diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/17490.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/17490.txt | 5314 |
1 files changed, 5314 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/17490.txt b/old/17490.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..529e4f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/17490.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5314 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Memorable Thoughts of Socrates, by +Xenophon, Edited by Henry Morley, Translated by Edward Bysshe + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Memorable Thoughts of Socrates + + +Author: Xenophon + +Editor: Henry Morley + +Release Date: January 10, 2006 [eBook #17490] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEMORABLE THOUGHTS OF SOCRATES*** + + + + + + +Transcribed from the 1889 Cassell & Company edition by David Price, email +ccx074@coventry.ac.uk + + + + + +THE MEMORABLE THOUGHTS OF SOCRATES. +BY XENOPHON. + + +_TRANSLATED BY EDWARD BYSSHE_. + +CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED: +LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE. +1888. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +This translation of Xenophon's "Memorabilia of Socrates" was first +published in 1712, and is here printed from the revised edition of 1722. +Its author was Edward Bysshe, who had produced in 1702 "The Art of +English Poetry," a well-known work that was near its fifth edition when +its author published his translation of the "Memorabilia." This was a +translation that remained in good repute. There was another edition of +it in 1758. Bysshe translated the title of the book into "The Memorable +Things of Socrates." I have changed "Things" into "Thoughts," for +whether they be sayings or doings, the words and deeds of a wise man are +alike expressions of his thought. + +Xenophon is said to have been, when young, a pupil of Socrates. Two +authorities have recorded that in the flight from the battle of Delium in +the year B.C. 424, when Xenophon fell from his horse, Socrates picked him +up and carried him on his back for a considerable distance. The time of +Xenophon's death is not known, but he was alive sixty-seven years after +the battle of Delium. + +When Cyrus the Younger was preparing war against his brother Artaxerxes +Mnemon, King of Persia, Xenophon went with him. After the death of Cyrus +on the plains of Cunaxa, the barbarian auxiliaries fled, and the Greeks +were left to return as they could from the far region between the Tigris +and Euphrates. Xenophon had to take part in the conduct of the retreat, +and tells the story of it in his "Anabasis," a history of the expedition +of the younger Cyrus and of the retreat of the Greeks. His return into +Greece was in the year of the death of Socrates, B.C. 399, but his +association was now with the Spartans, with whom he fought, B.C. 394, at +Coroneia. Afterwards he settled, and lived for about twenty years, at +Scillus in Eleia with his wife and children. At Scillus he wrote +probably his "Anabasis" and some other of his books. At last he was +driven out by the Eleans. In the battle of Mantineia the Spartans and +Athenians fought as allies, and Xenophon's two sons were in the battle; +he had sent them to Athens as fellow-combatants from Sparta. His +banishment from Athens was repealed by change of times, but it does not +appear that he returned to Athens. He is said to have lived, and perhaps +died, at Corinth, after he had been driven from his home at Scillus. + +Xenophon was a philosophic man of action. He could make his value felt +in a council of war, take part in battle--one of his books is on the +duties of a commander of cavalry--and show himself good sportsman in the +hunting-field. He wrote a book upon the horse; a treatise also upon dogs +and hunting. He believed in God, thought earnestly about social and +political duties, and preferred Spartan institutions to those of Athens. +He wrote a life of his friend Agesilaus II., King of Sparta. He found +exercise for his energetic mind in writing many books. In writing he was +clear and to the point; his practical mind made his work interesting. His +"Anabasis" is a true story as delightful as a fiction; his "Cyropaedia" +is a fiction full of truths. He wrote "Hellenica," that carried on the +history of Greece from the point at which Thucydides closed his history +until the battle of Mantineia. He wrote a dialogue between Hiero and +Simonides upon the position of a king, and dealt with the administration +of the little realm of a man's household in his "OEconomicus," a dialogue +between Socrates and Critobulus, which includes the praise of +agriculture. He wrote also, like Plato, a symposium, in which +philosophers over their wine reason of love and friendship, and he paints +the character of Socrates. + +But his best memorial of his old guide, philosopher, and friend is this +work, in which Xenophon brought together in simple and direct form the +views of life that had been made clear to himself by the teaching of +Socrates. Xenophon is throughout opposing a plain tale to the false +accusations against Socrates. He does not idealise, but he feels +strongly, and he shows clearly the worth of the wisdom that touches at +every point the actual conduct of the lives of men. + +H. M. + + + + +BOOK I. + + +CHAPTER I. SOCRATES NOT A CONTEMNER OF THE GODS OF HIS COUNTRY, NOR AN +INTRODUCER OF NEW ONES. + + +I have often wondered by what show of argument the accusers of Socrates +could persuade the Athenians he had forfeited his life to the State. For +though the crimes laid unto his charge were indeed great--"That he did +not acknowledge the gods of the Republic; that he introduced new +ones"--and, farther, "had debauched the youth;" yet none of these could, +in the least, be proved against him. + +For, as to the first, "That he did not worship the deities which the +Republic adored," how could this be made out against him, since, instead +of paying no homage to the gods of his country, he was frequently seen to +assist in sacrificing to them, both in his own family and in the public +temples?--perpetually worshipping them in the most public, solemn, and +religious manner. + +What, in my opinion, gave his accusers a specious pretext for alleging +against him that he introduced new deities was this--that he had +frequently declared in public he had received counsel from a _divine +voice_, which he called his Demon. But this was no proof at all of the +matter. All that Socrates advanced about his demon was no more than what +is daily advanced by those who believe in and practise divination; and if +Socrates, because he said he received intelligence from his genius, must +be accused of introducing new divinities, so also must they; for is it +not certain that those who believe in divination, and practise that +belief, do observe the flight of birds, consult the entrails of victims, +and remark even unexpected words and accidental occurrences? But they do +not, therefore, believe that either the birds whose flight they observe +or the persons they meet accidentally know either their good or ill +fortune--neither did Socrates--they only believe that the gods make use +of these things to presage the future; and such, too, was the belief of +Socrates. The vulgar, indeed, imagine it to be the very birds and things +which present themselves to them that excite them to what is good for +them, or make them avoid what may hurt them; but, as for Socrates, he +freely owned that a demon was his monitor; and he frequently told his +friends beforehand what they should do, or not do, according to the +instructions he had received from his demon; and they who believed him, +and followed his advice, always found advantage by it; as, on the +contrary, they who neglected his admonitions, never failed to repent +their incredulity. Now, it cannot be denied but that he ought to have +taken care not to pass with his friends either for a liar or a visionary; +and yet how could he avoid incurring that censure if the events had not +justified the truth of the things he pretended were revealed to him? It +is, therefore, manifest that he would not have spoken of things to come +if he had not believed he said true; but how could he believe he said +true, unless he believed that the gods, who alone ought to be trusted for +the knowledge of things to come, gave him notice of them? and, if he +believed they did so, how can it be said that he acknowledged no gods? + +He likewise advised his friends to do, in the best manner they could, the +things that of necessity they were to do; but, as to those whose events +were doubtful, he sent them to the oracles to know whether they should +engage in them or not. And he thought that they who design to govern +with success their families or whole cities had great need of receiving +instructions by the help of divinations; for though he indeed held that +every man may make choice of the condition of life in which he desires to +live, and that, by his industry, he may render himself excellent in it, +whether he apply himself to architecture or to agriculture, whether he +throw himself into politics or economy, whether he engage himself in the +public revenues or in the army, yet that in all these things the gods +have reserved to themselves the most important events, into which men of +themselves can in no wise penetrate. Thus he who makes a fine plantation +of trees, knows not who shall gather the fruit; he who builds a house +cannot tell who shall inhabit it; a general is not certain that he shall +be successful in his command, nor a Minister of State in his ministry; he +who marries a beautiful woman in hopes of being happy with her knows not +but that even she herself may be the cause of all his uneasinesses; and +he who enters into a grand alliance is uncertain whether they with whom +he allies himself will not at length be the cause of his ruin. This made +him frequently say that it is a great folly to imagine there is not a +Divine Providence that presides over these things, and that they can in +the least depend on human prudence. He likewise held it to be a weakness +to importune the gods with questions which we may resolve ourselves; as +if we should ask them whether it be better to take a coachman who knows +how to drive than one who knows nothing of the matter? whether it be more +eligible to take an experienced pilot than one that is ignorant? In a +word, he counted it a kind of impiety to consult the oracles concerning +what might be numbered or weighed, because we ought to learn the things +which the gods have been pleased to capacitate us to know; but that we +ought to have recourse to the oracles to be instructed in those that +surpass our knowledge, because the gods are wont to discover them to such +men as have rendered them propitious to themselves. + +Socrates stayed seldom at home. In the morning he went to the places +appointed for walking and public exercises. He never failed to be at the +hall, or courts of justice, at the usual hour of assembling there, and +the rest of the day he was at the places where the greatest companies +generally met. There it was that he discoursed for the most part, and +whoever would hear him easily might; and yet no man ever observed the +least impiety either in his actions or his words. Nor did he amuse +himself to reason of the secrets of nature, or to search into the manner +of the creation of what the sophists call the world, nor to dive into the +cause of the motions of the celestial bodies. On the contrary, he +exposed the folly of such as give themselves up to these contemplations; +and he asked whether it was, after having acquired a perfect knowledge of +human things, that they undertook to search into the divine, or if they +thought themselves very wise in neglecting what concerned them to employ +themselves in things above them? He was astonished likewise that they +did not see it was impossible for men to comprehend anything of all those +wonders, seeing they who have the reputation of being most knowing in +them are of quite different opinions, and can agree no better than so +many fools and madmen; for as some of these are not afraid of the most +dangerous and frightful accidents, while others are in dread of what is +not to be feared, so, too, among those philosophers, some are of opinion +that there is no action but what may be done in public, nor word that may +not freely be spoken before the whole world, while others, on the +contrary, believe that we ought to avoid the conversation of men and keep +in a perpetual solitude. Some have despised the temples and the altars, +and have taught not to honour the gods, while others have been so +superstitious as to worship wood, stones, and irrational creatures. And +as to the knowledge of natural things, some have confessed but one only +being; others have admitted an infinite number: some have believed that +all things are in a perpetual motion; others that nothing moves: some +have held the world to be full of continual generations and corruptions; +others maintain that nothing is engendered or destroyed. He said besides +that he should be glad to know of those persons whether they were in +hopes one day to put in practice what they learned, as men who know an +art may practise it when they please either for their own advantage or +for the service of their friends; or whether they did imagine that, after +they found out the causes of all things that happen, they should be able +to cause winds and rains, and to dispose the times and seasons as they +had occasion for them; or whether they contented themselves with the bare +knowledge without expecting any farther advantage. + +This was what he said of those who delight in such studies. As for his +part, he meditated chiefly on what is useful and proper for man, and took +delight to argue of piety and impiety, of honesty and dishonesty, of +justice and injustice, of wisdom and folly, of courage and cowardice, of +the State, and of the qualifications of a Minister of State, of the +Government, and of those who are fit to govern; in short, he enlarged on +the like subjects, which it becomes men of condition to know, and of +which none but slaves should be ignorant. + +It is not strange, perhaps, that the judges of Socrates mistook his +opinion in things concerning which he did not explain himself; but I am +surprised that they did not reflect on what he had said and done in the +face of the whole world; for when he was one of the Senate, and had taken +the usual oath exactly to observe the laws, being in his turn vested with +the dignity of Epistate, he bravely withstood the populace, who, against +all manner of reason, demanded that the nine captains, two of whom were +Erasinides and Thrasilus, should be put to death, he would never give +consent to this injustice, and was not daunted at the rage of the people, +nor at the menaces of the men in power, choosing rather not to violate +the oath he had taken than to yield to the violence of the multitude, and +shelter himself from the vengeance of those who threatened him. To this +purpose he said that the gods watch over men more attentively than the +vulgar imagine; for they believe there are some things which the gods +observe and others which they pass by unregarded; but he held that the +gods observe all our actions and all our words, that they penetrate even +into our most secret thoughts, that they are present at all our +deliberations, and that they inspire us in all our affairs. + +It is astonishing, therefore, to consider how the Athenians could suffer +themselves to be persuaded that Socrates entertained any unworthy +thoughts of the Deity; he who never let slip one single word against the +respect due to the gods, nor was ever guilty of any action that savoured +in the least of impiety; but who, on the contrary, has done and said +things that could not proceed but from a mind truly pious, and that are +sufficient to gain a man an eternal reputation of piety and virtue. + + + +CHAPTER II. SOCRATES NOT A DEBAUCHER OF YOUTH. + + +What surprises me yet more is, that some would believe that Socrates was +a debaucher of young men! Socrates the most sober and most chaste of all +men, who cheerfully supported both cold and heat; whom no inconvenience, +no hardships, no labours could startle, and who had learned to wish for +so little, that though he had scarce anything, he had always enough. Then +how could he teach impiety, injustice, gluttony, impurity, and luxury? +And so far was he from doing so, that he reclaimed many persons from +those vices, inspiring them with the love of virtue, and putting them in +hopes of coming to preferment in the world, provided they would take a +little care of themselves. Yet he never promised any man to teach him to +be virtuous; but as he made a public profession of virtue, he created in +the minds of those who frequented him the hopes of becoming virtuous by +his example. + +He neglected not his own body, and praised not those that neglected +theirs. In like manner, he blamed the custom of some who eat too much, +and afterwards use violent exercises; but he approved of eating till +nature be satisfied, and of a moderate exercise after it, believing that +method to be an advantage to health, and proper to unbend and divert the +mind. In his clothes he was neither nice nor costly; and what I say of +his clothes ought likewise to be understood of his whole way of living. +Never any of his friends became covetous in his conversation, and he +reclaimed them from that sordid disposition, as well as from all others; +for he would accept of no gratuity from any who desired to confer with +him, and said that was the way to discover a noble and generous heart, +and that they who take rewards betray a meanness of soul, and sell their +own persons, because they impose on themselves a necessity of instructing +those from whom they receive a salary. He wondered, likewise, why a man, +who promises to teach virtue, should ask money; as if he believed not the +greatest of all gain to consist in the acquisition of a good friend, or, +as if he feared, that he who, by his means, should become virtuous, and +be obliged to him for so great a benefit, would not be sufficiently +grateful for it. Quite different from Socrates, who never boasted of any +such thing, and who was most certain that all who heard him and received +his maxims would love him for ever, and be capable of loving others also. +After this, whosoever says that such a man debauched the youth, must at +the same time say that the study of virtue is debauchery. + +But the accuser says that Socrates taught to despise the constitution +that was established in the Republic, because he affirmed it to be a +folly to elect magistrates by lots; since if anyone had occasion for a +pilot, a musician, or an architect, he would not trust to chance for any +such person, though the faults that can be committed by men in such +capacities are far from being of so great importance as those that are +committed in the government of the Republic. He says, therefore, that +such arguments insensibly accustom the youth to despise the laws, and +render them more audacious and more violent. But, in my opinion, such as +study the art of prudence, and who believe they shall be able to render +themselves capable of giving good advice and counsel to their +fellow-citizens, seldom become men of violent tempers; because they know +that violence is hateful and full of danger; while, on the contrary, to +win by persuasion is full of love and safety. For they, whom we have +compelled, brood a secret hatred against us, believing we have done them +wrong; but those whom we have taken the trouble to persuade continue our +friends, believing we have done them a kindness. It is not, therefore, +they who apply themselves to the study of prudence that become violent, +but those brutish intractable tempers who have much power in their hands +and but little judgment to manage it.--He farther said that when a man +desires to carry anything by force, he must have many friends to assist +him: as, on the contrary, he that can persuade has need of none but +himself, and is not subject to shed blood; for who would rather choose to +kill a man than to make use of his services, after having gained his +friendship and goodwill by mildness? + +The accuser adds, in proof of the ill tendency of the doctrine of +Socrates, that Critias and Alcibiades, who were two of his most intimate +friends, were very bad men, and did much mischief to their country. For +Critias was the most insatiable and cruel of all the thirty tyrants; and +Alcibiades the most dissolute, the most insolent, and the most audacious +citizen that ever the Republic had. As for me, I pretend not to justify +them, and will only relate for what reason they frequented Socrates. They +were men of an unbounded ambition, and who resolved, whatever it cost, to +govern the State, and make themselves be talked of. They had heard that +Socrates lived very content upon little or nothing, that he entirely +commanded his passions, and that his reasonings were so persuasive that +he drew all men to which side he pleased. Reflecting on this, and being +of the temper we mentioned, can it be thought that they desired the +acquaintance of Socrates, because they were in love with his way of life, +and with his temperance, or because they believed that by conversing with +him they should render themselves capable of reasoning aright, and of +well-managing the public affairs? For my part, I believe that if the +gods had proposed to them to live always like him, or to die immediately, +they would rather have chosen a sudden death. And it is easy to judge +this from their actions; for as soon as they thought themselves more +capable than their companions, they forsook Socrates, whom they had +frequented, only for the purpose I mentioned, and threw themselves wholly +into business. + +It may, perhaps, be objected that he ought not to have discoursed to his +friends of things relating to the government of the State, till after he +had taught them to live virtuously. I have nothing to say to this; but I +observe that all who profess teaching do generally two things: they work +in presence of their scholars, to show them how they ought to do, and +they instruct them likewise by word of mouth. Now, in either of these +two ways, no man ever taught to live well, like Socrates; for, in his +whole life, he was an example of untainted probity; and in his discourses +he spoke of virtue and of all the duties of man in a manner that made him +admired of all his hearers. And I know too very well that Critias and +Alcibiades lived very virtuously as long as they frequented him; not that +they were afraid of him, but because they thought it most conducive to +their designs to live so at that time. + +Many who pretend to philosophy will here object, that a virtuous person +is always virtuous, and that when a man has once come to be good and +temperate, he will never afterwards become wicked nor dissolute; because +habitudes that can be acquired, when once they are so, can never more be +effaced from the mind. But I am not of this opinion; for as they who use +no bodily exercises are awkward and unwieldy in the actions of the body, +so they who exercise not their minds are incapable of the noble actions +of the mind, and have not courage enough to undertake anything worthy of +praise, nor command enough over themselves to abstain from things that +are forbid. For this reason, parents, though they be well enough assured +of the good natural disposition of their children, fail not to forbid +them the conversation of the vicious, because it is the ruin of worthy +dispositions, whereas the conversation of good men is a continual +meditation of virtue. Thus a poet says, + + "By those whom we frequent, we're ever led: + Example is a law by all obeyed. + Thus with the good, we are to good inclined, + But vicious company corrupts the mind." + +And another in like manner: + + "Virtue and vice in the same man are found, + And now they gain, and now they lose their ground." + +And, in my opinion, they are in the right: for when I consider that they +who have learned verses by heart forget them unless they repeat them +often, so I believe that they who neglect the reasonings of philosophers, +insensibly lose the remembrance of them; and when they have let these +excellent notions slip out of their minds, they at the same time lose the +idea of the things that supported in the soul the love of temperance; +and, having forgot those things, what wonder is it if at length they +forget temperance likewise? + +I observe, besides, that men who abandon themselves to the debauches of +wine or women find it more difficult to apply themselves to things that +are profitable, and to abstain from what is hurtful. For many who live +frugally before they fall in love become prodigal when that passion gets +the mastery over them; insomuch that after having wasted their estates, +they are reduced to gain their bread by methods they would have been +ashamed of before. What hinders then, but that a man, who has been once +temperate, should be so no longer, and that he who has led a good life at +one time should not do so at another? I should think, therefore, that +the being of all virtues, and chiefly of temperance, depends on the +practice of them: for lust, that dwells in the same body with the soul, +incites it continually to despise this virtue, and to find out the +shortest way to gratify the senses only. + +Thus, whilst Alcibiades and Critias conversed with Socrates, they were +able, with so great an assistance, to tame their inclinations; but after +they had left him, Critias, being retired into Thessaly, ruined himself +entirely in the company of some libertines; and Alcibiades, seeing +himself courted by several women of quality, because of his beauty, and +suffering himself to be corrupted by soothing flatterers, who made their +court to him, in consideration of the credit he had in the city and with +the allies; in a word, finding himself respected by all the Athenians, +and that no man disputed the first rank with him, began to neglect +himself, and acted like a great wrestler, who takes not the trouble to +exercise himself, when he no longer finds an adversary who dares to +contend with him. + +If we would examine, therefore, all that has happened to them; if we +consider how much the greatness of their birth, their interest, and their +riches, had puffed up their minds; if we reflect on the ill company they +fell into, and the many opportunities they had of debauching themselves, +can we be surprised that, after they had been so long absent from +Socrates, they arrived at length to that height of insolence to which +they have been seen to arise? If they have been guilty of crimes, the +accuser will load Socrates with them, and not allow him to be worthy of +praise, for having kept them within the bounds of their duty during their +youth, when, in all appearance, they would have been the most disorderly +and least governable. This, however, is not the way we judge of other +things; for whoever pretended that a musician, a player on the lute, or +any other person that teaches, after he has made a good scholar, ought to +be blamed for his growing more ignorant under the care of another master? +If a young man gets an acquaintance that brings him into debauchery, +ought his father to lay the blame on the first friends of his son among +whom he always lived virtuously? Is it not true, on the contrary, that +the more he finds that this last friendship proves destructive to him, +the more reason he will have to praise his former acquaintance. And are +the fathers themselves, who are daily with their children, guilty of +their faults, if they give them no ill example? Thus they ought to have +judged of Socrates; if he led an ill life, it was reasonable to esteem +him vicious; but if a good, was it just to accuse him of crimes of which +he was innocent? + +And yet he might have given his adversaries ground to accuse him, had he +but approved, or seemed to approve those vices in others, from which he +kept himself free: but Socrates abhorred vice, not only in himself, but +in everyone besides. To prove which, I need only relate his conduct +toward Critias, a man extremely addicted to debauchery. Socrates +perceiving that this man had an unnatural passion for Euthydemus, and +that the violence of it would precipitate him so far a length as to make +him transgress the bounds of nature, shocked at his behaviour, he exerted +his utmost strength of reason and argument to dissuade him from so wild a +desire. And while the impetuosity of Critias' passion seemed to scorn +all check or control, and the modest rebuke of Socrates had been +disregarded, the philosopher, out of an ardent zeal for virtue, broke out +in such language, as at once declared his own strong inward sense of +decency and order, and the monstrous shamefulness of Critias' passion. +Which severe but just reprimand of Socrates, it is thought, was the +foundation of that grudge which he ever after bore him; for during the +tyranny of the Thirty, of which Critias was one, when, together with +Charicles, he had the care of the civil government of the city, he failed +not to remember this affront, and, in revenge of it, made a law to forbid +teaching the art of reasoning in Athens: and having nothing to reproach +Socrates with in particular, he laboured to render him odious by +aspersing him with the usual calumnies that are thrown on all +philosophers: for I have never heard Socrates say that he taught this +art, nor seen any man who ever heard him say so; but Critias had taken +offence, and gave sufficient proofs of it: for after the Thirty had +caused to be put to death a great number of the citizens, and even of the +most eminent, and had let loose the reins to all sorts of violence and +rapine, Socrates said in a certain place that he wondered very much that +a man who keeps a herd of cattle, and by his ill conduct loses every day +some of them, and suffers the others to fall away, would not own himself +to be a very ill keeper of his herd; and that he should wonder yet more +if a Minister of State, who lessens every day the number of his citizens, +and makes the others more dissolute, was not ashamed of his ministry, and +would not own himself to be an ill magistrate. This was reported to +Critias and Charicles, who forthwith sent for Socrates, and showing him +the law they had made, forbid him to discourse with the young men. Upon +which Socrates asked them whether they would permit him to propose a +question, that he might be informed of what he did not understand in this +prohibition; and his request being granted, he spoke in this manner: "I +am most ready to obey your laws; but that I may not transgress through +ignorance, I desire to know of you, whether you condemn the art of +reasoning, because you believe it consists in saying things well, or in +saying them ill? If for the former reason, we must then, from +henceforward, abstain from speaking as we ought; and if for the latter, +it is plain that we ought to endeavour to speak well." At these words +Charicles flew into a passion, and said to him: "Since you pretend to be +ignorant of things that are so easily known, we forbid you to speak to +the young men in any manner whatever." "It is enough," answered +Socrates; "but that I may not be in a perpetual uncertainty, pray +prescribe to me, till what age men are young." "Till they are capable of +being members of the Senate," said Charicles: "in a word, speak to no man +under thirty years of age." "How!" says Socrates, "if I would buy +anything of a tradesman who is not thirty years old am I forbid to ask +him the price of it?" "I mean not so," answered Charicles: "but I am not +surprised that you ask me this question, for it is your custom to ask +many things that you know very well." Socrates added: "And if a young +man ask me in the street where Charicles lodges, or whether I know where +Critias is, must I make him no answer?" "I mean not so neither," +answered Charicles. Here Critias, interrupting their discourse, said: +"For the future, Socrates, you must have nothing to do with the city +tradesmen, the shoemakers, masons, smiths, and other mechanics, whom you +so often allege as examples of life; and who, I apprehend, are quite +jaded with your discourses." "I must then likewise," replied Socrates, +"omit the consequences I draw from those discourses; and have no more to +do with justice, piety, and the other duties of a good man." "Yes, yes," +said Charicles; "and I advise you to meddle no more with those that tend +herds of oxen; otherwise take care you lose not your own." And these +last words made it appear that Critias and Charicles had taken offence at +the discourse which Socrates had held against their government, when he +compared them to a man that suffers his herd to fall to ruin. + +Thus we see how Critias frequented Socrates, and what opinion they had of +each other. I add, moreover, that we cannot learn anything of a man whom +we do not like: therefore if Critias and Alcibiades made no great +improvement with Socrates, it proceeded from this, that they never liked +him. For at the very time that they conversed with him, they always +rather courted the conversation of those who were employed in the public +affairs, because they had no design but to govern.--The following +conference of Alcibiades, in particular, which he had with Pericles, his +governor--who was the chief man of the city, whilst he was yet under +twenty years of age--concerning the nature of the laws, will confirm what +I have now advanced. + +"Pray," says Alcibiades, "explain to me what the law is: for, as I hear +men praised who observe the laws, I imagine that this praise could not be +given to those who know not what the law is." "It is easy to satisfy +you," answered Pericles: "the law is only what the people in a general +assembly ordain, declaring what ought to be done, and what ought not to +be done." "And tell me," added Alcibiades, "do they ordain to do what is +good, or what is ill?" "Most certainly what is good." Alcibiades +pursued: "And how would you call what a small number of citizens should +ordain, in states where the people is not the master, but all is ordered +by the advice of a few persons, who possess the sovereignty?" "I would +call whatever they ordain a law; for laws are nothing else but the +ordinances of sovereigns." "If a tyrant then ordain anything, will that +be a law?" "Yes, it will," said Pericles. "But what then is violence +and injustice?" continued Alcibiades; "is it not when the strongest makes +himself be obeyed by the weakest, not by consent, but by force only?" "In +my opinion it is." "It follows then," says Alcibiades, "that ordinances +made by a prince, without the consent of the citizens, will be absolutely +unjust." "I believe so," said Pericles; "and cannot allow that the +ordinances of a prince, when they are made without the consent of the +people, should bear the name of laws." "And what the chief citizens +ordain, without procuring the consent of the greater number, is that +likewise a violence?" "There is no question of it," answered Pericles; +"and in general, every ordinance made without the consent of those who +are to obey it, is a violence rather than a law." "And is what the +populace decree, without the concurrence of the chiefs, to be counted a +violence likewise, and not a law?" "No doubt it is," said Pericles: "but +when I was of your age, I could resolve all these difficulties, because I +made it my business to inquire into them, as you do now." "Would to +God," cried Alcibiades, "I had been so happy as to have conversed with +you then, when you understood these matters better." To this purpose was +their dialogue. + +Critias and Alcibiades, however, continued not long with Socrates, after +they believed they had improved themselves, and gained some advantages +over the other citizens, for besides that they thought not his +conversation very agreeable, they were displeased that he took upon him +to reprimand them for their faults; and thus they threw themselves +immediately into the public affairs, having never had any other design +but that. The usual companions of Socrates were Crito, Chaerephon, +Chaerecrates, Simmias, Cebes, Phaedon, and some others; none of whom +frequented him that they might learn to speak eloquently, either in the +assemblies of the people, or in the courts of justice before the judges; +but that they might become better men, and know how to behave themselves +towards their domestics, their relations, their friends, and their fellow- +citizens. All these persons led very innocent lives; and, whether we +consider them in their youth or examine their behaviour in a more +advanced age, we shall find that they never were guilty of any bad +action, nay, that they never gave the least ground to suspect them of +being so. + +But the accuser says that Socrates encouraged children to despise their +parents, making them believe that he was more capable to instruct them +than they; and telling them that as the laws permit a man to chain his +own father if he can convict him of lunacy, so, in like manner, it is but +just that a man of excellent sense should throw another into chains who +has not so much understanding. I cannot deny but that Socrates may have +said something like this; but he meant it not in the sense in which the +accuser would have it taken: and he fully discovered what his meaning by +these words was, when he said that he who should pretend to chain others +because of their ignorance, ought, for the same reason, to submit to be +chained himself by men who know more than he. Hence it is that he argued +so often of the difference between folly and ignorance; and then he +plainly said that fools and madmen ought to be chained indeed, as well +for their own interest as for that of their friends; but that they who +are ignorant of things they should know, ought only to be instructed by +those that understand them. + +The accuser goes on, that Socrates did not only teach men to despise +their parents, but their other relations too; because he said that if a +man be sick, or have a suit in law, it is not his relations, but the +physicians, or the advocates who are of use to him. He further alleged +that Socrates, speaking of friends, said it was to no purpose to bear +goodwill to any man, if it be not in our power to serve him; and that the +only friends whom we ought to value are they who know what is good for +us, and can teach it to us: thus, says the accuser, Socrates, by +persuading the youth that he was the wisest of all men, and the most +capable to set others in the right road to wisdom, made them believe that +all the rest of mankind were nothing in comparison with him. I remember, +indeed, to have heard him sometimes talk after this manner of parents, +relations, and friends; and he observed besides, if I mistake not, that +when the soul, in which the understanding resides, is gone out of the +body, we soon bury the corpse; and even though it be that of our nearest +relation, we endeavour to put it out of our sight as soon as decently we +can. Farther, though every man loves his own body to a great degree, we +scruple not nevertheless to take from it all that is superfluous, for +this reason we cut our hair and our nails, we take off our corns and our +warts, and we put ourselves into the surgeons' hands, and endure caustics +and incisions; and after they have made us suffer a great deal of pain, +we think ourselves obliged to give them a reward: thus, too, we spit, +because the spittle is of no use in the mouth, but on the contrary is +troublesome. But Socrates meant not by these, or the like sayings, to +conclude that a man ought to bury his father alive, or that we ought to +cut off our legs and arms; but he meant only to teach us that what is +useless is contemptible, and to exhort every man to improve and render +himself useful to others; to the end that if we desire to be esteemed by +our father, our brother, or any other relation, we should not rely so +much on our parentage and consanguinity, as not to endeavour to render +ourselves always useful to those whose esteem we desire to obtain. + +The accuser says further against Socrates, that he was so malicious as to +choose out of the famous poets the passages that contained the worst +instructions, and that he made use of them in a sly manner, to inculcate +the vices of injustice and violence: as this verse of Hesiod, + + "Blame no employment, but blame idleness." + +And he pretends that Socrates alleged this passage to prove that the poet +meant to say that we ought not to count any employment unjust or +dishonourable, if we can make any advantage of it. This, however, was +far from the thoughts of Socrates; but, as he had always taught that +employment and business are useful and honourable to men, and that +idleness is an evil, he concluded that they who busy themselves about +anything that is good are indeed employed; but that gamesters and +debauched persons, and all who have no occupations, but such as are +hurtful and wicked, are idle. Now, in this sense, is it not true to +say:-- + + "Blame no employment, but blame idleness"? + +The accuser likewise says that Socrates often repeated, out of Homer, a +speech of Ulysses; and from thence he concludes that Socrates taught that +the poet advised to beat the poor and abuse the common people. But it is +plain Socrates could never have drawn such a wild and unnatural inference +from those verses of the poet, because he would have argued against +himself, since he was as poor as anyone besides. What he meant, +therefore, was only this, that such as are neither men of counsel nor +execution, who are neither fit to advise in the city nor to serve in the +army, and are nevertheless proud and insolent, ought to be brought to +reason, even though they be possessed of great riches. And this was the +true meaning of Socrates, for he loved the men of low condition, and +expressed a great civility for all sorts of persons; insomuch that +whenever he was consulted, either by the Athenians or by foreigners, he +would never take anything of any man for the instructions he gave them, +but imparted his wisdom freely, and without reward, to all the world; +while they, who became rich by his liberality, did not afterwards behave +themselves so generously, but sold very dear to others what had cost them +nothing; and, not being of so obliging a temper as he, would not impart +their knowledge to any who had it not in their power to reward them. In +short, Socrates has rendered the city of Athens famous throughout the +whole earth; and, as Lychas was said to be the honour of Sparta, because +he treated, at his own expense, all the foreigners who came to the feasts +of the Gymnopaedies, so it may, with much greater reason, be said of +Socrates that he was the glory of Athens, he who all his life made a +continual distribution of his goodness and virtues, and who, keeping open +for all the world the treasures of an inestimable wealth, never sent any +man out of his company but more virtuous, and more improved in the +principles of honour, than formerly he was. Therefore, in my opinion, if +he had been treated according to his merit, they should have decreed him +public honours rather than have condemned him to an infamous death. For +against whom have the laws ordained the punishment of death? Is it not +for thieves, for robbers, for men guilty of sacrilege, for those who sell +persons that are free? But where, in all the world, can we find a man +more innocent of all those crimes than Socrates? Can it be said of him +that he ever held correspondence with the enemy, that he ever fomented +any sedition, that he ever was the cause of a rebellion, or any other the +like mischiefs? Can any man lay to his charge that he ever detained his +estate, or did him or it the least injury? Was he ever so much as +suspected of any of these things? How then is it possible he should be +guilty of the crimes of which he was accused; since, instead of not +believing in the gods, as the accuser says, it is manifest he was a +sincere adorer of them? Instead of corrupting the youth, as he further +alleges against him, he made it his chief care to deliver his friends +from the power of every guilty passion, and to inspire them with an +ardent love for virtue, the glory, the ornament, and felicity of families +as well as of states? And this being fact (and fact it is, for who can +deny it?), is it not certain that the Republic was extremely obliged to +him, and that she ought to have paid him the highest honours? + + + +CHAPTER III. HOW SOCRATES BEHAVED THROUGH THE WHOLE OF HIS LIFE. + + +Having, therefore, observed myself that all who frequented him improved +themselves very much in his conversation, because he instructed them no +less by his example than by his discourses, I am resolved to set down, in +this work, all that I can recollect both of his actions and words. + +First, then, as to what relates to the service of the gods, he strictly +conformed to the advice of the oracle, who never gives any other answer +to those who inquire of him in what manner they ought to sacrifice to the +gods, or what honours they ought to render to the dead, than that +everyone should observe the customs of his own country. Thus in all the +acts of religious worship Socrates took particular care to do nothing +contrary to the custom of the Republic, and advised his friends to make +that the rule of their devotion to the gods, alleging it to be an +argument of superstition and vanity to dissent from the established +worship. + +When he prayed to the gods he besought them only to give him what is +good, because they know better than we do what things are truly good for +us; and he said that men who pray for silver, or for gold, or for the +sovereign authority, made as foolish requests as if they prayed that they +might play or fight, or desired any other thing whose event is uncertain, +and that might be likely to turn to their disadvantage. + +When he offered sacrifices he did not believe that his poverty rendered +them despicable in the presence of the gods; and, while he offered +according to his ability, he thought he gave as much as the rich, who +load the altars with costly gifts, for he held that it would be an +injustice in the gods to take more delight in costly sacrifices than in +poorer ones, because it would then follow that the offerings of the +wicked would for the most part be more acceptable to them than the gifts +of the good; and that, if this were so, we ought not to desire to live +one moment longer: he thought, therefore, that nothing was so acceptable +to the Deity as the homage that is paid him by souls truly pious and +innocent. To this purpose he often repeated these verses:-- + + "Offer to heaven according to thy pow'r: + Th' indulgent gracious gods require no more." + +And not only in this, but in all the other occasions of life, he thought +the best advice he could give his friends was to do all things according +to their ability. + +When he believed that the gods had admonished him to do anything, it was +as impossible to make him take a contrary resolution as it would have +been to have prevailed with him in a journey to change a guide that was +clear-sighted for one that knew not the way, and was blind likewise. For +this reason he pitied their folly, who, to avoid the derision of men, +live not according to the admonitions and commands of the gods; and he +beheld with contempt all the subtilties of human prudence when he +compared them with divine inspirations. + +His way of living was such that whoever follows it may be assured, with +the help of the gods, that he shall acquire a robust constitution and a +health not to be easily impaired; and this, too, without any great +expense, for he was content with so little that I believe there was not +in all the world a man who could work at all but might have earned enough +to have maintained him. He generally ate as long as he found pleasure in +eating, and when he sat down to table he desired no other sauce but a +sound appetite. All sorts of drink were alike pleasing to him, because +he never drank but when he was thirsty; and if sometimes he was invited +to a feast, he easily avoided eating and drinking to excess, which many +find very difficult to do in those occasions. But he advised those who +had no government of themselves never to taste of things that tempt a man +to eat when he is no longer hungry, and that excite him to drink when his +thirst is already quenched, because it is this that spoils the stomach, +causes the headache, and puts the soul into disorder. And he said, +between jest and earnest, that he believed it was with such meats as +those that Circe changed men into swine, and that Ulysses avoided that +transformation by the counsel of Mercury, and because he had temperance +enough to abstain from tasting them. + +As to love, his advice was to avoid carefully the company of beautiful +persons, saying it was very difficult to be near them and escape being +taken in the snare; and, having been told that Critobulus had given a +kiss to the son of Alcibiades, who was a very handsome youth, he held +this discourse to Xenophon, in the presence of Critobulus himself. + +"Tell me, Xenophon, what opinion have you hitherto had of Critobulus? +Have you placed him in the rank of the temperate and judicious; or with +the debauched and imprudent?" "I have always looked upon him," answered +Xenophon, "to be a very virtuous and prudent man." "Change your +opinion," replied Socrates, "and believe him more rash than if he threw +himself on the points of naked swords or leapt into the fire." "And what +have you seen him do," said Xenophon, "that gives you reason to speak +thus of him?" "Why, he had the rashness," answered Socrates, "to kiss +the son of Alcibiades, who is so beautiful and charming." "And is this +all?" said Xenophon; "for my part, I think I could also willingly expose +myself to the same danger that he did." "Wretch, that you are!" replied +Socrates. "Do you consider what happens to you after you have kissed a +beautiful face? Do you not lose your liberty? Do you not become a +slave? Do you not engage yourself in a vast expense to procure a sinful +pleasure? Do you not find yourself in an incapacity of doing what is +good, and that you subject yourself to the necessity of employing your +whole time and person in the pursuit of what you would despise, if your +reason were not corrupted?" "Good God!" cried Xenophon, "this is +ascribing a wonderful power to a kiss forsooth." "And are you surprised +at it?" answered Socrates. "Are there not some small animals whose bite +is so venomous that it causes insufferable pain, and even the loss of the +senses?" "I know it very well," said Xenophon, "but these animals leave +a poison behind them when they sting." "And do you think, you fool," +added Socrates, "that kisses of love are not venomous, because you +perceive not the poison? Know that a beautiful person is a more +dangerous animal than scorpions, because these cannot wound unless they +touch us; but beauty strikes at a distance: from what place soever we can +but behold her, she darts her venom upon us, and overthrows our judgment. +And perhaps for this reason the Loves are represented with bows and +arrows, because a beautiful face wounds us from afar. I advise you, +therefore, Xenophon, when you chance to see a beauty to fly from it, +without looking behind you. And for you, Critobulus, I think it +convenient that you should enjoin yourself a year's absence, which will +not be too long a time to heal you of your wound." + +As for such as have not strength enough to resist the power of love, he +thought that they ought to consider and use it as an action to which the +soul would never consent, were it not for the necessity of the body; and +which, though it be necessary, ought, nevertheless, to give us no +inquietude. As for himself, his continence was known to all men, and it +was more easy for him to avoid courting the most celebrated beauties, +than it is for others to get away from disagreeable objects. + +Thus we see what was his way of life in eating, drinking, and in the +affair of love. He believed, however, that he tasted of those pleasures +no less than they who give themselves much trouble to enjoy them; but +that he had not, like them, so frequent occasions for sorrow and +repentance. + + + +CHAPTER IV. SOCRATES PROVETH THE EXISTENCE OF A DEITY. + + +If there be any who believe what some have written by conjecture, that +Socrates was indeed excellent in exciting men to virtue, but that he did +not push them forward to make any great progress in it, let such reflect +a little on what he said, not only when he endeavoured to refute those +that boasted they knew all things, but likewise in his familiar +conversations, and let them judge afterwards if he was incapable to +advance his friends in the paths of virtue. + +I will, in the first place, relate a conference which he had with +Aristodemus, surnamed the Little, touching the Deity, for he had heard +that he never sacrificed to the gods; that he never addressed himself to +them in prayer; that he never consulted the oracles, and even laughed at +those that practised these things, he took him to talk in this manner:-- + +"Tell me, Aristodemus, are there any persons whom you value on account of +their merit?" He answered, "Yes, certainly." "Tell me their names," +added Socrates. Aristodemus replied: "For epic poetry I admire Homer as +the most excellent; for dithyrambics, Melanippides; Sophocles for +tragedy; Polycletes for statuary; and Zeuxis for painting." "Which +artists," said Socrates, "do you think to be most worthy of your esteem +and admiration: they who make images without soul and motion, or they who +make animals that move of their own accord, and are endowed with +understanding?" "No doubt the last," replied Aristodemus, "provided they +make them not by chance, but with judgment and prudence." Socrates went +on: "As there are some things which we cannot say why they were made, and +others which are apparently good and useful, tell me, my friend, whether +of the two you rather take to be the work of prudence than of hazard." +"It is reasonable," said Aristodemus, "to believe that the things which +are good and useful are the workmanship of reason and judgment." "Do not +you think then," replied Socrates, "that the first Former of mankind +designed their advantage when he gave them the several senses by which +objects are apprehended; eyes for things visible, and ears for sounds? Of +what advantage would agreeable scents have been to us if nostrils suited +to their reception had not been given? And for the pleasures of the +taste, how could we ever have enjoyed these, if the tongue had not been +fitted to discern and relish them? Further, does it not appear to you +wisely provided that since the eye is of a delicate make, it is guarded +with the eyelid drawn back when the eye is used, and covering it in +sleep? How well does the hair at the extremity of the eyelid keep out +dust, and the eyebrow, by its prominency, prevent the sweat of the +forehead from running into the eye to its hurt. How wisely is the ear +formed to receive all sorts of sounds, and not to be filled with any to +the exclusion of others. Are not the fore teeth of all animals fitted to +cut off proper portions of food, and their grinders to reduce it to a +convenient smallness? The mouth, by which we take in the food we like, +is fitly placed just beneath the nose and eyes, the judges of its +goodness; and what is offensive and disagreeable to our senses is, for +that reason, placed at a proper distance from them. In short, these +things being disposed in such order, and with so much care, can you +hesitate one moment to determine whether it be an effect of providence or +of chance?" "I doubt not of it in the least," replied Aristodemus, "and +the more I fix my thoughts on the contemplation of these things the more +I am persuaded that all this is the masterpiece of a great workman, who +bears an extreme love to men." "What say you," continued Socrates, "to +this, that he gives all animals a desire to engender and propagate their +kind; that he inspires the mothers with tenderness and affection to bring +up their young; and that, from the very hour of their birth, he infuses +into them this great love of life and this mighty aversion to death?" "I +say," replied Aristodemus, "that it is an effect of his great care for +their preservation." "This is not all," said Socrates, "answer me yet +farther; perhaps you would rather interrogate me. You are not, I +persuade myself, ignorant that you are endowed with understanding; do you +then think that there is not elsewhere an intelligent being? +Particularly, if you consider that your body is only a little earth taken +from that great mass which you behold. The moist that composes you is +only a small drop of that immense heap of water that makes the sea; in a +word, your body contains only a small part of all the elements, which are +elsewhere in great quantity. There is nothing then but your +understanding alone, which, by a wonderful piece of good fortune, must +have come to you from I know not whence, if there were none in another +place; and can it then be said that all this universe and all these so +vast and numerous bodies have been disposed in so much order, without the +help of an intelligent Being, and by mere chance?" "I find it very +difficult to understand it otherwise," answered Aristodemus, "because I +see not the gods, who, you say, make and govern all things, as I see the +artificers who do any piece of work amongst us." "Nor do you see your +soul neither," answered Socrates, "which governs your body; but, because +you do not see it, will you from thence infer you do nothing at all by +its direction, but that everything you do is by mere chance?" Aristodemus +now wavering said, "I do not despise the Deity, but I conceive such an +idea of his magnificence and self-sufficiency, that I imagine him to have +no need of me or my services." "You are quite wrong," said Socrates, +"for by how much the gods, who are so magnificent, vouchsafe to regard +you, by so much you are bound to praise and adore them." "It is needless +for me to tell you," answered Aristodemus, "that, if I believed the gods +interested themselves in human affairs, I should not neglect to worship +them." "How!" replied Socrates, "you do not believe the gods take care +of men, they who have not only given to man, in common with other +animals, the senses of seeing, hearing, and taste, but have also given +him to walk upright; a privilege which no other animal can boast of, and +which is of mighty use to him to look forward, to remote objects, to +survey with facility those above him, and to defend himself from any +harm? Besides, although the animals that walk have feet, which serve +them for no other use than to walk, yet, herein, have the gods +distinguished man, in that, besides feet, they have given him hands, the +instruments of a thousand grand and useful actions, on which account he +not only excels, but is happier than all animals besides. And, further, +though all animals have tongues, yet none of them can speak, like man's; +his tongue only can form words, by which he declares his thoughts, and +communicates them to others. Not to mention smaller instances of their +care, such as the concern they take of our pleasures, in confining men to +no certain season for the enjoying them, as they have done other animals. + +"But Providence taketh care, not only of our bodies, but of our souls: it +hath pleased the great Author of all, not only to give man so many +advantages for the body, but (which is the greatest gift of all, and the +strongest proof of his care) he hath breathed into him an intelligent +soul, and that, too, the most excellent of all, for which of the other +animals has a soul that knows the being of the Deity, by whom so many +great and marvellous works are done? Is there any species but man that +serves and adores him? Which of the animals can, like him, protect +himself from hunger and thirst, from heat and cold? Which, like him, can +find remedies for diseases, can make use of his strength, and is as +capable of learning, that so perfectly retains the things he has seen, he +has heard, he has known? In a word, it is manifest that man is a god in +comparison with the other living species, considering the advantages he +naturally has over them, both of body and soul. For, if man had a body +like to that of an ox the subtilty of his understanding would avail him +nothing, because he would not be able to execute what he should project. +On the other hand, if that animal had a body like ours, yet, being devoid +of understanding, he would be no better than the rest of the brute +species. Thus the gods have at once united in your person the most +excellent structure of body and the greatest perfection of soul; and now +can you still say, after all, that they take no care of you? What would +you have them do to convince you of the contrary?" "I would have them," +answered Aristodemus, "send on purpose to let me know expressly all that +I ought to do or not to do, in like manner as you say they do give you +notice." "What!" said Socrates, "when they pronounce any oracle to all +the Athenians, do you think they do not address themselves to you too, +when by prodigies they make known to the Greeks the things that are to +happen, are they silent to you alone, and are you the only person they +neglect? Do you think that the gods would have instilled this notion +into men, that it is they who can make them happy or miserable, if it +were not indeed in their power to do so? And do you believe that the +human race would have been thus long abused without ever discovering the +cheat? Do you not know that the most ancient and wisest republics and +people have been also the most pious, and that man, at the age when his +judgment is ripest, has then the greatest bent to the worship of the +Deity? + +"My dear Aristodemus, consider that your mind governs your body according +to its pleasure: in like manner we ought to believe that there is a mind +diffused throughout the whole universe that disposeth of all things +according to its counsels. You must not imagine that your weak sight can +reach to objects that are several leagues distant, and that the eye of +God cannot, at one and the same time, see all things. You must not +imagine that your mind can reflect on the affairs of Athens, of Egypt, +and of Sicily, and that the providence of God cannot, at one and the same +moment, consider all things. As, therefore, you may make trial of the +gratitude of a man by doing him a kindness, and as you may discover his +prudence by consulting him in difficult affairs, so, if you would be +convinced how great is the power and goodness of God, apply yourself +sincerely to piety and his worship; then, my dear Aristodemus, you shall +soon be persuaded that the Deity sees all, hears all, is present +everywhere, and, at the same time, regulates and superintends all the +events of the universe." + +By such discourses as these Socrates taught his friends never to commit +any injustice or dishonourable action, not only in the presence of men, +but even in secret, and when they are alone, since the Divinity hath +always an eye over us, and none of our actions can be hid from him. + + + +CHAPTER V. THE PRAISE OF TEMPERANCE. + + +And if temperance be a virtue in man, as undoubtedly it is, let us see +whether any improvement can be made by what he said of it. I will here +give you one of his discourses on that subject:-- + +"If we were engaged in a war," said he, "and were to choose a general, +would we make choice of a man given to wine or women, and who could not +support fatigues and hardships? Could we believe that such a commander +would be capable to defend us and to conquer our enemies? Or if we were +lying on our deathbed, and were to appoint a guardian and tutor for our +children, to take care to instruct our sons in the principles of virtue, +to breed up our daughters in the paths of honour and to be faithful in +the management of their fortunes, should we think a debauched person fit +for that employment? Would we trust our flocks and our granaries in the +hands of a drunkard? Would we rely upon him for the conduct of any +enterprise; and, in short, if a present were made us of such a slave, +should we not make it a difficulty to accept him? If, then, we have so +great an aversion for debauchery in the person of the meanest servant, +ought we not ourselves to be very careful not to fall into the same +fault? Besides, a covetous man has the satisfaction of enriching +himself, and, though he take away another's estate, he increases his own; +but a debauched man is both troublesome to others and injurious to +himself. We may say of him that he is hurtful to all the world, and yet +more hurtful to himself, if to ruin, not only his family, but his body +and soul likewise, is to be hurtful. Who, then, can take delight in the +company of him who has no other diversion than eating and drinking, and +who is better pleased with the conversation of a prostitute than of his +friends? Ought we not, then, to practise temperance above all things, +seeing it is the foundation of all other virtues; for without it what can +we learn that is good, what do that is worthy of praise? Is not the +state of man who is plunged in voluptuousness a wretched condition both +for the body and soul? Certainly, in my opinion, a free person ought to +wish to have no such servants, and servants addicted to such brutal +irregularities ought earnestly to entreat Heaven that they may fall into +the hands of very indulgent masters, because their ruin will be otherwise +almost unavoidable." + +This is what Socrates was wont to say upon this subject. But if he +appeared to be a lover of temperance in his discourses, he was yet a more +exact observer of it in his actions, showing himself to be not only +invincible to the pleasures of the senses, but even depriving himself of +the satisfaction of getting an estate; for he held that a man who accepts +of money from others makes himself a servant to all their humours, and +becomes their slave in a manner no less scandalous than other slaveries. + + + +CHAPTER VI. THE DISPUTE OF SOCRATES WITH ANTIPHON, THE SOPHIST. + + +To this end it will not be amiss to relate, for the honour of Socrates, +what passed between him and the sophist Antiphon, who designed to seduce +away his hearers, and to that end came to him when they were with him, +and, in their presence, addressed himself to him in these words:--"I +imagined, Socrates, that philosophers were happier than other men; but, +in my opinion, your wisdom renders you more miserable, for you live at +such a rate that no footman would live with a master that treated him in +the same manner. You eat and drink poorly, you are clothed very +meanly--the same suit serves you in summer and winter--you go barefoot, +and for all this you take no money, though it is a pleasure to get it; +for, after a man has acquired it, he lives more genteely and more at his +ease. If, therefore, as in all other sorts of arts, apprentices +endeavour to imitate their masters, should these who frequent your +conversation become like you, it is certain that you will have taught +them nothing but to make themselves miserable." + +Socrates answered him in the following manner:--"You think, Antiphon, I +live so poorly that I believe you would rather die than live like me. But +what is it you find so strange and difficult in my way of living? You +blame me for not taking money; is it because they who take money are +obliged to do what they promise, and that I, who take none, entertain +myself only with whom I think fit? You despise my eating and drinking; +is it because my diet is not so good nor so nourishing as yours, or +because it is more scarce and dearer, or lastly, because your fare seems +to you to be better? Know that a man who likes what he eats needs no +other _ragout_, and that he who finds one sort of drink pleasant wishes +for no other. As to your objection of my clothes, you appear to me, +Antiphon, to judge quite amiss of the matter; for, do you not know that +we dress ourselves differently only because of the hot or cold weather, +and if we wear shoes it is because we would walk the easier? But, tell +me, did you ever observe that the cold hath hindered me from going +abroad? Have you ever seen me choose the cool and fresh shades in hot +weather? And, though I go barefoot, do not you see that I go wherever I +will? Do you not know that there are some persons of a very tender +constitution, who, by constant exercise, surmount the weakness of their +nature, and at length endure fatigues better than they who are naturally +more robust, but have not taken pains to exercise and harden themselves +like the others? Thus, therefore, do not you believe that I, who have +all my life accustomed myself to bear patiently all manner of fatigues, +cannot now more easily submit to this than you, who have never thought of +the matter? If I have no keen desire after dainties, if I sleep little, +if I abandon not myself to any infamous amour, the reason is because I +spend my time more delightfully in things whose pleasure ends not in the +moment of enjoyment, and that make me hope besides to receive an +everlasting reward. Besides, you know very well, that when a man sees +that his affairs go ill he is not generally very gay; and that, on the +contrary, they who think to succeed in their designs, whether in +agriculture, traffic, or any other undertaking, are very contented in +their minds. Now, do you think that from anything whatsoever there can +proceed a satisfaction equal to the inward consciousness of improving +daily in virtue, and acquiring the acquaintance and friendship of the +best of men? And if we were to serve our friends or our country, would +not a man who lives like me be more capable of it than one that should +follow that course of life which you take to be so charming? If it were +necessary to carry arms, which of the two would be the best soldier, he +who must always fare deliciously, or he who is satisfied with what he +finds? If they were to undergo a siege who would hold out longest, he +who cannot live without delicacies, or he who requires nothing but what +may easily be had? One would think, Antiphon, that you believe happiness +to consist in good eating and drinking, and in an expensive and splendid +way of life. For my part, I am of opinion that to have need of nothing +at all is a divine perfection, and that to have need but of little is to +approach very near the Deity, and hence it follows that, as there is +nothing more excellent than the Deity, whatever approaches nearest to it +is likewise most near the supreme excellence." + +Another time Antiphon addressed himself to Socrates: "I confess you are +an honest, well-meaning man, Socrates; but it is certain you know little +or nothing, and one would imagine you own this to be true, for you get +nothing by your teaching. And yet, I persuade myself, you would not part +with your house, or any of the furniture of it, without some gratuity, +because you believe them of some small value; nay, you would not part +with them for less than they are worth: if, therefore, you thought your +teaching worth anything you would be paid for it according to its value; +in this, indeed, you show yourself honest, because you will not, out of +avarice, cheat any man, but at the same time you discover, too, that you +know but little, since all your knowledge is not worth the buying." + +Socrates answered him in this manner:--"There is a great resemblance +between beauty and the doctrine of philosophers; what is praiseworthy in +the one is so in the other, and both of them are subject to the same +vice: for, if a woman sells her beauty for money, we immediately call her +a prostitute; but if she knows that a man of worth and condition is +fallen in love with her, and if she makes him her friend, we say she is a +prudent woman. It is just the same with the doctrine of philosophers; +they that sell it are sophists, and like the public women, but if a +philosopher observe a youth of excellent parts, and teacheth him what he +knows, in order to obtain his friendship, we say of him, that he acts the +part of a good and virtuous citizen. Thus as some delight in fine +horses, others in dogs, and others in birds; for my part all my delight +is to be with my virtuous friends. I teach them all the good I know, and +recommend them to all whom I believe capable to assist them in the way to +perfection. We all draw together, out of the same fountain, the precious +treasures which the ancient sages have left us; we run over their works, +and if we find anything excellent we take notice of it and select it: in +short, we believe we have made a great improvement when we begin to love +one another." This was the answer he made, and when I heard him speak in +this manner I thought him very happy, and that he effectually stirred up +his hearers to the love of virtue. + +Another time when Antiphon asked him why he did not concern himself with +affairs of State, seeing he thought himself capable to make others good +politicians? he returned this answer:--"Should I be more serviceable to +the State if I took an employment whose function would be wholly bounded +in my person, and take up all my time, than I am by instructing every one +as I do, and in furnishing the Republic with a great number of citizens +who are capable to serve her?" + + + +CHAPTER VII. IN WHAT MANNER SOCRATES DISSUADED MEN FROM SELF-CONCEIT AND +OSTENTATION. + + +But let us now see whether by dissuading his friends from a vain +ostentation he did not exhort them to the pursuit of virtue. He +frequently said that there was no readier way to glory than to render +oneself excellent, and not to affect to appear so. To prove this he +alleged the following example:--"Let us suppose," said he, "that any one +would be thought a good musician, without being so in reality; what +course must he take? He must be careful to imitate the great masters in +everything that is not of their art; he must, like them, have fine +musical instruments; he must, like them, be followed by a great number of +persons wherever he goes, who must be always talking in his praise. And +yet he must not venture to sing in public: for then all men would +immediately perceive not only his ignorance, but his presumption and +folly likewise. And would it not be ridiculous in him to spend his +estate to ruin his reputation? In like manner, if any one would appear a +great general, or a good pilot, though he knew nothing of either, what +would be the issue of it? If he cannot make others believe it, it +troubles him, and if he can persuade them to think so he is yet more +unhappy, because, if he be made choice of for the steering of ships, or +to command an army, he will acquit himself very ill of his office, and +perhaps be the cause of the loss of his best friends. It is not less +dangerous to appear to be rich, or brave, or strong, if we are not so +indeed, for this opinion of us may procure us employments that are above +our capacity, and if we fail to effect what was expected of us there is +no remission for our faults. And if it be a great cheat to wheedle one +of your neighbours out of any of his ready money or goods, and not +restore them to him afterwards, it is a much greater impudence and cheat +for a worthless fellow to persuade the world that he is capable to govern +a Republic." By these and the like arguments he inspired a hatred of +vanity and ostentation into the minds of those who frequented him. + + + + +BOOK II. + + +CHAPTER I. A CONFERENCE OF SOCRATES WITH ARISTIPPUS CONCERNING PLEASURE +AND TEMPERANCE. + + +In the same manner, likewise, he encouraged his hearers by the following +arguments to support hunger and thirst, to resist the temptations of +love, to fly from laziness, and inure themselves to all manner of +fatigues. For, being told that one of them lived too luxuriously, he +asked him this question: "If you were entrusted, Aristippus, with the +education of two young men, one to be a prince and the other a private +man, how would you educate them? Let us begin with their nourishment, as +being the foundation of all." "It is true," said Aristippus, "that +nourishment is the foundation of our life, for a man must soon die if he +be not nourished." "You would accustom both of them," said Socrates, "to +eat and drink at a certain hour?" "It is likely I should?" "But which +of the two," said Socrates, "would you teach to leave eating before he +was satisfied, to go about some earnest business?" "Him, without doubt," +answered Aristippus, "whom I intended to render capable to govern, to the +end that under him the affairs of the Republic might not suffer by +delay." "Which of the two," continued Socrates, "would you teach to +abstain from drinking when he was thirsty, to sleep but little, to go +late to bed, to rise early, to watch whole nights, to live chastely, to +get the better of his favourite inclinations, and not to avoid fatigues, +but expose himself freely to them?" "The same still," replied +Aristippus. "And if there be any art that teaches to overcome our +enemies, to which of the two is it rather reasonable to teach it?" "To +him to," said Aristippus, "for without that art all the rest would avail +him nothing." "I believe," said Socrates, "that a man, who has been +educated in this manner, would not suffer himself to be so easily +surprised by his enemies as the most part of animals do. For some perish +by their gluttony, as those whom we allure with a bait, or catch by +offering them to drink, and who fall into the snares, notwithstanding +their fears and distrust. Others perish through their lasciviousness, as +quails and partridges, who suffer themselves to be decoyed by the +counterfeit voice of their females, and blindly following the amorous +warmth that transports them, fall miserably into the nets." "You say +true," said Aristippus. "Well, then," pursued Socrates, "is it not +scandalous for a man to be taken in the same snares with irrational +animals? And does not this happen to adulterers, who skulk and hide +themselves in the chambers and closets of married women, though they know +they run a very great risk, and that the laws are very strict and +rigorous against those crimes? They know themselves to be watched, and +that, if they are taken, they shall not be let go with impunity. In a +word, they see punishment and infamy hanging over the heads of criminals +like themselves. Besides, they are not ignorant, that there are a +thousand honourable diversions to deliver them from those infamous +passions, and yet they run hand over head into the midst of these +dangers, and what is this but to be wretched and desperate to the highest +degree?" "I think it so," answered Aristippus. "What say you to this," +continued Socrates, "that the most necessary and most important affairs +of life, as those of war and husbandry, are, with others of little less +consequence, performed in the fields and in the open air, and that the +greatest part of mankind accustom themselves so little to endure the +inclemency of the seasons, to suffer heat and cold? Is not this a great +neglect? and do you not think that a man who is to command others ought +to inure himself to all these hardships?" "I think he ought," answered +Aristippus. "Therefore," replied Socrates, "if they who are patient and +laborious, as we have said, are worthy to command, may we not say that +they who can do nothing of all this, ought never to pretend to any +office?" Aristippus agreed to it, and Socrates went on. + +"Since then you know the rank which either of these two sorts of men +ought to hold, amongst which would you have us place you?" "Me!" said +Aristippus; "why truly, not amongst those that govern; for that is an +office I would never choose. Let those rule who have a mind for it; for +my part, I envy not their condition. For, when I reflect that we find it +hard enough to supply our own wants, I do not approve of loading +ourselves, besides, with the necessities of a whole people; and that +being often compelled to go without many things that we desire, we should +engage ourselves in an employment that would render us liable to blame, +if we did not take care to supply others with everything they want: I +think there is folly in all this. For republics make use of their +magistrates as I do of my slaves, who shall get me my meat and drink, and +all other necessaries, as I command, and not presume to touch any of it +themselves; so, too, the people will have those, who govern the State, +take care to provide them with plenty of all things, and will not suffer +them to do anything for their own advantage. I think, therefore, that +all who are pleased with a hurry of affairs, and in creating business for +others, are most fit to govern, provided they have been educated and +instructed in the manner we mentioned. But, for my part, I desire to +lead a more quiet and easy life." + +"Let us," said Socrates, "consider whether they who govern lead more +happy lives than their subjects: among the nations that are known to us +in Asia, the Syrians, the Phrygians, and the Lydians, are under the +empire of the Persians. In Europe, the Maeotians are subject to the +Scythians; in Africa, the Carthaginians reign over the rest of the +Africans. Which now, in your opinion, are the most happy? Let us look +into Greece, where you are at present. Whose condition, think you, is +most to be desired, that of the nations who rule, or of the people who +are under the dominion of others?" "I can never," said Aristippus, +"consent to be a slave; but there is a way between both that leads +neither to empire nor subjection, and this is the road of liberty, in +which I endeavour to walk, because it is the shortest to arrive at true +quiet and repose." "If you had said," replied Socrates, "that this way, +which leads neither to empire nor subjection, is a way that leads far +from all human society, you would, perhaps, have said something; for, how +can we live among men, and neither command nor obey? Do you not observe +that the mighty oppress the weak, and use them as their slaves, after +they have made them groan under the weight of oppression, and given them +just cause to complain of their cruel usage, in a thousand instances, +both general and particular? And if they find any who will not submit to +the yoke, they ravage their countries, spoil their corn, cut down their +trees, and attack them, in short, in such a manner that they are +compelled to yield themselves up to slavery, rather than undergo so +unequal a war? Among private men themselves, do not the stronger and +more bold trample on the weaker?" "To the end, therefore, that this may +not happen to me," said Aristippus, "I confine myself not to any +republic, but am sometimes here, sometimes there, and think it best to be +a stranger wherever I am." "This invention of yours," replied Socrates, +"is very extraordinary. Travellers, I believe, are not now so much +infested on the roads by robbers as formerly, deterred, I suppose, by the +fate of Sinnis, Scyron, Procrustes, and the rest of that gang. What +then? They who are settled in their own country, and are concerned in +the administration of the public affairs, they have the laws in their +favours, have their relations and friends to assist them, have fortified +towns and arms for their defence: over and above, they have alliances +with their neighbours: and yet all these favourable circumstances cannot +entirely shelter them from the attempts and surprises of wicked men. But +can you, who have none of these advantages, who are, for the most part, +travelling on the roads, often dangerous to most men, who never enter a +town, where you have not less credit than the meanest inhabitant, and are +as obscure as the wretches who prey on the properties of others; in these +circumstances, can you, I say, expect to be safe, merely because you are +a stranger, or perhaps have got passports from the States that promise +you all manner of safety coming or going, or should it be your hard +fortune to be made a slave, you would make such a bad one, that a master +would be never the better for you? For, who would suffer in his family a +man who would not work, and yet expected to live well? But let us see +how masters use such servants. + +"When they are too lascivious, they compel them to fast till they have +brought them so low, that they have no great stomach to make love, if +they are thieves, they prevent them from stealing, by carefully locking +up whatever they could take: they chain them for fear they should run +away: if they are dull and lazy, then stripes and scourges are the +rewards we give them. If you yourself, my friend, had a worthless slave, +would you not take the same measures with him?" "I would treat such a +fellow," answered Aristippus, "with all manner of severity, till I had +brought him to serve me better. But, Socrates, let us resume our former +discourse." + +"In what do they who are educated in the art of government, which you +seem to think a great happiness, differ from those who suffer through +necessity? For you say they must accustom themselves to hunger and +thirst, to endure cold and heat, to sleep little, and that they must +voluntarily expose themselves to a thousand other fatigues and hardships. +Now, I cannot conceive what difference there is between being whipped +willingly and by force, and tormenting one's body either one way or the +other, except that it is a folly in a man to be willing to suffer pain." +"How," said Socrates, "you know not this difference between things +voluntary and constrained, that he who suffers hunger because he is +pleased to do so may likewise eat when he has a mind; and he who suffers +thirst because he is willing may also drink when he pleases. But it is +not in the power of him who suffers either of them through constraint and +necessity to relieve himself by eating and drinking the moment he desires +it? Besides, he that voluntarily embraceth any laborious exercise finds +much comfort and content in the hope that animates him. Thus the +fatigues of hunting discourage not the hunters, because they hope to take +the game they pursue. And yet what they take, though they think it a +reward for all their toil, is certainly of very little value. Ought not +they, then, who labour to gain the friendship of good men, or to overcome +their enemies, or to render themselves capable of governing their +families, and of serving their country, ought not these, I say, joyfully +to undertake the trouble, and to rest content, conscious of the inward +approbation of their own minds, and the regard and esteem of the +virtuous? And to convince you that it is good to impose labours on +ourselves, it is a maxim among those who instruct youth that the +exercises which are easily performed at the first attempt, and which we +immediately take delight in, are not capable to form the body to that +vigour and strength that is requisite in great undertakings, nor of +imprinting in the soul any considerable knowledge: but that those which +require patience, application, labour, and assiduity, prepare the way to +illustrious actions and great achievements. This is the opinion of good +judges, and of Hesiod in particular, who says somewhere-- + + 'To Vice, in crowded ranks, the course we steer, + The road is smooth, and her abode is near; + But Virtue's heights are reached with sweat and pain, + For thus did the immortal powers ordain. + A long and rough ascent leads to her gate, + Nor, till the summit's gained, doth toil abate.' + +And to the same purpose Epicharmus:-- + + "The gods confer their blessings at the price + Of labour--." + +Who remarks in another place-- + + "Thou son of sloth, avoid the charms of ease, + Lest pain succeed--." + +"Of the same opinion is Prodicus, in the book he has written of the life +of Hercules, where Virtue and Pleasure make their court to that hero +under the appearance of two beautiful women. His words, as near as I can +remember, are as follows:-- + +"'When Hercules,' says the moralist, 'had arrived at that part of his +youth in which young men commonly choose for themselves, and show, by the +result of their choice, whether they will, through the succeeding stages +of their lives, enter into and walk in the path of virtue or that of +vice, he went out into a solitary place fit for contemplation, there to +consider with himself which of those two paths he should pursue. + +"'As he was sitting there in suspense he saw two women of a larger +stature than ordinary approaching towards him. One of them had a genteel +and amiable aspect; her beauty was natural and easy, her person and shape +clean and handsome, her eyes cast towards the ground with an agreeable +reserve, her motion and behaviour full of modesty, and her raiment white +as snow. The other wanted all the native beauty and proportion of the +former; her person was swelled, by luxury and ease, to a size quite +disproportioned and uncomely. She had painted her complexion, that it +might seem fairer and more ruddy than it really was, and endeavoured to +appear more graceful than ordinary in her mien, by a mixture of +affectation in all her gestures. Her eyes were full of confidence, and +her dress transparent, that the conceited beauty of her person might +appear through it to advantage. She cast her eyes frequently upon +herself, then turned them on those that were present, to see whether any +one regarded her, and now and then looked on the figure she made in her +own shadow. + +"'As they drew nearer, the former continued the same composed pace, while +the latter, striving to get before her, ran up to Hercules, and addressed +herself to him in the following manner:-- + +"I perceive, my dear Hercules, you are in doubt which path in life you +should pursue. If, then, you will be my friend and follow me, I will +lead you to a path the most easy and most delightful, wherein you shall +taste all the sweets of life, and live exempt from every trouble. You +shall neither be concerned in war nor in the affairs of the world, but +shall only consider how to gratify all your senses--your taste with the +finest dainties and most delicious drink, your sight with the most +agreeable objects, your scent with the richest perfumes and fragrancy of +odours, how you may enjoy the embraces of the fair, repose on the softest +beds, render your slumbers sweet and easy, and by what means enjoy, +without even the smallest care, all those glorious and mighty blessings. + +"And, for fear you suspect that the sources whence you are to derive +those invaluable blessings might at some time or other fail, and that you +might, of course, be obliged to acquire them at the expense of your mind +and the united labour and fatigue of your body, I beforehand assure you +that you shall freely enjoy all from the industry of others, undergo +neither hardship nor drudgery, but have everything at your command that +can afford you any pleasure or advantage." + +"'Hercules, hearing the lady make him such offers, desired to know her +name, to which she answered, "My friends, and those who are well +acquainted with me, and whom I have conducted, call me Happiness; but my +enemies, and those who would injure my reputation, have given me the name +of Pleasure." + +"'In the meantime, the other lady approached, and in her turn accosted +him in this manner:--"I also am come to you, Hercules, to offer my +assistance; I, who am well acquainted with your divine extraction and +have observed the excellence of your nature, even from your childhood, +from which I have reason to hope that, if you would follow the path that +leadeth to my residence, you will undertake the greatest enterprises and +achieve the most glorious actions, and that I shall thereby become more +honourable and illustrious among mortals. But before I invite you into +my society and friendship I will be open and sincere with you, and must +lay down this as an established truth, that there is nothing truly +valuable which can be purchased without pains and labour. The gods have +set a price upon every real and noble pleasure. If you would gain the +favour of the Deity you must be at the pains of worshipping Him; if you +would be beloved by your friends you must study to oblige them; if you +would be honoured by any city you must be of service to it; and if you +would be admired by all Greece, on account of your probity and valour, +you must exert yourself to do her some eminent service. If you would +render your fields fruitful, and fill your arms with corn, you must +labour to cultivate the soil accordingly. Would you grow rich by your +herds, a proper care must be taken of them; would you extend your +dominions by arms, and be rendered capable of setting at liberty your +captive friends, and bringing your enemies to subjection, you must not +only learn of those that are experienced in the art of war, but exercise +yourself also in the use of military affairs; and if you would excel in +the strength of your body you must keep your body in due subjection to +your mind, and exercise it with labour and pains." + +"'Here Pleasure broke in upon her discourse--"Do you see, my dear +Hercules, through what long and difficult ways this woman would lead you +to her promised delights? Follow me, and I will show you a much shorter +and more easy way to happiness." + +"Alas!" replied the Goddess of Virtue, whose visage glowed with a passion +made up of scorn and pity, "what happiness can you bestow, or what +pleasure can you taste, who would never do anything to acquire it? You +who will take your fill of all pleasures before you feel an appetite for +any; you eat before you are hungry, you drink before you are athirst; +and, that you may please your taste, must have the finest artists to +prepare your viands; the richest wines that you may drink with pleasure, +and to give your wine the finer taste, you search every place for ice and +snow luxuriously to cool it in the heat of summer. Then, to make your +slumbers uninterrupted, you must have the softest down and the easiest +couches, and a gentle ascent of steps to save you from any the least +disturbance in mounting up to them. And all little enough, heaven knows! +for you have not prepared yourself for sleep by anything you have done, +but seek after it only because you have nothing to do. It is the same in +the enjoyments of love, in which you rather force than follow your +inclinations, and are obliged to use arts, and even to pervert nature, to +keep your passions alive. Thus is it that you instruct your +followers--kept awake for the greatest part of the night by debaucheries, +and consuming in drowsiness all the most useful part of the day. Though +immortal, you are an outcast from the gods, and despised by good men. +Never have you heard that most agreeable of all sounds, your own praise, +nor ever have you beheld the most pleasing of all objects, any good work +of your own hands. Who would ever give any credit to anything that you +say? Who would assist you in your necessity, or what man of sense would +ever venture to be of your mad parties? Such as do follow you are robbed +of their strength when they are young, void of wisdom when they grow old. +In their youth they are bred up in indolence and all manner of delicacy, +and pass their old age with difficulties and distress, full of shame for +what they have done, and oppressed with the burden of what they are to +do, squanderers of pleasures in their youth, and hoarders up of +afflictions for their old age. + +"On the contrary, my conversation is with the gods, and with good men, +and there is nothing excellent performed by either without my influence. +I am respected above all things by the gods and by the best of mortals, +and it is just I should. I am an agreeable companion to the artisan, a +faithful security to masters of families, a kind assistant to servants, a +useful associate in the arts of peace, a faithful ally in the labours of +war, and the best uniter of all friendships. + +"My votaries, too, enjoy a pleasure in everything they either eat or +drink, even without having laboured for it, because they wait for the +demand of their appetites. Their sleep is sweeter than that of the +indolent and inactive; and they are neither overburdened with it when +they awake, nor do they, for the sake of it, omit the necessary duties of +life. My young men have the pleasure of being praised by those who are +in years, and those who are in years of being honoured by those who are +young. They look back with comfort on their past actions, and delight +themselves in their present employments. By my means they are favoured +by the gods, beloved by their friends, and honoured by their country; and +when the appointed period of their lives is come they are not lost in a +dishonourable oblivion, but live and flourish in the praises of mankind, +even to the latest posterity." + +"Thus, my dear Hercules, who are descended of divine ancestors, you may +acquire, by virtuous toil and industry, this most desirable state of +perfect happiness." + +"Such was the discourse, my friend, which the goddess had with Hercules, +according to Prodicus. You may believe that he embellished the thoughts +with more noble expressions than I do. I heartily wish, my dear +Aristippus, that you should make such an improvement of those divine +instructions, as that you too may make such a happy choice as may render +you happy during the future course of your life." + + + +CHAPTER II. SOCRATES' DISCOURSE WITH HIS ELDEST SON LAMPROCLES +CONCERNING THE RESPECT DUE TO PARENTS. + + +Socrates observing his eldest son Lamprocles in a rage with his mother, +spoke to him in this manner:--"Come hither, my son. Have you ever heard +of a certain sort of men, who are called ungrateful?" "Very often," +answered the young man. "And do you know," said Socrates, "why they are +called so?" "We call a man ungrateful," answered Lamprocles, "who, +having received a kindness, does not return the like if occasion offers." +"I think, therefore," said Socrates, "ingratitude is a kind of +injustice?" "I think so too," answered Lamprocles. Socrates went +on:--"Have you never considered of what nature this injustice is? For +since it is an injustice to treat our friends ill, and on the contrary, a +piece of justice to make our enemies smart for their conduct, may it be +said, with like reason, that it is an injustice to be ungrateful towards +our friends, and that it is just to be ungrateful towards our enemies." +"On mature consideration," answered Lamprocles, "I think it is criminal +to do injustice to either of them." "If, then," pursued Socrates, +"ingratitude be an injustice, it follows that the greater the favours are +which we have received, the greater is the injustice in not acknowledging +them." Lamprocles granted this consequence, and Socrates continued--"Can +there be any stricter obligations than those that children are laid under +to their parents? For it is they who gave them a being, and who have put +them in a condition to behold all the wonders of Nature, and to partake +of the many good things exhibited before them by the bounty of +Providence, and which are so delightful, that there is not anything that +all men more dread than to leave them; insomuch that all governments have +ordained death to be the punishment of the most enormous crimes, because +there is nothing can more effectually put a stop to the rage of the +wicked than the apprehension of death. In the affair of marriage, it is +not merely the gratification of the appetite which Nature has so strongly +implanted in both sexes for their preservation that we regard; no, that +passion can be satisfied in a less expensive manner, even in our streets, +and other places; but when we design to enter into that state, we make +choice of a woman of such a form and shape, by whom we may expect to have +fine children, and of such a temper and disposition as to assure us of +future happiness. When that is finished, it is then the chief care of +the husband to maintain his wife, and to provide for his children things +useful for life in the greatest abundance he can. On the part of the +wife, many are her anxieties and troubles for the preservation of her +offspring during the time of her pregnancy; she gives it then part of her +nourishment and life; and after having suffered the sharpest pangs at the +moment of its birth, she then gives it suck, and continues her care and +love to it. All this she does to the poor helpless infant, so void of +reason, that it knows not even her that is so good to it, nor can ask her +for its own necessities. Full of tenderness for the welfare and +happiness of her babe, her whole time, day and night, is spent in +pleasing it, without the least prospect of any recompense for all her +fatigue. After this, when the children are come to an age fit to be +instructed, the fathers teach them all the good things they can for the +conduct of their life; and if they know any man more capable to instruct +them than themselves, they send them to him, without regard to the +expense, thus indicating by their whole conduct, what sincere pleasure it +would afford them to see their children turn out men of virtue and +probity." "Undoubtedly," answered Lamprocles, "if my mother had done all +this, and an hundred times as much, no man could suffer her ill-humours?" +"Do not you think," said Socrates, "that the anger of a beast is much +more difficult to support than that of a mother?" "Not of a mother like +her," said Lamprocles. Socrates continued, "What strange thing has she +done to you? Has she bit you, has she kicked you, as beasts do when they +are angry?" "She has a tongue that no mortal can suffer," answered +Lamprocles. "And you," replied Socrates, "how many crosses did you give +her in your infancy by your continual bawling and importunate actions? +how much trouble by night and by day? how much affliction in your +illnesses?" "At worst," answered Lamprocles, "I never did nor said +anything that might make her blush." "Alas!" said Socrates, "is it more +difficult for you to hear in patience the hasty expressions of your +mother, than it is for the comedians to hear what they say to one another +on the stage when they fall into the most injurious reproaches? For they +easily suffer it, knowing well that when one reviles another, he reviles +him not with intent to injure him; and when one threatens another, he +threatens not with design to do him any harm. You who are fully +convinced likewise of the intentions of your mother, and who know very +well that the hard words she gives you do not proceed from hate, but that +she has a great affection for you, how can you, then, be angry with her? +Is it because you imagine that she wishes you ill?" "Not in the least," +answered Lamprocles; "I never had such a thought." "What!" continued +Socrates; "a mother that loves you; a mother who, in your sickness, does +all she can to recover your health, who takes care that you want for +nothing, who makes so many vows to heaven for you; you say this is an ill +mother? In truth, if you cannot live with her, I will say you cannot +live at your ease. Tell me, in short, do you believe you ought to have +any reverence or respect for any one whatever? Or do you not care for +any man's favour and goodwill, neither for that of a general, suppose, or +of any other magistrate?" "On the contrary," said Lamprocles, "I am very +careful to gain the goodwill of all men." "Perhaps you would endeavour +to acquire the goodwill of your neighbour, to the end he might do you +kind offices, such as giving you fire when you want it, or, when any +misfortune befalls you, speedily relieve you?" "Yes, I would." "And if +you were travelling with any man, either by sea or land, would you count +it a matter of indifference whether you were loved by him or not?" "No, +indeed." "Are you then so abandoned, Lamprocles," replied Socrates, +"that you would take pains to acquire the goodwill of those persons, and +yet will do nothing to your mother, who loves you incomparably better +than they? Know you not that the Republic concerns not herself with +common instances of ingratitude; that she takes no cognisance of such +crimes, and that she neglects to punish those who do not return the +civilities they receive? But if any one be disrespectful to his parents +there is a punishment provided for such ingratitude; the laws reject him +as an outlaw, and will not allow him to be received into any public +office, because it is a maxim commonly received amongst us, that a +sacrifice, when offered by an impious hand, cannot be acceptable to the +gods, nor profitable to the Republic. Nobody can believe, that a person +of such a character can be capable to perform any great or worthy action, +or to act the part of a righteous judge. The same punishment is ordained +likewise for those who, after the death of their parents, neglect to +honour their funerals: and this is particularly examined into in the +inquiry that is made into the lives of such as stand candidates for +offices. + +"Therefore, my son, if you be wise, you will beseech Heaven to pardon you +the offences committed against your mother, to the end that the favours +of the Deity may be still continued to you, and that you may not forfeit +them by an ungrateful behaviour. Take care, likewise, that the public +may not discover the contempt you show her, for then would you be blamed +and abandoned by all the world; for, if it were suspected that you did +not gratefully resent the benefits conferred on you by your parents, no +man could believe you would be grateful for any kind actions that others +might do you." + + + +CHAPTER III. SOCRATES RECONCILES CHAEREPHON AND CHAERECRATES, TWO +BROTHERS WHO WERE FORMERLY AT VARIANCE. + + +Two brothers, whose names were Chaerephon and Chaerecrates, were at +enmity with each other. Socrates was acquainted with them, and had a +great mind to make them friends. Meeting therefore with Chaerecrates, he +accosted him thus:--"Are you, too, one of those who prefer the being rich +to the having a brother, and who do not consider that riches, being +inanimate things, have need of being defended, whereas a brother is +himself a good defence, and, after all, that there is more money than +brothers? For is it not extravagant in such men to imagine that a +brother does them wrong because they enjoy not his estate? Why say they +not likewise, that all the world does them wrong, because they are not in +possession of what belongs to the rest of mankind? But they believe, +with great reason, that it is better to live in society and to be ensured +of a moderate estate than to have the sole possession of all that is +their neighbours', and to be exposed to the dangers that are inseparable +from solitude. Nevertheless, they are not of the same opinion as to the +company of their brothers. If they are rich they buy themselves slaves +to serve them, they procure themselves friends to stand by them; but for +their brothers they neglect them; as if a brother were not so fit to make +a friend of as another person. And yet it is of great efficacy towards +the begetting and establishing of friendships to have been born of the +same parents and brought up together, since even beasts, we see, retain +some inclination for those who have come from the same dams, and have +been bred up and nourished together. Besides, a man who has a brother is +the more regarded for it, and men are more cautious to offend him." +Chaerecrates answered him thus:-- + +"You are indeed in the right to say that a good brother is a great +happiness; and, unless there be a very strong cause of dissension, I +think that brothers ought a little to bear with one another, and not part +on a slight occasion; but when a brother fails in all things, and is +quite the reverse of what he ought to be, would you have a man do what is +impossible and continue in good amity with such a person?" Socrates +replied, "Does your brother give offence to all the world as well as to +you? Does nobody speak well of him?" "That," said Chaerecrates, "is one +of the chief causes of the hatred I bear him, for he is sly enough to +please others; but whenever we two happen to meet you would think his +sole design were to fall out with me." Socrates replied, "Does not this +proceed from what I am going to say? When any man would make use of a +horse, and knows not how to govern him, he can expect nothing from him +but trouble. Thus, if we know not in what manner to behave ourselves +toward our brother, do you think we can expect anything from him but +uneasiness?" "Why do you imagine," said Chaerecrates, "that I am +ignorant in what manner I ought to carry myself to a brother, since I can +show him as much love and respect, both in my words and actions, as he +can show me in his? But when I see a man endeavour to disoblige me all +manner of ways, shall I express any goodwill for that man? No; this is +what I cannot do, and will not so much as endeavour it." "I am +astonished to hear you talk after this manner," said Socrates; "pray tell +me, if you had a dog that were good to keep your flocks, who should fawn +on your shepherds, and grin his teeth and snarl whenever you come in his +way, whether, instead of being angry with him, you would not make much of +him to bring him to know you? Now, you say that a good brother is a +great happiness; you confess that you know how to oblige, and yet you put +it not in practice to reconcile yourself with Chaerephon." "I fear I +have not skill enough to compass it." "I think," said Socrates, "there +will be no need of any extraordinary skill in the matter; and am certain +that you have enough to engage him to wish you well, and to have a great +value for you." "Pray," cried Chaerecrates, "if you know any art I have +to make myself beloved, let me know it immediately, for hitherto I never +perceived any such thing." "Answer me," said Socrates. "If you desired +that one of your friends should invite you to his feast when he offered a +sacrifice, what course would you take?" "I would begin first to invite +him to mine." "And if you would engage him to take care of your affairs +in your absence on a journey, what would you do?" "I would first, during +his absence, take care of his." "And if you would have a foreigner +entertain you in his family when you come into his country, what method +would you take?" "I would make him welcome at my house when he came to +this town, and would endeavour to further the dispatch of his business, +that he might do me the like favour when I should be in the city where he +lives." "Strange," said Socrates, "that you, who know the common methods +of ingratiating yourself, will not be at the pains of practising them. +Why do you scruple to begin to practise those methods? Is it because you +are afraid that, should you begin with your brother, and first do him a +kindness, you would appear to be of a mean-spirited and cringing +disposition? Believe me, my friend, you will never, on that account, +appear such. On the contrary, I take it to be the part of an heroic and +generous soul to prevent our friends with kindness and our enemies with +valour. Indeed, had I thought that Chaerephon had been more proper than +you to propose the reconciliation, I would have endeavoured to have +persuaded him to prevent you; but I take you to be more fit to manage +this matter, and believe you will bring it to pass rather than he." "What +you say is absurd and unworthy of you," replied Chaerecrates. "Would you +have me break the ice; I, who am the younger brother? Do you forget that +among all nations the honour to begin is reserved to the elder?" "How do +you mean?" said Socrates. "Must not a younger brother give the +precedency to the older? Must he not rise up when he comes in, give him +the best place, and hold his peace to let him speak? Delay, therefore, +no longer to do what I desire you; go and try to appease your brother. He +will receive you with open arms; it is enough that he is a friend to +honour, and of a generous temper, for as there is no readier way to gain +the goodwill of the mean and poor than by being liberal to them, so +nothing has more influence on the mind of a man of honour and note than +to treat him with respect and friendship." Chaerecrates objected: "But +when I have done what you say, if my brother should not be better +tempered, what then?" "What harm would it be to you?" said Socrates. "It +will show your goodness, and that you love him, and make him appear to be +ill-natured, and not deserving to be obliged by any man. But I am of +opinion this will not happen, and when he sees that you attack him with +civilities and good offices, I am certain he will endeavour to get the +better of you in so kind and generous a contention. You are now in the +most wretched condition imaginable. It is as if the hands which God has +given us reciprocally to aid each other were employed only to hinder one +another, or as if the feet, which by the divine providence were made to +assist each other to walk, were busied only in preventing one another +from going forward. Would it not, then, be a great ignorance, and at the +same time a great misfortune, to turn to our disadvantage what was made +only for our utility? Now, it is certain that God has given us brothers +only for our good; and that two brothers are a greater advantage to one +another than it can be to either of them to have two hands, two feet, two +eyes, and other the like members, which are double in our body, and which +Nature has designed as brothers. For the hands cannot at the same time +reach two things several fathoms distant from one another; the feet +cannot stretch themselves from the end of one fathom to another; the +eyes, which seem to discover from so far, cannot, at the same time, see +the fore and hind-part of one and the same object; but when two brothers +are good friends, no distance of place can hinder them from serving each +other." + + + +CHAPTER IV. A DISCOURSE OF SOCRATES CONCERNING FRIENDSHIP. + + +I remember likewise a discourse which I have heard him make concerning +friendship, and that may be of great use to instruct us by what means we +ought to procure ourselves friends, and in what manner we should live +with them. He said "that most men agree that a true friend is a precious +treasure, and that nevertheless there is nothing about which we give +ourselves so little trouble as to make men our friends. We take care," +said he, "to buy houses, lands, slaves, flocks, and household goods, and +when we have them we endeavour to keep them, but though a friend is +allowed to be capable of affording us a far greater happiness than any or +all of these, yet how few are solicitous to procure themselves a friend, +or, when they have, to secure his friendship? Nay, some men are so +stupid as to prefer their very slaves to their friends. How else can we +account for their want of concern about the latter when either in +distress or sickness, and at the same time their extreme anxiety for the +recovery of the former when in the same condition? For then immediately +physicians are sent for, and all remedies that can be thought of applied +to their relief. Should both of them happen to die, they will regret +more the loss of their slave than of their friend, and shed more tears +over the grave of the former than of the latter. They take care of +everything but their friends; they will examine into and take great +notice of the smallest trifle in their affairs, which perhaps stand in no +need of their care, but neglect their friends that do. In short, though +they have many estates, they know them all; but though they have but few +friends, yet they know not the number of them; insomuch that if they are +desired to name them, they are puzzled immediately, so little are their +friends in their thoughts. Nevertheless, there is nothing comparable to +a good friend; no slave is so affectionate to our person or interest; no +horse can render us so great service; in a word, nothing is so useful to +us in all occasions. For a true friend supplies all the wants and +answers all the demands of another, either in the conduct of his private +affairs or in the management of the public. If, for instance, his friend +be obliged to do a kindness to any man, he puts him in the way of it; if +he be assaulted with any danger he immediately flies to his relief. At +one time he gives him part of his estate, at another he assists him with +the labour of his hands; sometimes he helps him to persuade, sometimes he +aids him to compel; in prosperity he heightens his delight by rejoicing +with him; in adversity he diminisheth his sorrows by bearing a share of +them. The use a man may make of his hands, his eyes, his ears, his feet, +is nothing at all when compared with the service one friend may render +another. For often what we cannot do for our own advantage, what we have +not seen, nor thought, nor heard of, when our own interests were +concerned, what we have not pursued for ourselves, a friend has done for +his friend. How foolish were it to be at so much trouble in cultivating +a small orchard of trees, because we expect some fruit from it, and yet +be at no pains to cultivate that which is instead of a whole estate--I +mean Friendship--a soil the most glorious and fertile where we are sure +to gather the fairest and best of fruit!" + + + +CHAPTER V. OF THE WORTH AND VALUE OF FRIENDS. + + +To what I have advanced above I shall here relate another discourse of +his, as far as I can remember, in which he exhorted his hearers to +examine themselves, that they might know what value their friends might +set upon them; for seeing a man who had abandoned his friend in extreme +poverty, he asked Antisthenes this question in presence of that very man +and several others: "Can we set a price upon friends as we do upon +slaves? One slave may be worth twenty crowns, another not worth five; +such a one will cost fifty crowns, another will yield a hundred. Nay, I +am told that Nicias, the son of Niceratus, gave even six hundred crowns +for one slave to be inspector of his silver mines. Do you think we might +likewise set prices upon friends?" "I believe we may," answered +Antisthenes; "for there are some men by whom I would rather choose to be +loved than to have twenty crowns; others for whose affection I would not +spend five. I know some, too, for whose friendship I would give all I am +worth." "If it be so," said Socrates, "it would be well that each man +should consider how much he can be worth to his friends, and that he +should endeavour to render himself as valuable as he can in their regard, +to the end they might not abandon him; for when I hear one complain that +his friend has betrayed him; another that he, whom he thought faithful, +has preferred a small gain to the preservation of his friendship, I +reflect on these stories, and ask whether, as we sell a good-for-nothing +slave for what we can get for him, we are not likewise tempted to get rid +of an ill-friend when we are offered more for him than he is worth? +because I do not see men part with their slaves if they be good, nor +abandon their friends if they be faithful." + + + +CHAPTER VI. OF THE CHOICE OF FRIENDS. + + +The following conversation of Socrates with Critobulus may teach us how +we ought to try friends, and with whom it is good to contract +friendship:--"If we were to choose a friend," said Socrates to him, "what +precaution ought we to take? Ought we not to look out for a man who is +not given to luxury, to drunkenness, to women, nor to idleness? For with +these vices he could never be very useful to his friend nor to himself." +"That is certain," answered Critobulus. "Then," said Socrates, "if we +found a man that loved to live great, though he had not an estate to +support the expense, and who having daily occasion to employ the purses +of his friends should show by his actions that whatever you lend him is +so much lost, and that if you do not lend him he will take it ill of you, +do you not think that such a man would be very improper to make a friend +of?" "There is no doubt of it," said Critobulus. "And if we found +another," continued Socrates, "who was saving of what he had, but who, on +the other hand, was so covetous that it would be quite unfit to have +anything to do with him, because he would always be very ready to receive +and never to give again?" "In my opinion," said Critobulus, "this would +be a worse friend than the former. And if we should find a man who was +so carried away with the desire of enriching himself that he applied his +mind to nothing else, but getting all he could scrape together?" "We +ought not to have anything to do with him neither," answered Critobulus, +"for he would be good to no man but himself." "If we found a quarrelsome +man," continued Socrates, "who was every day like to engage all his +friends in new broils and squabbles, what would you think of him?" "That +he ought to be avoided," answered Critobulus. "And if a man," said +Socrates, "were free from all these faults, and were only of a humour to +desire to receive kindnesses, but never to concern himself to return +them, what would you think of him?" "That neither he, too, would be +proper to make a friend of," replied Critobulus; "and indeed, after +having rejected so many, I can scarce tell whom we should take." "We +ought to take," said Socrates, "a man who were the reverse of all those +we have mentioned, who would be temperate in his manners, faithful in his +promises, and sincere in all his actions; who would think it a point of +honour not to be outdone in civilities so that it would be of advantage +to have to do with him." "But how can we be certain of all this," said +Critobulus, "before we have tried him?" "When we would give our judgment +of statuaries, we have no regard," replied Socrates, "to what they say of +themselves, but consider their works; and he who has already made good +statues is the person of whom we have the best opinion for those he shall +make for the future. Apply this to the question you asked me, and be +assured that a man who has served his former friends well will be likely +to show no less affection for those that come after; as we may strongly +conjecture that a groom, whom we have formerly seen dress horses very +well, is capable of dressing others." "But," said Critobulus, "when we +have found a man worthy of our choice, how ought we to contract a +friendship with him?" "In the first place," answered Socrates, "we must +inquire whether the gods approve of it." "But supposing they do not +dissuade us, how are we to take this precious prey?" "Not by hunting, as +we catch hares," said Socrates; "nor in nets, as we take birds, nor by +force, as we take our enemies; for it is very difficult to gain any man's +friendship against his will, or stop him by force, and detain him in +prison as a slave, seeing such ill-usage would oblige him rather to wish +us ill than to love us." "What, then, ought we to do?" pursued +Critobulus. "It is reported," replied Socrates, "that there are some +words so powerful that they who know them make themselves loved by +pronouncing them, and that there are likewise other charms for the same +purpose." "And where can one learn these words?" added Critobulus. "Have +you not read in Homer," answered Socrates, "what the Syrens said to +enchant Ulysses? The beginning of it is thus-- + + 'Oh, stay! oh, pride of Greece, Ulysses, stay!' + +"You say true," continued Critobulus; "but did not they say as much to +the others, to stop them too?" "Not at all," said Socrates, "they +enchanted with these words only the generous men who were in love with +virtue." "I begin to understand you," said Critobulus, "and seeing this +charm, which is so powerful to enchant and captivate the mind, is nothing +but praise, you mean that we ought to praise a man in such a manner that +he may not distrust we laugh at him; otherwise, instead of gaining his +affection, we shall incur his hate; for it would be insupportable to a +man, who knows he is little and weak, to be praised for his graceful +appearance, for being well-shaped, and of a robust constitution." "But +do you know no other charms?" "No," answered Socrates; "but I have +indeed heard it said, that Pericles knew a great many, by means of which +he charmed the Republic, and gained the favour and esteem of all." +Critobulus continued, "What was it that Themistocles did to make himself +so esteemed?" "He used no other charms," said Socrates, "than the +eminent services he rendered to the State." "Which is as much as to +say," replied Critobulus, "that to gain the friendship of the great, we +must render ourselves capable to perform great actions." + +"And could you think it possible," said Socrates, "that any one should +share in the friendship of men of merit without being possessed of one +good quality?" "Why not?" answered Critobulus; "I have seen despicable +rhetoricians beloved by the most famous orators, and persons who knew +nothing of war live in familiarity with great generals." "But have you +seen men who are fit for nothing (for that is the question we speak of) +get any friends of consequence?" "I confess I have not," answered +Critobulus; "nevertheless, since it is impossible for a man of no worth +whatever to have the friendship of men of condition and merit, tell me +whether the man who acquires the character of worth and merit obtains, at +the same time, the friendship of all who possess that excellent +character?" "The reason, I suppose, why you ask this question," answered +Socrates, "is because you frequently observe dissensions among those who +equally cherish honour, and would all of them rather die than commit a +base action; and you are surprised, that instead of living in friendship, +they disagree among themselves, and are sometimes more difficult to +reconcile than the vilest of all man." "This is a misfortune," added +Critobulus, "that arrives not among private men only; for dissensions, +nay, even wars, will happen sometimes, to break out in the best-governed +republics, where virtue is in the highest repute, and where vice is held +in the utmost contempt. Now, when I revolve these considerations in my +mind, I know not where to go in search of friends; for it is impossible, +we see, for the wicked to cultivate a true friendship among themselves. +Can there subsist a true and lasting friendship amongst the ungrateful, +the idle, the covetous, the treacherous, and the dissolute? No, for +persons of such a character will mutually expose themselves to hatred and +contempt; to hatred, because of the hurtful effects of their vices; to +contempt, on account of the deformity of them. Neither, on the other +hand, can we expect, as you have well observed, to find friendship +between a virtuous man and a person of the opposite character. For how +can they who commit crimes be in good amity with those that abhor them? +But what puzzles me most, my dear Socrates, is to see men of merit and +virtue harassing one another, and endeavouring, to the utmost of their +power, to crush and ruin their antagonists, when, in different interests, +both are contending for the most lucrative posts of the Republic. I am +quite at a loss to account for such a conduct on the principles of +friendship; for when I daily observe the noblest affections of the mind +rooted up by the sordid views of interest, I am in a great doubt whether +there is any real friendship and affection in the world." "My dear +friend," replied Socrates, "this matter is very intricate; for, if I +mistake not, Nature has placed in men the principles both of friendship +and dissension. Of friendship, because they have need of one another, +they have compassion of their miseries, they relieve one another in their +necessities, and they are grateful for the assistances which they lend +one another: of dissension, because one and the same thing being +agreeable to many they contend to have it, and endeavour to prejudice and +thwart one another in their designs. Thus strife and anger beget war, +avarice stifles benevolence, envy produces hate. But friendship +overcoming all these difficulties, finds out the virtuous, and unites +them together. For, out of a motive of virtue they choose rather to live +quietly in a mean condition, than to gain the empire of the whole earth +by the calamities of war. When they are pinched with hunger or thirst, +they endure them with constancy, till they can relieve themselves without +being troublesome to any one. When at any time their desires for the +enjoyments of love grow violent and headstrong, then reason, or +self-government, lays hold on the reins, checks the impetuosity of the +passion, keeps it within due bounds, and will not allow them to +transgress the great rule of their duty. They enjoy what is lawfully +their own, and are so far from usurping the rights and properties of +others, that they even give them part of what they have. They agree +their differences in such a manner, that all are gainers, and no man has +reason to complain. They are never transported with anger so far as to +commit any action of which they may afterwards repent. Envy is a passion +they are ignorant of, because they live in a mutual communication of what +they possess, and consider what belongs to their friends as things in +their own possession. From hence you see that the virtuous do not only +not oppose, but that they aid one another in the employments of the +Republic; for they who seek for honours and great offices, only to have +an opportunity of enriching themselves, and exercising a cruel tyranny, +or to live an easy and effeminate life, are certainly very wicked and +unjust, nor can they ever hope to live in friendship with any man. + +"But why should he who desires not any authority, but only the better to +defend himself from the wicked, or to assist his friends, or be +serviceable to his country; why should such a man, I say, not agree with +another, whose intentions are the same with his own? Is it because he +would be less capable to serve the Republic, if he had virtuous +associates in the administration of affairs? If, in the tournaments and +other games, the most strong were permitted to enter into a league +against the weaker, they would infallibly be victors in all the courses, +and win all the prizes; for which reason they are not suffered to do so. +Therefore, in affairs of State, since no man is hindered from joining +with whom he pleases, to do good to the Republic, is it not more +advantageous, when we concern ourselves in the government, to make +friendship with men of honour and probity, who are generally, too, the +most knowing and capable, and to have them for our associates than to +make them our adversaries? For it is manifest, that when a man is +engaged in a combat, he ought to have some to assist him, and that he +will have need of a great many, if those whom he opposes be valiant and +powerful. Besides, he must be liberal, and give presents to those who +espouse his quarrel, to encourage them to make a more resolute and +vigorous defence. Now, it is beyond all dispute, that it is much better +to oblige the good, though they are but a few, than the wicked, of whom +there is a great number, because the former are easily gained over to +your side; whereas the latter are hardly won by the best favours, and +those in the greatest abundance, too, to espouse your interest. + +"However it be, Critobulus, take courage, endeavour only to become +virtuous, and then boldly pursue the friendship of honest men; this is a +sort of chase in which I may be helpful to you, because I am naturally +inclined to love. I attack briskly those I love, and lay out all my +skill to make myself beloved by them. I endeavour to kindle in their +minds a flame like mine, and to make them desire my company, as ardently +as I long for theirs. You stand in need of this address when you would +contract a friendship with any one. Hide not, then, the secrets of your +soul from me, but let me know who they are for whom you have a regard: +for, having made it my study to please those who were agreeable to me, I +believe that, by long experience, I have now got some considerable +insight into the pursuits and ways of men." "I have longed a great +while," said Critobulus, "to learn this art, especially if it may be +employed to gain me the friendship of those whose persons are not only +comely and genteel, but whose minds are replenished and adorned with all +virtue." Socrates replied: "But my method forbids to use violence, and I +am of opinion that all men fled from the wretch Scylla, because she +detained them by force: whereas the Syrens did no violence to any man, +and employed only their tuneful voices to detain those who passed near +them, so that all stopped to hear, and suffered themselves to be +insensibly charmed by the music of their songs." "Be sure," said +Critobulus, "that I will use no violence to them whose friendship I would +gain, and therefore delay no longer to teach me your art." "Will you +give me your word likewise," said Socrates, "that you will not even give +them a kiss?" "I promise you," said Critobulus, "I will not, unless they +are very beautiful persons." "You mistake the matter," replied Socrates; +"the beautiful permit not those liberties; but the ugly grant them freely +enough, because they know very well that should any beauty be ascribed to +them, it is only in consideration of that of the soul." "I will not +transgress in this point," said Critobulus; "only impart to me the secret +you know to gain friends." + +"When you would contract a friendship with any one," said Socrates, "you +must give me leave to tell him that you have a great esteem for him, and +that you desire to be his friend." "With all my heart," answered +Critobulus; "for sure no man can wish ill to a man who esteems him." "And +if I add besides," continued Socrates, "that because you set a great +value on his merit you have much affection for his person, will you not +take it amiss?" "Not at all," said Critobulus; "for I am sensible we +have a great kindness for those who bear us goodwill." "I may, then," +said Socrates, "speak in that manner to those whom you desire to love: +but will you likewise give me leave to advance that your greatest +pleasure is to have good friends, that you take great care of them, that +you behold their good actions with as much joy as if you yourself had +performed them, and that you rejoice at their good fortune as much as at +your own: that you are never weary when you are serving them, and that +you believe it the glory of a man of honour to surpass his friends in +benefits, and his enemies in valour? By this means I think I shall be +very useful to you in procuring you good friends." "Why do you ask me +leave," said Critobulus, "as if you might not say of me whatever you +please?" "No, indeed," answered Socrates, "for I remember what Aspasia +once said, that match-makers are successful in their business when they +tell truth of the persons in whose behalf they court, but that the +marriages made by their lies are unfortunate, because they who are +deceived hate one another, and hate yet more the person that put them +together. And therefore, for the same reason, I think I ought not to +tell lies in your praise." "You are then so far only my friend," replied +Critobulus, "that if I have any good qualities to make myself be +esteemed, you will assist me; if not, you will invent nothing in my +behalf." "And do you think," said Socrates, "that I should do you more +service in giving you false praises, that are not your due, than by +exhorting you to merit the praise of all men? If you doubt of this, +consider the consequences of it. If, for instance, I should tell the +owner of a ship that you are an excellent pilot, and he upon that should +give you the conduct of the vessel, what hopes could you have that you +should not perish? Or if I should say, publicly, that you are an +experienced general, or a great politician, and if you, by that character +which I should unjustly have obtained for you, should be promoted to the +supreme magistracy, to what dangers would you expose your own life, and +the fortune of the State? Or if I should make any private person believe +that you were a good economist, and he should trust you afterwards with +the care of his family, would not you be the ruin of his estate, and +expose yourself to ridicule and contempt? Which is as much as to say, +Critobulus, that the shortest and surest way to live with honour in the +world is to be in reality what we would appear to be: and if you observe, +you will find that all human virtues increase and strengthen themselves +by the practice and experience of them. Take my advice, then, and labour +to acquire them: but if you are of a different opinion, pray let me know +it." "I might well be ashamed," answered Critobulus, "to contradict you: +for no good nor solid objection can be brought against so rational an +assertion." + + + +CHAPTER VII. SOCRATES SHOWETH ARISTARCHUS HOW TO GET RID OF POVERTY. + + +Socrates had an extreme tenderness for his friends, and if through +imprudence they fell into any misfortune, he endeavoured to comfort them +by his good counsels; if they laboured under poverty he did all he could +to relieve them, teaching all men that they ought mutually to assist one +another in necessity. I will set down some examples of his behaviour in +these occasions. + +Meeting Aristarchus, who looked very dejected, he said to him, "I see, +Aristarchus, that something troubles you, but impart the cause of your +grief to your friends, and perhaps we may comfort you." "Indeed," said +he, "I am in great affliction; for since the late troubles, many persons +having fled for shelter to the Piraeus, it has so fallen out that my +sisters, nieces, and cousins have all thrown themselves upon me, so that +I have no less than fourteen of them to maintain. You know very well +that we receive no profit of our lands, the enemies being masters of the +open country; our houses in the city are uninhabited, there being at +present very little company in Athens; nobody will buy any goods; no man +will lend money upon any interest whatever, and I believe we may as soon +take it up in the middle of the streets as find where to borrow it. And +I am much concerned that I shall not be able to assist my relations whom +I see ready to perish, while it is impossible for me to maintain them in +the present scarcity of all things." Socrates having heard him +patiently, said to him, "How comes it to pass that Ceramon, who has so +many persons in his family, finds means not only to maintain them, but +likewise to enrich himself by the profit he makes of them, and that you +are afraid of starving to death, because you have a great many in your +family?" "The reason," answered Aristarchus, "is this, Ceramon has none +but slaves to take care of, and I am to provide for persons who are +free." Socrates went on: "For which have you most esteem, for Ceramon's +slaves, or for the persons who are at your house?" "There is no +comparison between them," said Aristarchus. "Is it not then a shameful +thing," replied Socrates, "that Ceramon should grow rich by means of +those whom you acknowledge to be of less value, and that you should grow +poor and be reduced to straits, though you keep men of condition in your +house, whom you value more?" "By no means," said Aristarchus, "there is +a wide difference betwixt the two; the slaves that Ceramon keeps follow +some trades, but the persons I have with me have had a liberal education +and follow none." "May not he," replied Socrates, "who knows how to do +anything that is useful be said to know a trade?" "Yes, certainly." "And +are not," continued Socrates, "oatmeal, bread, the clothes of men and +women, cassocks, coats, and other the like manufactures, things very +useful?" "Without doubt." "And do not the persons at your house know +how to make any of these things?" "On the contrary," said Aristarchus, +"I believe they know how to make all of them." "What are you then afraid +of," added Socrates? "Why do you complain of poverty, since you know how +to get rich? Do not you observe how wealthy Nausicides is become, what +numerous herds he is master of, and what vast sums he lends the Republic? +Now what made this man so rich? Why, nothing but one of those +manufactures we mentioned, that of making oatmeal. You see, too, that +Cirthes keeps all his family, and lives at his ease upon what he has got +by being a baker. And how doth Demeas, of the village of Colyttus, get +his livelihood? By making cassocks. What makes Menon live so +comfortably? His cloak manufacture. And are not most of the inhabitants +of Megara in good circumstances enough by the trade which they drive of +coats and short jackets?" "I grant all this," said Aristarchus, "but +still there is a difference betwixt these persons and me: for, whereas, +they have with them some barbarians whom they have bought, and compel to +work what brings them in gain; I, for my part, keep only ladies and +gentlemen at my house, persons who are free, and some of them my own +relations. Now would you have me to set them to work?" "And because +they are free and your relations," said Socrates, "do you think they +ought to do nothing but eat and sleep? Do you observe that they, who +live thus idle and at their ease, lead more comfortable lives than +others? Do you think them more content, more cheerful, that is to say, +more happy than those who employ themselves in any of those manufactures +we have mentioned, or in whatever else tends to the utility or +convenience of life? Do you imagine that idleness and laziness +contribute toward our learning things necessary; that they can enable us +to retain those things we have already learnt; that they help to +strengthen the body or keep it in health; that they can assist us to get +riches, or keep what we have got already; and do you believe that labour +and industry are good for nothing? Why did your ladies learn what you +say they know. Did they believe them to be useless things, and had they +resolved never to put them in practice? Or, on the contrary, was it with +design to employ themselves in those matters, and to get something by +them? Is it a greater piece of wisdom to sit still and do nothing, than +to busy oneself in things that are of use in life, and that turn to +account? And is it not more reasonable for a man to work than to be with +his arms across, thinking how he shall do to live? Shall I tell you my +mind, Aristarchus? Well, then, I am of opinion that in the condition you +are in you cannot love your guests, nor they you for this reason, that +you, on the one hand, feel they are a burden to you, and they, on the +other, perceive you uneasy and discontented on their account. And it is +to be feared that the discontent will increase on both sides, and that +the sense of past favours will wear off; but when you set them to work +you will begin to love them, because they will bring you some profit; and +when they find that you regard them with more complacency they will not +fail to have more love for you. The remembrance of your kindnesses will +be more grateful to them, and the obligations they have to you will be +the greater. In a word, you will be kinder relations and better friends. +Indeed, if what they were to do was a thing worthy of blame, it would be +better to die than to think of it; but what they can do is honourable, +and becoming of their sex, and whoever knows how to do a thing well will +acquit himself of it with honour and pleasure. Therefore defer no longer +to make the proposal to them, since it will be so advantageous to all of +you, and be assured they will receive it with joy and pleasure." "Good +God! what a fine scheme you have proposed! Indeed, I cannot but approve +of it; nay, it has made such a wonderful impression on my mind, that +whereas I was lately against borrowing money at all, because I saw that +when I had spent it I should not be in a condition to repay it, I am now +resolved to go try where I can take some up upon any terms, to buy tools +and other materials to set ourselves to work." + +What was proposed was forthwith executed. Aristarchus bought what he +wanted; he laid in a provision of wool, and the ladies worked from +morning to night. This occupation diverted their melancholy, and, +instead of the uneasiness there was before between them and Aristarchus, +they began to live in a reciprocal satisfaction. The ladies loved him as +their protector, and he considered them as persons who were very useful +and necessary to him. + +To conclude, some time afterwards Aristarchus came to see Socrates, and +related the whole matter to him with great content, and told him the +women began to complain that none but he was idle. "Why do you not put +them in mind," said Socrates, "of the fable of the dog? For, in the days +when beasts could speak, according to the fable, the sheep said to her +master, 'You are a strange man; we yield you wool, lambs, and cheeses, +and yet you give us nothing but what we can get upon the ground; and the +dog, who brings you in no profit, is kindly used, for you feed him with +the same bread you eat yourself.' The dog, overhearing this complaint, +answered her: 'It is not without reason that I am used so well. It is I +who protect you; it is I who hinder thieves from taking you away, and +wolves from sucking your blood. If I were not always keeping watch about +you, you would not dare so much as to go to feed.' This answer was the +reason that the sheep yielded freely to the dog the honour they pretended +to before. In like manner do you also let these ladies know that it is +you who are their guardian and protector, and that you watch over them +for their safety with as much care as a faithful and courageous dog +watcheth over a herd committed to his charge. Tell them that because of +you no man dares hurt them, and that it is by your means that they live +at ease and in safety." + + + +CHAPTER VIII. SOCRATES PERSUADES EUTHERUS TO ABANDON HIS FORMER WAY OF +LIVING, AND TO BETAKE HIMSELF TO SOME MORE USEFUL AND HONOURABLE +EMPLOYMENT. + + +Another time, meeting with Eutherus, one of his old friends, whom he had +not seen for a great while before, he inquired of him from whence he +came? "At present," answered Eutherus, "I come not from abroad; but +towards the end of the war I returned from a voyage I had made, for, +after having lost all the estate I had upon the frontiers, and my father +having left me nothing in Attica, I was forced to work for my living, and +I believe it better to do so than to be troublesome to others; besides, I +can no longer borrow anything, because I have nothing left to mortgage." +"And how much longer," said Socrates, "do you think you shall be able to +work for your living?" "Alas! but a short while," answered Eutherus. +"Nevertheless," replied Socrates, "when you come to be old it will cost +you something to maintain yourself, and yet you will not then be able to +earn anything." "You say very true." "You had best, then," continued +Socrates, "employ yourself now in business that will enable you to lay by +something for your old age, and get into the service of some rich man, +who has occasion for an economist, to have the inspection over his +workmen, to gather in his fruits, to preserve what belongs to him, that +he may reward you for the service you do him." "I should find it very +difficult," replied Eutherus, "to submit to be a slave." "Yet," said +Socrates, "the magistrates in republics, and all that are in employments, +are not, therefore, reputed slaves; on the contrary, they are esteemed +honourable." "Be that as it will," said Eutherus, "I can never think of +entering into any office where I might be liable to blame, for I would +not like to be censured by another." "But where," said Socrates, "will +you find any employment in which a man is absolutely perfect, and +altogether free from blame? For it is very difficult to be so exact as +not to fail sometimes, and even though we should not have failed, it is +hard to escape the censure of bad judges; and I should think it a very +odd and surprising thing if in that very employment wherein you say you +are now engaged you were so dexterous and expert as that no man should +find anything amiss. + +"What you are, therefore, to observe is to avoid those who make it their +business to find fault without reason, and to have to do with more +equitable persons; to undertake what you can actually perform, to reject +what you find yourself unfit to do; and when you have taken in hand to do +anything, to accomplish it in a manner the most excellent and perfect you +can. Thus you will be less subject to be blamed, will find relief to +your poverty, lead an easier life, be out of danger, and will +sufficiently provide for the necessities of your old age." + + + +CHAPTER IX. IN WHAT MANNER SOCRATES TAUGHT HIS FRIEND CRITO TO RID +HIMSELF OF SOME INFORMERS, WHO TOOK THE ADVANTAGE OF HIS EASY TEMPER. + + +One day Crito, happening to meet Socrates, complained to him that it was +very difficult for a man who would keep what he had to live in Athens; +"for," said he, "I am now sued by some men, though I never did them the +least injury, but only because they know that I had rather give them a +little money than embroil myself in the troubles of law." Socrates said +to him, "Do you keep dogs to hinder the wolves from coming at your +flocks?" "You need not doubt but I do," answered Crito. "Ought you not +likewise," replied Socrates, "to keep a man who were able to drive away +all those that trouble you without cause?" "I would with all my heart," +said Crito, "but that I fear that in the end he, too, would turn against +me." "Why so?" said Socrates; "is it not better to serve a man like you, +and to receive favours from him, than to have him for an enemy? You may +be certain that there are in this city many men who would think +themselves very happy to be honoured with your friendship." + +After this they happened to see a certain person name Archedemus, who was +a man of very good parts, eloquent, and extremely skilful in the +management of affairs; but withal very poor and in a low condition, for +he was not of that sordid disposition to take all he could get, by what +means soever, but he was a lover of justice and of honest men, and +abhorred to make rich, or to raise himself by informing and backbiting; +for he held that nothing was more base than that wretched practice of +those miscreants called sycophants or informers. Crito cast an eye upon +him, and as often as they brought him any corn, or wine, or oil, or any +other thing from his country-houses, he sent him some of it; when he +offered sacrifices he invited him to the feasts, and showed him many +civilities of the like nature. Archedemus, seeing the doors of that +house open to him at all times, and that he always found so favourable a +reception, laid aside all his former dependences, and trusted himself +wholly to Crito; then he made it his business immediately to inquire into +the characters of those sycophants who had slandered Crito or informed +against him, and found them to be guilty of many crimes, and that they +had a great number of enemies. This encouraged him to take them to task, +and he prosecuted one of them for a crime which would have subjected him +to a corporal punishment, or at least to a pecuniary mulct. This fellow, +who knew his case to be bad, and that he could not justify himself, +employed all sorts of stratagems to get rid of Archedemus, who +nevertheless would not quit his hold till the other had discharged Crito, +and given him money besides, in name of trouble and charges. He managed +several of his affairs with like success, which made Crito be thought +happy in having him; and as when a shepherd has an excellent dog, the +other shepherds are glad to bring their flocks near his that they may be +safe likewise, so several of Crito's friends began to make their court to +him, and begged him to lend them Archedemus to defend them. He, for his +part, was glad to oblige Crito; and it was observed at length that not +only Crito lived undisturbed, but all his friends likewise; and if any +one reproached Archedemus that self-interest had made him his master's +creature, and to adore him and be so faithful and zealous in his service +he would answer him thus:--"Which of the two do you think most +dishonourable--to do services to men of quality from whom we have +received favours, and to enter into their friendship to declare war +against bad men, or to endeavour to prejudice men of honour, and to make +them our enemies, that bad men may be our friends?" From thenceforward +Crito contracted a strict friendship with Archedemus, and all his friends +had likewise a great respect for him. + + + +CHAPTER X. SOCRATES ADVISES DIODORUS TO DO JUSTICE TO THE MERIT OF +HERMOGENES, AND TO ACCEPT OF HIS SERVICE AND FRIENDSHIP. + + +Socrates, meeting one day with Diodorus, addressed him thus:--"If one of +your slaves ran away, would you give yourself any trouble to find him?" +"Yes, certainly," answered he; "and I would give public notice, and +promise a reward to any that brought him to me." "And if one of them +were sick, would you take care of him, and send for physicians to +endeavour to save his life?" "Without doubt I would." "And if you saw," +replied Socrates, "one of your friends--that is to say, a person who +renders you a thousand times more service than a slave, reduced to +extreme want--ought you not to relieve him? I speak this to you on +account of Hermogenes. You very well know he is not ungrateful, and that +he would scorn to receive the least favour from you and not return you +the like. You know likewise that a great number of slaves are not to be +valued like one man who serves willingly, who serves with zeal and +affection, and who is not only capable of doing what he is desired, but +who can likewise of himself think of many things that may be of service +to us; who reasons well, who foresees what may happen, and from whom we +may expect to receive good advice. Now, the best managers hold it as a +maxim that when we find anything of value to be sold cheap we ought to +buy it. Think of it, therefore, for as times now go you may procure +yourself many friends at a cheap rate." "You say right," replied +Diodorus, "and therefore pray send Hermogenes to me." "Excuse me in +that," answered Socrates, "you would do as well to go to him yourself as +to send for him." + +This discourse was the reason that Diodorus went to Hermogenes, and for a +small gratification obliged him to be his friend; after which Hermogenes +took particular care to please Diodorus, and sought all opportunities of +serving him and of giving him content. + + + + +BOOK III. + + +CHAPTER I. OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF A GENERAL. + + +Let us now see how Socrates was serviceable to those who were desirous to +qualify themselves for employments of trust and honour, by advising them +to apply themselves diligently to the study of their duty, that they +might acquire a perfect knowledge of it. + +Having heard that there was arrived at Athens one Dionysodorus, who +undertook to teach the art of war, he made the following discourse to one +of his friends, who pretended to one of the highest posts in the army:-- + +"It were a scandalous thing," said Socrates to him, "for a man who aims +to be chief over others, to neglect to learn how to command, when so fair +an opportunity offers; nay, I think he would rather deserve to be +punished, than the man who should undertake to make a statue without +having learnt the sculptor's trade; for as in war the whole fortune of +the Republic is trusted to the general, it is to be presumed that his +good conduct will procure success, and that his faults will be followed +with great losses. And, therefore, a man who should neglect to make +himself capable of such an employment, and yet pretend to it, ought to be +severely punished." By these reasons he persuaded this young man to get +himself instructed. + +After the youth had imagined that he had acquired some knowledge of the +art, he returned to pay Socrates a visit, who, jesting him, addressed the +company that were present in this manner:--"Do not you think, gentlemen, +that as Homer, when speaking of Agamemnon, gives him the surname of +venerable, we ought also to bestow the same epithet on this young man, +who justly deserveth to be called by that name, since, like him, he has +learned how to command? For, as a man who can play on the lute is a +player on that instrument, though he never toucheth it; and as he who is +knowing in the art of physic is a physician, though he never practise; so +this young man, having learned to command is become a general, though not +a man of us should ever give our voice to make him so. On the contrary, +it is in vain for him who knows not how to command, to get himself +chosen; he will not be one jot a better general for it, no more than he +who knows nothing of physic is a better physician, because he has the +reputation of being one." Then turning towards the young man, he went +on--"But because it may happen that one of us may have the honour of +commanding a regiment or a company in the troops that are to compose your +army, to the end we may not be entirely ignorant of the military art, +pray tell us by what he began to instruct you." "By what he ended," +answered the young man; "for he showed me only the order that ought to be +observed in an army, either in marching, encamping, or fighting." "But +what is that," said Socrates, "in comparison of the many other duties +incumbent on a general? He must, besides, take care for the preparations +of war; he must furnish the soldiers with necessary ammunition and +provisions; he must be inventive, laborious, diligent, patient, quick of +apprehension; he must be mild and rigorous together; he must be open and +close; he must know to preserve his own, and take what is another's; he +must be prodigal and a ravager; he must be liberal and covetous; he must +be wary, and yet enterprising. I confess that he ought to know likewise +how to draw up his troops in order of battle; and, indeed, order and +discipline are the most important things in an army, and without them it +is impossible to have any other service of the troops than of a confused +heap of stones, bricks, timber, and tiles; but when everything is in its +due place, as in a building, when the foundations and the covering are +made of materials that will not grow rotten, and which no wet can damage, +such as are stones and tiles, and when the bricks and timber are employed +in their due places in the body of the edifice, they altogether make a +house, which we value among our most considerable enjoyments." Here the +young man, interrupting him, said:-- + +"This comparison puts me in mind of another thing that generals ought to +observe; which is, to place their best soldiers in the first and last +ranks, and the others in the middle; that those in the first rank may +draw them on, and those in the last push them forward." "He has taught +you too," said Socrates, "how to know the good and the bad soldiers +asunder, otherwise this rule can be of no use to you; for if you were to +reckon money upon a table, and were ordered to lay the best at the two +ends, and the worst in the middle, how could you do this, if you had not +been shown how to distinguish between the good and the bad?" "Indeed," +replied the young man, "he did not teach me what you mention; and, I +suppose, we must learn of ourselves to discern the good soldiers from the +bad." "If you please," continued Socrates, "let us consider how a +general ought to govern himself in this matter. If it were to take any +money, ought he not to make the most covetous march in the front? If it +were an action of great peril, ought he not to send the most ambitious, +because they are the men who, out of a desire of glory, rush into the +midst of dangers? And as for them, you would not be much troubled to +know them, for they are forward enough in discovering themselves. But +tell me, when this master showed you the different ways of ordering an +army, did he teach you when to make use of one way, and when of another?" +"Not at all," answered he. "And yet," replied Socrates, "the same order +is not always to be observed, nor the same commands given, but to be +changed according to the different occasions." "He taught me nothing of +that," said the young man. "Go to him, then," added Socrates, "and ask +him concerning it; for if he know anything of the matter, and have ever +so little honour, he will be ashamed to have taken your money and send +you away so ill-instructed." + + + +CHAPTER II. THE CHARACTER OF A GOOD PRINCE. + + +Another time he asked a general, whom the Athenians had lately chosen, +why Homer calls Agamemnon the pastor of the people? "Is it not," said +he, "because as a shepherd ought to take care of his flocks, that they be +well and want for nothing; so a general ought to take care to keep his +soldiers always in a good condition, to see they be supplied with +provisions, and to bring to a happy issue the design that made them take +arms, which is to overcome their enemies, and to live more happily +afterwards? And why does the same poet praise Agamemnon likewise for +being-- + + 'At once a gracious prince and generous warrior'? + +For is it not true, that to gain a prince the character of being generous +and a warrior too, it is not sufficient to be brave in his own person, +and to fight with intrepidity; but he must likewise animate the whole +army, and be the cause that every soldier behave himself like him? and to +gain the reputation of a good and gracious prince, it is not enough to +have secured his private affairs, he must also take care that plenty and +happiness be seen in all places of his dominions. For kings are not +chosen to take care of themselves only, but to render happy the people +who choose them. All people engage in war only to secure their own +quiet, and choose commanders that they may have guides to conduct them to +the end which they propose to themselves. A general, therefore, ought to +prepare the way of good fortune to those who raise him to that dignity; +this is the most glorious success he can desire, as nothing can be more +ignominious to him than to do the contrary." + +We see by this discourse that Socrates, designing to give the idea of a +good prince, required scarce anything of him but to render his subjects +happy. + + + +CHAPTER III. ON THE BUSINESS OF A GENERAL OF HORSE. + + +Socrates at another time, as I well remember, had the following +conference with a general of the cavalry:-- + +"What was your reason," said Socrates, "to desire this office? I cannot +think it was that you might march first at the head of the troops, for +the horse-archers are to march before you. Nor can I believe it was to +make yourself be known, for no men are more generally known than madmen. +Perhaps it was because you thought you could mend what was amiss in the +cavalry, and make the troops better than they are, to the end that if the +Republic should have occasion to use them, you might be able to do your +country some eminent service." "That is my design," answered the other. +"It were well you could do this," said Socrates, "but does not your +office oblige you to have an eye on the horses and troopers?" "Most +certainly." "What course will you then take," continued Socrates, "to +get good horses?" "It is not my business to look to that," replied the +general; "every trooper must take care for himself." "And what," said +Socrates, "if they bring you horses whose feet and legs are good for +nothing, or that are so weak and lean that they cannot keep up with the +others, or so restive and vicious that it would be impossible to make +them keep their ranks, what good could you expect from such cavalry? What +service would you be able to do the State?" "You are much in the right, +Socrates, and I promise you I will take care what horses are in my +troops." "And will you not have an eye likewise on the troopers?" "Yes," +answered he. "In my opinion then," answered Socrates, "the first thing +you ought to do is to make them learn to get a horseback." "No doubt of +it," replied the general, "for by that means they would the more easily +escape, if they should happen to be thrown off their horses." Socrates +went on: "You ought also to make them exercise, sometimes here, sometimes +there, and particularly in places like those where the enemy generally +is, that they may be good horsemen in all sorts of countries; for when +you are to fight you will not send to bid the enemy come to you in the +plain, where you used to exercise your horse. You must train them up, +likewise, to lance the spear; and if you would make them very brave +fellows, you must inspire them with a principle of honour, and inflame +them with rage against the enemy." "Fear not," said he, "that I will +spare my labour." "But have you," resumed Socrates, "thought on the +means to make yourself obeyed? for without that all your brave troopers +will avail you nothing." "It is true," said he, "but how shall I gain +that point of them?" "Know you not," said Socrates, "that in all things +men readily obey those whom they believe most capable? Thus in our +sickness we most willingly submit to the prescriptions of the best +physicians; at sea, to the most I skilful pilot; and in affairs of +agriculture, to him who has most experience in it." "All this I grant +you." "It is then to be presumed, that in the conduct of the cavalry he +who makes it appear that he understands it best will be the person whom +the others will be best pleased to obey." "But if I let them see that I +am most worthy to command, will that be sufficient to make them obey me?" +"Yes, certainly," said Socrates, "if you can persuade them besides that +their honour and safety depend on that obedience." "And how shall I be +able to make them sensible of this?" "With less trouble," answered +Socrates, "than it would be to prove that it is better to be virtuous +than vicious." "Then a general," added the other, "ought to study the +art of speaking well?" "Do you imagine," said Socrates, "that he will be +able to execute his office without speaking a word? It is by speech that +we know what the laws command us to learn for the conduct of our lives. +No excellent knowledge can be attained without the use of speech; the +best method to instruct is by discourse, and they who are thoroughly +versed in the sciences speak with the applause of all the world. But +have you observed," continued he, "that in all sorts of occasions the +Athenians distinguish themselves above all the Greeks, and that no +Republic can show such youths as that of Athens? For example: when we +send from hence a choir of musicians to the Temple of Apollo in the Isle +of Delos, it is certain that none comparable to them are sent from other +cities; not that the Athenians have better voices than the others, nor +that their bodies are more robust and better made, but the reason is +because they are more fond of honour, and this desire of honour is what +excites men to excellent actions. Do not you think, therefore, that if +good care were taken of our cavalry, it would excel that of other +nations, in the beauty of arms and horses, in order of good discipline, +and in bravery in fight; provided the Athenians were persuaded that this +would be a means to acquire them glory and renown?" "I am of your +opinion." "Go, then, and take care of your troops," said Socrates, "make +them serviceable to you, that you may be so to the Republic." "Your +advice is good," said he, "and I will immediately follow it." + + + +CHAPTER IV. A DISCOURSE OF SOCRATES WITH NICOMACHIDES, IN WHICH HE +SHOWETH THAT A MAN SKILFUL IN HIS OWN PROPER BUSINESS, AND WHO MANAGES +HIS AFFAIRS WITH PRUDENCE AND SAGACITY, MAY MAKE, WHEN OCCASION OFFERS, A +GOOD GENERAL. + + +Another time, Socrates meeting Nicomachides, who was coining from the +assembly where they had chosen the magistrates, asked him, "of whom they +had made choice to command the army?" Nicomachides answered: "Alas! the +Athenians would not chose me; me! who have spent all my life in arms, and +have gone through all the degrees of a soldier; who have been first a +private sentinel, then a captain, next a colonel of horse, and who am +covered all over with wounds that I have received in battles" (at these +words he bared his breast, and showed the large scars which were +remaining in several places of his body); "but they have chosen +Antisthenes, who has never served in the infantry, who even in the +cavalry never did anything remarkable, and whose only talent consists in +knowing how to get money." "So much the better," said Socrates, "for +then the army will be well paid." "A merchant," replied Nicomachides, +"knows how to get money as well as he; and does it follow from thence +that he is fit to be a general?" "You take no notice," replied Socrates, +"that Antisthenes is fond of honour, and desirous to excel all others in +whatever he undertakes, which is a very necessary qualification in a +general. Have you not observed, that whenever he gave a comedy to the +people, he always gained the prize?" "There is a wide difference," +answered Nicomachides, "between commanding an army and giving orders +concerning a comedy." "But," said Socrates, "though Antisthenes +understands not music, nor the laws of the stage, yet he found out those +who were skilful in both, and by their means succeeded extremely well." +"And when he is at the head of the army," continued Nicomachides, "I +suppose you will have him to find out too some to give orders, and some +to fight for him?" "Why not?" replied Socrates, "for if in the affairs +of war he take the same care to provide himself with persons skilful in +that art, and fit to advise him, as he did in the affair of the plays, I +see not what should hinder him from gaining the victory in the former as +well as in the latter. And it is very likely that he will be better +pleased to expend his treasure to obtain an entire victory over the +enemy, which will redound to the honour and interest of the whole +Republic, than to be at a great expense for shows, to overcome his +citizens in magnificence, and to gain a victory, which can be honourable +to none but himself and those of his tribe." "We must then infer," said +Nicomachides, "that a man who knows well how to give a comedy knows well +how to command an army?" "Let us rather conclude," answered Socrates, +"that every man who has judgment enough to know the things that are +necessary for his designs, and can procure them, can never fail of +success, whether he concern himself with the stage, or govern a State, or +command an army, or manage a family." + +"Indeed," resumed Nicomachides, "I could never have thought you would +have told me, too, that a good economist would make a good general." +"Come, then," said Socrates, "let us examine wherein consists the duty of +the one and of the other, and see what relation there is between those +two conditions. Must not both of them keep those that are under them in +submission and obedience?" "I grant it." "Must not both of them take +care to employ every one in the business he is fit for? Must he not +punish those who do amiss and reward those that do well? Must they not +make themselves be esteemed by those they command? Ought they not alike +to strengthen themselves with friends to assist them upon occasion? Ought +they not to know how to preserve what belongs to them, and to be diligent +and indefatigable in the performance of their duty?" "I own," answered +Nicomachides, "that all you have said concerns them equally; but if they +were to fight it would not be the same as to both of them." "Why?" said +Socrates. "Have not both of them enemies?" "They have." "And would it +not be the advantage of both to get the better of them?" "I allow it," +said Nicomachides; "but what will economy be good for when they are to +come to blows?" "It is then it will be most necessary," replied +Socrates. "For when the good economist sees that the greatest profit he +can get is to overcome, and that the greatest loss he can suffer is to be +beaten, he will prepare himself with all the advantages that can procure +him the victory, and will carefully avoid whatever might be the cause of +his defeat. Thus, when he sees his army well provided with all things, +and in a condition that seems to promise a good success, he will give his +enemies battle; but when he wants anything he will avoid coming to an +engagement with them. Thus you see how economy may be of use to him; and +therefore, Nicomachides, despise not those who apply themselves to it; +for between the conduct of a family and that of a State the sole +difference is that of a greater or lesser number; for as to all besides +there is much conformity between them. The sum of what I have advanced +is this, that without men there could not be any policy or any economy, +that they are often executed by the same persons, and that they who are +called to the government of the Republic are the very same whom great men +employ for their private affairs. Lastly, that they who make use of +proper persons for their several businesses are successful in their +economy and in politics; and that, on the contrary, they who fail in this +point commit great faults both in one and the other." + + + +CHAPTER V. A CONVERSATION BETWEEN SOCRATES AND PERICLES CONCERNING THE +THEN PRESENT STATE OF THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS, IN WHICH SOCRATES LAYS DOWN +A METHOD BY WHICH THE ATHENIANS MAY RECOVER THEIR ANCIENT LUSTRE AND +REPUTATION. + + +Socrates one day being in company with Pericles, the son of the great +Pericles, introduced the following discourse:-- + +"I hope that when you command the army the Republic will be more +successful and gain more glory in their wars than formerly." "I should +be glad of it," answered Pericles, "but I see little likelihood of it." +"We may bring this matter to the test," said Socrates. "Is it not true +that the Boeotians are not more numerous than the Athenians?" "I know +it." "Nor are they either braver or stronger?" "True, they are not." +"Do you believe that they agree better among themselves?" "Quite the +contrary," said Pericles; "for there is a great misunderstanding between +most of the Boeotians and the Thebans, because of the great hardships the +latter put upon the former, and we have nothing of this among us." "But +the Boeotians," replied Socrates, "are wonderfully ambitions and +obliging; and these are the qualities that naturally push men on to +expose themselves for the sake of glory and of their country." "The +Athenians," answered Pericles, "come not short of them in either of those +qualities." "It is true," replied Socrates, "that there is no nation +whose ancestors have done braver actions, and in greater number, than +those of the Athenians. And these domestic examples excite us to +courage, and create in us a true love of virtue and bravery." +"Notwithstanding all this," continued Pericles, "you see that after the +defeat of Tolmides at Lebadia, where we lost a thousand men, and after +another misfortune that happened to Hippocrates before Delium, the +greatness of the Athenians is sunk so low, and the courage of the +Boeotians so increased, that they, who even in their own country durst +not look the Athenians in the face without the assistance of the +Lacedemonians and of the other States of the Peloponnesus, now threaten +Attica with their single forces. And that the Athenians, who before +ravaged Boeotia when it was not defended by foreign troops, begin to +fear, in their turn, that the Boeotians will put Attica to fire and +sword." "In my opinion," answered Socrates, "a governor ought to be well +pleased to find a republic in such a condition, for fear makes a people +more careful, more obedient, and more submissive. Whereas a too great +security is attended with carelessness, luxury, and disobedience. This +is plainly seen in men who are at sea. When they fear not anything, +there is nothing in the ship but confusion and disorder; but when they +apprehend that they shall be attacked by pirates, or that a tempest is +hanging over their head, they not only do whatever they are commanded, +but even observe a profound silence, waiting the order of their captain, +and are as decent and orderly in their behaviour and motions as those who +dance at a public entertainment." + +"We shall yield, then," replied Pericles, "that the Athenians are +obedient. But how shall we do to create in them an emulation to imitate +the virtue of their ancestors to equal their reputation and to restore +the happiness of their age in this present one?" "If we would have +them," answered Socrates, "make themselves masters of an estate, which is +in the possession of others, we need only tell them that it is descended +to them from their forefathers, and they will immediately be for having +it again. If we would encourage them to take the first rank among the +virtuous, we must persuade them that it is their due from all antiquity, +and that if they will take care to preserve to themselves this advantage +they will infallibly likewise surpass others in power. We must +frequently represent to them that the most ancient of their predecessors +were highly esteemed on account of their great virtue." "You would be +understood," said Pericles, "to speak of the contention of two of the +divinities concerning the patronage of the city of Athens, of which the +citizens, in the days of Cecrops, were chosen arbitrators on account of +their virtue." "You are in the right," said Socrates; "but I would have +them be put in mind likewise of the birth and nourishment of Erictheus, +and of the war that was in his time against the neighbouring nations; as +also of that which was made in favour of the descendants of Hercules +against the people of Peloponnesus, and, in short, of all the other wars +that were in the days of Theseus, in which our ancestors were always +reputed the most valiant men of their age. If you think fit, they may +likewise be told what the descendants of these ancients and our +predecessors of the last age have done. They may be represented to them +as resisting sometimes with their own forces only the nations whom all +Asia obeyed, whose dominions extended into Europe as far as Macedonia, +and who had inherited a potent empire from their fathers, together with +formidable forces, and who were already renowned for many great exploits. +Sometimes you must relate to them the victories they gained by sea and +land in conjunction with the Lacedemonians, who are likewise reputed a +very brave people. They should be told also that great commotions being +arisen among the Greeks, and the most part of them having changed their +places of abode, the Athenians always continued in their country, that +they have been chosen by several people to arbitrate their differences, +and that the oppressed have always fled to them for protection." "When I +reflect on all this," said Pericles, "I am surprised to see the Republic +so much fallen off from what it was." "In my opinion," replied Socrates, +"she has behaved herself like those persons who, for having too great +advantage over their rivals, begin to neglect themselves, and grow in the +end pusillanimous, for after the Athenians saw themselves raised above +the other Greeks they indulged themselves in indolence, and became at +length degenerate." + +"What course must they take now," said Pericles, "to regain the lustre of +their ancient virtue?" "They need only call to mind," replied Socrates, +"what were the exercises and the discipline of their ancestors, and if, +like them, they apply themselves to those practices, they will no doubt +arrive at their perfection; or if they will not govern themselves by that +example, let them imitate the nations that are now uppermost; let them +observe the same conduct, follow the same customs, and be assured they +will equal, if not surpass them, if they labour to do so." "You seem to +be of opinion, my dear Socrates, that virtue is much estranged from our +Republic? And, indeed, when will the Athenians respect old age as they +of Sparta do, since they begin, even by their own fathers, to deride men +advanced in years? When, too, will they use themselves to the manly +exercises of that Republic, since they not only neglect the good +disposition and activity of body, but laugh at those who endeavour to +acquire them? When will they be obedient to the magistrates, they who +make it a glory to despise them? When will they be in perfect unity, +they who, instead of assisting, daily prejudice one another, and who envy +one another more than they do all the rest of mankind? They are every +day quarrelling in the public and private assemblies; they are every day +suing one another, and had rather find their own advantage in the ruin of +their neighbours than get an honest gain by reciprocally assisting one +another. The magistrates mind not the Government of the Republic any +farther than their own interests are concerned, and, therefore, they use +their utmost endeavours to be in office and authority; and for this +reason in the administration of the State there is so much ignorance and +malice, and such animosities, and so many different parties among private +persons. And I much fear that this mischief will get such a head that at +length there will be no remedy against it, and that the Republic will +sink under the weight of its misfortunes." + +"Fear it not," said Socrates, "and do not believe that the Athenians +labour under an incurable disease. Do you not observe how skilful and +obedient they are at sea, that in the combats for prizes they exactly +obey the orders of those that preside there, and in the comedies how +readily they comply with what they are bid to do?" "I see it well," +answered Pericles, "and cannot but wonder that they are so ready to obey +in these and the like occasions, and that the military men, who ought to +be the chosen part of the citizens, are so mutinous and refractory." "And +what say you," pursued Socrates, "to the Senate of the Areopagus; are +they not all of them persons of great worth? Do you know any judges who +discharge their office with more integrity, and who more exactly observe +the laws, who more faithfully render justice to private men, and who more +worthily acquit themselves of all manner of affairs?" "I blame them +not," said Pericles. "Despair not, then, of the Athenians," added +Socrates, "as of an untractable people." "But it is in war," replied +Pericles, "that much discipline is required, and much modesty and +obedience, and these things the Athenians wholly want in that occasion." +"Perhaps, too," continued Socrates, "they who command them know little of +their own duty. Do you not take notice that no man undertakes to govern +a company of musicians, or of comedians, or of dancers, or of wrestlers, +unless he be capable of it; and that all who take such employments upon +them can give an account where they have learnt the exercises of which +they are become masters? Our misfortunes in war, then, I very much +apprehend, must be owing in a great measure to the bad education of our +generals. + +"I know very well that you are not of this number, and that you have +improved to your advantage the time you have spent in learning the art of +war and other laudable exercises. I imagine, likewise, that in the +memoirs of your father, the great Pericles, you have found many rare +stratagems, and that by your diligence you have also collected up and +down a great number of others. Nor do I doubt but that you frequently +meditate on these matters, that nothing may be wanting in you that may be +of use to a general. Insomuch, that if you find yourself in doubt of +anything, you immediately have recourse to those that know it, and spare +neither presents nor civilities to incline them to assist you and to +teach you the things of which you are ignorant." "Alas! Socrates," said +Pericles, "you flatter me, and flatter me for many things that, I am +afraid, I am deficient in; but by that you instruct me in my duty." + +Upon this Socrates, interrupting him--"I will," said he, "give you an +advice. Have you not observed that in the high mountains, which are the +frontiers of Attica, and divide it from Boeotia, the roads through which +you must of necessity pass to go from one country to the other are very +rough and narrow?" "Yes, I have." "Tell me, besides, have you never +heard say that the Mysians and the Pisidians, who are in possession of +advantageous places where they dwell in the dominions of the King of +Persia, arm themselves lightly, and make continual inroads upon the +neighbouring provinces, and by that means are very troublesome to that +king's subjects, and preserve their own liberty?" "I have heard so." "It +is probable, too," continued Socrates, "that if the Athenians would +possess themselves of the mountains that are between Boeotia and Attica, +and if they took care to send thither some young men with arms proper for +inroaders, our enemies would be much prejudiced by them, and all those +mountains would be as a great rampart to cover our country from their +insults." "I believe what you say," answered Pericles, "and take all the +advices you have given me to be very good." "If you think them so," +replied Socrates, "endeavour, my friend, to put them in practice; for if +any of them succeed you will receive the honour, and the Republic the +profit; and even though they should not meet with success the Republic +would have no inconvenience to apprehend, nor you the least dishonour." + + + +CHAPTER VI. SOCRATES DISSUADES GLAUCON, A VERY FORWARD YOUTH, FROM +TAKING UPON HIM THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC, FOR WHICH HE WAS UNFIT. + + +A young man whose name was Glaucon, the son of Ariston, had so fixed it +in his head to govern the Republic, that before he was twenty years of +age he frequently presented himself before the people to discourse of +affairs of state; nor was it in the power of his relations or friends to +dissuade him from that design, though all the world laughed at him for +it, and though sometimes he was dragged from the tribunal by force. +Socrates had a kindness for him, upon account of Plato and Charmidas, and +he only it was who made him change his resolution. He met him, and +accosted him in so winning a manner, that he first obliged him to hearken +to his discourse. He began with him thus:-- + +"You have a mind, then, to govern the Republic, my friend?" "I have so," +answered Glaucon. "You cannot," replied Socrates, "have a more noble +design; for if you can accomplish it you will be absolute. You will be +able to serve your friends, you will raise your family, you will extend +the bounds of your country, you will be known not only in Athens but +through all Greece, and perhaps your renown will fly even to the +barbarous nations, as did that of Themistocles. In short, wherever you +come you will be respected and admired." + +These words soothed up Glaucon, and won him to give ear to Socrates, who +went on in this manner:--"But it is certain, my dear friend, that if you +desire to be honoured, you must be useful to the State." "Certainly," +said Glaucon. "I conjure you, then, to tell me," replied Socrates, "what +is the first service that you desire to render the State?" Glaucon was +considering what to answer, when Socrates continued:--"If you intended to +make the fortune of one of your friends, you would endeavour to make him +rich, and thus perhaps you will make it your business to enrich the +Republic." "I would," answered Glaucon. "Would not the way to enrich +the Republic," replied Socrates, "be to increase its revenue?" "It is +very likely it would," said Glaucon. "Tell me, then, in what consists +the revenue of the State, and to how much it may amount? I presume you +have particularly studied this matter, to the end that if anything should +be lost on one hand, you might know where to make it good on another, and +that if a fund should fail on a sudden, you might immediately be able to +settle another in its place." "I protest," answered Glaucon, "I have +never thought of this." "Tell me at least the expenses of the Republic, +for no doubt you intend to retrench the superfluous." "I never thought +of this neither," said Glaucon. "You had best, then, put off to another +time your design of enriching the Republic, which you can never be able +to do while you are ignorant both of its expense and revenue." + +"There is another way to enrich a State," said Glaucon, "of which you +take no notice, and that is by the ruin of its enemies." "You are in the +right," answered Socrates; "but to this end it is necessary to be +stronger than they, otherwise we should run the hazard of losing what we +have. He, therefore, who talks of undertaking a war, ought to know the +strength on both sides, to the end that if his party be the stronger, he +may boldly advise for war, and that if it be the weaker, he may dissuade +the people from engaging themselves in so dangerous an enterprise." "All +this is true." "Tell me, then," continued Socrates, "how strong our +forces are by sea and land, and how strong are our enemies?" "Indeed," +said Glaucon, "I cannot tell you that on a sudden." "If you have a list +of them in writing, pray show it me, I should be glad to hear it read." +"I never took a list of them." "I see, then," said Socrates, "that we +shall not engage in war so soon; for it is like that the greatness of the +undertaking will hinder you from maturely weighing all the consequences +of it in the beginning of your government. But," continued he, "you have +thought of the defence of the country, you know what garrisons are +necessary, and what are not; you know what number of troops is sufficient +in one garrison, and not sufficient in another; you will cause the +necessary garrisons to be reinforced, and will disband those that are +useless?" "I should be of opinion," said Glaucon, "to leave none of them +on foot, because they ruin a country, on pretence of defending it." +"But," Socrates objected, "if all the garrisons were taken away, there +would be nothing to hinder the first comer from carrying off what he +pleased. But how come you to know that the garrisons behave themselves +so ill? Have you been upon the place, have you seen them?" "Not at all; +but I suspect it to be so." "When, therefore, we are certain of it," +said Socrates, "and can speak upon better grounds than simple +conjectures, we will propose this advice to the Senate." "It will be +very proper to do so," said Glaucon. + +"It comes into my mind too," continued Socrates, "that you have never +been at the mines of silver, to examine why they bring not in so much now +as they did formerly." "You say true, I have never been there." "Indeed, +they say the place is very unhealthy, and that may excuse you." "You +rally me now," said Glaucon. Socrates added, "But I believe you have at +least observed how much corn our lands produce, how long it will serve to +supply our city, and how much more we shall want for the whole year, to +the end you may not be surprised with a scarcity of bread, but may give +timely orders for the necessary provisions." "There is a deal to do," +said Glaucon, "if we must take care of all these things." "There is so," +replied Socrates; "and it is even impossible to manage our own families +well unless we know all that is wanting, and take care to provide it. As +you see, therefore, that our city is composed of above ten thousand +families, and it being a difficult task to watch over them all at once, +why did you not first try to retrieve your uncle's affairs, which are +running to decay, that after having given a proof of your care, +faithfulness, and capacity in that smaller trust, you might have taken +upon you a greater? But now, when you find yourself incapable of aiding +a private man, how can you think of behaving yourself so as to be useful +to a whole people? Ought a man who has not strength enough to carry a +hundred pound weight undertake to carry a burden that is much heavier?" +"I would have done good service to my uncle," said Glaucon, "if he would +have taken my advice." "How!" replied Socrates; "have you hitherto been +unable to govern your uncle, who is but one person, and do you imagine, +when you have failed in that, to govern the whole Athenians, whose minds +are so fickle and inconstant? Take heed, my dear Glaucon, take heed, +lest a too great desire of glory should render you despised. Consider +how dangerous it is to speak and employ ourselves about things we do not +understand. What a figure do those forward and rash people make in the +world who do so: and you yourself may judge whether they acquire more +esteem than blame, whether they are more admired than contemned. Think, +on the contrary, with how much honour a man is regarded who understands +perfectly what he says and what he does, and then you will confess that +renown and applause have always been the recompense of true merit, and +shame the reward of ignorance and temerity. If, therefore, you would be +honoured, endeavour to be a man of true merit, for if you enter upon the +government of the Republic with a mind more sagacious than usual, I shall +not wonder if you succeed in all your designs." + + + +CHAPTER VII. SOCRATES PERSUADETH CHARMIDAS, A PERSON OF MERIT AND GREAT +CAPACITY, BUT VERY MODEST AND DIFFIDENT OF HIMSELF, TO UNDERTAKE THE +GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC. + + +As Socrates, who was ever watchful for the interests of his country, and +consulted the good of every one with whom he conversed, took care, on the +one hand, to dissuade persons who had no capacity for it, however bent +they were upon the thing, from entering upon any offices of trust, so he +was ever mindful, on the other, to persuade those that were bashful and +diffident to take upon themselves the government of the Republic, +provided he knew they had proper talents and abilities for it. In +confirmation whereof we shall here relate a conversation of his with +Charmidas, the son of Glaucon. Socrates, who knew him to be a man of +sense and merit, and more capable to govern the Republic than any that +were then in that post, but withal a person very diffident of himself--one +that dreaded the people, and was mightily averse from engaging himself in +public business--addressed himself to him in this manner:-- + +"Tell me, Charmidas, if you knew any man who could gain the prizes in the +public games, and by that means render himself illustrious, and acquire +glory to his country, what would you say of him if he refused to offer +himself to the combat?" "I would say," answered Charmidas, "that he was +a mean-spirited, effeminate fellow." "And if a man were capable of +governing a Republic, of increasing its power by his advices, and of +raising himself by this means to a high degree of honour, would you not +brand him likewise with meanness of soul if he would not present himself +to be employed?" "Perhaps I might," said Charmidas; "but why do you ask +me this question?" "Because you are capable," replied Socrates, "of +managing the affairs of the Republic, and yet you avoid doing so, though +in the quality of a citizen you are obliged to take care of the +commonwealth." "And wherein have you observed this capacity in me?" +"When I have seen you in conversation with the Ministers of State," +answered Socrates; "for if they impart any affairs to you, I see you give +them good advice, and when they commit any errors you make them judicious +remonstrances." "But there is a very great difference, my dear +Socrates," replied Charmidas, "between discoursing in private and +contending in a public manner before the people." "And yet," replied +Socrates, "a skilful arithmetician can calculate as well in presence of +several persons as when alone; and they who can play well upon the lute +in their closets play likewise well in company." "But you know," said +Charmidas, "that fear and shame, which are so natural to man, affect us +more in public assemblies than in private companies." "Is it possible," +said Socrates, "that you can converse so unconcernedly with men of parts +and authority, and that you should not have assurance enough to speak to +fools? Are you afraid to present yourself before dyers, shoemakers, +masons, smiths, labourers, and brokers? for of such are composed the +popular assemblies. This is the same thing as to be the most expert in a +fencing-school, and to fear the thrust of an unskilful person who never +handled a foil. Thus you, though you speak boldly in the presence of the +chief men of the Republic, among whom there might perhaps be found some +who would despise you, dare not, nevertheless, speak in the presence of +an illiterate multitude, who know nothing of the affairs of state, and +who are not capable of despising you, and you fear to be laughed at by +them." "Do they not usually," said Charmidas, "laugh at those who speak +best?" "So likewise," said Socrates, "do the men of quality with whom +you converse every day; and I am surprised that you have eloquence and +persuasive sense sufficient to bring these to reason, and that you think +not yourself capable even to approach the others. Learn to know yourself +better, Charmidas, and take care not to fall into a fault that is almost +general; for all men inquire curiously enough into the affairs of others, +but they never enter into their own bosoms to examine themselves as they +ought. + +"Be no longer, then, thus negligent in this matter, consider yourself +with more attention, and let not slip the occasions of serving the +Republic, and of rendering it, if possible, more flourishing than it is. +This will be a blessing, whose influence will descend not only on the +other citizens, but on your best friends and yourself." + + + +CHAPTER VIII. SOCRATES' DISPUTE WITH ARISTIPPUS CONCERNING THE GOOD AND +BEAUTIFUL. + + +One day Aristippus proposed a captious question to Socrates, meaning to +surprise him; and this by way of revenge, for his having before put him +to a stand: but Socrates answered him warily, and as a person who has no +other design in his conversations than the improvement of his hearers. + +The question which Aristippus asked him was whether he knew in the world +any good thing, and if Socrates had answered him that meat, or drink, or +riches, or health, or strength, or courage are good things, he would +forthwith have shown him that it may happen that they are very bad. He +therefore gave him such an answer as he ought; and because he knew very +well that when we feel any indisposition we earnestly desire to find a +remedy for it, he said to him: "Do you ask me, for example, whether I +know anything that is good for a fever?" "No," said Aristippus. "Or for +sore eyes?" said Socrates. "Neither." "Do you mean anything that is +good against hunger?" "Not in the least," answered Aristippus. "I +promise you," said Socrates, "that if you ask me for a good thing that is +good for nothing, I know no such thing, nor have anything to do with it." + +Aristippus pressed him yet further, and asked him whether he knew any +beautiful thing. "I know a great many," said Socrates. "Are they all +like one another?" continued Aristippus. "Not in the least," answered +Socrates, "for they are very different from one another." "And how is it +possible that two beautiful things should be contrary one to the other?" +"This," said Socrates, "is seen every day in men: a beautiful make and +disposition of body for running is very different from a beautiful make +and disposition for wrestling: the excellence and beauty of a buckler is +to cover well him that wears it. On the contrary, the excellence and +beauty of a dart is to be light and piercing." "You answer me," said +Aristippus, "as you answered me before, when I asked you whether you knew +any good thing." "And do you think," replied Socrates, "that the good +and the beautiful are different? Know you not that the things that are +beautiful are good likewise in the same sense? It would be false to say +of virtue that in certain occasions it is beautiful, and in others good. +When we speak of men of honour we join the two qualities, and call them +excellent and good. In our bodies beauty and goodness relate always to +the same end. In a word, all things that are of any use in the world are +esteemed beautiful and good, with regard to the subject for which they +are proper." "At this rate you might find beauty in a basket to carry +dung," said Aristippus. "Yes, if it be well made for that use," answered +Socrates; "and, on the contrary, I would say that a buckler of gold was +ugly if it was ill-made." "Would you say," pursued Aristippus, "that the +same thing may be beautiful and ugly at once?" "I would say that it +might be good and bad. Often what is good for hunger is bad for a fever; +and what is good for a fever is very bad for hunger; often what is +beautiful to be done in running is ugly to be done in wrestling; and what +is beautiful to do in wrestling is ugly in running. For all things are +reputed beautiful and good when they are compared with those which they +suit or become, as they are esteemed ugly and bad when compared with +those they do not become." + +Thus we see that when Socrates said that beautiful houses were the most +convenient, he taught plainly enough in what manner we ought to build +them, and he reasoned thus: "Ought not he who builds a house to study +chiefly how to make it most pleasant and most convenient?" This +proposition being granted, he pursued: "Is it not a pleasure to have a +house that is cool in summer and warm in winter? And does not this +happen in buildings that front towards the south? For the beams of the +sun enter into the apartments in winter, and only pass over the covering +in summer. For this reason the houses that front towards the south ought +to be very high, that they may receive the sun in winter; and, on the +contrary, those that front towards the north ought to be very low, that +they may be less exposed to the cold winds of that quarter." In short, +he used to say, that he had a very beautiful and very agreeable house, +who could live there with ease during all the seasons of the year, and +keep there in safety all that he has; but that for painting and other +ornaments, there was more trouble in them than pleasure. + +He said further that retired places, and such as could be seen from afar, +were very proper to erect altars and build temples in; for though we are +at a distance from them, yet it is a satisfaction to pray in sight of the +holy places, and as they are apart from the haunts of men, innocent souls +find more devotion in approaching them. + + + +CHAPTER IX. SOCRATES RETURNS SUITABLE ANSWERS TO A VARIETY OF QUESTIONS +PROPOSED TO HIM. + + +Another time being asked whether courage can be learnt as an art or was a +gift of Nature, he answered: "In my opinion, as we see many bodies that +are naturally more vigorous than others, and that better endure fatigue, +so there are some souls that are naturally more brave, and look dangers +in the face with greater resolution. For I see some men, who live under +the same laws, who are brought up in the same customs, and who are not +all equally valiant. Nevertheless, I believe that education and exercise +add much to natural courage. Whence comes it to pass that the Scythians +and the Thracians durst not face the Lacedemonians with pikes and +targets; and, on the contrary, that the Lacedemonians would not fight +against the Thracians with shields and darts, nor against the Scythians +with bows? I see it to be the same in all other things, and that when +some men are better inclined by nature for certain things than other men +are, they very much advance and perfect themselves in those things by +study and diligence. This shows that they who are most favoured by +Nature, as well as those to whom she has been less indulgent, ought to +apply themselves assiduously to the things by which they would gain +themselves a reputation." + +He allowed no difference between knowledge and temperance; and he held +that he who knows what is good and embraces it, who knows what is bad and +avoids it, is learned and temperate; and when he was asked whether he +believed that they who know very well what ought to be done, but do quite +otherwise, were learned and temperate? "On the contrary," answered he, +"they are very ignorant and very stupid, for, in my opinion, every man +who, in the great number of possible things that offer themselves to him, +can discern what is most advantageous for him to do, never fails to do +it; but all who govern not themselves well and as they ought, are neither +learned nor men of good morals." + +He said likewise that justice and every other virtue is only a science, +because all the actions of justice and of the other virtues are good and +honourable; and that all who know the beauty of these actions think +nothing more charming; as, on the contrary, they who are ignorant of them +cannot perform any one virtuous action, or, if they attempt to do it, are +sure to perform it in a wrong manner. So that the persons only who +possess this science can do just and good actions; but all just and good +actions are done by the means of virtue, therefore justice and virtue is +only a science. + +He said, moreover, that folly is contrary to knowledge, and yet he did +not allow ignorance to be a folly; but that not to know oneself, or to +imagine one knows what he does not know, is a weakness next to folly. And +he observed that among the vulgar a man is not accused of folly for being +mistaken in things that are unknown to most of the world, but for +mistaking in things which no man mistakes that knows anything at all; as +if any man should think himself so tall as to be obliged to stoop when he +came in at the gates of the city; or if he thought himself so strong as +to undertake to carry away whole houses on his back, or to do any other +thing visibly impossible, the people would say that he had lost his wits, +which they do not say of those who commit only some slight extravagances; +and as they give the name of love to a violent affection only, so they +give the name of folly only to an extraordinary disorder of the mind. + +Reflecting on the nature of envy, he said that it is a certain grief of +mind, which proceeds, not from the misfortune of friends or good fortune +of enemies, but (which is very surprising) only from the prosperity of +friends. "For," said he, "those may be truly said to be envious who +cannot endure to see their friends happy." But, some wondering whether +it were possible for a man to be grieved at the good fortune of his +friend, he justified the truth of what he had advanced, by telling them +plainly that there are some men so variously affected towards their +friends, that, while they are in calamity and distress, they will +compassionate and succour them, but when they are well and in prosperity +will fret at and envy them. "But this," he said, "is a fault from which +wise and good men are free, and never to be found but in weak and wicked +minds." + +As to idleness, he said that he had observed that most men were always in +action, for they who play at dice, or who serve to make others laugh, are +doing something, but in effect they are idle, because they might employ +themselves more usefully. To which he added, that no man finds leisure +to quit a good employment for an ill one, and that if he did he would +deserve the greater blame, in that he wanted not something to do before. + +He said likewise that the sceptre makes not the king, and that princes +and governors are not they whom chance or the choice of the people has +raised to those dignities, nor those who have established themselves in +them by fraud or force, but they who know how to command; for if it were +allowed that it is the duty of a prince to command, as it is the duty of +a subject to obey, he showed in consequence of it that in a ship, where +there are several persons, the honour of commanding it is given to him +who is most capable of it, and that all obey him, without excepting even +the owner of the vessel; that likewise in husbandry, he to whom the land +belongs obeys his own servants, if they understand agriculture better +than himself; that thus the sick obey the physicians, and they who learn +exercises, their masters; nay, that even women are masters of the men in +working with the needle, because they understand it better than they; in +short, that in all things which require care and industry men govern +themselves when they think they are capable of doing so; otherwise, they +leave themselves to the conduct of such as they judge to have more +capacity, and take care to have them near at hand for that purpose. And +if any man made him this objection, that a tyrant is at liberty not to +believe the best advices, he answered, "Why do you say he is at liberty +not to do so, seeing he will bear the smart of it? for every man who +shuts his ears to good counsel commits a fault, and this fault is always +attended with some damage." And if it were said that a tyrant is +permitted to put to death the men of the best parts and understanding in +his State, he replied again, "Do you think he is not punished in losing +his chief supports, or that he will be quit for a slight punishment? Is +to govern in this manner the way to preserve himself? or rather, is it +not the certain means to hasten his own ruin?" + +Being asked what was the best study for man to apply himself to, he +answered, "To do well;" and being asked farther whether good fortune was +the effect of study, "On the contrary," said he, "I think good fortune +and study to be two opposite things; for what I call good fortune is, +when a man meets with what is necessary for him, without the trouble of +seeking it; but when he meets with any good success after a tedious +search and labour, it is an effect of study. This is what I call to do +well; and I think that all who take delight in this study are for the +most part successful, and gain the esteem of men, and the affection of +the Deity. Such are they as have rendered themselves excellent in +economy, in physic, and in politics; but he who knows not any one thing +perfectly is neither useful to men, nor beloved by the gods." + + + +CHAPTER X. SOCRATES, IN CONVERSATION WITH SEVERAL ARTIFICERS, A PAINTER, +A STATUARY, AND AN ARMOURER, SHOWETH HIS SKILL AND GOOD TASTE IN THE +FINER ARTS. + + +As Socrates studied to be useful in all his conversations, so he never +happened to be in company even with tradesmen but he always said +something that might be of service to them. Going once into the shop of +the painter Parrhasius, he entertained himself with him in the following +manner:-- + +"Is not painting," said he, "a representation of all we see? For with a +few colours you represent on a canvas mountains and caverns, light and +obscurity; you cause to be observed the difference between soft things +and hard, between things smooth and rough; you give youth and old age to +bodies; and when you would represent a perfect beauty, it being +impossible to find a body but what has some defect, your way is to regard +several, and taking what is beautiful from each of them, you make one +that is accomplished in all its parts." "We do so," said Parrhasius. +"Can you represent likewise," said Socrates, "what is most charming and +most lovely in the person, I mean the inclination?" "How think you," +answered Parrhasius, "we can paint what cannot be expressed by any +proportion, nor with any colour, and that has nothing in common with any +of those things you mentioned, and which the pencil can imitate; in a +word, a thing that cannot be seen?" "Do not the very looks of men," +replied Socrates, "confess either hatred or friendship?" "In my opinion +they do," said Parrhasius. "You can then make hatred and friendship +appear in the eyes?" "I own we can." "Do you think likewise," continued +Socrates, "that they who concern themselves either in the adversity or +prosperity of friends, keep the same look with those who are wholly +unconcerned for either?" "By no means," said he, "for during the +prosperity of our friends, our looks are gay and full of joy, but in +their adversity we look cloudy and dejected." "This, then, may be +painted likewise?" "It may." "Besides," said Socrates, "magnificence, +generosity, meanness of mind, cowardice, modesty, prudence, insolence, +rusticity, all appear in the looks of a man, whether sitting or +standing." "You say true." "And cannot the pencil imitate all this +likewise?" "It may." "And in which do you take most pleasure," said +Socrates, "in regarding the picture of a man whose external appearance +discovereth a good natural disposition, and bespeaks an honest man, or of +one who wears in his face the marks of a vicious inclination?" "There is +no comparison between them," said Parrhasius. + +Another time, talking with Clito the sculptor, he said to him, "I wonder +not that you make so great a difference between the statue of a man who +is running a race and that of one who stands his ground to wait for his +antagonist with whom he is to wrestle, or to box, or to play a prize at +all sorts of defence; but what ravishes the beholders is, that your +statues seem to be alive. I would fain know by what art you imprint upon +them this wonderful vivacity?" Clito, surprised at this question, stood +considering what to answer, when Socrates went on:--"Perhaps you take +great care to make them resemble the living persons, and this is the +reason that they seem to live likewise." "It is so," said Clito. "You +must then," replied Socrates, "observe very exactly in the different +postures of the body what are the natural dispositions of all the parts, +for when some of them stoop down, the others raise themselves up; when +some are contracted, the others stretch themselves out; when some are +stiff with straining, others relax themselves; and when you imitate all +this, you make your statues approach very near the life." "You say +true," said Clito. "Is it not true likewise," replied Socrates, "that it +is a great satisfaction to beholders to see all the passions of a man who +is in action well expressed? Thus, in the statue of a gladiator who is +fighting, you must imitate the sternness of look with which he threatens +his enemy; on the contrary, you must give him, when victor, a look of +gaiety and content." "There is no doubt of what you say." "We may then +conclude," said Socrates, "that it is the part of an excellent statuary +to express the various affections and passions of the soul, by +representing such-and-such motions and postures of the body as are +commonly exerted in real life whenever the mind is so-and-so affected." + +Another time, Socrates being in the shop of Pistias the armourer, who +showed him some corselets that were very well made: "I admire," said +Socrates to him, "the invention of these arms that cover the body in the +places where it has most need of being defended, and nevertheless are no +hindrance to the motions of the hands and arms; but tell me why you sell +the suits of armour you make dearer than the other workmen of the city, +since they are not stronger nor of better-tempered or more valuable +metal?" "I sell them dearer than others," answered Pistias, "because +they are better made than theirs." "In what does this make consist?" +said Socrates, "in the weight, or in the largeness of the arms? And yet +you make them not all of the same weight nor of the same size, but to fit +every man." "They must be fit," said Pistias, "otherwise they would be +of no use." "But do you not know," replied Socrates, "that some bodies +are well-shaped and others not?" "I know it well." "How, then," +continued Socrates, "can you make a well-shaped suit of armour for an ill- +shaped body?" "It will be sufficient if they are fit for him," answered +Pistias; "for what is fit is well made." "You are of opinion, then," +added Socrates, "that one cannot judge whether a thing be well made, +considering it merely in itself, but in regard to the person who is to +use it; as if you said that a buckler is well made for him whom it fits, +and in like manner of a suit of clothes and any other thing whatsoever. +But I think there is another convenience in having a suit of armour well +made." "What do you take that to be?" said Pistias. "I think," answered +Socrates, "a suit of armour that is well made does not load the bearer so +much as one ill made, even though it weigh as much. For ill-made arms, +by pressing too much upon the shoulders, or hanging cumbrous on some +other part, become almost insupportable, and greatly incommode the person +that weareth them. But those arms which, as they ought, distribute an +equal weight to all the parts of the body, that join upon the neck, the +shoulders, the breast, the back, and the hips, may be said to be glued to +the body, and to weigh nothing at all." "For this," said Pistias, "I +value the arms I make. It is true that some choose rather to part with +their money for arms that are gilt and finely carved, but if with all +this they fit not easy upon them, I think they buy a rich inconveniency." +Socrates went on:--"But since the body is not always in the same posture, +but sometimes bends, and sometimes raises itself straight, how can arms +that are very fit be convenient and easy?" "They never can," said +Pistias. "Your opinion therefore is," said Socrates, "that the best arms +are not those that are most fit, and fit closest to the body, but those +that do not incommode the person that wears them." "You, too, are of the +same opinion," replied Pistias, "and you understand the matter aright." + + + +CHAPTER XI. DISCOURSE OF SOCRATES WITH THEODOTA, AN ATHENIAN LADY, OF NO +GOOD CHARACTER; WHEREIN HE ENDEAVOURETH, IN THE MOST ARTFUL AND ENGAGING +MANNER, TO WIN HER OVER FROM THE CRIMINAL PLEASURES TO WHICH SHE WAS +ADDICTED UNTO THE SUBLIMER AND MORE INNOCENT DELIGHTS OF PHILOSOPHY AND +VIRTUE. + + +There was at Athens a very beautiful lady called Theodota, who had the +character of a loose dame. Some person was speaking of her in presence +of Socrates, and saying that she was the most beautiful woman in the +whole world; that all the painters went to see her, to draw her picture, +and that they were very well received at her house. "I think," said +Socrates, "we ought to go see her too, for we shall be better able to +judge of her beauty after we have seen her ourselves than upon the bare +relation of others." The person who began the discourse encouraged the +matter, and that very moment they all went to Theodota's house. They +found her with a painter who was drawing her picture; and having +considered her at leisure when the painter had done, Socrates began +thus:--"Do you think that we are more obliged to Theodota for having +afforded us the sight of her beauty than she is to us for coming to see +her? If all the advantage be on her side, it must be owned that she is +obliged to us; if it be on ours, it must be confessed that we are so to +her." Some of the company saying there was reason to think so, Socrates +continued in these words:--"Has she not already had the advantage of +receiving the praises we have given her? But it will be yet a much +greater to her when we make known her merit in all the companies we come +into; but as for ourselves, what do we carry from hence except a desire +to enjoy the things we have seen? We go hence with souls full of love +and uneasiness; and from this time forward we must obey Theodota in all +she pleases to enjoin us." "If it be so," said Theodota, "I must return +you many thanks for your coming hither." Meanwhile Socrates took notice +that she was magnificently apparelled, and that her mother appeared +likewise like a woman of condition. He saw a great number of women +attendants elegantly dressed, and that the whole house was richly +furnished. He took occasion from hence to inform himself of her +circumstances in the world, and to ask her whether she had an estate in +land or houses in the city, or slaves, whose labour supplied the expenses +of her family. "I have nothing," answered she, "of all this; my friends +are my revenue. I subsist by their liberality." + +Upon which Socrates remarked that "friendship was one of the greatest +blessings in life, for that a good friend could stand one in stead of all +possessions whatever." And he advised Theodota to try all her art to +procure to herself some lovers and friends that might render her happy. +The lady asking Socrates whether there were any artifices to be used for +that purpose, he answered, "there were," and proceeded to mention +several:--"Some for attracting the regard of the men, some for +insinuating into their hearts; others for securing their affections and +managing their passions." Whereupon Theodota, whose soul then lay open +to any impression, mistaking the virtuous design of Socrates in the whole +of this discourse for an intention of another sort, cried out in +raptures, "Ah! Socrates, why will not you help me to friends?" "I +will," replied Socrates, "if you can persuade me to do so." "And what +means must I use to persuade you?" "You must invent the means," said +Socrates, "if you want me to serve you." "Then come to see me often," +added Theodota. Socrates laughed at the simplicity of the woman, and in +raillery said to her, "I have not leisure enough to come and see you; I +have both public and private affairs which take up too much of my time. +Besides, I have mistresses who will not suffer me to be from them neither +day nor night, and who against myself make use of the very charms and +sorceries that I have taught them." "And have you any knowledge in those +things, too?" said she. "Why do Apollodorus and Antisthenes," answered +Socrates, "never leave me? why do Cebes and Simmias forsake Thebes for my +company? This they would not do if I were not master of some charm." +"Lend it me," said Theodota, "that I may employ it against you, and charm +you to come to me." "No," said Socrates, "but I will charm you, and make +you come to me." "I will," said Theodota, "if you will promise to make +me welcome." "I promise you I will," answered Socrates, "provided there +be nobody with me whom I love better than you." + + + +CHAPTER XII. OF THE NECESSITY OF EXERCISE TO HEALTH AND STRENGTH OF +BODY. + + +Among others who frequented Socrates, there was a young man whose name +was Epigenes, and who was very awkward in his person and behaviour, and +had contracted an ill habit of body, having never learnt nor used any +exercise. Socrates reproached him for it, and told him that it was +unworthy of any man to be so negligent of himself. Epigenes slightly +answered that he was under no obligation to do better. "You are no less +obliged to it," replied Socrates, "than they who train themselves up for +the Olympic Games. For do you believe that to fight for one's life +against the enemies of the Republic, which we are all obliged to do when +the Athenians please to command us, is a less important occasion than to +contend with antagonists for a prize? How many men are there who, for +want of strength, perish in fights; or have recourse to dishonourable +means to seek their safety? Some are taken prisoners, and remain in +slavery all the rest of their days, or are forced to pay so great a +ransom, as makes them live poor and miserable ever afterwards: others are +ill thought of, and their weakness is imputed to cowardice. And do you +value so little all these misfortunes, which constantly attend an ill +habit of body, and do they seem to you so slight? In my opinion, there +are no fatigues in the exercises but what are more easy and more +agreeable. But perhaps you despise the advantages of a good disposition +of body: nevertheless, they are considerable; for men in that condition +enjoy a perfect health, they are robust and active, they come off from +combats with honour, they escape from dangers, they succour their +friends, they render great services to their country. For these reasons +they are well received wherever they come, they are in good reputation +with all men, they attain to the highest offices, they live the more +honourably and the more at ease, and they leave their posterity the most +noble examples. If, therefore, you do not practise the military +exercises in public, you ought not to neglect the doing so in private, +but to apply yourself to them with all possible diligence. + +"To have the body active and healthy can be hurtful to you in no +occasions: and since we cannot do anything without the body, it is +certain that a good constitution will be of great advantage to us in all +our undertakings. Even in study, where there seems to be least need of +it, we know many persons who could never make any great progress for want +of health. Forgetfulness, melancholy, loss of appetite, and folly, are +the diseases that generally proceed from the indisposition of the body; +and these diseases sometimes seize the mind with so great violence, that +they wipe out even the least remembrance of what we knew before. But in +health we have nothing like this to fear, and consequently there is no +toil which a judicious man would not willingly undergo to avoid all these +misfortunes. And, indeed, it is shameful for a man to grow old before he +has tried his own strength, and seen to what degree of dexterity and +perfection he can attain, which he can never know if he give himself over +for useless; because dexterity and strength come not of themselves, but +by practice and exercise." + + + +CHAPTER XIII. SEVERAL APOPHTHEGMS OF SOCRATES. + + +A certain man being vexed that he had saluted one who did not return his +civility, Socrates said to him, "It is ridiculous in you to be +unconcerned when you meet a sick man in the way, and to be vexed for +having met a rude fellow." + +2. Another was saying that he had lost his appetite and could eat +nothing. Socrates, having heard it, told him he could teach him a remedy +for that. The man asking what it was, "Fast," said he, "for some time, +and I will warrant you will be in better health, spend less money, and +eat with more satisfaction afterwards." + +3. Another complained that the water which came into the cistern was +warm, and nevertheless he was forced to drink it. "You ought to be glad +of it," said Socrates, "for it is a bath ready for you, whenever you have +a mind to bathe yourself." "It is too cold to bathe in," replied the +other. "Do your servants," said Socrates, "find any inconvenience in +drinking it, or in bathing in it?" "No, but I wonder how they can suffer +it." "Is it," continued Socrates, "warmer to drink than that of the +temple of AEsculapius?" "It is not near so warm." "You see, then," said +Socrates, "that you are harder to please than your own servants, or even +than the sick themselves." + +4. A master having beaten his servant most cruelly, Socrates asked him +why he was so angry with him. The master answered, "Because he is a +drunkard, a lazy fellow who loves money, and is always idle." "Suppose +he be so," said Socrates: "but be your own judge, and tell me, which of +you two deserves rather to be punished for those faults?" + +5. Another made a difficulty of undertaking a journey to Olympia. "What +is the reason," said Socrates to him, "that you are so much afraid of +walking, you, who walk up and down about your house almost all day long? +You ought to look upon this journey to be only a walk, and to think that +you will walk away the morning till dinner-time, and the afternoon till +supper, and thus you will insensibly find yourself at your journey's end. +For it is certain that in five or six days' time you go more ground in +walking up and down than you need to do in going from Athens to Olympia. +I will tell you one thing more: it is much better to set out a day too +soon than a day too late; for it is troublesome to be forced to go long +journeys; and on the contrary, it is a great ease to have the advantage +of a day beforehand. You were better therefore to hasten your departure +than be obliged to make haste upon the road." + +6. Another telling him that he had been a great journey, and was +extremely weary, Socrates asked whether he had carried anything. The +other answered that he had carried nothing but his cloak. "Were you +alone?" said Socrates. "No; I had a slave with me." "Was not he +loaded?" continued Socrates. "Yes, for he carried all my things." "And +how did he find himself upon the road?" "Much better than I." "And if +you had been to carry what he did, what would have become of you?" +"Alas!" said he, "I should never have been able to have done it." "Is it +not a shame," added Socrates, "in a man like you, who have gone through +all the exercises, not to be able to undergo as much fatigue as his +slave?" + + + +CHAPTER XIV. SOCRATES PROPOSETH SOME REGULATIONS FOR THE BETTER +MANAGEMENT OF THEIR PUBLIC FEASTS. + + +Socrates having observed that in public suppers every one brought his own +dish of meat, and that sometimes some brought more and others less, was +wont, when this happened, to bid a servant set the least dish in the +middle of the table, and to give some of it to all the company. No man +could, in civility, refuse it, nor exempt himself from doing the like +with his own dish, insomuch that every man had a taste of the whole, and +all fared alike. This in some measure banished luxury and expensiveness +from these feasts. For they who would have laid out a great deal of +money in delicacies cared no longer to do so, because they would have +been as much for others as for themselves. + +Being one day in these assemblies, and seeing a young man who ate his +meat without bread, he took occasion to rally him for it upon a question +that was started touching the imposing of names. "Can we give any +reasons," said he, "why a man is called flesh-eater--that is to say, a +devourer of flesh?--for every man eats flesh when he has it; and I do not +believe it to be upon that account that a man is called so." "Nor I +neither," said one of the company. "But," continued Socrates, "if a man +takes delight to eat his meat without bread, do you not take him to be, +indeed, a flesh-eater?" "I should think it difficult to find another who +better would deserve that name." Upon which somebody else taking the +word said, "What think you of him who, with a little bread only, eats a +great deal of flesh?" "I should," replied Socrates, "judge him, too, to +be a flesh-eater; and whereas others ask of the gods in their prayers to +give them an abundance of fruits, such men in their petitions it is +likely would pray only for abundance of flesh." + +The young man whom Socrates had in mind, suspecting that he spoke upon +his account, took some bread, but continued still to eat a great deal of +flesh with it. Socrates perceived him, and showing him with his finger +to those that sat next to him, said to them, "Take notice of jour +neighbour, and see whether it be the meat that makes him eat his bread, +or the bread that makes him eat his meat." + +In a like occasion, seeing a man sop the same morsel of meat in several +sauces, he said, "Is it possible to make a sauce that will cost more, and +be not so good, as one that is made by taking out of several different +sauces at once? For there being more ingredients than usual, no doubt it +costs more; but then because we mix things together, which the cooks +never used to mingle, because they agree not well with one another, we +certainly spoil the whole; and is it not a jest to be curious in having +good cooks, and at the same time to be so fantastical as to alter the +relish of the dishes they have dressed? Besides, when we have once got a +habit of eating thus of several dishes at once, we are not so well +satisfied when we have no longer that variety. Whereas a man who +contents himself to eat but of one dish at a time finds no great +inconvenience in having but one dish of meat for his dinner." + +He made likewise this remark: that to express what the other Greeks +called "to eat a meal," the Athenians said "to make good cheer;" and that +the word "good" shows us that we ought to eat such things only as will +neither disorder the body nor the mind, which are easily had, and +purchased without great expense. From whence he inferred that they alone +who live temperately and soberly can truly be said to make good +cheer--that is to say, to eat well. + + + + +BOOK IV. + + +CHAPTER I. THAT PERSONS OF GOOD NATURAL PARTS, AS WELL AS THOSE WHO HAVE +PLENTIFUL FORTUNES, OUGHT NOT TO THINK THEMSELVES ABOVE INSTRUCTION. ON +THE CONTRARY, THE ONE OUGHT, BY THE AID OF LEARNING, TO IMPROVE THEIR +GENIUS; THE OTHER, BY THE ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE, TO RENDER THEMSELVES +VALUABLE. + + +There was always, as we have already remarked, some improvement to be +made with Socrates; and it must be owned that his company and +conversation were very edifying, since even now, when he is no more among +us, it is still of advantage to his friends to call him to their +remembrance. And, indeed, whether he spoke to divert himself, or whether +he spoke seriously, he always let slip some remarkable instructions for +the benefit of all that heard him. + +He used often to say he was in love, but it was easy to see it was not +with the beauty of one's person that he was taken, but with the virtues +of his mind. + +The marks of a good genius, he said, were these--a good judgment, a +retentive memory, and an ardent desire of useful knowledge; that is to +say, when a person readily learns what he is taught, and strongly retains +what he has learnt, as also when he is curious to know all that is +necessary to the good government either of a family or of a republic; in +a word, when one desires to obtain a thorough knowledge of mankind and of +whatever relates to human affairs. And his opinion was that when these +good natural parts are cultivated as they ought, such men are not only +happy themselves, and govern their families prudently, but are capable +likewise to render others happy, and to make republics flourish. + +On the one hand, therefore, whenever he met with any who believed +themselves men of parts, and for that reason neglected to be instructed, +he proved to them that men of the best natural parts are they who have +most need of instruction; and to this purpose he alleged the example of a +high-mettled horse, who, having more courage and more strength than +others, does us very great service, if he be broke and managed in his +youth; but if that be neglected, he grows so vicious and unruly that we +know not what to do with him. Thus also dogs of a good breed, and that +by nature are the most strong and mettlesome, are excellent for game, if +they are well taught; otherwise they are apt to become high rangers and +at no command. In like manner among men they who are blessed with the +greatest advantages of Nature, to whom she has given the most courage and +the greatest strength to enable them to succeed in their undertakings, +are likewise the most virtuous, and do more good than others, when they +meet with a good education; but if they remain without instruction they +fall into an excess of ill, and become most pernicious to themselves and +others. Merely for want of knowing their duty they often engage +themselves in very wicked designs; and being imperious and violent, it is +very difficult to keep them within bounds and to make them change their +resolution, which is the reason they do a great deal of mischief. + +On the other hand, when he saw any of those men who pique themselves on +their estates, and who believe because they are men of high condition +that they are above instruction, or have no need of it, because their +riches alone are sufficient to gain them the esteem of the world, and to +make them succeed in all their undertakings, he endeavoured to convince +them of their error, and to show them that they, too, have need of +instruction. He told them that that man is a fool who imagines with +himself that he can know the things that are useful from those that are +hurtful, without having ever learnt the difference; or who, not +discerning between them, fondly thinks that because he has wherewithal to +buy whatever he has a mind to, he can therefore do whatever may lend to +his advantage; or who, judging himself incapable to do what is useful for +himself, thinks, nevertheless, that he is well in the world, and in a +safe and happy condition of life. That it is likewise a folly for a man +to persuade himself that, being rich and having no merit, he will pass +for a man of parts; or that, not having the reputation of being a man of +parts, he shall nevertheless be esteemed. + + + +CHAPTER II. CONFERENCE BETWEEN SOCRATES AND EUTHYDEMUS, IN WHICH HE +CONVINCES THAT YOUNG MAN, WHO HAD A GREAT OPINION OF HIMSELF, THAT HE +KNEW NOTHING. + + +When Socrates, on the other hand, found any who soothe themselves up in +the belief that they are well instructed, and who boast of their own +sufficiency, he never failed to chastise the vanity of such persons. Of +his conduct in this particular I will relate the following instance-- + +He had been told that Euthydemus had bought up several works of the most +celebrated poets and sophists, and that this acquisition had so puffed +him up with arrogance, that he already esteemed himself the greatest man +for learning and parts of any of the age, and pretended to no less than +being the first man of the city, either for negotiating or for +discoursing in public. Nevertheless, he was still so young that he was +not admitted into the assemblies of the people, and if he had any affair +to solicit he generally came and placed himself in one of the shops that +were near the courts of justice. Socrates, having observed his station, +failed not to go thither likewise with two or three of his friends; and +there, being fallen into discourse, this question was started: Whether it +was by the improving conversation of philosophers or by the strength of +his natural parts only, that Themistocles surpassed all his countrymen in +wisdom and valour, and advanced himself to such a high rank and to so +great esteem, that all the Republic cast their eyes upon him whenever +their affairs required the conduct of a man of bravery and wisdom? +Socrates, who had a mind to reflect upon Euthydemus, answered that "a man +must be very stupid to believe that mechanic arts (which are +comparatively things but of small importance) cannot be learnt without +masters; and yet that the art of governing of States, which is a thing of +the greatest moment and that requires the greatest effort of human +prudence, comes of itself into the mind." And this was all that passed +in this first interview. + +After this Socrates, observing that Euthydemus always avoided being in +his company, lest he should be taken for one of his admirers, attacked +him more openly; and once when he happened to be where he was, addressed +himself to the rest of the company in these words:--"Certainly, +gentlemen, by what may be conjectured from the studies of this young man, +it is very likely that when he shall have attained the age that permits +him to be present in the assemblies of the people, if any important +affair come to be debated there, he will not fail to give his judgment of +it; and in my opinion he would introduce his harangue by a very pleasant +exordium, if he should begin with giving them to understand that he had +never learnt anything of any man whatsoever; he must address himself to +them in words to this purpose:-- + +"'Gentlemen, I have never been taught anything, I never frequented the +conversation of men of parts, I never gave myself the trouble to look out +for a master that was able to instruct me. On the contrary, gentlemen, I +have not only had an aversion to learn from others, but I should even +have been very sorry to have it believed I had done so; nevertheless, I +will venture to tell you what chance shall suggest to me in this present +occasion.' At this rate they who present themselves to be received +physicians might introduce a like discourse as thus:--'Gentlemen, I have +never had any master to teach me this science; for, indeed, I would never +learn it, nor even have the repute of having learnt it; nevertheless, +admit me a physician, and I will endeavour to become learned in the art +by making experiments on your own bodies.'" + +All the company fell a-laughing at this pleasant preface, and from that +time Euthydemus never avoided Socrates' company as he had done before; +but he never offered to speak, believing that his silence would be an +argument of his modesty. Socrates, being desirous to rally him out of +that mistaken notion, spoke to him in this manner:-- + +"I wonder that they who desire to learn to play upon the lute, or to ride +well, do not endeavour to learn it alone by themselves; but that they +look out for masters, resolved to do everything they bid them, and to +believe all they say, there being no other way to arrive at perfection in +those arts; and that they who hope one day to govern the Republic, and to +declaim before the people, imagine they can become fit to do so of +themselves all of a sudden. Nevertheless, it must be owned that these +employments are more difficult than the others, since among the great +number of persons who push themselves into office so few discharge their +duty as they ought. This shows us that more labour and diligence is +required in such as would capacitate themselves for those offices than +for anything else." + +By these discourses, Socrates having prepared the mind of Euthydemus to +hearken to what he intended to say to him, and to enter into conference +with him, he came another time by himself into the same shop, and taking +a seat next to this young man--"I have heard," said he to him, "that you +have been curious in buying a great many good books." "I have," said +Euthydemus, "and continue to do so every day, designing to have as many +as I can get." "I commend you very much," said Socrates, "for choosing +rather to hoard up a treasure of learning and knowledge than of money. +For you testify by so doing that you are not of opinion that riches, or +silver and gold, can render one more valuable, that is to say, a wiser or +a better man; but that it is only the writings and precepts of the +philosophers and other fine writers that are the true riches, because +they enrich with virtue the minds of those that possess them." Euthydemus +was pleased to hear him say this, believing that he approved his method; +and Socrates, perceiving his satisfaction, went on: "But what is your +design of making a collection of so many books? Do you intend to be a +physician? There are many books in that science." "That is not my +design," said Euthydemus. "Will you be an architect, then?" said +Socrates, "for that art requires a learned man. Or do you study geometry +or astrology?" "None of them." "Do you mean to be a reciter of heroic +verses?" continued Socrates, "for I have been told that you have all +Homer's works." "Not in the least," answered Euthydemus, "for I have +observed that men of that profession know indeed a great many verses by +heart, but for anything else they are for the most part very +impertinent." "Perhaps you are in love with that noble science that +makes politicians and economists, and that renders men capable to govern, +and to be useful to others and to themselves?" "That is what I endeavour +to learn," said Euthydemus, "and what I passionately desire to know." "It +is a sublime science," replied Socrates; "it is that we call the royal +science, because it truly is the science of kings. But have you weighed +this point, whether a man can excel in that science without being an +honest man?" "I have," said the young man, "and am even of opinion that +none but honest men can be good citizens." "And are you an honest man?" +said Socrates. "I hope I am," answered Euthydemus, "as honest a man as +another." "Tell me," said Socrates, "can we know who are honest men by +what they do, as we know what trade a man is of by his work?" "We may." +"Then," said Socrates, "as architects show us their works, can honest men +show us theirs likewise?" "No doubt of it," replied Euthydemus; "and it +is no difficult task to show you which are the works of justice, and +which those of injustice, that we so often hear mentioned." "Shall we," +said Socrates, "make two characters, the one (J) to signify justice, the +other (I) to denote injustice; and write under one of them all the works +that belong to justice, and under the other all that belong to +injustice?" "Do," said Euthydemus, "if you think fit." + +Socrates, having done what he proposed, continued thus his discourse:--"Do +not men tell lies?" "Very often," answered Euthydemus. "Under which +head shall we put lying?" "Under that of injustice," said Euthydemus. +"Do not men sometimes cheat?" "Most certainly." "Where shall we put +cheating?" said Socrates. "Under injustice." "And doing wrong to one's +neighbour?" "There too." "And selling of free persons into slavery?" +"Still in the same place." "And shall we write none of all these," said +Socrates, "under the head of justice?" "Not one of them," answered +Euthydemus; "it would be strange if we did." "But what," replied +Socrates, "when a general plunders an enemy's city, and makes slaves of +all the inhabitants, shall we say that he commits an injustice?" "By no +means." "Shall we own, then, that he does an act of justice?" "Without +doubt." "And when he circumvents his enemies in the war, does he not do +well?" "Very well." "And when he ravages their land, and takes away +their cattle and their corn, does he not do justly?" "It is certain he +does," said Euthydemus; "and when I answered you that all these actions +were unjust, I thought you had spoken of them in regard only of friend to +friend." "We must, therefore," replied Socrates, "put among the actions +of justice those very actions we have ascribed to injustice, and we will +only establish this distinction, that it is just to behave ourselves so +towards our enemies; but that to treat our friends thus is an injustice, +because we ought to live with them uprightly, and without any deceit." "I +think so," said Euthydemus. "But," continued Socrates, "when a general +sees that his troops begin to be disheartened, if he make them believe +that a great reinforcement is coming to him, and by that stratagem +inspires fresh courage into the soldiers, under what head shall we put +this lie?" "Under the head of justice," answered Euthydemus. "And when +a child will not take the physic that he has great need of, and his +father makes it be given him in a mess of broth, and by that means the +child recovers his health, to which shall we ascribe this deceit?" "To +justice likewise." "And if a man, who sees his friend in despair, and +fears he will kill himself, hides his sword from him, or takes it out of +his hands by force, what shall we say of this violence?" "That it is +just," replied Euthydemus. "Observe what you say," continued Socrates; +"for it follows from your answers that we are not always obliged to live +with our friends uprightly, and without any deceit, as we agreed we +were." "No; certainly we are not, and if I may be permitted to retract +what I said, I change my opinion very freely." "It is better," said +Socrates, "to change an opinion than to persist in a wrong one. But +there is still one point which we must not pass over without inquiry, and +this relates to those whose deceits are prejudicial to their friends; for +I ask you, which are most unjust, they who with premeditate design cheat +their friends, or they who do it through inadvertency?" "Indeed," said +Euthydemus, "I know not what to answer, nor what to believe, for you have +so fully refuted what I have said, that what appeared to me before in one +light appears to me now in another. Nevertheless, I will venture to say +that he is the most unjust who deceives his friend deliberately." "Do +you think," said Socrates, "that one may learn to be just and honest, as +well as we learn to read and write?" "I think we may." "Which," added +Socrates, "do you take to be the most ignorant, he who reads wrong on +purpose, or he who reads wrong because he can read no better?" "The last +of them," answered Euthydemus; "for the other who mistakes for pleasure +need not mistake when he pleases." "Then," inferred Socrates, "he who +reads wrong deliberately knows how to read; but he who reads wrong +without design is an ignorant man." "You say true." "Tell me likewise," +pursued Socrates, "which knows best what ought to be done, and what +belongs to justice, he who lies and cheats with premeditate design, or he +who deceives without intention to deceive?" "It is most plain," said +Euthydemus, "that it is he who deceives with premeditate design." "But +you said," replied Socrates, "that he who can read is more learned than +he who cannot read?" "I did so." "Therefore he who best knows which are +the duties of justice is more just than he that knows them not." "It +seems to be so," answered Euthydemus, "and I know not well how I came to +say what I did." "Indeed," said Socrates, "you often change your +opinion, and contradict what you say; and what would you yourself think +of any man who pretended to tell the truth, and yet never said the same +thing; who, in pointing out to you the same road, should show you +sometimes east, sometimes west, and who, in telling the same sum, should +find more money at one time than another; what would you think of such a +man?" "He would make all men think," answered Euthydemus, "that he knew +nothing of what he pretended to know." + +Socrates urged him yet further, and asked him: "Have you ever heard say +that some men have abject and servile minds?" "I have." "Is it said of +them because they are learned or because they are ignorant?" "Surely +because they are ignorant." "Perhaps," said Socrates, "it is because +they understand not the trade of a smith?" "Not in the least for that." +"Is it because they know not how to build a house, or to make shoes?" "By +no means," said Euthydemus; "for most who are skilled in such professions +have likewise abject and servile minds." "This character, then," pursued +Socrates, "must be given to those who are ignorant of the noble sciences, +and who know not what is just nor what is honourable?" "I believe so." +"We ought, therefore, Euthydemus, to do all we can to avoid falling into +that ignominious ignorance that sinks us down so low." "Alas, Socrates!" +cried he out, "I will not lie for the matter; I thought I knew something +in philosophy, and that I had learnt whatever was requisite to be known +by a man who desired to make a practice of virtue; but judge how much I +am afflicted to see that, after all my labours, I am not able to answer +you concerning things which I ought chiefly to know; and yet I am at a +loss what method to pursue in order to render myself more capable and +knowing in the things I desire to understand." Upon this, Socrates asked +him whether he had ever been at Delphi, and Euthydemus answered that he +had been there twice. "Did you not take notice," said Socrates, "that +somewhere on the front of the temple there is this inscription, 'KNOW +THYSELF'?" "I remember," answered he, "I have read it there." "It is +not enough," replied Socrates, "to have read it. Have you been the +better for this admonition? Have you given yourself the trouble to +consider what you are?" "I think I know that well enough," replied the +young man, "for I should have found it very difficult to have known any +other thing if I had not known myself." "But for a man to know himself +well," said Socrates, "it is not enough that he knows his own name; for, +as a man that buys a horse cannot be certain that he knows what he is +before he has ridden him, to see whether he be quiet or restive, whether +he be mettlesome or dull, whether he be fleet or heavy--in short, before +he has made trial of all that is good and bad in him--in like manner, a +man cannot say that he knows himself before he has tried what he is fit +for, and what he is able to do." "It is true," said Euthydemus, "that +whoever knows not his own strength knows not himself." "But," continued +Socrates, "who sees not of how great advantage this knowledge is to man, +and how dangerous it is to be mistaken in this affair? for he who knows +himself knows likewise what is good for himself. He sees what he is able +to do, and what he is not able to do; by applying himself to things that +he can do, he gets his bread with pleasure, and is happy; and by not +attempting to do the things he cannot do, he avoids the danger of falling +into errors, and of seeing himself miserable. By knowing himself, he +knows likewise how to judge of others, and to make use of their services +for his own advantage, either to procure himself some good, or to protect +himself from some misfortune; but he who knows not himself, and is +mistaken in the opinion he has of his own abilities, mistakes likewise in +the knowledge of others, and in the conduct of his own affairs. He is +ignorant of what is necessary for him, he knows not what he undertakes, +nor comprehends the means he makes use of, and this is the reason that +success never attends his enterprises, and that he always falls into +misfortunes. But the man who sees clear into his own designs generally +obtains the end he proposes to himself, and at the same time gains +reputation and honour. For this reason, even his equals are well pleased +to follow his advices; and they whose affairs are in disorder implore his +assistance, and throw themselves into his hands, depending upon his +prudence to retrieve their affairs, and to restore them to their former +good condition. But he who undertakes he knows not what, generally makes +an ill choice, and succeeds yet worse; and the present damage is not the +only punishment he undergoes for his temerity. He is disgraced for ever; +all men laugh at him, all men despise and speak ill of him. Consider +likewise what happens to Republics who mistake their own strength, and +declare war against States more powerful than themselves; some are +utterly ruined, others lose their liberty, and are compelled to receive +laws from the conquerors." + +"I am fully satisfied," said Euthydemus, "that a great deal depends on +the knowledge of oneself. I hope you will now tell me by what a man must +begin to examine himself." "You know," said Socrates, "what things are +good and what are bad?" "Indeed," answered Euthydemus, "if I knew not +that, I were the most ignorant of all men." "Then tell me your thoughts +of this matter," said Socrates. "First," said Euthydemus, "I hold that +health is a good and sickness an evil, and that whatever contributes to +either of them partakes of the same qualities. Thus nourishment and the +exercises that keep the body in health are very good; and, on the +contrary, those that cause diseases are hurtful." "But would it not be +better to say," replied Socrates, "that health and sickness are both good +when they are the causes of any good, and that they are both bad when +they are the causes of any ill?" "And when can it ever happen," said +Euthydemus, "that health is the cause of any ill, and sickness the cause +of any good?" "This may happen," answered Socrates, "when troops are +raised for any enterprise that proves fatal; when men are embarked who +are destined to perish at sea; for men who are in health may be involved +in these misfortunes, when they who, by reason of their infirmities, are +left at home, will be exempted from the mischiefs in which the others +perish." "You say true," said Euthydemus, "but you see, too, that men +who are in health are present in fortunate occasions, while they who are +confined to their beds cannot be there." "It must therefore be granted," +said Socrates, "that these things which are sometimes useful and +sometimes hurtful are not rather good than bad." "That is, indeed, the +consequence of your argument," replied Euthydemus; "but it cannot be +denied that knowledge is a good thing; for what is there in which a +knowing man has not the advantage of an ignorant one?" "And have you not +read," said Socrates, "what happened to Daedalus for his knowing so many +excellent arts, and how, being fallen into the hands of Minos, he was +detained by force, and saw himself at once banished from his country and +stripped of his liberty? To complete his misfortune, flying away with +his son, he was the occasion of his being miserably lost, and could not, +after all, escape in his own person; for, falling into the hands of +barbarians, he was again made a slave. Know you not likewise the +adventure of Palamedes, who was so envied by Ulysses for his great +capacity, and who perished wretchedly by the calumnious artifices of that +rival? How many great men likewise has the King of Persia caused to be +seized and carried away because of their admirable parts, and who are now +languishing under him in a perpetual slavery?" "But, granting this to be +as you say," added Euthydemus, "you will certainly allow good fortune to +be a good?" "I will," said Socrates, "provided this good fortune +consists in things that are undoubtedly good." "And how can it be that +the things which compose good fortune should not be infallibly good?" +"They are," answered Socrates, "unless you reckon among them beauty and +strength of body, riches, honours, and other things of that nature." "And +how can a man be happy without them?" "Rather," said Socrates, "how can +a man be happy with things that are the causes of so many misfortunes? +For many are daily corrupted because of their beauty; many who presume +too much on their own strength are oppressed under the burden of their +undertakings. Among the rich, some are lost in luxury, and others fall +into the snares of those that wait for their estates. And lastly, the +reputation and honours that are acquired in Republics are often the cause +of their ruin who possess them." "Certainly," said Euthydemus, "if I am +in the wrong to praise good fortune, I know not what we ought to ask of +the Deity." "Perhaps, too," replied Socrates, "you have never considered +it, because you think you know it well enough. + +"But," continued he, changing the subject of their discourse, "seeing you +are preparing yourself to enter upon the government of our Republic, +where the people are master, without doubt you have reflected on the +nature of this State, and know what a democracy is?" "You ought to +believe I do." "And do you think it possible," said Socrates, "to know +what a democracy or popular State is without knowing what the people is?" +"I do not think I can." "And what is the people?" said Socrates. "Under +that name," answered Euthydemus, "I mean the poor citizens." "You know, +then, who are the poor?" "I do," said Euthydemus. "Do you know, too, +who are the rich?" "I know that too." "Tell me, then, who are the rich +and who are the poor?" "I take the poor," answered Euthydemus, "to be +those who have not enough to supply their necessary expenses, and the +rich to be they who have more than they have occasion for." "But have +you observed," replied Socrates, "that there are certain persons who, +though they have very little, have nevertheless enough, and even lay up +some small matter out of it; and, on the contrary, there are others who +never have enough how great soever their estates and possessions are?" +"You put me in mind," said Euthydemus, "of something very much to the +purpose, for I have seen even some princes so necessitous that they have +been compelled to take away their subjects' estates, and to commit many +injustices." "We must, then," said Socrates, "place such princes in the +rank of the poor, and those who have but small estates, yet manage them +well, in the number of the rich." "I must give consent to all you say," +answered Euthydemus, "for I am too ignorant to contradict you; and I +think it will be best for me, from henceforward, to hold my peace, for I +am almost ready to confess that I know nothing at all." + +Having said this, he withdrew, full of confusion and self-contempt, +beginning to be conscious to himself that he was indeed a person of +little or no account at all. Nor was he the only person whom Socrates +had thus convinced of their ignorance and insufficiency, several of whom +never came more to see him, and valued him the less for it. But +Euthydemus did not act like them. On the contrary, he believed it +impossible for him to improve his parts but by frequently conversing with +Socrates, insomuch that he never left him, unless some business of moment +called him away, and he even took delight to imitate some of his actions. +Socrates, seeing him thus altered from what he was, was tender of saying +anything to him that might irritate or discourage him; but took care to +speak more freely and plainly to him of the things he ought to know and +apply himself to. + + + +CHAPTER III. PROOFS OF A KIND SUPERINTENDING PROVIDENCE.--WHAT RETURNS +OF GRATITUDE AND DUTY MEN OUGHT TO MAKE TO GOD FOR HIS FAVOURS.--AN +HONEST AND GOOD LIFE THE BEST SONG OF THANKSGIVING OR THE MOST ACCEPTABLE +SACRIFICE TO THE DEITY. + + +As Socrates considered virtue and piety as the two grand pillars of a +State, and was fully persuaded that all other qualifications whatever, +without the knowledge and practice of these, would, instead of enabling +men to do good, serve, on the contrary, to render them more wicked and +more capable of doing mischief. For that reason he never pressed his +friends to enter into any public office until he had first instructed +them in their duty to God and mankind. But, above all, he endeavoured to +instil into their minds pious sentiments of the Deity, frequently +displaying before them high and noble descriptions of the Divine power, +wisdom, and goodness. But seeing several have already written what they +had heard him say in divers occasions upon this subject, I will content +myself with relating some things which he said to Euthydemus when I +myself was present. + +"Have you never reflected, Euthydemus, on the great goodness of the Deity +in giving to men whatever they want?" "Indeed, I never have," answered +he. "You see," replied Socrates, "how very necessary light is for us, +and how the gods give it us." "You say true," answered Euthydemus, "and +without light we should be like the blind." "But because we have need of +repose they have given us the night to rest in; the night, which, of all +times, is the fittest for repose." "You are in the right," said +Euthydemus, "and we ought to render them many praises for it." +"Moreover," continued Socrates, "as the sun is a luminous body, and by +the brightness of his beams discovers to us all visible things, and shows +us the hours of the day; and as, on the contrary, the night is dusky and +obscure, they have made the stars to appear, which, during the absence of +the day, mark the hours to us, by which means we can do many things we +have occasion for. They have likewise made the moon to shine, which not +only shows us the hours of the night, but teaches us to know the time of +the month." "All this is true," said Euthydemus. "Have you not taken +notice likewise that having need of nourishment, they supply us with it +by the means of the earth? How excellently the seasons are ordered for +the fruits of the earth, of which we have such an abundance, and so great +a variety, that we find, not only wherewith to supply our real wants but +to satisfy even luxury itself." "This goodness of the gods," cried +Euthydemus, "is an evidence of the great love they bear to men." "What +say you," continued Socrates, "to their having given us water, which is +so necessary for all things? For it is that which assists the earth to +produce the fruits, and that contributes, with the influences from above, +to bring them to maturity; it helps to nourish us, and by being mingled +with what we eat, makes it more easily got ready, more useful, and more +delightful; in short, being of so universal an use, is it not an +admirable providence that has made it so common? What say you to their +having given us fire, which defends us from cold, which lights us when it +is dark, which is necessary to us in all trades, and which we cannot be +without in the most excellent and useful inventions of men?" "Without +exaggeration," said Euthydemus, "this goodness is immense." "What say +you, besides," pursued Socrates, "to see that after the winter the sun +comes back to us, and that proportionably as he brings the new fruits to +maturity, he withers and dries those whose season is going over; that +after having done us this service he retires that his heat may not +incommode us; and then, when he is gone back to a certain point, which he +cannot transgress, without putting us in danger of dying with cold, he +returns again to retake his place in this part of the heavens, where his +presence is most advantageous to us? And because we should not be able +to support either cold or heat, if we passed in an instant from one +extreme to the other, do you not admire that this planet approaches us +and withdraws himself from us by so just and slow degrees, that we arrive +at the two extremes without almost perceiving the change?" "All these +things," said Euthydemus, "make me doubt whether the gods have anything +to do but to serve mankind. One thing puts me to a stand, that the +irrational animals participate of all these advantages with us." "How!" +said Socrates, "and do you then doubt whether the animals themselves are +in the world for any other end than for the service of man? What other +animals do, like us, make use of horses, of oxen, of dogs, of goats, and +of the rest? Nay, I am of opinion, that man receives not so much +advantage from the earth as from the animals; for the greatest part of +mankind live not on the fruits of the earth, but nourish themselves with +milk, cheese, and the flesh of beasts; they get the mastery over them, +they make them tame, and use them to their great advantage in war and for +the other necessities of life." "I own it," said Euthydemus, "for some +of them are much stronger than man, and yet are so obedient to him, that +he does with them whatever he pleases." + +"Admire yet further the goodness of the gods," said Socrates, "and +consider, that as there is in the world an infinite number of excellent +and useful things, but of very different natures, they have given us +external senses, which correspond to each of those sensible objects, and +by means of which senses we can perceive and enjoy all of them. They +have, besides, endued us with reason and understanding, which enableth us +to discern between those things that the senses discover to us, to +inquire into the different natures of things useful and things hurtful, +and so to know by experience which to choose and which to reject. They +have likewise given us speech, by means whereof we communicate our +thoughts to each other, and instruct one another in the knowledge of +whatever is excellent and good; by which also we publish our laws and +govern States. In fine, as we cannot always foresee what is to happen to +us, nor know what it will be best for us to do, the gods offer us +likewise their assistance by the means of the oracles; they discover the +future to us when we go to consult them, and teach us how to behave +ourselves in the affairs of life." + +Here Euthydemus, interrupting him, said, "And indeed these gods are in +this respect more favourable to you than to the rest of mankind, since, +without expecting you to consult them, they give you notice of what you +ought or ought not to do." "You will allow, therefore, that I told you +true," said Socrates, "when I told you there were gods, and that they +take great care of men; but expect not that they will appear to you, and +present themselves before your eyes. Let it suffice you to behold their +works, and to adore them, and be persuaded that this is the way by which +they manifest themselves to men, for among all the gods that are so +liberal to us there is not one who renders himself visible to confer on +us his favours. And that Supreme God, who built the universe, and who +supports this great work, whose every part is accomplished in beauty and +goodness; He, who is the cause that none of its parts grow old with time, +and that they preserve themselves always in an immortal vigour, who is +the cause, besides, that they inviolably obey His laws with a readiness +that surpasses our imagination; He, I say, is visible enough in the so +many wondrous works of which He is author, but our eyes cannot penetrate +even into His throne to behold Him in these great occupations, and in +that manner it is that He is always invisible. Do but consider that the +sun, who seems to be exposed to the sight of all the world, does not +suffer us to gaze fixedly upon him, and whoever has the temerity to +undertake it is punished with sudden blindness. Besides, whatever the +gods make use of is invisible; the thunder is lanced from above, it +shatters all it finds in its way, but we see it not fall, we see it not +strike, we see it not return. The winds are invisible, though we see the +desolations they daily make, and easily feel when they grow boisterous. +If there be anything in man that partakes of the divine nature it is his +soul, which, beyond all dispute, guides and governs him, and yet we +cannot see it. Let all this, therefore, teach you not to neglect or +disbelieve the Deity, because He is invisible; learn to know His presence +and power from the visible effects of it in the world around you; be +persuaded of the universal care and providence of the all-surrounding +Deity from the blessings He showers down upon all His creatures, and be +sure to worship and serve this God in a becoming manner." + +"I am sure," said Euthydemus, "I shall never derogate from the respect +due to the gods; and I am even troubled that every man cannot +sufficiently acknowledge the benefits he receives from them." "Be not +afflicted at that," said Socrates, "for you know what answer the Delphian +Oracle is wont to return to those who inquire what they ought to do in +order to make an acceptable sacrifice. 'Follow the custom of your +country,' says he to them. Now, it is a custom received in all places +for every man to sacrifice to them according to his power; and by +consequence there is no better nor more pious a way of honouring the gods +than that, since they themselves ordain and approve it. It is indeed a +truth that we ought not to spare anything of what we are able to offer, +for that would be a manifest contempt. When, therefore, a man has done +all that is in his power to do, he ought to fear nothing and hope all; +for, from whence can we reasonably hope for more, than from those in +whose power it is to do us the greatest good? And by what other way can +we more easily obtain it, than by making ourselves acceptable to them? +And how can we better make ourselves acceptable to them, than by doing +their will?" + +This is what Socrates taught, and by this doctrine, which was always +accompanied with an exemplary devotion, he greatly advanced his friends +in piety. + + + +CHAPTER IV. INSTANCES OF THE INVIOLABLE INTEGRITY OF SOCRATES.--HIS +CONVERSATION WITH HIPPIAS CONCERNING JUSTICE. + + +Concerning justice, it cannot be said that Socrates concealed his opinion +of it, for he plainly revealed his sentiments by his actions, as well in +public as in private, making it his business to serve every man, and to +obey the magistrates and the laws; insomuch, that as well in the army as +in the city, his obedience and uprightness rendered him remarkable above +all others. He fully discovered the integrity of his soul, when he +presided in the assemblies of the people; he would never pass a decree +that was contrary to the laws; he alone defended the cause of justice +against the efforts of the multitude, and opposed a violence which no man +but himself was able to resist. Again, when the Thirty commanded him +anything that was unjust, he did not obey them. Thus, when they forbid +him to speak to the young men, he regarded not their inhibition, and when +they gave orders to him, as well as to some other citizens, to bring +before them a certain man, whom they intended to put to death, he alone +would do nothing in it, because that order was unjust. In like manner +when he was accused by Melitus, though in such occasions others endeavour +to gain their judges by flatteries and ignominious solicitations, which +often procure them their pardon, he would not put in practice any of +these mean artifices that are repugnant to the laws, and yet he might +very easily have got himself acquitted, if he could have prevailed with +himself to comply in the least with the custom, but he chose rather to +die in an exact observance of the laws, than to save his life by acting +contrary to them, for he utterly abhorred all mean or indirect practices; +and this was the answer he gave to several of his friends who advised him +to the contrary. + +Since I am now illustrating the character of Socrates with regard to +justice, I will, at the same time, relate a conversation I remember he +had with Hippias of Elis on that subject. + +It was a long while that Hippias had not been at Athens; and being +arrived there, he happened to come to a place where Socrates was +discoursing with some persons, and telling them that if any one had a +mind to learn a trade, there wanted not masters to teach him; nay, that +if one would have a horse trained up there were persons enough to +undertake it; but that if one desired to learn to be a good man, or to +have his son, or any of his family taught to be so, it would be difficult +to know to whom to apply himself. Hippias rallying him, said:--"What! +Socrates, you are still repeating the same things I heard you say so long +ago." "Nay, more," replied Socrates, "and always upon the same subject; +but you, perhaps, being learned as you are, do not always say the same +thing upon the same subject." "Indeed," said Hippias, "I always +endeavour to say something new." "Is it possible," replied Socrates? +"Pray tell me if you were asked how many letters there are in my name, +and which they are, would you answer sometimes in one manner and +sometimes in another? Or if you were asked whether twice five be not +ten, would you not always say the same thing?" "In subjects like those," +said Hippias, "I should be obliged to say the same thing as well as you; +but since we are upon the theme of justice, I believe I can now say some +things of it, against which, neither you nor any man else can make any +objection." "Good God!" cried Socrates, "what a mighty boast is here! +Upon my word, Hippias, you have made an admirable discovery! and you have +reason to value yourself upon it; for, let me tell you, if you can +establish one single opinion of justice, the judges will be no longer +divided in their sentiments, there will be no more quarrels, no more +suits at law, no more seditions among citizens, no more wars between +republics. Indeed, it much troubles me to leave you before you have +taught me this secret, which you say you have discovered." "I give you +my word," answered Hippias, "that I will tell you nothing of it, till you +have first declared your own opinion concerning justice; for it is your +old way to interrogate others, and then to laugh at them by refuting what +they have said; but you never make known your own opinions, that you may +not be obliged to give a reason for them." "Why do you lay this to my +charge," said Socrates, "since I am continually showing to all the world +what are the things I believe to be just?" "How do you show it?" said +Hippias. "If I explain it not by my words," answered Socrates, "my +actions speak it sufficiently; and do you think that actions deserve not +rather to be believed than words?" "Much rather," said Hippias, "because +many may say one thing, and do another; nay, we see that, in fact, many +who preach up justice to others are very unjust themselves; but this +cannot be said of a man whose every action is good, and that never in his +life did an unjust thing." "Have you known, then," said Socrates, "that +I have accused any man out of malice, that I have sown dissension among +friends, that I have raised seditions in the Republic; in short, that I +have committed any other sort of injustice?" "Not in the least," said +he. "Well, then," added Socrates, "do you not take him to be just who +commits no manner of injustice?" "It is plain, now,'" said Hippias, +"that you intend to get loose, and that you will not speak your mind +freely, nor give us an exact definition of justice. For all this while +you have only shown what just men do not, but not what they do." "I +should have thought," said Socrates, "I had given at once a good +definition, and a clear instance of justice, when I called it an aversion +from doing injustice. But since you will not allow it to be so, see +whether this will satisfy you: I say, then, that justice 'is nothing but +the observance of the laws.'" "You mean," said Hippias, "that to observe +the laws is to be just?" "Yes," answered Socrates. "I cannot comprehend +your thought," said Hippias. "Do you not know," pursued Socrates, "what +the laws in a State are?" "The laws," answered Hippias, "are what the +citizens have ordained by an universal consent." "Then," inferred +Socrates, "he who lives conformably to those ordinances observes the +laws; and he who acts contrary to them is a transgressor of the laws." +"You say true." "Is it not likewise true," continued Socrates, "that he +who obeys these ordinances does justly, and that he obeys them not does +unjustly?" "Yes." "But," said Socrates, "he who acts justly is just, +and he who acts unjustly is unjust?" "Without doubt." "Therefore," said +Socrates, "whosoever observes the laws is just, and whosoever observes +them not is unjust." "But how can it be imagined," objected Hippias, +"that the laws are a good thing, and that it is good to obey them, since +even they that made them mend, alter, and repeal them so often?" To this +Socrates answered, "When you blame those who obey the laws, because they +are subject to be abrogated, you do the same thing as if you laughed at +your enemies for keeping themselves in a good posture of defence during +the war, because you might tell them that the peace will one day be made: +and thus you would condemn those who generously expose their lives for +the service of their country. Do you know," added he, "that Lycurgus +could never have rendered the Republic of Sparta more excellent than +other States if he had not made it his chief care to incline the citizens +most exactly to observe the laws? This, too, is what all good +magistrates aim at, because a Republic that is obedient to the laws is +happy in peace, and invincible in war. Moreover, you know that concord +is a great happiness in a State. It is daily recommended to the people; +and it is an established custom all over Greece to make the citizens +swear to live in good understanding with one another, and each of them +takes an oath to do so. Now, I do not believe that this unity is exacted +of them, only that they might choose the same company of comedians, or of +musicians, nor that they might give their approbation to the same poets, +or all take delight in the same diversions, but that they may all +unanimously obey the laws, because that obedience is the security and the +happiness of the State. Concord, therefore, is so necessary, that +without it good polity and authority cannot subsist in any State, nor +good economy and order in any family. + +"In our private capacity, likewise, how advantageous is it to obey the +laws? By what means can we more certainly avoid punishments, and deserve +rewards? What more prudent conduct can we observe, always to gain our +suits at law, and never to be cast! To whom should we with greater +confidence trust our estates or our children, than to him who makes a +conscience of observing the laws? Who can deserve more of his country? +whom can she more safely entrust with public posts, and on whom can she +more justly bestow the highest honours, than on the good and honest man? +Who will discharge himself better of his duty towards his father or his +mother, towards his relations or his domestics, towards his friends, his +fellow-citizens, or his guests? To whom will the enemy rather trust for +the observing of a truce, or for the performance of a treaty of peace? +With whom would we rather choose to make an alliance? To whom will the +allies more readily give the command of their armies, or the government +of their towns? From whom can we rather hope for a grateful return of a +kindness than from a man who strictly obeys the laws? and, by +consequence, to whom will men be more ready to do good turns, than to him +of whose gratitude they are certain? With whom will men be better +pleased to contract a friendship, and, consequently, against whom will +men be less inclined to commit acts of hostility, than against that +person who has everybody for his well-wisher and friend, and few or none +for his ill-wishers or enemies? These, Hippias, are the advantages of +observing the laws. And now, having shown you that the observance of the +laws is the same thing with justice, if you are of another opinion, pray +let me know it." "Indeed, Socrates," answered Hippias, "what you have +said of justice agrees exactly with my sentiments of it." "Have you +never heard," continued Socrates, "of certain laws that are not written?" +"You mean the laws," answered Hippias, "which are received all over the +earth." "Do you think, then," added Socrates, "that it was all mankind +that made them?" "That is impossible," said Hippias, "because all men +cannot be assembled in the same place, and they speak not all of them the +same language." "Who, then, do you think gave us these laws?" "The +gods," answered Hippias; "for the first command to all men is to adore +the gods." "And is it not likewise commanded everywhere to honour one's +father and mother?" "Yes, certainly," said Hippias. Socrates went +on:--"And that fathers and mothers should not marry with their own +children, is not that too a general command?" "No," answered Hippias, +"this last law is not a Divine law, because I see some persons transgress +it." "They observe not the others better," said Socrates; "but take +notice, that no man violates with impunity a law established by the gods. +There are unavoidable punishments annexed to this crime; but we easily +secure ourselves from the rigour of human laws, after we have +transgressed them, either by keeping ourselves hid, or defending +ourselves by open force." "And what is this punishment," said Hippias, +"which it is impossible for fathers, who marry with their own children, +to avoid?" "It is very great," said Socrates; "for what can be more +afflicting to men, who desire to have children than to have very bad +ones?" "And how do you know," pursued Hippias, "that they will have bad +children? What shall hinder them, if they are virtuous themselves, from +having children that are so likewise?" "It is not enough," answered +Socrates, "that the father and the mother be virtuous: they must, +besides, be both of them in the vigour and perfection of their age. Now, +do you believe, that the seed of persons who are too young, or who are +already in their declining age, is equal to that of persons who are in +their full strength?" "It is not likely that it is," said Hippias. "And +which is the best?" pursued Socrates. "Without doubt," said Hippias, +"that of a man in his strength." "It follows, then," continued Socrates, +"that the seed of persons who are not yet come to their full strength, or +who are past it, is not good." "In all appearance it is not." "In those +ages, then, we ought not to get children?" said Socrates. "I think so." +"Such, therefore, as indulge their lust in such untimely fruition will +have very weakly children?" "I grant they will." "And are not weakly +children bad ones?" "They are," said Hippias. + +"Tell me, further," said Socrates, "is it not an universal law to do good +to those who have done good to us?" "Yes," said Hippias, "but many +offend against this law." "And they are punished for it," replied +Socrates, "seeing their best friends abandon them, and that they are +obliged to follow those who have an aversion for them. For are not they +the best friends who do kindnesses whenever they are desired? And if he +who has received a favour neglect to acknowledge it, or return it ill, +does he not incur their hate by his ingratitude? And yet, finding his +advantage in preserving their goodwill, is it not to them that he makes +his court with most assiduity?" "It is evident," said Hippias, "that it +is the gods who have ordered these things; for, when I consider that each +law carries with it the punishment of the transgressor, I confess it to +be the work of a more excellent legislator than man." "And do you +think," said Socrates, "that the gods make laws that are unjust?" "On +the contrary," answered Hippias, "it is very difficult for any but the +gods to make laws that are just." "Therefore, Hippias," said Socrates, +"according to the gods themselves 'to obey the laws is to be just.'" + +This is what Socrates said on the subject of justice, and his actions +being conformable to his words, he from day to day created a greater love +of justice in the minds of those who frequented him. + + + +CHAPTER V. OF THE MISCHIEFS OF INTEMPERANCE, AND THE ADVANTAGES OF +SOBRIETY. + + +I will now set down the arguments that Socrates used to bring his friends +to the practice of good actions, for being of opinion that temperance is +a great advantage to such as desire to do anything that is excellent, he +first showed them, by his way of living, that no man was more advanced +than himself in the exercise of that virtue; and in his conferences he +exhorted his hearers above all things to the practice of it, and his +thoughts being continually employed in the means of arriving to be +virtuous, he made it likewise the subject of all his discourses. + +I remember that talking once with Euthydemus concerning temperance he +delivered himself to this effect:--"In your opinion, Euthydemus, is +liberty a very valuable thing?" "To be valued above all things," +answered Euthydemus. "Do you believe that a man who is a slave to +sensual pleasures, and finds himself incapable of doing good, enjoys his +liberty?" "Not in the least." "You allow, then, that to do good is to +be free, and that to be prevented from doing it, by any obstacle +whatever, is not to be free?" "I think so," said Euthydemus. "You +believe, then," said Socrates, "that debauched persons are not free?" "I +do." "Do you believe likewise," continued Socrates, "that debauchery +does not only hinder from doing good, but compels to do ill?" "I think +it does." "What would you say, then, of a master who should hinder you +from applying yourself to what is honest, and force you to undertake some +infamous occupation?" "I would say he was a very wicked master," +answered Euthydemus. "And which is the worst of all slaveries?" added +Socrates. "To serve ill masters," said Euthydemus. "Therefore," +inferred Socrates, "the debauched are in a miserable slavery." "No doubt +of it." "Is it not debauchery, likewise," said Socrates, "that deprives +men of their wisdom, the noblest gift of the gods, and drives them into +ignorance and stupidity, and all manner of disorders? It robs them of +leisure to apply themselves to things profitable, while it drowns them in +sensual pleasures; and it seizes their minds to that degree that, though +they often know which is the best way, they are miserably engaged in the +worst." "They are so." "Nor can we expect to find temperance nor +modesty in a debauched person, since the actions of temperance and +debauchery are entirely opposite." "There is no doubt of it," said +Euthydemus. "I do not think neither," added Socrates, "that it is +possible to imagine anything that makes men neglect their duty more than +debauchery." "You say true." "Is there anything more pernicious to +man," said Socrates, "than that which robs him of his judgment, makes him +embrace and cherish things that are hurtful, avoid and neglect what is +profitable, and lead a life contrary to that of good men?" "There is +nothing," said Euthydemus. Socrates went on:--"And may we not ascribe +the contrary effects to temperance?" "Without doubt." "And is it not +likely to be true that the cause of the contrary effects is good?" "Most +certainly." "It follows, then, my dear Euthydemus," said Socrates, "that +temperance is a very good thing?" "Undoubtedly it is." "But have you +reflected," pursued Socrates, "that debauchery, which pretends to lead +men to pleasures, cannot conduct them thither, but deceives them, leaving +them in disappointment, satiety, and disgust? and have you considered +that temperance and sobriety alone give us the true taste of pleasures? +For it is the nature of debauchery not to endure hunger nor thirst, nor +the fatigue of being long awake, nor the vehement desires of love, which, +nevertheless, are the true dispositions to eat and drink with delight, +and to find an exquisite pleasure in the soft approaches of sleep, and in +the enjoyments of love. This is the reason that the intemperate find +less satisfaction in these actions, which are necessary and frequently +done. But temperance, which accustoms us to wait for the necessity, is +the only thing that makes us feel an extreme pleasure in these +occasions." "You are in the right," said Euthydemus. "It is this +virtue, too," said Socrates, "that puts men in a condition of bringing to +a state of perfection both the mind and the body, of rendering themselves +capable of well governing their families, of being serviceable to their +friends and their country, and of overcoming their enemies, which is not +only very agreeable on account of the advantages, but very desirable +likewise for the satisfaction that attends it. But the debauched know +none of this, for what share can they pretend to in virtuous actions, +they whose minds are wholly taken up in the pursuit of present +pleasures?" "According to what you say," replied Euthydemus, "a man +given to voluptuousness is unfit for any virtue." "And what difference +is there," said Socrates, "between an irrational animal and a voluptuous +man, who has no regard to what is best, but blindly pursues what is most +delightful? It belongs to the temperate only to inquire what things are +best and what not, and then, after having found out the difference by +experience and reasoning, to embrace the good and avoid the bad, which +renders them at once most happy, most virtuous, and most prudent." + +This was the sum of this conference with Euthydemus. Now Socrates said +that conferences were so called because the custom was to meet and confer +together, in order to distinguish things according to their different +species, and he advised the frequent holding of these conferences, +because it is an exercise that improves and makes men truly great, +teaches them to become excellent politicians, and ripens the judgment and +understanding. + + + +CHAPTER VI. SOCRATES' FRIENDS ATTAIN, BY FREQUENTING HIS CONVERSATION, +AN EXCELLENT WAY OF REASONING.--THE METHOD HE OBSERVED IN ARGUING SHOWN +IN SEVERAL INSTANCES.--OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF GOVERNMENT.--HOW +SOCRATES DEFENDED HIS OPINIONS. + + +I will show, in the next place, how Socrates' friends learnt to reason so +well by frequenting his conversation. He held that they who perfectly +understand the nature of things can explain themselves very well +concerning them, but that a man who has not that knowledge often deceives +himself and others likewise. He therefore perpetually conferred with his +friends without ever being weary of that exercise. It would be very +difficult to relate how he defined every particular thing. I will +therefore mention only what I think sufficient to show what method he +observed in reasoning. And, in the first place, let us see how he argues +concerning piety. + +"Tell me," said he to Euthydemus, "what piety is?" "It is a very +excellent thing," answered Euthydemus. "And who is a pious man?" said +Socrates. "A man who serves the gods." "Is it lawful," added Socrates, +"to serve the gods in what manner we please?" "By no means," said +Euthydemus; "there are laws made for that purpose, which must be kept." +"He, then, who keeps these laws will know how he ought to serve the +gods?" "I think so." "And is it not true," continued Socrates, "that he +who knows one way of serving the gods believes there is no better a way +than his?" "That is certain." "And will he not be careful how he does +otherwise?" "I believe he will." "He, then, who knows the laws that +ought to be observed in the service of the gods, will serve them +according to the laws?" "Without doubt." "But he who serves the gods as +the laws direct, serves them as he ought?" "True, he does." "And he who +serves the gods as he ought is pious?" "There can be no doubt of it." +"Thus, then," said Socrates, "we have the true definition of a pious man: +He who knows in what manner he ought to serve the gods?" "I think so," +said Euthydemus. + +"Tell me further," continued Socrates, "is it lawful for men to behave +themselves to one another as they please?" "In nowise," answered +Euthydemus; "there are also certain laws which they ought to observe +among themselves." "And do they," said Socrates, "who live together +according to those laws, live as they ought?" "Yes." "And do they who +live as they ought live well?" "Certainly they do." "And does he who +knows how to live well with men understand well how to govern his +affairs?" "It is likely that he may." "Now, do you believe," said +Socrates, "that some men obey the laws without knowing what the laws +command?" "I do not believe it." "And when a man knows what he ought to +do, do you think he believes that he ought not to do it?" "I do not +think so." "And do you know any men who do otherwise than they believe +they ought to do?" "None at all." "They, then, who know the laws that +men ought to observe among themselves, do what those laws command?" "I +believe so." "And do they who do what the laws command, do what is +just?" "Most surely." "And they who do what is just are just likewise?" +"None but they are so." "We may, therefore, well conclude," said +Socrates, "that the just are they who know the laws that men ought to +observe among themselves?" "I grant it," said Euthydemus. + +"And as for wisdom," pursued Socrates, "what shall we say it is? Tell me +whether are men said to be wise in regard to the things they know, or in +regard to those they do not know?" "There can be no doubt," answered +Euthydemus, "but that it is in consideration of what they know; for how +can a man be wise in things he knows not?" "Then," said Socrates, "men +are wise on account of their knowledge?" "It cannot be otherwise." "Is +wisdom anything but what renders us wise?" "No." "Wisdom therefore is +only knowledge?" "I think so." "And do you believe," said Socrates, +"that it is in the power of a man to know everything?" "Not so much as +even the hundredth part." "It is, then, impossible," said Socrates, "to +find a man who is wise in all things?" "Indeed it is," said Euthydemus. +"It follows, then," said Socrates, "that every man is wise in what he +knows?" "I believe so." + +"But can we, by this same way of comparison, judge of the nature of +good?" "As how?" said Euthydemus. "Do you think," said Socrates, "that +the same thing is profitable to all men?" "By no means." "Do you +believe that the same thing may be profitable to one and hurtful to +another?" "I think it may." "Then is it not the good that is +profitable?" "Yes, certainly." "Therefore, 'what is profitable is a +good to him to whom it is profitable.'" "That is true." + +"Is it not the same with what is beautiful? For, can you say that a body +or a vessel is beautiful and proper for all the world?" "By no means." +"You will say, then, that it is beautiful in regard to the thing for +which it is proper?" "Yes." "But tell me whether what is reputed +beautiful for one thing has the same relation to another as to that to +which it is proper?" "No." "Then 'whatever is of any use is reputed +beautiful in regard to the thing to which that use relates?'" "I think +so." + +"And what say you of courage?" added Socrates. "Is it an excellent +thing?" "Very excellent," answered Euthydemus. "But do you believe it +to be of use in occasions of little moment?" "Yes; but it is necessary +in great affairs." "Do you think it of great advantage in dangers," +continued Socrates, "not to perceive the peril we are in?" "I am not of +that opinion." "At that rate," said Socrates, "they who are not +frightened because they see not the danger are in nowise valiant." "There +is no doubt of it," said Euthydemus, "for otherwise there would be some +fools, and even cowards, who must be accounted brave." "And what are +they who fear what is not to be feared?" "They are less brave than the +others," answered Euthydemus. "They therefore," said Socrates, "who show +themselves valiant in dangerous occasions, are they whom you call brave; +and they who behave themselves in them unworthily, are they whom you call +cowards?" "Very right." "Do you think," added Socrates, "that any men +are valiant in such occasions except they who know how to behave +themselves in them?" "I do not think there are." "And are not they, who +behave themselves unworthily, the same as they who know not how to behave +themselves?" "I believe they are." "And does not every man behave +himself as he believes he ought to do?" "Without doubt." "Shall we say, +then, that they who behave themselves ill know how they ought to behave +themselves?" "By no means." "They, therefore, who know how to behave +themselves, are they who behave themselves well?" "They and no others." +"Let us conclude, then," said Socrates, "that they who know how to behave +themselves well in dangers and difficult occasions are the brave, and +that they who know not how to do so are the cowards." "That is my +opinion," said Euthydemus. + +Socrates was wont to say, that a kingly government and a tyrannical +government were indeed two sorts of monarchy, and that there was this +difference between them; that, under a kingly government, the subjects +obeyed willingly, and that everything was done according to the laws of +the State; but that, under a tyrannical government, the people obeyed by +force, and that all the laws were reduced to the sole will of the +sovereign. + +Concerning the other sorts of government, he said: That when the offices +of a Republic are given to the good citizens, this sort of State was +called aristocracy, or government of good men; when, on the contrary, the +magistrates were chosen according to their revenues, it was called a +plutocracy, or government of the rich; and when all the people are +admitted, without distinction, to bear employments, it is a democracy, or +popular government. + +If any one opposed the opinion of Socrates, on any affair whatever, +without giving a convincing reason, his custom was to bring back the +discourse to the first proposition, and to begin by that to search for +the truth. For example: if Socrates had commended any particular person, +and any stander-by had named another, and pretended that he was more +valiant, or more experienced in affairs, he would have defended his +opinion in the following manner:-- + +"You pretend," would he have said, "that he of whom you speak is a better +citizen than the person whom I was praising. Let us consider what is the +duty of a good citizen, and what man is most esteemed in a Republic. Will +you not grant me, that in relation to the management of the public +revenue, he is in the highest esteem who, while he has that office, saves +the Republic most money? In regard to the war, it is he who gains most +victories over the enemies. If we are to enter into a treaty with other +States, it is he who can dexterously win over to the party of the +Republic those who before opposed its interests. If we are to have +regard to what passes in the assemblies of the people, it is he who +breaks the cabals, who appeases the seditious, who maintains concord and +unity among the citizens." This being granted him, he applied these +general rules to the dispute in question, and made the truth plainly +appear, even to the eyes of those who contradicted him. As for himself, +when he undertook to discourse of anything, he always began by the most +common and universally received propositions, and was wont to say, that +the strength of the argumentation consisted in so doing. And, indeed, of +all the men I have ever seen, I know none who could so easily bring +others to own the truth of what he had a mind to prove to them. And he +said that Homer, speaking of Ulysses, called him "the certain or never- +failing orator," because he had the art of supporting his arguments upon +principles that were acknowledged by all men. + + + +CHAPTER VII. METHOD TO BE OBSERVED IN STUDY.--ARTS AND SCIENCES NO +FURTHER USEFUL, THAN THEY CONTRIBUTE TO RENDER MEN WISER, BETTER, OR +HAPPIER.--VAIN AND UNPROFITABLE KNOWLEDGE TO BE REJECTED. + + +I presume now, that what I have said has been a sufficient evidence of +the frankness and sincerity with which Socrates conversed with his +friends, and made known his opinions to them. It remains now that I +should say something of the extreme care Socrates showed for the +advancement of his friends, and how much he had at heart that they might +not be ignorant of anything that could be useful to them, to the end they +might not want the assistance of others in their own affairs. For this +reason, he applied himself to examine in what each of them was knowing; +then, if he thought it in his power to teach them anything that an honest +and worthy man ought to know, he taught them such things with incredible +readiness and affection; if not, he carried them himself to masters who +were able to instruct them. But he resolved within himself how far a +person who was well-educated in his studies ought to learn everything. + +Thus for geometry he said, that we ought to know enough of it not to be +imposed upon in measure when we buy or sell land, when we divide an +inheritance into shares, or measure out the work of a labourer, and that +it was so easy to know this, that if a man applied himself ever so little +to the practice of such things, he would soon learn even the extent and +circumference of the whole earth, and how to measure it; but he did not +approve that a man should dive into the very bottom of this science, and +puzzle his brains with I know not what figures, though he himself was +expert in it, for he said he could not see what all those niceties and +inventions were good for, which take up the whole life of a man, and +distract him from other more necessary studies. + +In like manner he was of opinion that a man should employ some time in +astronomy, that he might know by the stars the hour of the night, what +day of the month it is, and what season of the year we are in, in order +that we might know when to relieve a sentinel in the night, and when it +is best to venture out to sea, or undertake a journey, and, in short, +that we might know how to do everything in its proper season. He said +that all this was easily learnt by conversing with seamen, or with such +as go a-hunting by night, or others who profess to know these things; but +he dissuaded very much from penetrating farther into this science, as +even to know what planets are not in the same declination, to explain all +their different motions, to know how far distant they are from the earth, +in how long time they make their revolutions, and what are their several +influences, for he thought these sciences wholly useless, not that he was +ignorant of them himself, but because they take up all our time, and +divert us from better employments. In fine, he could not allow of a too +curious inquiry into the wonderful workmanship of the Deity in the +disposition of the universe, that being a secret which the mind cannot +comprehend, and because it is not an action acceptable to God to +endeavour to discover what He would hide from us. He held, likewise, +that it was dangerous to perplex the mind with these sublime +speculations, as Anaxagoras had done, who pretended to be very knowing in +them, for in teaching that the sun was the same thing as fire, he does +not consider that fire does not dazzle the eyes, but that it is +impossible to support the splendour of the sun. He did not reflect, +neither, that the sun blackens the sky, which fire does not; nor lastly, +that the heat of the sun is necessary to the earth, in order to the +production of trees and fruits, but that the heat of fire burns and kills +them. When he said, too, that the sun was only a stone set on fire, he +did not consider that a stone glitters not in the fire, and cannot last +long in it without consuming, whereas the sun lasts always, and is an +inexhaustible source of light. + +Socrates advised, likewise, to learn arithmetic, but not to amuse +ourselves with the vain curiosities of that science, having established +this rule in all his studies and in all his conferences, never to go +beyond what is useful. + +He exhorted his friends to take care of their health, and to that purpose +to consult with the learned; and to observe, besides, each in his own +particular, what meat, what drink, and what exercise is best for him, and +how to use them to preserve himself in health. For when a man has thus +studied his own constitution, he cannot have a better physician than +himself. + +If any one desired to attempt or to learn things that were above the +power or capacity of human nature, he advised him to apply himself to +divination; for he who knows by what means the gods generally signify +their mind to men, or how it is they used to give them counsel and aid, +such a person never fails to obtain from the Deity all that direction and +assistance that is necessary for him. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. BEHAVIOUR OF SOCRATES FROM THE TIME OF HIS CONDEMNATION TO +HIS DEATH.--HIS CHARACTER SUMMED UP IN A FEW WORDS. + + +To conclude: if, because Socrates was condemned to death, any one should +believe that he was a liar to say that he had a good demon that guided +him, and gave him instructions what he should or should not do, let him +consider, in the first place, that he was arrived to such an age that if +he had not died when he did, he could not have lived much longer; that by +dying when he did he avoided the most toilsome part of life, in which the +mind loses much of its vigour; and that in amends for it he discovered to +the whole world the greatness of his soul, acquired to himself an +immortal glory, by the defence he made before his judges, in behaving +himself with a sincerity, courage, and probity that were indeed +wonderful, and in receiving his sentence with a patience and resolution +of mind never to be equalled; for it is agreed by all that no man ever +suffered death with greater constancy than Socrates. + +He lived thirty days after his condemnation, because the Delian feasts +happened in that month, and the law forbids to put any man to death till +the consecrated vessel that is sent to the Isle of Delos be come back to +Athens. During that time his friends, who saw him continually, found no +change in him; but that he always retained that tranquillity of mind and +agreeableness of temper which before had made all the world admire him. +Now, certainly no man can die with greater constancy than this; this is +doubtless the most glorious death that can be imagined; but if it be the +most glorious, it is the most happy; and if it be the most happy, it is +the most acceptable to the Deity. + +Hermogenes has told me, that being with him a little after Melitus had +accused him, he observed, that he seemed to decline speaking of that +affair: from whence he took occasion to tell him that it would not be +amiss for him to think of what he should answer in his own justification. +To which Socrates replied: "Do you believe I have done anything else all +my life than think of it?" And Hermogenes asking him what he meant by +saying so? Socrates told him that he had made it the whole business of +his life to examine what was just and what unjust; that he had always +cherished justice and hated injustice, and that he did not believe there +was any better way to justify himself. + +Hermogenes said further to him--"Do you not know that judges have often +condemned the innocent to death, only because their answers offended +them, and that, on the contrary, they have often acquitted the guilty?" +"I know it very well," answered Socrates; "but I assure you, that having +set myself to think what I should say to my judges, the demon that +advises me dissuaded me from it." At which Hermogenes seeming surprised, +Socrates said to him, "Why are you surprised that this God thinks it +better for me to leave this world than to continue longer in it? Sure, +you are not ignorant that I have lived as well and as pleasantly as any +man, if to live well be, as I take it, to have no concern but for virtue, +and if to live pleasantly be to find that we have made some progress in +it. Now, I have good reason to believe that this is my happy case, that +I have always had a steady regard for virtue, and made progress in it, +because I perceive that my mind, at this time, doth not misgive me, nay, +I have the sincere testimony of my conscience that I have done my duty; +and in this belief I strengthen myself by the conversation I have had +with others, and by comparing myself with them. My friends, too, have +believed the same thing of me, not because they wish me well, for in that +sense every friend would think as much of his friend, but because they +thought they advanced in virtue by my conversation. + +"If I were to live longer, perhaps I should fall into the inconveniences +of old age: perhaps my sight should grow dim, my hearing fail me, my +judgment become weak, and I should have more trouble to learn, more to +retain what I had learnt; perhaps, too, after all, I should find myself +incapable of doing the good I had done before. And if, to complete my +misery, I should have no sense of my wretchedness, would not life be a +burden to me? And, on the other hand, say I had a sense of it, would it +not afflict me beyond measure? As things now stand, if I die innocent +the shame will fall on those who are the cause of my death, since all +sort of iniquity is attended with shame. But who will ever blame me +because others have not confessed my innocence, nor done me justice? Past +experience lets us see that they who suffer injustice, and they who +commit it, leave not a like reputation behind them after their death. And +thus, if I die on this occasion, I am most certain that posterity will +more honour my memory than theirs who condemn me; for it will be said of +me, that I never did any wrong, never gave any ill advice to any man; but +that I laboured all my life long to excite to virtue those who frequented +me." + +This was the answer that Socrates gave to Hermogenes, and to several +others. In a word, all good men who knew Socrates daily regret his loss +to this very hour, reflecting on the advantage and improvement they made +in his company. + +For my own part, having found him to be the man I have described, that is +to say, so pious as to do nothing without the advice of the Deity; so +just as never to have in the least injured any man, and to have done very +signal services to many; so chaste and temperate as never to have +preferred delight and pleasure before modesty and honesty; so prudent as +never to have mistaken in the discernment of good and evil, and never to +have had need of the advice of others, to form a right judgment of +either; moreover, most capable to deliberate and resolve in all sorts of +affairs, most capable to examine into men, to reprehend them for their +vices, and to excite them to virtue; having, I say, found all these +perfections in Socrates, I have always esteemed him the most virtuous and +most happy of all men; and if any one be not of my opinion, let him take +the pains to compare him with other men, and judge of him afterwards. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEMORABLE THOUGHTS OF SOCRATES*** + + +******* This file should be named 17490.txt or 17490.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/7/4/9/17490 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://www.gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: +http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + |