles and the armature depends upon the strength +of the magnet, and this can be regulated at will from a maximum to a +minimum. But it will be well to trace the whole action. The electric +current may be obtained by means of Plante secondary cells charged by +Daniell's cells--in other words, one or two Daniell's cells are +constantly in action charging three or six Plante cells, and it is the +Plante cells that are called into action to electrify the magnet. The +battery is carried in a box in the brake van. The engineers, however, +seem to prefer that the current be obtained by means of a small Gramme +machine, driven direct by a Brotherhood three-cylinder engine, the +steam for which is obtained from the locomotive. The velocity and +hence the current of the Gramme machine can be regulated, and so the +action of the brakes. M. Achard prefers the Plante cells; he informs +us that he has tried the Faure battery, but the results obtained were +not satisfactory. The regulator, R squared, consists of a cylinder of wood +around which, as shown, wire is wound. The length of this wire in the +circuit, increasing as it does the resistance of the circuit, +determines the current to the electro-magnet. The action is as +follows: When it is necessary to apply the brakes, a simple pressure +of a key or the turn of a handle sends the electric current into the +wires of the electro-magnet. An attraction immediately takes place, +and the poles and armatures are brought into contact. The friction +between these causes the revolution of the magnet, the winding of the +chain around the axle, and the application of the brakes. The whole of +the brakes of the train enter into action at one and the same time. +The brakes are taken off by stopping the current, and a small spring +pulls and keeps the magnet from the armatures. A frame--also +carriages--fitted with this brake, are shown by the Compagnie des +Chemins de Fer de l'Est, which company also shows several other pieces +of interesting apparatus, one of which is a carriage fitted with +elaborate mechanism, in which electricity plays, perhaps, but a +subsidiary part, to obtain the traction of the train under varying +circumstances, the pressure on the buffers when stopping, and various +phenomena connected with the engine.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICITY; WHAT IT IS, AND WHAT MAY BE EXPECTED OF IT.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A paper read before the Engineers' Society of + Western Pennsylvania, Nov. 15, 1881.] + +By JACOB REESE + + +In the consideration of this subject it is not my purpose to review +the steps of discovery and development of electrical phenomena, but +the object of this paper is an effort to explain what electricity is; +and having done this, to deduce some reasonable conclusions as to what +may be expected of it. And while I am profoundly sensible of the +importance of the subject, and the difficulties attending its +consideration, still with humble boldness I present this paper and ask +for it a serious and careful consideration, hoping that the discussion +and investigation resulting therefrom may add to our knowledge of +physical science. + +It is now a well established fact that matter, _per se_, is inert, and +that its energy is derived from the physical forces; therefore all +chemical and physical phenomena observed in the universe are caused by +and due to the operations of the physical forces, and matter, of +whatever state or condition it may be in, is but the vehicle through +or by which the physical forces operate to produce the phenomena. + +There are but two physical forces, i.e., the force of attraction and +the force of caloric. The force of attraction is inherent in the +matter, and tends to draw the particles together and hold them in a +state of rest. The force of caloric accompanies the matter and tends +to push the particles outward into a state of activity. + +The force of attraction being inherent, it abides in the matter +continuously and can neither be increased nor diminished; it, however, +is present in different elementary bodies in different degrees, and in +compound bodies relative to the elements of which they are composed. + +The force of caloric is mobile, and is capable of moving from one +portion of matter to another; yet under certain conditions a portion +of caloric is occluded in the matter by the force of attraction. That +portion of caloric which is occluded (known by the misnomer, latent +heat) I shall call _static caloric_, and that portion which is in +motion, _dynamic caloric_. + +The force of attraction, as I have said, tends to draw the particles +of matter together and hold them in a state of rest; but as this force +is inherent, the degree of power thus exerted is in an inverse ratio +to the distance of the particles from each other. The effective force +so exerted is always balanced by an equivalent amount of the force of +caloric, and that modicum of caloric so engaged in balancing the +effective force of attraction is static, because occluded in that +work. + +In solid or fluid bodies, where the molecules are held in a local or +near relation to each other, the amount of static caloric will be in +direct proportion to the effective force of attraction, but in gaseous +bodies the static caloric is in an inverse ratio to the effective +force of attraction; hence the amount of static caloric present in +solid and fluid bodies will be greatest when the molecules are nearest +each other, and greatest in gaseous bodies when the molecules are +furthest apart. + +Caloric, whether static or dynamic, is not phenomenal; therefore the +phenomena of light, temperature, incandescence, luminosity, heat, +cold, and motion, as well as all other phenomena, are due to the +movement of matter caused by the physical forces. Thus we find that +_temperature is a phenomenal measure of molecular velocity_, as we +consider weight to be the measure of matter. + +An increase of temperature denotes an increased molecular velocity, +and this in solid and liquid bodies unlocks a portion of the static +caloric and converts it into dynamic caloric, while an increased +temperature of gases occludes additional caloric, thus converting +dynamic into static caloric; and a reduction of molecular activity +reverses this action. From this we see that a change of temperature +either converts static to dynamic or dynamic to static caloric. + +Thus we find that the amount of static caloric which a body possesses +is in direct relation to its temperature, but, as I have already +explained, temperature is a phenomenal indication of molecular +velocity, and as increased velocity separates the molecules to a +greater distance, which reduces the effective force of attraction and +unlocks a portion of caloric, it will be seen that the separation of +the molecules from any other cause will have the same effect. I desire +now to explain a second method by which the molecules are separated +and static caloric is changed to dynamic caloric. + +It is not definitely known how much static caloric is occluded in +either of the elementary bodies, but it is believed that hydrogen +possesses the greatest amount and oxygen the least. Now if we take a +molecule of hydrogen containing two atoms, and under proper conditions +interpose these atoms between 16 atoms of oxygen (one molecule), the +phenomenon of combustion is exhibited, and a molecule of water is +formed containing 18 atoms; and if one pound of hydrogen is thus +consumed, the atoms of hydrogen are separated from each other to such +a distance by the interposing atoms of oxygen as to unlock 34,662 +units C. of static, and convert it into dynamic caloric. And if we +thus bring a molecule of carbon containing 12 atoms in contact with a +molecule of oxygen of 16 atoms, combustion ensues and a molecule of +carbonic oxide of 28 atoms is formed, and if we then present another +molecule of oxygen, combustion again takes place, and a molecule of +carbonic acid, containing 44 atoms, is produced. Now, in the +combustion of one pound of carbon in this manner, when the carbon is +converted into carbonic oxide (CO), 2,473 units C. of static is +converted into dynamic caloric; and when this CO is converted into +carbonic acid (CO_{2}) 5,607 additional units C. are unlocked. Thus by +the combustion of one pound of carbon to CO_{2}, 8,080 units C. of +static caloric are changed to dynamic caloric. + +When caloric is thus unlocked from its occlusion it escapes with great +velocity until an equilibrium is attained, and in doing so it pushes +the particles of matter out of its path. In solid bodies this produces +such a high degree of molecular movement as to exhibit the phenomena +of incandescence and luminosity, and in liquids increased mobility, +while in gases the molecular activity may be so great as to produce +the phenomena of sound and light; and the more rapidly combustion +takes place the greater will be the volume and velocity of dynamic +caloric escaping therefrom; consequently with a slow combustion, the +phenomena produced by dynamic caloric will be different from those +exhibited at a high degree. + +Combustion, as I have before shown, is merely the oxidation of the +material; nothing is _consumed_ nor annihilated, and, the phenomena +vary with the velocity of oxidation. Now, if we take one pound of zinc +and place it in the acid cell of an electric battery, the oxygen of +the acid attacks the zinc and oxide of zinc is formed. In this +operation the Zn molecule containing 65 atoms is united with one +molecule of oxygen of 16 atoms, forming a molecule of oxide of zinc +(ZnO) of 81 atoms; and owing to the comparatively small number of +oxygen atoms interposed between the 65 atoms of zinc, only 1,301 units +C. of static caloric are unlocked to the pound of zinc, and the +velocity of oxidation is so low, and the insulation of the vessel so +perfect, that the dynamic caloric is caused to flow outward through +the copper wire. + +ELECTRICITY.--What is it? Why, it is dynamic caloric. Now let +us take this oxide of zinc (ZnO) and place it with charcoal in a +reducing apparatus which stands on an insulated table; the apparatus +is then heated, the carbon vaporizes, and this vapor of carbon (C) +robs the oxide of zinc (ZnO) of its oxygen, leaving metallic zinc (Zn) +and carbonic oxide (CO). Now, for every pound of zinc so formed 1,301 +units C. of static caloric are transferred from the charcoal to the +zinc and occluded in it. Hence we find that the 1,301 units C. of +caloric which we took out of the zinc, and which we call electricity, +is nothing else but the 1,301 units of static caloric which was +contained in the charcoal and from it set free by oxidation and +transferred to the zinc in the smelting process. Let us follow this +matter a little further. Charcoal is made by burning wood under such +conditions as eliminate the water and hydrogen and leave the carbon as +a residuum which we call charcoal. Thus we find that the caloric +contained in the charcoal, transferred from the charcoal to the zinc, +and from it developed into what we call electricity, was previously +embodied in the wood; and if we study the laws of vegetation, we find +that the atmosphere being charged with carbonic acid (CO_{2}), the +leaves of plants, shrubs, and trees, breathing, take in the CO_{2}, the +sun rays decompose the CO_{2}, set free the oxygen, and supply the +necessary amount of caloric for the condensed state of the carbon. +Thus we find that the force which we term electricity, developed from +the oxidation of zinc, or any other matter, by oxidation, primarily +comes from the sun rays. + +Coal is generally supposed to be of vegetable origin, and the caloric +occluded in it is derived from the same source as that embodied in +charcoal. Now when we burn coal under a steam boiler, the carbon and +hydrogen are oxidized, and the static caloric set free. A portion of +this caloric passes through the shell or tubes of the boilers, and +increases the molecular velocity of the water; increased activity of +the molecules tends to separate them to a greater distance from each +other. When the molecular velocity of the water acquires the degree +indicated by a temperature of 212 degrees F., the water passes from +the fluid to the gaseous state, and in doing so expands to 1,696 times +its bulk. Now if the steam so developed be confined under a pressure +of 105 pounds to the square inch, the water will not vaporize until a +molecular velocity is attained indicated by a temperature of 312 deg. F. +(Spons' "Engineering," D2, page 418), and then the expansion is only +253 times its bulk. By using this steam, in a steam engine, the +caloric in the steam tends to push the molecules of which it is +composed into an ultimate expansion of 1,696 times the bulk of the +water from which it was generated, and this force acts upon the piston +and does the work. Thus we see that the steam engine is driven by the +same force which produces the phenomena accredited to electricity. + +I have already shown that in what we term combustion not a particle of +the ponderable matter is annihilated. Combustion is but a phenomenon +resulting from a rearrangement of the particles, and so it is with the +imponderable physical force caloric; it is not consumed when light and +heat are produced, nor converted into power, as we are sometimes told. +But whatever the phenomena produced, the aggregate amount of static +and dynamic caloric is always and ever the same. + +If we consider the Ritter-Plant-Faure-Battery, which is mentioned as +storing electricity, we find that the phenomena exhibited by the use +of this apparatus are produced by the same factor. The battery is +composed of two sheets of lead, which are covered with a layer of +minium (Pb3O4). The sheets are laid one upon the other with an +intervening layer of felt. The pack is then rolled up in a spiral form +and placed in a vessel containing acidulated water. One of the plates +is connected with the positive, and the other plate with the negative +pole of a battery or generator. + +When the current of electricity enters the battery, the Pb3O4 on the +positive plate is reduced to Pb, and the oxygen so set free attacks +the Pb3O4 on the negative plate, and oxidizes it to PbO2. In this +chemical action, caloric is occluded in the Pb and unlocked in the +PbO2, but a much greater amount of caloric is locked up than is +unlocked, although the amount of oxygen used in both cases is +precisely the same, which has been fully explained in the oxidation of +carbon. + +Now after the battery has been thus charged and the wires disengaged, +the chemical action ceases for want of the reducing agent (_dynamic +caloric_), and the apparatus may be held at rest, or transported to +any distance required. When it is desired to utilize the force thus +stored, the poles are changed by grounding the positive wire, and +attaching the other to the conduit through which the electricity is to +flow. The chemical action is thus reversed, and the PbO2 is reduced to +Pb3O4, the oxygen thus set free attacks the Pb on the other plate, +oxidizing it to Pb3O4, thus unlocking all the caloric which was +occluded by the first action. In a battery of this kind weighing 75 +pounds, we are informed by Sir William Thomson, that one million foot +pounds of force may be stored, and again set free for use. + +Thus we find that the principle upon which the Faure battery is formed +is not new, and the prime factor producing the phenomena is the same +as has been shown to have caused all other phenomena referred to, and +indeed the principle is the same as now employed by the author in the +basic dephosphorizing process, i.e., caloric is occluded in +phosphorus by smelting in a blast furnace, and unlocked in the +converter, for the purpose of securing the fluidity of the metal +during treatment. The difference being, that one is done by +non-luminous, while the other is by luminous combustion. + +If we consider the phenomenon of light, we find that it is due to the +same force. As before stated, when we oxidize carbon, or hydrogen, as +in the rapid combustion of wood, oil, or coal, the escaping caloric +flies off with such great speed as to cause the molecules in the +circumambient medium to assume a velocity which exhibits luminosity. +Thus the light produced by burning candles, oil, gas, wood, and coal, +is caused by the same prime factor, dynamic caloric. + +The force of caloric is imponderable and invisible, and is only known +by its effects. We do know that it is occluded in metals and other +material, because we can unlock it and set it free, or we can transfer +it from one body to another, and by measuring its effects, we can +determine its quantity. We know that it prefers to travel over one +vehicle more than another, and by this knowledge we are able to +insulate it, and thus conduct it in any direction desired. The +materials through which it passes with the greatest freedom are called +conductors, and the materials which most retard its passage, +non-conductors; but these terms must be taken in a comparative sense +only, as in fact there are no absolute non-conductors of dynamic +caloric, or of what we call electricity. + +The dynamo-electric generator simply draws the dynamic caloric from +the air or earth, or both, and confines it in an insulated path. Now +if that path be a No. 10 wire, the conduit may be sufficient to permit +the caloric to pass without increasing the molecular velocity of the +metal to an appreciable degree, but if we cut the No. 10 wire and +insert a piece of No. 40 platinum wire in the path, the amount of +caloric flowing through the No. 10 wire cannot pass through the No. 40 +wire, and the resistance so caused increases the molecular velocity of +the No. 40 wire to such degree as to exhibit the phenomenon of +incandescence, and this is the incandescent electric light. And if we +consider the carbon light, we find that the current of caloric, in +passing from one pencil to the other, produces a molecular velocity of +luminosity in the adjoining atmosphere, and in addition a portion of +the carbon is consumed, which sets free an additional amount of +caloric, at a very high velocity, hence the intensity of the carbon +electric light is largely due to the dynamic caloric unlocked from the +pencils, and thus we find that the electric light produced by either +method is due to the action of dynamic caloric. + +Taking this theory based upon physical science, and the facts which we +know pertaining to electricity, I conceive that caloric exists in two +conditions. _Static caloric_ is what we call _latent heat_, and +_dynamic caloric_ is what we call _electricity_. Therefore what may we +expect of it (electricity) is merely a matter of economy in the +development and utilization of dynamic caloric; in other words, can we +unlock static caloric by non-luminous combustion, and thus develop +_dynamic caloric as a first power_ more economically per foot pound +than we now do or can hereafter do by luminous combustion? Second, can +we utilize water and wind for the production of _dynamic caloric as a +first power_? Third, can we utilize the differential tension of +dynamic caloric in the earth and the atmosphere as _a first power_? +Fourth, will it pay to use luminous combustion as a first power to +generate dynamic caloric as _a second power_? + +WHAT MAY WE EXPECT OF IT. + +Let us take the steam engine, and see what we are now doing by +luminous combustion. Good Pittsburg coal contains 87 per cent. of +carbon, 5 per cent. of hydrogen, 2 per cent. of oxygen and 6 per cent. +of ash; we therefore have in one pound of such coal: + + 8,080 x 9 14,544 x 87 + --------- = ----------- = 12,653 units in carbon. + 5 100 + + 34,662 x 9 62,391 x 5 3,119 units in hydrogen. + ---------- = ---------- = ------ + 5 100 15,772 units in coal. + +15,772 x 772[2] = 12,175,984 foot pounds of energy is occluded in the +static caloric contained in one pound of such coal. + + [Footnote 2: Dr. Joule--foot pounds in one unit.] + +A horse-power is estimated as capable of raising 33,000 pounds one +foot high per minute, and for this reason it is termed 33,000 foot +pounds per minute. So we have 33,000 x 60 = 1,980,000 foot pounds per +hour, as a horse-power. + +The best class of _compound condensing_ engines,[3] with all the +modern improvements, require 1.828 pounds of coal per 1 h.p. per hour. +Thus we have-- + + 12,175,984 x 1.828 .................22,257,699 + Foot pounds in one h.p. .............1,980,000 + ---------- + Foot pounds lost per h.p. ..........20,277,699 + + Per cent utilized per h.p. ..............8.94 + Per cent lost per h.p. .................91.06 + ------ + 100.00 + + [Footnote 3: "American Engineer," Vol. II., No. 10, page 182.] + +In the ordinary practice of stationary non-condensing engines, from +three to four pounds of coal are required per horse-power per hour. +Now, taking the best of this class at 3 pounds, we have-- + + 12,175,984 x 3 = 36,527,952 + One h.p. 1,980,000 + ---------- + Loss per h.p. 34,547,952 + + Per cent utilized per h.p. 5.42 + Per cent lost per h.p. 94.58 + ------ + 100.00 + +From these facts it may be assumed that after making due allowance for +variable qualities of the coal, the steam engine process, as at +present practiced, will not utilize more than from 5 to 10 per cent. +of the energy contained in the fuel used. It will thus be seen that +the process of converting static to dynamic caloric by luminous +combustion, by means of the steam engine, is an exceedingly wasteful +and costly method, and leaves much room for economy. + +Taking an ordinary grade of petroleum as consisting of 13 per cent. +hydrogen, 78 carbon, 6 oxygen, 3 nitrogen and ash, we have as its +energy in foot pounds per pound of oil-- + + 62,391 x 13 } + ----------- = 8,110 H. } + 100 } + } 19,454 units. + 14,544 x 78 } + ----------- = 11,344 C. } + 100 } + +19,454 x 772 = 15,018,488 foot pounds. Thus, while our best coal +contains twelve million, the petroleum contains fifteen million foot +pounds of occluded energy in each pound, which is equal to 118,000,000 +foot pounds, or 60 horse power for one hour, from one gallon of such +oil. + +At present electricity is generated by two methods, and both of these +are _second powers_. Metals are smelted by luminous combustion as a +first power, and then oxidized by non-luminous combustion as a _second +power_, and coal is consumed by luminous combustion, by which steam is +generated as a first power, to drive a dynamo-generator whereby +electricity is obtained as a _second power_. Now, of the two methods, +the latter is much the cheaper, and as I have shown that the best +compound condensing engines only utilize 8.94, and a fair average +single cylinder condensing engine only utilizes 5.42 per cent. of the +energy of the fuel consumed, and as at the best not over 70 per cent. +of the foot pounds obtained from the engine can be utilized as +electricity, from which we must deduct loss by friction, etc., it will +be readily seen that not more than 5 per cent. of the energy of the +fuel can be developed by the dynamo-generator as electricity by the +present method. + +The great want of the present age is a process by which the static +caloric of carbon or a hydrocarbon maybe set free by non-luminous +combustion; or, in other words, a process by which coal or oil may be +oxidized at a low degree, within an insulated vessel; if this can be +accomplished (and I can see no reason why we should not look for such +invention), we would be able to produce from twelve to fifteen million +foot pounds of energy (electricity) from one pound of petroleum, or +from ten to twelve million foot pounds from one pound of good coal, +which would be a saving of from 90 to 95 per cent. of present cost, +and leave the steam engine for historical remembrance. + +Electricity may be generated by water or wind power to great +advantage, and conveyed to a distance for motive power. The +practicability of generating electricity at Niagara by which to propel +trains to New York and return may be considered almost settled; and I +conceive a second invention of importance which is now needed is an +apparatus by which the rising and falling tides may be utilized for +driving dynamo machines, by which electricity may be generated for +lighting the coast cities, and it is not unreasonable to expect that +such an apparatus will soon be provided; and in such an event gas +companies would suffer. + +It is a well known fact among electricians that the volume and tension +of electricity vary both in the earth and in the atmosphere at +different sections of the earth's surface, and I conceive that we may +yet find means of utilizing this differential tension of electricity; +indeed, it is reported that during a recent storm the wires of an +ocean cable were grounded at both ends and a sufficient current for +all practical purpose flowed from the European to the American +continent, with all batteries removed, showing that the tension was so +much greater in Europe as to cause the electricity to flow through the +copper cable to this side in preference to passing through the earth +or the sea. It is also said that during an east-going storm it was +found impossible to work the telegraph lines between New York and +Buffalo, but on taking off the batteries at both ends and looping the +ends of the wire in the air, that a constant current of electricity +passed from Buffalo to New York, and the line was kept in constant use +in that direction without any battery connection until the storm +abated. Now, how far or to what advantage we may be able to utilize +this differential tension of electricity in the earth and the air, we +cannot now say; but I think that we may justly look for valuable +developments in this direction. + +If, as I verily believe, a process will soon be discovered by which +dynamic caloric can be produced by the oxidation of petroleum with +non-luminous combustion in an insulated chamber, as we now oxidize +zinc, electricity will then be obtained from so small a weight, and at +such a low cost, as to insure aerial navigation beyond a doubt. Not +with balloons and their cumbrous inflations, but with machines capable +of carrying the load, and traveling by displacement of the air at high +velocities. Therefore we may expect that aerial navigation will be +developed in the near future to be one of the greatest enterprises of +the world. + +And lastly, will it pay to use luminous combustion as a first power +for generating dynamic caloric for use as a second power, as is now +practiced? + +At the University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, gas is consumed in +an Otto gas engine, which drives a Gramme generator; and the lecture +room is lighted with electricity, and I am informed that the light is +both better _and cheaper_ than when they used the gas in the ordinary +gas burners. Hence we may expect to see gas consumed to advantage for +producing electric lights. + +Considering the difficulties of transmitting steam power to a +considerable distance, and the comparative great cost of running small +engines, it is more than likely that electricity as at present +generated will be found to be economical for driving small motors. + +Having thus endeavored to explain what electricity is, and the laws +which govern the occlusion of static caloric, and the development of +dynamic caloric (electricity), in conclusion I call the attention of +the inventors of the age to the great need of a process for oxidizing +coal or oil at a low degree, within an insulated vessel. With such an +invention electricity would be obtained at such a low cost that it +would be used exclusively to light and heat our houses, to smelt, +refine, and manipulate our metals, to propel our cars, wagons, +carriages, and ships, cook our food, and drive all machinery requiring +motive power. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRIC LIGHT APPARATUS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES. + +By A.J. JARMAN. + + +For some time past it has been the desire of many photographers to +have at hand a ready means of producing a powerful and highly actinic +artificial light, suitable for the production of negatives, and easily +controllable. Several forms of apparatus have been designed, and I +believe have been, to a certain extent, employed successfully in +portraiture. But it has been well known for many years that the +electric light was just the light that would answer the photographer's +requirements, owing to its possessing great actinic power; but the +cost of its production was too great for general adoption; indeed, +such might be said of it now as far as dynamo-electric machines and +steam or gas motors are concerned, for the majority of photographers. +It is true that several influential photographers have already adopted +the use of the electric light for portraiture, but the primary cost of +the apparatus employed by these firms is far beyond the reach of most +portraitists. The apparatus about to be described is one that has been +carefully worked out to meet the wants of the photographer in almost +every particular; in fact, with this apparatus, portraits can, and +have been, produced in an ordinary sitting room, as good and as +perfect as if taken in a well-lighted studio. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The generator of the electric current consists of a series of voltaic +elements of zinc and carbon--forty-eight in number--these elements +being made up of ninety-six zinc plates and forty-eight carbon plates; +thus the generator consists of forty-eight voltaic elements arranged +in rows of twelve; they are all carefully screwed upon suitable bars +of wood, and these bars are joined by other cross bars, which bind the +whole in a compact form; the battery being suitably connected so as to +produce a current of very high electro-motive force, and so arranged +over their exciting trough that the plates can be raised or lowered at +will, as seen in Fig. 1, which will explain itself almost at first +sight. + +The troughs are made of mahogany, put together with brass screws, and +well saturated with an insulating compound which also makes them acid +proof; the cells are charged with a saturated solution of bichromate +of potash, to which has been added twenty fluid ounces of sulphuric +acid to each gallon. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +To produce the electric current, all that is needed is to lower these +suspended elements down into the trough, having previously connected +the wires as shown in Fig. 1, to the electric lamp, Fig 2. At once a +light starts up, between the carbon pencils, of a thousand-candle +power or more. With a light of this power, a large head on cabinet or +carte size plate may be produced in three or four seconds. + +The generator occupies a floor space of three feet six inches by two +feet, and stands two feet six inches high. The cells will cost 5s. to +charge, and will produce upward of sixty negatives before being +exhausted. All that is necessary, in recharging, is to lift the +elements up out of the way, take out the troughs by their handles and +empty them, charging them again by means of a toilet jug. When +replaced, the whole apparatus is fit for use again; the whole of the +above operation occupies but a quarter of an hour, and as there are no +earthenware cells employed, there is no fear of breakage. + +The small amount of labor and cost of working the above apparatus will +compare favorably with the production of the electric light from a +dynamo-electric machine for the photographer, and when we consider +that the cost of the whole of the above apparatus, consisting of a +generator automatic lamp, reflector, and all the necessary +appendages, is less then one-tenth of the dynamo machine, motor, +shafting, etc., to produce the same result, it would seem to have a +greater claim for its adoption with those who wish to employ the +electric light, whether for work at night, use in the sitting room, or +to assist daylight on the dark and foggy days of winter. + +Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the electric lamp. A is the automatic +regulator; B, the reflector; C, top extension of the reflector; D, +small tissue paper screen to prevent the intense arc-rays from coming +in contact with the sitter; E, stand with sliding rod. This appendage +can be wheeled about with ease, as it is arranged to run upon four +casters. + +When the generator is in use it may be placed within easy reach of the +operator, so that the exposure may be made by lowering the elements in +their troughs just for the requisite time, and withdrawing immediately +the exposure is made; there is no need to fear any inconvenience from +deleterious fumes as none are given off, so it may be used in any +studio or sitting-room without any inconvenience from this source, and +as far as many trials have gone, it seems to meet every requirement +demanded by the photographer for the production of portraits by means +of the electric light.--_Photo. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DESRUELLES'S ELECTRIC LIGHTER + + +[Illustration: ELECTRIC LIGHTER.] + +The little apparatus shown in the accompanying cut will certainly find +favor with smokers, as well as with persons generally who often have +need of a fire or light. It forms one of the most direct applications +of dry piles of all the systems on the Desruelles plan. Instead of +filling piles with a liquid, this plan contemplates the introduction +into them of a sort of asbestos sponge saturated with an acid or any +suitable solution. In this way there is obtained the advantage of +having a pile which is in some sort _dry_, that may be moved, shaken, +or upset without any outflow of liquid, and which will prove of +special value when applied to movable apparatus, such as portable +lighters, alarms on ships, railroads, etc. It is hardly necessary to +say that while the introduction of this inert substance diminishes the +volume of the liquid, the electro-motive force of the pile is thereby +in nowise affected, but its internal resistance is increased. This, +however, is of no consequence in the application under consideration. +The lighter consists of a small, round, wooden box containing the +pile, and surmounted by a spirit lamp. A platinum spiral opposite the +wick serves for producing the light. The pile is a bichromate of +potash element, in which there is substituted for the liquid a +solution of bichromate identical with that used in bottle piles. The +zinc is suspended from a small lever, in which it is only necessary to +press slightly to bring the former in contact with the asbestos paste, +when, the zinc being attached, a current is set up which traverses the +spiral, heats it to redness, and lights the spirit. The pile, when +once charged, may be used for several hundred lightings. When the +spiral no longer becomes red hot, it is only necessary to replace the +paste--an operation of extreme simplicity. When the pressure is +removed from the little lever, the zinc, being raised, is no longer +acted upon by the liquid with which the asbestos is saturated. Mr +Desruelles is constructing upon the same principle a gas lighter, the +pile of which is fixed at the extremity of a handle whose length +varies with the height of the gas burners to be reached. These little +domestic apparatus are being exhibited at the Paris Electrical +Exhibition. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOLENOID UNDERGROUND WIRES IN PHILADELPHIA. + + +The _Evening Bulletin_ of the 29th October has the following: + +This afternoon a series of experiments were conducted at the Public +Buildings which will be of great interest to electricians all over the +country, and upon which the success of a number of underground +telegraph projects in different parts of the United States depends. In +all projects of this kind the problem which has given most trouble to +inventors has been to overcome the induction. In other words, electric +currents will leave their original conductors and pass to other +conductors which may be near at hand. This interchange of currents may +take place without seriously hindering ordinary telegraphy, as the +indicators are not delicate enough to detect the induction. When +telephones came into use, however, the induction became a great source +of trouble to electricians, it often being the case that the sounds +and influences from without were sufficient to drown out sounds in a +telephone. To-day's experiment was conducted by Mr. J.F. Shorey, a +well-known electrician, who exhibited Dr. Orazio Lugo's cables for +electric light, telephone, and telegraphic purposes. + +A large number of prominent electricians were present, including the +following: General J.H. Wilson, President of the N.Y. and N.E. +Railroad, of Boston; Messrs. Frank L Pope, S.L.M Barlow, George B. +Post, Charles G. Francklyn, Col. J.F. Casey, W.H. Bradford, and Selim +R. Grant, of New York; James Gamble, General Manager of the Mutual +Union Telegraph Co.; T.E. Cornich and W.D. Sargent, of the Bell +Telegraph Co.; S.S. Garwood and J.E. Zeublen, of the Western Union, +and others. + +The principal tests were made through the conduits on Market Street, +laid by the National Underground Electric Company as far as Ninth +Street. A cable of five conductors was laid through the conduit. Two +of these conductors consisted of simple "circuit wires," while the +other three were what is known as "solenoids." A solenoid wire is a +single straight wire, connected at each end with and wound closely +around by another insulated wire, this forming a complete system, the +electric currents returning into themselves. Electricians claim that +the solenoid effectually overcomes all induction, and this afternoon +experiments were made for the purpose of proving that assertion. In +the telephones, connected by the ordinary wires, a constant burr and +click could be heard, that sound being the induction from the wires on +the poles on Market Street, sixty feet overhead. With the solenoid the +only sound in the telephones was the voices of the persons speaking. +The faintest whispers could be heard distinctly, and the ease and +comfort of conversation was in marked contrast to the other telephone +on the ground wires. A set of telegraph indicators was also attached +to the wires in use in the cable. The sounds were transferred from one +"ground wire" to the other, while the solenoids seemed to resist every +influence but that directed upon them by the operators. Another +interesting test was made. The electric current for a Hauckhousen lamp +was passed through a long coil of solenoid wire. Separated from this +coil by a single newspaper, lay a coil of wire attached to telephones, +yet not a sound could be heard in the telephones but the voices of the +persons using them. The current of electricity created by a +dynamo-electric machine is of necessity a violent one, and in the use +of ordinary wires the induction would be so great that no other sounds +could possibly be heard in the telephones. + + * * * * * + + + + +DR. HERZ'S TELEPHONIC SYSTEMS. + + +In an article by Count du Moncel, published in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN +SUPPLEMENT, No 274, page 4364, the author, after describing Dr. +Herz's telephonic systems, deferred to another occasion the +description of a still newer system of the same inventor, because at +that time it had not been protected by patent. In the current number +of _La Lumiere Electrique_, Count Moncel returns to the subject to +explain the principles of these new apparatus of Dr. Herz, and says: + +I will first recall the fact that Dr. Herz's first system was based +upon the ingenious use (then new) of derivations. The microphone +transmitter was placed on a derivation from the current going to the +earth, taken in on leaving the pile, and the different contacts of the +microphone were themselves connected directly and individually with +the different elements of the pile. The telephone receiver was located +at the other end of the line, and when this receiver was a condenser +its armatures were, as a consequence of this arrangement, continuously +and preventively polarized, thus making it capable of reproducing +conversation. + +[Illustration: DR. HERZ'S TELEPHONIC SYSTEMS.] + +This arrangement evidently presented its advantages; but it likewise +possessed its inconveniences, one of the most important of these being +the necessity of employing rather strong piles and consequently of +exposing the line to those effects of charge which react in so +troublesome a manner in electrical transmissions when they occur on +somewhat lengthy lines. Now the fact should be recalled that Dr. +Herz's principal object was the application of the telephone to long +lines, and he has been applying himself to this problem ever since. He +at first thought of employing reversed currents, as in telegraphy; but +how was such a result to be attained with systems based upon the use +of sonorously-vibrating transmitters? He might have been able to solve +the problem with the secondary currents of an induction bobbin, as +Messrs. Gray, Edison, and others had done; but then he would no longer +have been benefited by those amplifications which are furnished by the +variations of pressure-derivations in microphones, and this led him to +endeavor to increase the effects of the induced currents themselves by +prolonging their duration, or rather by combining them in such a way +that they should succeed each other, two by two, in the same +direction; and this is the way he solved the problem in the beginning. + +The fact should also be recalled that Dr. Herz had, from his first +experiments, recognized the efficiency of those microphonic contacts +that are obtained by the superposition of carbon disks or other +semi-conducting substances. He has employed these under different +arrangements and with very diverse groupings, but, as a general thing, +it has been the horizontal arrangement which has given him the best +effects. + +Let us suppose, then, that four systems of contacts of this nature are +arranged at the four corners of an ebonite plate, C C (Figs. 1 and 2), +at A, A¹, B, B¹, and that they are connected with each other, as shown +in the cuts--that is to say, the upper disks, _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, +parallel with the sides of the plate, and the lower disks, A, A¹, B, +B¹, diagonally. Let us admit, further, that the plate pivots about an +axis, R; that the disks are traversed by small pins fixed in the +plate; and that small leaden disks rest upon the upper disks. Finally, +let us imagine that the plate is connected at one end, through a rod +T, with a telephone diaphragm. Now it will be readily understood that +the vibrations produced by the diaphragm will cause the oscillation of +the plate, C C, and that there will result therefrom, on the part of +the disks, two effects that will succeed one another. The first will +be, for the ascending vibrations, an increase of pressure effected +between the disks of the left side, by reason of their force of +inertia being increased by that of the lead disks; and the second will +be, for the disks to the right, and, for the same reason, a reduction +of pressure which will take place through resilience, at the moment of +change in direction of the vibrating motions. + +If the current from a pile, P, traverses all these disks, through the +connections that we have just mentioned, and passes through the +primary helix (through the wire, I) of an induction coil H H' (Fig. +2), located beneath the apparatus, and if the secondary current from +this bobbin corresponds, through the wire I, with a telephone line in +which there is interposed a telephone or a speaking condenser, there +will be set up an inverse induced current, which, being reversed as a +consequence of the crosswise connections of the disks, will continue +the action of the first or increase its duration, and, consequently, +its force, through the telephone receiver. + +The results of this system are very good; but Dr. Herz has endeavored +to simplify it still further, and with this object in view has +experimented on several arrangements. For example, to obtain inversion +a contact was simply placed on each side of the vibrating plate. +Although the movements of this latter are not, as we know, of the +nature of ordinary sonorous vibrations, it was thought that they might +prove to be in opposite directions on the two sides of the plate, and +that one of the contacts might be compressed while the other was free. +So notwithstanding the advantages of this arrangement, it was thought +necessary to place the plate vertically in order to give the same +regulation to the two contacts which it is essential should be +identical. But it became difficult to regulate by weight; and even to +succeed in regulating at all, it became necessary to employ two +parallel diaphragms, vibrating in unison, and each carrying its +contact, but in opposite directions. Afterwards, the horizontal +arrangement was again adopted; but, by a clever combination, the two +principles applied by Dr. Herz--derivation and inversion--were united. +The current is then led to a double contact, where it divides. This +contact is arranged under the plate in such a way that its two points +of variable resistance act in opposite directions to each other, or, +in some apparatus, so that one of the points has no variation, while +the other is in action. The result that occurs may be easily imagined. +The system has been experimented with under different forms; in one +case the derivation is simple, that is, a single one of the currents +being sent into the line, while in another case it is double, each of +the branches being provided with a bobbin and communicating with the +receiver. In the latter case the result is remarkably good, but the +apparatus is not free from a certain amount of complication, and +demands, moreover, particular care in its construction, experience +having shown that the induction coils must not be equal, but that they +must present resistances combined according to the circuit doing duty. +It should be added that researches have been continued as to the +bodies proper to be employed as microphonic contact, with the result +of bringing out the important fact that the number of substances that +can be put to this use is almost unlimited. The contacts of the Herz +apparatus are now being made of conducting bodies (metals for example) +reduced to powder and conglomerated by chemical means with a sort of +non-conductive cement. The proportion of the elements depends upon the +conductivity of the materials employed, and it alone determines the +microphonic value of the compound, the nature of the elements +apparently having scarcely any influence. + +Nor has the speaking condenser been neglected. As regards this, +efforts have seemingly been made toward finding a convenient +arrangement and a regular mode of construction, the good working of +these apparatus being absolutely dependent upon the care with which +they are set up. + +In Dr. Herz's opinion, the telephone is not to remain a single +apparatus, varied only as to form, but, on the contrary, must be +actually modified according to the purposes for which it is designed. +He thinks that a telephone operating at great distances must differ +from a city apparatus, and that an instrument for transmitting song +can not be absolutely the same as one for conversational purposes. So +he has endeavored to create types that shall prove appropriate for +these different applications. + + * * * * * + + + + +DECISION OF THE CONGRESS OF ELECTRICIANS ON THE UNITIES OF +ELECTRIC MEASURES. + + +For these measures there are adopted the fundamental +unities--centimeter, gramme, second, and this system is briefly +designated by the letters C., G., S. The practical units, the _ohm_ and +the _volt_, will retain their present definitions; the ohm is a +resistance equal to 10^{9} absolute unities (C., G., S.), and the volt +is an electromotive force equal to 10^{8} absolute unities (C., G., S.). +The practical unit of resistance (ohm) will be represented by a column +of mercury of 1 square mm. in section at the temperature of 0 deg.C. An +international commission will be charged with ascertaining for +practice, by means of new experiments, the height of this column of +mercury representing the ohm. The name _ampere_ will be given to the +current produced by the electromotor force of 1 volt in a circuit +whose resistance is 1 ohm. _Coulomb_ is the quantity of electricity +defined by the condition that in the current of an ampere the section +of the conductor is traversed by a coulomb per second. _Farad_ is the +capacity defined by the condition that a coulomb in a condenser, whose +capacity is a farad, establishes a difference of potential of a volt +between the armatures. + + * * * * * + + + + +SECONDARY BATTERIES. + +By J. ROUSSE. + + +In order to accumulate electricity for the production of light or +motive power, the author has arranged secondary batteries, which +differ from those of M.G. Plante. At the negative pole he uses a sheet +of palladium, which, during the electrolysis, absorbs more than 900 +times its volume of hydrogen. At the positive pole he uses a sheet of +lead. The electrolyzed liquid is sulphuric acid at one tenth. This +element is very powerful, even when of small dimensions. Another +secondary element which has also given good results, is formed at the +negative pole of a slender plate of sheet-iron. This plate absorbs +more than 200 times its volume of hydrogen when electrolyzed in a +solution of ammonium sulphate. The positive pole is formed of a plate +of lead, pure or covered with a stratum of litharge, or pure oxide, or +all these substances mixed. These metallic plates are immersed in a +solution containing 50 per cent. of ammonium sulphate. Another +arrangement is at the negative pole, sheet-iron; at the positive pole +a cylinder of ferro-manganese. The electrolyzed liquid contains 40 per +cent. ammonium sulphate. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TREATMENT OF QUICKSILVER ORES IN SPAIN. + + +Though known from remote times, the date of the first opening of the +famous mines of quicksilver of Almaden has not been precisely +determined. Almost all the writers on the subject agree that cinnabar, +from Spain, was already known in the times of Theophrastus, three +hundred years before the Christian era, although there is evidence in +the writings of Vitruvius that they were worked at a still earlier +date, Spanish ore being sent to Rome for the manufacture of vermilion. +Such ore constituted a part of the tribute which Spain paid to Rome +emperors, and there are records of its receipt until the first century +after Christ. The history of Almaden during the reign of the Moors is +so much involved in doubt that some writers deny altogether that the +Arabs worked the deposit; still the very name it now bears, which +means "the mine," and many of the technical terms still in use, give +evidence that they knew and worked that famous deposit. As for their +Christian conquerors, there are stray indications that they extracted +mercury during the twelfth and thirteen centuries. In 1417, Almaden +was given the privileges of a city, and from 1525 to 1645 the working +of mines was contracted for by the wealthy family of Fugger, of +Augsburg, Germany. Since then, the mine has been worked by the state, +though the Rothschilds have controlled the sale of the product. + +According to Vitruvius, the works for manufacturing vermilion from +Spanish ore in Rome were situated between the temple of Flora and +Quirino. The ore was dried and treated in furnaces, to remove the +native mercury it contained, and was then ground in iron mortars and +washed. In addition, small quantities of quicksilver and vermilion +were made at Almaden. The ancients describe other methods, among which +Theophrastus speaks of using vinegar, which, however, appears from +modern investigations to have been an erroneous account. Nothing +definite is known concerning the methods of the Moors; we possess only +as a proof that they produced mercury, an account of a quicksilver +fountain in the marvelous palace of Abderrahman III., at +Medina-Zahara, and the works of Rasis, an Arab. The Moors probably +extracted mercury at Almaden, from the eighth to the twelfth century, +by the use of furnaces called "xabecas," which latter, in the +fourteenth century, were still employed by the Christians, who +continued them till the seventeenth century, when German workmen +replaced them by "reverberatory" furnaces, which in turn were +superseded in 1646 by aludel or Bustamente furnaces. There is an +anonymous description of the working with xabecas as practiced at +Almaden in 1543, and later accounts in 1557 and 1565. The ore was put +into egg-shaped vessels with a lid, the mineral being covered over +with ashes. The vessels were packed in a furnace heated with wood, +about 60 pounds being used per pound of quicksilver made. This system +was also applied at the Guancavelica mines, discovered in Peru in +1566, where the xabecas were abandoned in 1633, being replaced by the +furnaces invented by Lope Saavedra Barba, which there were called +"busconiles," while in Spain they were named Bustamente furnaces, and +elsewhere aludel furnaces. They were introduced at Almaden thirteen +years after their first use in Peru by Juan Alfonso de Bustamente, +Barba and his son having been lost at sea on their way to the +Peninsula. In 1876, there were at Almaden, at the works at Buitrones, +twenty such aludel furnaces and two Idria furnaces. D. Luis de la +Escosura y Morrogh, from whose work we take the above notes, has +followed the historical details of the growth of Almaden closely, and +from his account of the method of working in 1878 we take some data: + +It is not an easy matter to explain the classification of the ore at +Almaden. _Metal_ is there called the richest mineral, composed of +quartz impregnated with crystalline cinnabar. _Requiebro_ are +middlings of medium richness, _China_ are smalls, and _Vaciscos_ the +finest ore. Besides native mercury, which the ores of Almaden contain +in greater or smaller quantity, the most abundant mineral is cinnabar, +which is always crystalline and is often crystallized. The ores have, +besides, a small quantity of selenium and iron pyrites intimately +mixed with the cinnabar. The gangue is quartz, occasionally +argillaceous and bituminous. The following are assays of some of the +ores made by Escosura: + + Metal. Requiebro. Vaciscos. China. + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + Cinnabar 29.1 21.2 13.3 10.2 5.1 2.8 1.2 0.86 + Iron pyrites. 2.2 2.0 2.0 1.9 12.3 1.5 2.1 2.80 + Bituminous matter 0.6 1.0 1.0 1.2 4.6 0.7 3.4 0.90 + Gangue 67.5 74.8 82.1 76.5 77.5 93.3 90.2 93.50 + ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----- + Total 99.4 94.0 98.8 98.9 99.5 98.3 98.7 98.06 + Quicksilver 25.05 18.28 11.47 8.64 4.40 2.41 1.03 0.75 + +It appears to be a difficult matter to determine the average +percentage of the various grades of ore. In 1872, a commission +classified and sampled a lot of 300 tons with the following results: + + Quantity, Per cent. Average of + Grade. No. kilos. mercury. grade. + + Metal { 1. 81,890 23.86 } + { 2. 14,970 22.65 } 24.80 + + Requiebro { 3. 12,240 15.20 } + { 4. 17,000 10.50 } 12.47 + + China { 5. 31,890 3.84 } + { 6. 32,360 1.17 } 1.75 + { 7. 28,960 0.10 } + + Vaciscos 8. 78,320 9.24 9.24 + +This general average of 12.28 per cent. of mercury is pronounced +higher than the usual run of the ore, which, it is stated, does not go +above 7 to 8.50 per cent. + +The furnace in which the ore is treated is cylindrical, 2 meters in +diameter, and 3.70 meters high from a brick grate, supported by three +arches to the arched roof. At the level of the grate is a charging +orifice, and near the roof are openings into two chambers, from the +bottom of which extend 12 lines of aludels, clay vessels, open at both +ends, the middle being expanded. The mouth of one fits into the back +end of the one following, a channel being thus formed through which +the fumes to be condensed are passed. The lines of aludels which are +laid on the ground terminate in a chamber, and for half the distance +between the furnaces and these chambers the ground slopes downward, +while for the other it slopes upward. Two furnaces are always placed +side by side, and the pair have from 1,100 to 1,150 aludels. + +The operation is as follows: A layer of poor quartz is spread over the +brick grate; this is followed by a layer of smalls, and then by a +layer of still finer stuff, all of it being low grade ore. On top of +this are piled two-thirds of the _china_ of the charge on which the +_metal_ is put. Then follows a layer of _requiebro_, another lot of +_china_, and finally the _vaciscos_, shaped into balls, the whole +charge amounting to about 111/2 tons, which is put in from an hour and a +half to two hours by three men. The charging orifice is then closed, +the aludels are luted, and everything made tight. The fires under the +brick grate are lighted and kept going for twelve hours, during which +time furnaces, charge, and condensing apparatus are heated up. During +this period, the temperature in the condensing-chamber at the end of +the line of aludels runs up 40 or 50 degrees Celsius, and some +mercury, evidently part of the native quicksilver, is noticed in it. + +The temperature of the aludels in the immediate vicinity of the +furnaces is about 140 degrees C. During this period, the consumption +of fuel is four parts to every part of quicksilver produced. At its +close, the fire is drawn, and the second period begins. The air +entering through the brick arch is heated to from 200 to 300 degrees +by contact with the layer of poor stuff, the cinnabar is ignited, and +its sulphur oxidized, and the quicksilver vaporized and, condensing in +the aludels, flows toward the depression in the central portion of the +line. The temperature goes on increasing, until, twelve hours after +the beginning of this period, the thermometer shows 212 degrees C. at +the first aludels. This lasts for 18 hours, and then the third or +"cooling period" begins, which takes from 24 to 26 hours, and during +the beginning of which the temperature in the furnaces still rises. It +is then opened and cooled down. A very elaborate series of +observations made on the temperatures of various parts of the +condensing apparatus of the Almaden furnaces has shown that at the +aludels nearest to them the heat increases steadily until it reaches +249 degrees C., 44 hours after the beginning of the operation; that in +the middle of the line, at the depression, the maximum is 50 degrees +50 hours after starting the fires; and that at the end it does not +surpass 39 degrees. In the final condensing chamber, the temperature +varied, running downward from 40 degrees during the heating period to +14 degrees, rising again to 29 degrees toward the close. + +The loss of the quicksilver during the operation has been vary +variously estimated, some stating that it is 50 per cent. and more, +while others place it at 30 per cent. Escosura, in his work, gives the +details of an operation checked by a royal commission in 1872, +according to which the loss in working ore running 9.55 per cent. was +only 4.41 per cent.--a loss which he considered inevitable. In 1806, +two Idria furnaces were put up at Almaden, but the engineers are not +favorably impressed with them. The first cost is stated to be more +than ten times greater than that of an aludel furnace, while the +capacity is only 50 per cent. greater. One pair of Idria furnaces in +five years produced 120,000 kilogrammes of quicksilver, against +843,000 kilogrammes made by eight sets of the Bustamente furnaces, the +cost per kilogramme of quicksilver being respectively 0.121 and 0.056 +peseta. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BALLOON IN AERONAUTICS. + + +While it is undoubtedly true that the discovery of the balloon has +very greatly retarded the science of aerostation, yet, in my opinion, +its field of usefulness as a vehicle for pleasure excursions, for +explorations, and for scientific investigations, has not been fully +developed for the want of certain improvements, the nature of which it +is the object of this paper to point out. The improvement of which I +am about to speak relates to the regulation of the buoyancy of the +balloon. This is now done by throwing out ballast or by allowing some +of the gas to escape--a method which necessitates the carrying of an +unwieldy amount of sand and the expenditure of an unnecessary amount +of gas. + +From the fire balloon invented by the Montgolfier Brothers, in 1782, +to the superior hydrogen balloon of M.M. Charles and Robert, no +material advancement has been made, except the employment of coal gas, +first suggested by Mr. Green. The vast surface presented to the wind +makes the balloon unmanageable in every breeze, and the aeronaut can +do nothing but allow it to float along with the current. This is a +difficulty which has been partly overcome, as was seen at the recent +Paris Electrical Exhibition; but no one will ever be able to guide it +in a direction opposite to a current of air. The aeronaut must ever +content himself in being able to float in the direction of the current +or at certain angles to its course; but to do this even is a matter +which has not been successfully accomplished. An inflated balloon +would ascend too high unless several hundred pounds of ballast were +used to weight it down. This ballast serves another purpose, it is +desirable to maintain the balloon at a uniform distance above the +earth's surface, and as the two per cent. daily waste of gas +diminishes the buoyancy of the balloon, it must be kept from +descending by throwing off a certain amount of sand. Again, the heat +of the sun and the action of warm air currents cause at times the +volume of gas to undergo a sudden expansion, and then to prevent the +balloon from running too high, the gas must be allowed to escape from +the valve. The gas, under these circumstances, must also be allowed to +escape in order to prevent the balloon from bursting. Presently the +balloon will pass through a colder current of air and sudden +condensation takes place, and the balloon would sink unless more +ballast were thrown off. This process continues until the aeronaut has +neither ballast nor gas left. + +Now, I suggest that a large balloon be made with the mouth closed, so +that no gas can escape; and that it carry enough ballast to keep it, +under an ordinary temperature, at a certain distance from the ground. +A pipe must enter the mouth of the balloon, one end of which opens in +its interior and the other end in a gas reservoir which lies in the +"basket" or "car." As soon as the gas undergoes an expansion, and a +certain amount of pressure is made in this reservoir, a valve opens +and a whistle signals the moment when the force pumps must be set to +work to pump the air out of the balloon into the large _number two_ +reservoir, the frame work of which forms the body of the car. Taking a +certain amount of gas out of the balloon is equivalent to taking on +more ballast, while by condensing this gas into a large reservoir, it +is not allowed to escape, and when necessary can be sent back into the +balloon and thus prevent the throwing off of ballast. Coal gas, under +a certain pressure, becomes heavier than air (or at least equally +heavy), and thus the gas pumped out of the balloon will of itself +serve as ballast. This invention will enable the balloonist to keep +himself at a uniform distance above the earth, will prevent the +carrying of so much ballast and the expensive waste of gas, and will +enable him to keep afloat at least ten times as long as by the old +method. I have made a model and tested the above theory. + + ELI C. OHMART. +North Manchester, Ind. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISTS' HOMES. NO. 12--MR. WILLIAM EMERSON'S HOUSE AT LITTLE +SUTTON, CHISWICK. + + +[Illustration] + +Little Sutton was an old house, parts of which were in existence +before the time of Cromwell. It is situated in a picturesque old +garden, surrounded by ivy-clad walls and fine trees, one of the cedars +being extraordinarily large and perfect, its huge branches covering a +space of over 90 ft. in diameter. The greater part of the old house, +being uninhabitable through decay, was pulled down; the old parts are +shown in black on the plan, and the new hatched. It is faced with red +bricks, and red Corsehill stone dressings, and covered with tiles The +plan was arranged so as to preserve the old kitchen, billiard-room, +morning room, and conservatory. The hall, entered from a veranda in +connection with the entrance-porch, is surrounded by a dado, the +height of doors; the lower panels are filled with tiles made to design +by the School of Art at Bombay. The woodwork is painted a mottled blue +color, harmonizing with the general tone of the tiles, the whole being +something the color of _lapis lazuli_. The staircase is divided from +the hall by three arches, through which is seen the staircase-window, +representing, in stained glass, the Earth, Air, and Water. Under the +central arch is the fireplace, on the hood of which will eventually be +a bronze figure of Orpheus, on a ground of mosaic. The floor is of +marble mosaic, and round the border are the various beasts listening +to the music, the trees and river, etc. Above the dado, and on the +wooden panels of ceiling, will be the birds, etc. The woodwork of +dining-room is plain American walnut, the panels of dado being filled +with dark Japanese leather-paper. The panels and beams of ceiling are +of stained and dull varnished fir. The drawing room woodwork, and +furniture throughout, is painted a mottled greenish blue, after the +same manner as the hall. The decorations of this room, when complete, +are intended to illustrate Chaucer's "House of Fame." The +chimney-piece, of alabaster, is surmounted by a Caen-stone design, on +a rock of glass, showing the entrance to the castle, with the various +figures mentioned in the poem, carved in half-round relief, and the +gateway itself also richly and quaintly carved; the rock of glass +representing the ice on which the castle was supposed to be built, +and on it are cut the various famous names of the world's history. In +the frieze all round the room will be the figure of Fame and the +various groups of suppliants, and the pillars with the groups +upholding the renown of ancient cities and nations, etc., executed in +very low relief, and painted on a ground of blue and gold. The panels +of ceilings will have conventional designs and the heavenly bodies on +ground of gold and blue. The morning and other rooms have no +particular scheme of decoration prepared, and are simply painted and +papered in quiet tones. + +[Illustration: ARTISTS' HOMES No. 12--LITTLE SUTTON, CHISWICK.] + +We publish a longitudinal section, taken through the hall and +drawing-room, with part of the dining-room on the left and part of the +library on the right-hand side. The beautifully-modeled plaster +frieze, with the central figure of Fame, is shown in the drawing-room, +and illustrates Chaucer's "House of Fame," the whole being elaborately +colored in harmony with the purposes and general tone of the room, +which is in blue and gold. The hooded mantelpiece in the library is +entirely in concrete, to be richly painted and gilded. The drawing, +with the assistance of the description, will explain +itself.--_Building News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +MEMORABLE ENGLISH HOUSES. + + +In the year 1864, a letter appeared in the _Journal of the Society of +Arts_ from a correspondent, who suggested that the Society of Arts +should offer a prize or prizes for designs of memorial tablets to be +affixed to houses associated with distinguished persons, and in the +same year a series of suggested inscriptions was reprinted from the +_Builder_. The subject having been brought under the notice of the +council, a committee was appointed in 1866 to consider and report how +the society might promote the erection of statues or other memorials +of persons eminent in arts, manufactures, and commerce, and, at the +first meeting of the committee, on May 7, Mr. George C.T. Bartley +submitted some memoranda on the proposal to place labels on houses in +the metropolis known to have been inhabited by celebrated persons In +1837, the first tablet was erected by the society in Holles Street, +Cavendish Square, on the house where Byron was born. Other tablets +were soon afterward put up, and the erection of these memorials has +been continued to the present time. + +The house in Leicester Square, upon which a tablet in memory of +Hogarth has been erected, is occupied by Archbishop Tenison's school, +for which the house was rebuilt. The original building, in which +Hogarth lived for several years, was long known as the "Sabloniere +Hotel." John Hunter lived next door after Hogarth's death. Of the four +worthies who were intimately connected with Leicester Square, viz, +Hunter, Hogarth, Newton and Reynolds, and whose busts are now set up +at the four corners of the inclosure, the last three have tablets +erected. + +The house in St. Martin's Street, which is now occupied by the schools +attached to the Orange Street Chapel, is in much the same condition as +when Sir Isaac Newton lived in it, from 1710 to 1727, except that the +old red bricks have been covered with stucco, and an observatory on +the roof has been taken away within the last few years. + +[Illustration: NEWTON'S HOUSE, ST. MARTIN'S STREET.] + +Flaxman had several London residences, but the house in Buckingham +Street, Fitzroy Square, is the one with which he is most intimately +associated, as he lived in it during the prime of his artistic career. +He went there in 1796, when he returned from Rome, and there he died +in 1826, being buried in the ground adjoining old St. Pancras Church +and belonging to the parish of St. Giles-in-the fields. The house is +on the south side of the street, close by Great Titchfield Street. + +[Illustration: FLAXMAN'S HOUSE, BUCKINGHAM STREET.] + +Canning's house, on the south side of Conduit Street is greatly +changed since the great statesman lived in it. It originally formed a +wing of Trinity Chapel, which has been swept away within the last few +years. This chapel was the successor of the chapel-on-wheels which was +used at the Hounslow camp in the reign of James II., and was +subsequently brought up to London. It is shown in Kip's view of old +Burlington House as standing in the fields at the back of that house. +When Conduit Street was built, a chapel was erected on the south side +to supersede the chapel-on-wheels. The house on the west side of the +chapel, where Canning lived for a time, was subsequently inhabited for +many years by the famous physician, Dr. Elliotson, F.R.S. After his +death, the front was altered, and a large shop window made, as seen +in the accompanying figure. It is now in the possession of Mr. +Streeter, the jeweler. + +[Illustration: CANNING'S HOUSE.] + +Dr. Johnson had so many residences in London that there is some +difficulty in choosing the one that is most interesting to us. The +house in Gough Square has special claims to attention, as it was there +that the great lexicographer chiefly compiled his dictionary. The +garret, with its slanting roof, in which his amanuenses worked, and +his own study are still to be been. Johnson himself, in his "Life of +Milton," observes, "I cannot but remark a kind of respect, perhaps +unconsciously, paid to this great man by his biographers; every house +in which he resided is historically mentioned, as if it were an injury +to neglect naming any place that he honored by his presence." +Emboldened by this expression of opinion, Boswell one evening, in the +year 1779, ventured to ask Johnson the names of some of his +residences, and he obtained the following list, which he printed in +his "Life of Johnson:" (1) Exeter Street, off Catherine Street, +Strand, (2) Greenwich; (3) Woodstock Street, near Hanover Square; (4) +Castle Street, Cavendish Square, No. 6, (5) Strand; (6) Boswell Court; +(7) Strand again; (8) Bow Street; (9) Holborn; (10) Fetter Lane; (11) +Holborn again, (12) Gough Square; (18) Staple's Inn; (14) Gray's Inn; +(15) Inner Temple Lane, No. 1; (16) Johnson's Court, No. 7; (17) Bolt +Court, No. 8. In this last place he died in 1784. + +[Illustration: JOHNSON'S HOUSE.] + +In April, 1879, the corporation of the city of London were asked to +co-operate in this work, and to undertake the erection of suitable +memorial tablets within the city boundaries. The matter was referred +to the city lands committee, with which body the secretary has had +several communications with respect to the localities suggested for +memorials, the result being that the committee agreed to erect such +tablets within the city boundaries.--_Journal of the Society of Arts._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DOMESTIC SUGAR PRODUCTION. + + +The value of sugar imported into the United States, is greater than +that of any other single article of commerce. In the year 1880 it +appears that over one thousand eight hundred and twenty-nine million +pounds of sugar were brought here from other countries, at a cost of +nearly one hundred and twenty million dollars, including customs duty. +Moreover, the consumption of sugar, _per capita_, in this country is +rapidly increasing. It was, during the ten years next preceding 1870, +only 28 pounds on the average per annum, but, in the ten years next +following, an average of 38 pounds per annum were consumed for each +person of the population of this country. This appears to be an +increase of 35 per centum in ten years. + +The subject of domestic cultivation of sugar bearing plants is, +therefore, one of great importance to this nation, and it has +accordingly engaged the attention of the U.S. Commissioner of +Agriculture, and many experiments have been made in different parts of +the country in the propagation of the various canes, roots, etc., from +which sugar can be made. Among sugar-bearing plants, beside the +regular sugar cane, are, sorghum, sugar beet, maple, watermelon, sweet +and white potato, and corn stalk. + +Statistics show that of the 12,000,000,000 pounds of sugar produced in +the world, about three-fourths comes from the sugar cane, and the +other fourth comes mainly from the sugar beet. Of the total quantity, +only about one seventieth is produced in the United States, and that +is mainly cane sugar from Louisiana. The beet sugar has formerly been +mainly produced in Europe. First France, second Germany, third Russia, +then Belgium, Austria, Holland, Sweden, and Italy. + +The consumption of sugar in Great Britain is much greater _per capita_ +than in the United States, about 65 pounds, or nearly double; while in +Germany 19 pounds per annum are used on an average by each person, and +in Russia the consumption is much less. + +The importance of this subject to the United States, where the +consumption of sugar is increasing out of ratio to the production of +sugar-bearing plants, and where agricultural independence should be +realized, as we have already attained and maintained political +independence, and almost independence in manufacturing industries, has +called out Mr. Lewis S. Ware, a member of the American Chemical +Society, etc., in a pamphlet of over 60 pages, entitled a "_Study of +the Various Sources of Sugar_." + +From this publication it appears that the main source of sugar supply +must still be _sucrose_, cane sugar, even in spite of the best efforts +of the general government and of the State agricultural organizations +to introduce sugar-bearing plants that will thrive in the temperate +and colder latitudes of this country. With the single exception of the +sugar beet, he seems to disparage all attempts to produce practical +sugar from hardy plants, or those that will mature in the region of +frosts in winter. Even sorghum, that has for twenty years held a place +in the hopes of the northern farmer, has declined so that the alleged +production of half a million pounds in 1866 had became barely a +twelfth of a million pounds in 1877. + +In his remarks on the synopsis of one hundred and eleven experiments, +made at Washington, he says: "As may be noticed, thirty-five of them +(111) would yield zero. If we take the average of the hundred and +eleven experiments, we find as a yield 4.5 per cent., which result +cannot possibly be practically accepted. In other words, our +government, notwithstanding the favorable conditions under which they +were made, prove that the sorghum utilization is fallacy in every +sense of the word." ... "If sorghum is to be grown for its sirup, or +for fodder, it will evidently render excellent service." It seems that +less than four per cent. of crystallizable sugar in the sorghum juice +will not pay the cost of making sugar from it, as it will not +crystallize in a reasonable time, on account of the glucose in the +juice, which, with the other impurities, will prevent the ready +crystallization of four or five times their own weight of sucrose. + +From the early history of sorghum, it appears that it was known as +_sorgo_ in the sixteenth century, while twenty or thirty varieties +were known under different names in Egypt, Arabia, and Africa. Some of +the names are, Chinese sugar cane, (sorgo), India cane, emphee or +Coffers' bread, paindes anges, etc. + +The later history of it shows that in 1850, Count Montigny sent the +first samples from China to Europe. It had been used in the former +country for thousands of years for the manufacture of red dye. The +seeds were afterward sold in France for a _franc_ each. + +A variety came later to this country from Africa, through the agency +of an Englishman named Wray, to whom is charged the effects of the +delusive experiments of trying to make crystallized sugar from its +juice, which have been going on in this country for twenty years. But +two varieties of sorghum now remain, known as the Chinese and African +types. Of all the other sugar plants, none except the maple tree +(besides the sugar cane and the beet) seem to have yielded sugar to +pay the cost of manufacture. The maple tree has yielded a total of +41,000,000 pounds in 1877. But as an industry by itself, it appears to +be unprofitable, and maple sugar must be, and generally is, sold at a +higher price per pound than cane sugar; moreover, it has not the +qualities that are required in a general sweetner for culinary +purposes. + +The variety of sugar plant called amber cane is not very clearly +defined, but it may be taken, from the description of the juice as to +crystallizing qualities, as no better sugar producer than sorghum. It, +with sorghum, is classed as a sub-variety of sugar cane, which will +yield sirup and fodder, but will not crystallize under several months' +time, and even then in but small percentage. + +On the whole it appears, as before stated, that the sugar beet is the +only practicable source of sugar for the Northern States, which, as +experimentally shown, can be raised at a profit of forty six dollars +per acre, against twenty dollars per acre, the profit of sugar making +from cane in Louisiana. Upon this showing several beet sugar factories +have been started in the United States and in Canada, and their +products are said to be satisfactory, and have been sold at a profit +in competition with imported beet sugar. + +Mr. Ware recommends the establishment of beet sugar factories on a +larger scale, to be managed by men who have had experience in this +particular kind of sugar making, which seems to be a practical means +of supplying ourselves with home-made sugar. It must be remembered, +however, that the successful cultivation of an ample supply of beets +to keep them at work is an essential prerequisite. + + * * * * * + + + + +HERALD ISLAND. + + +John Muir, the geologist with the Corwin Arctic Expedition, describes, +as follows, the characteristics of Herald Island, hitherto known only +as an inaccessible rock seen by a few venturesome whalers and +explorers: + +After so many futile efforts had been made to reach this little ice +bound island, everybody seemed wildly eager to run ashore and climb to +the summit of its sheer granite cliffs. At first a party of eight +jumped from the bowsprit chains and ran across the narrow belt of +margin ice and madly began to climb up an excessively steep gully, +which came to an end in an inaccessible slope a few hundred feet above +the water. Those ahead loosened and sent down a train of granite +bowlders, which shot over the heads of those below in a far more +dangerous manner than any of the party seemed to appreciate. +Fortunately nobody was hurt, and all made out to get down in safety. +While this remarkable piece of mountaineering and Arctic exploration +was in progress, a light skin-covered boat was dragged over the ice +and launched on a strip of water that stretched in front of an +accessible ravine, the bed of an ancient glacier, which I felt assured +would conduce by an easy grade to the summit of the island. The slope +of this ravine for the first hundred feet or so was very steep, but +inasmuch as it was full of firm, icy snow, it was easily ascended by +cutting steps in the face of it with an ax that I had brought from the +ship for the purpose. Beyond this there was not the slightest +difficulty in our way, the glacier having graded a fine, broad road. + + +ON THE SUMMIT. + +Kellet, who discovered this island in 1849, and landed on it under +unfavorable circumstances, describes it as an inaccessible rock. The +sides are, indeed, in general, extremely sheer and precipitous all +around, though skilled mountaineers would find many gullies and slopes +by which they might reach the summit. I first pushed on to the head of +the glacier valley, and thence along the back bone of the island to +the highest point, which I found to be about twelve hundred feet above +the level of the sea. This point is about a mile and a half from the +northwest end, and four and a half from the northeast end, thus making +the island about six miles in length. It has been cut nearly in two by +the glacial action it has undergone, the width at this lowest portion +being about half a mile, and the average width about two miles. The +entire island is a mass of granite with the exception of a patch of +metamorphic slate near the center, and no doubt owes its existence +with so considerable a height to the superior resistance this granite +offered to the degrading action of the northern ice sheet, traces of +which are here plainly shown, as well as on the shores of Siberia and +Alaska, and down through Behring Strait, southward, beyond Vancouver +Island. Traces of the subsequent partial glaciation it has been +subjected to are also manifested in glacial valleys of considerable +depth as compared with the size of the island. I noticed four of +these, besides many marginal glacial grooves around the sides. One +small remnant with feeble action still exists near the middle of the +island. I also noted several scored and polished patches on the +hardest and most enduring of the outswelling rock bosses. This little +island, standing as it does alone out in the Polar Sea, is a fine +glacial monument. + + +A MIDNIGHT OBSERVATION. + +The midnight hour I spent alone on the highest summit, one of the most +impressive hours of my life. The deepest silence seemed to press down +on all the vast, immeasurable, virgin landscape. The sun near the +horizon reddened the edges of belted cloud bars near the base of the +sky, and the jagged ice bowlders crowded together over the frozen +ocean stretching indefinitely northward, while more than a hundred +miles of that mysterious Wrangell Land was seen blue in the +northwest--a wavering line of hill and dale over the white and blue +ice prairie and pale gray mountains beyond, well calculated to fix the +eye of a mountaineer; but it was to the far north that I ever found +myself turning, where the ice met the sky. I would fain have watched +here all the strange night, but was compelled to remember the charge +given me by the captain, to make haste and return to the ship as soon +as I should find it possible, as there was ten miles of shifting, +drifting ice between us and the open sea. + + +PLANT LIFE ON HERALD ISLAND. + +I therefore began the return journey about one o'clock this morning, +after taking the compass bearings of the principal points within sight +on Wrangell Land, and making a hasty collection of the flowering +plants on my way. I found one species of poppy, quite showy, and +making considerable masses of color on the sloping uplands, three or +four species of saxifrage, one silene, a draba, dwarf willow, +stellaria, two golden compositae, two sedges, one grass, and a +veronica, together with a considerable number of mosses and lichens, +some of them quite showy and so abundant as to form the bulk of the +color over the gray granite. + + +INHABITANTS OF THE CLIFFS. + +Innumerable gulls and murres breed on the steep cliffs, the latter +most abundant. They kept up a constant din of domestic notes. Some of +them are sitting on their eggs, others have young, and it seems +astonishing that either eggs or the young can find a resting place on +cliffs so severely precipitous. The nurseries formed a lively +picture--the parents coming and going with food or to seek it, +thousands in rows standing on narrow ledges like bottles on a grocer's +shelves, the feeding of the little ones, the multitude of wings, etc. + + * * * * * + +M. Bouchut's experiments with pepsine for destroying worms in the +stomach and bowels have been continued with extremely promising +results. Even the tapeworm succumbs to the digestive action of pepsine +in large doses, while the more highly organized tissues of the stomach +are unaffected. + + * * * * * + + + + +FRANZ LISZT. + + +On the 22d day of October, 1811, Franz Liszt, the greatest pianist of +the last half century, was born at Raiding, in Hungary, and the entire +musical world was united in celebrating his seventieth birthday, which +took place this year. + +What can be more appropriate than to take a look at the past and +recall some of the important events of Liszt's so very interesting +life? To recall his first appearance as a "wonder" child in his native +town, the blessing and kiss he received a few years later from the +immortal Beethoven, his great triumphs in the Paris salons and the +defeat of his rival Thalberg. After the appearance of the violin +virtuoso Paganini, he resolved to attain the highest development of +his musical genius and to become so world-renowned as none has been +before him, and in this was successful. He has not only maintained his +standing as the greatest master of modern piano virtuosos, but has had +the greatest influence on his followers and scholars, Taussig, v. +Bulow, Mr. and Mme. Bronsart, Menter, and other younger and older +pianists who have had the benefits of his instruction for a greater or +less length of time, so that it can be justly claimed that the +majority of our present virtuosos owe their success and fame directly +or indirectly to the abilities of Liszt. + +Liszt is endowed with that great gift of treating every individual in +the manner most favorable to the development of its traces of artistic +ability and desires, and this accounts for his wonderful results as +instructor and master. + +[Illustration: FRANZ LISZT.] + +But no picture of Liszt would be perfect without a _resume_ or +recapitulation of his compositions. + +After a most perfect transposition and preparation of numerous works +of Beethoven, Schubert, and Berlioz, and after making their +compositions popular and introducing numerous valuable novelties in +the art of playing piano, he produced his "Symphonische Dichtungen" +(Symphonic Poems). + +These highly dramatic compositions, in which he follows Berlioz and +often produces the most astonishing effects of sounds, however, did +not find entire approbation with the public, and did not succeed in +popularizing themselves. But that fact can be recorded in his favor +that every programme containing Liszt's "Dante," or Faust Symphony, or +"Mazeppa," receives more than ordinary attention from the public. The +same is the case with his solo songs with piano accompaniment, in +which, however, ingenious details often tend to drown the original +melody. Of his quartets, some have become highly popular with singing +societies and form part of their _repertoire_. The crowning point of +Liszt's compositions is to be found in sacred music, for instance in +his mass known as the "Grauer Messe," composed for the dedication of +the Cathedral at Grau, in Hungary; the Crowning mass, and his two +oratorios, "Die heilige Elisabeth" and "Christus." But even they +caused a decided difference of opinion; and if some knew no bounds for +their enthusiasm, others could not find an end for their condemnation. +Such works should not be treated too lightly, and a thorough and +impartial examination will show that a place of honor must be accorded +to them in the history of music. Since the "Heilige Elisabeth" has +been produced in several cities of Germany it has been viewed more +favorably and disarmed many of the opponents. + +But Liszt also belongs to the literary fraternity, and his works, +published by Breitkopf & Hartel, contain some of the best ever written +in regard to art and artists. They were mostly written in elegant +French originally, and relate to the social position of artists and +the state of the art of music in certain cities or even an entire +country. A part of his works is devoted to the music of gypsies, and +to a true and honest history of the life of his friend Chopin. + +Then again we find him preparing the path to the hearts of the public +for Berlioz, Schumann, Wagner, Robert Franz, and Meyerbeer. Liszt has +certainly collected enormous sums of money in his successful career, +but as fast as he reaps his earnings he gives them to those needing +assistance, and it is almost entirely to him that the inhabitants of +Bonn, on the Rhine, owe their beautiful Beethoven Monument, and during +the last years Liszt has been untiring in giving concerts and +collecting money for a monument for the greatest of the great, Johann +Sebastian Bach. + +Liszt is an artist in every sense of the word, and we should all wish +that he will remain among us for many years more. + + * * * * * + + + + +M. GARNIER'S NEW METHODS OF PHOTOENGRAVING. + +By MAJOR J. WATERHOUSE, B.SC. + + +In one of the upper rooms of the Electrical Exhibition in Paris, there +is an interesting collection of plates and proofs produced by various +methods of photo-engraving, invented by M. Henri Garnier, whose name +is so well known in connection with these processes, and whose +beautiful plate of the Chateau of Maintenon gained for him a gold +medal at the Paris International Exhibition of 1867. + +Some interesting details of these processes are given in an extract +from a report on them by M. Davanne to the Societe d'Encouragement +pour l'Industrie Nationale, read at its sitting on the 22d July last, +of which copies are distributed gratis in the exhibition. + +The report opens with a brief allusion to M. Garnier's continuous +labors in permanent photographic printing, commencing with the +ingenious mercury process worked out in conjunction with M. Salmon, +and published in 1855, in which a print which has been exposed to the +fumes of iodine is laid down on a plate of polished brass, so that the +iodine, absorbed by the printed lines, slightly attacks the brass; +mercury being then rubbed over the brass, forms an amalgam with the +iodized parts. If a roller charged with printing ink be now passed +over the plate, the ink will only be taken on the pure brass, and not +on the iodized parts. The plate is next bitten with acid nitrate of +silver, and may then be treated in various ways, so as to form either +a printing-block or an engraved plate. The process never came to any +practical use, but led M. Garnier to the invention of the very +valuable and largely used process of acierage or steel-facing, by +which the surface of engraved copper-plates is so hardened and +protected by a thin coating of iron that instead of only a few hundred +impressions, many thousands can be printed from a plate without the +slightest deterioration. + +The next invention noticed is the citrate of iron process of M.M. +Salmon and Garnier, in which a paper, coated with a sirupy solution of +citrate of iron, is exposed to light under a positive print for a +period varying from eight to ten minutes in the sun, to half or +three-quarters of an hour in the shade. In the parts where the light +has acted the paper becomes non-hygroscopic in proportion to the +intensity of the action of the light upon it. The paper being left for +a short time to absorb moisture from the air, is dusted over with +lamp-black, which, attaching itself to the unexposed parts, reproduces +an exact image of the original drawing. + +M. Garnier has since greatly modified this method of obtaining an +image by dusting, and applied it to various processes of +photo-engraving. + +The report then proceeds to give the following details of a process of +photo-engraving, which was exhibited before the society by M. Garnier +in March last: + + +PHOTOGRAVURE. + +In photo-engraving a distinction must always be made between the +reproduction of drawings in line and those with shaded tints. + +A.--_Photo-engraving of Line-work._--A plate of copper is prepared by +covering it, either by flowing or with a roller, with a very thin +coating of a solution of: + + Sugar 2 grammes. + Bichromate of ammonia 1 gramme. + Water 14 grammes. + +This coating is equalized and quickly dried by means of an arrangement +which keeps it in rotation over a warm plate. + +As soon as the plate is dry, a positive cliche of the drawing to be +reproduced is laid upon it, and the whole exposed to the sun for a +minute, or to the electric light for three minutes. The reaction +produced is the same as with the citrate of iron, but much quicker; +the exposed parts are no longer hygroscopic, but in the parts +protected by the lines of the drawing the sensitive coating has +retained its stickiness, and will hold any powder that may be passed +over it, thus producing a very clear image of the drawing. The coating +being excessively thin, the little moisture it holds and the powder +applied suffice to break its continuity, especially if the powder be +slightly alkaline. If the rest of the surface were sufficiently +resisting, the plate might be bitten at once; but light alone is not +enough to produce complete impermeability: the action of heat must be +combined with it. The plate is, therefore, placed on a grating, with +wide openings, a large flame is applied underneath, and it is heated +till the borders where the copper is bare show iridescent colors. The +sugary coating thus becomes very hard in the exposed parts, but under +the powder it is broken, porous, and permeable to acids. The surface +is then covered with the biting fluid, which is a solution of +perchloride of iron at 45 deg. Baume, and after few minutes' contact the +plate is engraved. It only remains to clear off the bichromated sugary +coating which forms the reserve, and which, being hardened by the +heat, resists ordinary washing. It is removed perfectly by rubbing the +surface with a hard brush and warm potash lye; the plate is then ready +for printing. Sometimes it may be necessary to give several successive +bitings, or to use a resinous grain; in such cases the various methods +of the engraver's art are employed. + +B.--_Photo Engraving for Half-Tones._--To reproduce by engraving the +image of any object, a portrait, or a landscape, the gradation of tint +is obtained by repeating three times in the following manner the +operation A, just described: + +The copper plate being prepared as before, it is exposed to the light +under a positive, and given a long exposure, say four minutes, in the +electric light. The sugary coating hardens under the whites and the +lighter shades--it only remains tacky under the blacks. The positive +cliche is removed, the plate powdered, and bitten; the blacks alone +come out. + +The plate is cleaned, then coated again with the sugary preparation, +and exposed a second time under the positive, care being taken to +preserve an accurate register, which may easily be done. The second +exposure is not so long as the first--say two minutes, and gives the +image of the middle tints and blacks. The plate is powdered and bitten +as before, bringing out the middle tints, and, at the same time, +giving greater depth to the shadows. + +In the third operation, the plate is exposed still less to the +light--say one minute. The high-lights alone harden; the light shades, +middle tints, and the shadows remain permeable. After powdering and +biting, the plate is finished. + +When necessary, after each operation, a resinous grain may be applied +in the manner usual with engravers. + +It is important to note that M. Garnier affirms that in both cases the +engravings are untouched, and that this is one of the essential +characteristics of his process. + +C.--_Engraving in Relief for Letter-Press._--In the case of drawings +in lines to be made into printing-blocks for letter-press printing, +the operation is conducted in its first phase absolutely in the same +manner as the foregoing, only, after exposure, instead of producing +the image with a slightly alkaline powder, powdered bitumen is used, +and the plate is slightly warmed, so that the powder may slightly fuse +and adhere to the metal, but not enough to make the bichromated sugar +become insoluble. The plate is then washed with water, and all the +sugary coating removed, leaving the surface of the copper bare, except +where it is protected by the bitumen forming the image. The plate is +then bitten with perchloride of iron, which gives a first biting, +leaving all the lines in relief. Further depth is obtained by +alternate inkings and bitings, as in the Gillotype method. + +The above processes are very interesting, the use of the sugary +coating, the hardening it by heat, and the triple exposure and biting +are new--at any rate, have not, so far as I know, been published +before. + +The report then goes on to describe a further application of the same +principle to obtaining photographic images recently invented by M. +Garnier, and called by him atmography. + + +PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING BY VAPOR--ATMOGRAPHY. + +This process consists in tracing or transferring by means of vapors or +fumes an image of any object from one surface to another, whence the +name of atmography it is proposed to give it. The operations are as +follows: + +When an image formed of a powdery substance has been obtained either +by dusting (as described above), or by filling an engraved plate with +the powder, the plate bearing the image is exposed to a vapor, which +has no effect upon it. The powder alone absorbs the vapor, and if the +plate be then applied to a surface coated with some substance capable +of being acted upon by the vapor, an image is obtained upon this +second surface. For example, the lines of an engraved copper-plate are +filled with powdered albumen. On the other hand, a few drops of +hydrofluoric acid are spread over a wooden board, and the powdered +engraving is exposed for ten to fifteen seconds to the fumes +disengaged by holding it about a quarter-of-an-inch above the board. +The acid is absorbed by the powdered albumen without attacking the +copper. If this plate be now placed in close contact with any surface +(metal, paper, or glass) which has been covered with a coating of +sugar and borax, and dried immediately, a deliquescent fluoborate of +soda is produced under the action of the acid vapors, the sugar +becomes tacky, and, by brushing a powder over this surface, the image +appears immediately. + +In M. Davanne's opinion this new invention of M. Garnier's seems +likely to have a useful and extended application. The image may be +made with powder of any desired color. If it is on glass, it may be +transferred to paper or other support by means of collodion or +gelatine. By employing enamel powders, this process gives a new method +of producing vitrified images. It may also be used as a simple method +of reproducing engravings under certain circumstances; copies of +diagrams, however intricate, could easily be produced on glass by it, +and used for the illustration of lectures by means of the magic +lantern.--_Photo. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DANGERS OF PYROGALLIC ACID. + +By DR. T.L. PHIPSON. + + +Some time ago, Dr. Napias, of Paris, who devotes much of his time to +matters connected with hygiene, took up the subject of the hygiene of +the photographer, and published in the _Moniteur de la Photographie_ a +series of papers which were afterward translated into English and +published by Messrs. Piper & Carter, of London. In them the worthy +author has considered the action on the economy of the various +poisonous substances which pass daily through the hands of our +readers, and the best means of counteracting their influence. + +Since then--in fact, quite recently--attention has been called in the +medical journals to certain properties of pyrogallic acid which were +perfectly unknown, and show that this substance, even when applied +externally, may act as a violent poison causing death by its great +affinity for oxygen. I published a short note upon the subject in the +_Journal of Medicine_, etc., for April last, and it may perhaps be +useful to reproduce the facts here. Physicians who were unacquainted +with this energetic deoxidizing property of pyrogallic acid have +proposed it as a substitute for chrysophanic acid in the treatment of +skin diseases; but Dr. Neisser has made known a case of poisoning by +an ointment of pyrogallic acid, which at once shows that considerable +danger attends its use for this purpose. A man of strong constitution +was admitted into one of the wards of the Breslau Hospital to be +treated for general psoriasis. He appears to have been submitted to a +kind of experimental treatment in order to test the curative +properties of pyrogallic acid as compared with chrysarobine. He was +treated by friction with chrysarobine (in the form of a pomade of +alcoholic extract of rhubarb, containing one-twentieth) on the +one-half of the body, while the other half was treated in the same +manner by a pomade containing ten per cent. of pyrogallic acid. Six +hours after the application the patient had violent shivering with +vomiting and intense collapsus. Death occurred on the fourth day. +Experiments were at once undertaken on rabbits, and proved that this +catastrophe was due entirely to the pyrogallic acid pomade, and that +the chrysarobine was innocuous. In some instances the rabbit died +within two hours. It was also found that in the case of the patient in +the Breslau Hospital the pyrogallic acid had acted by its extreme +avidity for oxygen when in contact with alkaline fluids. The blood had +been affected, and the red corpuscles were destroyed and turned brown. +Very little urine was voided, but it presented a most extraordinary +character, being dark brown and very thick; it contained no blood +corpuscles, but a considerable amount of haemoglobine (the coloring +matter of the corpuscles), which was recognized by the absorption +bands it gave in the spectroscope. The kidneys were uniformly bluish +black. The blood had a dirty brownish red tint, and contained an +abundance of _detritus_ of red corpuscles. + +This case points out once more that photographers cannot use too much +prudence in dealing with chemical products which are in daily use by +them, and the noxious properties of which, they are apt to +forget.--_Photo News._ + + * * * * * + +A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may +be had gratis at this office. + + * * * * * + + +THE +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the +commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be +supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. 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