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diff --git a/17480-8.txt b/17480-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..21c5fef --- /dev/null +++ b/17480-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11184 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Digger Movement in the Days of the +Commonwealth, by Lewis H. Berens + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Digger Movement in the Days of the Commonwealth + As Revealed in the Writings of Gerrard Winstanley, the Digger, Mystic and Rationalist, Communist and Social Reformer + + +Author: Lewis H. Berens + + + +Release Date: January 8, 2006 [eBook #17480] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DIGGER MOVEMENT IN THE DAYS OF +THE COMMONWEALTH*** + + +E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Louise Pryor, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net/) from +page images generously made available by the Internet Archive/Canadian +Libraries (http://www.archive.org/details/toronto) + + + +Note: Images of the original pages are available through the + Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See + http://www.archive.org/details/diggermovement00bereuoft + +Transcriber's notes: + + All material added by the transcriber is surrounded by + braces {}. + + The original has a number of inconsistent spellings and + punctuation. A few corrections have been made for obvious + typographical errors; they have been noted individually. + A list of specific items will be found at the end of the + file. + + Text in italics in the original is shown between + _underlines_, and text in bold between =equal signs=. + + + + + +THE DIGGER MOVEMENT IN THE DAYS OF THE COMMONWEALTH + +As Revealed in the Writings of Gerrard Winstanley, the Digger +_Mystic and Rationalist, Communist and Social Reformer_ + +by + +LEWIS H. BERENS +Author of "Towards the Light" +Etc. Etc. + + + + + + + + "Was glänzt ist für den Augenblick geboren; + Das Echte bleibt der{1} Nachwelt unverloren." + GOETHE. + + + + +London +Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, & Co. Ltd. +1906 + + + + +RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED + +TO + +THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS +(THE CHILDREN OF LIGHT) + +TO WHOM THE WORLD OWES MORE THAN IT YET RECOGNISES +AND +WHOSE FUNDAMENTAL DOCTRINES +THE AUTHOR +HAS LEARNED TO LOVE AND ADMIRE +WHILST WRITING THIS BOOK + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAP. PAGE + + I. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 1 + + II. THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 12 + + III. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 23 + + IV. THE DIGGERS 34 + + V. GERRARD WINSTANLEY 41 + + VI. WINSTANLEY'S EXPOSITION OF THE QUAKER DOCTRINES 52 + + VII. THE NEW LAW OF RIGHTEOUSNESS 68 + +VIII. LIGHT SHINING IN BUCKINGHAMSHIRE 79 + + IX. THE DIGGERS' MANIFESTOES 90 + + X. A LETTER TO LORD FAIRFAX, ETC. 100 + + XI. A WATCHWORD TO THE CITY OF LONDON, ETC. 112 + + XII. A NEW YEAR'S GIFT FOR THE PARLIAMENT AND ARMY 132 + +XIII. A VINDICATION; A DECLARATION; AND AN APPEAL 146 + + XIV. GERRARD WINSTANLEY'S UTOPIA: THE LAW OF FREEDOM 162 + + XV. THE SAME CONTINUED 179 + + XVI. THE SAME CONTINUED 206 + +XVII. CONCLUDING REMARKS 228 + + APPENDIX A. THE TWELVE ARTICLES OF THE GERMAN + PEASANTRY, 1525 235 + + " B. CROMWELL ON TOLERATION 241 + + " C. WINSTANLEY'S LAWS FOR A FREE COMMONWEALTH 244 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY 255 + + INDEX 257 + + + + +THE DIGGER MOVEMENT + + +CHAPTER I + +THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY + + "Whatever the prejudices of some may suggest, it will be admitted + by all unbiassed judges, that the Protestant Reformation was + neither more nor less than an open rebellion. Indeed, the mere + mention of private judgment, on which it was avowedly based, is + enough to substantiate this fact. To establish the right of private + judgment, was to appeal from the Church to individuals; it was to + increase the play of each man's intellect; it was to test the + opinion of the priesthood by the opinions of laymen; it was, in + fact, a rising of the scholars against their teachers, of the ruled + against their rulers."--BUCKLE. + + +What is known in history as the Reformation is one of those monuments in +the history of the development of the human mind betokening its entry +into new territory. Fundamental conceptions and beliefs, cosmological, +physical, ethical or political, once firmly established, change but +slowly; the universal tendency is tenaciously to cling to them despite +all evidence to the contrary. Still men's views do change with their +intellectual development, as newly discovered facts and newly accepted +ideas come into conflict with old opinions, and force them to reconsider +the evidence on which these latter were based. Prior to the Reformation, +many such conceptions and beliefs, at one time holding undisputed +dominion over the human mind, had been called into question, their +authority challenged, undermined, and weakened, and they had commenced +to yield pride of place to others more in accordance with increased +knowledge of nature and of life. The revival of classical learning, +geographical and astronomical discoveries, and more especially, perhaps, +the invention and rapid spread of the art of printing, had all conspired +to give an unparalleled impetus to intellectual development,--and the +Reformation was, in truth, the outward manifestation in the religious +world of this development. + +Prior to the Reformation, wherever a man might turn his steps in Western +Europe, he found himself confronted with what was proudly termed the +Universal Church: one hierarchy, one faith, one form of worship, in +which the officiating priests were assumed to be the indispensable +mediators between God and man, everywhere confronted him. Religion was +then much more intimately blended with the life of man than it is now; +and on all matters of religion, Western Europe seemed to present a +united front and to be impervious to change. Appearances, however, are +proverbially deceitful. Beneath this apparent uniformity and general +conformity, there lurked countless forces, spiritual, intellectual, +social and political, making for change. Dissent and dissatisfaction, +with myriads of tiny teeth, had undermined and weakened the stately +columns that upheld the imposing structure of the Universal Church. Even +within the Church itself there was seething inquietude, and thousands of +its purest souls longed, prayed and struggled for its practical +amendment. To emancipate the Church from the clutches of the autocracy +of Rome; to remove the abuses that, in the course of centuries, had +grown round and sullied its primitive purity; to lighten the fiscal +oppression of the Papacy and to check the rapacity of the Cardinals; to +reform and discipline the priesthood; even to modify certain doctrines +and dogmas: such were the aspirations of some of the most devout, +eminent and cultured sons of the Church. Outside its communion there +were many forms of heresy, which, though generally regarded as +disreputable and often treated as criminal, the apparently all-powerful +Church had never been able entirely to eradicate. And, at first at +least, both these forces favoured the efforts of the early Lutheran +Reformers. + +The influence of the Reformation, of "the New Learning," on +theological, ethical, social and political thought can scarcely be +overestimated. Under the supremacy of the Church of Rome, men, educated +and uneducated, had come to rely almost entirely on authority and +precedent, and had lost the habit of self-reliance, of unswerving +dependence on the dictates of reason, which was one of the +distinguishing characteristics of the classical philosophers and their +disciples, as it is of the modern scientific school of thought. In +short, concerning matters spiritual and temporal, Faith had usurped the +function of Reason. Hence any innovations, whatever their abstract +merit, were regarded not only with justifiable suspicion and caution, +but as entirely unworthy of consideration, unless, of course, they could +be shown to be in accordance with accepted traditions and doctrines, or +had received the sanction of the Church. But even the Church itself was +popularly regarded as bound by tradition and precedent; and when the +Papacy sanctioned any departure from established custom, it was +understood to do so in its capacity of infallible expounder of +unalterable doctrines. + +The habits of centuries still enthralled the early Reformers. +Circumstances compelled them to attack some of the doctrines and customs +of their Mother Church, of which at first they were inclined to regard +themselves as dutiful though sorrowful sons. The logic of facts, +however, soon forced them outside the Church. Then, but then only, for +the authority of the Church, they substituted the authority of the +Scriptures. To apply to them Luther's own words, "they had saved others, +themselves they could not save." In their eyes Reason and Faith were +still mortal enemies,--as unfortunately they are to this day in the eyes +of a steadily diminishing number of their followers,--and they did not +hesitate to demand the sacrifice of reason when it conflicted, or +appeared to conflict, with the demands of faith: and that, indeed, as +"the all-acceptablest sacrifice and service that can be offered to God." +In a sermon in 1546, the last he delivered at Wittenberg, Luther gave +vent, in language that even one of his modern admirers finds too gross +for quotation, to his bitter hatred and contempt for reason, at all +events when it conflicted with his own interpretation of the Scriptures, +or with any of the fundamental dogmas and doctrines he had himself +formulated or accepted. While even in milder moments he did not hesitate +to teach that[4:1]-- + + "It is a quality of faith that it wrings the neck of reason and + strangles the beast, which else the whole world, with all + creatures, could not strangle. But how? It holds to God's word: + lets it be right and true, no matter how foolish and impossible it + sounds. So did Abraham take his reason captive and slay it.... + There is no doubt faith and reason mightily fell out in Abraham's + heart, yet at last did faith get the better, and overcame and + strangled reason, the all-cruelest and most fatal enemy to God. So, + too, do all other faithful men who enter with Abraham the gloom and + hidden darkness of faith; they strangle reason ... and thereby + offer to God the all-acceptablest sacrifice and service that can + ever be brought to Him." + +However, whatever may have been the personal desires and tendencies of +those associated with its earlier manifestations, the forces of which +the Reformation was the outcome were not to be controlled by them. The +spirit of which they were the product was not to be controlled by any +fetters they could forge. The Reformation emancipated the intellect of +Europe from the yoke of tradition and blind obedience to authority; it +let loose the illuming flood of thought which had been accumulating +behind the more rigid barriers of the Church, and swept away as things +of straw the feebler barriers the early Reformers would have erected to +confine the thoughts of future generations. The futility of all such +efforts we can gauge, they could not. Blind obedience to authority, in +matters spiritual and temporal, had been the watchword and animating +principle of the power against which they had rebelled; liberty and +reason were the watchwords and animating principles of the movement of +which they, owing to their rebellion, had temporarily become the +recognised leaders. The right of private judgement, in other words, the +supremacy of reason as sole judge and arbiter of all matters, spiritual +as well as secular, was the essential element of the movement of which +the Reformation was the outcome; how, then, could they, the children of +this movement, hope to change its course? + +When considering the forces and circumstances that made the Reformation +possible, when so many equally earnest previous attempts in the same +direction had failed, we should not lose sight of the favourable +political situation. Under cover of its religious authority, by means of +its unrivalled organisation, as well as by its temporal control of large +areas of the richest and most fertile land in Europe, the Church of Rome +annually drained into Italy a large part of the surplus wealth of every +country that recognised its spiritual authority. Such countries were +impoverished to support not only the resident but an absentee +priesthood, and to enable the Princes of the Church to maintain a more +than princely state at Rome. This was a standing grievance even in the +eyes of many sincerely devout Churchmen, and one which was prone to make +statesmen and politicians look with a favourable eye on any movement +which promised to lessen or to abolish it. Germany in this respect had +special reasons for discontent; as has been well said, "It was the milch +cow of the Papacy, which at once despised and drained it dry." And, as +everybody knows, it was in Germany that the standard of revolt against +the authority of Rome was first successfully raised. The political +constitution of that country was also peculiarly favourable to the +protection of the Reformation and of the persons of the early Reformers. +Although owing a nominal allegiance to the Emperor, or rather to the +will of the Diet which met annually under the presidency of the Emperor, +the head of each of the little States into which Germany was divided +claimed to be independent lord of the territory over which he ruled. +Hence, when the Ernestine line of Saxon princes took the Reformation and +the early Reformers under their protection, there was no power ready +and willing to compel them to relinquish their design. The democratic +independence of the Free Cities also made them fitting strongholds of +the new teachings. + +Students of history would do well never to lose sight of the fact that +every religion which attempts to bind or to guide the reason, to direct +the lives and to determine the conscience of mankind, necessarily has an +ethical as well as a theological, a social as well as an individual +side. It concerns itself, not only with the relation of the individual +to God or the gods, but also with the relations and duties of man to +man. Hence the close relation and inter-relation of religion and +politics. Politics is the art or act of regulating the social relations +of mankind, of determining social or civic rights and duties. It is +neither more nor less than the practical application of accepted +abstract ethical, or religious, principles in the domain of social life. +Hence we cannot be surprised that almost every wide-spread religious +revival, every renewed application of reason to religion, which almost +necessarily gives prominence to its ethical or social side, has been +followed by an uprising of the masses against what they had come to +regard as the irreligious tyranny and oppression of the ruling +privileged classes. The teachings of Wyclif in England, in the +fourteenth century, were followed by the insurrection associated with +the name of Wat Tyler; the teachings of Luther and his associates, in +the sixteenth century, by the Peasants' Revolt. + +To the economic causes of the unrest of the peasantry and labouring +classes during the fifteenth and sixteenth century, we can refer only +very briefly. At the time of the great migration of the fifth century, +the free barbarian nations were organised on a tribal or village basis. +By the end of the tenth century, however, what is known as the Feudal +System had been established all over Europe. "No land without a lord" was +the underlying principle of the whole Feudal System. Either by conquest +or usurpation, or by more or less compulsory voluntary agreement, even +the free primitive communities (_die Markgenossenshaften_) of the +Teutonic races had been brought under the dominion of the lords, +spiritual or temporal, claiming suzerainty over the territory in which +they were situated. The claims of the Feudal Magnates seem ever to have +been somewhat vague and arbitrary. At first they were comparatively +light, and may well have been regarded and excused as a return for +services rendered. The general tendency, however, was for the individual +power of the lords to extend itself at the cost and to the detriment of +the rural communities, and for their claims steadily to increase and to +become more burdensome. During the fourteenth century many causes had +combined to improve the condition of the industrial classes; and during +the end of the fourteenth and the early part of the fifteenth century the +condition of the peasantry and artisans of Northern Europe was better +than it had ever been before or has ever been since: wages were +comparatively high, employment plentiful, food and other necessaries of +life both abundant and cheap.[7:1] At the beginning of the sixteenth +century, however, the prices of the necessaries of life had risen +enormously, and there had been no corresponding increase in the earnings +of the industrial classes. Moreover, the Feudal Magnates had commenced to +exercise their oppressive power in a hitherto unparalleled manner: old +rights of pasture, of gathering wood and cutting timber, of hunting and +fishing, and so on, had been greatly curtailed, in many cases entirely +abolished, tithes and other manorial dues had been doubled and trebled, +and many new and onerous burdens, some of them entirely opposed to +ancient use and wont, had been imposed. In short, the peasantry and +labouring classes generally were oppressed and impoverished in countless +different ways. + +In Germany, as indeed in most other parts of Feudal Europe, the +peasantry of the period were of three different kinds. Serfs +(_Leibeigener_), who were little better than slaves, and who were bought +and sold with the land they cultivated; villeins (_Höriger_), whose +services were assumed to be fixed and limited; and the free peasant +(_die Freier_), whose counterpart in England was the mediæval +copyholder, who either held his land from some feudal lord, to whom he +paid a quit-rent in kind or in money, or who paid such a rent for +permission to retain his holding in the rural community under the +protection of the lord. To appreciate the state of mind of such folk in +the times of which we are writing, we should remember that "the good old +times" of the fifteenth century were still green in their minds, from +which, indeed, the memory of ancient freedom and primitive communism, +though little more than a tradition, had never been entirely banished: +which sufficiently accounts, not only for their impatience of their new +burdens, but also for their tendency to regard all feudal dues as direct +infringements of their ancient rights and privileges. + +"We will that you free us for ever, us and our lands; and that we be +never named and held as serfs!" was the demand of the revolting English +peasant in 1381; and the same words practically summarise the demands of +the German peasantry in 1525. The famous Twelve Articles in which they +summarised their wrongs and formulated their demands, forcibly +illustrate the direct influence of the prevailing religious revival on +the current social and political thought.[8:1] Briefly, they demanded +that the gospel should be preached to them pure and undefiled by any +mere man-made additions. That the rural communities, not the Feudal +Magnates, should have the power to choose and to dismiss their +ministers. That the tithes should be regulated in accordance with +scriptural injunctions, and devoted to the maintenance of ministers and +to the relief of the poor and distressed, "as we are commanded in the +Holy Scriptures." That serfdom should be abolished, "since Christ +redeemed us all with His precious blood, the shepherd as well as the +noble, the lowest as well as the highest, none being excepted." That the +claims of the rich to the game, to the fish in the running waters, to +the woods and forests and other lands, once the common property of the +community, should be investigated, and their ancient rights restored to +them, where they had been purchased, with adequate compensation, but +without compensation where they had been usurped. That arbitrary +compulsory service should cease, and the use and enjoyment of their +lands be granted to them in accordance with ancient customs and the +agreements between lords and peasants. That arbitrary punishments should +be abolished, as also certain new and oppressive customs. And, finally, +they desired that all their demands should be tested by Scripture, and +such as cannot stand this test to be summarily rejected. + +That the demands of the peasants, as formulated in the Twelve Articles, +were reasonable, just and moderate, few to-day would care to deny. That +they appealed to such of their religious teachers as had some regard for +the material, as well as for the spiritual, well-being of their fellows, +may safely be inferred from the leading position taken by some of these +both prior to and during the uprising. Nor can there be any doubt but +that at first the peasants looked to Wittenberg for aid, support and +guidance. Those who had proclaimed the Bible as the sole authority, +must, they thought, unreservedly support every movement to give +practical effect to its teachings. Those who had revolted against the +abuses of the spiritual powers at Rome, must, they thought, sympathise +with their revolt against far worse abuses at home. They were bitterly +to be disappointed. From Luther and the band of scholastic Reformers +that had gathered round him, they were to receive neither aid, guidance +nor sympathy. The learned and cultured Melanchthon, Luther's right hand, +denounced their demand that serfdom should be abolished as an insolent +and violent outrage (_ein Frevel und Gewalt_), and preached passive +obedience to any and every established authority. "Even if all the +demands of the peasants were Christian," he said, "the uprising of the +peasants would not be justified; and that because God commands obedience +to the authorities." Luther's attitude was much the same. Though a son +of a peasant, and evidently realising that the demands of the peasants +were just and moderate, and "not stretched to their advantage," he at +first assumed a somewhat neutral attitude, which, however, he soon +relinquished; and in a pamphlet to which his greatest admirers must wish +he had never put his name, and which shocked even his own times and +many of his own immediate followers, he proclaimed that to put down the +revolt all "who can shall destroy, strangle, and stab, secretly or +openly, remembering that nothing is more poisonous, hurtful and devilish +than a rebellious man." + +The rulers did not fail to better his instruction. In defence of their +privileges, the German princes, spiritual and temporal, catholic and +evangelical, united their forces, and the uprising was put down in a sea +of blood. The peasants, comparatively unarmed, were slaughtered by +thousands, and the yoke of serfdom was firmly re-fastened on the necks +of the people, until, some three hundred years later, in 1807, the +Napoleonic invasion compelled the ruling classes voluntarily to +relinquish some of their most cherished privileges. From a popular and +religious, the Reformation in Germany degenerated into a mere political +movement, and fell almost entirely into the hands of princes and +politicians to be exploited for their own purposes. The reorganisation +of the Churches, which the Reformation rendered necessary in those +States where it was maintained, was for the most part undertaken by the +secular authorities in accordance with the views of the temporal rulers, +whose religious belief their unfortunate subjects were assumed to have +adopted. The activities of the Lutheran Reformers were soon engrossed +weaving the web of a Protestant scholasticism, strengthening and +defending their favourite dogma of justification by faith, abusing and +persecuting such as differed from them on some all-important question of +dogma or doctrine, framing propositions of passive obedience, and other +such congenial pursuits. + +Of the moral effect of the Reformation, of its effect on the general +character of the people who came under its influence, which is the one +test by which every such movement can be judged, we need say but little. +To put it as mildly as possible, it must be admitted, to use the words +of one of its modern admirers,[10:1] that "the Reformation did not at +first carry with it much cleansing force of moral enthusiasm." In the +hands of men more logical or of a less healthy moral fibre, Luther's +favourite dogma, of justification by faith alone, led to conclusions +subversive of all morality. However this may be, enemies and friends +alike have to admit that the immediate effects of the Reformation were a +dissolution of morals, a careless neglect of education and learning, and +a general relaxation of the restraints of religion. In passage after +passage, Luther himself declared that the last state of things was worse +than the first; that vice of every kind had increased since the +Reformation; that the nobles were more greedy, the burghers more +avaricious, the peasants more brutal; that Christian charity and +liberality had almost ceased to flow; and that the authorised preachers +of religion were neither heeded, respected nor supported by the people: +all of which he characteristically attributed to the workings of the +devil, a personage who plays a most important part in Luther's theology +and view of life. + +Thus, to judge by its immediate effects, the Reformation appears to have +been conducive neither to moral, to social, nor to political progress. +And yet to-day we know that the intellectual movement of which it was +the outcome contained within itself inspiring conceptions of social +justice, political equality, economic freedom, aye, even of religious +toleration and moral purity, unknown to any preceding age, and the full +fruits of which have yet to be harvested to elevate and to bless +mankind. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[4:1] Luther's _Works_, ed. Walch, viii. 2043: "Erklärung der Ep. an die +Galater." Quoted by Beard, _The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century_, +p. 163. + +[7:1] See Thorold Rogers' _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, p. 389. + +[8:1] See Appendix A. + +[10:1] Beard, _loc. cit._ p. 146. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND + + "It was in the name of faith and religious liberty that, in the + sixteenth century, commenced the movement which, from that epoch, + suspended at times but ever renewed, has been agitating and + exciting the world. The tempest rose first in the human soul: it + struck the Church before it reached the State."--GUIZOT. + + +In Germany, as we have seen, from a religious and popular, the +Reformation degenerated into a mere scholastic and political movement, +favourable to the pretensions of the ruling and privileged classes, +opposed to the aspirations of the industrial classes, and conducive +neither to moral, social, religious, nor political progress. In England, +on the other hand, it ran a very different course. From a merely +political, it gradually rose to the height of a truly religious and +popular movement, infusing new life into the nation and lifting it into +the very forefront of the van of progress, curbing the insolent +pretensions of king, priest and noble, purifying the minds of the people +of time-honoured but degrading conceptions of the functions of Church +and of State, inspiring and uplifting them with new conceptions of +political freedom, social justice, moral purity and religious +toleration, which, despite temporary periods of reaction, have never +since entirely lost their sway over the hearts nor their influence over +the destinies of the British nation. + +For many centuries prior to the Reformation the English people had been +jealous and impatient of all ecclesiastical power, as of all foreign +interference in their national affairs, more especially of the claims +and pretensions of the Papacy. In England, as in Germany and even in +France, the idea of a National Church controlled and administered by +their own countrymen, and freed from the supremacy of the Church and +Court of Rome, was one familiar even to devout Catholics. Moreover, the +teachings of Wyclif had sunk deep into the hearts of the people, and +only awaited a favourable opportunity to yield their fruits: already in +the fourteenth they had paved the way for the Reformation of the +sixteenth century. Hence it was that when Henry the Eighth, from purely +personal and dynastic reasons, became involved in a quarrel with the +Pope, he found his subjects prepared for greater changes in religious +matters than any he contemplated or desired. However, by a series of +legislative enactments, the Church of England, in 1534, was emancipated +from the superiority of the Church of Rome; the papal authority was +wholly abolished within the realm; Henry was legally recognised as the +supreme head of the Church of England; the power of the spiritual +aristocracy was broken and the whole body of the clergy humbled; the +monasteries were suppressed; the great wealth and vast territorial +possessions of the Church became the prey of the Crown, only to be +dissipated in lavish grants to greedy courtiers: and thus the +foundations were laid for greater changes in both Church and State than +those who promoted such measures ever dreamed of. + +From its inception the Church of England comprised two opposing and +apparently irreconcilable elements, namely, those whose sympathies and +leanings were toward the forms, dogmas and doctrines of Roman +Catholicism, and those whose sympathies and leanings were toward the +forms, dogmas and doctrines of the German and Swiss Reformers. Of +religious toleration both parties were probably equally intolerant. That +the State was directly concerned with the religious beliefs of the +people, hence was justified in enforcing conformity to the Church as by +law established, seems to have been unquestioningly accepted by both. +The one desired to make use of the temporal power to prevent, the other +to promote, further changes in Church government, worship and doctrine. +The result was a compromise, which, like most compromises, satisfied the +more logical and consistent of neither party. As ultimately +established, in the reign of Elizabeth, the Church of England occupied +a sort of middle position between the Church of Rome and the Reformed +Churches of the Continent; and the attempt to enforce conformity to its +demands resulted in the separation from it of the extremists of both +sections. On the one hand, the English Roman Catholics became a distinct +and persecuted religious body, whose members were generally regarded, +despite repeated evidence to the contrary, as necessarily enemies of +England. On the other, despairing of further changes in the direction +they desired, a large number of the extreme Protestants separated +themselves from the National Church--though by so doing they rendered +themselves liable to be accused not only of heresy, but of high treason, +and to suffer death--and formed themselves into different bodies of +Separatists or Independents, differing on many points among themselves, +but united by a common animosity of all outside ecclesiastical control. +Within the Church the Catholic sentiment crystallised into the +Episcopalian, the Protestant sentiment into the Presbyterian section of +the Church of England. During the reign of Elizabeth the Protestant +element grew steadily stronger, as did also the spirit of political +independence, as manifested in the debates and divisions of the House of +Commons. It is a suggestive and noteworthy fact that during the long +reign of Henry the Eighth the House of Commons only once refused to pass +a Bill recommended by the Crown. During the reigns of Edward the Sixth +and of Mary the spirit of political independence commenced to revive; +and during the reign of Elizabeth the spirit of liberty and sense of +responsibility manifested by the House of Commons were such as +repeatedly to thwart the designs and to alter the policy of this +high-spirited monarch. It was, however, the severity of the policy of +the last of the Tudors and the first two of the Stuart kings against the +dissenting Protestants, that identified the struggle for religious +liberty, for liberty of conscience, with the struggle for political +liberty, and made these men in a special sense the champions of a more +or less qualified religious toleration, and of a constitutional +political freedom. + +The growth of extreme Protestantism, more especially perhaps of +Independency, was greatly quickened during the reigns of both Mary and +Elizabeth, by the immigration of many thousands of refugees fleeing from +religious persecutions on the Continent. Amongst these were disciples +and apostles of many sects that were heretics in the eyes of both the +Catholic and the Protestant Churches, and who rejected alike the dogmas +and doctrines of Rome, of Wittenberg, and of Geneva. The one point all +such sects seem to have had in common was the denial of the sanctity and +efficacy of infant baptism: hence their inclusion under the general term +Anabaptists, even though many of them passionately disclaimed any +connection with this hated, proscribed and persecuted sect. As Gerrard +Winstanley, the inspirer of the Digger Movement, seems to us to have +been greatly influenced by the teaching of one of these sects, the +Familists, or Family of Love, it may be well to give here a brief +outline of its history and main doctrines. + +The founder of the Family of Love was one David George, or Joris, who +was born at Delft in 1501. In 1530 he was severely punished for +obstructing a Catholic procession in his native town. In 1534 he joined +the Anabaptists, but soon left them to found a sect of his own. He seems +to have interpreted the whole of the Scripture allegorically;[15:1] and +to have maintained that as Moses had taught hope, and Christ had taught +faith, it was his mission to teach love. His teachings were propagated +in Holland by Henry Nicholas, and in England by one Christopher Vittel, +a joiner, who appears to have undertaken a missionary journey throughout +the country about the year 1560. According to Fuller,[16:1] in 1578, +the nineteenth year of the reign of Elizabeth, "The Family of Love began +now to grow so numerous, factious, and dangerous, that the Privy Council +thought fit to endeavour their suppression." + +The most lucid account of the doctrines of this sect may be gained from +a beautifully printed little book, entitled _The Displaying of an +Horrible Sect of Gross and Wicked Heretics naming themselves the Family +of Love_, published the same year, 1578, and written by one I. R. (Jn. +Rogers), a bitter but fair-minded opponent of their heresies, a +Protestant, and a zealous defender of the Lutheran dogma of +justification by faith alone. In his Preface the author bewails "the +daily increase of this error," declaring that "in many shires of this +our country there are meetings and conventicles of this Family of Love." +Amongst those who have been converted, he tells us, were many who had +hitherto been "professors of Christ Jesus' gospel according to the +brightness thereof." He denounces Christopher Vittel, the joiner, as +"the only man that hath brought our simple people out of the plain ways +of the Lord our God," and complains how "he driveth the true sense of +the Holy Ghost into allegories," and contendeth that "otherwise to +interpret the Holy Scriptures is to stick to the letter." To the Family +of Love, he tells us, "Christ signifieth anointed." He continues, "I +pray you mark but this one thing in their teachings, how they drive the +true sense of the Holy Ghost into allegories. And when any text of Holy +Scriptures is alleged by any of God's children, they answer that we +little understand what is meant thereby; and then if they be pressed to +expound the place, by and by it is drawn into an allegory. For they take +not the creation of man at the first to be historical (according to the +letter), but mere allegorical: alleging that Adam signifieth the earthly +man ... the Serpent to be within man; applying still the allegory, they +destroy the truth of the history." + +The writer's greatest grievance, however, is their rejection of the +Lutheran dogma of justification by faith, and their agreement "with the +Papists in extolling works as efficient causes of salvation." "Amongst +the rest, indeed," he exclaims, "they insinuate a good life, as which +they pretend to follow, which is as the vizard and cloak to hide all the +rest of their gross and absurd doctrines, and the hook and bait whereby +the simple are altogether deceived." He is greatly concerned that "none +but those who are willingly minded to their doctrines can get a sight of +their books";[17:1] and that "they are disinclined to disputations and +conferences with those not inclined to their opinions." He informs his +readers that "it is a maxim in the Family to deny before men all their +doctrines, so that they keep the same secret in their hearts"; that +though they may inwardly reject, yet they will outwardly conform to the +forms of the Church as by law established; that "they have certain +sleights amongst them to answer any question that may be demanded of +them." Thus "they do decree all men to be infants who are under the age +of thirty years. So that if they be demanded whether infants ought to be +baptized, they answer yea; meaning thereby that he is an infant until he +attain to those years at which time they ought to be baptized, and not +before." However, it may be well to mention here that the writer speaks +of the Anabaptists and of the Family of Love as if he recognised them to +be distinct heresies. + +From their doctrines as formulated in this pamphlet, based on "A +Confession made by two of the Family of Love before a worthy and +worshipful Justice of the Peace, May 28th, 1561," we take the following: + + (_a_) "When any person shall be received into their congregation, + they cause all their brethren to assemble, the Bishop or Elder + doth declare unto the newly-elected brother, that if he will be + content that all his goods shall be in common amongst the rest of + all his brethren, he shall be received." + + (_b_) "They may not say God save anything. For they affirm that all + things are ruled by Nature, and not directed by God." + + (_c_) "They did prohibit bearing of weapons, but at the length, + perceiving themselves to be noted and marked for the same, they + have allowed the bearing of staves." + + (_d_) "When a question is demanded of any of them, they do of order + stay a great while ere they answer, and commonly their words shall + be Surely or So." + + (_e_) "They hold that no man should be baptized before he is of the + age of thirty years." + + (_f_) "They hold that heaven and hell are present in this world + amongst us, and that there is none other."[18:1] + + (_g_) "They hold the Pope's service and this service now used in + the Churches to be naught." + + (_h_) "They hold that all men that are not of their congregation, + or that are revolted from them, to be dead." + + (_i_) "They hold that they ought to keep silence amongst + themselves, that the liberty they have in the Lord may not be + espied of others." + + (_k_) "They hold that no man should be put to death for his + opinion: therefore they condemn Master Cranmer and Master Ridley + for burning Joan of Kent." + +We shall have occasion to refer to some of these doctrines again later +on. It may be well, however, to mention here that the views that no +Christian ought to be a magistrate; that magistrates should not meddle +with religion; that no man ought to be compelled to faith, or put to +death for his religion; that war is unlawful to Christians; that their +speech should be yea or nay, without any oath: seem to have been +accepted by Anabaptists generally, as they were by the primitive +Christian communists of the fourteenth century.[18:2] + +To return to our immediate subject. To the development of religious and +political thought in England, as to the inevitable struggle due to the +inherent antagonism of Catholic and Protestant ideals and aspirations, +we can refer only very briefly. The former can perhaps best be traced in +the writings of three eminent theological writers, Jewel, Hooker, and +Chillingworth. Though in 1567 we hear of the first instance of actual +punishment of Protestant Dissenters, still during the earlier portion of +the reign of Elizabeth, to the year 1571, there seems to have been a +gradual growth of national sentiment toward a simpler form of worship, +resulting in a modification of those rites and usages disliked by +Protestants of all shades and sects, and against the established policy +of forcible suppression of religious differences. In 1571, a Bill having +been introduced imposing a penalty for not receiving the communion, it +was objected to in the House of Commons on the grounds that "consciences +ought not to be forced." The same Parliament "refused to bind the clergy +to subscription to three articles on the Supremacy, the form of Church +Government, and the power of the Church to ordain rites and ceremonies, +and favoured the project of reforming the Liturgy by the omission of +superstitious practices."[19:1] In 1572, however, the appearance of +Thomas Cartwright's celebrated _Admonition to the Parliament_ stemmed +the course of religious reform, and produced a reaction of which +Elizabeth and her Primates were not slow to avail themselves. The +establishment, in 1583, of the Ecclesiastical Commission as a permanent +body, wielding the almost unlimited powers of the Crown and creating +their own tests of doctrine, put an end to the wise spirit of compromise +which had hitherto characterised Elizabeth's religious policy. The +"superstitious usages" were encouraged; subscription by the clergy of +the Three Articles, which the Parliament of 1571 had refused to enforce +by law, was exacted; and the non-conforming clergy were relentlessly +harried and persecuted: with the result that the Presbyterians within +and the Puritans without the National Church were temporarily united by +the pressure of a common persecution. + +It was Cartwright's political rather than his religious views that +alarmed Elizabeth and her Ministers. As against their theory of a +State-controlled Church, he advocated a Church-controlled State. In +fact, the most arrogant and insolent pretensions of the Papacy were +surpassed by this Presbyterian divine. Of course, all his demands were +based on the authority of Scripture and the ways and customs of the +primitive Christian Church. The rule of bishops he denounced as begotten +of the devil; the absolute rule of presbyters he held to be established +by the word of God. All other forms of Church government were ruthlessly +to be suppressed, and heretics were to be punished by death. For the +ministers of the Church he claimed not only all spiritual power and +jurisdiction, the decreeing of doctrines, the ordering of ceremonies, +and so on, but also the supervision of public morals, under which every +branch of human activities was included. In short, the State, as well as +the individual, was to be placed beneath the heel of the Church. The +power of the prince, the secular power, was tolerated only so that it +might "protect and defend the councils of the clergy, to keep the peace, +to see their decrees executed, and to punish the contemners of them." +Such doctrines aroused no responsive echo in the minds of the English +people. The nation whose revolt against the papal supremacy had made the +Reformation possible, were not disposed to accept Presbyterian supremacy +in its place. The national impatience of ecclesiastical power was not +likely suddenly to be removed by any attempt to re-impose it under a new +name and in a new garb. In fact, Cartwright's work almost seems as if +specially written to warn the nation against a possible, if not an +imminent, danger, to warn them, in truth, that--"New Presbyter is but +Old Priest writ large." + +Cartwright's narrow-minded dogmatism was crushingly answered in Richard +Hooker's _Ecclesiastical Polity_, the first volume of which appeared in +1594. This remarkable book forms, indeed, an important landmark in the +history of English political and religious thought. Its forcible +exposition of the basic principles of constitutional civil government +makes many portions of it even to-day most attractive and instructive +reading. For the first time in the history of religious controversy, +reason is extolled above any and every authority, and accepted as +supreme judge and arbiter of spiritual, as well as of temporal, affairs. +Though Hooker thought it fit that the reason of the individual should +yield to that of the Church, he did not hesitate to declare "that +authority should prevail with man either against or above reason, is no +part of our belief. Companies of learned men, be they never so great and +reverend, are to yield unto reason." As Buckle well points out,[21:1] if +we compare this work with Jewel's _Apology for the Church of England_, +written some thirty years previously,--and ordered, together with the +Bible and Fox's _Martyrs_, "to be fixed in all parish churches and read +to the people,"--"we shall at once be struck by the different methods +these eminent writers employ.... Jewel inculcates the importance of +faith; Hooker insists on the exercise of reason.... In the same opposite +spirit do these great writers conduct their defence of their own Church. +Jewel thinks to settle the whole dispute by crowding together texts from +the Bible, with the opinions of the commentators upon them.... Hooker's +defence rests neither upon tradition, nor upon commentators, nor even +upon revelation; but he is content that the pretensions of the hostile +parties shall be decided by their applicability to the great exigencies +of society, and by the ease with which they adapt themselves to the +general purposes of ordinary life." + +The celebrated work by Chillingworth, _The Religion of Protestants, a +Safe Way to Salvation_, published in 1637, and of which two editions +were issued within less than five months, also deserves special mention +here. His fundamental position may be well summarised in one of his own +sentences--"I am fully assured that God does not, and therefore that man +ought not to require any more of any man than this, to believe the +Scriptures to be God's word, to endeavour to find the true sense of it, +and to live according to it." Even more fully than Hooker, +Chillingworth accepts reason as the all-sufficient guide of human +conduct, and admits no reservations that might limit the sacred right of +private judgement. The essential difference between these three eminent +writers is admirably summarised by Buckle in the following +words:[21:2]{2} "These three great men represent the three distinct +epochs of the three successive generations in which they respectively +lived. In Jewel, reason is, if I may so say, the superstructure of the +system; but authority is the basis upon which the superstructure is +built. In Hooker, authority is only the superstructure, and reason is +the basis. But in Chillingworth, whose writings were harbingers of the +coming storm, authority entirely disappears, and the whole fabric of +religion is made to rest upon the way in which the unaided reason of man +shall interpret the decrees of an omnipotent God." + +In fact, Chillingworth's great work may well be regarded as the last +word of the Protestant Reformation in England. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[15:1] According to Beard, _The Hibbert Lectures_, 1883, p. 119, "It was +a mediæval maxim, which no one thought of questioning, that the language +of the Bible had four senses--the literal, the allegorical, the +tropological, and the anagogical, of which the last three were mystical +or spiritual, in contradistinction to the first." The learned Erasmus, +who lived and died a devout Roman Catholic, seems to have accepted this +allegorical interpretation of the Scriptures. Of interpreters of the +Holy Scriptures, he recommends those "who depart as far as possible from +the letter." Erasmus, _Opp._ (_Enchiridion_), v. 29, B, C, D. Quoted by +Beard, p. 120. + +[16:1] _Church History_, vol. iv. p. 407. + +[17:1] When occasion arose, they do not seem to have been averse to +giving publicity to their opinions. In 1656 a London publisher, Giles +Calvert, to whom we shall have occasion to refer again, republished _A +Discourse on the Family of Love, originally presented to the High Court +of Parliament in the time of Queen Elizabeth_. This Giles Calvert was +the printer and publisher of nearly all Winstanley's pamphlets, and also +one of the first authorised printers and publishers for the Children of +Light, as the Quakers, or Society of Friends, originally styled +themselves. We have reason to believe that Calvert, as well as many +other of Winstanley's disciples, joined the Quakers about the time of +the republication of this pamphlet. + +[18:1] "There is no other flame in which the sinner is plagued, and no +other punishment of hell, than the perpetual anguish of mind which +accompanies habitual sin."--Erasmus, _Enchiridion_. Quoted by Beard. + +[18:2] See _Communism in Central Europe in the Time of the Reformation_, +by Karl Kautsky, more especially p. 79. + +[19:1] Green's _Short History of the English People_, p. 457. + +[21:1] _History of Civilisation in England_, vol. i. p. 340. + +[21:2] _Ibid._ vol. i. p. 351. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE GREAT CIVIL WAR + + "The lawful power of making laws to command whole politic societies + of men, belongeth so properly to the same entire societies, that + for any prince or potentate of what kind soever upon earth, to + exercise the same of himself, and not either by express commission + immediately and personally received from God, or else by authority + derived at the first from their consent, upon whose persons they + impose laws, it is no better than mere tyranny. Laws they are not + therefore which public approbation hath not made so."--HOOKER, + _Ecclesiastical Polity_. + + +When Chillingworth's great work was published, in 1637, the last of the +Tudors, after having outlived her popularity, had passed to her rest, as +had also her most unworthy successor, whose insolence had outraged, but +whose weakness had strengthened, the awakening spirit of liberty, and +who, as Macaulay well expresses it,[23:1] "was, in truth, one of those +kings whom God seems to send for the express purpose of hastening +revolutions." To him had succeeded his most worthy son: a king whose +perfidy and duplicity were only equalled by his self-complacency and +power of self-deception, who never looked facts in the face, but +placidly expected them to conform to his own petty desires, and whose +dignified death failed to atone for a life devoted to ignoble personal +ends, by crooked ways and treacherous means; a king peculiarly incapable +of taking a broad statesman-like view of any question, who manifested no +thought for the interests of the people of whom he regarded himself as +ruler by right divine, whose futile domestic policy was inspired solely +by considerations for the advancement of his own personal power, whose +feeble and shifty foreign policy was determined only by considerations +for his own family interests, who intrigued with France against Spain, +with Spain against France, with both against Holland, and with Holland +against both, and with France, Spain, Holland, and Rome against his own +subjects, with English Presbyterians against English Independents, with +English Independents against English Presbyterians, and with Irish +Catholics and Scotch Presbyterians against both English Presbyterians +and Independents, and who yet succeeded in deceiving nobody but himself, +and in satisfying nobody, not even himself; a king whose love was far +more dangerous than his hate, a worthy patron of a Buckingham, a Goring, +or of a Laud, but unworthy the genius of a Shaftesbury or the loyal +services of a Verney, a Montrose, or a Worcester; a king, in short, +treacherous to his friends, faithless to his word, who went to his +wedding and came to his throne with a lie on his lips,[24:1] whom, again +to use the words of Macaulay,[24:2] "no law could bind, and whose whole +government was one system of wrong," of whom even the conservative and +partial Hallam is forced to admit[24:3] that "it would be difficult to +name any violation of law he had not committed." Even the famous +Petition of Right, to which some nine years previously, in 1628, he had +given a solemn, though reluctant, consent, had been ruthlessly violated. +Taxes had been levied by the Royal authority; patents of monopoly had +been granted; the course of justice had been tampered with, and judges +arbitrarily deposed; troops had been billeted upon the people; old +feudal usages had been revived for the express purpose of harassing and +defrauding the citizens; and, as if to exhaust every means to sap the +loyalty and wear out the patience of the people, Puritans of every shade +of opinion had not only been silenced but relentlessly persecuted, while +High Church bishops preached passive obedience, declaring the persons +and the property of subjects to be at the absolute disposal of the +sovereign, and in the name of religion inaugurating a systematic attack +on the rights and liberties of the nation. + +The people whose representatives a quarter of a century previously, in +1604, had met the insolent claims of James the First with the dignified +rejoinder, that "your Majesty should be misinformed if any man should +deliver that the kings of England have any absolute power in themselves +either to alter religion, or to make any laws concerning the same, +otherwise than in temporal causes by consent of Parliament,"[25:1] were, +however, not easily to be intimidated. Despite a Royal order to adjourn, +the House of Commons of 1629, holding the Speaker by force in the Chair, +supported the immortal Eliot in his last assertion of English liberty, +and by successive resolutions declared that whosoever shall bring in +innovations in religion, or whosoever shall counsel or advise the taking +and levying of the subsidies of tonnage and poundage, not being granted +by Parliament, "a capital enemy to this kingdom and commonwealth," and +any person voluntarily yielding or paying the said subsidies, not being +granted by Parliament, "a betrayer of the liberty of England, and an +enemy to the same."[25:2] Having thus flung their defiance in the face +of the King, the House then voted its own adjournment. + +From that time events had marched quickly. Those who had played the most +prominent parts in that momentous scene, including Holles, Selden, and +Eliot, had been thrown into prison, the last-named to die there, the +first martyr to the growing cause of civil freedom and religious +liberty. In 1637, the year of the publication of Chillingworth's work, +the whole question of the right to levy taxation was revived by the +demand on the inland counties for ship-money, and the attention of the +whole country attracted to it by the trial of Hampden on his refusal to +pay same. Later in the year, Charles' attempt to alter the +ecclesiastical constitution and form of public worship in Scotland led, +first to discontent, then to riot, and finally to open rebellion. As a +direct consequence, the King, in April 1640, was compelled to call what +from its brief duration is known as the Short Parliament, in which, +thanks to the Parliamentary tactics of Hampden, the design of the Court +Party, to obtain supplies without redressing grievances, was +constitutionally thwarted. On the manifestation of its determination to +redress wrongs and to vindicate the laws, this Parliament was at once +dissolved. The end of the tyranny, however, was fast approaching. In +August of the same year the King marched northward; the Scotch crossed +the border to meet him; on their approach the disaffected English army +was well pleased to fly rather than to fight those whom they were +inclined to regard as deliverers rather than as enemies; a truce was +patched up, and to meet the critical situation the King, in November +1640, found himself compelled to summon his last and most famous +Parliament, known in history as the Long Parliament. + +The temper of the new Parliament, in which Pym and Hampden at first +exercised a paramount influence, was very different from that of any of +its predecessors. Recent events had convinced its leading members that +half measures would be worse than useless. During its first session, +Strafford and Laud, the two main supporters of absolute government and +religious tyranny, were impeached and imprisoned; those whom the King +had employed as instruments of oppression were called to account for +their conduct; the Star Chamber, the Court of High Commission and the +Council of York, were abolished; ship-money was declared illegal, and +the judgement in Hampden's case was annulled; the victims of the recent +religious persecutions were set at liberty, and conducted through London +in triumph; old oppressive feudal powers still appertaining to the Crown +were swept away; the King was made to give the judges patents for life +or during good behaviour; the Forest and Stannary Courts were reformed; +Triennial Parliaments were established; and, finally, it was provided +that the Parliament then sitting should not be prorogued or dissolved +save by its own consent. + +After the recess the difficulties and dangers of the situation +increased daily. Revolt, popularly regarded as fomented by the Court +Party, had broken out in Ireland; the King, evidently seeking power and +opportunity to retract the concessions he had made, was seeking aid in +all directions--Rome, France, Spain, and was intriguing in Scotland; the +air was full of rumours of a plot of the Court to bring down the army in +the North to overawe the Parliament; and the moderate men,--"that is to +say, men who never go to the bottom of any difficulty," as Gardiner +expresses it,--by whose aid the above changes had been effected, were +inclined to pause, if not to retrace their steps. Under these +circumstances the popular leaders in the House of Commons, in November +1641, framed and passed the Great Remonstrance, which was practically an +address to the nation, to justify their past action and to appeal for +further support. In this famous document all the oppressive and +arbitrary acts of the past fifteen years were narrated in impressive +language; a detailed account was given of the necessary work already +accomplished, of the dangers and difficulties yet to be surmounted, +declaring the purpose of the House to be, not to abolish Episcopacy, but +to reduce the power of the bishops; and, finally, indicating the line of +future constitutional reform by urging that the King should employ no +Ministers save those in whom the Parliament could place confidence. + +Contrary to expectation, the debate on the Remonstrance was long and +stormy, and the division--it was only carried in a full House by a +majority of nine--showed plainly that a reaction in favour of the King +had already begun. Charles had now a final opportunity of regaining the +confidence of the representatives of the nation, and for a few days it +seemed as if he were inclined to follow a moderate, dignified and +constitutional course. But for a few days only. On the 3rd of January +1642, without giving a hint of his intentions to the constitutional +Royalists he had so recently called to his councils, and whom he had +faithfully promised to consult on all matters relating to the House of +Commons, he sent down his Attorney-General to impeach the leading +members of the House, Pym, Holles, and Haselrig, at the bar of the +House of Lords, on a charge of high treason. As Macaulay well +says,[28:1] "It would be difficult to find in the whole history of +England such an instance of tyranny, perfidy, and folly." But worse was +to follow. The Commons refused to surrender their members, and Charles +resolved on their forcible arrest on the floor of the House. The +threatened members, however, had been warned, and had taken refuge in +the City of London; their absence, together with the dignified attitude +of the remaining members, prevented the outrage ending in bloodshed: in +a bloodshed the possibility of which it is even to-day impossible to +contemplate with equanimity. + +Though the Militia Bill, which would have given Parliament the control +of the armed forces of the nation, was the ostensible, this outrage on +the part of the King was the direct and mediate, cause of the outbreak +of the Civil War. "To be safe from armed violence," the Commons, as far +as the rules of the House would permit, placed themselves under the +protection of the City; and the day previous to the one fixed for their +return to St. Stephen's under the protection of the trained bands of +London, the King left Whitehall, to return to it only to pay the dire +penalty for his past offences. Both sides now actively prepared for the +inevitable struggle. Owing to Pym's forethought, the Tower was +blockaded, and the two great arsenals of Hull and Portsmouth secured for +the Parliament. Owing to the force and boldness of his language, the +House of Lords was scared out of the policy of obstruction it had taken +up. On the avowal by Parliament of the refusal of the governor of Hull +to open the gates to the King, the members of the Royalist party +withdrew from Westminster; and on August 22nd, 1642, the uplifting of +Charles' standard on a hill at Nottingham announced the outbreak of the +Civil War. + +On the well-trodden ground of the progress of the war, it is unnecessary +for our purposes to dwell. The issues involved were truly tremendous. +The evolution of the English Constitution had left it undecided to whom +the supreme power in the nation did rightfully accrue: and this was, +perhaps, the most practical question at issue.[29:1] As between +Parliament and King, the question was, whether the supreme power was to +continue to be wielded by a king whose temporal jurisdiction was to be +limited only by ancient laws interpreted by judges of his own creation +and removable at his pleasure, or by the representatives of the nation +in Parliament assembled? It was left to the Model Army to remind the +members of the Long Parliament that their power, as that of "all future +representatives of this nation, is inferior only to theirs who choose +them."[29:2] However, to make both King and Church responsible to +Parliament was, in truth, the one common aim of the whole Parliamentary +party; and, as Gardiner well points out,[29:3] "every year which passed +after the Restoration made it more evident that, for the time at least, +the most substantial gains of the long conflict had fallen to those who +had concentrated their efforts on this object." + +Keeping in view the reforms secured during the first session of the Long +Parliament, it may fairly be urged that everything necessary to this end +had been gained prior to the outbreak of the Civil War, everything, of +course, save the control of the sword; and this, if the King could have +been trusted, was not immediately urgent, and would necessarily have +followed the control of the purse. "If the King could have been +trusted!" In these words the key to the whole situation is to be found. +The Parliamentary leaders could not, did not, dared not, trust the +King: hence the power of the sword had to be wrested from his grasp. It +was this that made the Civil War inevitable. It was this that rendered +constitutional government, government by discussion, government by +compromise, impossible. It was this well-grounded and repeatedly +confirmed distrust of the King that, after years of war and repeated and +sincere negotiations, negotiations which only served still further to +reveal his duplicity, made the execution of the King unavoidable. As the +judicial Gardiner well says,[30:1] in summing up the causes which led to +this most solemn, impressive, and instructive event in the whole history +of England--"The situation, complicated enough already, had been still +further complicated by Charles' duplicity. Men who would have been +willing to come to terms with him, despaired of any constitutional +arrangement in which he was to be a factor; and men who had long been +alienated from him were irritated into active hostility. By these he was +regarded with increasing intensity as the one disturbing force with +which no understanding was possible and no settled order consistent. To +remove him out of the way appeared, even to those who had no thought of +punishing him for past offences, to be the only possible road to peace +for the troubled nation." + +The religious issues of the great struggle, however, were by no means so +simple. Episcopacy, as it had existed, had few supporters in England +outside the ranks of the bishops. The Laudian coercion had not only +reawakened slumbering animosities and given renewed vigour to the +Puritan dislike of the forms and ceremonies of the Anglican Church, but +had served to fill men's minds with a healthy, vigorous, and deep-rooted +distrust of ecclesiastical government in any form. To any claims, +whether of kings or of bishops or of presbyters, to rule by Divine +right, the ear of the nation was temporarily closed. If Protestants of +all shades of opinions had learned to distrust Episcopacy, intellectual +men of all shades of religious beliefs, and of none, equally distrusted +Presbyterianism, and feared that the free play of intellectual life +would be as much endangered by the rule of the presbyters as by the +rule of the bishops. We should, however, do well to remember that at the +outbreak of the war most of the great Parliamentary leaders, including +Pym, Hampden, and even Cromwell, had no deep-rooted objection to +Episcopacy as a form of Church government, provided only that it was +controlled by Parliament, and allowed the fullest possible liberty of +conscience. They all shared Pym's expressed conviction that "the +greatest liberty of the kingdom is religion," and seemed to have +inclined toward the ideal of Chillingworth, a full liberty of thought +maintained within the unity of the Church. It was their necessity, not +their will, the necessity to gain the cordial co-operation of the +Scotch, that later compelled them to commit themselves to +Presbyterianism, of their profound distrust of which they gave repeated +proof. And it is worthy of special note that even in the time of their +greatest need the English Parliament, to use Gardiner's words,[31:1] +"was as disinclined as the Tudor kings had ever been to allow the +establishment in England of a Church system claiming to exist by Divine +right, or by any right whatever independent of the State." + +That religious conformity was a necessary condition of national unity, +aye, even of national existence, was, however, still accepted as an +axiomatic truth by those whose mental visions were limited by inherited +conceptions. To such as these the only question at issue seems to have +been whether an Episcopalian or a Presbyterian system of Church +government should prevail. Of the claims of those who would bow the head +neither to Rome, to Geneva, nor to Canterbury, who refused to entrust +their conscience to pope, to bishop, or to presbyter, the extreme +adherents of both these systems were probably equally insensible. And +yet it was precisely such men who were to come to the front during the +coming struggle, and who, under the guidance of their great leader, were +to become the champions of that great democratic principle of +toleration, of liberty of conscience, which was the one leading +principle of his life.[31:2] It was precisely such men who were to +proclaim to the rulers of the nation--"That matters of religion and the +ways of God's worship are not at all entrusted by us to any human +power, because therein we cannot remit or exceed a tittle of what our +consciences dictate to be the mind of God without wilful sin." But who +themselves were tolerant enough to be willing that "nevertheless the +public way of instructing the nation (_so it be not compulsive_) is +referred to their discretion."[32:1] + +"So it be not compulsive!" in these words we have the key to the +position of the great body of sectarians known under the name of +Independents. They recognised, to use the words of their immortal +leader, that "it's one thing to love a brother, to bear with and love a +person of different judgement in matters of religion; and another thing +to have anybody so far set in the saddle on that account, as to have all +the rest of his brethren at mercy." So it be not compulsive! in these +words, too, we have the secret of their subsequent attitude toward the +Long Parliament and its successors. As Gardiner forcibly expresses +it--"Men who longed for religious toleration with a stern conviction +were impatient of parliamentary majorities working for uniformity." To +their opponents, more especially to those of the strict Presbyterian +school, toleration may have seemed of the devil, incompatible with +individual salvation, and injurious alike to Church and to State; to the +Independents, on the other hand, it was a necessary condition of +continued existence. They had no desire to establish a State Church of +their own; they were not prepared to deny that at least "a public way of +instructing the nation" might be necessary; but they were determined +that any such Church should be tolerant of the claims of men like +themselves, who could not conform their conscience to its requirements. +To create a home of liberty out of the England of the Tudors and the +Stuarts, of Laud and of Prynne, was a task beyond even their powers. But +whatever they may have failed to accomplish, they saved England from the +ecclesiastical tyranny Presbyterianism at that time involved, and raised +the standard of liberty and toleration, which during the great struggle +obtained a hold of the mind of the nation such as it never had before, +but never entirely lost again. + +At the very outbreak of the Civil War, Cromwell's aim had been to find +"men who know what they fight for, and love what they know,--men as had +the fear of God before them, as made some conscience of what they +did."[33:1] Such men soon gathered round the great Independent, and he +moulded them into the famous Ironsides, by whose aid he turned the tide +of defeat at Marston Moor, and gained the glorious victories of Naseby, +Preston, Dunbar, and Worcester. Such men stood by his side at the +momentous Army Council at Windsor, May 1st, 1648, when it was solemnly +resolved, "not any dissenting," "that it was our duty, if ever the Lord +brought us back again in peace, to call Charles Stuart, that man of +blood, to account for the blood he had shed, and mischief he had done to +his utmost, against the Lord's cause and people in these poor +nations."[33:2] It was such men who, on December 6th, 1648, to save the +kingdom from a new war or from a peace destructive of everything they +had fought for,[33:3] purged the House of Commons of its "malignant" +members; and who cut the Gordian knot of the difficulties that beset the +nation by bringing the King, who seemed to them to stand in the way of +any and every satisfactory settlement, to trial and execution (January +30th, 1649). Moreover, it was such men who most heartily concurred with +the resolution of the House of Commons (February 7th, 1649), "That it +has been found by experience ... that the office of a king in this +nation, and to have the power thereof in any single person, is +unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous to the liberty, safety, and +public interests of the people of this nation, and therefore ought to be +abolished." And, finally, it was such men who were the main supporters +of the Council of State to whom, on February 13th, 1649, under the +control of the House of Commons, was entrusted full executive authority +over the home and foreign affairs of the nation. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[23:1] Macaulay's _Essays_, "John Hampden." + +[24:1] In 1624, Charles had voluntarily sworn to the House of Commons +that if he married a Roman Catholic "it should be of no advantage to the +recusants at home." In the autumn of the same year, on his betrothal to +Henrietta Maria, sister to the King of France, he solemnly swore to +grant the very condition he had previously solemnly sworn never to +concede. He came to the throne early in the following year, 1625. + +[24:2] _Loc. cit._ + +[24:3] _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. p. 81. + +[25:1] The Apology of the Commons, 1604. See Gardiner's _History of +England_, 1603-1642, vol. i. pp. 180-185. + +[25:2] _Ibid._ vol. vii. pp. 72-76. + +[28:1] _Loc. cit._ + +[29:1] This was the point of view taken at the time by the Levellers, +the most active and progressive politicians of the period. In a "Humble +Petition of thousands of well affected people inhabiting the City of +London," presented September 11th, 1648, the petitioners address the +House of Commons as "the supreme authority of England," and desire it so +to consider itself. They complain that the Commons have declared their +intention not to alter the ancient government of King, Lords and +Commons, "not once mentioning, in case of difference, which of them is +supreme, but leaving that point, which was the chiefest cause of all our +public differences, disturbances, wars, and miseries, as uncertain as +ever." See _Clarke Papers_, vol. ii. p. 76. + +[29:2] See "The Agreement of the People for a firm and present peace," +as presented to the Council of the Army, October 28th, 1647. Reprinted +at the end of the third volume of Gardiner's _History of the Civil War_. + +[29:3] _History of the Civil War_, vol. ii. p. 67. + +[30:1] _History of the Civil War_, vol. iv. pp. 327-328. + +[31:1] _History of the Civil War_, vol. iii. p. 95. + +[31:2] See Appendix B. + +[32:1] "The Agreement of the People for a firm and present peace." +(Italics are ours.) + +[33:1] See Carlyle's _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_, part ii. p. 135, +and part x. p. 255. + +[33:2] See Gardiner's _History of the Civil War_, vol. iv. pp. 120-121. + +[33:3] Cromwell seems early to have foreseen and guarded against such a +contingency. See Gardiner, _ibid._ vol. ii. p. 25. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE DIGGERS + + "The way to cast out Kingly Power is not to cast it out by the + Sword; for this doth but set him in more power, and removes him + from a weaker to a stronger hand. The only way to cast him out is + for the people to leave him to himself, to forsake fighting and all + oppression, and to live in love one towards another. The Power of + Love is the True Saviour."--WINSTANLEY, _A New Year's Gift for the + Parliament and Army_. + + +The Council of State which, on February 13th, 1649, within a month of +the execution of the King, had been appointed to administer the public +affairs of England, had scarcely settled down to their work when they +received the following information of the mysterious doings of "a +disorderly and tumultuous sort of people" very near to their +doors:[34:1] + + "INFORMATION OF HENRY SANDERS OF WALTON UPON THAMES. + + "Informeth, that on Sunday was sennight last,[34:2] there was one + Everard, once of the army but was cashiered, who termeth himself a + prophet, one Stewer and Colten, and two more, all living at Cobham, + came to St. George's Hill in Surrey, and began to dig on that side + the hill next to Campe Close, and sowed the ground with parsnips, + carrots, and beans. On Monday following they were there again, + being increased in their number, and on the next day, being + Tuesday, they fired the heath, and burned at least forty rood of + heath, which is a very great prejudice to the town. On Friday last + they came again, between twenty and thirty, and wrought all day at + digging. They did then intend to have two or three ploughs at work, + but they had not furnished themselves with seed-corn, which they + did on Saturday at Kingston. They invite all to come in and help + them, and promise them meat, drink, and clothes. They do threaten + to pull down and level all park pales, and lay open, and intend to + plant there very shortly. They give out they will be four or five + thousand within ten days, and threaten the neighbouring people + there, that they will make them all come up to the hills and work: + and forewarn them suffering their cattle to come near the + plantation; if they do, they will cut their legs off. It is feared + they have some design in hand. + + "HENRY SANDERS. + + "_16 April 1649._" + +The Council of State were sufficiently impressed by this letter to +forward it the same day to Lord Fairfax, the Lord General of the armed +forces of the Commonwealth, with the following despatch: + + "THE COUNCIL OF STATE TO LORD FAIRFAX.[35:1] + + "MY LORD,--By the narrative enclosed your Lordship will be informed + of what relation hath been made to this Council of a disorderly and + tumultuous sort of people assembling themselves together not far + from Oatlands, at a place called St. George's Hill; and although + the pretence of their being there by them avowed may seem very + ridiculous, yet that conflux of people may be a beginning whence + things of a greater and more dangerous consequence may grow, to the + disturbance of the peace and quiet of the Commonwealth. We + therefore recommend it to your Lordship's care that some force of + horse may be sent to Cobham in Surrey and thereabouts, with orders + to disperse the people so met, and to prevent the like for the + future, that a malignant and disaffected party may not under colour + of such ridiculous people have any opportunity to rendezvous + themselves in order to do a greater mischief. + + "Signed in the name and by order of the Council of State + appointed by authority of Parliament, + + "JOHN BRADSHAW, _President_. + + "DERBY HOUSE, _16th April 1649_. + + "For the Right Honourable + THOMAS LORD FAIRFAX, Lord General." + + +Acting on his instructions, within a few days Lord Fairfax was in +possession of the following soldier-like letter from the active +republican officer to whom he had entrusted the business, and who +evidently was not so easily frightened as the Council of State: + + "CAPTAIN JOHN GLADMAN TO LORD FAIRFAX.[36:1] + (Slightly Abridged.) + + "SIR,--According to your order I marched towards St. Georges Hill + and sent four men before to bring certain intelligence to me; as + they went they met with Mr. Winstanlie and Mr. Everard (which are + the chief men that have persuaded these people to do what they have + done). And when I had enquired of them and of the officers that lie + at Kingston, I saw there was no need to march any further. I cannot + hear that there have been above twenty of them together since they + first undertook the business. Mr. Winstanlie and Mr. Everard have + engaged both to be with you this day: I believe you will be glad to + be rid of them again, especially Everard, who is no other than a + mad man. Sir, I intend to go with two or three men to St. Georges + Hill this day, and persuade these people to leave this employment + if I can, and if then I see no more danger than now I do I shall + march back again to London tomorrow.... Indeed the business is not + worth the writing nor yet taking notice of: I wonder the Council of + State should be so abused with informations.... + + "JO. GLADMAN. + + "KINGSTON, _April 19th, 1649_." + +As they had undertaken, Winstanley and Everard duly appeared before +Lord Fairfax at Whitehall, and under date April 20th the following +account of their interview appears in the ponderous pages of Bulstrode +Whitelocke's _Memorial of English Affairs_:[37:1] + + "Everard and Winstanley, the chief of those that digged at St. + George's Hill in Surrey, came to the General and made a large + declaration to justify their proceedings. + + "Everard said he was of the race of the Jews, that all the + liberties of the people were lost by the coming in of William the + Conqueror, and that ever since the people of God had lived under + tyranny and oppression worse than that of our forefathers under the + Egyptians. + + "But now the time of deliverance was at hand, and God would bring + his people out of this slavery, and restore them to their freedom + in enjoying the fruits and benefits of the Earth. + + "And that there had lately appeared to him a vision, which bad him + arise and dig and plough the earth, and receive the fruits thereof. + + "That their intent is to restore the Creation to its former + condition. That as God had promised to make the barren land + fruitful, so now what they did was to restore the ancient community + of enjoying the fruits of the Earth, and to distribute the benefits + thereof to the poor and needy, and to feed the hungry and to clothe + the naked. + + "That they intend not to meddle with any man's property nor to + break down any pales or enclosures, but only to meddle with what + was common and untilled, and to make it fruitful for the use of + man. That the time will suddenly be, when all men shall willingly + come in and give up their lands and estates, and submit to this + community. + + "And for all those that will come in and work they should have + meat, drink, and clothes, which is all that is necessary to the + life of man; and that for money, there was not any need of it, nor + of clothes more than to cover nakedness. + + "That they will not defend themselves by arms, but will submit unto + authority, and wait till the promised opportunity be offered, which + they conceive to be at hand. And that as their forefathers lived in + tents, so it would be suitable to their condition now to live in + the same: and more to the like effect. + + "While they were before the General, they stood with their hats + on; and being demanded the reason thereof, they said, 'Because he + was but their fellow-creature.' Being asked the meaning of that + place, 'Give honour to whom honour is due'; they said that their + mouths should be stopped that gave them that offence." + + Whitelocke continues, "I have set down this the more largely + because it was the beginning of the appearance of this opinion; and + that we might the better understand and avoid these weak + persuasions." + +"The germ of Quakerism and much else is curiously visible here," is +Carlyle's shrewd comment on the above incident. But as to how far this +account of the views of the Diggers is correct, we shall leave to the +judgement of those who read the pages that are to follow. Though we may +now believe that, save that he placed Norman in the place of the Saxon +Lords, William the Conqueror introduced but few innovations into the +laws and institutions of the country, the very opposite was the accepted +opinion in the days of Winstanley and his associates.[38:1] It may also +be well to mention here that, though Everard's name appears, and first +in order, amongst those who signed the pamphlet, _The True Levellers +Standard Advanced: or, The State of Community opened and presented to +the Sons of Men_, which bears date April 26th, 1649, and to which we +shall presently refer, it does not appear in any of the later +publications of the Diggers. Whether he died about this time or merely +dropped out of the movement, we have not been able to ascertain. + +However this may be, Lord Fairfax appears to have been somewhat +impressed by his interview, to which the Diggers themselves always +referred in most cordial terms; for on his way from Guildford to London +the following month, he visited them at their work, of which visit we +take the following account from the pages of a contemporary and +evidently friendly news-sheet, dated May 31st, 1649:[39:1] + + "The SPEECHES of Lord General FAIRFAX and the Officers of the Army + to the Diggers at St. George's Hill in Surrey, and the Diggers' + several answers and replies thereunto. + + "As his Excellency the Lord General came from Gilford to London, he + went to view the Diggers at St. George's Hill in Surrey, with his + Officers and Attendants. They found about twelve of them hard at + work, and amongst them one Winstanley was the chief speaker. + Several questions were propounded by the Officers, and the Lord + General made a short speech by way of admonition to them, and this + Winstanley returned sober answers, though they gave little + satisfaction (if any at all) in regard of the strangeness of their + action. It was urged that the Commons were as justly due to the + Lords as any other lands. They answered that these were Crown Lands + where they digged, and the King who possessed them by the Norman + Conquest being dead, they were returned again to the Common People + of England, who might improve them if they would take the pains; + that for those who would come dig with them, they should have the + benefit equal with them, and eat of their bread; but they would not + force any, applying to all the golden rule, to do to others as we + would be done unto. Some Officers wished they had no further plot + in what they did, and that no more was intended than what they did + pretend. + + "As to the barrenness of the ground, which was objected as a + discouragement, the Diggers answered they would use their + endeavours, and leave the success to God, who had promised to make + the barren ground fruitful. They carry themselves civilly and + fairly in the country, and have the report of sober, honest men. + Some barley is already come up, and other fruits formerly; but was + pulled up by some of the envious inhabitants thereabouts, who are + not so far convinced as to promise not to injure them for the + future. The ground will probably in a short time yield them some + fruit of their labour, how contemptible soever they do yet appear + to be." + +Before following the further adventures of the Diggers, as revealed in +the numerous pamphlets they left us, from which alone they can now be +gathered, we deem it best to lay before our readers what we have been +able to ascertain of Gerrard Winstanley's previous life's history and +writings. Behind every movement that has ever influenced the thoughts of +mankind, there is always some master-mind, a Lautze, a Gautama, a Jesus +of Nazareth, a Wiclif, a John Wesley, a Darwin, a Tolstoy, or a Henry +George; and it is in the comparatively unknown Gerrard Winstanley that +we shall find the master-mind, the inspirer and director, of the Digger +Movement. As Gardiner well says, "It is not only by the immediate +accomplishment of its aim that the value of honest endeavour is to be +tested." And the reader's interest in our work may be quickened if we so +far forestall the pages that are to follow as to indicate that not only +were Winstanley's earlier theological writings the source whence the +early Quakers, or the Children of Light, as they at first called +themselves, drew many of their most characteristic tenets and doctrines, +but that the fundamental principles which inspired and animated his +political writings were in all respects identical with those that during +the past quarter of a century have been so honourably associated with +the name of Henry George. We are not here called upon to pronounce +judgement on these principles; but in passing we shall endeavour to +point out how far the demands and doctrines of the Land Reformers of the +Seventeenth Century, as revealed in Winstanley's writings, coincide with +those of their successors in the Twentieth Century. In all cases we +shall, as far as possible, let Gerrard Winstanley speak for himself. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[34:1] _Clarke Papers_, vol. ii. p. 209. Bulstrode Whitelocke, then +already a member of the Council of State, in his _Memorial of English +Affairs_ (p. 396), under date April 17th, 1649, has an entry referring +to and summarising this letter. + +[34:2] That is to say, a week last Sunday, or last Sunday week. + +[35:1] _Loc. cit._ vol. ii. p. 210. + +[36:1] _Loc. cit._ vol. ii. pp. 211-212. + +[37:1] P. 397. + +[38:1] A glance at the titles of John Hare's well-known pamphlets, the +work of a learned, prosaic, diffuse, moderate, and loyal writer, +suffices to show how widespread this jealousy and impatience of what he +terms Normanism was. One runs as follows:--"_St. Edwards Ghost or Anti +Normanism_: Being a pathetical Complaint and Motion, in the behalf of +our English Nation, against the grand yet neglected grievance +Normanism." Another, {3}"_Englands Proper and Only Way to an +Establishment in Honor, Freedom, Peace and Happiness_: Or the Norman +Yoke once more uncased, and the Necessity, Justice, and Present +Seasonableness of breaking it in pieces demonstrated, in Eight most +plain and true Propositions, with their proofs." The pamphlets are +interesting only as showing the prevalence of the idea that the +dishonour of the English Nation, and the slavery and impoverishment of +the masses of the English people, were due to Norman Laws and +institutions introduced by William the Conqueror. + +[39:1] British Museum, Press Mark, E. 530. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +GERRARD WINSTANLEY + + "Your word-divinity darkens knowledge. You talk of a body of + Divinity, and of Anatomysing Divinity. O fine language! But when it + comes to trial, it is but a husk without the kernel, words without + life. The Spirit is in the hearts of the people whom you despise + and tread under foot."--WINSTANLEY, _The New Law of Righteousness + (1649)_. + + +Gerrard Winstanley, whose strange entry on the stately stage of English +History we have recorded in the previous chapter, was born at Wigan in +the County of Lancashire, on October 10th, 1609.[41:1] He was, +therefore, some ten years younger than his great contemporary Oliver +Cromwell (born 1599), one year the junior of the immortal Milton (born +1608), and some fifteen years older than George Fox (born 1624). Of his +earlier years we know nothing; but, to judge from many passages in his +writings, he appears to have received a good middle-class education, and +to have been brought up a dutiful follower of the Church as by law +established. When arrived at man's estate, he settled as a small trader +in London, of which City he probably became a freeman; for in a pamphlet +addressed to the City of London,[41:2] he claims to be "one of thy sons +by freedom." He then goes on to relate how, "by thy cheating sons in +the thieving art of buying and selling, and by the burdens of and for +the soldiery in the beginning of the war," he "had been beaten out of +both estate and trade," and had been forced "to accept of the good-will +of friends, crediting of me, to live a country life." + +Those who have passed through a similar experience, who have been driven +from the comparatively comfortable middle-class life to the precarious +and comfortless existence of the vast majority of the toiling masses, +will readily realise that under such circumstances Winstanley's mind +would naturally be full of questionings such as might not have forced +themselves on his attention under more prosperous conditions. What was +the aim and object of that incessant struggle out of which he had just +emerged "beaten out of both estate and trade"? What made it necessary? +who really benefited by it? For whose benefit was the war being waged, +the burden of which had fallen so heavily upon him? How was it going to +advantage the masses of the people? Was it ever intended that it should +benefit them? was it possible that it should do so? Could any such +struggle be a means of delivering the great masses of the people, "the +younger brothers," out of the straits of poverty, with its attendant +train of ignorance, misery, vice, and crime, to which they had hitherto +been ruthlessly and hopelessly condemned? Was it, in truth, inevitable, +was it inherent in the very nature of things, was it God's intention +that a privileged few, "the elder brothers," should be lords and +masters, and that the great majority of mankind should for ever remain +the mere hewers of wood and drawers of water, the slaves and servants of +an insignificant minority of their fellow-creatures? Were these things +due to natural causes, to the inscrutable workings of a Divine +Providence; or were they but the necessary though unforeseen fruits of +mere man-made laws and institutions the existing generation had +inherited from a by-gone and ignorant past? Such were the questions +which vaguely and indistinctly may have passed, and, as we shall see, +did pass, through the active, original, philosophic and deeply religious +mind of Winstanley in the quiet solitude of his country life. + +His life had drifted from its accustomed moorings; his troubles were +greater than he could bear; and when he turned to Religion for guidance +and consolation, alas! he found that the teachings he had imbibed in his +childhood, and never questioned in his manhood, now failed him in his +hour of need. Foiled, though not beaten, he turned to the pages of the +Holy Scriptures themselves for guidance and information, for consolation +and revelation. In these inspired writings, if anywhere, there surely +must be found some expression, some revelation, of God's intentions +towards His children, some indication of His holy will, which, if men +would wholly follow, would lead them down the path of righteousness to +happiness and peace. And it was from these pages that Winstanley derived +those religious and political convictions that find such eloquent and +forcible expression in his writings, and which he made such heroic +efforts to proclaim by word and deed to his fellow-men. + +What seems to us to give a special charm to the study of Winstanley's +writings is that they reveal the gradual development of his acute and +powerful mind. His earlier pamphlets betray the influence of the +mysticism so prevalent in his days; his last utterance on theological +questions, as we shall see, might have been penned by an advanced +thinker of the present day, imbued with modern scientific views, and +recognising the necessary relation and co-ordination of all the physical +and psychical phenomena of the universe, "of the several bodies of the +stars and planets in the heavens above, and the several bodies of the +earth below, as plants, grass, fishes, beasts, birds, and mankind." + +As to how far Winstanley owes the views that find expression in his +earlier pamphlets--which deal exclusively with cosmological or +theological speculations--to others, or to the writings of earlier +mystics, we have no means of knowing.[43:1] From them we gather, +however, that he had learned or had come to regard the whole Biblical +narrative as an allegory, of which he gives a most poetical +interpretation. The Creation is mankind. The Garden of Eden is the mind +of man, which he describes as originally filled with herbs and pleasant +plants, "as love, joy, peace, humility, delight, and purity of life." +The serpent he holds to be self-love, the forbidden fruit to be +"selfishness," following the promptings of which "the whole garden +becomes a stinking dunghill of weeds, and brings forth nothing but +pride, envy, discontent, disobedience, and the whole actings of the +spirit and power of darkness." And he argues that--"If the creature +should be honored in this condition, then God would be dishonored, +because his command would be broken.... And if the creature were utterly +lost ... then likewise God would suffer dishonor, because his work would +be spoiled." Hence he maintains that "the curse that was declared to +Adam was temporary," and that eventually the whole creation, the whole +of mankind, shall be saved, and "the work of God shall be restored from +this lost, dead, weedy and enslaved condition."[44:1] + +Winstanley, however, regarded the word "God" as too vague satisfactorily +to denote the supreme spiritual power which pervades, upholds and +governs the whole universe. He had, he tells us, "been held in darkness +by that word, as I see many people are."[44:2] And so that neither he +nor others should "rest longer upon words without knowledge, but +hereafter may look upon that spiritual power, and know what it is that +rules them, which doth rule in and over all," he felt himself impelled +to conceive of and to refer to this spiritual power, which is God, as +"Reason." He contends that "though men may esteem the word Reason to be +too mean a name to set forth the Father by, yet it is the highest name +that can be given to Him. For it is Reason that made all things; and it +is Reason that governs the whole Creation. If flesh were but subject +thereunto, that is, to the Spirit of Reason within itself, it would +never act unrighteously.... For this Spirit of Reason is not without a +man, but within every man; hence he need not run after others to tell +him or to teach him; for this Spirit is his maker, he dwells in him, and +if the flesh were subject thereunto, he would daily find teaching +therefrom, though he dwelt alone and saw the face of no other +man."[45:1] "This is the Spirit, or Father, which as he made the Globe +and every creature, so he dwells in every creature, but supremely in +man. He it is by whom everyone lives, and moves, and hath his being. +Perfect man is the eye and face that sees and declares the Father: and +he is perfect when he is taken up in the Spirit and lives in the light +of Reason."[45:1] "Reason is that living Power of Light that is in all +things. It is the salt that savours all things. It is the fire that +burns up dross, and so restores what is corrupted, and preserves what is +pure. He is the Lord our Righteousness. It lies in the bottom of love, +of justice, of wisdom: for if the Spirit Reason did not uphold and +moderate these, they would be madness; nay, they could not be called by +their names, for Reason guides them in order and leads them to their +right end, which is not to preserve a part, but the whole +Creation."[45:2] + +The reason of man, Winstanley regarded but as an emanation of the Divine +Spirit Reason, as the one true Inward Light, which if men would only and +wholly follow would lead them to live in peace and harmony, and in +accordance with the Divine Spirit. "Man's reasoning," he says,[45:2] "is +a creature which flows from that Spirit to this end, to draw up man into +himself. It is but a candle lighted by that soul, and this light, +shining through flesh, is darkened by the imagination of the flesh. So +that many times men act contrary to reason, though they think they act +according to Reason.... The Spirit Reason, which I call God, the Maker +and Ruler of all things, is that spiritual power that guides all men's +reasoning in right order, and to a right end ... and knite every +creature together into a oneness, making every creature to be an +upholder of his fellows; and so everyone is an assistant to preserve the +whole. And the nearer man's reasoning comes to this, the more spiritual +they are; the further off they be, the more selfish and fleshy they be." + +Winstanley took care to point out,[46:1] however, that "this word Reason +is not the alone name of this spiritual power; but everyone may give him +a name according to that spiritual power that they feel and see rules in +them, carrying them forth in actions to preserve their fellow-creatures +as well as themselves. Therefore some may call him King of +Righteousness, or Prince of Peace; some may call him Love, and the like. +But I can and I do call him Reason, because I see him to be that living, +powerful light that is in righteousness, making righteousness to be +righteousness, or justice to be justice, or love to be love. For without +this moderator and ruler they would be madness; nay, the self-willedness +of the flesh, and not what we call them."[46:1] + +But, he warns his readers,[46:2] "truly let me tell you, that you cannot +say the Spirit, Reason, is your God, till you see and feel by experience +that the Spirit doth govern your flesh. For if Envy be the Lord that +rules your flesh, if Pride and Covetousness rule your flesh, then is +Envy, Covetousness, or Pride your God. If you fear man so greatly that +you dare not do righteously for fear of angering men, then slavish fear +is your God. If rash anger govern your flesh, then is anger your God. +Therefore deceive not yourselves, but let Reason work within you; and +examine and see what your flesh is subject to. For whatever doth govern +in you, that is your God." + +Winstanley's characteristic theological doctrines were, then, the +realisation of the function and importance of the Inward Light, of +Reason, which he regarded as the necessary and all-sufficient guide for +human conduct; his keen appreciation of silence as the necessary +precursor of all real prayer, if not as in itself a form of worship; +and his intense conviction of the ultimate salvation of the whole of +mankind. To Winstanley, Reason is the Ruling Spirit of the whole +Creation, is God, the Spirit of Righteousness, who is ever seated within +the hearts of men combating the lusts of the flesh, the promptings of +the brute animal nature of mankind. Disobedient man may know him not, +because covetous flesh, the promptings of self-love, hath deceived him, +and "so he looks abroad for a God, and so doth imagine or fancy a God in +some particular place of glory beyond the skies; or else, if men do look +for a God within them, yet are they led by the notions of King Flesh, +and not of King Spirit."[47:1] Reason, in short, is the spark of the +Divine in man, the Spirit of Light that dwells within and may rule the +mind and actions of every man. Conscience is but the promptings of +Reason, inspiring men to right action, to deal justly and brotherly and +to live in peaceful and harmonious association with their fellows. +Self-love, covetousness, the desire of the flesh, is ever the enemy of +Reason. And life is but a continuous struggle between these two powers +for dominion in the Creation, over the hearts and actions of mankind. +Self-love ruling the hearts of man, is the Adam that causes him to sin, +not the crime of the man Adam who lived so many thousand years ago. And +similarly it is the ruling of the spirit of Jesus Christ, the Inward +Light, within the hearts of man, not the sufferings of a man Christ +Jesus, which is the essential condition of individual and social +salvation. "This is the lightning that shall spread from East to West. +This is the Kingdom of Heaven within you, dwelling and ruling in your +flesh. Therefore learn to know Jesus Christ as the Father knows him; +that is, not after the flesh; but know that the Spirit within the flesh +is that mighty man Christ Jesus. He within governs the flesh; he within +laid down the flesh, when he was said to die; he within is to arise, not +at a distance from man, but he will rise up in men, and manifest himself +to be the light and life of every man and woman that is saved by +him."[47:2] By following the desires of the flesh, the promptings of +selfish covetousness, we can never gain true happiness, which is Heaven, +for the voice of Reason within us, of our conscience, or the Inward +Light illumining the inner darkness, will upbraid{4} us and cast us into +Hell within us. True happiness, complete satisfaction, which is Heaven, +can only be gained by following the dictates of Reason, by following the +promptings of the Inward Light. Thus to Winstanley, as to Tolstoy, the +Kingdom of Heaven, as well as the kingdom of hell, is within men's +minds, and "there is no other."[48:1] Everything that happens, however, +is ordained, or rather permitted, by God the Father, "the Ruling Spirit +of the Whole Creation," for His own ends. He controls the Spirits or +Powers we call evil, as well as those we call good: all work in +accordance with His commands, to further His ends. In Winstanley's +philosophy, unlike that of Luther, there was no room for an independent +Devil. Though in our blindness we may attribute our sufferings to such a +personage, yet whatever happens to a man is somehow or other for his own +good, though in an unregenerate state we may not realise this. All +suffering, in truth, does but tend to purify the soul from the lust of +the flesh, to enable the Inward Light to overcome the inward darkness, +to enable Reason to overcome Self-Love, good to overcome evil: and thus +to lead men to God. In the end, in the day of Judgement, the good will +triumph, Reason will cast out Covetousness, Universal Love will cast out +Self Love, meekness will cast out pride, righteousness will cast out +unrighteousness: and all men made perfect by the Inward Light, the +Spirit of Christ within them, will rejoice in the knowledge and glory of +God. + +It is almost impossible to read Winstanley's earlier theological +pamphlets without being struck by the similarity in thought and doctrine +with those to-day still held by the Society of Friends, or Quakers, +whose original name amongst themselves, be it remembered, was the +Children of Light. And it is interesting to note that during the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the opponents of the Quakers +repeatedly taunted them with being disciples of Winstanley the +Leveller.[49:1] Thus the Right Reverend Thomas Coomber, Dean of Durham, +in a pamphlet significantly entitled _Christianity no Enthusiasm: Or the +several kinds of inspiration and Revelation pretended to by the Quakers +tried and found destructive to Holy Scripture and True Religion_, +published in 1678, wrote as follows: + + "First for their original, it may seem more difficult to discover, + where Sects are not called after their Founder, but after some + property, etc., it may be harder to trace them to their head. In + 1652 their beginning is supposed, and then abouts they were so + called and known. John Whitehead fixes it in the year 1648;[49:2] + and Hubberthorne in 1660 told the King that they were then twelve + years standing.[49:3] In that black year to these kingdoms (1648) + their pretended light appeared.[50:1] ... But the very draughts and + even body of Quakerism are to be found in the several works of + Gerrard Winstanley, a zealous Leveller, wherein he tells us of the + arising of new times and dispensations, and challengeth Revelation + very much for what he writ." + +Coomber proceeds to quote from every one of Winstanley's theological +pamphlets, and then continues: + + "That these are the Quaker principles is well enough known, + allowing for some little alterations, as few Sect-Masters but have + their doctrines varied by their Proselytes.... Now, considering + these opinions, the year, the country[50:2] (as _The Mystery of + God_ is dedicated to his "beloved countrymen of the County of + Lancaster"), the printer Giles Calvert, and that several Levellers + settled into Quakers, we incline to take them for Winstanley's + Disciples and a branch of the Levellers. And what this man writes + of--levelling men's estates, of taking in of Commons, that none + should have more ground than he was able to till and husband by + his labour--proving unpracticable by reason of so many tough old + laws which had fixed propriety; yet it is pursued by the Quakers as + much as they well can, in thouing everybody, in denying Titles, + Civil Respects, and terms of distinction among men, and at first + they were for Community." + +If Winstanley's writings be really the source whence the early Quakers, +the Children of Light, drew their most characteristic tenets and +doctrines, as we ourselves do not doubt, then surely his noble ambition +has been satisfied: for through them he has, indeed, influenced the +thought of his country, the thought of the whole world, which owes more +than we even yet realise to their pure and altruistic teachings. +However, leaving this most interesting question to be decided by our +readers, each for himself, we shall now place the chief contents of +these writings before them, using as far as possible Winstanley's own +words. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[41:1] Both Gerrard and Winstanley are common names in that part of +Lancashire which lies between Wigan and Liverpool. In the Wigan Parish +Register there is an entry under the above date--"Gerrard Winstanlie, +son of Edward Winstanlie." The first pamphlet he wrote, _The Mystery of +God concerning the whole Creation_, is dedicated "To my beloved +countrymen of the County of Lancaster." In his time the term +"countrymen" had a more contracted meaning than now, and implied a +common nativity of a Shire or Parish: indeed it still has this meaning +in some parts of Cheshire. + +[41:2] _A Watchword to the City of London._ + +[43:1] Between the years 1644-1662 the works of the German mystic Jakob +Boehme were translated into English. All Winstanley's theological +pamphlets were published in the year 1648-1649, to which year the origin +of the Quaker doctrines is generally attributed. + +[44:1] See _The Mystery of God concerning the whole Creation, Mankind_. +British Museum, Press Mark, 4377, a. 1. The whole pamphlet consists of +some 69 closely printed pages. + +[44:2] _Truth lifting up its Head above Scandals._ British Museum, Press +Mark, 4372, a.a. 17. + +[45:1] _The Saint's Paradise._ British Museum, Press Mark, E. 2137. + +[45:2] _Truth lifting up its Head above Scandals._ + +[46:1] _Truth lifting up its Head above Scandals._ + +[46:2] _The Saint's Paradise._ + +[47:1] _The Saint's Paradise._ + +[47:2] "That which the people called Quakers lay down as a main +fundamental in religion, is this, that God, through Christ, hath placed +a principle in every man, to inform him of his duty, and to enable him +to do it; and that those who live up to this principle, are the people +of God; and that those who live in disobedience to it, are not God's +people, whatever name they bear, or profession they may make of +religion.... By this principle they understand something that is Divine, +and though in man, not of man, but of God; it came from Him and leads to +Him all those who will be led by it ... it is the spirit given to every +man to profit withal."--William Penn, _Primitive Christianity Revived_ +(1696). Quoted from J. S. Rowntree's _The Society of Friends; its Faith +and Practice_. + +[48:1] Speaking of the early Quakers, Cotton Mather, after attributing +the origin of this sect "to some fanatics here in our town of Salem," +describes the principles of "the old Foxian Quakerism" as follows: +"There is in every man a certain excusing and condemning _principle_, +which indeed is nothing but some _remainder_ of the Divine Image left by +the compassion of God upon the conscience of man after his fall.... They +scoffed at our imagined God beyond the stars." He also contends that +"the new turn such ingenuous men as Mr. Penn" had given to Quakerism, +had made of it "quite a new thing." See his _History of New England_, +book vii. chap. iv. + +[49:1] The Rev. Thos. Bennet, on p. 4 of _An Answer to the Dissenters' +Pleas for Separation_, published in 1711, referring to the origin of the +various sorts of dissenters, speaks of the time "when Winstanley +published the principles of Quakerism, and enthusiasm broke out." In a +footnote he mentions _The Saint's Paradise_. + +[49:2] Gerard Croese in _The General History of the Quakers_, published +1696, says, "The Quakers themselves date their first rise from the +forty-ninth year of the present century." + +[49:3] See _An account of what passed between the King and Richard +Hubberthorne, after the delivery of George Fox his letter to the King_, +which is to be found amongst Thomasson's Pamphlets, British Museum. + +[50:1] As our readers will notice, all Winstanley's theological writings +were written and published in 1648-1649. The Preface to _Truth Lifting +up its Head above Scandals_ is dated October 16th, 1648; _The Saint's +Paradise_ bears no date, but was certainly written before _The New Law +of Righteousness_, the Preface to which is dated January 26th, 1648 +(1649). (At that time the New Year commenced on March 26th.) + +[50:2] Coomber had already pointed out that Quakerism arose in the North +of England, and mainly in Winstanley's native county of Lancashire. His +reference to Giles Calvert, the printer, is also most suggestive; for +Calvert published almost all Winstanley's pamphlets, and later was one +of the first authorised publishers of the official publications of the +Society of Friends. Calvert's establishment seems to have been the +source, as well as the depository, of much of the advanced literature of +his times. In his _Protest against Toleration of Printing Pamphlets +against Non-Conformists_, Baxter refers to it as follows: "Let all the +Apothecaries of London have liberty to keep open shop. But O do not +under that pretence let a man keep an open shop of poisons for all that +will destroy themselves freely, as Giles Calvert doth for Soul-poisons." +Calvert was suspected of having provided the funds for one of the later +risings of the Fifth Monarchy Men. He subsequently joined the Quakers. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +WINSTANLEY'S EXPOSITION OF THE QUAKER DOCTRINES (1648-1649) + + "There is nothing more sweet and satisfactory to a man than this, + to know and feel that spiritual power of righteousness to rule in + him which he calls God.... Wait upon the Lord for teaching. You + will never have rest in your soul till He speaks in you. Run after + men for teaching, follow your forms with strictness, you will still + be at a loss, and be more and more wrapped up in confusion and + sorrow of heart. But when once your heart is made subject to + Christ, the Law of Righteousness, looking up to Him for + instruction, waiting with a meek and quiet spirit till He appear in + you: then you shall have peace; then you shall know the truth, and + the truth shall make you free."--_The New Law of Righteousness_. + + +_The Mystery of God concerning the whole Creation, Mankind_, is the +title of Winstanley's first published pamphlet, to which we have already +referred, and which was written early in the year 1648, probably in +April or May. As already mentioned, it opens with a Dedicatory Epistle +to "My beloved countrymen of the County of Lancaster," in which he first +apologises for venturing into print in the following suggestive words: +"Dear countrymen, when some of you see my name subscribed to this +ensuing discourse, you may wonder at it, and it may be despise me in +your hearts ... but know that God's works are not like men's; He does +not always take the wise, the learned, the rich of the world to manifest +Himself in, and through them to others, but He chooses the despised, the +unlearned, the poor, the nothings of the world, and fills them with the +good tidings of Himself, whereas He sends the others empty away." He +further apprehends that his view, that "the curse that was declared to +Adam was temporary," and that ultimately the curse shall be removed off +the whole Creation, and the whole of mankind shall be saved, will not +be favourably received by those whom he is specially addressing. But he +avows it a necessary truth, and concludes his appeal by saying that +since the pamphlet was written he had met with "more Scripture to +confirm it, so that it is not a spirit of private fancy, but it is +agreeable to the Written Word." + +The pamphlet opens with Winstanley's interpretation of the story of the +fall of Adam, the outline of which we have already given. Subsequently +he describes his own experiences: how he lay under bondage to the +serpent self-love, and saw not his bondage; how God had manifested His +love to him by causing him to see that the things in which he did take +pleasure were, in truth, his death and his shame. He again repeats his +contention that in due time God will not lose any of His work, but +redeem "His own whole Creation to Himself." Though this, he holds, will +not be done all at once, but in several dispensations, "some whereof are +passed, some in being, and some yet to come." He quotes largely from the +Scriptures, more especially from Revelation, in support of this view; +and argues most vehemently against the objection that if this were true, +if eventually all will be saved, then men need not trouble about their +own individual salvation. He also protests against the doctrine of an +everlasting Hell, as unconfirmed by the Holy Scriptures, as destructive +of God's work, and as incompatible with His great goodness. + +The prevalence of the belief in dispensations, past, present, and +future, may be gathered from the following extract from one of +Cromwell's speeches to the Army Council, November 1st, 1647: "Truly, as +Lieut. Col. Goffe said, God hath in several ages used several +dispensations, and yet some dispensations more eminently in one age than +another. I am one of those whose heart God hath drawn out to wait for +some extraordinary dispensations, according to those promises He hath +set forth of things to be accomplished in the latter time, and I cannot +but think that God is beginning of them."[53:1] + +The same idea reappears, in fact influences the whole of Winstanley's +second pamphlet, of some 127 closely printed duodecimo pages, as might +almost be inferred from its title, _The Breaking of the Day of +God_,[54:1] which is in itself a revelation of its main contents. The +Dedicatory Epistle, which is dated May 20th, 1648, some twelve months +prior to the outbreak of the Digger Movement, already recorded, is the +most interesting and suggestive portion of this long, wearisome, and +almost unreadable volume. It is addressed to--"The Despised Sons and +Daughters of Zion, scattered up and down the Kingdom of England." He +first reminds them that "they are the object of the world's hatred and +reproach," "branded as wicked ones," "threatened with ruin and death," +"the object of every one's laughter and reproach," "sentenced to be put +to death under the name of round-heads," and so on. That they "are +counted the troublers of Kingdoms and Parishes where they dwell, though +the truth is that they are the only peaceable men in the Kingdom, who +love the People's peace, the Magistrate's peace, and the Kingdom's +peace." He continues--"But what's the reason the world doth so storm at +you, but because you are not of this world, nor cannot walk in the dark +ways of the world. They hated your Lord Jesus Christ, and they hate you. +They knew not Him, and they know not you. For if they had known Him, +they would not have crucified Him; and if they did truly know the power +of the God that dwells in you, they would not so despise you." "But, +well," he goes on to say, "these things must be. It is your Father's +will that it shall be so; the world must lie under darkness for a time; +that is God's dispensation to them. And you that are the Children of +Light must lie under the reproach and oppression of the world;[54:2] +that is God's dispensation to you. But it shall be but for a little +time. What I have here to say is to bring you glad tidings that your +redemption draws near." + +In the pamphlet itself Winstanley attempts to prove that the coming +reign of Righteousness, and the overthrow of the Covetous, Self-Seeking +Power, are entirely in accordance with the prophesies of the Scriptures, +more especially with Revelation and John. In its final pages he +vehemently protests against the continued union of Church and State, or +rather against the continued upholding of the persecuting power of the +Church by the secular authorities. "The misery of the age" he attributes +to the fact that men are still striving "to uphold the usurped +Ecclesiastical Power, which God never made," and that in upholding this +they are "so mad and ignorant" as "to count Magistracie no government +unless the Beast reign cheek by chaw with it, as formerly in the days of +ignorance." This, however, he contends, should not be so, "for +Magistracie in the Commonwealth must stand, it's God's ordinance. But +this Ecclesiastical power in and over the Saints must fall." "This +Ecclesiastical power," he contends, "hath been a great troubler of +Magistracie ever since the deceived Magistracie set it up." The function +of Magistracie, "which is God's Ordinance," is "to be a terror to the +wicked, and to protect them that do well; whereas by this Ecclesiastical +power, established by deceived Magistracie, the sincere in heart that +worship God in spirit and truth, according as God hath taught them and +they understand, these are and have been troubled in Sessions, in +Courts, and punished by fine and prisons. But the loose-hearted that +will be of any religion that the most is of, these have their liberty +without restraint. And so Magistracie hath acted quite backward, in +punishing them that do well, and protecting in a hypocritical liberty +them that do evil. O that our Magistrates would let Church-work alone to +Christ, upon whose shoulders they shall find the government lies, and +not upon theirs. And then, in the wisdom and strength of Christ, they +would govern Commonwealths in justice, love, and righteousness more +peaceably."[55:1] + +This pamphlet concludes with the following wise and beautiful thought: + + "All that I shall say in conclusion is this: Wait patiently upon + the Lord; let every man that loves God endeavour by the spirit of + wisdom, meekness, and love to dry up Euphrates, even this spirit of + bitterness, that like a great river hath overflowed the earth of + mankind. For it is not revenge, prisons, fines, fightings, that + will subdue a tumultuous spirit; but a soft answer, love and + meekness, tenderness and justice, to do as we would be done unto: + this will appease wrath. When this Sun of Righteousness and Love + arises in Magistrates and people, one to another, then these + tumultuous national storms will cease, and not till then. This Sun + is risen in some; this Sun will rise higher, and must rise higher; + and the bright shining of it will be England's liberty." + +The next fruit of Winstanley's prolific pen is a volume of some 134 +closely printed pages, entitled _The Saint's Paradise: Or the Father's +Teaching the only Satisfaction to Waiting Souls_,[56:1] from which in +the previous chapter we have already quoted somewhat freely. The words +on its title-page, "The inward testimony is the Soul's strength," +indicate the characteristic teachings of this remarkable book, which are +also admirably suggested by the two biblical quotations that also appear +thereon. "And they shall teach no more every man his neighbour, and +every man his brother, saying, Know the Lord: for they shall all know +me, from the least of them to the greatest of them, saith the Lord" +(Jer. xxxi. 34). "But the annointing which ye have received of him +abideth in you; and ye need not that any man teach you: but as the same +annointing teacheth you all things, and is truth" (1 John ii. 27). + +As was his usual custom, Winstanley opens with a Dedicatory letter, +addressed this time "To my Beloved Friends whose Souls hunger after +sincere milk," in which he relates his experience of the insufficiency +of mere traditional, or book, or imparted knowledge, in the following +words: + + "I myself have known nothing but what I received in tradition from + the mouths and pen of others. I worshipped a God, but I neither + knew who he was nor where he was, so that I lived in the dark, + being blinded by the imagination of my flesh.... I spoke of the + name of God, and Lord, and Christ, but I knew not this Lord, God, + and Christ. I prayed to a God, but I knew not where he was nor what + he was, and so walking by imagination I worshipped the devil, and + called him God. By reason whereof my comforts were often shaken to + pieces, and at last it was shown to me, that while I builded upon + any words or writings of other men, or while I looked after a God + without me, I did but build upon the sand, and as yet I knew not + the Rock." + +He then admonishes his friends that, though they may not as yet be aware +of it, and though they will probably be offended with him for saying so, +yet that, in reality, "this ignorant, unsettled condition is yours at +this time." However, he protests that nevertheless: + + "I do not write anything as to be a teacher of you, for I know you + have a teacher within yourselves (which is the Spirit) and when + your flesh is made subject to him, he will teach you all things, + and bring all things to your remembrance, so that you shall not + need to run after men for instruction, for, your eyes being opened, + you shall see the King of Righteousness sit upon the throne within + yourselves, judging and condemning the unrighteousness of the + flesh, filling your face with shame, and your soul with horror, + though no man see or be acquainted with your actions or thoughts + but yourselves, and justifying your righteous thoughts and actions, + and leading you into all ways of truth." + +Winstanley then further explains that the Father, the Spirit of +Righteousness, of Reason, pervades the whole Universe, and "dwells in +every creature, but supremely in man," and then continues: + + "Truly, Friends, the King of Righteousness within you is a meek, + patient, and quiet spirit, and full of love and sincerity.... And + when you come to know, feel, and see that the Spirit of + Righteousness governs your flesh, then you begin to know your God, + to fear your God, to love your God, and to walk humbly before your + God, and so to rejoice in Him. Therefore if you would have the + peace of God, as you call it, you must know what God it is you + serve, which is not a God without you, visible among bodies, but + the Spirit within you, invisible in every body to the eye of flesh, + yet discernible to the eye of the spirit. And when souls shall have + communion with that spirit, then they have peace, and not till + then." + +In the first chapter Winstanley emphasises the essential difference +between the teachings of men and the teachings of God in the following +words: + + "The teachings of men and the teachings of God are much different. + The former being but the light of the moon, which shines not of + itself, but by the means and through the help of the sun. The + latter is the light of the sun, which gives light to all, not by + means and helps from others, but immediately from himself. + + "Men's teachings are twofold. First, when men speak to others what + they have heard or read of the Scriptures, or books of other men's + writings, and have seen nothing from God Himself.... Secondly, + others speak from their own experience, of what they have heard and + seen from God, and of what great things God hath done for their + souls.... It is very possible that a man may attain to a literal + knowledge of the Scriptures, of the Prophets and Apostles, and may + speak largely of the history thereof, and yet both they that speak + and they that hear may be not only unacquainted with, but enemies + to that Spirit of truth by which the Prophets and Apostles + writ.[58:1] "For it is not the Apostles' writings, but the spirit + that dwelt in them, that did inspire their hearts, which gives life + and peace to all." + +In the second chapter Winstanley consoles those whom he is specially +addressing by expressing his conviction that though their enemies may +think to kill all the Saints, and though God may suffer them to kill +some, yet others of them will necessarily be preserved to keep alive +their beliefs and to spread abroad their teachings, of the ultimate +triumph of which he never seemed to doubt. However, in view of the +perplexity of the times and of the dangers by which they were +surrounded, he gave them the following somewhat worldly-wise +advice--"For the appearance of God now is in the Saints that they +worship the Father in spirit and truth in such a secret manner as the +eye of the world cannot and does not always see": a practice of which, +as we have already noticed, the adherents of the Family of Love were +accused in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. + +It is, however, in the fourth and fifth chapters that Winstanley +concisely and eloquently summarises the fundamental articles of his +religious faith. In them he again emphatically warns his fellows against +looking to others for knowledge of Divine revelations, and strongly +advises them to look into their own hearts. In support of this view he +quotes the Scripture text--"Light is come into the world, and men love +darkness rather than light, because their deeds are evil" (John iii. +19), which he then proceeds to explain as follows: + + "The world is mankind; and every particular man and woman is a + perfect creation of himself, a perfect created world. If a + particular branch of mankind desire to know what the nature of + other men and women are, let him not look abroad, but into his own + heart, and he shall see. So that I say, man is the world, a perfect + creation, from whose poisoned flesh proceeds the lust of the eye, + the lust of the flesh, and the pride of life: these are not of the + Father. Now _light is come into the world_; that is, the Spirit of + Right Understanding hath taken up his dwelling in this flesh. Hence + man is called a reasonable creature, which is a name given to no + other creature but man, because the Spirit of Reason appears acting + in him, which if men did submit themselves unto, they would act + righteously continually: and so man would become lord of all other + creatures in righteousness.... But the masculine powers of the + poisoned flesh stand it out against the King of Glory till He cast + them into the lake of fire, into His own spirit, by which they are + tried, and, being found but chaff and not able to endure, are + burned and consumed to nothing in the flame." + +"No man or woman, however, need be troubled at this," Winstanley +contends, "for let every man cleanse himself of these wicked powers that +rule in him, and there speedily will be a harmony of love in the great +creation, even among all creatures. Therefore let no man look without +himself, and say, other men will not obey this light that is come into +mankind; but let him look into his own heart, and he shall find that the +powers in his heart are those very men of the world that will not submit +to that Light of Reason that is come into it."[60:1] + +Winstanley then proceeds to explain his conception of the resurrection +of Christ, as follows: + + "Friends, do not mistake the resurrection of Christ. You expect + that he shall come in one single person, as he did when he came to + suffer and die, and thereby to answer the types of Moses' Law. Let + me tell you that if you look for him under the notion of one single + man after the flesh, to be your Saviour, you shall never, never + taste salvation by him.... If you expect or look for the + resurrection of Jesus Christ, you must know that the Spirit within + the flesh is the Jesus Christ, and you must see, feel, and know + from himself his own resurrection within you, if you expect life + and peace by him. For he is the Life of the World, that is, of + every particular son and daughter of the Father ... for everyone + hath the Light of the Father within himself, which is the mighty + man Christ Jesus. And he is now rising and spreading himself in + these his sons and daughters, and so rising from one to many + persons till he enlighten the whole creation (mankind) in every + branch of it, and cover this earth with knowledge as the waters + cover the sea.... And this is to be saved by Jesus Christ; for that + mighty man of spirit hath taken up his habitation within your + body; and your body is his body, and now his spirit is your spirit, + and so you are become one with him and with the Father. This is the + faith of Christ, when your flesh is subject to the Spirit of + Righteousness, as the flesh of Christ was subject. And this is to + believe in Christ, when the actings and breathings of your soul are + within the centre of the same spirit in which the man Jesus Christ + lived, acted, and breathed." + +In accordance with this profound, philosophic, and truly spiritual view, +Winstanley found it incumbent upon him to warn his fellows against +another generally held belief, as follows: + + "So that you do not look for a God now, as formerly you did, to be + a place of glory beyond the sun, moon, and stars, nor imagine a + Divine Being you know not where; but you see Him ruling within you; + and not only in you, but you see and know Him to be the Spirit or + Power that dwells in every man and woman, yea, in every creature, + according to his orb, within the globe of the Creation. So that now + you see and feel and taste the sweetness of the Spirit ruling in + your flesh, who is the Lord and King of Glory in the whole + Creation, and you have community with Him who is the Father of all + things. Now you are enlightened; now you are saved, and rise higher + and higher into life and peace, as this manifestation of the Father + increases and spreads within you."[61:1] + +As was only to be expected, the publication of the above pamphlets +brought Winstanley into disrepute with the orthodox Ministers of the +Church, who accused him of denying God, Christ, Scripture, and the +Ordinances of God. This accusation gave rise to Winstanley's next +pamphlet, of some 77 well-printed duodecimo pages, the preface to which +is dated October 16th, 1648, and which bears the significant +title--_Truth lifting its Head above Scandals_.[62:1] In this volume +Winstanley indignantly denies such a charge, and makes use of the +opportunity to restate his views even more clearly than he had +previously done. The book opens with a dedicatory letter addressed "To +the Scholars of Oxford and Cambridge, and to all that call themselves +Ministers of the Gospel in City or Country," in which he carries the war +into his enemy's camp in a forcible and masterly manner. He reminds them +that they are not the only ones who have the right to judge of the +meaning of the Scriptures, "For the people, having the Scriptures, may +judge by them as well as you." He then continues: + + "If you say, 'No, the people cannot judge, because they know not + the original:' I answer, Neither do you know the original. Though + by your learning you may be able to translate a writing out of + Hebrew or Greek into our mother-tongue, English, but to say this is + the original Scripture you cannot: for those very copies which the + Prophets and Apostles writ are not to be seen in your + Universities." + +He forces home his argument in the following words: + + "You say you have the just copies of their writings. You do not + know that but as your Fathers have told you, which may be as well + false as true, if you have no other better ground than tradition. + You say that the interpretation of Scripture into our mother tongue + is according to the mind of the _spirit_. You cannot tell that + neither, unless you are able to say that those who did interpret + those writings have had the same testimony of spirit as the pen-men + of Scripture had. For it is the spirit within that must prove these + copies to be true." + +He then turns the tables by accusing them of being "the very men that do +deny God, Scriptures, and the Ordinances of God; and that turn the +truths of the Spirit into a lie, by leaving the letter, and walking in +their own inferences"; and also "by holding forth spiritual things by +the imagination of the flesh, and not by the law and testimony of the +Spirit within." And he contends that, in truth, he and his fellows are +"those men that do advance God, Christ, Scriptures, and Ordinances in +the spirituality of them." + +In the opening chapter of the book itself, Winstanley, with more than +his usual directness, plunges into the heart of his subject in the +following suggestive words: + + "I have said that whosoever worships God by hearsay, as others tell + him, and knows not what God is from light within himself; or that + thinks God is in the heavens above the skies, and so prays to that + God which he imagines to be there and everywhere, but from any + testimony within, he knows not how nor where: this man worships his + own imagination, which is the Devil. But he who is a true + worshipper must know who God is and how He is to be worshipped, + from the Power of Light shining within him, if ever he have true + peace." + + "Hence," he continues, "a report is raised, and is frequent in the + mouth of the teachers, that I deny God. Therefore, first, I shall + give account of what I see and know Him to be; and let the + understanding in heart judge me." + +Winstanley then endeavours to formulate his theistic views and beliefs +in a series of questions and answers, from which we feel compelled to +quote the following: + + "_Q._ What is God? + + "_A._ I answer, He is the incomprehensible Spirit Reason;[63:1] + who as He willed the Creation should flow out of Him, so He + governs the whole Creation in righteousness, peace, and moderation. + And He is called the Father, because as the whole Creation comes + out of Him, so He is the life of the whole Creation, by whom every + creature doth subsist. + + "_Q._ When can a man call the Father his God? + + "_A._ When he feels and sees, by experience, that the Spirit which + made the flesh doth govern and rule king in his flesh. And so can + say, I rejoice to feel and see my flesh made subject to the Spirit + of Righteousness. + + "_Q._ But may not a man call Him God till he have this experience? + + "_A._ No: for if he do, he lies, and there is no truth in him. For + whatsoever rules as king in his flesh, that is his God.... + + "_Q._ But I hope that the Father is my Governor, and therefore may + I not call Him God? + + "_A._ Hope without ground is the hope of the hypocrite. Thou canst + not call Him God till thou be able in pure experience to say thy + flesh is subject to Him. For if thy knowledge be no more but + imagination or thoughts, it is of the Devil, and not of the Father. + Or if thy knowledge be merely from what thou hast read or heard + from others, it is of the flesh, not of the spirit. + + "_Q._ When then may I call him God, or the Mighty Governor, and not + deceive myself? + + "_A._ When thou art by that Spirit made to see Him rule and govern, + not only in thee but in the whole creation.... Wait upon Him till + He teach thee. All that read do not understand; the Spirit only + sees truth, and lives in it." + +Winstanley subsequently explains his views at considerable length. True +knowledge, he contends, comes from within, not from without. "The whole +Scriptures," he maintains, "are but a report of spiritual mysteries held +forth to the eye of the flesh in words." The Gospel he explains to be +"the Father Himself, that is, the Word and glad tidings that speak peace +inwardly to pure souls." The writings of the Apostles and the Prophets +he regards as "the report or declaration of the Gospel, which are to +cease when the Lord Himself, who is the everlasting Gospel, doth +manifest Himself to rule in the flesh of sons and daughters." Concerning +Baptism he says: "I have gone through the ordinance of dipping, which +the letter of the Scripture doth warrant, yet I do not press anyone +thereunto, but bid everyone to wait upon the Father, till He teach and +persuade, and then their submitting will be sound. For I see now that it +is not the material water, but the water of life; that is, the Spirit in +which souls are to be dipped, and so drawn forth into the one Spirit; +and all these outward customs and forms are to cease and pass +away."[65:1] As regards prayer, he contends that no one should pray +"until the Power within thee gives words to thy mouth to utter, then +speak, and thou canst not but speak."[65:2] + +It is, however, in a subsequent pamphlet, _The New Law of +Righteousness_, that Winstanley more fully expounds this characteristic +Quaker doctrine, and summarises his deeply philosophic views concerning +silence as the necessary precursor of all true prayer, as follows: + + "All these declare the half-hour's silence that is to be in Heaven + (Rev. viii. 1). For all mouths are to be stopped by the power of + Reason's law shining within the heart. And this abundance of talk + that is amongst people by arguments, by disputes, by declaring + expositions upon others' word and writing, by long discourse, + called preaching, shall all cease (Jer. xxxi. 34). + + "Some shall not be able to speak, they shall be struck silent with + shame by seeing themselves in a loss and in confusion. Neither + shall they care to speak till they know by experience within + themselves what to speak; but wait with a quiet silence upon the + Lord, till He break forth within their hearts, and give them words + and power to speak.... Men must leave off teaching one another, + and the eyes of all shall look upward to the Father, to be taught + of Him. And at this time silence shall be a man's rest and liberty; + it is the gathering time, the soul's receiving time: it is the + forerunner of pure language.... He that speaks from the original + light within can truly say, I know what I say, and I know whom I + worship." + +Somewhat later he continues: + + "None shall need to turn over books and writings (for indeed all + these shall cease too) to get knowledge. But everyone shall be + taken off from seeking knowledge from without, and with an humble + quiet heart shall wait upon the Lord, till He manifest Himself: for + He is a great king, and worthy to be waited upon. His testimony + within fills the heart with joy and singing. He first gives + experiences; and then power to set forth these experiences. Hence + you shall speak to the rejoicing one of another, and to the praise + of Him who declares His power in you. But he that speaks his + thoughts, studies, and imagination, and stands up to be a teacher + of others, shall be judged for his unrighteousness, because he + seeks to honor flesh, and does not honor the Lord." + +He then somewhat mystically continues: + + "Behold the Annointing, that is to reach all things, is coming to + create a new Heaven and a new Earth wherein Righteousness shall + dwell, and there shall not be a vessel of humane earth but it shall + be filled with Christ. If it were possible to have so many buckets + as to contain the whole ocean, every one could be filled with the + ocean, and being put all together it would make up the perfect + ocean which filled them all. Even so Christ, which is the spreading + power, is now beginning to fill every man and woman with Himself. + He will dwell and rule in everyone; and the Law of Reason and + Equity shall be Christ in them. Every single body is a star shining + forth of Him, or rather a body in and out of whom He shines; and He + is the ocean of power that fills all. And so the words are true, + the Creation, mankind, shall be the fulness of Him that fills all + in all. This is the Church, the great Congregation, that, when the + mystery is completed, shall be the mystical body of Christ, all set + at liberty from inward and outward straits and bondage. And this + is called the holy breathing that made all new by Himself and for + Himself." + + * * * * * + +We think we have now dealt sufficiently with Winstanley's exposition of +the theistical doctrines subsequently adopted, and almost in their +entirety, by the Society of Friends. In a later chapter (Chap. XVI.) we +shall show how far he himself modified his earlier views. And in the +succeeding chapter we shall briefly lay before our readers the practical +and fundamental social changes Winstanley deemed demanded by the +dictates of Reason, as forming the necessary first steps towards laying +the foundations of "a new Earth and a new Heaven wherein Righteousness, +or Justice, shall dwell." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[53:1] _Clarke Papers_, vol. i. p. 379. + +[54:1] British Museum, Press Mark, 4377, a. 2. + +[54:2] In 1655, Giles Calvert published "A _Declaration from the +Children of Light_ (who are by the world scornfully called Quakers)." +British Museum, Press Mark, E. 838. + +[55:1] The full truth of these words comes home to us when we bear in +mind that the law (_De Comburendo Heretico_) sanctioning the burning of +heretics was only repealed in the reign of Charles the Second (in 1677), +the Bishops of the day opposing its repeal almost to a man. + +[56:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 2137. + +[58:1] "The early Friends were men of prayer, and diligent searchers of +the Holy Scriptures. Unable to find true rest in the various opinions +and systems which in that day divided the Christian world, they believed +that they found the Truth in a more full reception of Christ, not only +as the living and ever-present Head of the Church in its aggregate +capacity, but also as the life and light, the spiritual ruler, teacher +and friend of every individual member."--_Book of Discipline of the +Society of Friends_. Quoted by J. S. Rowntree, _Society of Friends: its +Faith and Practice_, p. 24. See also Barclay's _Apology for the true +Christian Divinity_, p. 1: Second Proposition. + +[60:1] "It is the inward master (saith Augustine) that teacheth, it is +Christ that teacheth, it is inspiration that teacheth: where this +inspiration and unction is wanting, it is vain that words from without +are beaten in." And thereafter: "For he that created us, and redeemed +us, and called us by faith, and dwelleth in us by his Spirit, unless he +speaketh unto you inwardly, it is needless for us to cry out."--From +Barclay's _Apology_, p. 13. + +[61:1] "If instead of assuming the being of an awful deity, which men, +though they cannot and dare not deny, are always unwilling, sometimes +unable, to conceive, we were to show them a near, visible, inevitable, +but all-beneficent deity, whose presence makes the earth itself a +heaven, I think there would be fewer deaf children sitting in the +market-place."--John Ruskin, _Modern Painters_. + +[62:1] British Museum, Press Mark, 4372, a.a. 17. Below the title +appears the following words: "Professors of all forms, behold the +Bridegroom is coming, your profession will be tried to purpose, your +hypocricy shall be hid no longer. You shall feed no longer upon the Oil +that was in other men's Lamps (the Scriptures), for now it is required +that everyone have Oil in his own Lamp, even the pure testimony of truth +within himself. For he that wants this, though he have the report of it +in his book, he shall not enter with the Bridegroom into the chamber of +peace." + +[63:1] "The incomprehensible Spirit Reason!" It is interesting to note +here that the "Tau" of the great Chinese philosopher, Lau-tsze,--the +word he uses to denote the Absolute, which, consequently, he wisely +leaves vague and undefined, and which apparently has no English word +exactly equivalent to it,--suggests to his translator three English +words--"the Way, Reason, and the Word." The latter's one objection to +the word Reason as an equivalent is that to him it "seems to be more +like a quality or attribute of some conscious being than Tau is." See +_The Speculations of the old Philosopher Lau-tsze_, by John Chalmers, +M.A. Introduction. + +[65:1] See Barclay's _Apology_ (Concerning Baptism), p. 7. + +[65:2] "All true and acceptable worship to God is offered in the +_inward_ and _immediate_ moving and drawing of his own Spirit, which is +limited neither to places, times, nor persons. For though we be to +worship him always, in that we are to fear before him; yet as to the +outward signification thereof in prayers, praises, or preachings, we +ought not to do it where and when we will, but where and when we are +moved by the secret inspiration of his Spirit in our hearts, which God +heareth and accepteth of, and is never wanting to move us thereunto when +need is, of which he himself is the alone proper judge."--Barclay's +_Apology_ (Concerning Worship), p. 6. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE NEW LAW OF RIGHTEOUSNESS + + "The great Lawgiver in Commonwealth's Government is the Spirit of + Universal Righteousness dwelling in mankind, now rising up to teach + everyone to do to another as he would have another do to him.... If + any goes about to build up Commonwealth's Government upon Kingly + principles, they will both shame and loose themselves: for there is + a plain difference between the two Governments."--WINSTANLEY, _The + Law of Freedom_. + + +On January 26th, 1648 (1649), four days prior to the execution of +Charles the First, the very day the King's death-warrant lay at the +Painted Chamber, Westminster, awaiting the signatures of some of the +less resolute among his judges, Winstanley sat down to write the opening +epistle of the pamphlet we have now to make known to our readers.[68:1] +They were stirring and momentous times, of which, as it seems to us, +this pamphlet is in every way worthy. It reveals a most momentous step +in the development of Winstanley's mind; for in it we see him move from +the misty regions of cosmological, metaphysical, and theistical +speculations to the somewhat firmer ground of social thought. From the +time of its publication, Winstanley leaves the former almost untouched, +concentrates his mind almost exclusively on the latter, pleads +eloquently for the recognition of natural law in the social, or +political world, and steps boldly forward to a life of action, animated +and inspired by the conclusions concerning the necessary foundations of +a social state based upon righteousness that his previous reflections +and meditations, or the Inward Light to which he unhesitatingly +submitted himself, had revealed unto him. + +The only indication that Winstanley was in any way influenced by the +exciting discussions which under the circumstances must have raged +everywhere around him, is to be found in his condemnation of Capital +Punishment, which may here find a fitting place. In accordance with his +favourite method, he summarises his views in answer to a hypothetical +question, as follows: + + "But is not this the old rule, He that sheds man's blood by man + shall his blood be shed? + + "I answer, It is true, but not as usually it is observed. If any + man can say, he can give life, then he hath the power to take away + life. But if the power of life and death be only in the hand of the + Lord, then surely he is a murderer of the Creation that taketh away + the life of his fellow-creature, man, by any law whatsoever.... For + if I kill you, I am a murderer; if a third come to kill me for + murdering you, he is a murderer of me; and so murder hath been + called Justice, when it is but the curse.... Therefore, O thou + proud flesh that dares hang or kill thy fellow-creatures that are + equal to thee in the Creation, know this, that none hath the power + of life and death but the Spirit, and that all punishments that are + to be inflicted amongst creatures called men are only such as to + make the offender to know his Maker, and to live in the community + of the Righteous Law of Love one with the other." + +The opening epistle is addressed--"To the Twelve Tribes of Israel that +are circumcised in heart, and scattered through all the Nations of the +Earth." In it he admonishes them to be patient, for "this New Law of +Righteousness and Peace which is raising up is David your King, which +you have been seeking a long time"; that "He is now coming to reign, +and the isles and nations of the Earth shall all come in unto Him"; that +"He will rest everywhere, for this blessing will fill all places." But +he reminds them that "the swords and counsels of the flesh shall not be +seen in this work; the arm of the Lord only shall bring these mighty +things to pass in the day of His power." "Therefore," he continues, "all +that I can say is this--Though the world, even the seed of the flesh, +despise you, and call you by reproachful names at their pleasure, yet +wait patiently upon your King; He is coming; He is rising; the Son is +up, and His glory will fill the Earth." + +In the opening chapter of this pamphlet Winstanley still further +elucidates his interpretation of the allegorical stories of the Creation +and the Fall. How in the beginning man was created perfect, and "the +whole Creation lived in man, and man lived in his Maker." And how man +fell from this high estate by following the promptings of self-love, +covetousness, or the desires of the flesh, to which he attributes all +the misery and suffering men bring upon themselves, and which he +personifies as the First Adam. "All that this Adam doth," he says, "is +to advance himself to be the one power. He gets riches and government in +his hands so that he may lift up himself and suppress the universal +liberty, which is Christ." + +He then continues: + + "And this is the beginning of particular interest, buying and + selling the Earth from one particular hand to another, saying 'This + is mine,' upholding this particular propriety by a law of + government of his own making, and thereby restraining other + fellow-creatures from seeking nourishment from their Mother Earth. + So that though a man was bred up in a Land, yet he must not work + for himself where he would, but for him who had bought part of the + Land, or had come to it by inheritance of his deceased parents, and + called it his own Land. So that he who had no Land was to work for + small wages for those who called the Land theirs. Thereby some are + lifted up in the chair of tyranny, and others trod under the + footstool of misery, as if the Earth were made for a few, and not + for all men." + +"As if the Earth were made for a few, and not for all men!" In these +few pertinent and indignant words Winstanley strikes the keynote of all +his subsequent writings, as that of those of many other later students +of social problems, from John Locke,[71:1] who may be regarded as his +immediate successor, to Thomas Spence, Patrick Edward Dove,[71:2] Thomas +Paine,[71:3] and Henry George. + +He then further emphasises his contention, in words similar to those +that are to-day resounding throughout the advanced political centres of +the world, as follows: + + "And let all men say what they will, so long as such are Rulers as + call the land theirs, upholding this particular propriety of Mine + and Thine, the common people shall never have their liberty, nor + the Land be ever freed from troubles, oppressions, and + complainings, by reason whereof the Creator of all things is + continually provoked. O thou proud, selfish, governing Adam, in + this Land called England! know that the cries of the poor, whom + thou layeth heavy oppressions upon, are heard." + +And in the closing passage of the chapter he formulates his social +ideals in the following words: + + "This is the unrighteous Adam, that dammed up the water springs of + universal liberty, and brought the Creation under the curse of + bondage, sorrow, and tears. But when the Earth becomes a Common + Treasury, as it was in the beginning, and the King of Righteousness + comes to rule in every one's hearts, then He kills the first + Adam--for Covetousness thereby is killed. + + "A man shall have meat and drink and clothes by his labour in + freedom, and what can he desire more in Earth? Pride and Envy + likewise are killed thereby; for everyone shall look upon each + other as equal in the Creation, every man, indeed, being a perfect + Creation of himself. And so this second Adam, Christ the Restorer, + stops or dams up the running of those stinking waters of + self-interest, and causes the waters of life and liberty to run + plentifully in and through the Creation, making the Earth one Store + House, and every man and woman to live in the Law of Righteousness + and Peace, members of one household." + +In a subsequent chapter (chap. vi.) he returns to this subject, and +emphasises the differences of the views of the ethical-minded man and +the ordinary conventional materialist, in the following suggestive +passage: + + "The man of the flesh judges it a righteous thing that some men who + are cloathed with the objects of the Earth, and so called rich men, + whether it be got by right or wrong, should be Magistrates to rule + over the poor; and that the poor should be servants, nay, rather + slaves, to the rich. But the spiritual man, which is Christ, doth + judge according to the light of equity and reason, that all mankind + ought to have a quiet subsistence and freedom to live upon Earth; + and that there should be no bondman nor beggar in all his holy + mountain." + +For, he contends: + + "Mankind was made to live in the freedom of the spirit, not under + the bondage of the flesh. For everyone was made to be a Lord over + the creation of the Earth, cattle, fish, fowl, grass, trees, not + anyone to be a bond-slave and a beggar under the Creation of his + own kind. That so everyone, living in freedom and love in the + strength of the Law of Righteousness in him, not under straits of + poverty, nor bondage of tyranny one to another, might all rejoice + together in righteousness, and so glorify their Maker. For surely + this must dishonor the Maker of all men, that some men should be + oppressing tyrants, imprisoning, whipping, hanging their + fellow-creatures, men, for those very things which those very men + themselves are guilty of. Let men's eyes be opened, and it appears + clear enough, that the punishers have and do break the Law of + Equity and Reason more or as much as those who are punished by + them." + +But, he adds rejoicingly, just + + "As the powers and wisdom of the flesh hath filled the Earth with + injustice, oppression, and complainings, by mowing the Earth into + the hands of a few covetous unrighteous men, who assume a lordship + over others, declaring themselves thereby to be men of the basest + spirits. Even so, when the spreading of wisdom and truth fill the + Earth, mankind, he will take off that bondage, and give a universal + liberty, and there shall be no more complainings against + oppression, poverty, or injustice." + +Winstanley, however, warns his readers that "this is not to be done by +the hands of a few, or by unrighteous men that would pull down the +tyrannical government out of other men's hands and keep it in their own +heart, as we feel this to be a burden of our age. But it is to be done +by the universal spreading of the Divine Power, which is Christ in +mankind, making them all to act in one spirit, and in and after one law +of reason and equity." + +In the next chapter (chap. viii.) Winstanley describes his peculiar +state of mind at the time he first arrived at his fundamental +conclusions, which he evidently regarded as directly revealed to him, in +the following mystic words: + + "As I was in a trance not long since, divers matters were present + to my sight, which here must not be related. Likewise I heard these + words--_Work together: Eat bread together: Declare this all + abroad_. Likewise I heard these words--_Whosoever it is that labors + in the earth--for any person or persons that lift up themselves as + Lords and Rulers over others, and that doth not look upon + themselves as equal to others in the Creation, the hand of the Lord + shall be upon that laborer. I the Lord have spoke it and I will do + it. Declare this all abroad._" + +He then continues: + + "After I was raised up I was made to remember very fresh what I had + seen and heard, and did declare all things to them that were with + me, and I was filled with abundance of quiet peace and secret joy. + And since that time those words have been like very fruitful seed, + that have brought forth increase in my heart, which I am much + pressed in spirit to declare all abroad." + +He further explains the meaning of this revelation in the following +words: + + "The poor men by their labors in this time of the first Adam's + government, have made the buyers and sellers of land, or rich men, + to become tyrants and oppressors over them. But in the time of + Israel's restoration, now beginning, when the King of Righteousness + himself shall be Governor in every man, none then shall work for + hire, neither shall any give hire, but everyone shall work in love, + one with and for another, and eat bread together, as being members + of one household, the Creation, in whom Reason rules king in + perfect glory." + +Under these circumstances, he contends: + + "No man shall have any more land than he can labor himself,[74:1] + or have others to labor with him in love, working together, and + eating bread together, as one of the tribes or families of Israel, + neither giving hire nor taking hire." + +After having given forcible expression to his profound contempt for all +mere lip-professions of brotherhood, sympathy, and love, with which +those whose actions are least in accord with the dictates of +righteousness, equity, and reason are so often the most profuse, and +reminding these that--"The talking of love is no love; it is the acting +of love in righteousness which the Spirit Reason, our Father, delights +in"; he addressed the following stirring warning to his fellow-workers: + + "Therefore you dust of the earth that are trod under foot, you poor + people that make both scholars and rich men your oppressors by your + labors, take notice of your privilege, the Law of Righteousness is + now declared. If you labor the earth and work for others that live + at ease and follow the ways of the flesh, eating the bread which + you get by the sweat of your brow, not of their own, know this, + that the hand of the Lord shall break out upon every such hireling + laborer, and you shall perish with that covetous rich man that hath + held and yet doth hold the Creation under the bondage of the + curse." + +Winstanley then declares his intentions as to the future, which, as we +shall see, he faithfully carried out, as follows: + + "I have now obeyed the command of the Spirit that bid me declare + all this abroad. I have declared it and I will declare it by word + of mouth, I have now declared it with my pen. And when the Lord + doth show unto me the place and manner, how He will have us that + are called common people manure and work upon the common lands, I + will then go forth and declare it by my action, to eat my bread by + the sweat of my brow, without either giving or taking hire, looking + upon the land as freely mine as another's. I have now peace in the + Spirit, and I have an inward persuasion that the spirit of the poor + shall be drawn forth ere long to act materially this Law of + Righteousness." + +Winstanley then proceeds to formulate the practical proposals, whereby +he deemed the disinherited many might reclaim their inheritance, and +that without infringing on the established rights or the property of the +rich: proposals, be it remembered, which, if acted on, would have +altered the whole future economic history of Great Britain. Before +judging of their efficacy, we should bear in mind that at the time he +was writing, before the era of Enclosure Acts, over a third of England +was still common land. However, whatever opinion may be held on this +point, there can be no denying the lucidity and incisiveness of his +words: he says: + + "But be it so that some will say, This is my land, and call such + and such a parcel of land his own interest.... Therefore, if the + rich still hold fast to this propriety of Mine and Thine, let them + labor their own lands with their own hands. And let the common + people, that say the earth is _ours_, not _mine_, let them labor + together, and eat bread together upon the commons, mountains, and + hills." + +Such, then, was the proposal by which Winstanley deemed the relative +merits of Individualism and Communism, as a system of social union, +might best be tested, and which he immediately proceeded to defend in +the following words: + + "For as the enclosures are called such a man's land, and such a + man's land, so the Commons and Heath are called the common + people's. And let the world see who labor the Earth in + righteousness, and those to whom the Lord gives the blessing, let + them be the people that shall inherit the Earth. Whether they that + hold a civil propriety, saying, This is mine, which is selfish, + devilish, and destructive to the Creation; or those that hold a + common right, saying, The Earth is ours, which lifts up the + Creation from bondage." + +Further, he contends that if his proposals were acted on-- + + "None can say their right is taken from them. For let the rich work + alone by themselves; and let the poor work together by themselves. + The rich in their enclosures, saying, _This is mine_; and the poor + upon the Commons, saying, _This is ours, the Earth and its fruits + are common_. And who can be offended at the poor for doing this? + None but covetous, proud, idle, pampered flesh, that would have the + poor work still for this devil (particular interest) to maintain + his greatness that he may live at ease." + +And after expressing his intense conviction that "Surely the Lord hath +not revealed this in vain," he summarises the whole train of reasoning +that had led him to his final conclusion, as follows: + + "Was the Earth made for to preserve a few covetous, proud men to + live at ease, and for them to bag and barn up the treasures of the + Earth from others, that these may beg or starve in a fruitful land; + or was it made to preserve all her children? Let Reason and the + Prophets' and Apostles' writings be judge, the Earth is the Lord's, + it is not to be confined to particular interests.... Did the light + of Reason make the Earth for some men to engross up into bags and + barns, that others might be oppressed with poverty? Surely Reason + did not make that law. For the Earth is the Lord's; that is, the + spreading Power of Righteousness, not the inheritance of covetous, + proud flesh that dies. If any man can say that he makes corn or + cattle, he may say, _That is mine_. But if the Lord made these for + the use of his Creation, surely then the Earth was made by the Lord + to be a Common Treasury for all, not a particular treasury for + some." + +Winstanley then summarises the results of the prevailing system in the +following terse but telling passage: + + "Divide England into three parts, scarce one part is manured. So + that here is land enough to maintain all her children, yet many die + of want, or live under a heavy burden of poverty all their days. + And this misery the poor people have brought upon themselves by + lifting up particular interest by their labors." + +This long but most interesting chapter concludes with indicating the +three steps Winstanley deemed essential for both individual and social +salvation, with which our notice of this pamphlet may fittingly close: + + "There are yet three doors of hope for England to escape destroying + plagues. + + "First, Let everyone leave off running after others for knowledge + and comfort, and wait upon the Spirit, Reason, till he break forth + out of the clouds of your heart and manifest himself within you. + This is to cast off the shadow of learning, to reject covetous, + subtile, proud flesh that deceives all by the hearsay and + traditional preaching of words, letters, and syllables without the + Spirit, and to make choice of the Lord, the true teacher of + everyone in their own inward experience. + + "Secondly, Let everyone open his bags and barns, that all may feed + upon the crops of the Earth, that the burden of poverty may be + removed. Leave off this buying and selling of land, or of the + fruits of the Earth, and, as it was in the light of Reason first + made, so let it be in action amongst all, a Common Treasury, none + enclosing or hedging in any part of the Earth, saying, _This is + mine_, which is rebellion and high treason against the King of + Righteousness. And let this word of the Lord be acted amongst all: + _Work together; Eat bread together._{5} + + "Thirdly, Leave off dominion and lordship one over another; for the + whole bulk of mankind are but one living Earth. Leave off + imprisoning, whipping, and killing, which are but the actings of + the curse. Let those that have hitherto had no land, and have been + forced to rob and steal through poverty; henceforth let them + quietly enjoy land to work upon, that everyone may enjoy the + benefit of his Creation, and eat his own bread with the sweat of + his own brows. For surely this particular propriety of mine and + thine hath brought in all misery upon people. First, it hath + occasioned people to steal one from another. Secondly, it hath made + laws to hang those that did steal. It tempts people to do an evil + action, and then kills them for doing of it. Let all judge whether + this be not a great evil. + + "Well, if everyone would speedily set about the doing of these + three particulars I have mentioned, the Creation would thereby be + lift up out of bondage, and our Maker should have the glory of the + works of His hands." + + * * * * * + +Before Winstanley found opportunity to declare in action the truths that +had been revealed unto him, he found time to write yet another pamphlet, +entitled _Fire in the Bush_.[78:1] In it he still further elucidates his +interpretation of the story of the Creation, and his conception of the +Tree of Knowledge and the Tree of Life, and reaffirms his basic +contention that "All the strivings that are in mankind are for the +Earth: Who shall have it? Whether some particular persons shall have it, +and the rest have none; or whether the Earth shall be made a Common +Treasury to all, without respect of persons?" As it traverses much the +same ground as the pamphlet from which we have just quoted at such +length, it really calls for no further notice from us. The following +verse on its title-page, however, seems to us worth quoting: + + "The Righteous Law a government will give to whole mankind + How he should govern all the Earth, and therein true peace find; + This government is Reason pure, who will fill man with Love, + And wording justice, without deeds, is judged by this Dove." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[68:1] The full title reads--"_The New Law of Righteousness_: Budding +forth to restore the whole Creation from the Bondage or the Curse. Or a +glympse of the new Heaven and the new Earth, wherein dwells +Righteousness. Giving an Alarm to silence all that preach or speak from +hearsay or imagination." This pamphlet is very scarce. There is no copy +in the British Museum or in any other of the London Public Libraries, +nor in the Bodleian. The Jesus College Library, Oxford, however, is +fortunate enough to possess a copy, which, to judge from its marginal +notes, was once in the possession of one of Winstanley's followers or +admirers, and which was courteously placed at our disposal by the +librarian, Mr. Hazell, to whom we here desire to convey our grateful +acknowledgement. + +[71:1] See his chapter "Of Property" in his classical work on _Civil +Government_, a chapter which, as the conservative Hallam observes, +"would be sufficient, if all Locke's other writings had perished, to +leave him a high name in philosophy." + +[71:2] For a short account of the writings of Thomas Spence and Patrick +Edward Dove, see J. Morrison Davidson's _Four Precursors of Henry +George_. (Publisher, F. Henderson, London.) + +[71:3] See his _Agrarian Justice_. + +[74:1] "As much land as a man tills, plants, improves, cultivates, and +can use the product of, so much is his property."--JOHN LOCKE, _Civil +Government_. (Of Property.) + +[78:1] "_Fire in the Bush_: The Spirit burning, not consuming, but +purging mankind." Published by Giles Calvert. This pamphlet, too, is +very scarce. There is no copy in the British Museum, but a copy is to be +found in the Bodleian Library. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +LIGHT SHINING IN BUCKINGHAMSHIRE + + "O England, England! wouldst thou have thy government sound and + healthful? Then cast about and see and search diligently to find + out all those burthens that came in by Kings, and remove them; and + then will thy Commonwealth's Government arise from under the clods + under which as yet it is buried and covered with + deformity."--WINSTANLEY, _The Law of Freedom_. + + +The place in the country to which our hero had retired was, we believe, +the little town of Colnbrook, in the extreme southern end of the county +of Buckinghamshire, on the borders of Middlesex, and within seven miles +of St. George's Hill in Surrey. On December 5th, 1648, about a month +prior to the date attached to the opening epistle of _The New Law of +Righteousness_, there issued from the press a short pamphlet,[79:1] +which, seeing that a second edition was printed the following March, +appears to have had a considerable sale, and the title-page of which ran +as follows: + + "LIGHT SHINING IN BUCKINGHAMSHIRE: + + OR + + A Discovery of the Main Ground, Original Cause of all the Slavery + in the World, but chiefly in England. Presented by way of a + Declaration of many of the Well-Affected in that County, to all + their poor oppressed Countrymen of England. And also to the + consideration of the present Army under the conduct of the Lord + Fairfax. + + Arise, O God, judge thou the Earth. + + Printed in the year 1648." + +It opens as follows: + + "Jehovah Ellohim created man after his own likeness and image, + which image is his son Jesus (Heb. 1. v. 3), who is the image of + the invisible God. Now man being made after God's image or + likeness, and created by the word of God, which word was made flesh + and dwelt amongst us, which word was life, and that life the light + of man (John 1. v. 1-4). This light I take to be that pure Spirit + in man we call Reason, which we call Conscience. From all which + there issued out that Golden Rule or Law, which we call Equity: the + sum of which is, saith Jesus, _Whatsoever ye would that men should + do to you, do to them: this is the Law and the Prophets._ James + calls it the Royal Law; and to live from this principle is called a + good conscience." + +It then points out the cause why men are disinclined to follow this +sound principle of harmonious social union, and the consequences +thereof, as manifested in the prevailing conditions, in the following +words: + + "But man following his own sensuality became a devourer of the + creatures and an encloser, not content that another should enjoy + the same privilege as himself, but encloseth all from his brother; + so that all the land, trees, beasts, fish, fowl, etc., are enclosed + into a few mercenary hands, and all the rest deprived and made + their slaves. So if they cut a tree for fire, they are to be + punished, or hunt a fowl, it is imprisonment, because it is + gentlemen's game, as they say. Neither must they keep cattle, or + set up a house, all ground being enclosed, without hiring leave for + the one or buying room for the other of the chief encloser, called + the Lord of the Manor, or some other wretch as cruel as he.... Now + all this slavery of the one and tyranny of the other was at first + by murder and cruelty one against the other. And that they might + strengthen themselves in their villany against God's Ordinances and + their Brother's Freedom and Rights, they had always a + Commander-in-Chief, and he became their King." + +After emphasising at some length that all special privileges of the few +and disabilities of the many came in and are maintained by kings, it +continues: + + "So that observe the king is made by you your god on Earth, as God + is the God of Heaven, saith the Lawyers.... Now, Friends, what have + we to do with any of these unfruitful works of darkness? Let us + take Peter's advice (1 Pet. iv. 3)--_The time past of our lives may + suffice that we have wrought the will of the Gentiles, when we + walked in lascivious lusts, excess of wine, revellings, + banquetting, and abominable idolatry._ And let us not receive the + Beast's mark lest that the doom in Revelation (xiv. 9-10) befall + us: but let us oppose the Beast's power, and follow the Lamb + withersoever he goeth." + +The pamphlet then dwells on the chief causes impelling "wicked men," the +privileged classes and their parasites, to stand up for a king: + + "Rich men cry for a king, so that the Poor should not claim his + right, which is his by God's gift. + + "The horseleech Lawyer cries for a king, because else the supreme + power will come into the People's representatives lawfully + elected.... + + "The things, Lords, Barons, etc., cry for a king, else their + tyrannical House of Peers falls down, and all their rotten honour, + and all Patents and Corporations: their power being derived from + him; if he go down, all their tyranny falls too." + +But now, it continues: + + "The honest man that would have liberty cries down all interests + [or special privileges, as they would be termed to-day] whatsoever; + and to this end he desires Common Rights and Equity: which consist + of these particulars following: + + "1. A just portion for each man to live, that so none need to beg + or steal for want, but everyone may live comfortably. + + "2. A just Rule for each man to go by, which Rule is to be found in + Scripture. + + "3. All men alike under the said Rule, which Rule is, to do to one + another as another should do to him.... + + "4. The government to be by Judges, called Elders, men fearing God + and hating Covetousness, to be chosen by the people, and to end all + controversies in every town or hamlet, without any other or further + trouble or charge." + +These, then, were the four points of the People's Charter of 1648; the +four fundamental reforms which Winstanley, if Winstanley be the author +of this pamphlet, as we believe, deemed necessary to secure the peace +and well-being of the masses of the people. The pamphlet then indicates +where the people are to look for their model, in the following words: + + "And in the Scriptures the Israelite's Common-wealth is an + excellent pattern.... Now in Israel if a man were poor, then a + public maintenance and stock were to be provided to raise him + again. So would all Bishops Lands, Forest Lands, and Crown Lands do + in your Land, which the apostate Parliament men give one to + another, and to maintain the needless thing called a king. And + every seven years the whole Land was for the poor, the fatherless, + widows, and strangers, and at every crop a portion allowed them. + + "Mark this, poor people, what the Levellers would do for you. Oh + why are you so mad as to cry up a king? It is he and his Court and + Patentee-men, as Majors Aldermen, and such creatures, that like + cormorants devour what you should enjoy, and set up Whipping-posts + and Correcting-houses to enslave you. 'Tis rich men that oppress + you, saith James. + + "Now in this right Common-wealth he that had least had no want. + Therefore the Scriptures call them a Family or Household of Israel. + And amongst those who received the Gospel, they were gathered into + a Family, and had all things common (Acts 2. 44); yet so that each + one was to labor and get his own bread. And this is Equity as + aforesaid. For it is not lawful nor fit for some to work and the + others to play; for it's God's command that all work, let all eat. + And if all work alike, is it not fit for all to eat alike, have + alike, and enjoy alike privileges and freedoms? And he that doth + not like this, is not fit to live in a Common-wealth. Therefore + weep and howl, ye rich men, by what vain name or title soever, God + will visit you for all your oppressions. You live upon other men's + labors, giving them bran to eat, extorting extreme rents and taxes + from your fellow-creatures. But now what will you do? for the + people will no longer be enslaved by you, for the knowledge of the + Lord shall enlighten them." + +The pamphlet then details the doings of William the Conqueror, contends +that the Nobility and Gentry owe all their special privileges to his +innovations, that "their rise was the Country's ruin, and the putting +them down will be the restitution of our rights again." The very +existence of Parliaments is attributed to the uprisings of their +forefathers; and after emphasising the manner in which all power was +still secured to the King and the House of Peers, it concludes with the +following exhortation: "So when all Israel saw that the King hearkened +not unto them, the people answered the King, saying, What portion have +we in David; neither have we inheritance in the Son of Jesse. To your +tents, O Israel." + +Within a few days of the publication of the second edition of the above +pamphlet, its author was ready with the second part, which appeared on +March 30th (1649), and was entitled: + + "MORE LIGHT SHINING IN BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:[83:1] + + Being a Declaration of the State and Condition that all Men are in + by Right. Likewise the Slavery all the World are in by their + own kind, and this Nation in particular, and by whom. Likewise + the Remedies, as Take away the Cause and the Effect will cease. + + Being a Representation unto all the People of England, and to the + soldiery under the Lord General Fairfax. + + THE SECOND PART. + + 'Whatsoever doth manifest, is Light.'--EPH. v. 13." + +As this pamphlet covers much the same ground as the former, our notice +of it will be but brief. After emphasising the importance of the +observance of the Golden Rule, it declares that "All men by God's +donation are alike free by birth, and have alike privileges by virtue of +His grant." "So that for any to enclose the creation wholly from his +kind, to his own use, to the impoverishment of his fellow-creatures, +whereby they are made his slaves, is altogether unlawful. And it is the +cause of all oppressions, whereby many thousands are deprived of their +rights which God hath invested them withal, whereby they are forced to +beg or steal for want." It then details the various means taken to this +end, and declares them, as well as the kingly power which its author +holds, to be their source and origin, to be opposed to the direct +command of God as expressed in the Holy Scriptures. Hence it denounces +the oppressing privileged classes as "rebels against God's commands," +and as "traitors against God's Annointed, Jesus Christ, who alone is +Lord and King over men, and all men are equal." The writer contends that +with the fall of the King, all the special privileges, grants, patents, +monopolies, etc., created by him, should have fallen also. But since "it +is apparent that the Grandees of the Parliament intend still to uphold +them, and to take a large share thereof unto themselves," he finds +himself forced to appeal "to all our dear Brethren in England and to the +Soldiers in the Army to stand everyone in his place to oppose all +Tyranny whatsoever and by whomsoever intended against us." + +At the foot of this pamphlet we find the following notice: "Reader, You +may expect in the Third Part to have an Anatomising of all Powers that +now are, etc. And in the Fourth Part, the Grounds and Rules that all men +are to go by. Farewell." Whether these notices refer to some of +Winstanley's pamphlets, the second seems to point to _The New Law of +Righteousness_, or not, we have no means of knowing. Nor, indeed, +whether the above pamphlets were from his pen, though we strongly +believe them to have been so. In any case they seem to us to have +sufficient bearing on the Digger Movement to justify our noticing them +here. + +Some six weeks later, on May 10th, yet another pamphlet appeared from +the same part of the country, entitled: + + "A DECLARATION OF THE WELL-AFFECTED IN THE COUNTY OF + BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:[84:1] + + Being a Representation of the Middle Sort of Men within the three + Chilterne Hundreds of Disborough, Burnum and Stoke, and part of + Ailsbury Hundred, whereby they declare their Resolution and + Intentions, with a Removal of their Grievances." + +This is a very short pamphlet, of some seven pages, in which these +"Middle Sort of Men" state that they had waited for eight years for +redress of their grievances, but finding them still continue, and +expecting little good from the Parliament and the Grandees of the Army, +"finding the Grandees of the Army to be the men that hinder both the +honest soldiery that stand for absolute freedom, and doth imprison and +put them to death that are for Just Principles of Common Right and +Equity, so that those honest men are by those proud Commanders +persecuted by the name of Levellers...."[85:1] + + "Therefore we declare our intentions that the World may take notice + of our principles, which are for Common Right and Freedom. And + therefore-- + + "1. We do protest against all Arbitrary Courts, Terms, Lawyers, + Impropriators, Lords of Manors, Patents, Privileges, Customs, + Tolls, Monopolisers, Incroachers, Enhancers, etc., or any other + interest-parties, whose powers are arbitrary, etc., as not to allow + or suffer ourselves to be inslaved by any of those parties, but + shall resist, as far as lawfully we can, all their Arbitrary + Proceedings. + + "2. We protest against the whole Norman Power, as being too + intolerable a burden any longer to bear. + + "3. We protest against paying Tythes, Tolls, Customs, etc. + + "4 We protest against any coming to Westminster Terms, or to give + any money to the Lawyers, but will endeavour to have all our + Controversies ended by 2, 3 or 12 men of our own neighborhood, as + before the Norman Conquest. + + "5. We protest against any trial by a Martial Court as arbitrary, + tyrannical and wicked, and not for a Free People to suffer in times + of peace. + + "6. We shall help to aid and assist the Poor to the regaining all + their Rights, dues, etc., that do belong unto them, and are + detained from them by any Tyrant whatsoever. + + "7. And likewise will further and help the said Poor to manure, + dig, etc., the said Commons, and to sell those woods growing + thereon to help them to a stock, etc. + + "8. All well affected persons that joyn in Community in God's way, + as those Acts 2. v. 44, and desire to manure, dig and plant in the + waste grounds and commons, shall not be troubled or molested by any + of us, but rather furthered therein. + + "We desire to go by the Golden Rule of Equity, viz., To do to all + men as we would they should do to us, and no otherwise: and as we + would tyrannise over none, so we shall not suffer ourselves to be + slaves to any whosoever." + +That such views were not restricted to "the Levellers" may be inferred +from the very similar demands made in "A Petition of the Officers +engaged for Ireland," and presented to the House of Commons in July of +the same year (see Whitelocke, p. 413), from which we take the +following: "That proceedings in law may be in English, cheap, certain, +etc., and all suits and differences first to be arbitrated by three +neighbours, and if they cannot determine it, then to certify the Court." +They also "humbly pray"--"That Tithes may be taken away, and Two +Shillings in the Pound paid for all lands, out of which the Ministers to +be maintained and the Poor." This, we should think, was the first +petition to the House of Commons in favour of the Taxation of Land +Values. + +In fact, religious and political speculation, as well as dissatisfaction +and discontent, were rife amongst the active and thoughtful of the +people, as well as in the Army. On the 17th of the previous month, some +of the soldiers, who, according to Gardiner,[87:1] "had resolved not to +leave England till the demands of the Levellers [the political +Levellers] had been granted--300 in Hewson's regiment alone," had +refused to go to Ireland, and had been promptly cashiered. On April 24th +a dispute about pay in one of the troops of Whalley's regiment had +resulted "in some thirty of the soldiers seizing the colours and +refusing to leave their quarters." It was not till Cromwell and Fairfax +appeared on the scene that they submitted. Fifteen of their number were +carried to Whitehall, where, on the 26th, a Court-martial condemned six +of them to death. "Cromwell, however, pleaded for mercy, and in the end +all were pardoned with the exception of Robert Lockyer, who was believed +to have been their leader." Lockyer, Gardiner continues, "though young +in years, had fought gallantly through the whole of the war. He was a +thoughtful, religious man, beloved by his comrades, who craved for the +immediate establishment of liberty and democratic order. As such he had +stood up for _The Agreement of the People_ on Corkbush Field," when +another trooper of a similar character, named Arnold, had been shot to +death, "and he now entertained against his commanding officers a +prejudice arising from other sources than the mere dispute about pay, +which influenced natures less noble than his own.... On the 27th, +Lockyer, firmly believing himself to be a martyr to the cause of right +and justice, was led up Ludgate Hill to the open space in front of St. +Paul's, and there, after expostulating with the firing party for their +obedience to their officers in a deed of murder, he was shot to death." + +Lockyer's funeral took place on the 29th, and was the occasion of a +remarkable demonstration, of which we take the following account from +the pages of Whitelocke's _Memorial of English Affairs_ (p. 399): + + "Mr. Lockier a Trooper who was shot to death by Sentence of the + Court Martial was buried in this manner. About one thousand went + before the Corps, and five or six in a file, the Corps was then + brought with six Trumpets sounding a Soldier's Knell, then the + Trooper's Horse came clothed all over in mourning and led by a + Footman. The Corps was adorned with bundles of Rosemary, one half + stained with blood, and the Sword of the deceased with them. Some + thousands followed in Ranks and Files, all had Sea-green and black + Ribbon tied on their Hats and to their Breasts, and the Women + brought up the Rear. At the new Church Yard in Westminster some + thousands more of the better sort met them, who thought not fit to + march through the City. Many looked on this Funeral as an Affront + to the Parliament and Army; others called them Levellers, but they + took no notice of any of them." + +In view of such a manifestation of the state of public opinion, we +cannot be surprised that Winstanley's eloquent and impressive appeals +awoke a responsive echo in the minds of many who would have shrunk from +following his example, or even from publicly avowing his creed. +Moreover, the miserable condition of the masses of the agricultural +population, of which we shall give some startling evidence later on, +must have prepared a soil favourable to his self-imposed mission, to +awaken them to a knowledge both of their rights and of their duties. +Especially welcome must have been doctrines in accordance with their +simple religious beliefs, as well as with their ancient and well-founded +traditions of certain inalienable rights to the use of the land: rights +that, as they well knew, had been filched from them under cover of laws +they had no voice in making, which they did not understand, and which +were enforced upon them by the power of the sword and gallows. We must +remember, however, that though the landholders had succeeded in +impoverishing, they had not yet succeeded in degrading the people; some +remnant of the old English spirit was still left, and the Civil War had +re-awakened the old English craving for freedom, liberty, and equity. +The landholders, in their attempt to emancipate themselves from the +control of the Crown, had kindled a fire amongst the people before which +they quailed; small wonder, then, that about this time they began to +wish, to intrigue and to struggle for the re-establishment of the +Monarchy. From the time of Henry the Eighth the condition of the English +labourers had steadily worsened; it was left to the landholders after +the Restoration to complete their enslavement and degradation. When +considering Winstanley's or any other similar doctrines, the student +would do well to bear in mind Professor Thorold Rogers' +conclusions,[89:1]--conclusions arrived at after a lifelong study of the +question,--that--"I contend that from 1563 to 1824, a conspiracy, +concocted by the law and carried out by parties interested in its +success, was entered into, to cheat the English workmen of his wages, to +tie him to the soil, to deprive him of hope, and to degrade him into +irremediable poverty." Or, as he elsewhere expresses it[89:2]--"For more +than two centuries and a half the English law, and those who +administered the law, were engaged in grinding down the English workman +to the lowest pittance, in stamping out every expression or act which +indicated any organised discontent, and in multiplying penalties upon +him when he thought of his natural rights." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[79:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark E 475 (11). + +[83:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 548 (33). + +[84:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 555. + +[85:1] About this time, or a little later, there appeared in London an +interesting manifesto from some of the disbanded soldiers, the copy of +which in the British Museum (Press Mark, 4152. b.b. 109) bears no date, +but is addressed as follows: "To the Generals and Captains, Officers and +Soldiers of this present Army. The Just and Equal Appeal, and the state +of the Innocent Cause of us, who have been turned out of your Army for +the exercise of our pure Consciences, who are now persecuted amongst our +Brethren under the name of Quakers." Wherein they declare that "The +first cause and ground of our engagement in the late wars against the +Bishops and Prelates, and against Kings and Lords, and the whole body of +oppressors: our first engagement, we say, against these was justly and +truly upon that account of purchasing and obtaining Liberties in Civil +Rights, and also in matters of Conscience in the exercise of the worship +of God.... And we can safely say that the Liberty of Conscience and the +True Freedom of the Nations from all their oppressions was the mark at +which we aimed, and the harbour for which we hoped and the rest proposed +in our minds as the absolute end of our long and weary travel." + +[87:1] _History of the Protectorate_, vol. i. pp. 50, 51. + +[89:1] _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, p. 398. + +[89:2] _Socialism and Land._ Essay in a Quarterly Review, _Subjects of +the Day_, part ii. p. 52. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE DIGGERS' MANIFESTOES + + "Take notice, That England is not a Free People till the Poor that + have no land have a free allowance to dig and labor the Commons, + and so live as comfortably as the Land Lords that live in their + Inclosures. For the people have not laid out their monies and shed + their blood that their Land Lords, the Norman Power, should still + have its liberty and freedom to rule in tyranny, but that the + Oppressed might be set free, prison doors opened, and the Poor + People's heart comforted by an universal consent of making the + Earth a Common Treasury, that they may live together united by + brotherly love into one spirit, and having a comfortable livelihood + in the Community of one Earth their Mother."--WINSTANLEY, _The True + Levellers Standard Advanced_. + + +By the publication of his earlier pamphlets, Winstanley seems to have +attracted a small band of earnest disciples, eager by their actions to +declare their adherence to the principles he had so fearlessly and +eloquently proclaimed. However, before taking the steps they had decided +on, they deemed it necessary openly and frankly to declare their +intentions to the world, more especially to those whose individual or +class interests would be likely to be affected thereby. Hence early in +1649, probably in the last days of March or the beginning of April, they +issued a pamphlet, signed by some 46 of them, which seems mainly from +Winstanley's pen, entitled: + + "A DECLARATION FROM THE POOR OPPRESSED PEOPLE OF ENGLAND:[90:1] + + Directed to all that call themselves or are called Lords of Manors + through this Nation, that have begun to cut, or that through + fear of Covetousness do intend to cut down the woods and trees + that grow upon the Commons and Waste Land." + +The pamphlet opens with the following vigorous and pertinent words: + + "We whose names are subscribed, do in the name of all the poor + oppressed people of England, declare unto you that call yourselves + Lords of Manors and Lords of the Land, that, in regard the King of + Righteousness, our Maker, hath enlightened our hearts so far as to + see that the Earth was not made purposely for you to be Lords of + it, and we to be your Slaves, Servants and Beggars, but it was made + to be a common livelihood to all.... And further, in regard the + King of Righteousness hath made us sensible of our burthens, and + the cries and groanings of our hearts are come before Him, we take + it as a testimony of love from Him, that our hearts begin to be + freed from slavish fear of men such as you are, and that we find + Resolutions in us, grounded upon the Inward Law of Love one towards + another, to dig and plough up the Commons and Waste Land through + England; and that our conversations shall be so unblamable that + your Laws shall not reach to oppress us any longer, unless you by + your Laws will shed the innocent blood that runs in our veins." + +Subsequently they protest against the Lords of Manors controlling the +use and taking the profit of the Commons, hindering the people from +supplying their wants as regards "Woods, Heath, Turf or Turfeys in +places about the Commons," and continue defiantly: + + "Therefore we are resolved to be cheated no longer, nor to be held + under the slavish fear of you no longer, seeing the Earth was made + for us as well as for you. And if the Common Land belong to us who + are the poor oppressed, surely the woods that grow upon the Commons + belong to us likewise. Therefore we are resolved to try the + uttermost in the light of Reason to know whether we shall be + Free-men or Slaves. If we lie still and let you steal away our + birthrights, we perish; and if we petition, we perish also, though + we have paid taxes, given free-quarter, and have ventured our lives + to preserve the Nation's freedom as much as you, and therefore, by + the Law of Contract with you, freedom in the land is our portion + as well as yours, equal with you. And if we strive for Freedom, and + your murdering, governing Laws destroy us, we can but perish." + + "Therefore we require and we resolve to take both Common Land and + Common Woods to be a livelihood for us, and look upon you as equal + with us, not above us, knowing very well that England, the Land of + our Nativity, is to be a Common Treasury of Livelihood to all, + without respect of persons. + + "So then, we declare unto you that do intend to cut our Common + Woods and Trees, that you shall not do it, unless it be for a stock + for us, and we to know of it by a public declaration abroad, that + the poor oppressed, who live thereabouts, may take it and employ it + for their public use: Therefore take notice, we have demanded it in + the name of the Commons of England, and of all the Nations of the + world, it being the righteous freedom of the Creation." + +They then warn all wood-buyers against purchasing from those who would +dispose of such wood for their own private advantage, again emphasising +their contention that they would take it only to provide a common stock +for all. Then they appeal to the Great Council of England for protection +and encouragement, urging that august body to fulfil the promises so +freely made, at the outbreak of the Civil War, to induce them and others +to espouse the Parliament's cause. Apparently they did not expect much +from them, as their appeal commences in the following somewhat +hesitating manner: + + "And we hope we may not doubt (at least we expect) that they that + are called the Great Council and Powers of England, who so often + have declared themselves by promises and by covenants, and have + confirmed them by multitude of fasting days, and devout + protestations to make England a free people, upon condition they + would pay moneys and adventure their lives against the successor of + the Norman Conqueror, under whose oppressing power England was + enslaved. And we look upon that freedom promised to be the + inheritance of all, without respect of persons. And this cannot be + unless the Land of England be freely set at liberty from + proprietors and becomes a Common Treasury to all her children, as + every portion of the Land of Canaan was the common livelihood of + such and such a Tribe, and of every member of that Tribe, without + exception, neither hedging in any, nor hedging out. + + "We say we hope we need not doubt of their sincerity to us herein, + and that they will not gainsay our determinate course. Howsoever, + their actions will prove to the view of all either their sincerity + or their hypocrisy. We know what we speak is our privilege and that + our cause is righteous; and if they doubt of it, let them but send + a child for us to come before them, and we will make it manifest + some ways." + +They then advance the grounds for their demands in the following +incisive words: + + "_First_, By the National Covenant, which yet stands in force to + bind Parliament and People to be faithful and sincere before the + Lord God Almighty, wherein every one in his several place hath + covenanted to preserve and seek the liberty each of other without + respect of persons. + + "_Secondly_, By the late victory over King Charles we do claim this + our privilege to be quietly given us out of the hands of Tyrant + Government, as our bargain and contract with them. For the + Parliament promised if we would pay taxes, and give free-quarter, + and adventure our lives against Charles and his party, whom they + called the common enemy, they would make us a free people.[93:1] + These three being all done by us, as well as by themselves, we + claim this our bargain by the Law of Contract from them, to be a + free people with them, they being chosen by us, but for a peculiar + work, and for an appointed time, from among us, not to be our + oppressing Lords, but servants to succour us. But these two are our + weakest proofs. And yet by them, in the light of Reason and Equity + that dwells in men's hearts, we shall with ease cast down all those + former enslaving, Norman, reiterated Laws, in every King's reign + since the Conquest, which are as thorns in our eyes and pricks in + our sides, and which are called the Ancient Government of England. + + "_Thirdly_, We shall prove we have a free right to the land of + England, being born therein, as well as elder brothers, and that it + is our right equal with them and they with us, to have a + comfortable livelihood in the Earth, without owning any of our own + kind to be either Lords or Land-Lords over us. And this we shall + prove by plain text of Scripture, without exposition upon them, + which the Scholars and Great Ones generally say is their rule to + walk by. + + "_Fourthly_, We shall prove it by the Righteous Law of our + Creation, that mankind in all its branches is the Lord of the + Earth, and ought not to be in subjection to any of his own kind + without him, but to live in the light of the Law of Righteousness + and Peace established in his heart." + +The pamphlet concludes as follows: + + "Thus in love we have declared the purpose of our hearts plainly, + without flattery, expecting love and the same sincerity from you, + without grumbling or quarrelling, being Creatures of your own image + and mould, intending no other matter herein, but to observe the Law + of Righteous Action, endeavouring to shut out of the Creation the + accursed thing called Particular Propriety, which is the cause of + all wars, bloodshed, theft, and enslaving Laws, that hold the + people under misery. + + "Signed for and in the behalf of all the poor oppressed people of + England and the whole world-- + + "GERARD WINSTANLEY, } + JOHN COULTON, } + JOHN PALMER, } + THOMAS STAR, } + SAMUEL WEBB, } and others, forty-six in all. + JOHN HAYMAN, } + THOMAS EDCER, } + WILLIAM HOGRILL," } + +A few days after the publication of this declaration, viz., on Sunday, +April 1st, 1649, the Diggers commenced their labours on the Commons +around George's Hill, in Surrey, the first results of which we have +already recorded. Within a few days of Winstanley and Everard's visit to +Lord Fairfax and his Council of War, they and their followers drafted +yet another pamphlet, which bears date April 26th, 1649, the very day +Lockyer, "The Army's Martyr," was condemned to death, and the title-page +of which reads as follows: + + "THE TRUE LEVELLERS STANDARD ADVANCED:[95:1] + + OR + + THE STATE OF COMMUNITY OPENED AND PRESENTED TO THE SONS OF MEN. + + BY + + WILLIAM EVERARD. + JOHN PALMER. + JOHN SOUTH. + JOHN COURTON. + WILLIAM TAYLOR. + CHRISTOPHER CLIFFORD. + JOHN BARKER. + GERRARD WINSTANLEY. + RICHARD GOODGROOME. + THOMAS STARRE. + WILLIAM HOGGRILL. + ROBERT SAWYER. + THOMAS EDER. + HENRY BICKERSTAFFE. + JOHN TAYLOR, etc. + + Beginning to plant and manure the Waste Land upon Georges Hill, in + the Parish of Walton, in the County of Surrey." + +The pamphlet opens with a Preface by a certain John Taylor, whose name +appears last on the list of signatures attached thereto, and who was +probably one of Winstanley's more recent converts. In it he states that +he has had "some conversation with the author of this ensuing +declaration, and the persons subscribing, and by experience find them +sweetly acted and guided by the everlasting Spirit, the Prince of Peace, +to walk in the paths of Righteousness." "Such as these," he declares, +"shall be partakers of the promise--_Blessed are the meek, for they +shall inherit the Earth._" + +The body of the pamphlet itself is headed: + + "A DECLARATION TO THE POWERS OF ENGLAND, AND TO ALL THE POWERS OF + THE WORLD, shewing the cause why the Common People of England + have begun and give consent to dig up, manure, and sow corn + upon George Hill in Surrey, by those that have subscribed, and + thousands more that give consent." + +It commences as follows: + + "In the beginning of time the great Creator, Reason, made the Earth + to be a Common Treasury to preserve beasts, birds, fishes and man, + the Lord who was to govern this Creation. For man had dominion + given him over the beasts, birds and fishes; but not one word was + spoken in the beginning that one branch of mankind should rule over + another.... But since human flesh began to delight himself in the + objects of the Creation more than in the Spirit of Reason and + Righteousness ... and selfish imagination ruling as King in the + room of Reason therein, and working with Covetousness, did set up + one man to teach and rule over another; and thereby the Spirit was + killed, and Man was brought into bondage and became a greater slave + to some of his own kind than the beasts of the field were to him. + Hereupon the Earth (which was made to be a Common Treasury of + Relief for all, both beasts and men) was hedged into enclosures by + the Teachers and Rulers, and the others were made Servants and + Slaves. And the Earth, which was made to be a Common Storehouse for + all, is bought and sold and kept within the hands of a few, whereby + the Great Creator is mightily dishonoured, as if He were a + respecter of persons, delighting in the comfortable livelihood of + some, and rejoicing in the miserable poverty and straits of + others." + +Winstanley then makes his appeal to those who had been entrusted with +the government of the Nation, in the following touching and yet +suggestive words: + + "O thou Powers of England! though thou hast promised to make this + people a Free People, yet thou hast so handled the matter, through + thy self-seeking humour, that thou hast wrapped us up more in + bondage, and oppression lies heavy upon us.... If some of you will + not dare to shed your blood to maintain tyranny and oppression + upon the Creation, know this, That our blood and life shall not be + unwilling to be delivered up in meekness to maintain Universal + Liberty, that so the Curse, on our part, may be taken off the + Creation. We shall not do this by force of arms; we abhor it, for + it is the work of the Midianites to kill one another, but by + obeying the Lord of Hosts, by laboring the Earth in Righteousness + together, to earn our bread by the sweat of our brows, neither + giving hire nor taking hire, but working together and eating + together as one man, or as one house in Israel restored from + Bondage. And so by the power of Reason, the Law of Righteousness in + us, we endeavour to lift up the Creation from that bondage of Civil + Propriety which it groans under." + +He again explains the work they are entered upon, and their reasons for +attempting it, as follows: + + "The work we are going about is this, To dig up Georges Hill and + the waste grounds thereabouts, and to sow corn, and to eat our + bread together by the sweat of our brows. + + "And the First Reason is this, THAT WE MAY WORK IN RIGHTEOUSNESS, + AND LAY THE FOUNDATION OF MAKING THE EARTH A COMMON TREASURY FOR + ALL, BOTH RICH AND POOR, THAT EVERYONE THAT IS BORN IN THE LAND MAY + BE FED BY THE EARTH HIS MOTHER THAT BROUGHT HIM FORTH, ACCORDING TO + THE REASON THAT RULES IN THE CREATION." + +Then follows this impressive declaration of the motives inspiring their +actions: + + "For it is showed us, That so long as we, or any other, do own the + Earth to be the peculiar Interest of Lords and Land Lords, and not + common to others as well as to them, we own the Curse, and hold the + Creation under Bondage. And so long as we or any other do own Land + Lords and Tenants, for one to call the land his, or another to hire + it of him, or for one to give hire and for another to work for + hire: This is to dishonour the work of Creation, as if the + righteous Creator should have respect to persons, and therefore + made the Earth for some and not for all. So long as we, or any + other, maintain this Civil Propriety, we consent still to hold the + Creation in that bondage it groans under; and so we should hinder + the Work of Restoration, and sin against the Light that is given + into us, and so, through fear of the flesh man, lose our peace." + +And the pamphlet concludes with the following somewhat mystic words: + + "Thus you Powers of England, and of the whole World, we have + declared our Reasons why we have begun to dig upon George Hill in + Surrey. One thing I must tell you more, which I received in voice + likewise at another time; and when I received it my eye was set + towards you. The words were these--_Let Israel go free._ + + "Surely as Israel lay four hundred and thirty years under Pharaoh's + bondage, before Moses was sent to fetch them out, even so Israel + (the Elect Spirit spread in Sons and Daughters) hath lain three + times so long already.... But now the time of Deliverance hath + come.... For now the King of Righteousness is arising to rule in + and over the Earth.... Therefore once more, _Let Israel go free_, + that the Poor may labour the waste land, and suck the Breasts of + their Mother Earth, that they starve not. In so doing thou wilt + keep the Sabbath Day, which is a Day of Rest, sweetly enjoying the + Peace of the Spirit of Righteousness, and find Peace by living + among a people that live in Peace: This will be a Day of Rest which + thou never knew yet. + + "But I do not entreat thee, for thou art not to be entreated. But + in the Name of the Lord, that hath drawn me forth to speak to thee, + I, yea I say, I command thee, _To let Israel go free, and quietly + to gather together into the place where I shall appoint; and hold + them, no longer in bondage_.... But if you will not, but + Pharaoh-like cry, _Who is the Lord that we should obey him?_ and + endeavour to oppose, then know, that He that delivered Israel from + Pharaoh of old is the same Power still, in whom we trust, and whom + we serve. For this, Conquest over thee shall be got, _not by Sword + or Weapon, but by my Spirit, saith the Lord of Hosts._" + +Such, then, were the first "official pronouncements" of the body of men +known in the History of England as the Diggers, whose proud privilege it +was to be the first in our native land, as against the rights of +property, boldly to proclaim the rights of man. Poor in worldly goods +they may have been, but they were rich in hope and in love, in broad +thoughts and elevating ideals, in a firm belief in the power and +ultimate triumph of the Inward Light of Equity and Reason, and in +unflinching resolution, not only to proclaim the steps necessary to +social salvation, but to adventure their lives and persons to lay the +foundations of a better, of a more equitable and beneficial, social +state than ever they knew. Certain it is that they were inspired by the +highest motives that impel men to action; hence even those who may deem +their views erroneous should not withhold from the men themselves their +meed of respect, admiration, and sympathy. To those who deem their views +true, we need make no appeal. Monuments are erected in stone, in marble, +or in gold, to those whose actions in peace or in war commend themselves +to their own generation; the monuments to those in advance of their +times and of our times, are to be found only in the hearts of thinkers. +It was but yesterday, after some two hundred and fifty years, that +public sentiment tolerated the erection of a public monument to the +memory of the man who delivered his country from under the tyranny of +Kings. Before another similar period has passed away, a similar tribute +may be paid to the memory of those who, during the same tumultuous but +inspiring times, would have saved all future generations of their +countrymen from under the tyranny of Land-Lords. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[90:1] British Museum, Press Mark, 1027, i. 16 (3). We say "mainly from +Winstanley's pen," for though the arguments are his, the style of the +pamphlet, with its long, involved, never-ending sentences, so unlike +Winstanley's crisp, epigrammatic, vigorous style, suggests to us that +the writing was probably left to some other member of his company, or +probably to a Committee appointed for the purpose. + +[93:1] This fairly represents the general spirit and feeling prevailing +in the Model Army, who repeatedly contended, to quote the words of the +Declaration of the Army of June 14th, 1647, that--"We are not a mere +mercenary army hired to serve any arbitrary power of a State, but called +forth and conjured by the several Declarations of Parliament to the +defence of our own and the people's just Rights and Liberties; and so we +took up arms in judgment and conscience to those ends, and have so +continued in them, and are resolved according to your first just desires +in your Declarations, and such principles as we have received from your +frequent informations, and our own common sense concerning those our +fundamental rights and liberties, to assert and vindicate the just power +and rights of this Kingdom in Parliament for those common ends promised +against all arbitrary power, violence and oppression, and against all +particular parties or interests whatsoever." + +[95:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 552. In the +British Museum Catalogue the Preface is attributed to John Taylor the +Water Poet; but, to judge from his other writings, this is probably an +error. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +A LETTER TO LORD FAIRFAX AND HIS COUNCIL OF WAR; AND AN APPEAL TO THE +HOUSE OF COMMONS + + "For you must either establish Commonwealth's Freedom in power, + making provision for everyone's peace, which is Righteousness, or + else you must set up Monarchy again. Monarchy is twofold, either + for one king to reign, or for many to rule by kingly principles. + For the king's power lies in his laws, not in his name. And if + either one king rule, or many rule by kingly principles, much + murmuring, grudges, troubles, and quarrels may and will arise among + the oppressed people upon every gained opportunity."--WINSTANLEY, + _The Law of Freedom_. + + +Within a few days of Lord Fairfax's visit to the Diggers, already +recorded, and about two months after the publication of _The True +Levellers Standard Advanced_, Winstanley, on June 9th, 1649, again made +his appearance at the headquarters of the Army, the bearer of a letter, +which, as he tells us, he himself delivered to the Lord General, "who +very mildly promised to read it and consider of it": + + "A LETTER TO LORD FAIRFAX AND HIS COUNCIL OF WAR:[100:1] + + With divers questions to the Lawyers and Ministers: Proving it an + undeniable equity that the Common People ought to dig, plow, + plant and dwell upon the Commons without hiring them or paying + Rent to any. + + Delivered to the General and his Chief Officers, June 9th, 1649, by + Gerrard Winstanley in the behalf of those who have begun to dig + upon George Hill in Surrey." + +The letter opens as follows: + + "Our digging and ploughing upon George Hill in Surrey is not + unknown to you, since you have seen some of our persons, and heard + us speak in defence thereof; and we did receive kindness and + moderation from you and your Council of War, both when some of us + were at Whitehall before you, and when you came in person to George + Hill to view our works. We endeavour to lay open the bottom and + intent of our business as much as can be, that none may be troubled + with doubtful imaginations about us, but may be satisfied in the + sincerity and universal righteousness of the work." + +It then continues: + + "We understand that our digging upon that Common is the talk of the + whole Land, some approving, some disowning; some are friends filled + with love, and see that the work intends good to the Nation, the + peace whereof is that which we seek after; others are enemies + filled with fury, who falsely report of us that we have intent to + fortify ourselves, and afterwards to fight against others and take + away their goods from them, which is a thing we abhor. And many + other slanders we rejoice over, because we know ourselves clear, + our endeavour being no otherwise but to improve the Commons, and to + call off that oppression and outward bondage which the Creation + groans under, as much as in us lies, and to lift up and preserve + the purity thereof." + +Winstanley then declares that their opponents were but "one or two +covetous freeholders that would have all the Commons to themselves, and +that would uphold the Norman tyranny," and still further explains his +position, as follows: + + "We told you, upon a question you put to us, that we were not + against any that would have Magistrates and Laws to govern, as the + Nations of the World are governed, but that, for our own parts, we + shall need neither the one nor the other in that nature of + government. For as our land is common, so our cattle is to be + common, and our corn and fruits of the earth common, and are not to + be bought and sold among us, but to remain a standing portion of + livelihood to us and our children, without that cheating + entanglement of buying and selling; and we shall not arrest one + another. And then what need have we of imprisoning, whipping or + hanging laws to bring one another into bondage? And we know that + none of those that are subject to this righteous law dares arrest + or enslave his brother for or about the objects of the Earth, + because the Earth is made by our Creator to be a Common Treasury of + Livelihood to one equal with another, without respect of + persons.... What need have we of any outward, selfish, confused + laws, made to uphold the Power of Covetousness, when we have the + Righteous Law written in our hearts, teaching us to walk purely in + the Creation." + +Winstanley then complains of the action of some of the soldiers, but +expresses the desire that they should not be punished, only cautioned +not to offend again; and states the readiness of himself and companions +to come to headquarters "upon a bare letter." He reiterates his +contention that their demand is only to enjoy freedom "according to the +law of contract between you and us"; freedom to till the common land, +not to trespass upon any enclosures. He continues: + + "We desire that your Lawyers may consider these questions, which we + affirm to be truths, and which give good assurance, by the law of + the land, that we that are the younger brothers, or common people, + have a true right to dig, plow up and dwell upon the Commons, as we + have declared." + + QUESTIONS TO THE LAWYERS. + + "1. Did not William the Conqueror dispossess the English, and thus + cause them to be servants to him? + + "2. Was not King Charles the direct successor of William the First? + + "3. Whether Lords of the Manor were not the successors of the chief + officers of William the First, holding their rights to the Commons + by the power of the sword? + + "4. Whether Lords of the Manor have not lost their royalty to the + common land by the recent victories? + + "5. Whether any laws since the coming in of kings have been made in + the light of the righteous law of our Creation, _respecting all + alike_, or have not been grounded upon selfish principles in fear + or flattery of their king, to uphold freedom in the gentry and + clergy, and to hold the common people under bondage still, and so + respecting persons? + + "6. Whether all laws that are not grounded upon equity and reason, + not giving an universal freedom to all, but respecting persons, + ought not to be cut off with the king's head? We affirm they ought. + If all laws be grounded upon equity and reason, then the whole land + of England is to be a Common Treasury to everyone born in the Land. + + "7. Whether everyone without exception, by the Law of Contract, + ought not to have liberty to enjoy the earth for his livelihood, + and to settle his dwelling in any part of the Commons of England, + without buying or renting land of any, seeing that everyone by + agreement and covenant among themselves have paid taxes, given + free-quarter, and adventured their lives to recover England out of + bondage? We affirm they ought.[103:1] + + "8. Whether the laws that were made in the days of the king do give + freedom to any but the gentry and clergy?" + +Winstanley then puts a string of similar questions to Public Preachers, +"that say they preach the Righteous Law," from which, however, we need +only quote the following: + + "QUESTIONS TO PUBLIC PREACHERS. + + "First we demand, Yea or No, Whether the Earth, with her fruits, + was made to be bought and sold from one to another; And whether one + part of mankind was made to be a Lord of the Land, and another part + a servant, by the Law of Creation before the Fall? + + "I affirm (and I challenge you to disprove) that the Earth was made + to be a Common Treasury of Livelihood for all, without respect of + persons, and was not made to be bought and sold.... And this being + a truth, as it is, then none ought to be Lords and Land Lords over + another, but the Earth is free to every son and daughter of mankind + to live upon." + +And the letter concludes with the following eloquent and heart-stirring +words: + + "Thus I have declared to you and to all the world what that Power + of Life is that is in me; and knowing that the Spirit of + Righteousness doth appear to many in this Land, I desire all of you + seriously, in love and humility, to consider of this business of + Public Community, which I am carried forth in the Power of Love and + clear light of Universal Righteousness to advance as much as I can; + and I can do no other, the Law of Love in my heart does so + constrain me; by reason whereof I am called fool and madman, and + have many slanderous reports cast upon me, and meet with much fury + from some covetous people; under all of which my spirit is made + patient and is guarded with joy and peace. I hate none, I love all, + I delight to see everyone live comfortably, I would have none live + in poverty, straits and sorrows; therefore if you find any + selfishness in this work, or discover anything that is destructive + of the whole Creation [Mankind], that you would open your hearts as + freely to me, in declaring my weakness to me, as I have been + open-hearted in declaring that which I find and feel much life and + strength in. But if you see Righteousness in it, and that it holds + forth the strength of Universal Love to all, without respect to + persons, so that our Creator is honored in the work of His hand, + then own it and justify it, and let the Power of Love have his + freedom and glory." + +In his interview with the Diggers, Lord Fairfax had expressed his +intention to leave them to "the Gentlemen of the County and the Law of +the Land." The former soon put the latter in motion, and on July 11th, +1649, the day before Cromwell set out with much pomp and ceremony for +his notorious expedition to Ireland, Winstanley, under circumstances +that will presently be revealed, found himself compelled to address an +eloquent appeal for protection to the House of Commons, long extracts +from which we feel impelled to place before our readers. It appeared in +pamphlet form with the following title-page: + + "AN APPEAL TO THE HOUSE OF COMMONS:[105:1] + + Desiring their answer whether the Common People shall have the + quiet enjoyment of the Commons and Waste Land; or whether they + shall be under the will of Lords of Manors still. Occasioned by + an Arrest made by Thomas Lord Wenman, Ralph Verney Knight, and + Richard Winwood Esq. upon the Author hereof, for a Trespass in + Digging upon the Common Land at Georges Hill in Surrey. + + BY GERRARD WINSTANLEY, JOHN BARKER AND THOMAS STAR. + + In the name of all the poor oppressed in the Land of England. + + Unrighteous oppression kindles a flame, but love, righteousness and + tenderness of heart quenches it again." + +With more than his usual directness, Winstanley at once states the +subject of his appeal in the following manner: + + "SIRS,--The cause of this our presentment before you is, an Appeal + to you desiring you to demonstrate to us, and the whole Land, the + equity or non-equity of our cause. And that you would either cast + us by just reason under the feet of those we call Task Masters, or + Lords of Manors, or else to deliver us out of their tyrannical + hands: In whose hands by way of Arrest we are for the present, for + a Trespass to them, as they say, in digging upon the Common Land. + The settling whereof according to Equity and Reason will quiet the + minds of the oppressed people; it will be a keeping of our + National Covenant; it will be a peace to yourselves, and make + England the most flourishing and strongest Land in the world, and + the first of Nations that shall begin to give up their Crown and + Scepter, their dominion and government, into the hands of Jesus + Christ.[106:1] + + "The cause is this, we amongst others of the common people, that + have ever been friends to the Parliament, as we are assured our + enemies will witness to it, have ploughed and digged upon Georges + Hill in Surrey, to sow corn for the succour of man, offering no + offence to any, but do carry ourselves in love and peace towards + all, having no intent to meddle with any man's enclosures or + property till it be freely given to us by themselves, but only to + improve the Commons and waste lands to our best advantage, for the + relief of ourselves and others, being moved thereunto by the reason + hereafter following, not expecting any to be much offended, in + regard the cause is so just and upright. + + "Yet notwithstanding, there be three men (called by the people + Lords of Manors), viz., Thomas Lord Wenman, Ralph Verney Knight, + and Richard Winwood Esq., have arrested us for a trespass in + digging upon the Commons, and upon the arrest we made our + appearance in Kingstone Court, where we understood we were arrested + for meddling with other men's rights; and, secondly, they were + encouraged to arrest us upon your Act of Parliament (as they tell + us) to maintain the old laws. We desired to plead our own cause, + the Court denied us, and to fee a lawyer we cannot, for divers + reasons, as we may show hereafter. + + "Now, Sirs, our case is this, for we appeal to you, for you are the + only men that we are to deal withal in this business: Whether the + common people, after all their taxes, free-quarter and loss of + blood to recover England from under the Norman yoke, shall have the + freedom to improve the Commons and Waste Lands free to themselves, + as freely their own as the Enclosures are the propriety of the + elder brothers? Or whether the Lords of Manors shall have them, + according to their old custom, from the King's will and grant, and + so remain Task Masters still over us, which was the people's + slavery under conquest? + + "We have made our appeal to you to settle this matter in the Equity + and Reason of it, and to pass the sentence of freedom to us, you + being the men with whom we have to do in this business, in whose + hands there is power to settle it, for no Court can end this + controversy but your Court of Parliament, as the case of this + Nation now stands." + +After emphasising his fundamental contention that in Equity and by the +Law of Righteousness all should have the freedom of the Earth granted +unto them, he summarises the causes that have conspired to place the +Members of the House of Commons in power, as follows: + + "You of the Gentry, as well as we of the Commonalty, all groaned + under the burden of the bad government and burdening laws of the + late King Charles, who was the last successor of William the + Conqueror. You and we cried for a Parliament, and a Parliament was + called, and wars, you know, presently began between the king that + represented William the Conqueror and the body of the English + people that were enslaved. We looked upon you to be our Chief + Council to agitate business for us, though you were summonsed by + the king's writ, and choosen by the Freeholders, who are the + successors of William the Conqueror's soldiers. You saw the danger + so great that without a war England was likely to be more enslaved, + therefore you called upon us to assist you with plate, taxes, + free-quarter and our persons: and you promised us, in the name of + the Almighty, to make us a Free People. Thereupon you and we took + the National Covenant with joint consent, to endeavour the freedom, + peace, and safety of the people of England. And you and we joined + person and purse together in the common cause, and Will. the + Conqueror's successor, which was Charles, was cast out; thereby we + have recovered ourselves from under that Norman yoke. And now + unless you and we be merely besotted with covetousness, pride and + slavish fear of men, it is and will be our wisdom to cast out all + those enslaving laws which was the tyrannical power the king + pressed us down by.[108:1] O shut not your eyes against the light; + darken not knowledge by dispute about particular men's privileges, + when Universal Freedom is brought to be tried before you; dispute + no further when truth appears, but be silent and practice it. Stop + not your ears against the secret moanings of the oppressed, under + these expressions, lest the Lord see it and be offended, and shut + His eyes against your cries, and work a deliverance for His waiting + people some other way than by you." + +He then summarises the prevailing ills, and indicates their manifest and +immediate duty, as follows: + + "The main thing that you should look upon is the Land, which calls + upon her children to be free from the entanglements of the Norman + Taskmasters. For one third part lies waste and barren, and her + children starve for want, in regard the Lords of Manors will not + suffer the poor to manure it.... The power is in your hands, the + Nations Representative, O let the first thing you do be this, to + set the land free. Let the Gentry have their enclosures free from + all enslaving entanglements whatsoever, and let the Common People + have the Commons and Waste Lands set free to them from all Norman + enslaving Lords of Manors. That so both Elder and Younger Brother, + as we spring successively one from another, may live free and quiet + one by and with another in this Land of our Nativity." "This + thing," he then boldly declares, "you are bound to see done, or at + least to endeavour it, before another Representative force you; + otherwise you cannot discharge your trust to God and man." And the + Appeal concludes with the following words: "Set the Land free from + oppression, and righteousness will be the Laws, Government, and + Strength of that People." + +The Long Parliament, however, were too busy carrying English +civilisation into Ireland to heed his words. And yet surely there was +work enough for them to do in their own country, in which, as we have +already pointed out, since the reign of Henry the Seventh the condition +of the masses of the people had steadily worsened, and, as a natural +consequence, the number of beggars, "rogues and vagrants," despite +barbarous laws, involving their wholesale hanging, had steadily +increased. During the reign of James the First, in a pamphlet entitled +_Grievous Groans of the Poor_, published 1622, we hear the complaint +that "the number of the poor do daily increase." The only remedy the +then wise men of England could devise was to make the laws against them +still more severe. Consequently it was ordered that the first time such +people were apprehended they should be branded with the letter R, and if +subsequently again found begging or wandering they were "to suffer death +without benefit of Clergy." Yet such was their obstinacy that they still +increased in numbers; and that for the simple reason that the economic +or social causes of which they were but the inevitable outcome were not +removed. + +During all this period, however, the country was developing, its +industry and commerce expanding, and its wealth increasing by leaps and +bounds; but in all this the "meaner sort," the Younger Brothers, the +disinherited masses, had neither lot nor share. Though Clarendon may +speak of the growing economical prosperity of the country during the +time of which we are writing, yet there be no doubt of the truth of +Thorold Rogers' contention, that[109:1]--"I am convinced from the +comparison I have been able to make between wages, rents and prices, +that it was a period of excessive misery among the mass of the people +and the tenants, a time in which a few might have become rich, while the +many were crushed down into hopeless and almost permanent indigence." +And yet the facts are such as to compel him, when speaking of the +Restoration, to point out that[110:1]--"the labourers, as far as the +will went, were better off under the rule of the Saints than under that +of the sinners." + +The English land-system, as we know it to-day, really began with the +Restoration, when the very memory of Winstanley and his doctrines was +swept away, when the men of the Model Army found themselves powerless, +while "the great and wise men" of the nation "set up Monarchy again," +humbly prostrating themselves at the feet of a licentious, cynical +debauchee, and the Landocracy, new and old, found themselves in the +saddle with far greater political power than they had ever before +enjoyed. They soon found means of fastening their yoke more firmly than +ever on the necks of the people, and of making short work of any claims +of an independent yeomanry to any right to the soil of their native +country apart from their good-will and pleasure. After some effort, they +passed a Statute under which the estates of such of the free-holders as +had no documentary evidence by which to support their titles, were +confiscated and turned into tenancies at will. By means of Enclosure +Acts they still further plundered and impoverished the peasantry, by +appropriating to themselves millions of acres of land over which these +still had some right, some enjoyment. By means of the Law of Parochial +Settlement, as Thorold Rogers repeatedly points out,[110:2] they +"consummated the degradation of the labourer"; and made him, as it has +left him, what the same impartial authority well terms "the most +portentous phenomenon in agriculture, a serf without land." By means of +their Financial Policy they rid themselves of the duties which +originally accompanied the privilege of land-holding, viz. to provide +the necessary public revenues for all defence purposes, and converted +themselves from Land Holders into Land Owners, by shifting the burden +of taxation to the food, industry, and handicraft of those they had +despoiled and disinherited. And, finally, for the first time in the +history of England, they passed a Corn Law artificially to increase +their rents, at the cost and to the detriment, often to the starvation, +of the masses of the people. From the effect of these laws the people of +Great Britain have not yet been able entirely to recover themselves, +though since 1824 they have made heroic steps to do so. With this +portion of the history, we had almost written of the martyrdom, of the +English people we are not here directly concerned. Manifestly it would +have been very different had the Long Parliament listened to +Winstanley's appeal, or had his self-sacrificing efforts been crowned +with the success they so well deserved. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[100:1] Thomasson's Tracts. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 560 (1). +Reprinted in the _Harleian Miscellany_, vol. ii. p. 485. + +[103:1] Others, in far more influential positions than Winstanley and +his comrades, gave forcible expression to much the same views. In the +debates of the Army Council on the Agreement of the People, on November +1647, Edward Sexby, the Agitator or Representative of the private +soldiers, an able, daring, and energetic man, replying to Ireton, on the +question of the right to vote, said: "We have engaged in this kingdom +and ventured our lives, and it was all for this: to recover our +birthrights and privileges as Englishmen; and by the arguments urged, +there are none. There are many thousands of us soldiers that have +ventured our lives, we have had little propriety in the kingdom as to +our estates, yet we have had a birthright. But it seems now that except +a man hath a fixed estate in this kingdom, he hath no right in this +kingdom. I wonder we were so deceived. If we had not a right to the +kingdom, we were mere mercenary soldiers. There are men in my position, +it may be little estate they have at present, and yet they have as much +a birthright as those two who are their law-givers, or as any in this +place." During the same debate Colonel Rainborrow said: "I think that +the poorest he that is in England hath a life to live as the greatest +he." And, also in reply to Ireton, he subsequently declared: "Sir, I see +that it is impossible to have liberty but all property must be taken +away.... If you will say it, it must be so. But I would fain know what +the soldier hath fought for all this while? He hath fought to enslave +himself, to give power to men of riches, to men of estate, and to make +himself a perpetual slave."--See _Clarke Papers_, vol. i. pp. 322-323, +325. + +[105:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 564. Also at +the Guildhall Library. The Ralph Verney mentioned is the hero of _The +Verney Memoirs_: there is, however, no mention of this incident therein. + +[106:1] This argument would scarcely have appealed to Ireton, who during +the debate of the Army Council frankly declared that in his opinion--"It +was not the business of Jesus Christ, when he came into the world, to +create Kingdoms of the World, and Magistracies and Monarchies, or to +give the rule of them, positive or negative."--See _Clarke Papers_, vol. +ii. p. 101. + +[108:1] Colonel Rainborrow, who with Sexby and Wildman represented on +the Army Council the private soldiers of the Model Army, during the +debate on the right of voting, gave expression to the view that some +fundamental changes in the laws of the Land were both necessary and +justifiable, in the following words: "I hear it said, 'It's a huge +alteration it's a bringing in of new laws.' ... If writings be true, +there hath been many scuttlings between the honest men of England and +those that have tyrannised over them. And if what I have read be true, +there is none of those just and equitable laws that the people of +England are born to, but were once intrenchments [but were once +innovations]. But if they [the existing laws] were those which the +people have been always under, if the people find that they are not +suitable to freeman, I know no reason that should deter me, either in +what I must answer before God or the world, from endeavouring by all +means to gain anything that might be of more advantage to them than the +government under which they live."--_Clarke Papers_, vol. i. p. 247. + +[109:1] _Economic Interpretation of History_, p. 138. + +[110:1] _Economic Interpretation of History_, p. 241. + +[110:2] _Six Centuries of Work and Wages_, pp. 432-433. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +A WATCHWORD TO THE CITY OF LONDON, ETC. + + "All men have stood for Freedom; thou hast kept fasting-days and + prayed in the morning exercises for Freedom; thou hast given thanks + for victories because hopes of Freedom; plenty of Petitions and + Promises thereupon have been made for Freedom. But now the common + enemy is gone, you are all like men in a mist seeking for Freedom, + but know not where nor what it is.... Assure yourselves, if you + pitch not now upon the right point of Freedom in action, as your + Covenant hath it in words, you will wrap up your children in + greater slavery than ever you were in."--WINSTANLEY, _A Watchword + to the City of London_. + + +The House of Commons, as we have seen, took no notice of Winstanley's +dignified appeal, hence, within a week of its publication in pamphlet +form, Winstanley, on August 26th, 1649, addressed himself to the City of +London, at that time the stronghold of advanced political and religious +thought. The pamphlet, which is one of the most interesting he ever +wrote, appeared the following month: the title-page reads as follows: + + "A WATCHWORD TO THE CITY OF LONDON AND THE ARMY:[112:1] + + Wherein you may see that England's Freedom, which should be the + result of all our Victories, is sinking deeper under the Norman + Power, as appears by this Relation of the unrighteous + proceedings of Kingston Court against some of the Diggers at + George Hill, under colour of law; but yet thereby the cause of + the Diggers is more brightened and strengthened, so that every + one singly may truly say what his Freedom is and where it lies. + + BY JERRARD WINSTANLEY. + + When these clay bodies are in grave, and children stand in place, + This shows we stood for truth and peace and freedom in our days; + And true-born sons we shall appear of England that's our Mother, + No Priests nor Lawyers wiles t'embrace, their slavery we'll discover." + +This pamphlet, too, commences with a Dedicatory Letter, which opens as +follows: + + "TO THE CITY OF LONDON,--Freedom and Peace desired,--{6}Thou City + of London, I am one of thy sons by freedom, and I do truly love thy + peace. While I had an estate in thee, I was free to offer my Mite + into thy Public Treasury, Guildhall, for a preservation to thee and + to the whole Land. But by thy cheating sons in the thieving art of + buying and selling, and by the burdens of and for the soldiery in + the beginning of the War, I was beaten out of both estate and + trade, and forced to accept of the good-will of friends, crediting + of me, to live a Country life. There likewise by the burthen of + Taxes and much Free Quarter my weak back found the burthen heavier + than I could bear. Yet in all the passages of these eight years + troubles, I have been willing to lay out what my talent was, to + procure England's peace inward and outward; and yet all along I + have found such as in words have professed the same cause to be + enemies to me." + +It then briefly summarises Winstanley's past actions, as well as the +causes that inspired them, and the position in which he finds himself in +consequence thereof, as follows: + + "Not a full year since, being quiet at my work, my heart was filled + with sweet thoughts, and many things were revealed to me which I + never read in books, nor heard from the mouth of any flesh. When I + began to speak of them some people could not bear my words. Amongst + these revelations this was one, _That the Earth shall be made a + Common Treasury of Livelihood to whole mankind without respect of + persons._ + + "And I had a voice within me that bade me declare it by word all + abroad, which I did obey, for I declared it by word of mouth + wheresoever I came. Then I was made to write a little book called + the New Law of Righteousness, and therein I declared it. Yet my + mind was not at rest, because nothing was acted; and thoughts ran + in me that words and writings were all nothing and must die; for + action is the life of all, and if thou dost not act, thou dost + nothing. + + "Within a little time I was made obedient to the word in that + particular likewise. For I took my spade and went and broke the + ground upon George Hill in Surrey, thereby declaring Freedom to the + Creation, and that the Earth must be set free from entanglement of + Lords and Land Lords, and that it shall become a Common Treasury to + all, as it was first made and given to the sons of men. + + "For which doing ... the old Norman Prerogative Lord of that Manor + caused me to be arrested for a trespass against him in digging upon + that barren Heath. And the unrighteous proceedings of Kingston + Court I have declared to thee and to the whole Land that you may + consider the case England is in." + +The Dedicatory Letter concludes as follows: + + "I have declared this truth to the Army and Parliament, and now I + have declared it to thee likewise, that none of you that are the + fleshy strength of this Land may be left without excuse: for now + you have been all spoken to. And because I have obeyed the voice of + the Lord in this thing, therefore do the Freeholders and Lords of + Manors seek to oppress me in the outward livelihood of the world, + but I am in peace. And London, nay England, look to thy Freedom. I + assure you thou art very near to be cheated of it, and if thou lose + it now after all thy boasting, truly thy posterity will curse thee + for thy unfaithfulness to them. Everyone talks of Freedom, but + there are but few that act for Freedom, and the actors for Freedom + are oppressed by the talkers and verbal professors of Freedom. If + thou wouldst know what true Freedom is, read over this and other of + my writings, and thou shalt see it lies in the Community in Spirit + and Community in the Earthly Treasury; and this is Christ, the true + manchild, spread abroad in the Creation, restoring all things unto + himself. And so I leave thee, Being a free Denizon of thee, and a + true lover of thy peace. + + JERRARD WINSTANLEY. + "_August 26th, 1649._" + +The pamphlet commences with a short and business-like account of the +proceedings at Kingston Court, as follows: + + "Whereas we, Henry Bickerstaffe, Thomas Star and Jerrard + Winstanley, were arrested into Kingston Court by Thomas Wenman, + Ralph Verney, and Richard Winwood, for a trespass in digging upon + George Hill in Surrey, being the right of Mr. Drake, Lord of that + Manor, as they say, we all three did appear the first Court-day of + our arrest, and demanded of the Court, What was laid to our + charge? and to give answer thereunto ourselves. But the answer of + your Court was this, that you would not tell us what the trespass + was, unless we would fee an Attorney to speak for us. We told them + we were to plead our own cause, for we knew no Lawyer that we could + trust with this business. We desired a copy of the Declaration, and + profered to pay for it, but still you denied us unless we would fee + an Attorney. But in conclusion the Recorder of your Court told us + that the cause was not entered. We appeared two Court-days after + this, and desired to see the Declaration, and still you denied us + unless we would fee an Attorney, so greedy are these Attornies + after money, more than to justify a righteous cause. We told them + that we could not fee any unless we would wilfully break our + National Covenant, which both Parliament and People have taken + jointly together to effect a Reformation. And unless we would be + professed Traitors to the Nation and Common-wealth of England, by + upholding the old Norman tyrannical and destructive Laws, when they + are to be cast out of equity, and reason to be the Moderator. + + "Then seeing that you would not suffer us to speak, one of us + brought the following writing into Court, that you might read our + answer. Because we would acknowledge all righteous proceedings in + Law, though some slander us and say we deny all Law, because we + deny the corruption of Law, and endeavour a Reformation in our + place and calling, according to that National Covenant. And we know + if your Laws were built upon equity and reason, you ought both to + have heard us speak, and to have read our answer. For that is no + righteous Law, whereby to keep a Common-wealth in peace, when one + sort shall be suffered to speak and not another, as you deal with + us, to pass sentence and execution upon us, before both sides be + heard to speak. This principle in the forehead of your Laws + foretells destruction to this Common-wealth. For it declares that + the Laws that follow such refusal are selfish and thievish and full + of murder, protecting all that get money by their Laws, and + crushing all others. + + "The writer hereof does require Mr. Drake, and he is a Parliament + man, therefore a man counted able to speak rationally, to plead + this cause of digging with me.[115:1] And if he show a just and + rational title that Lords of Manors have to the Commons, and that + they have a just power from God to call it their right, shutting + out others, then I will write as much against it as ever I wrote + for this cause. [A heavy forfeit, truly!] But if I show by the Law + of Righteousness that the poorest man hath as good a title and just + right to the Land as the richest man, and that undeniably the Earth + ought to be a Common Treasury of Livelihood for all without + respecting persons; then I shall require no more of Mr. Drake but + that he would justify our cause of digging, and declare abroad that + the Commons ought to be free to all sorts, and that it is a great + trespass before the Lord God Almighty for one to hinder another of + his liberty to dig the earth, that he might feed and clothe himself + with the fruits of his labor thereupon freely, without owning any + Land Lord or paying any Rent to any person of his own kind." + +After this perfectly safe challenge, he continues: + + "I sent this following answer to the Arrest in writing into + Kingston Court: + + "In four passages your Court hath gone contrary to the + righteousness of your own Statute Laws. For, _First_, it is + mentioned in 36 Edward III. 15 that no Process, Warrant or Arrest + should be served till after the cause was recorded and entered. But + your Bailiff either could not or would not tell us the cause when + he arrested us, and Mr. Rogers, your Recorder, told us the first + Court-day we appeared that our cause was not entered. + + "_Secondly_, We appeared two other Court-days, and desired a copy + of the Declaration, and profered to pay for it, and you denied us. + This is contrary to equity and reason, which is the foundation your + Laws are or should be built upon, if you would have England to be a + Common-wealth, and stand in peace. + + "_Thirdly_, We desired to plead our own cause, and you denied us, + but told us we must fee an Attorney to speak for us, or else you + would mark us in default for not appearance. This is contrary to + your own Laws likewise, for in 28 Edward I. chapter ii. there is + freedom given to a man to speak for himself, or else he may choose + his father, friend or neighbour to speak for him, without the help + of any other Lawyer. + + "_Fourthly_, You have granted a judgement against us, and are + proceeding to an execution, and this is contrary likewise to your + own laws, which say that no plaint ought to be received or + judgement passed, till the cause be heard, and witnesses present, + to testify the plaint to be true, as Sir Edward Coke, 2nd part of + Institutes upon the 29 chap. of Magna Charta, fol. 51-53. The + Mirror of Justice." + +Then, as if ashamed of appealing to mere conventional man-made Laws, he +at once acknowledges what he and his comrades have done, and justifies +their action in the following dignified words: + + "But that all men may see that we are neither ashamed nor afraid to + justify that cause we are arrested for, neither to refuse to answer + to it in a righteous way, therefore we have here delivered this up + in writing, and we leave it in your hands, disavowing the + proceedings of your Court, because you uphold prerogative + oppression, though the kingly office be taken away, and the + Parliament hath declared England a Common-wealth, so that + prerogative cannot be in force, unless you be besotted by your + covetousness and envy. + + "We deny that we have trespassed against those three men, or Mr. + Drake either, or that we should trespass against any, if we should + dig up and plough for a livelihood upon any of the waste land in + England. For thereby we break no particular Law made by any Act of + Parliament, but only an ancient custom bred in the strength of + kingly prerogative, which is that old Law or Custom by which Lords + of Manors lay claim to the Commons, which is of no force now to + bind the people of England, since the kingly power and office was + cast out. And the Common People who have cast out the oppressor, by + their purse and person, have not authorised any as yet to give away + from them their purchased freedom; and if any assume a power to + give away or withhold this purchased freedom, they are Traitors to + this Common-wealth of England; and if they imprison, oppress, or + put to death any for standing to maintain this purchased freedom, + they are murderers and thieves, and no just rulers. + + "Therefore in the light of Reason and Equity, and in the light of + the National Covenant which Parliament and People have taken with + joint consent, all such prerogative customs, which by experience we + have found to burden the Nation, ought to be cast out with the + kingly office, and the Land of England now ought to be a Free Land + and a Common Treasury to all her children, otherwise it cannot + properly be called a Common-wealth." + +He then continues: + + "Therefore we justify our act of digging upon that Hill to make the + Earth a Common Treasury. First, because the Earth was made by + Almighty God to be a Common Treasury of Livelihood to the whole of + mankind in all its branches, without respect of persons.... + Secondly, because all sorts of people have lent assistance of purse + and person to cast out the kingly order as being a burden that + England groaned under. Therefore those from whom money and blood + were received, ought to obtain freedom in the Land to themselves + and posterity, by the Law of Contract between Parliament and + People. But all sorts, poor as well as rich, Tenant as well as Land + Lord, have paid taxes, free-quarter, excise, or adventured their + lives to cast out the kingly office. Therefore all sorts of people + ought to have freedom in this the Land of their Nativity, without + respecting persons, now that kingly power is cast out by their + joint assistance.... Therefore, in that we do dig upon that Hill, + we do not thereby take away other men's rights, nor demand of this + Court, nor from the Parliament, what is theirs and not ours. But we + demand our own to be set free to us, and to them, out of the + tyrannical oppression of ancient customs of kingly prerogative; and + let us have no more gods to rule over us, but the King of + Righteousness only. + + "Therefore, as the Freeholders claim a quietness and freedom in + their enclosures, as it is fit they should have, so we that are + younger brothers, or the poor oppressed, we claim our freedom in + the Commons; that so elder and younger brother may live quietly and + in peace, together freed from the straits of poverty and oppression + in this Land of our Nativity." + +His written address to the Court at Kingston concludes as follows: + + "Thus we have in writing declared in effect what we should say, if + we had liberty to speak before you, declaring withal that your + Court cannot end this controversy in that equity and reason of it + which we stand to maintain. Therefore we have appealed to the + Parliament, who have received our Appeal and promised an answer, + and we wait for it. And we leave this with you, and let Reason and + Righteousness be our Judge. Therefore we hope you will do nothing + rashly, but seriously consider of this cause before you proceed to + execution upon us." + +Of course, the Court paid no heed to his pleadings, and he details the +subsequent proceedings in the following business-like manner: + + "Well, this same writing was delivered into their Court, but they + cast it out again, and would not read it, and all because I would + not fee an Attorney. And then the Court-day following, before there + was any trial of our cause, for there was none suffered to speak + but the Plaintiff, they passed a judgement, and after that an + execution. Now their Jury was made of rich Freeholders, and such as + stand strongly for the Norman power. And though our digging upon + that barren Common hath done the Common good, yet this Jury brings + in damages of £10 a man, and the charges of the Plaintiff in their + Court, twenty-nine shillings and a penny: and this was their + sentence and the passing of the execution upon us." + +Winstanley then mentions one instance descriptive of the way he and his +comrades were "boycotted" by his neighbours, and of the men responsible +therefor. He says: + + "Before the report of our digging was much known, I bought three + acres of grass from a Lord of the Manor, whom I will not here name + because I know the counsel of others made him prove false to me. + For when the time came to mow, I brought money to pay him + beforehand, but he answered me that I should not have it, and sold + it to another before my face. This was because his Parish Priest + and the Surrey Ministers have bid the people neither to buy nor to + sell us, but to beat us, imprison us, or to banish us." + +He then relates that two days later "they sent to execute the execution, +and they put Harry Bickerstaffe in prison, but after three days Mr. +Drake released him again, Bickerstaffe not knowing of it till the +release came. They seek after Thomas Star to imprison his body, who is +a poor man, not worth ten pounds." He continues: + + "Then they came privately by day to Gerrard Winstanley's house and + drove away four cows, I not knowing of it. They took away the cows + which were my livelihood, and beat them with their clubs that the + cows' heads and sides did swell, which grieved tender hearts to + see. And yet," he pathetically but somewhat humourously adds, + "these cows never were upon George Hill, nor never digged upon that + ground, and yet the poor beasts must suffer because they gave milk + to feed me. But strangers made rescue of those cows, and drove them + astray out of the Bailiffs' hands, so that the Bailiffs lost them. + But before the Bailiffs had lost the cows, I, hearing of it, went + to them and said--'Here is my body, take me, that I may speak to + those Normans that have stolen our land from us; and let the cows + go, for they are none of mine.' After some time, they telling me + they had nothing against my body, it was my goods they were to + have. Then said I, 'Take my goods, for the cows are not mine.'" + +Here follows one of the most touching passages to which Winstanley ever +set pen: + + "And so I went away and left them, being quiet in my heart, and + filled with comfort within myself, that the King of Righteousness + would cause this to work for the advancing of His own cause, which + I prefer above estate and livelihood. Saying within my heart as I + went along, that if I could not get meat to eat, I would feed upon + bread, milk and cheese. And if they take the cows, and I cannot + feed on this, or hereby make a breach between me and him that owns + the cows, then I'll feed upon bread and beer, till the King of + Righteousness clears up my innocency and the justice of His own + cause. And if this be taken from me for maintaining His cause, then + I'll stand still and see what He will do with me; for as yet I know + not. + + "Saying likewise within my heart as I was walking along--O thou + King of Righteousness, show thy power and do thy work thyself, and + free thy people now from under this heavy bondage of misery. And + the answer in my heart was satisfactory, and full of sweet joy and + peace: and so I said, Father, do what thou wilt, for this cause is + thine, and thou knowest that the love to righteousness makes me do + what I do." + +He then continues: + + "I was made to appeal to the Father of Life in the speakings of my + heart likewise thus--Father, thou knowst that what I have writ or + spoken concerning this light, that the Earth should be restored and + become a Common Treasury for all mankind, without respect of + persons, was thy free revelation to me, I never read it in any + book, I heard it from no mouth of flesh, till I understood it from + thy teaching first within me. I did not study nor imagine the + conceit of it; self-love to my own particular body does not carry + me along in the managing of this business; but the power of love + flowing forth to the liberty and peace of thy whole Creation, to + enemies as well as to friends: nay, towards those who oppress me, + endeavouring to make me a beggar to them. And since I did obey thy + voice, to speak and act this truth, I am hated, reproached and + oppressed on every side. Such as make professions of thee, yet + revile me. And though they see I cannot fight with fleshy weapons, + yet they will strive with me by that power. And so I see, Father, + that England yet doth choose rather to fight with the Sword of Iron + and Covetousness than with the Sword of the Spirit, which is Love. + And what thy purpose is with this Land or with my body, I know not, + but establish thy power in me, and then do what pleases thee. + + "These and such like sweet thoughts dwelt in my heart as I went + along; and I feel myself now like a man in a storm, standing under + shelter upon a hill in peace, waiting till the storm be over to see + the end of it, and of many other things that my eye is fixed upon." + +The pamphlet concludes as follows: + + "You have arrested us for digging upon the common land, you have + executed your unrighteous power, in destraining cattle, imprisoning + our bodies, and yet our cause was never publicly heard, neither can + it be proved that we broke any Law that is built upon equity and + reason. Therefore we wonder whence you had your power to rule over + us by will, more than we to rule over you by our will.... We + request that you would let us have a fair open trial.... let your + Ministers plead with us in the Scriptures, and let your Lawyers + plead with us as to the equity and reason of your own Law. And if + you prove us transgressors, then we shall lay down our work and + acknowledge that we have trespassed against you in digging upon the + Commons, and then punish us. But if we prove by Scripture and + Reason that undeniably the Land belongs to one as well as another, + then you shall own our work, justify our cause, and declare that + you have done wrong to Christ, who you say is your Lord and Master, + in abusing us His servants and your fellow-creatures, while we are + doing His work. Therefore, knowing you to be men of moderation in + outward show, I desire that your actions towards your + fellow-creatures may not be like one beast to another, but carry + yourselves like man to man, for your proceeding in your pretence of + Law hitherto against us is both unrighteous, beastly, and devilish, + and nothing of the spirit of man seen in it. You Attornies and + Lawyers, you say you are Ministers of Justice, and we know that + equity and reason is or ought to be the foundation of Law. If so, + then plead not for money altogether, but stand for Universal + Justice and Equity: then you will have peace; otherwise both you + and the corrupt Clergy will be cast out as unsavoury salt." + +As will have been seen from the above, and as we shall show more fully +later on, the little company of Diggers were having a rather troublesome +time. Within two days of the delivery of their first letter to Lord +Fairfax, on June 11th, some of them were grievously assaulted by two of +the local freeholders, accompanied by men in women's garments; but, +according to their own account, they made no attempt to defend +themselves.[122:1] In November of the same year the agitation against +their doings was revived, or became more acute, and early in December +they found themselves compelled again to appeal to Lord Fairfax for +protection.[122:2] After having recapitulated their main arguments, this +letter continues: + + "Now, Sirs, divers repulses we have had from some of the Lords of + Manors and their servants, with whom we are patient and loving, not + doubting but at last they will grant liberty quietly to live by + them. And though your tenderness hath moved us to be requesting + your protection against them, yet we have forborne, and rather + waited upon God with patience till he quell their unruly + spirits.... In regard likewise the soldiers did not molest us, for + that you told us when some of us were before you, that you had + given command to your soldiers not to meddle with us, but resolved + to leave us to the Gentlemen of the County and to the Law of the + Land to deal with us, which we were satisfied with, and for this + half-year past your soldiers have not meddled with us. + + "But now, Sirs, this last week, upon the 28th of November, there + came a party of soldiers commanded by a Cornet, and some of them of + your own regiment, and by their threatening words forced three + labouring men to help them to pull down our two houses, and carried + away the wood in a cart to a Gentleman's house, who hath been a + Cavalier all our time of war, and cast two or three old people out + who lived in those houses to lie in the open fields this cold + weather (an act more becoming Turks to deal with Christians than + for one Christian to deal with another). But if you inquire into + the business you will find that the Gentlemen who set the soldiers + on are enemies to you, for some of the chief had hands in the + Kentish rising against the Parliament, and we know, and you will + find it true if you trust them so far, that they love you but from + the teeth outward. + + "Therefore our request to you is this, that you would call your + soldiers to account for attempting to abuse us without your + commission, that the Country may know that you had no hand in such + an unrighteous and cruel act. Likewise we desire that you would + continue your former kindness and promise to give commission to + your soldiers not to meddle with us without your order." + +As we shall presently see, nothing more discouraged the little company +of Diggers than the assistance given to their enemies by the soldiery. +Lord Fairfax, however, had no free hand in this matter; the Council of +State had again received information of what was termed "a tumultuous +meeting at Cobham," which the ordinary power at the disposal of the +local Justices of the Peace "was not sufficient to disperse," and had +consequently sent Lord Fairfax definite instructions to send "such horse +as you may think fit to march to that place."[124:1] This information +had evidently come to Winstanley's knowledge. He had not signed the +foregoing letter, so felt himself at liberty to supplement it by another +and more forcible one, which opens as follows: + + "WINSTANLEY'S SECOND LETTER TO LORD FAIRFAX.[124:2] + + "TO MY LORD GENERAL AND HIS COUNCIL OF WAR. + + "SIR,--I understand that Mr. Parson Platt with some other gentlemen + have made report to you and the Council of State that we that are + called Diggers are a riotous people, and that we will not be ruled + by the Justices, and that we hold a man's house by violence from + him, and that we have four guns in it to secure ourselves, and that + we are drunkards, and Cavaliers waiting an opportunity to bring in + the Prince, and such like. Truly, Sir, these are all untrue + reports, and as false as those which Hamaan of old brought against + sincere-hearted Mordecai to incense king Ahasuerus against him. The + conversation of the Diggers is not such as they report; we are + peaceable men and walk in the light of righteousness to the utmost + of our power." + +He then expounds their aims, and justifies their action in the manner +with which our readers will by now be familiar, and continues: + + "We know that England cannot be a free Common-wealth, unless all + the poor Commoners have a free use and benefit of the land. For if + this freedom be not granted, we that are the poor commoners are in + a worse case than we were in the King's days; for then we had some + estate about us, though we were under oppression, but now our + estates are spent to purchase freedom, and we are under oppression + still of Lords of Manors tyranny. Therefore unless we that are poor + commoners have some part of the land to live upon freely, as well + as the Gentry, it cannot be a Common-wealth, neither can the kingly + power be removed so long as this kingly power in the hands of Lords + of Manors rules over us. + + "Now, Sir, if you and the Council will quietly grant us this + freedom, which is our own right, and set us free from the kingly + power of Lords of Manors, that violently now as in the king's days + hold the commons from us (as if we had obtained no conquest at all + over the kingly power), then the poor that lie under the great + burden of poverty, and are always complaining for want, and their + miseries increase because they see no means of relief found out, + and therefore cry out continually to you and the Parliament for + relief, and to make good your promises, will be quieted. + + "We desire no more of you than freedom to work, and to enjoy the + benefit of our labors--for here is waste land enough and to spare + to supply all our wants. But if you deny this freedom, then in + righteousness we must raise collections for the poor out of the + estates, and a mass of money will not supply their wants. Many are + in want that are ashamed to take collection money, and therefore + they are desperate, and would rather rob and steal and disturb the + land, and others that are ashamed to beg would do any work for to + live, as it is the case of many of our Diggers, who have been good + housekeepers. But if this freedom were granted to improve the + common lands, then there would be a supply to answer everyone's + inquire, and the murmurings of the people against you and the + Parliament would cease, and within a few years we should have no + beggars nor idle persons in the land. + + "_Secondly_, Hereby England would be enriched with all commodities + within itself which they each would afford. And truly this is a + stain to Christian religion in England [a stain not yet removed] + that we have so much land lie waste and so many starve for want. + Further, if this freedom be granted, the whole Land will be united + in love and strength, that if a foreign enemy, like an army of rats + and mice, come to take our inheritance from us, we shall all rise + as one man to defend it. + + "Then, lastly, if you will grant the poor commoners this quiet + freedom to improve the common land for our livelihood, we shall + rejoice in you and the Army in protecting our work, and we and our + work will be ready to secure that, and we hope that there will not + be any kingly power over us, to rule at will and we to be slaves, + as the power has been, but that you will rule in love as Moses and + Joshua did the children of Israel before any kingly power came in, + and that the Parliament will be as the elders of Israel, chosen + freely by the people to advise for and to assist both you and us. + + "And thus in the name of the rest of those called Diggers and + Commoners through the land, I have in short declared our mind and + cause to you in the light of righteousness, which will prove all + these reports made against us to be false and destructive to the + uniting of England into peace. + + "Per me Gerrard Winstanley, for myself and in the behalf of my + fellow commoners. + + "_December the 8th, 1649._" + +Amongst Winstanley's disciples was one Robert Coster, who appears to +have been the poet of the Digger Movement, and the next pamphlet which +issued from their camp, on December 18th, some ten days after the date +affixed to the above vigorous letter, was from his pen. It is entitled: + + "_A Mite cast into the Common Treasury_:[126:1] Or Queries + propounded (for all Men to consider of) by him who desireth to + advance the work of Public Community. By Robert Coster." + +In it Coster first recapitulates Winstanley's main arguments and +contentions, and then shows that he for one fully realised their +far-reaching scope, by indicating their probable effects in the +following words: + + "As, 1. If men would do as aforesaid rather than to go with cap in + hand and bended knee to Gentlemen and Farmers, begging and + entreating to work with them for 8d. or 10d. a day, which doth give + them an occasion to tyrannise over poor people, who are their + fellow-creatures; if poor men would not go in such a slavish + posture, but do as aforesaid, the rich Farmers would be weary of + renting so much land of the Lords of Manors. + + "2. If the Lords of Manors and other Gentlemen who covet after so + much land, could not let it out by parcels, but must be constrained + to keep it in their own hands, then would they want those great + bags of money (which do maintain pride, idleness and fullness of + bread) which are carried in to them by the Tenants, who go in as + slavish a posture as well may be, namely, with cap in hand and + bended knee, crouching and creeping from corner to corner, while + his Lord (rather Tyrant) walks up and down the room with his proud + looks, and with great swelling words questions him about his + holding. + + "3. If the Lords of Manors and other Gentlemen had not those great + bags of money brought to them, then down would fall the lordliness + of their spirits, and then poor men might speak to them, and there + might be an acknowledging of one another to be Fellow-Creatures. + + "For what is the reason that great gentlemen covet after so much + land? Is it not because Farmers and others creep to them in a + slavish manner, profering them so much money for such and such + parcels of it, which doth give them occasion to tyrannise over + their Fellow-Creatures, which they call their Inferiors? + + "And what is the reason that Farmers and others are so greedy to + rent land of the Lords of Manors? Is it not because they expect + great gains, and because poor men are so foolish and slavish as to + creep to them for employment, although they will not give them + money enough to maintain themselves and their families comfortably? + All which do give them an occasion to tyrannise over their + Fellow-Creatures, which they call their Inferiors. + + "All which considered, if poor men which want employment and others + which work for little wages would go to dress and improve the + Commons and Waste Lands, whether it would not bring down the price + of Land, which doth principally cause all things to be dear?" + +The pamphlet concludes with the following lines: + + "The Nation is in such a state as this, + to honor rich men because they are rich; + And poor men, because poor, most do them hate. + O, but this is a very cursed state; + But those who act from love which is sincere, + will honor truth wherever it doth appear. + And no respecting of persons will be with such, + but tyranny they will abhor in poor and rich. + And in this state is he whose name is here, + your very loving friend, Robert Costeer." + +By way of appendix the author adds a long poem, of nine verses, entitled +"A Digger's Ballad," of which the following verse, the last one, will +give our readers a sufficient idea: + + "The glorious state + which I do relate + Unspeakable comfort shall bring, + The corn will be green + and the flowers seen, + Our Storehouses they will be filled. + The birds will rejoice + with a merry voice, + All things shall yield sweet increase. + Then let us all sing + and joy in our King, + Who causeth all sorrows to cease." + +As will be seen in the following chapter, the time the above pamphlet +was published was one of great anxiety in the brave little community +which had ventured so much to lay the foundations of a better society +than ever they knew, of a Social State based upon Justice, in which all +should equally enjoy the benefits of their Creation. They had thrown +their little possessions into a Common Treasury; they had taken +possession of their birthright, the Commons of England; they had +patiently endured all possible wrongs, injuries and insults, and had +still remained steadfast to the Law of Reason and Love, to the express +command of their acknowledged Master and King--Resist not evil. However, +though their courage and endurance remained unabated, their little stock +of provisions was becoming exhausted, and the end of their high +endeavour was in sight. However this may be, it was about this time, +during the bleak winter months, that they composed two Christmas Carols +to sing round their camp-fires, which were given to the world the +following April in a little book bearing the following title: + + "THE DIGGERS MIRTH:[129:1] + + OR + + Certain Verses composed and fitted to tunes, for the delight and + recreation of all those that dig, or own that work, in the + Commonwealth of England. + + Wherein is shewed how the Kingly Power doth still reign in several + sorts of men. + + With a hint of that Freedom which shall come, + When the Father shall reign alone in His Son. + + Set forth by those who were the original of that so righteous a + work, and continue still successful therein at Cobham in Surrey. + + LONDON. + + Printed in the year 1650." + +It contains but two long pieces, both of which merit more than a passing +notice. The first, probably from the pen of Robert Coster, entitled "The +Diggers Christmasse Caroll," contains some twenty-eight verses of six +lines each. The view and hopes of the Diggers, as well as references to +recent public events, are amusingly related, and in conclusion the +reader is reminded that--"Freedom is not won, neither by sword nor gun," +and therefore entreated to discard his faith in the efficacy of force, +of Money and the Sword, and to share their belief in the power of Love, +Righteousness, and Co-operative Labour, for the satisfaction of the +needs and desires of all. + +The second piece, which we suspect to be from Winstanley's pen, is +headed: + + "A hint of that Freedom which shall come, + When the Father shall reign alone in His Son," + +and the first two verses seem to us worthy of being given in full. They +run as follows: + + "The Father He is God alone, + nothing besides Him is; + All things are folded in that one, + by Him all things subsist. + + He is our Light, our Life, our Peace, + whereby we our being have; + From Him all things have their increase, + the Tyrant and the Slave." + +It was probably also about this time that Winstanley composed the +following much more lively piece, which is to be found in the _Clarke +Papers_,[130:1] and which may here find a fitting place: + + "THE DIGGERS SONG. + + "You noble Diggers all, stand up now, stand up now, + You noble Diggers all, stand up now, + The waste land to maintain, seeing Cavaliers by name + Your digging do disdain and persons all defame. + Stand up now, stand up now. + + Your houses they pull down, stand up now, stand up now, + Your houses they pull down, stand up now; + Your houses they pull down to fright poor men in town, + But the Gentry must come down, and the poor shall wear the crown. + Stand up now, Diggers all! + + With spades and hoes and plowes, stand up now, stand up now, + With spades and hoes and plowes, stand up now; + Your freedom to uphold, seeing Cavaliers are bold + To kill you if they could, and rights from you withhold. + Stand up now, Diggers all! + + Their self-will is their law, stand up now, stand up now, + Their self-will is their law, stand up now; + Since tyranny came in, they count it now no sin + To make a goal a gin, to starve poor men therein. + Stand up now, stand up now. + + The Gentry are all round, stand up now, stand up now, + The Gentry are all round, stand up now; + The Gentry are all round, on each side they are found, + Their wisdom's so profound to cheat us of our ground. + Stand up now, stand up now. + + The Lawyers they conjoin, stand up now, stand up now, + The Lawyers they conjoin, stand up now; + To arrest you they advise, such fury they devise, + The devil in them lies, and hath blinded both their eyes. + Stand up now, stand up now. + + The Clergy they come in, stand up now, stand up now, + The Clergy they come in, stand up now; + The Clergy they come in, and say it is a sin + That we should now begin our freedom for to win. + Stand up now, Diggers all! + + The tithes they yet will have, stand up now, stand up now, + The tithes they yet will have, stand up now; + The tithes they yet will have, and Lawyers their fees crave, + And this they say is brave, to make the poor their slave. + Stand up now, Diggers all! + + 'Gainst Lawyers and 'gainst Priests, stand up now, stand up now, + 'Gainst Lawyers and 'gainst Priests, stand up now; + For tyrants they are both, even flat against their oath, + To grant us they are loath, free meat and drink and cloth. + Stand up now, Diggers all! + + The club is all their law, stand up now, stand up now, + The club is all their law, stand up now; + The club is all their law, to keep poor men in awe; + But they no vision saw to maintain such a law. + Stand up now, Diggers all! + + The Cavaliers are foes, stand up now, stand up now, + The Cavaliers are foes, stand up now; + The Cavaliers are foes, themselves they do disclose + By verses, not in prose, to please the singing boys. + Stand up now, Diggers all! + + To conquer them by love, come in now, come in now, + To conquer them by love, come in now; + To conquer them by love, as it does you behove, + For He is King above, no Power is like to Love. + Glory here, Diggers all!" + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[112:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 573. Also at +the Guildhall Library. + +[115:1] Mr. Drake was the Lord of the Manor, and the patron of Parson +Platt. He was made an Ejector for the County of Surrey by Cromwell, and +Platt made Lay Ejector. + +[122:1] See _A Declaration of the Bloody and Unchristian Acting of +William Star and John Taylor of Walton, with divers men in women's +apparell, in opposition to those that dig upon St. Georges Hill_. King's +Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 561. + +[122:2] _Clarke Papers_, vol. ii. pp. 215-217. No date is attached; but +Winstanley's second letter, which immediately follows it, is dated +December 8th, 1649. + +[124:1] See _Calendar of State Papers_, Domestic, 1649-1650, p. 335. + +[124:2] _Clarke Papers_, vol. ii. pp. 217-220. + +[126:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 585. + +[129:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 1365. + +[130:1] Vol. ii. p. 221. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +A NEW YEAR'S GIFT FOR THE PARLIAMENT AND ARMY + + "Hear, O thou Righteous Spirit of the Whole Creation, and judge, + who is the thief, he who takes away the Freedom of the Common Earth + from me, which is my Creation Right; Or I, who take the Common + Earth to plant upon for my free livelihood, endeavouring to live as + a Free Commoner, in a Free Common-wealth, in Righteousness and + Peace."--WINSTANLEY, _The Law of Freedom_. + + +It was probably during the anxious times that beset the little community +of Diggers during the winter of 1649-1650, that Winstanley wrote the +long and bitter pamphlet, to which is attached a detailed list of the +injuries inflicted upon them, and which early in 1650 appeared in book +form under the following title: + + "A NEW YEAR'S GIFT FOR THE PARLIAMENT AND ARMY:[132:1] + + Showing what the Kingly Power is; and that the Cause of those they + call Diggers is the Life and Marrow of that Cause the + Parliament hath declared for and the Army fought for. The + perfecting of which work will prove England to be the First of + Nations, or the Tenth Part of the City Babylon, that falls off + from the Beast first, and that sets the Crown upon Christ's + head, to govern the World in Righteousness. + + By JERRARD WINSTANLEY, + A Lover of England's Freedom and Peace. + + Die Pride and Envy; Flesh take the Poor's advice. + Covetousness begone: Come Truth and Love arise. + Patience take the Crown; throw Anger out of doors: + Cast out Hypocrisy, and Lust, and mere invented Laws.[133:1] + Then England sit in rest; Thy Sorrows will have end; + Thy Sons will live in Peace, and each will be a friend. + + LONDON. + Printed for Giles Calvert, 1650." + +Winstanley first gives a rapid sketch of recent events, as follows: + + "Gentlemen of the Parliament and Army; You and the Common People + have assisted each other to cast out the head of oppression, which + was Kingly Power seated in one man's hand, and that work is now + done, and till that work was done you called upon the people to + assist you to deliver this distressed, bleeding, dying Nation out + of bondage. And the people came and failed you not, counting + neither purse nor blood too dear to part with to effect this work. + + "The Parliament after this have made an Act to cast out Kingly + Power and to make England a free Common-wealth. These Acts the + people are much rejoiced with, as being words forerunning their + freedom, and they wait for their accomplishment that their joy may + be full. For as words without actions are a cheat, and kill the + comfort of a righteous spirit, so words performed in action do + comfort and nourish the life thereof. + + "Now, Sirs, wheresoever we spy out Kingly Power, no man I hope + shall be troubled to declare it, nor afraid to cast it out, having + both Act of Parliament, the Soldier's Oath, and the Common People's + Consent on his side. For Kingly Power is like a great spread tree; + if you lop the head or top bough and let the other branches and + root stand, it will grow again and recover fresher strength. + + "If any ask me, what Kingly Power is? I answer, there is a twofold + Kingly Power. The one is the Kingly Power of Righteousness, and + this is the power of the Almighty God, ruling the whole Creation in + Peace, and keeping it together. And this is the Power of Universal + Love, leading people unto all truth, teaching everyone to do as he + would be done unto.... But the other Kingly Power is the power of + Unrighteousness.... This Kingly Power is the Power of Self Love, + ruling in one or in many men over others, and enslaving those who + in the Creation are their equals; nay, who are in the strictness of + equity rather their masters. And this Kingly Power is usually set + in the Chair of Government, under the name of Prerogative, when he + rules in one over another; and in the name of State Privilege of + Parliament, when he rules in many over others.... While this Kingly + Power ruled in a man called Charles, all sorts of people complained + of oppression, both Gentry and Common People, because their lands, + enclosures and copyholds were entangled, and because their Trade + was destroyed by Monopolising Patentees, and your troubles were + that you could not live free from oppression in the earth. + Thereupon you that were the Gentry, when you were assembled in + Parliament, you called upon the Common People to come and help you + to cast out oppression: and you that complained are helped and + freed, and that top-bough is lopped off the Tree of Tyranny, and + Kingly Power in that one particular is cast out. But, alas! + oppression is a great tree still, and keeps off the Sun of Freedom + from the poor Commons still. He hath many branches and great roots + which must be grubbed up, before everyone can sing Zion's song in + peace." + +After again praising the two Acts of Parliament--"the one to cast out +Kingly Power; the other to make England a free Common-wealth"--and +detailing his grievances against the Tything Priests and Lords of +Manors, he continues: + + "Search all your Laws, and I'll adventure my life, for I have + little else to lose, that all Lords of Manors hold Title to the + Commons by no stronger hold than the King's Will, whose head is cut + off; and the King held title as he was a Conqueror. Now if you cast + off the King who was the head of that power, surely the power of + Lords of Manors is the same. Therefore perform your own Act of + Parliament, and cast out that part of the Kingly Power likewise, + that the People may see that you understand what you say and do, + and that you are faithful. For truly the Kingly Power reigns + strongly in the Lords of Manors over the Poor. For my own + particular, I have in other writings, as well as in this, declared + my reasons why the Common Land is the Poor People's propriety; and + I have digged upon the Commons; and I hope in time to obtain the + freedom to get food and raiment therefrom by righteous labour: + which is all I desire. And for so doing the supposed Lord of that + Manor hath arrested me twice. First in an Action of £20 trespass + for plowing upon the Commons, which I never did.... And now they + have arrested me again in an Action of £4 trespass for digging upon + the Commons, which I did, and own the work to be righteous and no + trespass to any. This was the Attorney at Kingstone's advice, + either to get money from both sides ... or else that I should not + remove the action to a Higher Court, but that the cause might be + tried there. For they know how to please Lords of Manors, that have + resolved to spend hundreds of pounds but they will hinder the Poor + from enjoying the Commons." + +Then he gives utterance to the sense of indignation which filled his +heart in the following bitter and contemptuous words: + + "Do these men obey the Parliament's Acts, to throw down Kingly + Power? O no! The same unrighteous doing that was complained of in + King Charles' days, the same doing is among them still. Money will + buy and sell Justice still. And is our eight years' war come round + about to lay us down again in the Kennel of Injustice as much or + more than before? Are we no farther learned yet? O ye Rulers of + England, when must we turn over a new leaf? Will you always hold us + in one lesson? Surely you will make Dunces of us; then all the Boys + in other Lands will laugh at us! Come, I pray, let us take forth + and go forward in our learning!" + +Winstanley's zeal for the cause he had espoused was, however, too real +to allow him to continue long in this strain, so he immediately adopts a +more persuasive tone, as follows: + + "You blame us who are the Common People as though we would have no + government. Truly, Gentlemen, we desire a righteous government with + all our hearts. But the Government we have gives freedom and + livelihood to the Gentry, to have abundance, and to lock up + Treasures of the Earth from the Poor; so that rich men may have + chests full of gold and silver, and houses full of corn and goods + to look upon, while the Poor who work to get it can hardly live; + and if they cannot work like slaves, then they must starve. Thus + the Law gives all the Land to some part of mankind, whose + predecessors got it by conquest, and denies it to others, who by + the Righteous Law of Creation may claim an equal portion. And yet + you say this is a Righteous Government, but surely it is no other + than selfishness." + +His indignation again gets the mastery of him, and he continues +bitterly: + + "England is a prison; the varieties of subtilties in the Laws + preserved by the Sword are the bolts, bars and doors of the prison; + the Lawyers are the Jailers; and Poor Men are the prisoners. For + let a man fall into the hands of any, from the Bailiff to the + Judge, and he is either undone or weary of his life. Surely this + power, the Law, which is the great Idol that people dote upon, is + the burden of the Creation, a nursery of idleness, luxury and + cheating, the only enemy of Christ, the King of Righteousness! For + though it pretends Justice, yet the Judges and Law Officers buy and + sell Justice for money, and say it is my calling, and never are + troubled at it." + +He then makes the following manly appeal to his persecutors: + + "You Gentlemen of Surrey, and Lords of Manors, and you Mr. Parson + Platt especially ... my advice to you is this, hereafter to lie + still and cherish the Diggers, for they love you and would not have + your finger ache if they could help it, then why should you be so + bitter against them? O let them live beside you. Some of them have + been Soldiers, and some Countrymen that were always friends to the + Parliament's cause, by whose hardships and means you enjoy the + creatures about you in peace. And will you now destroy part of them + that have preserved your lives? O do not do so; be not so besotted + with the Kingly Power.... Bid them go and plant the Commons. This + will be your honor and your comfort; for assure yourselves that you + can never have true comfort till you be friends with the Poor. + Therefore, come, come, love the Diggers, make restitution of their + land you hold from them; for what would you do if you had not such + laboring men to work for you?" + +A pertinent question, truly, and one which those whom he addressed, as +well as those who are to-day in their places, would find it somewhat +inconvenient to answer. + +He then appeals to the Officers of the Army in the following bold and +manly words: + + "And you, great Officers of the Army and Parliament, love your + common Soldiers (I plead for Equity and Reason) and do not force + them, by long delay of payment, to sell you their dearly bought + Debentures for a thing of nought, and then to go and buy our Common + Land, and Crown Land, and other Land that is the spoil, one of + another therewith. Remember you are Servants to the Commons of + England, and you were volunteers in the Wars, and the Common People + have paid you for your pains largely.... As soon as you have freed + the Earth from one entanglement of Kingly Power, will you entangle + it more? I pray you consider what you do, and do righteously. We + that are the Poor Commons, that paid our money and gave you + free-quarter, have as much right in those Crown Lands and Lands of + the spoil as you. Therefore we give no consent that you should buy + and sell our Crown Lands and Waste Lands; for it is our purchased + inheritance from under oppression! it is our own, even the poor + Common People's of England.... We paid you your wages to help us + recover it, but not to take it yourselves and turn us out, and to + buy and sell it among yourselves.... If you do so, you uphold the + Kingly Power, and so disobey both Acts of Parliament, and break + your Oath; and you will live in the breach of these two + commandments, Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal, by denying + us the Earth which is our livelihood, and thereby killing us by a + lingering death." + +Winstanley then summarises his contentions, as follows: + + "Well, the end of all my speech is to point out the Kingly Power + where I spy it out. And you see it remains strongly in the hands of + Lords of Manors, who have dealt so discourteously with some who are + sincere in heart, though there have some come among the Diggers + that have caused scandal, but we disown their ways.[137:1] + + "The Lords of Manors have sent to beat us, to pull down our houses, + spoil our labours; yet we are patient, and never offered any + violence to them again these forty weeks past, but wait upon God + with love till their hearts thereby be softened. All that we + desire is but to live quietly in the Land of our Nativity by our + righteous labour upon the Common Land, which is our own; but as yet + the Lords of the Manors, so formerly called, will not suffer us, + but abuse us. Is not that part of the Kingly Power? In that which + follows I shall clearly prove it is; for it appears so clear that + the understanding of a child does say, 'It is tyranny; it is the + Kingly Power of Darkness.' Therefore we expect that you will grant + us the benefit of your Act of Parliament, so that we may say--Truly + England is a Common-wealth, and a Free People indeed." + +Winstanley then declares that despite all their trouble and anxiety the +Diggers were still "mightily cheerful," and resolved "to wait upon God +to see what He will do ... taking it a great happiness to be persecuted +for righteousness' sake by the Priests and Professors that are the +successors of Judas and the bitter spirited Pharisees that put the man +Christ to death." He then again advances the reasons on which he bases +the equal claims of all to the use of the earth, denounces the sources +whence the exclusive claims of the few have sprung, more especially the +tyrannical claims of Lords of Manors, boldly claiming that from this +tyranny of man to man England should have been freed by the recent +casting out of kingly power--and continues: + + "Therefore I say, the Common Land is my own Land, equal with my + Fellow Commoners; and our true propriety by the Law of Creation. + _It is every ones, but not one single ones._ Yea, the Commons are + as truly ours by the last excellent two Acts of Parliament, the + foundation of England's new Righteous Government aimed at, as the + Elder Brothers can say the Enclosures are theirs. For they ventured + their lives and covenanted with us to help them preserve their + Freedom; and we adventured our lives and they covenanted with us to + purchase and to give us our Freedom, that hath been hundreds of + years kept from us." + +The first part of this pamphlet concludes as follows: + + "_Damona non Armis sed Morte subegit Jesus._ + + "By patient sufferings, not by Death, + Christ did the devil kill: + And by the same still to this day, + His foes he conquers still. + + "True Religion and undefiled is this: To make Restitution of the + Earth, which hath been taken and held from the Common People by the + power of Conquests formerly, and to set the oppressed free. Do not + all strive to enjoy the land? The Gentry strive for land; the + Clergy strive for land; the Common People strive for land; and + Buying and Selling is an Art whereby People endeavour to cheat one + another of the land. Now, if any can prove from the Law of + Righteousness that the land was made peculiar to him and his + successively, shutting others out, he shall enjoy it freely for my + part. But I affirm, it was made for all; and true Religion is to + let everyone enjoy it. Therefore you Rulers of England, make + restitution of the Land which the Kingly Power holds from us. Set + the Oppressed free; and come in and honor Christ, who is the + Restoring Power, and you shall find rest." + +In the opening of the second part of this pamphlet Winstanley reverts +somewhat to his earlier mystical style, and still further expounds the +eternal struggle between the Spirit of Self Love and the Spirit of +Universal Love, denouncing the former as the source of all social ills, +extolling the latter as the source and inspirer of peaceful and +equitable social life. "In our present experience," he contends, +"Darkness or Self Love goes before, and Light or Universal Love follows +after"; and hence "Darkness and Bondage doth oppress Liberty and Light." +He illustrates this contention, as well as the essential difference of +the spirits animating the Diggers and their opponents, by relating how +one of the Colonels of the Army told him--"That the Diggers did work +upon Georges Hill for no other end than to draw a company of people into +arms; and that our knavery was found out, because it takes not that +effect": on which Winstanley comments as follows: + + "Truly thou Colonel, I tell thee, thy knavish imagination is + thereby discovered, which hinders the effecting of that Freedom + which by Oath and Covenant thou hast engaged to maintain. For my + part and the rest, we had no such thought. We abhor fighting for + Freedom; it is acting of the Curse, and lifting him up higher. Do + thou uphold it by the Sword; we will not. We will conquer by Love + and Patience, or else we count it no Freedom. Freedom gotten by the + Sword is an established Bondage to some part or other of the + Creation. This we have declared publicly enough. Therefore thy + imagination told thee a lie, and will deceive thee in a greater + matter, if Love doth not kill him. VICTORY THAT IS GOTTEN BY THE + SWORD IS A VICTORY SLAVES GET ONE OVER ANOTHER; BUT VICTORY + OBTAINED BY LOVE IS A VICTORY FOR A KING!" + +Surely, surely, if all other writings of Winstanley had perished, this +one passage would have given us sufficient insight into his philosophy, +into the noble principles animating his life, to entitle him to our +admiration and respect. + +He then continues: + + "This is your very inward principle, O ye present Powers of + England, you do not study how to advance Universal Love. If you did + it would appear in action. But Imagination and Self Love mightily + disquiet your mind, and makes you to call up all the Powers of + Darkness to come forth and help you to set the Crown upon the head + of Self, which is that Kingly Power you have oathed and vowed + against, but yet uphold it in your hands.... All this falling out + and quarrelling among mankind is about the Earth, and who shall, + and who shall not enjoy it, when indeed it is the portion of + everyone, and ought not to be striven for, nor bought, nor sold, + whereby some are hedged in and others are hedged out. Far better + not to have had a body than to be debarred the fruit of the Earth + to feed and clothe it. And if every one did but quietly enjoy the + Earth for food and raiment, there would be no wars, prisons, nor + gallows, and this action which men call theft would be no sin. For + Universal Love never made it a sin, but the Power of Covetousness + made it a sin, and made Laws to punish it, though he himself lives + in that sin in a higher manner than those he hangs and punishes.... + Well, He that made the Earth for us as well as for you will set us + free, though you will not. When will the Veil of Darkness be drawn + off your faces? Will you not be wise, O ye Rulers?" + +After further expatiating on the blessings inherent in Righteousness and +Universal Love, and on the inevitable evil consequences of Self Love or +Covetousness, he indicates the practical steps by which these evils +might be removed, as follows: + + "If ever the Creation is to be restored, this is the way, which + lies in this two-fold power: + + "First, Community of Mankind, which is comprised in the Unity of + the Spirit of Love, which is called Christ within you, or the Law + written in the Heart, leading Mankind unto all Truth, and to be of + one heart and one mind. + + "The Second is Community of the Earth, for the quiet livelihood in + food and raiment, without using force or restraining one another. + + "These Two Communities, or rather one in two branches, is that true + Levelling which Christ shall work at His more glorious appearance. + FOR JESUS CHRIST, THE SAVIOUR OF ALL MEN, IS THE GREATEST, FIRST + AND TRUEST LEVELLER THAT EVER WAS SPOKEN OF IN THE WORLD." + + "Therefore you Rulers of England, be not afraid nor ashamed of + Levellers, hate them not; Christ comes to you riding upon these + clouds. Look not upon other Lands to be your pattern. All Lands in + the World lie under Darkness, so doth England yet, though the + nearest to Light and Freedom than any other. Therefore let no other + Land take your Crown.... + + "At this very day poor people are forced to work, in some places + for 4, 5, and 6 pence a day, in other places for 8, 10, and 12 + pence a day, for such small prices that now, corn being dear, their + earnings cannot find them bread for their families. Yet if they + steal for maintenance, the murdering Law will hang them.... Well + this shows that if this be Law, it is not the Law of Righteousness. + It is a murderer; it is the Law of Covetousness and Self Love. And + this Law that frights people and forces people to obey it by + prisons, whips and gallows, is the very Kingdom of the Devil and + Darkness, which the Creation groans under at this day." + +After this characteristic outburst, he gives them the following equally +characteristic advice: + + "Come, make peace with the Cavaliers, your enemies, and let the + oppressed go free, and let them have a livelihood. Love your + enemies, and do to them as you would have had them do to you, if + they had conquered you. Well, let them go in peace, and let Love + wear the Crown. For I tell you and your Preachers, that Scripture + which saith 'The Poor shall inherit the Earth,' is really and + materially to be fulfilled. For the Earth is to be restored from + the bondage of Sword-propriety, and is to become a Common Treasury + in reality to the whole of mankind. For this is the work for the + true Saviour to do, who is the true and faithful Leveller, even the + Spirit and Power of Universal Love, that is now rising to spread + itself in the whole Creation, who is the Blessing, who will spread + as far as the Curse has spread, to take it off and cast it out, and + who will set the Creation in peace." + +The pamphlet then concludes with the following words: + + "The time is very near when the people generally shall loathe and + be ashamed of your Kingly Power, in your preaching, in your Laws, + in your Councils, as now you are ashamed of the Levellers. I tell + you Jesus Christ, who is that powerful Spirit of Love, is the Head + Leveller: and as He is lifted up, He will draw all men after Him, + and leave you naked and bare.... This Great Leveller, Christ our + King of Righteousness in us, shall cause men to beat their swords + into plough-shares, their spears into pruning-hooks, and Nations + shall learn war no more. Everyone shall delight to let each other + enjoy the pleasures of the Earth, and shall hold each other no more + in bondage. Then what will become of your power? Truly he must be + cast out as a murderer. I pity you for the torment your spirit must + go through, if you be not fore-armed as you are abundantly + fore-warned from all places. But I look on you as part of the + Creation that must be restored; and the Spirit may give you wisdom + to fore-see a danger, as he hath admonished divers of your rank + already to leave those high places and to lie quiet and wait for + the breaking forth of the powerful day of the Lord. Farewell, once + more, Let Israel go free." + +As a sort of appendix to this pamphlet there appears the following +interesting document: + + "A BILL OF ACCOUNT OF THE MOST REMARKABLE SUFFERINGS THAT THE + DIGGERS HAVE MET WITH SINCE APRIL 1ST, 1649, which was the + first day they began to dig and to take possession of the + Commons for the Poor on George Hill in Surrey. + + "1. The first time divers of the Diggers were carried prisoners + into Walton Church, where some of them were struck in the Church + by the bitter Professors and rude multitude; but after some time + they were freed by a Justice. + + "2. They were fetched by above a hundred rude people, whereof John + Taylor was the leader, who took away their spades, and some of them + they never had again: and carried them first to prison in Walton, + and then to a Justice in Kingston, who presently dismissed them. + + "3. The enemy pulled down a house which the Diggers had built upon + George Hill, and cut their spades and hoes to pieces. + + "4. Two Troops of Horse were sent from the General to fetch us + before the Council of War, to give account of our Digging. + + "5. We had another House pulled down, and our Spades cut to pieces. + + "6. One of the Diggers had his head sore wounded, and a Boy beaten, + and his clothes taken from him: divers being by. + + "7. We had a Cart and Wheels cut in pieces, and a Mare cut over the + back with a Bill when we went to fetch a load of wood from Stoak + Common, to build a house upon George Hill. + + "8. Divers of the Diggers were beaten upon the Hill, by William + Star and John Taylor, and by men in women's apparel, and so sore + wounded that some of them were fetched home in a Cart. + + "9. We had another House pulled down, and the Wood they carried to + Walton in a Cart. + + "10. They arrested some of us, and some they cast into Prison, and + from others they went about to take away their Goods, but that the + Goods proved another man's, which one of the Diggers was servant + to. + + "11. And indeed at divers times besides, we had all our corn + spoiled. For the enemy were so mad that they tumbled the earth up + and down, and would suffer no Corn to grow. + + "12. Another Cart and Wheels were cut to pieces, and some of our + Tools taken by force from us, which we never had again. + + "13. Some of the Diggers were beaten by the Gentlemen, the Sheriff + looking on, and afterwards five of them were carried to White Lion + Prison, and kept there about five weeks, and then let out. + + "14. The Sheriff, with the Lords of Manors and Soldiers standing + by, caused two or three poor men to pull down another House: and + divers things were stolen from them. + + "15. The next day two Soldiers and two or three Countrymen, sent + by Parson Platt, pulled down another House, and turned a poor old + man and his wife out of doors to lie in the fields in a cold + night." + + "And this is the last hitherto. And so you Priests, as you were the + last that had a hand in our persecution, so it may be that our + misery may rest in your hand. For assure yourselves God in Christ + will not be mocked by such Hypocrites that pretend to be His + nearest and dearest Servants, as you do, and yet will not suffer + His hungry and naked and houseless members to live quiet by you in + the Earth, by whose Blood and Monies in the Wars you are in peace. + + "And now those Diggers that remain have made little Hutches to lie + in, like Calf-cribs, and are cheerful, taking the spoiling of their + Goods patiently, and rejoicing that they are counted worthy to + suffer persecution for Righteousness' sake. And they follow their + work close, and have planted divers acres of Wheat and Rye, which + is come up and promises a very plentiful crop, and have resolved to + preserve it by all the diligence they can. And nothing shall make + them slack but want of food, which is not much now, they being all + poor people, and having suffered so much in one expense or other + since they began. For Poverty is their greatest burthen; and if + anything do break them from the Work, it will be that." + +After this confession of their weakness, and of the probable end of +their work, Winstanley again bursts out into verse as follows: + + "You Lordly Foes, you will rejoice + this news to hear and see. + Do so, go on; but we'll rejoice + much more the Truth to see. + For by our hands Truth is declared, + and nothing is kept back; + Our faithfulness much joy doth bring, + though victuals we may lack, + This trial may our God see good, + to try, not us, but you; + That your profession of the Truth + may prove either false or true." + +And after another and much worse specimen of his poetry, which we will +spare our readers, he concludes as follows: + + "And here I end, having put my Arm as far as my strength will go + to advance Righteousness. I have writ; I have acted; I have Peace. + And now I must wait to see the Spirit do His own work in the hearts + of others; and whether England shall be the first Land, or some + other, wherein Truth shall sit down in triumph. + + "But, O England, England, would God thou didst know the things that + belong to thy peace before they be hid from thine eyes. The Spirit + of Righteousness hath striven with thee, and doth yet strive with + thee, and yet there is hope. Come in thou England, submit to + righteousness before the voice go out, my Spirit shall strive no + longer with flesh, and let not Covetousness make thee oppress the + poor.... + + "Gentlemen of the Army, we have spoken to you; we have appealed to + the Parliament; we have declared our Cause with all humility to you + all; and we are Englishmen, your friends that stuck to you in your + miseries, when those Lords of Manors that oppose us were wavering + on both sides. Yet you have heard them, and answered their request + to beat us off; and yet you would not afford us an answer. + + "Yet Love and Patience shall lie down and suffer; let Pride and + Covetousness stretch themselves upon their beds of ease, and forget + the afflictions of Joseph, and persecute us for Righteousness' + sake, yet we will wait to see the issue. The Power of Righteousness + is our God; the Globe runs round; the longest sunshine day ends in + a dark night. Therefore to Thee, O Thou King of Righteousness, we + do commit our cause. Judge Thou between us and them that strive + against us, and those that deal treacherously with Thee and us; and + do Thine own work, and help weak flesh in whom the Spirit is + willing." + +"To thee, O thou King of Righteousness, we do commit our cause. Judge +Thou, and help weak flesh in whom the Spirit is willing." At this very +hour the same prayer, the same cry for Justice, is still ascending to +the throne of the King of Righteousness from the disinherited masses, on +whose shoulders the weight of our civilisation rests, and whom it +presses down to helpless poverty, misery, and wretchedness, and who are +still suffering from the same fundamental injustice against which, as we +have seen, Gerrard Winstanley protested so eloquently over two hundred +and fifty years ago. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[132:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 587. + +[133:1] In deference to prevailing conventionalities, we have ventured +to alter this line. + +[137:1] In the next chapter we shall learn something of those "Diggers +that have caused scandal," and whose actions and views Winstanley found +it necessary to disown. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +A VINDICATION; A DECLARATION; AND AN APPEAL + + "There is but one way to remove an evil--and that is to remove its + cause. Poverty deepens as wealth increases, and wages are forced + down while productive power grows, because land, which is the + source of all wealth and the field of all labour, is monopolised. + To extirpate poverty, to make wages what justice demands they + should be, the full earnings of the labourer, we must therefore + substitute for the individual ownership of land a common ownership. + Nothing else will go to the cause of the evil--in nothing else is + there the slightest hope."--HENRY GEORGE, 1877-1878. + + +In the pamphlet we have considered in the previous chapter we heard that +"there have some come among the Diggers that have caused scandal," and +whose ways were disowned by Winstanley and his associates. A few weeks +subsequent to its publication, Winstanley judged it necessary publicly +and formally to dissociate himself and his companions from them, which +he did, in a manner quite in accordance with his own principles, in a +small pamphlet of some eight pages, which was published under the title: + + "A VINDICATION OF THOSE WHOSE ENDEAVOURS IS ONLY TO MAKE THE EARTH + A COMMON TREASURY, CALLED DIGGERS: Or Some Reasons given by + them against the immoderate use of creatures, or the excessive + community of women, called Ranting or rather Renting,"[146:1] + +which, after a long condemnation of "the Ranting Practice," runs as +follows: + + "There are only two things I must speak as an advice in Love. + + "First, Let everyone that intends to live in peace set themselves + with diligent labour to till, dig and plow the common and barren + land, to get them bread with righteous, moderate working, among a + moderate-minded people; this prevents the evil of idleness, and the + danger of the Ranting power. + + "Secondly, Let none go about to suppress that Ranting power by the + punishing hand; for it is the work of the Righteous and Rational + Spirit within, not thy hand without, that must suppress it. But if + thou wilt need be punishing, then see thou be without sin thyself, + and then cast the first stone at the Ranter. Let not sinners punish + others for sin, but let the power of thy reason and righteous + action shame and so beat down their unrational actings. Wouldst + thou live in peace, then look to thy own ways, mind thy own Kingdom + within.... Let everyone alone to stand or fall their own Master; + for thou being a sinner and striving to suppress sinners by force, + thou wilt thereby but increase their rage and thine own trouble. + But do thou keep close to the Law of Righteous Reason, and thou + shalt presently see a return of the Ranters: for that Spirit within + must shame them and turn them and pull them out of darkness." + +After emphasising the fact that such evil actions must necessarily bring +evil on those who indulge in them, the pamphlet concludes with the +following words: + + "This I was made to write as a Vindication of the Diggers, who are + slandered with the Ranting action. My end is only to advance the + Kingdom of Peace in and among mankind, which is and will be torn in + pieces by the Ranting power, if Reason do not kill this + fine-hearted or sensitive Beast. All you that are merely civil and + that are of a loving and flexible disposition, wanting the strength + of Reason, and the Life of Universal Love, leading you forth to + seek the peace and preservation of every single body as of one's + self, you are the people that are likely to be tempted, and set + upon and torn into pieces by this devouring Beast, the Ranting + Power. + "GERRARD WINSTANLEY. + "_Feb. this 20, 1649 (1650)._" + +On March 4th he adds the following interesting postscript: + + "I am told there are some people going up and down the country + among such as are friends to the Diggers, gathering monies in + their name. And they have a note wherein my name and divers others + are subscribed. This is to certify that I never subscribed my name + to any such note. Neither have we that are called Diggers received + any money by any such collections. Therefore to prevent this cheat, + we desire, if any are willing to cast a gift in to further our work + of digging upon the Commons, that they would send it to our own + hands by some trusty friends of their own." + +If others could get monies in their name, the Diggers evidently thought +that they might themselves take advantage of the same means to maintain +the public work on which they were engaged. For we gather the following +from a contemporary news-sheet,[148:1] _A Perfect Diurnal_, April 1-8: + + "_April 4 (Thursday)._--THE TRUE COPY OF A LETTER taken at + Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, with some men that were there + apprehended for going about to incite people to Digging, and + under such pretence gathered money of the well-affected for + their assistance. + + "These are to certify all that are Friends to Universal Freedom, + and that look upon the Digging and Planting of the Commons to be + the first springing up of Freedom: To make the Earth a Common + Treasury that everyone may enjoy food and raiment freely by his + labour upon the Earth, without paying Rents or Homage to any + Fellow-creature of his own kind; that everyone may be delivered + from the Tyranny of the Conquering Power, and to rise up out of + that Bondage to enjoy the benefit of his Creation: This, I say, is + to certify all such that those Men that have begun to lay the First + Stone in the Foundation of this Freedom (by digging upon Georges + Hill on the Common called Little Heath in Cobham) in regard of the + great opposition hitherto from the Enemy, by reason whereof they + lost the last Summer's work, yet, through inward faithfulness to + advance Freedom, they keep the field still, ... but in regard to + poverty their work is like to flag and drop: Therefore if the + hearts of any be stirred up to drop anything into this Treasury, to + buy victuals to keep the men alive, and to buy Corn to cast into + the ground, it will keep alive the Spirit of Public Freedom to the + whole Land, which otherwise is ready to die again for want of help. + And if you hear hereafter that there was a people appeared to stand + up to advance Public Freedom, and struggled with the Opposing Power + of the Land, for that they begin to let them alone, and yet these + men and their public work were crushed, because they wanted + assistance of food and corn to keep them alive: I say, if you hear + this, it will be trouble to you when it is too late, that you had + monies in your hand, and would not part with any of it to purchase + Freedom, therefore you deservedly groan under Tyranny, and no + Saviour appears. But let your Reason weigh the excellency of this + work, and I am sure you will cast in something. + + "And because there were some treacherous persons drew up a note and + subscribed our names to it, and by that moved some friends to give + money to this work of ours, when as we know of no such note, nor + subscribed our names to any, nor ever received any money from such + collection. Therefore to prevent such a cheat, I have mentioned a + word or two in the end of a printed book against that treachery, + that neither we nor our friends may be cheated. And I desire if any + be willing to communicate of their substance unto our work, that + they would make a collection among themselves, and send that money + to Cobham to the Diggers' own hands, by some trusty friend of your + own, and so neither you nor we shall be cheated. + + "The Bearers hereof, Thomas Haydon and Adam Knight, can relate by + word of mouth more largely the condition of the Diggers and their + work, and so we leave this to you to do as you are moved. + + "Jacob Heard, Jo. South junior, Henry Barton, Tho. Barnard, Tho. + Adams, Will Hitchcocke, Anthony Wren, Robert Draper, William Smith, + Robert Coster, Gerrard Winstanley, Jo. South, Tho. Heydon, Jo. + Palmer, Tho. South, Henry Handcocke, Jo. Batt, Dan Ireland, Jo. + Hayman, Robert Sawyer, Tho. Starre, Tho. Edcer, besides their wives + and families, and many more if there were food for them." + +Then follows this detailed account of their travels: + + "A COPY OF THEIR TRAVELS, that was taken with the four men at + Wellingborow. + + "Out of Buckinghamshire into Surrey; from Surrey to Middlesex, from + thence to Hartfordshire, to Bedfordshire, again to Buckinghamshire, + so to Berkshire, and then to Surrey, thence to Middlesex, and so to + Hartfordshire, and to Bedfordshire, thence into Huntingdonshire, + from thence to Bedfordshire, and so into Northamptonshire, and + there they were apprehended. + + "They visited these towns to promote the business: Colebrook, + Hanworth, Hounslow, Harrowhill, Watford, Redburn, Dunstable, + Barton, Amersley, Bedford, Kempson, North Crawley, Cranfield, + Newport, Stony Stratford, Winslow, Wendover, Wickham, Windsor, + Cobham, London, Whetston, Mine, Wellin, Dunton, Putney, Royston, + St. Needs, Godmanchester, Wetne, Stanton, Warbays, Kimolton, from + Kimolton to Wellingborrow." + +Before this date, however, some of the inhabitants of Wellingborrow had +followed the example of their brothers in Surrey. From a beautifully +printed broadsheet,[150:1] bearing date March 12th, 1649 (1650), and +issued by Giles Calvert, we find the following account of their doings, +which incidentally reveals the terrible state of the rural working +population at the time it was written: + + "A DECLARATION OF THE GROUNDS AND REASONS why we the poor + inhabitants of the Town of Wellinborrow, in the County of + Northampton, have begun and give consent to dig up, manure and + sow corn upon the Commons and Waste Ground called Bareshanke, + belonging to the inhabitants of Wellinborrow, by those that + have subscribed and hundreds more that give consent. + + "1. We find in the word of God that God made the Earth for the use + and comfort of all mankind, and sat him in it to till and dress it, + and said, That in the sweat of his brow he should eat his bread. + And also we find that God never gave it to any sort of people that + they should have it all to themselves, and shut out all the rest, + but He saith, The Earth hath He given to the children of men, which + is every man. + + "2. We find that no creature that ever God made was ever deprived + of the benefit of the Earth, but Mankind; and that it is nothing + but covetousness, pride and hardness of heart that hath caused man + so far to degenerate. + + "3. We find in the Scriptures, that the Prophets and Apostles have + left it upon record, That in the last day the oppressor and proud + man shall cease, and God will restore the waste places of the Earth + to the use and comfort of man, and that none shall hurt nor destroy + in all His Holy Mountain. + + "4. We have great encouragement from these two righteous Acts, + which the Parliament of England have set forth, the one against + Kingly Power and the other to make England a Free Common-wealth. + + "5. We are necessitated from our present necessity to do this, and + we hope that our actions will justify us in the gate, when all men + shall know the truth of our necessity: + + "We are in Wellinborrow in one parish 1169 persons that receive + alms, as the Officers have made it appear at the Quarter Sessions + last. We have made our case known to the Justices; the Justices + have given order that the Town should raise a stock to set us on + work, and that the Hundred should be enjoyned to assist them. But + as yet we see nothing is done, nor any man that goeth about it. We + have spent all we have; our trading is decayed; our wives and + children cry for bread; our lives are a burden to us, divers of us + having 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 in family, and we cannot get bread for one of + them by our labor. Rich men's hearts are hardened; they will not + give us if we beg at their doors. If we steal, the Law will end our + lives. Divers of the poor are starved to death already; and it were + better for us that are living to die by the Sword than by the + Famine. And now we consider that the Earth is our Mother; and that + God hath given it to the children of men; and that the Common and + Waste Grounds belong to the poor; and that we have a right to the + common ground both from the Law of the Land, Reason and Scriptures. + Therefore we have begun to bestow our righteous labor upon it, and + we shall trust the Spirit for a blessing upon our labor, resolving + not to dig up any man's propriety until they freely give us it. And + truly we have great comfort already through the goodness of our + God, that some of those rich men amongst us that have had the + greatest profit upon the Common have freely given us their share + in it ... and the country farmers have profered, divers of them, to + give us seed to sow it; and so we find that God is persuading + Japhet to dwell in the tents of Shem. And truly those that we find + most against us are such as have been constant enemies to the + Parliament Cause from first to last. + + "Now at last our desire is, That some that approve of this work of + Righteousness would but spread this our Declaration before the + great Council of the Land; that so they may be pleased to give us + more encouragement to go on; that so they may be found amongst the + small number of those that consider the poor and needy; that so the + Lord may deliver them in the time of their troubles ... and our + lives shall bless them, so shall good men stand by them, and evil + men shall be afraid of them, and they shall be counted the + Repairers of our Breaches, and the Restorers of our Paths to dwell + in. And thus we have declared the truth of our necessity, and + whosoever will come in to labor with us, shall have part with us, + and we with them, and we shall all of us endeavour to walk + righteously and peaceably in the Land of our Nativity. + + "Richard Smith, John Avery, Thomas Fardin, + Richard Pendred, James Pitman, Roger Tuis, + Joseph Hitchcock, John Pye, Edward Turner. + + _March 12th, 1649 (1650)._" + +By some means or other this Declaration seems to have reached the +Council of State; for we find the following reference to it in +Whitelocke, p. 448, under date April: + + "A Letter sent from the Diggers and Planters of Commons for + Universal Freedom, to make the Earth a Common Treasury, that + everyone may enjoy food and raiment freely by his labor upon the + Earth, without paying Rents or Homage to any Fellow Creature of his + own kind, that everyone may be delivered from the Tyranny of the + Conquering Power, and so rise up out of that Bondage to enjoy the + Benefit of his Creation. + + "The Letters were to get money to buy food for them, and corn to + sow the land which they had digged." + +Presently we shall lay some evidence before our readers of the view the +Council of State, influenced as it was by men who had recently enriched +themselves by land-grabbing, took of such proceedings, the trend of +which they fully recognised. However, whatever view the Council of State +were likely to take of this touching Declaration, there can be little +doubt but that it appealed most strongly to Winstanley, who within a +fortnight of its issue, on March 26th, replied to it in the following +high-spirited, almost triumphal, address, which also appeared in the +form of a broadsheet:[153:1] + + "AN APPEAL TO ALL ENGLISHMEN TO JUDGE BETWEEN BONDAGE AND FREEDOM: + Sent from those that began to dig upon George Hill in Surrey, + but now are carrying on that public work upon the little heath + in the Parish of Cobham, near unto George Hill, wherein it + appears that the work of Digging upon the Commons is not only + warranted by Scripture, but by the Law of the Common-wealth of + England likewise. + + "Behold, behold all Englishmen, The Land of England now is your + free inheritance: all Kingly and Lordly entanglements are declared + against by our Army and Parliament. The Norman Power is beaten in + the field, and his head is cut off. And that oppressing Conquest, + that hath reigned over you by King and House of Lords, for about + 600 years past, is now cast out by the Armies' Swords, the + Parliament's Acts and Laws, and the Common-wealth's Engagement. + + "Therefore let not sottish covetousness in the Gentry deny the poor + or younger bretheren their just Freedom to build and plant corn + upon the common waste land; nor let slavish fear possess the heart + of the poor to stand in fear of the Norman yoke any longer, seeing + that it is broke. Come, those that are free within, turn your + Swords into Ploughshares, and Spears into Pruning Hooks, and take + Plow and Spade, and break up the Common Land, build your houses, + sow corn and take possession of your own Land, which you have + recovered out of the hands of the Norman oppressor. + + "The common Land hath laid unmanured all the days of his Kingly and + Lordly power over you, by reason whereof both you and your fathers + (many of you) have been burthened with poverty. And that land which + would have been fruitful with corn, hath brought forth nothing but + heath, moss, turfeys, and the curse, according to the words of the + Scriptures: A fruitful land is made barren because of the + unrighteousness of the people that ruled therein, and would not + suffer it to be planted, because they would keep the poor under + bondage, to maintain their own Lordly Power and conquering + covetousness. + + "But what hinders you now? Will you be Slaves and Beggars still + when you may be Freemen? Will you live in straits and die in + poverty when you may live comfortably? Will you always make a + profession of the words of Christ and Scripture, the sum whereof is + this--Do as you would be done unto, and live in love? And now it is + come to the point of fulfilling that Righteous Law, will you not + rise up and act? I do not mean act by the Sword, for that must be + left. But come, take plow and spade, build and plant, and make the + waste land fruitful, that there may be no beggar or idle person + among you. For if the waste land of England were manured by her + children, it would become in a few years the richest, the + strongest, and the most flourishing Land in the world, and all + Englishmen would live in peace and comfort. And this Freedom is + hindered by such as yet are full of the Norman base blood, who + would be Free-men themselves, but would have all others bond-men + and servants, nay Slaves to them.... + + "Well Englishmen, the Law of the Scriptures gives you a free and + full warrant to plant the Earth, and to live comfortably and in + love, doing as you would be done by, and condemns that covetous + kingly and lordly power of darkness in men, that makes some men + seek their freedom in the Earth and deny others that freedom. And + the Scriptures do establish this Law, to cast out kingly and lordly + self-willed and oppressing power, and to make every Nation in the + World a Free Common-wealth. So that you have the Scriptures to + protect you in making the Earth a Common Treasury for the + comfortable livelihood of your bodies, while you live upon Earth. + + "Secondly, you have both what the Army and the Parliament have done + to protect you.... Our Common-wealth's Army have fought against the + Norman Conquest, and have cast him out, and keeps the field.... And + by this victory England is made a Free Common-wealth; and the + common land belongs to the younger brother, as the enclosures to + the elder brother, without restraint.... The Parliament since this + victory have made an Act or Law to make England a Free + Common-wealth. And by this Act they have set the people free from + King and House of Lords that ruled as conquerors over them, and + have abolished their self-will and murdering Laws with them that + made them. Likewise they have made another Act or Law, to cast out + Kingly Power, wherein they free the people from yielding obedience + to the King, or to any that holds claiming under the King. Now all + Lords of Manors, Tything Priests and Impropriators hold claiming or + title under the King, but by this Act of Parliament we are freed + from their power. + + "Then, lastly, the Parliament have made an engagement to maintain + this present Common-wealth's government comprised within those Acts + or Laws against King and House of Lords. And called upon all + officers, tenants, and all sort of people to subscribe to it, + declaring that those that refuse to subscribe shall have no + privilege in the Common-wealth of England, nor protection from the + Law. + + "Now behold all Englishmen, that by virtue of these two Laws and + the Engagement, the Tenants of Copyhold are free from obedience to + their Lords of Manors, and all poor people may build upon and plant + the Commons, and Lords of Manors break the Laws of the Land, and + still uphold the Kingly and Lordly Norman Power, if they hinder + them, or seek to beat them off from planting the Commons. Nor can + the Lords of Manors compel their Tenants of Copyholds to come to + their Court Barons, nor to be of their Juries, nor to take an oath + to be true to them, nor to pay fines, heriots, quit-rents, nor any + homage as formerly while the Kings and Lords were in their power. + And if the Tenants stand up to maintain their freedom against their + Lords' oppressing power, the Tenants forfeit nothing, but are + protected by the Laws and Engagement of the Land. + + "And if so be that any poor men build them houses and sow corn upon + the Commons, the Lords of Manors cannot compel their Tenants to + beat them off: and if the Tenants refuse to beat them off, they + forfeit nothing, but are protected by the Laws and Engagement of + the Land. But if so be that any fearful or covetous Tenant do obey + their Court Barons, and will be of their Jury, and will still pay + fines, heriots, quit-rents, or any homage as formerly, or take new + oaths to be true to their Lords, or at the command of their Lords + do beat the poor men off from planting the Commons, then they have + broke the Engagement and Law of the Land, and both Lords and + Tenants are conspiring to uphold or bring in the Kingly or Lordly + Power again, and declare themselves to the Army, and to the + Parliament, and are Traitors to the Commonwealth of England. And if + so be that they are to have no protection of the Law that refused + to take the Engagement, surely they have lost their protection by + breaking their Engagement, and stand liable to answer for this + their offence to their great charge and trouble if any will + prosecute against them. + + "Therefore you Englishmen, whether Tenants or Labouring-men, do not + enter into a new bond of slavery, now you are come to the point + that you may be free, if you will but stand up for freedom. For the + Army hath purchased your freedom. The Parliament hath declared for + your freedom. And all the Laws of the Commonwealth are your + protection. So that nothing is wanting on your part but courage and + faithfulness to put those Laws in execution, and so take possession + of your own Land, which the Norman power took from you and hath + kept from you about 600 years, and which you have now recovered out + of his hand. + + "And if any say that the old Laws and Customs of the Land are + against the Tenant and the poor, and entitle the land only to Lords + of Manors still, I answer, all the old Laws are of no force, for + they were abolished when the King and House of Lords were cast out. + And if any say, I, but the Parliament made an Act to establish the + old Laws, I answer, this was to prevent a sudden rising upon the + cutting off the King's head; but afterwards they made these two + Laws, to cast out the Kingly Power, and to make England a + Common-wealth. And they have confirmed these two by the Engagement, + which the people now generally do own and subscribe: Therefore by + these Acts of Freedom they have abolished that Act that held up + bondage. + + "Well, by these you may see your freedom; and we hope the Gentry + hereafter will cheat the poor no longer of their Land; and we hope + the Ministers hereafter will not tell the poor they have no right + to the Land. For now the Land of England is and ought to be a + Common Treasury to all Englishmen, as the several portions of the + Land of Canaan were the common livelihood to such and such a Tribe, + both to elder and younger Brother, without respect of persons. If + you do deny this, you deny the Scriptures. And now we shall give + you some few encouragements out of many to move you to stand up for + your freedom in the Land by acting with plow and spade upon the + Commons: + + "(1) By this means, within a short time, there will be no beggar + or idle person in England, which will be the glory of England, and + the glory of that Gospel which England seems to profess in words. + + "(2) The waste and common land being improved will bring in plenty + of all commodities, and prevent famine, and pull down the price of + corn, to 12d. a bushel, or less. + + "(3) It will prove England to be the first of Nations which falls + off from the covetous beastly government first; and that sets the + Crown of Freedom on Christ's head, to rule over the Nations of the + World, and to declare him to be the joy and blessing of all + Nations. This should move all Governors to strive who shall be the + first that shall cast down their Crowns, Sceptres and Government at + Christ's feet: and they that will not give Christ his own glory + shall be shamed. + + "(4) This Commonwealth's Freedom will unite the hearts of + Englishmen together in love; so that if a foreign enemy endeavour + to come in, we shall all with joint consent rise up together to + defend our inheritance, and shall be true one to another. Whereas + now the poor see if they fight and should conquer the enemy, yet + either they or their children are like to be slaves still, for the + Gentry will have all. And this is the cause why many run away and + fail our Armies in the time of need. And so through the Gentry's + hardness of heart against the Poor, the Land may be left to a + foreign enemy for want of the Poor's love sticking to them. For say + they, we can as well live under a foreign enemy, working for day + wages, as under our own bretheren, with whom we ought to have equal + freedom by the Law of Righteousness. + + "(5) This freedom in planting the common land will prevent robbing, + stealing and murdering, and prisons will not so mightily be filled + with prisoners; and thereby we shall prevent that heart-breaking + spectacle of seeing so many hanged every Session as there are. And + surely this imprisoning and hanging of men is the Norman Power + still, and cannot stand with the freedom of the Commonwealth, nor + warranted by the Engagement. For by the Laws and Engagement of the + Commonwealth, none ought to be hanged nor put to death, for other + punishment may be found out. And those that do hang or put to death + their fellow Englishmen, under colour of Laws, do break the Laws + and Engagements by so doing, and cast themselves from under the + protection of the Commonwealth, and are Traitors to England's + Freedom, and upholders of the kingly, murdering power. + + "(6) This Freedom in the Common Earth is the Poor's Right by the + Law of Creation and Equity of the Scriptures. For the Earth was not + made for a few, but for whole mankind; for God is no respecter of + persons." + +Winstanley then concludes as follows: + + "Now these few considerations we offer to all England, and we + appeal to the judgement of all rational and righteous men whether + this we speak be not that substantial truth brought forth into + action, which Ministers have preached up, and all Religious Men + have made profession of. For certainly God, who is the King of + Righteousness, is not a God of words only, but of deeds; for it is + the badge of hypocrisy for man to say and not to do. Therefore we + leave this with you all, having peace in our hearts by declaring + faithfully to you this Light that is in us, and which we do not + only speak and write, but which we do easily act and practice. + + "Likewise we write it as a letter of congratulation and + encouragement to our dear Fellow Englishmen that have begun to dig + upon the Commons, thereby taking possession of their Freedom, in + Wellinborow in Northamptonshire, and at Cox Hall in Kent, waiting + to see the chains of slavish fear to break and fall off from the + hearts of others in other countries till at last the whole Land is + filled with the knowledge and righteousness of the Restoring Power, + which is Christ Himself, Abraham's seed, who will spread Himself + till He become the joy of all Nations. + + "Jerrard Winstanley, Richard Maidley, Thomas James, John Dickins, + John Palmer, John South, _Elder_, Nathaniel Halcomb, Thomas Edcer, + Henry Barton, John Smith, Jacob Heard, Thomas Barnet, Anthony Wren, + John Hayman, William Hitchcock, Henry Hancocke, John Batty, Thomas + Starre, Thomas Adams, John Coulton, Thomas South, Robert Sawyer, + Daniel Ireland, Robert Draper, Robert Coster, and divers others + that were not present when this went to the Presse. + + "_March 26th, 1650._" + +We are afraid that the enterprise at Wellinborrow did not have a very +long life; for in the _Calendar of State Papers_, Domestic, Green, p. +106, under date April 15th, 1650, we note the following letter, which +seems to us to show that the Rulers of England were fully alive to "the +mischief these designs tend to," and to prove that it was the theories +of the Diggers, not their actions, that filled the breasts of the +privileged classes with the determination to nip their enterprise in the +bud, before it had time to influence the life and thought of the Nation: + + "COUNCIL OF STATE to Mr. PENTLOW, Justice of Peace for County + Northampton. + + "We approve your proceedings with the Levellers in those parts, and + doubt not you are sensible of the mischief those designs tend to, + and of the necessity to proceed effectually against them. If the + laws in force against those who intrude upon other men's + properties, and that forbid and direct the punishing of all riotous + assemblies and seditious and tumultuous meetings, be put in + execution, there will not want means to preserve the public peace + against the attempts of this sort of people. Let those men be + effectually proceeded against at the next Sessions, _and if any + that ought to be instrumental to bring them to punishment fail in + their duty, signify the same to us_, that we may require of them an + account of their neglect; but till we find the ordinary means + unable to preserve the peace, we would not have recourse to any + other." + +The sentence we have italicised seems to show that even amongst the +Justices of the Peace and Officers of the Land the doctrines of the +Diggers had found sympathisers, who were unwilling that they should be +proceeded against. Nor can we be surprised at this when we bear in mind +the terrible state of the rural population of the "meaner sort" at the +time. Some idea of same may be gathered in the Declaration from +Wellinborrow, which is more than fully confirmed in the pages of +Whitelocke, from which we take the following brief entries: + + (P. 398.) Under date April 30th, 1649: + + "Letters from Lancashire of their want of bread, so that many + families were starved." + + (P. 399.) Under date May 1649: + + "Letters from Newcastle that many in Cumberland and Westmoreland + died in the Highways for want of bread, and divers left their + habitations, travelling with their wives and children to other + parts to get Relief, but could have none. That the Committees and + Justices of the Peace of Cumberland signed a certificate, that + there were Thirty Thousand Families that had neither seed nor bread + corn, nor money to buy either, and they desired a collection for + them, which was made, but much too little to relieve so great a + multitude." + + (P. 404.) Under date May 1649: + + "Letters from Lancashire of great scarcity of corn, and that the + famine was sore among them, after which the plague overspread + itself in many parts of the country, taking away whole families + together, and few escaped where any house was visited, and that the + Levellers got into arms, but were suppressed speedily by the + Governor." + + (P. 421.) Under date August 1649: + + "Letters of great complaints of the taxes in Lancashire: and that + the meaner sort threaten to leave their habitations, and their + wives and children to be maintained by the Gentry; that they can no + longer bear the oppression, to have the bread taken out of the + mouths of their wives and children by taxes; and that if an army of + the Turks came to relieve them, they will join them." + +Under such circumstances we cannot be surprised that Winstanley's +revolutionary, though to our mind eternally true, doctrines, upholding +the equal claim of all to the use of the land, proclaimed as they were +with all the eloquence, zeal and fire of his noble spirit, should have +awakened an echo in the hearts of the more thoughtful, as well as of the +more necessitous, of his fellow-citizens. But all in vain. In his time, +as in our time, the Inward Light could not overcome the Outward +Darkness, nor Universal Love, which is Justice and Righteousness, +overcome Self Love, which is Covetousness. Then, as now, the Spirit of +Equity, of Reason and of Love was impotent when opposed by the power of +the Sword, of Force. And yet, and yet--more especially in view of the +thought to-day stirring advanced political circles in every +constitutionally governed country in the world--who dare maintain that +Winstanley lived in vain! + +About a fortnight after the publication of his _Appeal to all +Englishmen_, Winstanley issued yet another pamphlet, of which, as it +contains nothing save what he had already better expressed in his other +writings, we need only quote the suggestive title-page, with which this +chapter may fittingly close: it reads as follows: + + "AN HUMBLE REQUEST TO THE MINISTERS OF BOTH UNIVERSITIES, AND TO + ALL LAWYERS OF EVERY INNS-A-COURT:[161:1] to consider of the + Scriptures and Points of Law herein mentioned, and to give a + rational and Christian answer, whereby the difference may be + composed in peace, between the Poor Men in England who have + begun to dig, plow and build upon the Common Land, claiming it + their own by right of Creation, + + AND + + The Lords of Manors that trouble them, who have no other claimings + to Commons than from the King's will, or from the Power of the + Conquest, + + AND + + If neither Minister nor Lawyer will undertake a Reconciliation in + this case. Then we appeal to the Stone, Timber and Dust of the + Earth you tread upon, to hold forth the light of this business, + questioning not but that Power that dwells everywhere will + cause Light to spring out of Darkness, and Freedom out of + Bondage." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[146:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 1365. + +[148:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 534. We have to +thank the late Rev. Thomas Hancock, of Harrow on the Hill, for this +reference. Mr. Hancock's profound knowledge of the Commonwealth times +was well known to every student of the period, at whose disposal he +gladly placed the wonderful store of information he had collected. We +would here acknowledge our indebtedness to him for this and other +information. + +[150:1] British Museum, under Wellingborrow, Press Mark, S. Sh. fol. 669 +f., 15 (21). + +[153:1] British Museum, Press Mark, S. Sh. fol. 669 f., 15 (23). + +[161:1] There is no copy of this pamphlet at the British Museum, nor in +the Bodleian; but a copy is to be found in the Dyce and Forster Library, +South Kensington Museum, London, W. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +GERRARD WINSTANLEY'S UTOPIA: THE LAW OF FREEDOM + + "And when reason's voice, + Loud as the voice of nature, shall have waked + The nations; and mankind perceives that vice + Is discord, war and misery; that virtue + Is peace, and happiness and harmony; + When man's maturer nature shall disdain + The playthings of its childhood;--kingly glare + Will lose its power to dazzle; its authority + Will silently pass by; the gorgeous{7} throne + Shall stand unnoticed in the regal hall, + Fast falling to decay; whilst falsehood's trade + Shall be as hateful and unprofitable + As that of truth is now."--SHELLEY. + + +The above words of Shelley might have been written purposely to serve as +a preface to Winstanley's final work, the main contents of which we now +propose to lay before our readers. It happened to be the first of +Winstanley's works that fell into our hands, when, many years since, in +consequence of Carlyle's somewhat patronising reference to them, we +first determined to ascertain what the views and aims of the Diggers +really were. Its perusal{8} convinced us, and our subsequent +investigations have only served to strengthen the belief, that +Winstanley was, in truth, one of the most courageous, far-seeing and +philosophic preachers of social righteousness that England has given to +the world. And yet how unequally Fame bestows her rewards. More's +_Utopia_ has secured its author a world-wide renown; it is spoken of, +even if not read, in every civilised country in the world. Gerrard +Winstanley's Utopia is unknown even to his own countrymen. Yet let any +impartial student compare the ideal society conceived by Sir Thomas +More--a society based upon slavery, and extended by wars carried on by +hireling, mercenary soldiers--with the simple, peaceful, rational and +practical social ideal pictured by Gerrard Winstanley, and it is to the +latter that he will be forced to assign the laurel crown. + +From internal evidence we gather that the book was written some time +before it was published. Winstanley had come to realise that the real +power of the Country was in the hands of the Army, of its trusted +officers and leaders. Hence it is, probably, that the opening epistle is +addressed to Oliver Cromwell, who at the time was Commander in Chief of +the Army, and the man to whom all England was looking with wonder and +admiration, not unmixed with anxious forebodings. The years that had +elapsed between the conception and the publication of Winstanley's book +had been momentous ones in this great man's career. Owing to Lord +Fairfax's reluctance to invade Scotland, the command of the +Commonwealth's Army had devolved on him: and right good use had the hero +of Naseby made of his opportunities. In September 1651 he won the +decisive battle of Dunbar; and in the same month of the following year +he won the even more decisive battle of Worcester, which, to use +Gardiner's words, manifested to the world that England refused "to be +ruled by a king who came in as an invader."[163:1] In the following +November, when Winstanley was sitting down to write his Dedicatory +Epistle, Cromwell was already back in his seat in Parliament, +endeavouring "to use the patriotic fervour called out by the invasion to +settle the Commonwealth on a broader basis," and agitating for "a time +to be fixed for the dissolution of the existing Parliament and for the +calling of a new one."[163:2] And in February 1652, when the book was +published, political and religious excitement in England was probably at +the greatest height to which it ever attained even in the stirring days +of the Commonwealth, and Cromwell may be regarded as standing at the +dividing line of his wonderful career. + +The title-page of the book reads as follows: + + "THE LAW OF FREEDOM IN A PLATFORM:[164:1] + + OR + + TRUE MAGISTRACY RESTORED. + + Humbly presented to Oliver Cromwel, General of the Commonwealth's + Army in England, Scotland and Ireland. And to all English-men + my Bretheren, whether in Church Fellowship or not in Church + Fellowship,[164:2] both sorts walking as they conceive + according to the order of the Gospel: and from them to all the + Nations of the World. + + Wherein is declared, What is Kingly Government, and What is + Commonwealth's Government. + + BY GERRARD WINSTANLEY. + + In thee, O England, is the Law arising up to shine, + If thou receive and practice it, the Crown it will be thine. + If thou reject, and still remain a froward Son to be, + Another Land will it receive, and take the Crown from thee. + + REV. 11-15. DAN. 7. 27. + + LONDON. + + Printed for the Author, and are to be sold by Giles Calvert at the + Black Spred-Eagle at the West end of Pauls." + +As already mentioned, it opens with a Dedicatory Letter-- + + "To His Excellency OLIVER CROMWEL, General of the Commonwealth's + Army in England, Scotland and Ireland"-- + +which commences as follows: + + "SIR,--God hath honored you with the highest honor of any man since + Moses' time, to be the head of a People who have cast out an + oppressing Pharaoh. For when the Norman Power had conquered our + forefathers, he took the free use of our English Ground from them, + and made them his servants. And God hath made you a successful + instrument to cast out that Conqueror, and to recover our Land and + Liberties again, by your Victories, out of that Norman hand." + +Winstanley then indicates Cromwell's duty, as well as the alternative +ways open to him, in the following words: + + "That which is wanting on your part to be done is this, To see the + Oppressor's Power be cast out with his person; and to see that the + free possession of the Land and Liberties be put into the hands of + the Oppressed Commoners of England. For the Crown of Honor cannot + be yours, neither can these Victories be called victories on your + part, till the Land and Freedom won be possessed by them that + adventured person and purse for them. + + "Now you know, Sir, that the Kingly Conqueror was not beaten by you + only, as you are a single man, nor by the Officers of the Army + joined to you; but by the hand and assistance of the Commoners, + whereof some came in person and adventured their lives with you, + others stayed at home and planted the Earth, and paid Taxes and + gave Free Quarter to maintain you that went to war.... And now you + have the Power of the Land in your hand, you must do one of these + two things: First, either set the Land free to the Oppressed + Commoners who assisted you ... and so take possession of your + deserved honor. Or, secondly, you must only remove the Conqueror's + power out of the King's hand into other men's, maintaining the old + laws still; and then your wisdom and honor will be blasted for + ever, and you will either lose yourself, or lay the foundation of + greater slavery to posterity than you ever knew." + +A marvellous prophecy, truly! Cromwell could see nothing in Winstanley's +demands save that they tended "to make the Tenant as liberal a fortune +as the Land-lord,"[165:1] which did not conform to his sense of the +eternal fitness of things. Winstanley then continues: + + "You know that while the King was in the height of his oppressing + power, the People only whispered in private chambers against him; + but afterwards it was preached upon the house-tops, that he was a + Tyrant, a Traitor to England's Peace: and he had his overturn. + + "The Righteous Power in the Creation is the same still. If you and + those in power with you should be found walking in the King's + steps, can you secure yourselves or posterities from an overturn? + Surely No. + + "The Spirit of the whole Creation (who is God) is about the + Reformation of the World, and he will go forward in his + work.[166:1] For if he would not spare Kings, who have sat so long + at his right hand, governing the world, neither will he regard you, + unless your ways be found more righteous than the King's.... Lose + not your Crown; take it up and wear it. But know that it is no + Crown of Honor till promises and engagements made by you be + performed to your friends. _He that continues to the end, shall + receive the Crown._ Now you do not see the end of your work unless + the Kingly Law and Power be removed as well as his person." + + +THE COMPLAINTS OF THE PEOPLE. + +He subsequently returns to his original subject, as follows: + + "It may be you will say to me, _What shall I do?_ I answer, You are + in place and power to see all Burthens taken off from your friends + the Commoners of England. You will say, _What are those burthens?_ + + "I will instance in some, both which I know in my own experience, + and which I hear the people daily complaining of and groaning + under, looking upon you and waiting for deliverance. + + "Most people cry, We have paid taxes, given free-quarter, wasted + our estates, and lost our friends in the wars, and the Task-masters + multiply over us more than formerly. I have asked divers this + question, _Why do you say so?_ + + "Some have answered me that promises, oaths and engagements have + been made, as a motive to draw us to assist in the wars, that + Privileges of Parliament and Liberties of Subjects should be + preserved, and that all Popery and Episcopacy and Tyranny should be + rooted out. And these promises are not performed. Now there is an + opportunity to perform them. + + "For first, say they, the current of succeeding Parliaments is + stopped, which is one of the greatest privileges (and people's + liberties) for safety and peace. And if that continue stopped, we + shall be more offended by an hereditary Parliament than we were + oppressed by an hereditary King. + + "And for the Commoners, who were called Subjects while the Kingly + Conqueror was in power, they have not as yet their Liberties + granted them. I will instance them in order, according as the + common whisperings are among the people." + + +THE POWER OF THE CLERGY. + + "For say they, The Burthens of the Clergy remain still upon us, in + a threefold nature. + + "_First_, If any man declare his judgement in the things of God + contrary to the Clergy's report, or the minds of some high + Officers, they are cashiered, imprisoned, crushed and undone, and + made sinners for a word, as they were in the Popes and Bishops + days; so that though their names be cast out, yet their High + Commission Court Power remains still, persecuting men for + conscience sake, when their actions are unblamable. + + "_Secondly_,{9} In many Parishes there are old, formal, ignorant + Episcopal Priests established; and some Ministers, who are bitter + enemies to Commonwealth's Freedom, and friends to Monarchy, are + established preachers, and are continually buzzing their subtle + principles into the minds of the people, to undermine the peace of + our declared Commonwealth, causing a disaffection of spirit among + neighbours, who otherwise would live in peace. + + "_Thirdly_, The burthen of Tythes remains still upon our estates, + which was taken from us by the Kings and given to the Clergy to + maintain them by our labors. So that though their preaching fill + the minds of many with madness, contention and unsatisfied + doubting, because their imaginary and ungrounded doctrines cannot + be understood by them, yet we must pay them large Tythes for so + doing: this is Oppression." + + +THE POWER OF THE LAWYERS. + + "_Fourthly_, If we go to the Lawyer, we find him to sit in the + Conqueror's Chair, though the King be removed, maintaining the + King's power to the height.... + + "_Fifthly_, Say they, if we look upon the Customs of the Law + itself, it is the same it was in the King's days, only the name is + altered; as if the Commoners of England had paid their taxes, given + free-quarter, and shed their blood, not to reform, but to baptize + the Law with a new name, from Kingly Law to State Law....[168:1] + And so as the Sword pulls down Kingly Power with one hand, the + King's Old Law builds up Monarchy again with the other." + + +THE MAIN WORK OF REFORMATION. + + "AND INDEED THE MAIN WORK OF REFORMATION LIES IN THIS, TO REFORM + THE CLERGY, LAWYERS AND LAW; FOR ALL THE COMPLAINTS OF THE LAND ARE + WRAPPED UP WITHIN THEM THREE, NOT IN THE PERSON OF A KING." + + "_Sixthly_, If we look into Parishes, the burthens there are many." + + +AND OF LORDS OF MANORS. + + "_First_, For the Power of Lords of Manors remains still over their + Bretheren, requiring Fines and Heriots, beating them off the free + use of the Common Land, unless their Bretheren will pay them Rent, + exacting obedience as much as they did, and more, when the King was + in power. + + "Now saith the People, By what Power do these maintain their Title + over us? Formerly they held Title from the King, as he was the + Conqueror's successor. But have not the Commoners cast out the + King, and broken the band of that Conquest? Therefore in equity + they are free from the slavery of that Lordly Power. + + "_Secondly_, In Parishes where Commons lie, the rich Norman + Free-holders, or the new (more covetous) Gentry, overstock the + Commons with sheep and cattle, so that the inferior Tenants and + poor Labourers can hardly keep a cow, but half starve her. So that + the poor are kept poor still, and the Common Freedom of the Earth + is kept from them, and the poor have no more relief than they had + when the King (or Conqueror) was in power.... + + "Now saith the whisperings of the People, the inferior Tenants and + Laborers bear all the burthens, in laboring the Earth, in paying + Taxes and Free-quarter above their strength, and in furnishing the + Armies with soldiers, who bear the greatest burden of the War; and + yet the Gentry, who oppress them and live idle upon their labors, + carry away all the comfortable livelihood of the Earth. + + "For is not this a common speech among the People, We have parted + with our estates, we have lost our friends in the wars, which we + willingly gave up because Freedom was promised us; and now in the + end we have new Task-masters, and our old burthens are increased. + And though all sorts of people have taken an engagement to cast out + Kingly Power, yet Kingly Power remains in power still in the hands + of those who have no more right to the Earth than ourselves. + + "For say the people, If the Lords of Manors and our Task-masters + hold Title to the Earth over us from the old Kingly Power, behold + that power is broken and cast out. And two Acts of Parliament have + been made. The one to cast out Kingly Power, backed by the + Engagement against King and the House of Lords. The other to make + England a Free Commonwealth." + +He then still further supports his fundamental contention in the +following unanswerable manner: + + "If Lords of Manors lay claim to the Earth over us from the Army's + Victories over the King; then we have as much right to the Land as + they, because our labors and blood and death of friends, were the + purchasers of the Earth's Freedom as well as theirs. And is not + this a slavery, say the people, that though there be land enough in + England to maintain ten times as many people as are in it, yet some + must beg of their bretheren, or work in hard drudgery for day wages + for them, or starve, or steal, and so be hanged out of the way, as + men not fit to live on the Earth? Before they are suffered to plant + the waste land for a livelihood, they must pay rent to their + bretheren for it. Well, this is a burthen the Creation groans + under; and the subjects (so-called) have not their birth-right + freedom granted them from their bretheren, who hold it from them by + Club-Law, but not by Righteousness." + + +WHAT IS TO RULE? + + "And who now must we be subject to, seeing the Conqueror is gone? I + answer, We must either be subject to a law or to men's wills. If to + a law, then _all_ men in England are subject, or ought to be, + thereunto.... You will say, We must be subject to the Rulers. This + is true, but not to suffer the Rulers to call the Earth theirs and + not ours; for by so doing they betray their trust and run into the + line of tyranny, and we lose our freedom, and from thence enmity + and wars arise. A Ruler is worthy double honor when he rules well; + that is, when he himself is subject to the Law, and requires all + others to be subject thereunto, and makes it his work to see the + Law obeyed, and not his own will; and such Rulers are faithful, and + they are to be subjected unto us therein: For all Commonwealth's + Rulers are Servants to, not Lords and Kings over the + people."[170:1] + + +THE LAND QUESTION. + + "But you will say, Is not the land your brother's? and you cannot + take away another man's right by claiming a share therein with him. + I answer, It is his either by Creation Right or by Right of + Conquest. If by Creation Right he calls the Earth his and not mine, + then it is mine as well as his; for the Spirit of the whole + Creation, who made us both, is no respecter of persons. And if by + Conquest he calls the Earth his and not mine, it must be either by + the conquest of the King over the Commoners or by the conquest of + the Commoners over the King. If he claim the Earth to be his from + the King's Conquest, the Kings are beaten and cast out, and that + title is undone. If he claim title to the Earth to be his from the + conquest of the Commoners over the Kings, then I have right to the + land as well as my brother; for my brother without me, nor I + without my brother, did not cast out the Kings; but both together + assisting, with purse and person, we prevailed, so that I have by + this victory as equal a share in the Earth which is now redeemed as + my brother, by the Law of Righteousness. + + "If my brother still say he will be Land Lord (through his covetous + ambition) and I must pay him rent, or else I shall not live in the + Land, then does he take my right from me, which I have purchased by + my money in taxes, free-quarter and blood. And O thou Spirit of the + Whole Creation, who hath this title to be called King of + Righteousness and King of Peace, judge thou between my brother and + me, Whether this be Righteous, etc. + + "And now say the people, Is not this a grievous thing, that our + bretheren that will be Land Lords, right or wrong, will make Laws, + and call for a Law to be made to imprison, crush, nay put to death + any that denies God, Christ and Scripture; and yet they will not + practice that Golden Rule, _Do to another as thou wouldst have + another do to thee_, which God, Christ and Scripture have enacted + for a Law? Are not these men guilty of death by their own Law, + which is the word of their own mouth? Is it not a flat denial of + God and Scripture?" + +Winstanley then gives some interesting details of the history of this +pamphlet, as follows: + + "Thus, Sir, I have reckoned up some of those burdens which the + people groan under. And I being sensible hereof was moved in myself + to present this Platform of Commonwealth's Government unto you, + wherein I have declared a full Commonwealth's Freedom, according to + the Rule of Righteousness, which is God's Word. It was intended for + your view about two years ago, but the disorder of the times caused + me to lay it aside, with a thought never to bring it to light. + Likewise I hearing that Mr. Peters and some others propounded this + request--That the Word of God might be consulted with to find out a + healing Government, which I liked well, and waited to see such a + Rule come forth, for there are good Rules in the Scripture if they + were obeyed and practised. + + "I laid aside this in silence, and said I would not make it public; + but this word was like fire in my bones ever and anon--_Thou shalt + not bury thy talent in the earth_. Thereupon I was stirred to give + it a resurrection, and to pick together as many of my scattered + papers as I could find, and to compile them into this method, which + I do here present to you, and do quiet my own spirit. And now I + have set the candle at your door; for you have power in your hand + to act for Common Freedom if you will: I have no power." + +He then continues to indicate his own views, as also the outlines of the +scheme the details of which are unfolded in the body of his work, and +warns Cromwell that-- + + "It may be here are some things inserted which you may not like, + yet other things you may like; therefore I pray you read it, and be + as the industrious bee, suck out the honey and cast away the weeds. + Though this Platform be like a piece of timber rough-hewed, yet the + discreet workman may take it and frame a handsome building out of + it." + + +OF COMPENSATION. + + "It may be you will say, If Tythe be taken from the Priests and + Impropriators, and Copyhold Services from Lords of Manors, how + shall they be provided for again; for is it not unrighteous to take + their estates from them? + + "I answer, When Tythes were first enacted, and Lordly Power drawn + over the backs of the oppressed, the Kings and Conquerors made no + scruple of conscience to take it, though the people lived in sore + bondage of poverty for want of it; and can there be scruple of + conscience to make restitution of this which hath been so long + stolen goods? It is no scruple arising from the Righteous Law, but + from Covetousness, who goes away sorrowful to hear he must part + with all to follow Righteousness and Peace." + +He then explains that under his scheme even the privileged classes would +not be injured, since they would share with the rest of the community. + + +OF RICHES. + + "But shall not one man be richer than another? + + "There is no need for that; for riches make men vainglorious, + proud, and to oppress their bretheren, and are the occasion of + wars. No man can be rich but he must be rich either by his own + labors, or by the labors of other men helping him. If a man have no + help from his neighbors, he shall never gather an estate of + hundreds and thousands a year. If other men help him to work, then + are those riches his neighbors' as well as his; for they be the + fruits of other men's labors as well as his own. But all rich men + live at ease, feeding and clothing themselves by the labors of + other men, not by their own, which is their shame and not their + nobility; for it is a more blessed thing to give than to receive. + But rich men receive all they have from the laborer's hand, and + what they give, they give away other men's labors, not their own. + Therefore they are not righteous actors in the Earth." + + +TITLES OF HONOUR. + + "But shall not one man have more Titles of Honor than another? + + "Yes: As a man goes through offices, he rises to Titles of Honor, + till he comes to the highest nobility, to be a faithful + Commonwealth's Man in a Parliament House. Likewise he who finds out + any secret in Nature shall have a Title of Honor given him, though + he be a young man. But no man shall have any Title of Honor till he + win it by industry, or come to it by age or Office-bearing. Every + man that is fifty years of age shall have respect as a man of honor + from all others that are younger, as is shown hereafter." + + +OF FAMILY LIFE. + + "Shall every man count his neighbour's house as his own, and live + together as one family? + + "No; though the Earth and Storehouses be common to every Family, + yet every Family shall live apart as they do; and every man's + house, wife, children and furniture for ornament of his house, or + anything he hath fetched in from the Storehouses, or provided for + the necessary use of his family, is all a propriety unto that + Family, for the peace thereof. And if any man offer to take away a + man's wife, children, or furniture of his house, without his + consent, or disturb the peace of his dwelling, he shall suffer + punishment as an enemy to the Commonwealth's Government, as is + mentioned in the Platform following." + + +OF LAW AND LAWYERS. + + "Shall we have no Lawyers? + + "There shall be no need of them, for there is to be no buying and + selling, neither any need to expound Laws; for the bare letter of + the Law shall be both Judge and Lawyer, trying every man's actions. + And seeing we shall have successive Parliaments every year, there + will be rules made for every action that a man can do. + + "But there are to be Officers chosen yearly in every Parish, to see + the Laws executed according to the letter of the Laws; so that + there will be no long work in trying of offences, as it is under + Kingly Government, to get the Lawyers money, and to enslave the + Commoners to the Conqueror's Prerogative Law or Will. The sons of + contention, Simeon and Levi, must not bear rule in a Free + Commonwealth." + + +PLEA FOR CONSIDERATION. + + "At the first view you may say, 'This is a strange government.' But + I pray you judge nothing before trial. Lay this Platform of + Commonwealth's Government in one scale, and lay Monarchy, or Kingly + Government, in the other scale, and see which gives true weight to + Righteous Freedom and Peace. _There is no middle path between + these two; for a man must either be a free and true Commonwealth + man, or a Monarchial Tyrannical Royalist._" + + +ANSWERS TO FURTHER OBJECTIONS. + + "If any say this will bring poverty, surely they mistake: for there + will be plenty of all Earthly Commodities, with less labor and + trouble then now it is under Monarchy. There will be no want; for + every man may keep as plentiful a house as he will, and never run + into debt, for common stock pays for all. + + "If you say, Some will live idle; I answer, No. It will make idle + persons to become workers, as is declared in the Platform: There + shall be neither Beggar nor Idle Person. + + "If you say, This will make men quarrel and fight; I answer, No. It + will turn Swords into Ploughshares, and settle such a peace in the + Earth as Nations shall learn war no more. Indeed, the Government of + Kings is a breeder of wars, because men being put into the straits + of poverty, are moved to fight for Liberty, and to take one + another's estates from them, and to obtain Mastery. Look into all + Armies and see what they do more, but make some poor, some rich, + put some into freedom others into bondage: and is not this a plague + among mankind? + + "Well I question not but what Objections can be raised against this + Commonwealth's Government, they shall find an answer in this + Platform following. I have been something large, because I could + not contract myself into a lesser volume, having so many things to + speak of." + + +THE ONE THING NECESSARY. + + "I do not say nor desire that everyone shall be compelled to + practice this Commonwealth's Government; for the spirits of some + will be enemies at first, though afterwards they will prove the + most cordial and true friends thereunto. Yet I desire that the + Commonwealth's Land ... may be set free to all that have lent + assistance{10} either of person or purse to obtain it, and to all + that are willing to come in to the practice of this Government, and + be obedient to the Laws thereof. And for others who are not + willing, let them stay in the way of buying and selling, which is + the Law of the Conqueror, till they be willing." + + +CONCLUSION. + + "And so I leave this in your hand, humbly prostrating myself and it + before you, and remain, A true lover of Commonwealth's Government, + Peace and Freedom. + "GERRARD WINSTANLEY. + "_November 5th, 1651._" + + + + +TO THE FRIENDLY AND UNBIASSED READER. + +The somewhat long, though comprehensive, letter to Cromwell is followed +by one addressed "To the Friendly and Unbiassed Reader," in which a very +different tone is adopted, and which runs as follows: + + "READER,--It was the Apostle's advice formerly to try all things, + and to hold fast that which is best. This Platform of Government + which I offer is the original Righteousness and Peace in the Earth, + though he hath been buried under the clod of Kingly Covetousness, + Pride and Oppression a long time. Now he begins to have his + Resurrection, despise it not while it is small; though thou + understand it not at the first sight, yet open the door and look + into the house; for thou mayst see that which will satisfy thy + heart in quiet rest." + + +SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OF HIS PLAN. + + "To prevent thy hasty rashness, I have given thee a short + compendium of the whole. + + "_First_, Thou knowst that the Earth in all Nations is governed by + buying and selling, for all the Laws of Kings hath relation + thereunto. Now this Platform following declares to thee the + Government of the Earth without buying and selling, and the Laws + are the Laws of a free and peaceable Commonwealth.... + + "Every family shall live apart, as now they do; every man shall + enjoy his own wife, and every woman her own husband, as now they + do: every Trade shall be improved to more excellency than now it + is; all children shall be educated and trained up in subjection to + parents and elder persons more than now they are: The Earth shall + be planted and the fruits reaped and carried into Storehouses by + common assistance of every family: The Riches of the Storehouses + shall be the common stock to every Family: There shall be no idle + person nor beggar in the Land." + + +COMMONWEALTH GOVERNMENT AND KINGLY GOVERNMENT. + + "The Commonwealth's Government unites all people in a Land into one + heart and mind. And it was this Government which made Moses to call + Abraham's seed one House of Israel, though there were many Tribes + and many Families. And it may be said, Blessed is the People whose + Earthly Government is the Law of Common Righteousness.... + + "The Government of Kings is the Government of the Scribes and + Pharisees, who count it no freedom unless they be the Lords of the + Earth and of their Bretheren. But Commonwealth's Government is the + Government of Righteousness and Peace, who is no respecter of + persons." + + +FINAL APPEAL TO THE READER. + + "Therefore, Reader, here is a trial for thy sincerity. Thou shalt + have no want of food, raiment or freedom among bretheren in this + way propounded. See now if thou canst be content, as the Scriptures + say, Having food and raiment therewith be content, and grudge not + to let thy brother have the same with thee. + + "Dost thou pray and fast for Freedom, and give God thanks again for + it? Why, know that God is not partial. For if thou pray, it must be + for Freedom to all; and if thou give thanks, it must be because + Freedom covers all people: for this will prove a lasting peace. + + "Everyone is ready to say, They fight for their Country, and what + they do, they do it is for the good of their Country. Well, let it + appear now that thou hast fought and acted for thy Country's + Freedom. But if when thou hast power to settle Freedom in thy + Country, thou takest the possession of the Earth into thy own + particular hands, and makest thy Brother work for thee, as the + Kings did, thou hast fought and acted for thyself, not for thy + Country, and here thy inside hypocrisy is discovered. + + "But here take notice, That Common Freedom, which is the Rule I + would have practiced and not talked on, was thy pretence, but + particular Freedom to thyself was thy intent. Amend, or else thou + wilt be shamed, when Knowledge doth spread to cover the Earth, even + as the waters cover the Seas. And so Farewell. + J. W." + +To-day knowledge is commencing "to spread to cover the Earth even as the +waters cover the Seas"; and the thinkers of our times are rapidly coming +to realise, to use Shelley's words, that--"The most fatal error that +ever happened in the world was the separation of political and ethical +science": a separation against which, as we have seen, Winstanley in his +time protested so vigorously. Hence it is, probably, that the teachings +of our modern seers and prophets, of the leaders and inspirers of the +advanced thought of to-day, of Ruskin, Tolstoy, and even of Henry +George, almost seem to us but as the echoes of those of their great +forerunner in the stirring days of the Commonwealth. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[163:1] _History of the Commonwealth_, vol. i. p. 446. + +[163:2] _Ibid._ p. 471. + +[164:1] King's Pamphlets. British Museum, Press Mark, E. 655. Also at +the Guildhall Library and the Bodleian. + +[164:2] At the very time this book was being written, some of the new +settlements in America were making Church Fellowship a necessary +condition of civil rights. + +[165:1] See Carlyle's _Letters and Speeches_, Speech II., Sept. 4th, +1654, part viii. p. 20. + +[166:1] This argument would have appealed strongly to Cromwell, who, in +one of his Speeches to his First Parliament, said: "If I had not a hope +fixed in me that this cause and this business was of God, I would many +years ago have run from it. If it be of God, He will bear it up. If it +be of man, it will tumble; as everything that hath been of man since the +world began hath done. And what are all our Histories and other +Traditions of Actions in former times but God manifesting Himself, that +He hath shaken and tumbled down, and trampled upon everything that He +had not planted."--Carlyle, _Letters and Speeches_, part viii. p. 89. + +[168:1] With this contention, too, Cromwell would have found himself in +complete sympathy. For "the truth of it is, There are wicked and +abominable laws which will be in your power to alter," he said to one of +his Parliaments on Sept. 17th, 1656. "To hang a man for +Six-and-eight-pence, and I know not what; to hang for a trifle and +acquit murder,--is in the ministration of the Law, through the ill +framing of it. I have known in my experience abominable murders +acquitted. And to see men lose their lives for petty matters: this is a +thing God will reckon for. And I wish it may not lie upon this Nation a +day longer than you have an opportunity to give a remedy; and I hope I +shall cheerfully join with you in it. This hath been a great grief to +many honest hearts and conscientious people; and I hope it is in all +your hearts to rectify it." + +[170:1] "And truly this is matter of praise to God:--and it hath some +instruction in it, To own men who are religious and godly. And so many +of them as are peaceable and honestly and quietly disposed to live +within Government, and will be subject to those Gospel rules of obeying +Magistrates and living under Authority. I reckon no Godliness without +that circle! Without that spirit, let it pretend what it will, it is +diabolical, it is devilish," and so on. See Cromwell's Speech to his +Second Parliament, April 13th, 1657 (Carlyle, part x. p. 250). It would +almost seem as if Winstanley had written the above paragraph to answer +this explosive utterance of Cromwell, some six years before it took +place. As a matter of fact, of course, he was only answering an +objection which every little conventional upholder of existing abuses, +in his time as in our time, would be sure to make in one form or other. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +GERRARD WINSTANLEY'S UTOPIA + +THE LAW OF FREEDOM (_continued_) + + "Look on yonder earth: + The golden harvests spring; the unfailing sun + Sheds light and life; the fruits, the flowers, the trees, + Arise in due succession; all things speak + Peace, harmony and love.... Is Mother Earth + A step-dame to her numerous sons, who earn + Her unshared gifts with unremitting toil; + A mother only to those puling babes + Who, nursed in ease and luxury, make men + The playthings of their babyhood, and mar, + In self-important childishness, that peace + Which men alone appreciate?"--SHELLEY. + + +"The end of law," says Locke, "is not to abolish or restrain, but to +preserve and enlarge freedom." Winstanley evidently held the same view; +for he commences this, his last and greatest book, as follows: + + "WHERE TRUE FREEDOM LIES. + + "The great searching of heart in these days is to find out where + true Freedom lies, that the Commonwealth of England might be + established in peace. Some say, It lies in the free use of Trading, + and to have all Patents, Licenses and Restraints removed: But this + is a Freedom under the Will of a Conqueror. Others say, It is true + Freedom to have Ministers to preach, and for people to hear whom + they will, without being restrained or compelled from or to any + form of worship: But this is an unsettled Freedom.... Others say, + It is true Freedom that the Elder Brother shall be Land Lord of the + Earth, and the Younger Brother a Servant: And this is but a half + Freedom, and begets murmurings, wars and quarrels. + + "All these, and such like, are Freedoms; but they lead to Bondage, + and are not the true Foundation-Freedom which settles a + Commonwealth in Peace. + + + "TRUE COMMONWEALTH'S FREEDOM LIES IN THE FREE ENJOYMENT OF THE + EARTH. + + "True Freedom lies where a man receives his nourishment and + preservation, and that is in the use of the Earth.... All that a + man labors for, saith Solomon, is this, That he may enjoy the free + use of the Earth with the fruits thereof (Eccles. 2. 24). Do not + the Ministers preach for maintenance in the Earth? The Lawyers + plead causes to get the possessions of the Earth? Doth not the + Soldier fight for the Earth? And doth not the Land Lord require + Rent that he may live in the fullness of the Earth by the labor of + his Tenants? And so from the Thief upon the Highway to the King who + sits upon the Throne, does not everyone strive, either by force of + Arms or secret Cheats, to get the possessions of the Earth one from + another, because they see their Freedom lies in plenty, and their + Bondage lies in Poverty?" + +Then occurs this eternally true passage: + + "Surely, then, oppressing Lords of Manors, exacting Land-lords and + Tythe-takers, may as well say their Bretheren shall not breathe in + the air, nor enjoy warmth in their bodies, nor have the moist + waters to fall upon them in showers, unless they will pay them rent + for it, as to say their Bretheren shall not work upon Earth, nor + eat the fruits thereof, unless they will hire that liberty of them. + For he that takes upon him to restrain his Brother from the liberty + of the one, may upon the same ground restrain him from the liberty + of all four, viz., Fire, Water, Earth and Air. + + "A man had better to have had no body than to have no food for it. + Therefore this restraining of the Earth from Bretheren by Bretheren + is oppression and bondage; but the free enjoyment thereof is true + Freedom." + + +INWARD AND OUTWARD BONDAGE. + + "I speak now in relation between the Oppressor and the Oppressed, + the Inward Bondages I meddle not with in this place, though I am + assured that if it be rightly searched into, the inward bondages of + the mind, as covetousness, pride, hypocrisy, envy, sorrow, fears, + desperation and madness, are all occasioned by the outward bondage + that one sort of people lay upon another. And thus far natural + experience makes it good, THAT TRUE FREEDOM LIES IN THE FREE + ENJOYMENT OF THE EARTH." + + + "WHAT IS GOVERNMENT IN GENERAL? + + "Government is a wise and free ordering of the Earth and of the + Manners of Mankind by observation of particular Laws or Rules, so + that all the inhabitants may live peaceably in plenty and freedom + in the Land where they are born and bred." + +With this most suggestive, philosophic and beautiful definition of +Government, Winstanley opens his second chapter, and immediately +elucidates his views on this all-important subject by drawing what we +regard as a true and just comparison between what he well terms Kingly +Government and Commonwealth's Government, or, what would now be termed, +Aristocracy and Democracy, as follows: + + + "WHAT IS KINGLY GOVERNMENT? + + "There is a twofold Government: a Kingly Government and a + Commonwealth's Government. + + "Kingly Government governs the Earth by that cheating art of buying + and selling, and thereby becomes a man of contention, his hand is + against every man, and every man's hand against him ... and if it + had not a Club Law to support it, there would be no order in it, + because it is but the covetous and proud will of a Conqueror + enslaving a conquered people.... Indeed, this Government may well + be called the Government of Highwaymen, who hath stolen the Earth + from the Younger Bretheren by force and holds it from them by + force.... The great Lawgiver of this Kingly Government is + Covetousness, ruling in the hearts of mankind, making one Brother + to covet a full possession of the Earth, and a Lordly Rule over + another Brother.... The Rise of Kingly Government is attributable + to a politic wit in drawing the people out of Common Freedom into + a way of Common Bondage: FOR SO LONG AS THE EARTH IS A COMMON + TREASURY TO ALL MEN, KINGLY COVETOUSNESS CAN NEVER REIGN AS KING. + + + "WHAT IS COMMONWEALTH'S GOVERNMENT? + + "Commonwealth's Government governs the Earth without buying and + selling, and thereby becomes a man of peace, and the Restorer of + Ancient Peace and Freedom. He makes provision for the oppressed, + the weak and the simple, as well as for the rich, the wise and the + strong.... All slavery and Oppressions ... are cast out by this + Government, _if it be right in power as well as in name_ ... IF + ONCE COMMONWEALTH'S GOVERNMENT BE SET UPON THE THRONE, THEN NO + TYRANNY OR OPPRESSION CAN LOOK HIM IN THE FACE AND LIVE.{11} + + "If true Commonwealth's Freedom lies in the free enjoyment of the + Earth, as it doth, then whatsoever Law or Custom doth deprive + Bretheren of their Freedom in the Earth is to be cast out as + unsavoury salt." + +And after reminding his readers that "the great Lawgiver in +Commonwealth's Government is the Spirit of Universal Righteousness," and +warning them of the evils that would necessarily attend their posterity +if they heeded not His dictates, he continues: + + "If you do not run in the right channel of Freedom, you must, nay, + you will as you do, face about and turn back again to Egyptian + Monarchy; and so your names in the days of posterity shall be + blasted with abhorred infamy for your unfaithfulness to Common + Freedom; and the evil effects will be sharp upon the backs of + posterity. + + "Therefore, seeing England is declared to be a Free Commonwealth, + and the name thereof established by a Law; surely then the greatest + work is now to be done; and that is, to escape all Kingly cheats in + setting up a Commonwealth's Government, so that the power and the + name may agree together; so that all the inhabitants may live in + peace, plenty and freedom.... For oppression was always the + occasion why the spirit of freedom in the people desired change of + government.... And the oppressions of the Kingly Government have + made this age of the world to desire a Commonwealth's Government + and the removal of the Kings: for the Spirit of Light in man loves + Freedom and hates Bondage." + + + "WHERE BEGAN THE FIRST ORIGINAL OF GOVERNMENT IN THE EARTH AMONG + MANKIND?" + +In the third chapter, under the above heading, Winstanley first points +out that--"The original root of Magistracy is Common Preservation; and +it rose up first in a private family," and then continues: + + +COMMON PRESERVATION. + + "There are two roots whence Laws do spring. The first root is + Common Preservation, when there is a principle in every one to seek + the good of others as himself, without respecting persons: and this + is the root of the tree Magistracy, and the Law of Righteousness + and Peace: and all particular Laws found out by experience + necessary to be practiced for common preservation, are the boughs + and branches of that tree." + + +THE INWARD LIGHT. + + "And because among the variety of mankind ignorance may grow up, + therefore this Original Law is written in the hearts of every man, + to be his guide and leader; so that if an Officer be blinded by + covetousness and pride, and ignorance rule in him, yet an inferior + man may tell him when he goes astray. For COMMON PRESERVATION AND + PEACE IS THE FOUNDATION-RULE OF ALL GOVERNMENT: therefore if any + will preach or practice Fundamental Truths, or Doctrine, here you + may see where the foundation thereof lies." + + +SELF-PRESERVATION. + + "The second root is Self-Preservation: when particular Officers + seek their own preservation, ease, honor, riches, and freedom in + the Earth, and do respect persons that are in power and riches with + them, and regard not the peace, freedom, and preservation of the + weak and foolish among Bretheren." + + +THE ROOT OF THE TREE TYRANNY. + + "This is the root of the tree Tyranny, and the Law of + Unrighteousness; and all particular Kingly Laws found out by + Covetous Policy to enslave one Brother to another, whereby bondage, + tears, sorrows and poverty are brought upon many men, are all but + the boughs and branches of that tree Tyranny.... Indeed, this + Tyranny is the cause of all wars and troubles, of the removal of + the Government of the Earth out of one hand into another so often + as it is in all Nations. For if Magistrates had a care to cherish + the peace and liberties of the common people, and to see them set + free from oppression, they might sit in the Chair of Government and + never be disturbed. But when their sitting is altogether to advance + their own interest, and to forget the afflictions of their + Bretheren who are under bondage: this is the forerunner of their + own downfall, and oftentimes proves the plague of the whole Land. + + "Therefore the work of all true Magistrates is to maintain the + Common Law, which is the root of right government, and preservation + and peace to everyone; and to cast out all self-ended principles + and interests, which is Tyranny and Oppression, and which breaks + common peace. For surely the disorderly actings of Officers break + the peace of the Commonwealth more than any men whatsoever." + + + "ALL OFFICERS IN A TRUE MAGISTRACY OF A COMMONWEALTH ARE TO BE + CHOSEN OFFICERS. + + "He who is a true Commonwealth's officer is not to step into the + place of Magistracy by policy or violent force, as all Kings and + Conquerors do, and so become oppressing Tyrants, by promoting their + self-ended Interests, or Machiavilian Cheats, that they may live in + plenty and rule as Lords over their Bretheren. But a true + Commonwealth's Officer is to be a chosen one by them who are in + necessity and who judge him fit for that work.... + + "When the people have chosen all Officers, to preserve a right + order in government of earth among them, then doth the same + necessity of common peace move the people to say to their Overseers + and Officers--'_Do you see our Laws observed for our preservation + and peace, and we will assist and protect you._' And these words + _assist_ and _protect_ imply the rising up of the people by force + of arms to defend their Laws and Officers against any Invasion, + Rebellion or Resistance: yea, to beat down the turbulency of any + foolish or self-ended spirit that endeavours to break their common + peace." + + +FAITHFUL OFFICERS AND FAITHLESS OFFICERS. + + "So that all true Officers are chosen Officers, and when they act + to satisfy the necessities of them who chose them, then they are + faithful and righteous servants to that Commonwealth, and then + there is a rejoicing in the City. But when Officers do take the + possessions of the Earth into their own hands, lifting themselves + up thereby to be Lords over their Masters, the people who choose + them, and will not suffer the people to plant the Earth and reap + the fruits for their livelihood unless they will hire the land of + them, or work for day wages for them, that they may live in ease + and plenty and not work: These Officers are fallen from true + Magistracy of a Commonwealth, and they do not act righteously, and + because of this sorrow and tears, poverty and bondages are known + among mankind, and now that City mourns." + + + "ALL OFFICERS IN A COMMONWEALTH ARE TO BE CHOSEN NEW ONES EVERY + YEAR." + +Winstanley believed that power of any sort, more especially if long +enjoyed, tends to corrupt and to deteriorate. He therefore advocates, +and shows surprisingly good reasons for his advocacy, that new Officers +should be appointed every year. He says: + + "When public Officers remain long in places of Judicature, they + will degenerate from the bounds of humility, honesty and tender + care of bretheren, in regard the heart of man is so subject to be + overspread with the clouds of covetousness, pride and vain-glory. + For though at the first entrance into places of Rule they be of + public spirits, seeking the Freedom of others as their own; yet + continuing long in such a place, where honors and greatness come + in, they become selfish, seeking themselves, and not Common + Freedom; as experience proves it true in these days, according to + this common proverb--'_Great offices in a Land and Army have + changed the disposition of many sweet spirited men._' + + "And Nature tells us, that if water stand long, it corrupts; + whereas running water keeps sweet and is fit for common use. + + "Therefore, as the necessity of Common Preservation moves the + people to frame a Law and to choose Officers to see the Law + obeyed, that they may live in peace: So doth the same necessity bid + the people, and cries aloud in the ears and eyes of England, to + choose new Officers, and to remove the old ones, and to choose + State Officers every year: and that for these reasons: + + "_First_, To prevent their own evils: for when pride and fulness + take hold of an Officer, his eyes are so blinded therewith that he + forgets he is a servant to the Commonwealth, and strives to lift up + himself high above his Bretheren, and oftentimes his fall prove + very great: witness the fall of oppressing Kings, Bishops and other + State Officers. + + "_Secondly_,{12} To prevent the creeping of oppression into the + Commonwealth again. For when Officers grow proud and full, they + will maintain their greatness, though it be in the poverty, ruin + and hardship of their Bretheren: Witness the practice of Kings and + their Laws, that have crushed the Commoners of England a long time. + And have we not experience in these days that some Officers of the + Commonwealth have grown so mossy for want of removing that they + will hardly speak to an old acquaintance, if he be an inferior man, + though they were very familiar before these wars began? And what + hath occasioned this distance among friends and bretheren, but long + continuance in places of honor, greatness and riches?" + + "_Thirdly_, Let Officers be chosen new every year in love to our + posterity. For if burdens and oppressions should grow up in our + Laws and in our Officers for want of removing, as moss and weeds + grow in some land for want of stirring, surely it will be a + foundation of misery not easily to be removed by our posterity, and + then will they curse the time when we their forefathers had + opportunities to set things to rights for their ease, and would not + do it. + + "_Fourthly_, To remove Officers of State every year will make them + truly faithful, knowing that others are coming after who will look + into their ways, and if they do not do things justly, they must be + ashamed when the next Officers succeed. And when Officers deal + faithfully with the Government of the Commonwealth, they will not + be unwilling to remove: the peace of London is much preserved by + removing their Officers yearly. + + "_Fifthly_, It is good to remove Officers every year, that whereas + many have their portions to obey, so many may have their turn to + rule. And this will encourage all men to advance righteousness and + good manners in hopes of honor; but when money and riches bear all + the sway in the Rulers' hearts, there is nothing but tyranny in + such ways. + + "_Sixthly_, The Commonwealth hereby will be furnished with able and + experienced men, fit to govern, which will mightily advance the + honor and peace of our Land, occasion the more watchful care in the + education of children, and in time will make our Commonwealth of + England the Lily among the Nations of the Earth. + + + "WHO ARE FIT TO CHOOSE, AND FIT TO BE CHOSEN OFFICERS IN A + COMMONWEALTH. + + "All uncivil livers, as drunkards, quarrellers, fearful ignorant + men, who dare not speak truth less they anger other men; likewise + all who are wholly given to pleasure and sports, or men who are + full of talk: all these are empty of substance and cannot be + experienced men, therefore not fit to be chosen Officers in a + Commonwealth--yet they may have a voice in the choosing. + + "_Secondly_, All those who are interested in the Monarchial Power + and Government, ought neither to choose nor to be chosen Officers + to manage Commonwealth's affairs; for these cannot be friends to + Common Freedom.... But seeing that few of the Parliament's friends + understand their Common Freedom, though they own the name + Commonwealth, therefore the Parliament's Party ought to bear with + the ignorance of the King's Party, because they are Bretheren, and + not make them servants, though for the present they be suffered + neither to choose nor be chosen Officers, lest that ignorant spirit + of revenge break out in them to interrupt our common peace. + + "Moreover, All those who have been so hasty to buy and sell the + Commonwealth's Land, and so to entangle it upon a new accompt, + ought neither to choose nor be chosen Officers. For hereby they + declare themselves either to be for kingly interest, or else are + ignorant of Commonwealth's Freedom, or both, therefore unfit to + make Laws to govern a Free Commonwealth, or to be Overseers to see + those laws executed. What greater injury could be done to the + Commoners of England than to sell away their Land so hastily, + before the people knew where they were, or what Freedom they had + got by such cost and bloodshed as they were at? And what greater + ignorance could be declared by Officers than to sell away the + purchased Land from the purchasers, or from part of them, into the + hands of particular men to uphold Monarchial Principles? + + "But though this be a fault, let it be borne withal, it was + ignorance of Bretheren; for England hath lain so long under kingly + slavery that few knew what Common Freedom was; and let a + restoration of this redeemed land be speedily made by those who + have possession of it. For there is neither Reason nor Equity that + a few men should go away with that Land and Freedom which the whole + Commoners have paid taxes, free-quarter, and wasted their estates, + healths and blood, to purchase out of bondage, and many of them are + in want of a comfortable livelihood. + + "Well, these are the men that take away other men's rights from + them, and they are members of the covetous generation of + self-seekers, therefore unfit to be chosen Officers or to choose. + + + "WHO THEN ARE FIT TO BE CHOSEN OFFICERS? + + "Why truly choose such as have a long time given testimony by their + actions to be promoters of Common Freedom, whether they be Members + in Church Fellowship, or not in Church Fellowship, for all are one + in Christ. + + "Choose such as are men of peaceable spirits, and of a peaceable + conversation. + + "Choose such as have suffered under Kingly Oppression, for they + will be fellow-feelers of others' bondages. + + "Choose such as have adventured the loss of their estates and lives + to redeem the Land from bondage, and who have remained constant. + + "Choose men of courage, who are not afraid to speak the truth; for + this is the shame of many in England at this day, they are drowned + in the dung-hill mud of slavish fear of men. + + "Choose Officers out of the number of those men that are above + forty years of age, for these are most likely to be experienced + men, and to be men of courage, dealing truly and hating + covetousness." + + +PAYMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES. + + "And if you choose men thus principled who are poor men, as times + go, for the Conqueror's Power hath made many a righteous man a + poor man, then allow them a yearly maintenance from the Common + Stock, until such time as a Commonwealth's Freedom is established, + for then there will be no need of such allowances." + + +THE MAIN SOURCE OF IGNORANCE. + + "What is the reason that most men are so ignorant of their + Freedoms, and so few fit to be chosen Commonwealth's Officers? + + "Because the old Kingly Clergy, that are seated in Parishes for + lucre of Tythes, are continually distilling their blind principles + into the people, and do thereby nurse up ignorance to them. For + they observe the bent of the people's minds, and make sermons to + please the sickly minds of ignorant people, to preserve their own + riches and esteem among a charmed, befooled and besotted people." + +After this passing shot at his old adversaries, Winstanley proceeds to +consider the Offices and Institutions suitable for his ideal community, +for a Free Commonwealth. He first summarises their function as a whole, +and of the special duty incumbent on all public officials, as follows: + + "All the Offices in a Commonwealth are like links of a chain; they + arise from one and the same root, which is necessity of Common + Peace; therefore they are to assist each other, and all others are + to assist them, as need requires, upon pain of punishment by the + breach of the Laws. The Rule of Right Government being thus + observed, may make a whole Land, nay the whole Fabric of the Earth, + to become one Family of Mankind, and one well-governed + Commonwealth." + + +THE WORK OF A FATHER OR MASTER OF A FAMILY. + + "A Father is to cherish his children till they grow wise and + strong; and then as a Master he is to instruct them in reading, in + learning languages, Arts and Sciences, or to bring them up to + labor, or employ them in some Trade or other, or cause them to be + instructed therein, according as is shown hereafter in the + Education of Mankind. A Father is to have a care that all his + children do assist to plant the Earth, or by other Trades provide + necessaries; so he shall see that every one have a comfortable + livelihood, not respecting one before another. He is to command + them their work, and see they do it, and not suffer them to live + idle; he is either to reprove by words, or whip those that offend; + for the Rod is prepared to bring the unreasonable ones to + experience and moderation. That so children may not quarrel like + beasts, but live in Peace, like rational men, experienced in + yielding obedience to the Law and Officers of the Commonwealth: + every one doing to another as he would have another do to him." + + +THE WORK OF A PEACEMAKER. + + "In a Parish or Town may be chosen three, four or six Peacemakers, + according to the bigness of the place: and their work is twofold. + _First_, In general to sit in Council to order the affairs of the + Parish, to prevent troubles, and to preserve common peace. + _Secondly_, If there arise any matters of offence between man and + man, the offending parties shall be brought by the Soldiers + [Policemen] before any one or more of these Peacemakers, who shall + hear the matter, and endeavour to reconcile the parties and make + peace, and so put a stop to the rigour of the Law, and go no + further. But if the Peacemaker cannot persuade or reconcile the + parties, then he shall command them to appear at the Judges' Court + at the time appointed to receive the Judgement of the Law. + + "If any matter of public concernment fall out wherein the Peace of + the City, Town or Country is concerned, then the Peacemakers in + every town thereabouts shall meet and consult about it; and from + them, or any six of them, if need require, shall issue forth any + orders to inferior Officers. But if the matter concern only the + limits of a Town or City, then the Peacemakers of that Town shall + from their Court send forth orders to inferior Officers for the + performing of any public service within their limits. + + "_Thirdly_, If any proof be given that any Officer neglects his + duty, a Peacemaker is to tell that Officer, between them two, of + his neglect. If the Officer continue negligent after this reproof, + the Peacemaker shall acquaint either the County Senate, or the + National Parliament therewith, that from them the offender may + receive condign punishment. + + "AND IT IS ALL TO THIS END THAT THE LAWS BE OBEYED; FOR A CAREFUL + EXECUTION OF LAWS IS THE LIFE OF GOVERNMENT." + + +THE WORK OF AN OVERSEER. + +Winstanley then details at some length the functions of Overseers, of +which the following will, we think, give our readers sufficient insight: + + "In a Parish or Town there is to be a four-fold degree of + Overseers, which are to be chosen yearly. The first is an Overseer + to preserve peace, in case of any quarrels that may fall out + between man and man.... The second office of Overseer is for + Trades. This Overseer is to see that young people be put to + Masters, to be instructed in some labour, trade, service, or to be + waiters in Storehouses, that none may be idly brought up in any + family within his circuit.... Truly the Government of the Halls and + Companies in London is a very rational and well-ordered government; + and the Overseers for Trades may well be called Masters, Wardens, + and Assistants of such and such a Company, for such and such a + particular Trade.... Likewise this Overseer for Trades shall see + that no man shall be a Housekeeper and have servants under him till + he hath served under a Master seven years, and hath learned his + Trade: and the reason is, that every Family may be governed by + staid and experienced Masters, and not by wanton youth. And this + Office of Overseer keeps all people within a peaceful harmony of + Trades, Sciences, or Works, that there be neither Beggar nor Idle + Person in the Commonwealth. + + "The third Office of Overseership is to see particular Tradesmen + bring in their work to the Storehouses and Shops, and to see that + the waiters in Storehouses do their duty.... And if any Keeper of a + Shop or Storehouse neglect the duty of his place ... the Overseer + shall admonish him and reprove him. If he amend, all is well; if he + doth not, the Overseer shall give orders to the Soldiers to carry + him before the Peacemaker's Court, and if he reform upon the + reproof of that Court, all is well. But if he doth not reform, he + shall be sent by the Officers to appear before the Judge's Court, + and the Judge shall pass sentence--That he shall be put out of that + House and Employment, and sent among the Husbandmen to work in the + Earth: and some other shall have his place and house till he be + reformed." + + "Fourthly, all ancient men, above sixty years of age, are General + Overseers. And wheresoever they go and see things amiss in any + Officer or Tradesmen, they shall call any Officer or others to + account for their neglect of duty to the Commonwealth's Peace; and + they are called Elders." + + +THE OFFICE OF A SOLDIER. + + "A Soldier is a Magistrate as well as any other Officer; and indeed + all State Officers are Soldiers, for they represent power; and if + there were not power in the hands of Officers, the spirit of + rudeness would not be obedient to any Law or Government, but their + own wills. Therefore every year shall be chosen a Soldier, like + unto a Marshall of a City, and, being the Chief, he shall have + divers soldiers under him at his command to assist in case of need. + The work of a Soldier in times of peace is to fetch in Offenders, + and to bring them before either Officer or Court, and to be a + protector to the Officers against all disturbances." + + +THE WORK OF A TASK-MASTER. + + "The Work or Office of a Task-master is to take those into his + oversight as are sentenced by the Judge to loose their Freedom, to + appoint them their work, and to see they do it." + + +THE WORK OF A JUDGE. + + "THE LAW ITSELF IS THE JUDGE OF ALL MEN'S ACTIONS; yet he who is + chosen to pronounce the Law is called Judge, because he is the + mouth of the Law: for no single man ought to judge or to interpret + the Law. Because the Law itself, as it is left us in the letter, is + the mind and determination of the Parliament and of the people of + the Land, to be their Rule to walk by and to be the touch-stone of + all actions. And the man who takes upon him to interpret the Law, + doth either darken the sense of the Law, and so make it confused + and hard to be understood, or else puts another meaning upon it, + and so lifts up himself above the Parliament, above the Law, and + above all people in the Land. + + "Therefore the work of that man who is called Judge is to hear any + matter that is brought before him; and in all cases of difference + between man and man, he shall see the parties on both sides before + him, and shall hear each man speak for himself, without a fee'd + Lawyer; likewise he is to examine any witness who is to prove a + matter on trial before him. And then he is to pronounce the bare + letter of the Law concerning such a thing: for he hath his name + Judge, not because his will or mind is to judge the actions of + offenders before him, but because he is the mouth to pronounce the + Law, who, indeed, is the true Judge: Therefore to this Law and to + this Testimony let everyone have regard who intends to live in + Peace in the Commonwealth." + +Then occurs a passage that shows how carefully Winstanley had watched +the public affairs of his own times, more especially the prolonged +attempt of the late King to govern England under cover of ancient +obsolete Laws interpreted by Judges removable at his will. He continues: + + "For hence hath arisen much misery in the Nations under Kingly + Government, in that the man called the Judge hath been suffered to + interpret the Law. And when the mind of the Law, the Judgement of + the Parliament and the Government of the Land, is resolved into the + breasts of the Judges, this hath occasioned much complaining of + Injustice in Judges, in Courts of Justice, in Lawyers, and in the + course of the Law itself, as if it were an evil Rule. Because the + Law which was a certain Rule was varied, according to the will of a + covetous, envious or proud Judge. Therefore no marvel though the + Kingly Laws be so intricate, and though few know which way the + course of the Law goes, because the sentence lies many times in the + breast of a Judge, and not in the letter of the Law. And so the + good Laws made by an industrious Parliament are like good eggs laid + by a silly goose, and as soon as she hath laid them, she goes her + way and lets others take them, and never looks after them more, so + that if you lay a stone in her nest, she will sit upon it as if it + were an egg. And so, though the Laws be good, yet if they be left + to the will of a Judge to interpret, the execution hath many times + proved bad." + + + "WHAT IS THE JUDGE'S COURT? + + "In a County or Shire there are to be chosen--A Judge, the + Peacemakers of every Town within that Circuit, the Overseers, and a + band of Soldiers attending thereupon: and this is called the + Judge's Court or the County Senate. The Court shall sit four times + in the year, or oftener if need be.... If any disorder break in + among the people, this Court shall set things to right. If any be + bound over to appear at this Court, the Judge shall hear the + matter, and pronounce the letter of the Law, according to the + nature of the offence. So that the alone work of the Judge is to + pronounce the Sentence and mind of the Law: and all this is but to + see the Law executed and the Peace of the Commonwealth preserved." + + + "WHAT IS THE WORK OF A COMMONWEALTH'S PARLIAMENT IN GENERAL?" + +Winstanley then sketches, first in broad outline and then in detail, +what he deemed the work of a Commonwealth's Parliament should be; and +for our own part we know not where to find a higher ideal of the duties +incumbent upon the chosen Representatives of the People: an ideal that +no Parliament to this day has ever attained, and which probably is only +attainable when there shall be a strong body of educated public opinion, +loving Justice and deserving Justice, inspiring and supporting their +endeavours. He commences as follows: + + "A Parliament is the highest Court of Equity in a Land; and it is + to be chosen every year.... This Court is to oversee all other + Courts, Officers, persons, and actions, and to have a full power, + being the Representative of the whole Land, to remove all + grievances, and to ease the people that are oppressed." + + +A PARLIAMENT IS THE FATHER OF THE COMMONWEALTH. + + "A Parliament hath its rise from the lowest Office in a + Commonwealth, viz., from the Father in a Family. For as a Father's + tender care is to remove all grievances from the oppressed + children, not respecting one before another; so a Parliament are to + remove all burdens from the people of the Land, and are not to + respect persons who are great before those who are weak; but their + eye and care must be principally to relieve the oppressed ones, who + groan under the Tyrant's Laws and Powers: the strong, or such as + have the Tyrant's Power to support them, need no help. + + "But though a Parliament be the Father of a Land, yet by the + Covetousness and Cheats of Kingly Government the heart of this + Father hath been alienated from the children of the Land, or else + so overawed by the frowns of a Kingly Tyrant, that they could not + or durst not act for the weaker children's ease. For hath not + Parliament sat and rose again, and made Laws to strengthen the + Tyrant in his Throne, and to strengthen the rich and the strong by + those Laws, and left Oppression upon the backs of the oppressed + still?" + + +HIS HOPES FOR THE FUTURE. + +Here Winstanley checks himself, and continues: + + "But I'll not reap up former weaknesses, but rather rejoice in hope + of amendment, seeing our present Parliament hath declared England + to be a Free Commonwealth, and to cast out Kingly Power: and upon + this ground I rejoice in hope that succeeding Parliaments will be + tender-hearted Fathers to the oppressed children of the Land. And + not only dandle us upon the knee with good words and promises till + particular men's turn be served, but will feed our bellies and + clothe our backs with good actions of Freedom, and give to the + oppressed children's children their birthright portion, which is + Freedom in the Commonwealth's Land, which the Kingly Law and Power, + our cruel step-fathers and step-mothers, have kept from us and our + fathers for many years past. + + + "THE PARTICULAR WORK OF A PARLIAMENT IS FOUR-FOLD--FIRSTLY, + + "As a tender Father, a Parliament is to empower Officers and give + orders for the free planting and reaping of the Commonwealth's + Land, that all who have been oppressed, and kept back from the free + use thereof by Conquerors, Kings, and their Tyrant Laws, may now be + set at liberty to plant in Freedom for food and raiment, and are to + be a protection to them who labor the Earth, and a punisher of them + who are idle. + + "But some may say, What is that I call Commonwealth's Land? I + answer, All that land which hath been withheld from the inhabitants + by the Conqueror, or Tyrant Kings, and is now recovered out of the + hands of that oppression by the joint assistance of the persons and + purses of the Commoners of the Land. For this Land is the price of + their blood. It is their birthright to them and to their posterity, + and ought not to be converted into particular hands again by the + Laws of a Free Commonwealth. In particular, this Land is all Abbey + Lands, formerly recovered out of the Pope's Power by the blood of + the Commoners of England, though the Kings withheld their rights + therein from them. So likewise all Crown Lands, Bishops' Lands, + with all Parks, Forests, Chases, now of late recovered out of the + hand of the Kingly Tyrants, who have set Lords of Manors and + Taskmasters over the Commoners, to withhold the free use of the + land from them. So likewise all the Commons and Waste Lands, which + are called Commons because the Poor was to have part therein. But + this is withheld from the Commoners, either by Lords of Manors + requiring quit-rents, and overseeing the poor so narrowly that none + dares build him a house upon this Common Land, or plant thereupon, + without his leave, but must pay him rents, fines, and heriots, and + homage as unto a Conqueror. Or else the benefit of this Common Land + is taken away from the Younger Bretheren by the rich Land Lords and + Freeholders, who overstock the Commons with sheep and cattle, so + that the Poor in many places are not able to keep a Cow unless they + steal grass for her. + + "And this is the bondage the Poor complain of, that they are kept + poor in a Land where there is so much plenty for everyone, if + Covetousness and Pride did not rule as King in one Brother over + another: and Kingly Government occasions all this. Now it is the + work of a Parliament to break the Tyrant's bands, to abolish all + their oppressing Laws, and to give orders, encouragements and + directions unto the poor oppressed people of the Land, that they + forthwith plant and manure this their own Land, for the free and + comfortable livelihood of themselves and posterities. And to + declare to them, it is their own Creation-Rights, faithfully and + courageously recovered by their diligence, purses and blood from + under the Kingly Tyrant's and Oppressor's Power. + + + "THE WORK OF A PARLIAMENT--SECONDLY, + + "Is to abolish all old Laws and Customs which have been the + strength of the Oppressor, and to prepare and then to enact new + Laws for the ease and freedom of the people, but yet not without + the people's knowledge.[197:1] + + "For the work of a Parliament herein is three-fold: + + "_First_, When old Laws and Customs of the Kings do burden the + people, and the people desire the remove of them, and the + establishment of more easy Laws: it is now the work of a Parliament + to search into Reason and Equity, how relief may be found for the + people in such a case, and to preserve a Common Peace. And when + they have found a way by debate of counsel among themselves, + whereby the people may be relieved, they are not presently to + establish their conclusions for a Law. But in the next place they + are to make a public declaration thereof to the people of the Land, + who choose them, for their approbation. And if no objection come in + from the people within one month, they may then take the people's + silence as a consent thereto. And then, in the third place, they + are to enact it for a Law, to be a binding rule to the whole Land. + For as the remove of the old Laws and Customs is by the people's + consent, which is proved by their frequent petitionings and + requests; so the enacting of new Laws must be by the people's + consent and knowledge likewise. And here they are to require the + consent, not of men interested in the old oppressing Laws and + Customs,[197:2] as Kings used to do, but of them who have been + oppressed. And the reason is this: Because the people must be all + subject to the Law, under pain of punishment, therefore it is all + reason that they should know it before it be enacted, so that if + there be anything of the Counsel of Oppression in it, it may be + discovered and amended." + + +ANSWERS TO TWO OBJECTIONS. + + "But you will say, If it must be so, then will men so differ in + their judgements that we shall never agree. + + "I answer: There is but Bondage and Freedom, _particular_ Interest + or _common_ Interest; and he who pleads to bring in particular + interest into a Free Commonwealth, will presently be seen and cast + out, as one bringing in Kingly Slavery again. + + "Moreover, men in place and office, where greatness and honor is + coming in, may sooner be corrupted to bring in particular interest + than a whole Land can be, who must either suffer sorrow under a + burdensome Law, or rejoice under a Law of Freedom. And surely those + men who are not willing to enslave the people will be unwilling to + consent hereunto. + + + "THE WORK OF A PARLIAMENT--THIRDLY, + + "Is to see all those burdens removed actually, which have hindered + or do hinder the oppressed People from the enjoyment of their + Birth-Rights. + + "If their Common Lands be under the oppression of Lords of Manors, + they are to see the Land freed from that slavery. + + "If the Commonwealth Land be sold by the hasty counsel of subtle, + covetous and ignorant Officers, who act for their own particular + interest, and so hath entangled the Commoners' Land again, under + colour of being bought and sold: then a Parliament is to examine + what authority any had to sell or buy the Commonwealth's Land + without a general consent of the People: FOR IT IS NOT ANY ONE'S, + BUT EVERY ONE'S BIRTH-RIGHT. And if some through covetousness and + self-interest gave consent privately, yet a Parliament, who is the + Father of the Land, ought not to give consent to buy and sell that + Land which is all the children's birth-right, and the price of + their labors, moneys and blood. + + "They are to declare likewise that the Bargain is unrighteous; and + that the Buyers and Sellers are Enemies to the Peace and Freedom of + the Commonwealth. For indeed the necessity of the People chose a + Parliament to help them in their weakness. Hence when they see a + danger like to impoverish or enslave one part of the people to + another, they are to give warning and so prevent that danger. For + they are the Eyes of the Land: and surely those are blind eyes that + lead the People into Bogs to be entangled in Mud again, after they + are once pulled out. =And when the Land is once freed from the + Oppressor's Power and Laws, the Parliament is to keep it so, and + not suffer it by their consent to have it bought or sold, and so + entangled in Bondage upon a new account.= + + "For their faithfulness herein to the People, the People are + engaged in love and faithfulness to cleave close to them in defence + and protection. But when a Parliament have no care herein, the + hearts of the People run away from them like sheep who have no + Shepherd." + + +THE CAUSE OF ALL GRIEVANCES. + + "All grievances are occasioned either by the covetous wills of + State Officers, who neglect their obedience to the good Laws, and + then prefer their own ease, honor, and riches before the ease and + freedom of the oppressed people. A Parliament is to cashier and + punish those Officers, and place others who are men of public + spirit in their rooms. + + "Or else the People's grievances arise from the practice and power + that the King's Laws have given to Lords of Manors, covetous + Landlords, Tythe Takers, or unbounded Lawyers, being all + strengthened in their oppressions over the people by that Kingly + Law. And when the People are burthened herewith, and groan waiting + for deliverance, as the oppressed People of England do at this day, + it is then the work of a Parliament to see the People delivered, + and that they enjoy their Creation's Freedom in the Earth. They are + not to dally with them, but as a father is ready to help his + children out of misery when they either see them in misery, or when + the children cry for help, so should they do for the oppressed + people. + + "And surely for this end, and no other, is the Parliament chosen. + =For the necessity for Common Preservation and Peace is the + Fundamental Law both to Officers and People.= + + + "THE WORK OF A PARLIAMENT--FOURTHLY, + + "Is this: If there be occasion to raise an Army to wage war, either + against an Invasion of a Foreign Enemy, or against an Insurrection + at home, it is the work of a Parliament to manage that business for + to preserve Common Peace. + + "And here their work is three-fold: + + "_First_, To acquaint the People plainly with the cause of the + War, and to show them the danger of such an Invasion or + Insurrection. And so from that cause require their assistance in + person, for the preservation of the Laws, Liberties and Peace of + the Commonwealth, according to their engagement when they were + chosen, which was this: _Do you protect our Laws and Liberties, and + we will protect and assist you._ + + "_Secondly_, A Parliament is to make choice of understanding, able + and public-spirited men to be Leaders of an Army in this case, and + to give them Commissions and Power, in the name of the + Commonwealth, to manage the work of an Army. + + "_Thirdly_, A Parliament's work in this case is either to send + Ambassadors to another Nation which has invaded our Land, or that + intends to invade, to agree upon terms of peace, or to proclaim + war; or else to receive and hear Ambassadors from other Lands for + the same business, or about any other business concerning the peace + and honor of the Land. + + "For a Parliament is the Head of a Commonwealth's Power; or, as it + may be said, it is the great Council of an Army, from whom + originally all Orders do issue forth to any Officer or Soldier. For + if so be a Parliament had not an Army to protect them, the rudeness + of the people would not obey their proceedings; and if a Parliament + were not the representative of the People, who indeed is the body + of all power, the Army would not obey their orders. + + "So then a Parliament is the Head of Power in a Commonwealth. It is + their work to manage public affairs in times of War and in times of + Peace; not to promote the interests of particular men, but for the + Peace and Freedom of the whole Body of the Land, viz., of every + particular man, that none be deprived of his Creation Eights, + unless he hath lost his Freedom by transgression, as by the Laws is + expressed."[200:1] + +With this admirable summary of the functions of a Parliament, our +author brings his consideration of their work to a conclusion, and +somewhat later proceeds to consider the source and function of a true +Commonwealth's Army, which he evidently regards as a necessary evil, +capable of much harm as well as of some good. He says: + + +THE RISE OF A COMMONWEALTH'S ARMY. + + "After that the necessity of a People in a Parish, in a County and + in a Land, hath moved the People to choose Officers to preserve + common peace, the same necessity causeth the People to say to their + Officers--_Do you see our Laws observed for our common + preservation, and we will assist and protect you._ + + "These words, _assist_ and _protect_, implies the rising of the + People by force of arms to defend their Laws and Officers, who rule + well, against any invasion, insurrection or rebellion of selfish + Officers or rude people: yea, to beat down the turbulency of any + foolish spirit that shall arise to break our common peace. So that + the same Law of Necessity of Common Peace, which moved the People + to choose Officers, and to compose a Law to be a Rule of + Government: the same Law of Necessity of Protection doth raise an + Army. So that an Army, as well as other Officers in a Commonwealth, + spring from one and the same root, viz., from the necessity of + Common Preservation." + + +AN ARMY IS TWO-FOLD: VIZ., A RULING ARMY, OR A FIGHTING ARMY. + + "A Ruling Army is called Magistracy in times of Peace, keeping that + Land and Government in Peace by Execution of the Laws, which the + Fighting Army did purchase in the field by their blood out of the + hands of Oppression. All Officers, from the Father in a Family to + the Parliament in a Land, are but the heads and leaders of an Army; + and all people arising to protect and assist their Officers, in + defence of a right-ordered Government, are but the body of an Army. + And this Magistracy is called the Rejoicing of all Nations, when + the foundations thereof are Laws of Common Equity, whereby every + single man may enjoy the fruits of his labor, in the free use of + the Earth, without being restrained or oppressed by the hands of + others. + + "Secondly, A Fighting Army, called Soldiers in the Field, when the + necessity of preservation, by reason of a foreign invasion, or + inbred Oppression, doth move the people to arise in an Army to cut + and tear to pieces either degenerate Officers, or rude people, who + seek their own interests, and not Common Freedom, and through + treachery do endeavour to destroy the Laws of Common Freedom, and + to enslave both the Land and the People of the Commonwealth to + their particular wills and lusts.... The use or work of a Fighting + Army in a Commonwealth is to beat down all who arise to endeavour + to destroy the Liberties of the Commonwealth. For as in the days of + the Monarchy an Army was used to subdue all who rebelled against + Kingly Propriety, so in the days of a Free Commonwealth, an Army is + to be made use of to resist or destroy all who endeavour to keep up + or bring in Kingly Bondage again.... Therefore, you Army of + England's Commonwealth, look to it. The Enemy could not beat you in + the field, but they may be too hard for you by Policy in Counsel, + if you do not stick close to see Common Freedom established. For if + so be that Kingly Authority is set up in your Laws again, King + Charles has conquered you and your posterity by policy, though you + seemingly have cut off his head. For the Strength of a King lies + not in the visible Appearance of his Body, but in his Will, Laws, + and Authority, which is called Monarchial Government. But if you + remove Kingly Government, and set up true and free Commonwealth's + Government, then you gain your Crown and keep it, and leave peace + to your posterity: otherwise not. And thus doing makes a War either + lawful or unlawful." + +Then follows this bold, manly challenge of the conduct of the Grandees +of the Army: + + + "AN ARMY MAY BE MURTHERERS AND UNLAWFUL. + + "If an Army be raised to cast out Kingly Oppression, and if the + Heads of that Army promise a Commonwealth's Freedom to the + oppressed people, in case they will assist in person and purse, and + if the people do assist and prevail over the Tyrant, those Officers + are bound by the Law of Justice (who is God) to make good their + engagements. And if they do not set the Land free from the + branches of the Kingly Oppression, but reserve some part of the + Kingly Power to advance their own particular interest, whereby some + of their friends are left under as great slavery to them as they + were under the Kings, those Officers are not faithful + Commonwealth's Soldiers, they are worse Thieves and Tyrants than + the Kings they cast out, and that Honor they seemed to get by their + Victories over the Commonwealth's Oppressor, they lose again by + breaking Promise and Engagement to their oppressed friends who did + assist them. + + "For what difference is there between a professed Tyrant, who + declares himself a Tyrant in words, laws and deeds, as all + Conquerors do, and him who promises to free me from the power of + the Tyrant if I'll assist him; and when I have spent my estate and + blood, and the health of my body, and expect my bargain by his + engagements to me, he sits himself down in the Tyrant's Chair, and + takes the possession of the Land to himself, and calls it his and + none of mine, and tells me he cannot in conscience let me enjoy the + Freedom of the Earth with him, because it is another man's right." + + +HIS ACCOUNT OF HIS OWN CIRCUMSTANCES. + + "And now my health and estate is decayed and I grow in age, I must + either beg or work for day-wages, which I was never brought up to, + for another; when the Earth is as freely my Inheritance and + Birth-Right as his whom I must work for. And if I cannot live by my + weak labors, but take where I need, as Christ sent and took the + Asses Colt in his need, there is no dispute, but by the Kings and + Laws, he will hang me for a thief." + + +THE TRUE FUNCTION OF A COMMONWEALTH ARMY. + + "A Monarchial Army lifts up mountains and makes valleys, viz., + advances Tyrants and treads the oppressed in the barren lanes of + poverty. But a Commonwealth's Army is like John the Baptist, who + levels the Mountains to the Valleys, pulls down the Tyrant, and + lifts up the Oppressed: and so makes way for the Spirit of Peace + and Freedom to come in to rule and inherit the Earth. + + "By this which has been spoken an Army may see wherein they may do + well and wherein they may do hurt." + + +THE OFFICE OF THE POST-MASTER. + +Under this heading Winstanley describes an office by which he evidently +thought the social bonds uniting the whole Nation might be strengthened +and all parts thereof be brought into closer and more intimate relations +one with the other. He describes its functions as follows: + + "In every Parish throughout the Commonwealth shall be chosen two + men (at the time when the other Officers are chosen), and these + shall be called Post-Masters. And whereas there are four parts of + the Land, East, West, North, South, there shall be chosen in the + chief City two men to receive what the Post-Master of the East + Country brings in"; and so on. "Now the work of a Country + Post-master shall be this: They shall every month bring up or send + by tidings from their respective Parishes to the chief City, of + what accidents or passages fall out, which is either to the honor + or dishonor, hurt or profit, of the Commonwealth. And if nothing + have fallen out in that month worth observation, then they shall + write down peace or good order in such a Parish. + + "When these respective Post-masters have brought up their Bills or + Certificates from all parts of the Land, the Receiver of these + Bills shall write down everything in order from Parish to Parish in + the nature of a Weekly Bill of Observation. And those eight + Receivers shall cause the Affairs of the Four Quarters of the Land + to be printed in one Book with what speed may be, and deliver to + every Post-master a Book, that as they bring up the affairs of one + Parish in writing, they may carry down in print the Affairs of the + Whole Land." + + +ITS BENEFITS. + + "The benefit lies here, that if any part of the Land be visited + with Plague, Famine, Invasion or Insurrection, or any casualties, + the other parts of the Land may have speedy knowledge, and send + relief. And if any accident fall out through unreasonable action, + or careless neglect, other parts of the Land may thereby be made + watchful to prevent like dangers. Or if any through industry or + through ripeness of understanding have found out any secret in + Nature, or new invention in any Art or Trade, or in the tillage of + the Earth, or such like, whereby the Commonwealth may more + flourish in peace and plenty, for which virtues those persons + received honor in the places where they dwelt; then, when other + parts of the Land hear of it, many thereby will be encouraged to + employ their Reason and Industry to do the like; that so in time + there will not be any Secret in Nature, which now lies hid (by + reason of the iron age of Kingly Oppressing Government) but by some + or other will be brought to light, to the beauty of our + Commonwealth." + +With this suggestive passage this chapter may fittingly close. Like his +great successor in the Nineteenth Century, Winstanley evidently realised +that "Liberty means Justice, and Justice is the Natural Law--the law of +health and symmetry and strength, of fraternity and co-operation." + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[197:1] Law Reform was at that time very popular, and undoubtedly much +needed. The month previous to the publication of the book we are now +considering, in January 1652, a Law Reform Commission consisting of +twenty-one members had been appointed. It evidently went to work in a +very thorough manner. For, according to a modern Lawyer, Mr. Inderwick +(see his book _The Interregnum_, referred to by Gardiner), it appears +that of eight draft Acts proposed on March 23rd, 1652, one became Law in +1833, one in 1846, and a third in 1885. + +[197:2] "Things of this world," says Locke (_Of Civil Government_, part +ii. chap. xiii. § 157), "are in so constant a flux, that nothing remains +long in the same state.... But ... private interest often keeps up +customs and privileges when the reasons of them are ceased." + +[200:1] In his great work _Of Civil Government_, John Locke takes +practically the same view as Winstanley of the duties of Parliaments and +of the function of Law. In chapter ix. (part ii.) he says: "The +legislative or supreme power of any Commonwealth, is bound to govern by +established _standing laws_, promulgated and known to the people, and +not by extemporary decrees; by indifferent [impartial] and upright +judges, who are to decide controversies by those laws; and to employ the +force of the community at home, _only in the execution of such laws_, or +abroad, to prevent or redress foreign injuries, and secure the community +from inroads and invasion. _And all this to be directed to no other end, +but the peace, safety, and public good of the people._" Italics are +ours. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +GERRARD WINSTANLEY'S UTOPIA + +THE LAW OF FREEDOM (_concluded_) + + "Day unto day utters speech-- + Be wise, O ye Nations! and hear + What yesterday telleth to-day, + What to-day to the morrow will preach. + A change cometh over our sphere, + And the old goeth down to decay. + A new light hath dawned on the darkness of yore, + And men shall be slaves and oppressors no more." + CHARLES MACKAY. + + +It is in the chapter we have just been considering, the fourth chapter +of "The Law of Freedom," that we find Winstanley's last recorded +utterances on cosmological and theological problems. Nothing seems to us +more strikingly to show the broadening and development of his powerful +mind than a comparison of the views here expressed with those contained +in his earlier writings on the subject. True, the underlying ideas are +practically the same: he still realises the existence of a Divine +Spirit, the Spirit of Reason and of Love, of Righteousness and of Peace, +animating, inspiring, pervading and governing the whole Creation; he +still holds to his doctrine of the Inward Light, the spark of the Divine +Spirit of Reason, within man, prompting each and all to act righteously +and equitably one toward the other. Yet he is decidedly less mystical. +He lays emphasis on the necessity to study the works of God rather than +the Word of God; and has evidently become less anthropomorphic and more +spiritual, less mystical and more rational, less religious and more +ethical, less theological and more philosophic, less scholastic and more +scientific. However, we had better let him speak for himself. +Immediately after his reflections on the duties and functions of a +Commonwealth's Parliament, he proceeds to consider the work of a +Commonwealth's Ministry, as follows: + + + "THE WORK OF A COMMONWEALTH'S MINISTRY, AND WHY ONE DAY IN SEVEN + MAY BE A DAY OF REST FROM LABOR. + + "If there were good Laws and the People be ignorant of them, it + would be as bad for the Commonwealth as if there were no Laws at + all. Therefore it is very rational and good that one day in seven + be still set apart, for three reasons: + + "_First_, That the People in such a Parish may generally meet + together to see one another's faces, and beget or preserve + fellowship in friendly love. + + "_Secondly_, To be a day of rest, or cessation from labor; so that + they may have some bodily rest for themselves and cattle. + + "_Thirdly_, That he who is chosen Minister (for that year) in that + Parish may read to the People three things. First, the affairs of + the whole Land, as it is brought in by the Post-Master. Secondly, + to read the Law of the Common-wealth, not only to strengthen the + memory of the ancients, but that the young people also, who are not + grown up to ripeness of experience, may be instructed to know when + they do well and when they do ill. For the Law of a Land hath the + power of Freedom and Bondage, life and death, in its hand, + therefore the necessary knowledge to be known; and he is the best + Prophet that acquaints men therewith, that as men grow up in years + they may be able to defend the Laws and Government of the Land. But + these Laws shall not be expounded by the Reader; for to expound a + plain Law, as if a man would put a better meaning than the letter + itself, produces two evils: First, the pure Law and the minds of + the people will be thereby confounded, for multitude of words + darken knowledge. Secondly, the reader will be puffed up in pride + to contemn the Law-makers, and in time that will prove the father + and nurse of tyranny, as at this day is manifested by our + Ministry." + + +WHAT SHALL BE SPOKEN OF. + + "But because the minds of people generally love discourses, + therefore, that the wits of men, both old and young, may be + exercised, there may be speeches made in a threefold nature: + + "_First_, To declare the acts and passages of former ages and + governments, setting forth the benefit of freedom by well-ordered + Governments, as in Israel's Commonwealth, and the troubles and + bondage which hath always attended oppression and oppressors, as + the State of Pharaoh and other tyrant kings, who said the Earth and + People were theirs, and only at their disposal. + + "_Secondly_, Speeches may be made of all Arts and Sciences, some + one day some another, as in Physics, Chyrurgery, Astrology, + Astronomy, Navigation, Husbandry, and such like. And in these + speeches may be unfolded the nature of all herbs and plants, from + the Hysop to the Cedar, as Solomon writ of. Likewise men may come + to see into the nature of the fixed and wandering Stars, those + great powers of God in the heavens above. And hereby men will come + to know the secrets of Nature and Creation, within which all true + knowledge is wrapped up, and the light in man must arise to search + it out. + + "_Thirdly_, Speeches may be made sometimes of the nature of + mankind, of his darkness and of his light, of his weakness and of + his strength, of his love and of his envy, of his inward and + outward bondages, of his inward and outward freedoms, etc. And this + is that at which the ministry of Churches generally aim; but only + that they confound their knowledge by imaginary study.... And thus + to speak, or thus to read the Law of Nature (or God) as He hath + written His name in every body, is to speak a pure language, and + this is to speak the truth as Jesus Christ spake it, giving to + everything its own weight and measure. By this means in time men + shall attain to the practical knowledge of God truly, that they may + serve Him in spirit and in truth: and this knowledge will not + deceive a man." + + +HIS ANSWER TO OBJECTIONS. + +Then follows a passage which even to-day would bring down the wrath of +"zealous but ignorant professors" upon the head of any author +acknowledging it, if within their sphere of influence. He continues: + + "'I,' but saith the zealous but ignorant Professor, 'this is a low + and carnal Ministry indeed; this leads men to know nothing but the + knowledge of the earth and the secrets of nature; but we are to + look after spiritual and heavenly things.' + + "I answer: 'To know the secrets of nature is to know the works of + God; and to know the works of God within the Creation, is to know + God himself; for God dwells in every visible work or body. Indeed, + if you would know spiritual things, it is to know how the Spirit or + Power of Wisdom and Life, causing motion or growth, dwells within + and governs both the several bodies of the stars and planets in the + heavens above, and the several bodies of the earth below, as grass, + plants, fishes, beasts, birds and mankind. For to reach God beyond + the Creation, or to know what he will be to a man after the man is + dead, if any otherwise than to scatter him into his essences of + fire, water, earth and air, of which he is composed, is a knowledge + beyond the line or capacity of man to attain to while he lives in + his compounded body. And if a man should go to imagine what God is + beyond the Creation, or what he will be in a spiritual + demonstration after a man is dead, he doth, as the proverb saith, + but build castles in the air, or tells us of a world beyond the + Moon or beyond the Sun, merely to blind the reason of man. + + "'I'll appeal to yourself in this question, What other knowledge + have you of God but what you have within the circle of the + Creation? For if the Creation in all its dimensions be the fullness + of Him that fills all with Himself; and if you yourself be part of + this Creation: where can you find God but in that line or station + wherein you stand? God manifests Himself in actual Knowledge, not + in Imagination. He is still in motion, either in bodies upon earth + or in the bodies in the heavens, or in both; in the night and in + the day, in Winter, in Summer, in cold, in heat, in growth or not + in growth.'" + + +THE CAUSE OF IGNORANCE, EVIL AND SORROWS. + + "But when a studying imagination comes into man, which is the + devil, for it is the cause of all evil and sorrows in the world; + that is he who puts out the eyes of man's knowledge, and tells him + he must believe what others have writ or spoke, and must not trust + to his own experience. And when this bewitching fancy sits in the + Chair of Government, there is nothing but saying and unsaying, + frowardness, covetousness, fears, confused thoughts, and + unsatisfied doubtings, all the days of that man's reign in the + heart." + + +EXAMINE THE WAYS OF MEN, NOT ONLY THEIR PRECEPTS. + + "Or, secondly, examine yourself and look likewise into the ways of + all Professors, and you shall find that the enjoyment of the earth + below, which you call a low and a carnal knowledge, is that which + you and all Professors (as well as the men of the world, as you + call them) strive and seek after. Wherefore are you so covetous + after the world, in buying and selling, counting yourself a happy + man if you be rich, and a miserable man if you be poor? And though + you say, _Heaven after death is a place of glory where you shall + enjoy God face to face_, yet you are loth to leave the earth and go + thither. + + "Do not your Ministers preach for to enjoy the earth? Do not + professing Lawyers, as well as others, buy and sell the Conquerer's + justice that they may enjoy the earth? Do not professing Soldiers + fight for the earth, and seat themselves in that Land which is the + birth-right of others, as well as theirs, shutting others out? Do + not all Professors strive to get earth, that they may live in + plenty by other men's labors? Do you not make the earth your very + rest? Doth not the enjoying of the earth please the spirit in you? + and then you say God is pleased with your ways and blesseth you. If + you want earth, and become poor, do you not say, God is angry with + you? Why do you heap up riches? why do you eat and drink, and wear + clothes? Are not all these carnal and low things of the earth? and + do you not live in them and covet them as much as any, nay more + than many which you call men of the world? + + "It being thus with you, what other spiritual and heavenly things + do you seek after more than others? What is in you more than in + others? If you say there is, then surely you should leave these + earthly things alone to the men of the world, as you call them, + whose portions these are, and keep you within the compass of your + own sphere, that others seeing you live a life above the world in + peace and freedom, neither working yourselves, nor deceiving, nor + compelling others to work for you, they may be drawn to embrace the + same spiritual life by your single hearted conversation. Well I + have done here." + + + "LET US NOW EXAMINE YOUR DIVINITY." + +Winstanley then carries the war into the camp of his clerical opponents, +and that in so forcible a manner that we cannot refrain from quoting at +length. He says: + + "Let us now examine your Divinity, which you call heavenly and + spiritual things; for herein speeches are made, not to advance + knowledge, but to destroy the true knowledge of God. For Divinity + does not speak the truth, as it is hid in everybody, but it leaves + the motional knowledge of a thing as it is, and imagines, studies + or thinks what may be, and so runs the hazard of true or false. + This Divinity is always speaking words to deceive the simple, that + he may make them work for him and maintain him, but he never comes + to action himself, to do as he would be done by; for he is a + monster who is all tongue and no hand. + + "This Divining Doctrine, which you call spiritual and heavenly + things, is the thief and the robber, he comes to spoil the Vineyard + of a man's peace, and does not enter in at the door, but he climbs + up another way. And this Doctrine is two-fold: First, it takes upon + him to tell you the meaning of other men's words and writings, by + his studying or imagining what another man's knowledge might be, + and by thus doing darkens knowledge, and wrongs the spirit of the + Authors who did write and speak those things which he takes upon + him to interpret. Secondly, he takes upon him to foretell what + shall befall a man after he is dead, and what that world is beyond + the Sun and beyond the Moon, etc. And if any man tell him there is + no reason for what you say, he answers, you must not judge of + heavenly and spiritual things by reason, but you must believe what + is told you, whether it be reason or no." + + +WHEREIN IT IS WANTING. + + "There is a three-fold discovery of falsehood in this Doctrine. + First, it is a Doctrine of a sickly and weak spirit, who hath lost + his understanding in the knowledge of the Creation, and of the + temper of his own heart and nature, and so runs into fancies, + either of joy or sorrow. If the passion of joy predominate, then he + fancies to himself a personal God, personal Angels, and a local + place of glory, which he saith, he, and all who believe what he + hath, shall go to after they are dead. If sorrow predominate, then + he fancies to himself a personal Devil, and a local place of + torment that he shall go to after he is dead: and this he speaks + with great confidence. + + "_Secondly_, This is the doctrine of a subtle running spirit, to + make an ungrounded wise man mad.... For many times when a wise + understanding heart is assaulted with this Doctrine of a God, a + Devil, a Heaven and a Hell, Salvation and Damnation after a man is + dead, his spirit being not strongly grounded in the knowledge of + the Creation nor in the temper of his own heart, he strives and + stretches his brain to find out the depth of that doctrine and + cannot attain to it. For, indeed, it is not knowledge, but + imagination. And so by poring and puzzling himself in it, he loses + that wisdom he had, and becomes distracted and mad. If the passion + of joy predominate, then he is merry, and sings, and laughs, and is + ripe in the expression of his words and will speak strange things: + but all by imagination. But if the passion of sorrow predominate, + then he is heavy and sad, crying out, _He is damned; God hath + forsaken him, and he must go to Hell when he dies; he cannot make + his calling and election sure._ And in that distemper many times a + man doth hang, kill or drown himself. So this Divining Doctrine, + which you call spiritual and heavenly things, torments people + always when they are weak, sickly or under any distemper. Therefore + it cannot be the Doctrine of Christ the Saviour. + + "Or, _thirdly_, This Doctrine is made a cloak of policy by the + subtle Elder Brother, to cheat his simpler Younger Brother of the + Freedoms of the Earth. For, saith the Elder Brother, 'The Earth is + mine, and not yours, Brother; and you must not work upon it, unless + you will hire it of me; and you must not take the fruits of it, + unless you will buy them of me, by that which I pay you for your + labor. For if you should do otherwise, God will not love you, and + you shall not go to Heaven when you die, but the Devil will have + you, and you must be damned in Hell.' + + "If the Younger reply, and say--'The Earth is my Birth-Right as + well as yours, and God who made us both is no Respecter of persons. + Therefore there is no reason but I should enjoy the Freedoms of the + Earth for my comfortable livelihood, as well as you, Brother.' + + "'I,' but saith the Elder Brother, 'You must not trust to your own + Reason and Understanding, but you must believe what is written and + what is told you; and if you will not believe, your Damnation will + be the greater.' + + "'I cannot believe,' saith the Younger Brother, 'that our Righteous + Creator should be so partial in his Dispensations of the Earth, + seeing our bodies cannot live upon Earth without the use of the + Earth.' + + "The Elder Brother replies, 'What, will you be an Atheist, and a + factious man, will you not believe God?' + + "'Yes,' saith the Younger Brother, 'if I knew God said so, I should + believe, for I desire to serve Him.' + + "'Why,' saith the Elder Brother, 'this is His Word, and if you will + not believe it, you must be damned; but if you will believe it, you + will go to Heaven.' + + "Well, the Younger Brother, being weak in spirit, and not having a + grounded knowledge of the Creation, nor of himself, is terrified, + and lets go his hold in the Earth, and submits himself to be a + Slave to his Brother, for fear of damnation in Hell after death, + and in hopes to get Heaven thereby after he is dead. And so his + eyes are put out, and his Reason is blinded. So that this divining + spiritual doctrine is a cheat. For while men are gazing up to + Heaven, imagining after a happiness, or fearing a Hell after they + are dead, their eyes are put out, that they see not what are their + Birth-Rights, nor what is to be done by them here on Earth while + they are living. This is the filthy Dreamer and the Cloud without + rain. And indeed the subtle Clergy do know that if they can but + charm the people by this their divining doctrine, to look after + riches, Heaven and Glory when they are dead, that then they shall + easily be the inheritors of the Earth, and have the deceived people + to be their Servants. + + "For my own part," he continues, "my spirit hath waded deep to find + the bottom of this divining spiritual Doctrine; and the more I + searched, the more I was at a loss. I never came to quiet rest and + to know God in my spirit, till I came to the knowledge of the + things in this Book. And let me tell you, They who preach this + divining doctrine are the murderers of many a poor heart, who is + bashful and simple, and who cannot speak for himself, but who keeps + his thoughts to himself." + +Such, then, was Winstanley's final attack on the body of teachings he, +rightly or wrongly, hated and despised as the main supporter of the +prevailing social injustice. Correct thought he realised to be the +necessary precursor of right action; and he knew that correct thought is +impossible so long as old, inherited false ideas are unquestioningly +accepted and hold undisputed dominion over the human mind. Winstanley +seems to us to have realised that it was the ignorance of the many that, +in truth, maintained the privileges of the few; that the masses +themselves forge the fetters for their own enslavement, which, though +apparently as strong as iron bands, are, in truth, but things of +gossamer, easily to be broken by those who themselves have forged and +who themselves still maintain them. + +In the next chapter (chap. v.) Winstanley briefly summarises his views +on education, and outlines the means by which he deemed both the +production and the distribution of wealth could be carried on without +having recourse to "the thieving art of buying and selling." It +commences as follows: + + +OF EDUCATION. + + "Mankind in the days of his youth is like a young colt, wanton and + foolish, till he be broken in by education and correction; the + neglect of this care, or the want of wisdom in the performance of + it, hath been and is the cause of much division and trouble in the + world. Therefore the Law of a Common-wealth doth require that not + only a Father, but that all Overseers and Officers should make it + their work to educate children in good manners, and to see them + brought up in some trade or other, and to suffer no children in any + Parish to live in idleness and youthful pleasures all their days, + as many have been; but that they may be brought up like men and not + like beasts. That so the Commonwealth may be planted with laborious + and wise experienced men, and not with idle fools." + +He continues his reflections as follows: + + "Mankind may be considered in a four-fold degree, his childhood, + youth, manhood, and old age. His childhood and his youth may be + considered from his birth till forty years of age. Within this + compass of time, after he is weaned from his mother, his parents + shall teach him a civil and humble behaviour towards all men. Then + send him to school, to learn to read the Laws of the Common-wealth, + to ripen his wits from his childhood, and so to proceed with his + learning till he be acquainted with all Arts and Languages.... But + one sort of children shall not be trained up only to book-learning, + and to no other employment, called Scholars, as they are in the + Government of Monarchy. For then through idleness they spend their + time to find out policies to advance themselves to be Lords and + Masters over their laboring bretheren, which occasions all the + trouble in the world." + +After again indicating the source of all real knowledge, he continues: + + "Therefore, to prevent idleness and the danger of Machivilian + cheats, it is profitable for the Commonwealth that children be + trained up in trades and some bodily employment, as well as in + learning languages or the histories of former ages. And as boys are + trained up in learning and in trades, so all maids shall be trained + up in reading, sewing, kniting, spinning of linnen and woollen, + music, and all other easy neat works, either for to furnish + Storehouses with linnen and wooll cloth, or for the ornament of + particular houses with needlework. If this course were taken, there + would be no idle person or beggar in the Land, and much work would + be done by that now lazy generation for the enlarging of the Common + Treasury." + + +INVENTION TO BE ENCOURAGED. + + "In the managing of any trade let no young wit be crushed in his + invention. If any man desire to make a new trial of his skill in + any trade or science, the Overseer shall not injure him but + encourage him therein; that so the Spirit of Knowledge may have his + full growth in man, to find out the secrets in every art. And let + everyone who finds out a new invention have a deserved honor given + him; and certainly when men are sure of food and raiment, their + reason will be ripe and ready to dive into the secrets of the + Creation, that they may learn to see and know God (the Spirit of + the whole Creation) in all his works. For fear of want and care to + pay Rent to Task-Masters hath hindered many rare inventions. So + that Kingly Power hath crushed the Spirit of Knowledge, and would + not suffer it to rise up in its beauty and fullness, but by his + Club Law hath preferred the Spirit of Imagination, which is a + deceiver, before it. + + + "THERE SHALL BE NO BUYING AND SELLING OF THE EARTH, NOR OF THE + FRUITS THEREOF. + + "For by the Government under Kings the cheaters hereby have cozened + the plain-hearted of their Creation Birth-rights, and have + possessed themselves in the Earth, and call it theirs, and not the + others, and so have brought in that poverty and misery which lies + upon many men. And whereas the wise should help the foolish, and + the strong help the weak, the wise and strong destroy the weak and + simple ... and so the Proverb is made true--_Plain dealing is a + jewel, but he who uses it shall die a beggar._ And why? Because + this buying and selling is the nursery of cheats; it is the Law of + the Conqueror, the Righteousness of the Scribes and Pharisees.... + And these cunning cheaters commonly become the Rulers of the + Earth.... For not the wise poor man, but the cunning rich man was + always made an Officer and a Ruler; such a one as by his stolen + interests in the Earth would be sure to hold others in bondage of + poverty and servitude to him and his party. Therefore there shall + be no buying and selling in a free Common-wealth, neither shall + anyone hire his Brother to work for him." + +From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs: +such, then, was Winstanley's ideal; such was the Communistic +Commonwealth he evidently imagined would naturally evolve if only the +equal claims of all to the use of the Earth were once recognised and +respected. He was, however, much too shrewd to think for a moment that +any such State could be ushered in all at once, or created by Act of +Parliament. For he continues: + + "If the Common-wealth might be governed without buying and selling, + here is a Platform of Government for it, which is the ancientest + Law of Righteousness to Mankind in the use of the Earth, and which + is the very height of Earthly Freedom. But if the minds of the + people, through covetousness and proud ignorance, will have the + Earth governed by buying and selling still, this same Platform, + with some few things subtracted, declares an easy way of Government + of the Earth for the quiet of people's minds, and the preserving of + peace in the Land. + + + "HOW MUST THE EARTH BE PLANTED? + + "The Earth is to be planted and the fruits reaped and carried into + Barns and Storehouses by the assistance of every family. If any man + or family want corn or other provisions, they may go to the + Storehouses and fetch without money. If they want a horse to ride, + go into the fields in Summer, or to the Common Stables in Winter, + and receive one from the Keepers, and when your journey is + performed, bring him where you had him, without money. If any want + food or victuals, they may either go to the butchers' shops and + receive what they want without money, or else go to the flocks of + sheep or herds of cattle, and take and kill what meat is needful + for their families, without buying and selling. The reason why all + the riches of the Earth are a Common Stock is this: Because the + Earth and the labors thereupon are managed by common assistance of + every family, without buying and selling, as is shown more largely + in the Office of Overseers for Trades and the Law for Storehouses. + The Laws for the right ordering thereof, and the Officers to see + the Laws executed, to preserve the peace of every family, and to + improve and promote every trade, is shown in the work of Officers + and the Laws following." + + +WHO ALONE WILL OBJECT. + + "None will be an enemy to this Freedom, which, indeed, is to do to + another as a man would have another do to him, but Covetousness and + Pride, the spirit of the old grudging, snapping Pharisees, who give + God abundant of good words in their sermons, in their prayers, in + their fasts, and in their thanksgivings, as though none should be + more faithful servants to Him than they. Nay, they will shun the + company, imprison, and kill every one that will not worship God, + they are so zealous. Well now, God and Christ hath enacted an + everlasting Law, which is Love, not only one another of your own + mind, but love your enemies too, such as are not of your mind: and + having food and raiment therewith be content. Now here is a trial + for you, whether you will be faithful to God and Christ in obeying + His Laws; or whether you will destroy the man-child of true + Freedom, Righteousness and Peace, in his resurrection. And now thou + wilt either give us the tricks of a Soldier, face about, and return + to Egypt, and so declare thyself to be part of the Serpent's seed + that must bruise the heel of Christ. Or else to be one of the + plain-hearted Sons of Promise, or Members of Christ, who shall help + to bruise the Serpent's head, which is Kingly Oppression, and so + bring in everlasting Righteousness and Peace into the Earth. Well, + the eye is now open." + + + "STOREHOUSES SHALL BE BUILT AND APPOINTED IN ALL PLACES AND BE THE + COMMON STOCK. + + "There shall be Storehouses in all places, both in the Country and + in Cities, to which all the fruits of the Earth, and other works + made by Tradesmen, shall be brought, and thence delivered out again + to particular Families, and to every one as they want for their + use; or else to be transplanted by ships to other Lands to exchange + for those things which our Land will not or does not afford. For + all the labors of Husbandmen and Tradesmen within the Land, or by + Navigation to or from other Lands, shall be upon the Common Stock. + And as everyone works to advance the Common Stock, so everyone + shall have a free use of any commodity in the Storehouse for his + pleasure and comfortable livelihood, without buying or selling or + restraint from any. Having food and raiment, lodging, and the + comfortable societies of his own kind, what can a man desire more + in these days of his travel? Indeed, covetous, proud, and beastly + minded men desire more, either to lay by them to look upon, or else + to waste and spoil it upon their lusts, while other Bretheren live + in straits for the want of the use thereof. But the Laws and + Faithful Officers of a Free Commonwealth do regulate the irrational + conduct of such men. + + + "THERE ARE TWO SORTS OF STOREHOUSES, GENERAL AND PARTICULAR. + + "The general Storehouses are such houses as receive in all + commodities in the gross.... And these general Storehouses shall be + filled and preserved by the common labor and assistance of every + Family, as is mentioned in the Office for Overseer for Trades. And + from these Public Houses, which are the general stock of the Land, + all particular Tradesmen may fetch materials for their particular + work as they need, or to furnish their particular dwellings with + any commodities. + + "_Secondly_, There are particular Storehouses, or Shops, to which + the Tradesmen shall bring their particular works; as all + instruments of iron to the Iron-shops, hats to the shops appointed + for them, and so on.... They shall receive in, as into a + Storehouse, and deliver out again freely, as out of a Common + Storehouse, when particular persons or families come for everything + they need, as now they do by buying and selling under Kingly + Government. For as particular Families and Tradesmen do make + several works more than they can make use of ... and do carry their + particular works to Storehouses; so it is all Reason and Equity + that they should go to other Storehouses to fetch any other + commodity which they want and cannot make. For as other men partake + of their labors, so it is reason they should partake of other + men's." + +It should be scarcely necessary to pause to point out that what +Winstanley here describes is exactly what is taking place, in his time +as in our times, all the world over. Commodities of every description +are continuously being produced, and being brought to the Storehouses, +wholesale and retail, thence to be redistributed to those who require +them. The Social Problem, of Winstanley's time and of our time, is how +to secure to each co-operating worker his fair share of the returns to +the labours of all. And manifestly this is impossible so long as some +can command any share thereof without having in any way shared in the +toil or rendered any equivalent counter-service. In 1905, as in 1652, an +ever increasing portion and proportion of the wealth thus harvested and +garnered constantly gravitates towards those who, under the prevailing +"kingly laws," claim to control the use of the land, whence alone it can +be derived. This was the basic social injustice, the parent source of +innumerable other social ills and injustices, which Winstanley was one +of the first clearly to apprehend, and to combat which he devoted his +life. + +Winstanley, moreover, fully and clearly realised that: + + "THE KING'S OLD LAWS CANNOT SERVE A FREE COMMONWEALTH." + +And this formed the heading of his next chapter, in which in a specially +lively manner he first points out that the Laws of a Monarchy--which, +being based upon inequality, necessarily tend to produce inequality, and +whose main function is to legalise and to maintain privileges--are +necessarily essentially different from those suitable to a Free +Commonwealth--which, being based upon the recognition of the equality of +rights, would necessarily tend to produce an equality of social +conditions; and whose main function would be to establish and to +legalise Justice, equal rights and equal duties, to maintain and to +enforce the equal claims of all to the use of the earth, to life, to +liberty, and to the pursuit of happiness. It commences as follows: + + +OF KINGLY LAWS. + + "The King's Old Laws cannot govern in times of Bondage and in times + of Freedom too. They have indeed served many masters, Papish and + Protestant. They are like old Soldiers, who will but change their + name, and turn about, and as they were. The Reason is because they + are the prerogative will of those, under any Religion, who count it + no Freedom to them unless they be Lords over the minds, persons and + labors of their bretheren. + + "They are called the King's Laws, because they are made by the + King. If any say they were made by the Commoners, it is answered, + They were not made by the Commoners as the Commoners of a Free + Commonwealth are to make Laws. For in the days of the King none + were to choose or be chosen Parliament Men, or Law Makers, but + Lords of Manors, and Freeholders, such as held title to their + Enclosures of Land, or Charters for their Liberties in Trades, + under the King, who called the Land his, as he was the Conqueror or + his successor. All inferior people were neither to choose nor be + chosen. And the reason was because all Freeholders of Land and such + as held their Liberties by Charter, were all of the King's + interest; and the inferior people were successively of the rank of + the conquered ones, and servants and slaves from the time of the + Conquest. + + "Further, when a Parliament was chosen in that manner, yet if any + Parliament Man, in the uprightness of his heart, did endeavour to + promote any freedom contrary to the King's will or former customs + from the Conquest, he was either committed to prison by the King or + by the House of Lords, who were his ancient Norman successive + Council of War; or else the Parliament was dissolved and broke up + by the King. So that the old Laws were made in times under Kingly + Slavery, not under the liberty of Commonwealth's Freedom, because + Parliament Men had to have regard to the King's prerogative + interest to uphold his conquest, or else endanger themselves. As + sometimes it is in these days, some Officers dare not speak against + the minds of those men who are the chief in power, nor a Private + Soldier against the mind of his Officer, lest they be cashiered + their places and livelihood. And so long as the promoting of the + King's will and prerogative was to be in the eye of the Law Makers, + the oppressed Commoners could never enjoy Commonwealth's Freedom + thereby. Yet by the wisdom, courage, faithfulness and industry of + some Parliament Men, the Commoners have received here a line and + there a line of freedom inserted into their Laws: as those good + lines of freedom in Magna Charta were obtained by much hardship and + industry. + + "_Secondly_, They were the King's Laws, because the King's own + creatures made the Laws: Lords of Manors, Freeholders, etc., were + successors of the Norman soldiers from the Conquest, therefore they + could do no other but maintain their own and the King's interest. + Do we not see that all Laws were made in the days of the King to + ease the rich Landlord? The poor laborers were left under bondage + still; they were to have no freedom in the earth by those + pharisaical Laws. For when Laws were made and Parliaments broke up, + the poor oppressed Commoners had no relief; the power of Lords of + Manors, withholding the free use of the Common-land from them, + remained still. For none durst make any use of any Common-land but + at the Lord's leave, according to the will and law of the + Conqueror. Therefore the old Laws were called King's Laws." + + +OF COMMONWEALTH'S LAWS. + + "These old Laws cannot govern a Free Commonwealth; because the Land + is now to be set free from the slavery of the Norman Conquest, and + the power of Lords of Manors and Norman Freeholders is to be taken + away. Or else the Commoners are but where they were, if not fallen + lower into straits than they were. The Old Laws cannot look with + any other face than they did; though they be washed with + Commonwealth's water, their countenance is still withered. + Therefore it was not for nothing that the Kings would have all + their Laws written in French and Latin, and not in English; partly + in honor to the Norman Race, and partly to keep the Common People + ignorant of their Creation Freedom lest they should rise to redeem + themselves. And if those Laws should be writ in English, yet if the + same Kingly Principles remain in them, the English language would + not advantage us anything, but rather increase our sorrow by our + knowledge of our bondage." + + + "WHAT IS LAW IN GENERAL?" + +Winstanley then proceeds to consider the question, What is Law? and to +emphasise the essential difference between customary, conventional or +written Law and that unwritten Law, proceeding from the Inward Light of +Reason, that inspires men, in action as in words, to do as they would be +done unto. He first gives the following clear, rational and sufficient +definition of Law: + + "Law is a Rule, whereby men and other creatures are governed in + their actions for the preservation of Common Peace." + +Then follows a most philosophic consideration of the whole question, +which seems to us to reveal that Winstanley was groping, and by no means +so blindly as many who succeeded him, after some Natural Law, some +unalterable and immutable principle, which should serve as a basis, as +well as the test and touchstone, of all man-made customs, laws and +institutions. He continues: + + +THE TWO-FOLD NATURE OF LAW. + + "This Law is two-fold: First, it is the power of Life (called the + Law of Nature within the Creatures) which doth move both man and + beast in their actions, or that causes grass, trees, corn and all + plants to grow in their several seasons. And whatsoever anybody + does, he does it as he is moved by this inward Law. And this Law of + Nature moves two-fold, viz., irrationally or rationally." + + +THE LAW OF THE FLESH. + + "A man by this inward Law is guided to actions of present content, + rashly, through a greedy self-love, without any consideration, like + foolish children, or like the brute beasts. By reason whereof much + hurt many times follows the body. And this may be called the Law of + the Members warring against the Law of the Mind." + + +THE LAW OF THE MIND. + + "Or where there is an inward watchful oversight of all motions to + action, considering the end and effect of those actions, so that + there be no excess in diet, in speech, or in action break forth, to + the prejudice of a man's self or others: and this may be called the + Light in Man, the Reasonable Power, or the Law of the Mind. And + this rises up in the heart by an experimental observation of that + peace or trouble which such and such words, thoughts and actions + bring the man into. And this is called the Record on High; for it + is a record in a man's heart above the former unreasonable power: + and it may be called the witness or testimony of a man's own + conscience: and this moderate watchfulness is still the Law of + Nature, but in a higher resurrection than the former. It hath many + terms, which for brevity sake I let pass." + + +THEIR STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY. + + "This two-fold work of the Law within man strive to bring forth + themselves in writing to beget numbers of bodies on their sides. + That power which begets the bigger number always rules as King or + Lord in the creature and in the Creation, till the other side + overtop him: even as light and darkness strive in day and night to + succeed each other. Or as it is said--"The strong man armed keeps + the heart of man till a stronger than he came and cast him out." + + +THE WRITTEN LAW. + + "This written Law, proceeding either from reason or + unreasonableness, is called the Letter, whereby the creation of + mankind, beasts and earth are governed, according to the will of + that power which rules.... As for example, if the experienced, wise + and strong man bears rule, then he writes down his mind to curb the + unreasonable Law of Covetousness and Pride in inexperienced man, to + preserve Peace in the Commonwealth. This is called the Historical + or Traditional Law, because it is conveyed from one generation to + another by writing: as the Laws of Israel's Commonwealth were writ + in a book by Moses, and so conveyed to posterity. And this outward + Law is a bridle to unreasonableness; or as Solomon writ, It is a + whip for the fool's back, for whom only it was added." + + +ITS CORRUPTION. + + "_Secondly_, Since Moses' time the power of unreasonable + covetousness and pride hath sometimes risen up and corrupted that + Traditional Law. For since the power of the sword rises up in + Nations to conquer, the Written Law hath not been to advance Common + Freedom and to beat down the unreasonable self-will in mankind, but + it hath been framed to uphold the self-will of the Conqueror, right + or wrong, not respecting the Freedom of the Commonwealth, but the + Freedom of the Conqueror and his friends only. By reason whereof + much slavery hath been laid on the backs of the plain-dealing men; + and men of public spirit, as Moses was, have been crushed, and + their spirits damped thereby: which hath bred first discontents, + and then more wars in the Nations.... But hereby the true nature of + a well-governed Commonwealth hath been ruined; the will of Kings + set up for a Law; and the Law of Righteousness, the Law of Liberty, + trod under foot and killed. This Traditional Law of Kings is that + Letter at this day which kills true freedom and is the fomenter of + wars and persecutions. + + "This is the soldier who cut Christ's garments into pieces, which + was to remain uncut and without seam. This law moves the people to + fight one against the other for those pieces; viz., for the several + enclosures of the Earth, who shall possess the Earth, and who shall + be Rulers over others." + + +THE EVERLASTING LAW. + + "But the true ancient Law of God is a Covenant of Peace to the + whole of mankind. This sets the Earth free to all. This unites both + Jew and Gentile into one Brotherhood, and rejects none. This makes + Christ's garment whole again; and makes the Kingdoms of the World + to become Commonwealths again. It is the Inward Power of Right + Understanding, which is the True Law that teaches people in action, + as well as in words, to do as they would be done unto." + +Winstanley then contends that, as far as written laws are concerned-- + + "SHORT AND PITHY LAWS ARE BEST TO GOVERN A COMMONWEALTH," + +and defends this conclusion as follows: + + "The Laws of Israel's Commonwealth were few, short and pithy; and + the Government thereof was established in peace so long as Officers + and People were obedient thereunto. But those many Laws in the days + of the Kings of England, which were made some in times of Popery + and some in times of Protestantism, and the proceedings of the Laws + being in French and Latin, hath produced two great evils in + England. First, it hath occasioned much ignorance among the people, + and much contention. And the people have mightily erred through + want of knowledge, and thereby they have run into great expense of + money by suits of Law; or else many have been imprisoned, whipped, + banished, lost their estates and lives by that Law which they were + ignorant of till the scourge thereof was on their backs. This is a + sore evil among the people. + + "_Secondly_, The people's ignorance of the laws hath bred many sons + of contention. For when any difference falls out between man and + man, they neither of them know which offends the other; therefore, + both of them thinking their cause is good, they delight to make use + of the Law; and then they go and give a Lawyer money to tell them + which of them was the offender. The Lawyer, being glad to maintain + his own trade, sets them together by the ears till all their money + be near spent; and then bids them refer the business to their + neighbors to make them friends, which might have been done at the + first. So that the course of the Law and Lawyers hath been a mere + snare to entrap the people and to pull their estates from them by + craft. For the Lawyers do uphold the Conqueror's Interest and the + People's Slavery; so that the King, seeing this, did put all the + affairs of Judicature into their hands: and all this must be called + Justice, but it is a sore evil. + + "But now if the Laws were few and short, and often read, it would + prevent those evils. Everyone, knowing when they did well and when + ill, would be very cautious of their words and actions, and thus + would escape the Lawyer's craft. As Moses' Law in Israel's + Commonwealth: '_The People did talk of them when they lay down and + when they rose up, and as they walked by the way, and bound them as + bracelets upon their hands_:' so that they were an understanding + people in the Laws wherein their peace did depend. But it is a sign + that England is a blinded and snared generation; their Leaders, + through pride and covetousness, have caused them to err, yea and + perish too, for want of the knowledge of the Laws, which hath the + Power of Life and Death, Freedom and Bondage in its hand. But I + hope better things hereafter." + +Winstanley, then, we regret to say, was ambitious enough to attempt to +formulate a whole series of rigid artificial laws, which he evidently +deemed adapted to promote the prosperity and preserve the happiness of +his ideal Commonwealth: laws for the planting of the Earth, for +Navigation, Trade, Marriage, etc. etc. The curious reader will find them +almost in full in Appendix C. Many of them may seem to us unnecessary, +but then we should remember that we have at our command a greater store +of economic knowledge, and more accurate economic reasoning, than were +available to Winstanley. Many of his laws will appear to us +unnecessarily severe; but if we compare them with those prevailing for +many, many years after his time, they will appear, by comparison, both +mild and humane. As it seems to us, Winstanley intended to formulate +suggestions rather than Laws in the accepted sense of the term: +suggestions by following which the Earth could be planted and harvested, +and all handicraft, trade, commerce and industries carried on, and the +fruits of the united labours of all equitably distributed amongst all +according to their needs, without having recourse to "the thieving art +of buying and selling" either the Earth or the fruits thereof. + +The pamphlet concludes with the following quaint and yet philosophic +lines, with which our notice of it may also fittingly close: + + "Here is the Righteous Law, Man wilt thou it maintain? + It may be, as hath still, in the World been slain. + Truth appears in Light, Falsehood rules in Power; + To see these things to be, is cause of grief each hour. + Knowledge, Why didst thou come, to wound and not to cure? + I sent not for thee, thou didst me inlure. + Where knowledge does increase, there sorrows multiply, + To see the great deceit which in the World doth lie. + Man saying one thing now, unsaying it anon, + Breaking all Engagements, when deeds for him are done. + O Power where art thou? thou must mend things amiss; + Come, change the heart of Man, and make him Truth to kiss: + O Death, where art thou? wilt thou not tidings send? + I fear thee not, thou art my loving friend. + Come take this body, and scatter it in the Four, + That I may dwell in One, and rest in peace once more." + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +CONCLUDING REMARKS + + "While God gave to man a capacity to labour, He also gave him a + right to the object (the earth) on which that labour must be + employed to produce the necessaries of life. This gift of God is to + all men alike. No compact or consent or legislation on the part of + one portion of the community, can ever justly deprive another + portion of the community of their right of their share of the + earth, and of its natural productions. No arrangement or agreement + or legislation of men now dead, can justly deprive the present + inhabitants of the earth, or any portion of those inhabitants, of + their right to labour, and to labour for their own profit, on some + portion of the earth which God has given to man."--PATRICK EDWARD + DOVE, _Elements of Political Science_. 1854. + + "Our postulates are the primary perceptions of human reason, the + fundamental teachings of the Christian faith. We hold: That--This + world is the creation of God. The men brought into it for the brief + period of their earthly lives are the equal creatures of His + bounty, the equal subjects of His provident care.... Being the + equal creatures of the Creator, equally entitled under His + providence to live their lives and satisfy their needs, men are + equally entitled to the use of land, and any adjustment that denies + this equal use of land is morally wrong."--HENRY GEORGE, _An Open + Letter to Pope Leo XIII_. 1891.[228:1] + + +Here, then, we must bid farewell to Gerrard Winstanley. We are uncertain +as to the place and year of his birth; we know not where he lived, nor +where or when he died; yet his words still appeal to us, prompting us to +cast off the blinding and distorting spectacles of convention and +custom, to look the facts of social life fairly and squarely in the +face, and boldly to proclaim whatever social truths reflection and study +may reveal to us. Such are the lessons which his life and teachings seem +to us to inculcate. + +What Winstanley regarded, and what a steadily increasing number of +earnest students to-day regard, as a fundamental social truth was +revealed to him; and right well he gave expression, by words and deeds, +to his strong and well-grounded conviction of the equal claim of all to +the use of Mother Earth, to the use of the nation's natural home, +workhouse and storehouse, whence, by labour, everything necessary to +life and comfort can alone be derived. Winstanley realised, as they +to-day realise, that to admit in the abstract the Fatherhood of God and +the Brotherhood of Man, to admit the equal claim of all to life, and yet +to deny the equal claim of all to the use of God's Earth, to share in +those blessings which the great Father of all men has lavished upon His +children, and which form the only means by which life can be maintained, +is but hypocrisy and cant. The "rights of property," the financial +interests of the privileged classes, the Elder Brothers, the so-called +"power of the capitalists," may be based on and involved in the +recognition of the claim of the few to control the use of the Earth. But +the rights of man, the material, moral and spiritual interests of the +masses of mankind, their emancipation from the unjust economic +conditions to-day enthralling and impoverishing them, narrowing and +degrading their lives, depriving them of all real enjoyment of the +present, as of all hope for the future, hindering the advance of the +race to a nobler civilisation, to a higher plane of individual and +social life, depend upon our recognising and enforcing the claim of all +to the use of the Earth, and to share in the bounties of Nature, upon +equitable terms. What Winstanley discovered and proclaimed in the +Seventeenth Century, Henry George rediscovered and again proclaimed in +the Nineteenth Century, and that in tones which are still reverberating +and producing their effects on social thought throughout the length and +breadth of the civilised world, promising ultimately to produce a change +in social conditions compared with which the abolition of slavery sinks +into comparative insignificance. It is no longer a question of the +emancipation of a few chattel slaves, but of the whole human race. + +Fundamental social laws and institutions, based upon inequality of +rights, must necessarily produce inequality of conditions. And all who +impartially consider the question will be forced to admit that both +Winstanley and Henry George trace the prevailing social inequality, the +debauching wealth of the few and the degrading poverty of the many, to +its true cause. Nor can there be any doubt but that if Winstanley's +practical and efficacious remedy had been adopted, if the use of the +Common Land had been secured to the Common People on equitable terms, +the economic condition of the masses of the generations which succeeded +him, the whole subsequent economic, social and political history of the +English People, would have been very different; and they would not now, +in the Twentieth Century, be fighting for, or more often whispering with +bated breath concerning, those very reforms he so strenuously advocated +over two hundred and fifty years ago. + +Winstanley's writings met with the fate that awaits all thought much in +advance of the times in which it is given to the world. They have been +ignored and forgotten; and till very recently even his memory had +vanished from the minds of his fellow-countrymen, to whose emancipation +he unstintedly devoted his life. Nor can we be surprised at this, when +we consider the circumstances. There can be little doubt but that his +earlier writings were the quiver whence the early Quakers derived many +of their arrows, their most pointed and consequently by their opponents +most hated doctrines. And yet the highly philosophic and rational +attitude toward cosmological and theological speculations Winstanley +attained to in his last pamphlet, placed before our readers in Chapter +XVI., seems to us sufficiently to account for his having been ignored +even by those who may have availed themselves of his earlier works, and +hence that these, too, should have been gradually forgotten. + +That the same fate should have befallen his political writings, his +noble and yet simple and practical political ideals and aspirations, is +also not surprising. After the Restoration, when, as we have already +shown, Winstanley's bitter opponents, the old and new landholders, were +in the saddle, and made unsparing, we had almost written unscrupulous, +use of their opportunities, such doctrines as his were little likely to +commend themselves to the privileged, cultured and educated classes. +Prior to the Reformation, education, at least the knowledge of reading, +writing and arithmetic, was undoubtedly more widely diffused amongst the +masses of the people than it was subsequently--at all events, till very +recent times. From the Restoration to within our own times, education, +even the knowledge of reading, was as a very general rule only within +the reach of the few, of the privileged classes and those more or less +dependent on their favour, with whom such ideals as those voiced by +Winstanley would naturally meet with but scant consideration. Moreover, +though we may be accused of pessimism or cynicism for saying so, it +seems to us that the main reason why teachings such as Winstanley's must +necessarily remain specially unpalatable and unwelcome so long as social +and political privileges are allowed to continue, is that they are too +simple and direct, and the path toward their realisation too clearly +indicated, to be acceptable or welcome to those who benefit, or think +they benefit, by the continuance of social injustice. Winstanley's +proposals, as the proposals of his great modern representative, Henry +George, are, indeed, a test of sincerity. It is easy to express approval +of Freedom, Justice, Honesty, Equality of Opportunities, Brotherhood, of +the Equal Right of All to Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness, +and so on, _in the abstract_, and to talk about the necessity for men, +_other men_, dealing honestly, equitably and righteously one toward the +other. It is difficult, though but a test of our own honesty and +sincerity, to give practical support to unpopular doctrines and +proposals which would tend to make these noble and elevating conceptions +into real, living realities, and to enforce us to act honestly, +equitably and righteously ourselves. Hence it is that even to-day those +who advocate any such doctrines, any such social change, are either +dismissed as impossible, utopian dreamers, or denounced as revolutionary +demagogues, as "prophets of iniquity," "preachers of immorality," +"advocates of villany," as enemies of society, and so on; and if this +fails of its desired effects, other means are found by which their +influence is undermined and their teachings discredited in the minds of +those who more or less blindly follow in the wake of the "superior +classes," the privileged few and their more or less direct dependents. +Thus Society continues its troubled slumbers until--until the necessary +changes denied to peaceful reformers, to the thinkers of the race, may +be demanded, by revolutionary methods, by force, by those who know +themselves injured and oppressed, though they may be ignorant of the +means by which they are wronged. + +It was, however, as a sincere and unswerving advocate of peaceful, +practical reforms, as a courageous and unflinching opponent of the use +of force, of the sword, even for righteous ends, that Winstanley +appealed to his own generation, as Henry George, Ruskin and Tolstoy +appeal to the present. Nor can there be any doubt but that his teachings +found far more general acceptance than is to be gathered from modern +histories of the troubled times in which his lot was cast. For not only +was there sufficient demand to warrant the publication of at least two +editions of _The Law of Freedom_, as of several of his other pamphlets, +but additional testimony is to be gathered from the fact that his +writings were immediately pirated and issued under new titles by other +publishers:[232:1] than which no better evidence can be had of the +popularity of any writer. + +However this may be, new and less earnest and less strenuous generations +arose which knew not Winstanley, and heeded not his teachings; and till +very recent years both he and his teachings have remained utterly +forgotten. And yet we write the closing lines of our work with the same +conviction with which we commenced it some five years ago, that not only +was Gerrard Winstanley a man worthy to be recalled to the memory of his +fellow-countrymen, as one who deserved well of his day, of his +generation and of his country, but that the intrinsic merits of his +writings and teachings make them worthy of our most careful study, of +our highest admiration, and of our most profound respect. + +True, they have hitherto received but scant consideration; but this need +neither surprise nor disturb us. The man in whose heart a new truth is +born may be a benefactor of his species; but, as all history teaches us, +if he have courage to proclaim it to the world, he must be prepared to +meet the hatred, scoffing and abuse of the ignorant, the sneering +contempt, if not bitter persecution, of the learned and highly placed +upholders of already accepted beliefs and superstitions. More especially +is this true of a social truth, of a truth which threatens the +continuance of society in its accustomed paths, which threatens the +continuance of some vested social wrong, of some deep-rooted and +time-honoured social injustice, which, though it may be poisoning the +springs of social life, necessarily finds favour in the eyes of those +who are advantaged, or think they are advantaged, thereby. It was such a +truth that meditation and reflection revealed to Gerrard Winstanley; +and, as we have seen, he too met with the fate awaiting those who find +themselves in advance of their times. As already pointed out, his memory +has passed away, his teachings have remained unheeded. The seed he +planted fell upon barren soil; but though so hardened by the withering +frosts of ignorance, of that ignorance which is indeed "the curse of +God," as to seem but as a dead stone, the vivifying sun of knowledge may +yet stir its dormant potency, recalling it to life, to spring up and to +develop into a stately tree, yielding its life-giving fruits, offering +the welcome protection of its branches to all seeking rest and shelter +beneath its shade. To-day the thought that inspired Winstanley has again +been proclaimed by one greater than Winstanley, and is slowly but surely +remoulding the social thought of the world. Thanks to the genius of +Henry George, the more thoughtful and ethical-minded of our race are +gradually coming to realise that, to use Winstanley's words--"True +Commonwealth's Freedom lies in the free enjoyment of the Earth"; and +that if they would remove those remediable social ills which harass, +haunt and warp our advancing civilisation, the use of the Earth and a +share in the bounties and blessings of Nature must be secured to each +and all upon equitable terms and conditions. Hence it is that we feel +impelled to close our notice of the great Apostle of Social Justice and +Economic Freedom of the Seventeenth Century with the following eloquent +and soul-stirring words of his still greater successor of the Nineteenth +Century, words which almost seem but as an echo of his own, even though +many of us even to-day may have yet to learn to appreciate their full +force, meaning and truth: + + "In our time, as in times before, creep on the insidious forces + that, producing inequality, destroy Liberty. On the horizon the + clouds begin to lower. Liberty calls to us again. We must follow + her further; we must trust her fully. Either we must wholly accept + her or she will not stay. It is not enough that men should vote; it + is not enough that they should be theoretically equal before the + law. They must have liberty to avail themselves of the + opportunities and means of life; they must stand on equal terms + with reference to the bounties of nature. Either this, or Liberty + withdraws her light! Either this, or darkness comes on, and the + very forces that progress has evolved turn to powers that work + destruction. This is the universal law. This is the lesson of the + centuries. Unless its foundations be laid in justice the social + structure cannot stand." + + +END. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[228:1] Published under the title, _The Condition of Labour_ (Swan, +Sonnenschein & Co., London). + +[232:1] The following are some of such pirated publications: _Articles +of High Treason._ British Museum, Press Mark, E. 521. _A Declaration for +Freedom._ E. 321. _The Levellers Remonstrance._ E. 652. 12. + + + + +APPENDIX A + +THE FUNDAMENTAL AND JUST CHIEF ARTICLES OF ALL THE PEASANTRY AND +VILLEINS BY WHICH THEY DEEM THEMSELVES OPPRESSED + +INTRODUCTION. + + +To the Christian Reader, Peace and the Grace of God through +Christ,--There are many Anti-Christians who now take occasion to libel +the Gospel on account of the assembled peasantry, saying these be the +fruits of the New Gospel, to obey none, to raise rebellion in all +places, to rush to arms to reform, to root out, and perhaps to destroy +all spiritual and temporal authority. All such godless and wicked +judgements the Articles here written do answer; in the first place, so +that the shame may be lifted off the word of God; in the second, to +excuse in a Christian manner this uprising of the peasants. + +In the first place, the Gospel is no cause of any uprising, seeing that +it is the word of Christ, the promised Messiah, whose word and life +teach naught save love, peace, patience and unity; so all who believe in +this Christ should be loving, peaceful, patient and united. The object +of all the Articles of the Peasants, when once clearly apprehended, is +that they may hear the Gospel and live according to the Gospel. How then +can Anti-Christians denounce the Gospel as a cause of rebellion and +disobedience? But that Anti-Christians and Enemies of the Gospel should +rise up against such requirements, of this the Gospel is not the cause, +but the Devil, the most hurtful enemy of the Gospel, who arouses +infidelity in his followers, so that the word of God, which teaches +peace and unity, may be trodden down and taken away. + +In the second place, the following show clearly that the peasants in +their Articles demand the Gospel for teaching and for life; therefore +they cannot be called disobedient or rebellious. But should God hear the +peasants, who sincerely desire to live according to His word: Who will +oppose the will of God? (Rom. xi.). Who will impeach His judgment? (Isa. +xi.). Who dare resist His majesty? (Rom. viii.). Did He not hear the +Children of Israel when they called on Him, and delivered them out of +the hand of Pharaoh (II Moses 3. 7), and can He not to-day also save His +own? Aye, He will save them, and that speedily (Luke xviii. 8). +Therefore, Christian Reader, read the following Articles sedulously, and +then judge. + + +FIRST ARTICLE. + +It is our humble request and desire, as also our will and intention, +that henceforth the community itself shall have power to choose their +Pastor, as also to dismiss him should he be found unsuitable. The Pastor +so chosen shall preach to us the Gospel clearly and purely, free from +all man-made additions, teachings and ordinances. For whoever preaches +to us the true Faith giveth us reason to pray to God for His mercy, and +to call up within us and confirm us in the true Faith. For if we do not +enjoy His grace, we remain mere flesh and blood, which profiteth not. It +is clearly written in the Scriptures that it is only through the true +Faith that we can come to God, and only through His mercy that we can be +saved. Therefore it is that we require such a Pastor and Minister. + + +SECOND ARTICLE. + +_Secondly_, As the just tithe was established in the Old Testament, and +in the New covered all dues, so we will gladly furnish the just tithe of +corn, but only in a seemly manner, according to which it should be given +to God, and divided among His servants. It is the due of a Pastor, as +the Word of God clearly proclaims. Therefore it is our will that the +Church Overseers, such as are appointed by the Community, shall collect +and receive this tithe, and therefrom shall give to the Pastor, who +shall be chosen by the Community, suitable and sufficient subsistence +for him and his, as the whole Community may deem just. The surplus shall +be devoted to the use of the poor and needy, as we are instructed in the +Holy Scriptures. And so that no general tax shall be levied on the poor, +their share of such taxation shall be defrayed out of such surplus. + +In villages where the right to the tithe has been sold, out of sheer +necessity, the buyers shall lose nothing, but their rights shall be +redeemed in a seemly manner. But those who have not bought the right to +the tithe from the village, but who or whose fathers have simply usurped +it to themselves, we will not and we should not give them anything. We +owe such men nothing; but we are willing out of the proceeds of such +tithe to support our chosen Pastor, and to relieve the needy as we are +commanded in the Holy Scriptures. + +The small tithe we will not give. For God the Lord hath created the +beasts free to mankind (Gen. i.). It is only a mere human invention that +we should pay tithe on them. Therefore we shall not pay such tithe for +the future. + + +THIRD ARTICLE. + +_Thirdly_, It has hitherto been the custom that we should be held as +serfs, which is deplorable, since Christ redeemed us all with His +precious blood, the shepherd as well as the noble, the lowest as well as +the highest, none being excepted. Therefore it accords with Scripture +that we should be free; and we will be free. Not that we are absolutely +free, or desire to be free from all authority: this God does not teach +us. We are to live according to His commandments, not according to the +promptings of the flesh; but shall love God as our Master, and recognise +Him as the one nearest to us. And everything He has commanded we shall +do; and His commands do not instruct us to disobey the orders of the +Authorities. On the contrary, not only before the Authorities, but +before all men we are to be humble; so that in all matters fitting and +Christian we shall gladly obey the orders of those who have been chosen +or have been set up over us. And doubtless, as true and honest +Christians, you will gladly abolish serfdom, or prove it to be in +accordance with the Gospel. + + +FOURTH ARTICLE. + +_Fourthly_, It has hitherto been the custom that no poor man should have +any right to the game, the birds, or to the fish in the running waters. +This seems to us unseemly and unbrotherly, and not to be in accordance +with the Word of God. Moreover, in some places the authorities let the +game increase to our injury and mighty undoing, since we have to permit +that which God has caused to grow for the use of man to be unavailingly +devoured by the beasts; and we have to hold our peace concerning this, +which is against God and our neighbours. When our Lord God created +mankind, He gave him power over all creatures, over the birds in the air +and the fish in the waters. Therefore as regards those who control the +running waters, and who can show us documents to prove that they +purchased it with money, we do not desire to take it away from such men +by force, but to come to some Christian agreement with them in brotherly +love. Those who have no such documents shall share with the community in +a seemly manner. + + +FIFTH ARTICLE. + +_Fifthly_, We find ourselves oppressed as regards the woods. For our +Lords have taken to themselves all the woods; and when poor men require +any wood, they have to buy it with money. Our view is that such woods, +whether claimed by spiritual or by temporal Lords, as have not been +purchased, should return to the community, and be free to all in a +seemly manner. So that those who require wood for firing shall be free +to take same without payment, as also if they require any for +carpentering: but, of course, always with the knowledge of the chosen +Authorities of the community. But where there are no woods save those as +have been honestly purchased, with such we will arrange the matter in a +brotherly and Christian spirit. And in cases where the land was first +appropriated and afterwards sold, we will also come to an agreement with +the buyers according to the circumstances of the case, and with regard +to brotherly love and the Holy Writings. + + +SIXTH ARTICLE. + +_Sixthly_, The burden of service presses heavily upon us, and is daily +increased. We desire that this matter shall be looked into, and that we +be not so heavily burdened, but shall be mercifully dealt with herein; +that we should serve but as our fathers have served, but only according +to the Word of God. + + +SEVENTH ARTICLE. + +_Seventhly_, Henceforth we will no longer allow ourselves to be +oppressed by the Lords, but according as a Lord hath granted the land, +so shall it be held, according to the agreement between the Lord and the +peasant. The Lord shall not force him to render more service for naught; +so that the peasant shall enjoy his holding in peace and unoppressed. +But if the Lord hath need of service, the peasant shall be willing and +obedient to him before others; but it shall be at the hour and the time +when it shall not injure the peasant, and at a proper remuneration. + + +EIGHTH ARTICLE. + +_Eighthly_, Many of us are oppressed in that we hold lands that will not +bear the price placed on them, so that the peasant thereby is ruined and +undone. Our desire is that the Lord shall allow such land to be seen by +honourable men, so that the price shall be fixed in such a manner that +the peasant shall not have his labour in vain: for every labourer is +worthy of his hire (Matt. x.). + + +NINTH ARTICLE. + +_Ninthly_, We suffer greatly because of the new punishments that are +continually laid upon us. Not that they punish us according to the +circumstances of the case, but at times spitefully and at other times +favourably. We would be punished according to the old written +punishments, and not arbitrarily. + + +TENTH ARTICLE. + +_Tenthly_, We suffer in that some have taken to themselves meadows and +arable land that belong to the community. Such land we would take once +more into the hands of our communities wheresoever they have not been +honestly purchased. But where they have been purchased, then shall the +case be agreed upon in peace and brotherly love, according to the +circumstances of the case. + + +ELEVENTH ARTICLE. + +_Eleventhly_, We would have the custom called the death-due entirely +abolished. We will never suffer nor permit that widows and orphans shall +be disgraced and robbed of their own, contrary to God and honour, as has +happened in many cases and in many ways. Those who would protect and +shelter them, they have abused and injured, and when these have had +some little property, even this they have taken. Such things God will no +longer suffer, they shall be abolished. For such things no man shall +henceforth be compelled to give aught, be it little or much. + + +TWELFTH ARTICLE. + +_Twelfthly_, It is our resolve and final decision that if any of the +Articles here set forth be not according to the Word of God, we will, +whenever they are shown to be against the Word of God, at once withdraw +therefrom. Yea, even though certain articles were now granted and it +should hereafter be found that they are unjust, from that hour they +shall be null and void and of no effect. The same shall happen if there +should with truth be found in the Scriptures yet more Articles which +were held to be against God and a stumbling-block to our neighbours, +even though we should have determined to preserve such for ourselves. +For we have determined and resolved to practice ourselves in all +Christian doctrines. Therefore we pray God the Lord who can grant us the +same, and none other. The Peace of Christ be with you all. Amen. + + + + +APPENDIX B + +TOLERATION + + +The statement that toleration was the one leading principle of +Cromwell's life, may seem somewhat exaggerated to those who have not +carefully studied his career. By his own words let him be judged. +Writing to Major Crawford as early as March 1643 (1644) he plainly tells +him--"Sir, the State, in choosing men to serve it, takes no notice of +their opinions; if they be willing faithfully to serve it, that +satisfies." After Naseby, under date June 14th, 1645, in his dispatch to +the Speaker, he tells the Presbyterian House of Commons--"Honest men +served you faithfully in this action. Sir, they are trusty; I beseech +you in the name of God not to discourage them.... _He that ventures his +life for the liberty of the country, I wish he trust God for the liberty +of his conscience, and you for the liberty he fights for._" The meaning +of these words was not lost to the House, so when sending his dispatch +to the press, they carefully omitted this paragraph. + +After the siege of Bristol, Cromwell is still more outspoken. Under date +September 14th, 1645, he writes to the Speaker as follows--"Presbyterians, +Independents, all have here the same spirit of faith and prayer; the same +presence and answer; they agree here, have no names of difference; pity +it should be otherwise anywhere--_for, bretheren, in things of the mind +we look for no compulsion but that of light and reason_." This dispatch, +too, the House of Commons took care to mutilate before sending it to the +press. + +As he advanced in his career, Cromwell became still more outspoken. In +his opening speech to his first Parliament, after having given +expression to his view that the Lord had given them the victory for the +common good of all, "for the good of the whole flock," he +continues--"Therefore I beseech you--but I think I need not--have a care +of the whole flock! Love the sheep, love the lambs; love all, tender +all, cherish and countenance all, in all things that are good. _And if +the poorest Christian, the most mistaken Christian, shall desire to live +peaceably and quietly under you--I say, if any shall desire but to lead +a life of godliness and honesty, let him be protected._" + +Again, when dissolving his first Parliament (Speech IV.), he expresses +the same thought in the following words--"Is there not yet upon the +spirits of men a strange itch? Nothing will satisfy them unless they can +press their finger upon their bretheren's consciences, to pinch them +there. To do this was no part of the contest we had with the common +adversary. For religion was not the thing at first contended for, but +God brought it to that issue at last; and gave it unto us by way of +redundancy; and at last it proved to be that which was most dear to us. +And wherein consisted this more than in obtaining that liberty from the +tyranny of the Bishops to all species of Protestants to worship God +according to their own light and consciences? ... And was it fit for them +to sit heavy upon others? Is it ingenuous to ask liberty and not to give +it? What greater hypocrisy than for those who were oppressed by the +Bishops to become the greatest oppressors themselves, so soon as their +yoke was removed? I could wish that they who call for liberty now also +had not too much of that spirit, if the power were in their hands." + +Cromwell, in short, had no deep-rooted objection either to a moderate +Episcopacy or to a tolerant Presbyterianism, though, as he somewhere +says, "both are a hard choice," provided only there was sufficient +consideration for those who could not reconcile their consciences to the +demands of the established State Church. His great desire was "for union +and right understanding" between Protestants of all shades, in fact +between "godley" (religious or moral) people of all races, countries and +denominations, "Scots, English, Jews, Gentiles, Presbyterians, +Independents, Anabaptists, and all." (See his letter to Hammond, _Clarke +Papers_, vol. ii. p. 49.) His aim was to reconcile, or rather to stand +as mediator between all the opposing sects. "Fain," he writes to one of +his most devoted adherent (see _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_, +Carlyle, part vii. p. 363), "would I have my service accepted of the +Saints, if the Lord will;--but it is not so. Being of different +judgements, and those of each sort seeking most to propagate their own, +that spirit of kindness that is to them all is hardly accepted of any. I +hope I can say it, My life has been a willing sacrifice,--and I +hope--for them all. Yet it much falls out as when the two Hebrews were +rebuked: you know upon whom they turned their displeasure." + +In short, Cromwell's attitude toward all honest, sincere, "godley" men +was the same as his attitude toward George Fox. "Come again to my +house," he said, when dismissing the sturdy Quaker, "for if thou and I +were but an hour a day together we should be nearer one to the other. I +wish you no more ill than I do to my own soul." + +On November 17th, 1645, "the Dissenting Bretheren," the representatives +of the Independents in the Westminster Assembly, declared for a full +liberty of conscience. "They expressed themselves," as Baillie, the +Scotch Presbyterian commissioner, wrote sadly, "for toleration, not only +to themselves, but to all sects." In February of the same year, the +Oxford Clergy, who had been consulted by the King as to the limits of +possible concession, gave strong evidence that the pressure of events +were forcing them to move, even though slowly, in the same direction. +(See Gardiner, _History of the Civil War_, vol. ii. pp. 125-126.) + + + + +APPENDIX C + +WHAT MAY BE THOSE PARTICULAR LAWS, OR SUCH A METHOD OF LAWS, WHEREBY A +COMMONWEALTH MAY BE GOVERNED? + + +1. The bare letter of the Law established by Act of Parliament shall be +the Rule for Officers and People, and the chief Judge of all actions. + +2. He or they who add or diminish from the Law, excepting in the Court +of Parliament, shall be cashiered his Office, and never bear Office +more. + +3. No man shall administer the Law for Money or Reward. He that doth +shall die as a Traitor to the Commonwealth. For when Money must buy and +sell Justice, and bear all the sway, there is nothing but Oppression to +be expected. + + [Here, as also in other Laws yet to follow, Winstanley, and as it + seems to us without sufficient grounds, gives up the position taken + up in The New Law of Righteousness, that capital punishment was + absolutely unjustifiable.] + +4. The Laws shall be read by the Minister to the People four times in +the year, viz., every quarter; that everyone may know whereunto they are +to yield obedience, that none may die for want of knowledge. + +5. No accusation shall be taken against any man unless it be proved by +two or three witnesses, or his own confession. + +6. No man shall suffer any punishment but for matter of fact or reviling +words. But no man shall be troubled for his judgement or practice in the +things of his God, so he live quiet in the Land. + +7. The accuser and the accused shall always appear face to face before +any Officer; that both sides may be heard, and no wrong to either party. + +8. If any Judge execute his own will contrary to the Law, or where there +is no Law to warrant him in, he shall be cashiered, and never bear +Office more. + +9. He who raises an accusation against any man, and cannot prove it, +shall suffer the same punishment as the other should, if proved. An +accusation is, when one man complains of another to an Officer, all +other accusations the Law takes no notice of. + +10. He who strikes his neighbor shall be struck himself by the +executioner, blow for blow, and shall lose eye for eye, tooth for tooth, +limb for limb, life for life. And the reason is that men should be +tender of one another's bodies, doing as they would be done by. + +11. If any man strike an Officer, he shall be made a servant under the +Task-master for a whole year. + +12. He who endeavours to stir up contention among neighbors, by +tale-bearing or false reports, shall the first time be reproved openly +by the Overseers among the people. The second time he shall be whipped. +The third time he shall be a servant under the Task-master for three +months. And if he continue, he shall be a servant for ever, and lose his +Freedom in the Commonwealth. + +13. If any give reviling or provoking words, whereby his neighbor's +spirit is burdened, if complaint be made to the Overseers, they shall +admonish the offender privately to forbear. If he continue to offend his +neighbor, the next time he shall be openly reproved and admonished +before the Congregation when met together. If he continue, the third +time he shall be whipped; the fourth time, if proof be made by +witnesses, he shall be a servant under the Task-master for twelve +months. + +14. He who will rule as a Lord over his Brother, unless he be an Officer +commanding obedience to the Law, he shall be admonished as aforesaid, +and receive like punishment, if he continue. + + +LAWS FOR THE PLANTING OF THE EARTH. + +15. Every household shall keep all instruments and tools fit for the +tillage of the Earth, either for planting, reaping or threshing. Some +households, which have many men in them, shall keep ploughs, carts, +harrows, and such like. Other households shall keep spades, pick-axes, +pruning hooks, and such like, according as every family is furnished +with men to work therewith. And if any Master or Father of a Family be +negligent herein, the Overseer for that Circuit shall admonish him +between them two. If he continue negligent, the Overseer shall reprove +him before all the people. And if he utterly refuse, then the ordering +of that Family shall be given to another, and he shall be Servant under +the Task-master till he reform. + +16. Every Family shall come into the field with sufficient assistance at +seed time, to plough, dig and plant, and at harvest time to reap the +fruits of the Earth, and to carry them into the Storehouses, as the +Overseers order the work and the number of workmen. If any refuse to +assist in the work, the Overseer shall ask the reason; and if it be +sickness or any distemper that hinders them, they are freed from such +service; if mere idleness keep them back, they are to suffer punishment +according to the Laws against Idleness. + + +LAWS AGAINST IDLENESS. + +17. If any refuse to learn a trade, or refuse to work in seed-time, or +refuse to be a waiter in storehouses, and yet will feed and clothe +himself with other men's labors, the Overseer shall first admonish him +privately. If he continue idle, he shall be reproved openly before all +the people by the Overseer, and shall be forbore with a month after this +reproof. If he still continue idle, he shall be whipped, and let go at +liberty for a month longer. If still he continue idle, he shall be +delivered into the Task-master's hand, who shall set him to work for +twelve months, or till he submit to right order. The reason why every +young man shall be trained up in some work or other, is to prevent pride +and contention; it is for the health of their bodies; it is a pleasure +to the mind to be free in labors one with another; and it provides +plenty of food and all necessaries for the Commonwealth. + + +LAWS FOR STOREHOUSES. + +18. In every Town and City shall be appointed Storehouses for flax, +wood, leather, cloth, and for all such commodities as come from beyond +seas. These shall be called General Storehouses, whence every particular +Family may fetch such commodities as they want, either for their own use +in their house, or for to work in their trades, or to carry into the +Country Storehouses. + +19. Every particular house and shop in a town or city shall be a +particular Storehouse or Shop, as now they be. And these shops shall +either be furnished by the particular labor of that family according to +the trade that family is of, or by the labor of other lesser families of +the same trade, as all shops in every town are now furnished. + +20. The waiters in Storehouses shall deliver the goods in their charge +without receiving any money, as they shall receive in their goods +without paying any money. + +21. If any waiter in a Storehouse neglect his Office, upon a just +complaint, the Overseers shall acquaint the Judge's Court therewith; and +from thence he shall receive his sentence, to be discharged that house +and office, to be appointed some other work under the Task-master; and +another shall have his place. For he who may live in Freedom and will +not, is to taste of servitude. + + +LAWS FOR OVERSEERS. + +22. The only work of every Overseer is to see the Laws executed. For the +Law is the True Magistracy of the land. + +23. If any Overseer favour any in their idleness and neglect the +execution of the Laws, he shall be reproved, the first time by the +Judge's Court; the second time cashiered his Office, and shall never +bear Office more, but fall back into the ranks of young people and +servants to be a worker. + +24. New Overseers, at their first entrance into their office, shall look +back upon the actions of the Old Overseers of the last year, to see if +they have been faithful in their places, and consented to no breach of +Law, whereby Kingly Bondage should in any way be brought in. + +25. The Overseers for Trades shall see every Family to lend assistance +to plant and reap the fruits of the Earth, to work in their Trades, and +to furnish the Storehouses. And to see that the Waiters in Storehouses +be diligent to receive in and deliver out any goods, without buying and +selling, to any man whatsoever. + +26. While any Overseer is in performance of his place, every one shall +assist him, upon pain of open reproof (or cashiered if he be another +Officer) or forfeiture of freedom, according to the nature of the +business in hand, in which he refused his assistance. + + +LAWS AGAINST BUYING AND SELLING. + +27. If any man entice another to buy and sell, and he who is enticed +does not yield, but makes it known to the Overseer, the enticer shall +lose his freedom for twelve months, and the Overseer shall give words of +commendation of him that refused the enticement before all the +Congregation, for his faithfulness to the Commonwealth's Peace. + + +THE UNPARDONABLE SIN! + +28. If any do buy and sell the Earth, or the fruits thereof, unless it +be to or with strangers of another Nation, according to the Law of +Navigation, they shall be both put to death as Traitors to the Peace of +the Commonwealth. Because it brings in Kingly Bondage again, and is the +occasion of all quarrels and oppressions. + +29. He, or she, who calls the Earth his, and not his brother's, shall be +set upon a stool, with those words written in his forehead, before all +the Congregation, and afterwards be made a Servant for twelve months +under the Task-master. If he quarrel, or seek by secret persuasion or +open rising in arms to set up such a Kingly Propriety, he shall be put +to death. + +30. The Storehouses shall be every man's subsistence, and not any ones. + +31. No man shall either give hire or take hire for his work; for this +brings in Kingly Bondage. If any Freeman want help, there are young +people, or such as are common servants, to do it by the Overseer's +appointment. He that gives and he that hires for work, shall both lose +their freedom and become Servants for twelve months under the +Task-master. + + +LAWS FOR NAVIGATION. + +32. Because other Nations as yet own Monarchy, and will buy and sell, +therefore it is convenient for the peace of our Commonwealth, that our +ships do transport our English goods and exchange for theirs, and +conform to the customs of other Nations in buying and selling: Always +provided that what goods our ships carry out, they shall be the +Commonwealth's goods; and all their trading with other Nations shall be +upon the Common Stock, to enrich the Storehouses. + + +LAWS FOR SILVER AND GOLD. + +33. As Silver and Gold is either found out in mines in our own Land, or +brought by shipping from beyond Sea, it shall not be coined with a +Conqueror's stamp upon it, to set up buying and selling under his name, +or by his leave. For there shall be no other use for it in the +Commonwealth than to make dishes and other necessaries for the ornament +of houses, as now there is use made of brass, pewter and iron, or any +other metal in their use. But in case other Nations whose commodities we +want, will not exchange with us unless we give them money, then pieces +of silver and gold may be stamped with the Commonwealth's Arms upon +them, for the same use and no otherwise. + +For where money bears all the sway, there is no regard of that Golden +Rule, "_Do as you would be done by_." Justice is bought and sold; nay, +Injustice is sometimes bought for money; and it is the cause of all wars +and oppressions. Certainly the Righteous Spirit of the Whole Creation +did never enact a Law that his weak and simple men should go from +England to the East Indies and fetch silver and gold to bring in their +hands to their bretheren, and give it them for their good-will to let +them plant the Earth, and live and enjoy their livelihood therein. + + +LAWS TO CHOOSE OFFICERS. + +34. All Overseers and State Officers shall be chosen new every year, to +prevent the rise of Ambition and Covetousness. For the Nations have +smarted sufficiently by suffering Officers to continue long in an +Office, or to remain in an Office by hereditary succession. + +35. A man who is of a turbulent spirit, given to quarrelling and +provoking words to his neighbor, shall not be chosen any Officer while +he so continues. + +36. All men of twenty years of age upwards shall have freedom of voice +to choose Officers, unless they be such as lie under sentence of the +Law. + +37. Such shall be chosen Officers as are rational men of moderate +conversation, and who have experience in the Laws of the Commonwealth. + +38. All men from forty years of age upwards shall be capable to be +chosen State Officers, and none younger, unless any one by his industry +and moderate conversation doth move the people to choose him. + +39. If any man make suit to move the people to choose him an Officer, +that man shall not be chosen at all that time. If another man shall +persuade the people to choose him that made suit for himself, they shall +both loose their freedom at that time, viz., they shall neither have a +voice to choose another, nor be chosen themselves. + + +LAWS AGAINST TREACHERY. + +40. He who professes the service of a righteous God by preaching and +prayer, and makes a trade to get the possessions of the Earth, shall be +put to death for a Witch and a Cheater. + +41. He who pretends one thing in words, and his actions declare his +intent was another thing, shall never bear Office in the Commonwealth. + + +WHAT IS FREEDOM? + +Every Freeman shall have a Freedom in the Earth, to plant or build, to +fetch from the Storehouses anything he wants, and shall enjoy the fruits +of his labor without restraint from any. He shall not pay Rent to any +Landlord. He shall be capable of being chosen Officer, so he be above +forty years of age, and he shall have a voice to choose Officers though +he be under forty years of age. If he want any young men to be +assistants to him in his trade or household employment, the Overseers +shall appoint him young men or maids to be his servants in his family. + + +LAWS FOR SUCH AS HAVE LOST THEIR FREEDOM. + +42. All those who have lost their freedom shall be clothed in white +woollen cloth, that they may be distinguished from others. + +43. They shall be under the government of a Task-master, who shall +appoint them to be porters or laborers, to do any work that any Freeman +wants to be done. + +44. They shall do all kinds of labor without exception, but their +constant work shall be carriers or carters, to carry corn or other +provision from Storehouse to Storehouse, from Country to Cities, and +thence to Countries. + +45. If any of these refuse to do such work, the Task-master shall see +them whipped, and shall feed them with coarse diet. And what hardship is +this? For Freemen work the easiest work, and these shall work the +hardest work. And to what end is this but to kill their Pride and +Unreasonableness, that they may become useful men in the Commonwealth? + +46. The wife or children of such as have lost their Freedom shall not be +as slaves till they have lost their Freedom as their parents and +husbands have done. + +47. He who breaks any laws shall be the first time reproved in words in +private or in public, as is shown before; the next time whipped; the +third time lose his Freedom, either for a short time or for ever, and +not to be any Officer. + +48. He who hath lost his Freedom shall be a common servant to any +Freeman who comes to the Task-master and requires one to do any work for +him. Always provided, that after one Freeman hath by the consent of the +Task-master appointed him his work, another Freeman shall not call him +thence till that work be done. + +49. If any of these offenders revile the Laws by words, they shall be +soundly whipped and fed with coarse diet. If they raise weapons against +the Laws, they shall die as Traitors. + + +LAWS TO RESTORE SLAVES TO FREEDOM. + +50. When any Slaves [_i.e._ those who have lost their Freedom] give open +testimony of their humility and diligence, and of their care to observe +the Laws of the Commonwealth, they are then capable to be restored to +their Freedom, when the time of servitude has expired, according to the +Judge's sentence. But if they continue opposite to the Laws, they shall +continue slaves for another term of time. + +51. None shall be restored to Freedom till they have been a twelve month +laboring servants to the Commonwealth; for they shall winter and summer +in that condition. + +52. When any is restored to Freedom, the Judge at the Senator's Court +shall pronounce his Freedom, and give liberty to him to be clothed in +what other coloured garments he will. + +53. If any person be sick or wounded, the Chyrurgeons, who are trained +up in the knowledge of Herbs and Minerals, and know how to apply +plasters or physick, shall go when they are sent for to any who need +their help, but require no reward, because the Common Stock is the +public pay for every man's labor. + +54. When a dead person is to be buried, the Officers of the Parish and +neighbors shall go along with the corpse to the grave, and see it laid +therein in a civil manner; but the public Minister nor any other shall +have any hand in reading or exhortation. + + [Whatever we may think of this latter proviso, certain it is that + it would put an end to many unseemly squabblings at a time when + they are specially to be avoided.] + +55. When a man hath learned his Trade, and the time of his seven years +Apprenticeship has expired, he shall have his Freedom to become Master +of a Family, and the Overseers shall appoint him such young people to be +his servants as they think fit, whether he marry or live a single life. + + +LAWS FOR MARRIAGE. + +56. Every man and woman shall have the free liberty to marry whom they +love, if they can obtain the love and liking of that party whom they +would marry, and neither birth nor portion shall hinder the match. For +we are all of one blood, mankind, and for portion, the Common +Storehouses are every man and maid's portion, as free to one as to +another. + +57. If any man lie with a maid and beget a child, he shall marry her. + +58. If a man lie with a woman forcibly, and she cry out and give no +consent; if this be proved by two witnesses, or the man's confession, he +shall be put to death, and the woman let go free: it is robbery of a +woman's bodily freedom. + +59. If any man by violence endeavour to take another man's wife, the +first time of such violent offer he shall be reproved before the +Congregation by the Peacemaker; the second time he shall be made a +Servant under the Task-master for twelve months; and if he forcibly lie +with another man's wife, and she cry out, as is the case when, a maid is +forced, the man shall be put to death. + +60. When any man or woman have consented to live together in marriage, +they shall acquaint all the Overseers in the Circuit therewith, and some +other neighbors. And being all met together, the man shall declare with +his own mouth before them all that he takes that woman to be his wife, +and the woman shall say the same, and desire the Overseers to be +witnesses. + + +LAWS TO SECURE ECONOMY. + +61. No Master of a Family shall suffer more meat to be dressed at a +dinner or supper than will be spent and eaten by his household or +company present, or within such a time after before it be spoilt. If +there be any spoil constantly made in a family of the food of man, the +Overseer shall reprove the Master for it privately; if that abuse be +continued in his family, through his neglect of family government, he +shall be openly reproved by the Peacemaker before all the people, and +ashamed for his folly; the third time he shall be made a servant for +twelve months under the Task-master, so that he may know what it is to +get food, and another shall have the oversight of his house for the +time. + +62. No man shall be suffered to keep house and have servants under him +till he hath served seven years under command to a Master himself. The +reason is that a man may be of age and of rational carriage before he be +made a Governor of a Family, that the peace of the Commonwealth may be +preserved. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +COMPLETE LIST OF "DIGGER" PUBLICATIONS. + + +WINSTANLEY, The Mystery of God concerning the Whole Creation, + Mankind.--April 1648. (British Museum, Press Mark, 4377, a. 1.) + + " The Breaking of the Day of God.--May 1648. (British Museum, P. M., + 4377, a. 2.) + + " The Saints' Paradise: Or the Father's Teaching the Only Satisfaction + to Waiting Souls.--August or September 1648. (British Museum, P. M., + E. 2137.) + + " Truth Lifting up its Head above Scandals.--October 1648. (British + Museum, P. M., 4372, a.a. 17.) + + " (?) Light Shining in Buckinghamshire.--December 1648. (British + Museum, P. M., E. 475 (11).) + + " (?) More Light Shining in Buckinghamshire.--March 1649. (British + Museum, P. M., E. 548 (33).) + + " (?) A Declaration from the Well Affected in the County of + Buckinghamshire.--May 1649. (British Museum, P. M., E. 555.) + + " The New Law of Righteousness.--January 1649. (Jesus College Library, + Oxford.) + + " Fire in the Bush: The Spirit burning, not consuming but purging, + Mankind.--March 1649. (Bodleian Library.) + + " A Declaration from the Poor Oppressed People of England.--March + 1649. (British Museum, Press Mark, 1027, i. 16 (3).) + + " The True Levellers' Standard Advanced: Or the State of Community + opened and presented to the Sons of Men.--April 1649. (British + Museum, P. M., E. 552.) + + " A Declaration of the Bloody and Unchristian Acting of William Star + and John Taylor of Walton, with diverse men in women's apparel, in + opposition to those that dig upon St. Georges Hill.--June 1649. + (British Museum, Press Mark, E. 561.) + + " A Letter to Lord Fairfax and his Council of War.--June 1649. + (British Museum, P. M., E. 560 (1).) + + " An Appeal to the House of Commons.--July 1649. (British Museum, + P. M., E. 564. Also at the Guildhall Library.) + + " A Watchword to the City of London.--August 1649. (British Museum, + P. M., E. 573. Also at the Guildhall Library.) + + " A Second Letter to Lord Fairfax.--December 1649. (Clarke Papers, + vol. ii. pp. 217-220.) + + +COSTER, ROBERT, A Mite cast into the Common Treasury.--December 1649. + (British Museum, P. M., E. 585.) + + " The Diggers' Mirth. (British Museum, P. M., E. 1365.) + + " The Diggers' Song. (Clarke Papers, vol. ii. p. 218.) + + +WINSTANLEY, A New Year's Gift for the Parliament and Army.--January + 1650. (British Museum, P. M., E. 587.) + + " A Vindication of Those whose Endeavour it is only to make the Earth + a Common Treasury, called Diggers.--February 1650. (British Museum, + P. M., E. 1365.) + + " An Appeal for Money.--April 1650. (See "A Perfect Diurnal," British + Museum, P. M., E. 534.) + + " A Declaration from Wellingborrow, in the County of Northampton.-- + March 1650. (British Museum, under Wellinborrow, P. M., S. Sh. + fol. 669 f., 15. 21.) + + " An Appeal to all Englishmen to Judge between Bondage and + Freedom.--March 1650. (British Museum, P. M., S. Sh. fol. 669 f., + 15. 23.) + + " An Humble Request to the Ministers of Both Universities and to all + Lawyers of every Inns-a-Court.--April 1650. (Dyce and Forster's + Library, South Kensington Museum.) + + " The Law of Freedom in a Platform: Or True Magistracie + Restored.--February 1652. (British Museum, P. M., E. 655. Also at + the Guildhall and Bodleian Libraries.) + + + + +INDEX + +Agreement of the People, 29, 32, 87, 103. + +Anabaptists, 15, 18. + +Army, the Model, Views of, 29; + Declaration of (1647), 93 (note). + +Army Council, Resolution of, 33; + Debate of, 103, 108. + + +Baptism, Winstanley on, 64. + +Barclay (Apology), quoted, 58, 60, 65. + +Baxter (Thos.), quoted, 50 (note). + +Beard (Hibbert Lectures, 1883), quoted, 4, 10, 15, 18. + +Buckle, quoted, 1, 21, 22. + + +Capital Punishment, Winstanley on, 69. + +Carlyle, quoted, 38, 165, 166, 168, 170. + +Cartwright, Thos., quoted, 20. + +Chalmers, John, quoted, 63. + +Chillingworth, quoted, 21. + +Clarke Papers, quoted, 29, 34, 35, 36, 53, 103, 106, 108, 122, 124, 130. + +Clergy, Winstanley on, 62, 167, 189. + +Coomber, Thos., quoted, 49. + +Coster, Robert, 126. + +Council of State, Letter to Fairfax, 35; + to Mr. Pentlow, 159. + +Croese, Gerrard, quoted, 49 (note). + +Cromwell, Oliver, quoted, 32, 33, 53, 165, 166, 168, 170; + Open Letter to, 164. + + +Diggers, Information against, 34; + Fairfax's visit to, 39; + Mirth, 129; + Declaration of, 91; + Sufferings of, 143; + Travels, 150. + +Dispensations, Winstanley on, 53; + Cromwell on, 53. + +Doctrines, Family of Love, 16, 18; + Presbyterian, 20, 32; + Model Army, 29; + Independent, 31, 32; + Children of Light, 52, 65; + Anabaptists, 15, 18. + +Dove, Patrick Edward, quoted, 228. + + +Earth, Right to use of, Winstanley on, 70, 74, 76, 80, 83, 90, 96, 104, +118, 132, 170, 180, 213. + +England, Reformation in, 12; + Church of, 13. + +Erasmus, quoted, 15, 18. + +Everard, 36, 38. + + +Fairfax, Lord, Council of State to, 35; + Gladman to, 39; + Visit to Diggers, 39; + Winstanley's letters to, 100, 124. + +Fall, the, Winstanley on, 44, 53, 70. + +Family of Love, History of, 15; + Doctrines of, 16, 18. + +Freedom, Winstanley on, 100, 112, 114, 179. + +Fuller on Family of Love, 16. + + +Gardiner, quoted, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 87, 163. + +George, Henry, quoted, 146, 205, 228, 234. + +Golden Rule, Winstanley on the, 39, 56, 80, 81, 86, 141, 154, 171, 190, +217, 225. + +Government, Winstanley on, 68, 101, 177; + Definition of, 181. + + +Hallam, quoted, 24. + +Hare's pamphlets, 38. + +Hooker, quoted, 21, 23. + +House of Commons, Apology of, 25; + Remonstrance of, 27; + Officers' Petition to, 86; + Appeal to, 105. + + +Independents, Origin of, 14; + Growth of, 33; + Doctrines of, 31. + +Ireton, quoted, 106 (note). + +Israel's Commonwealth, Winstanley on, 82, 93, 225. + + +Kingly Power, Winstanley on, 34, 100, 130, 168, 177, 202, 220. + + +Land Question, Winstanley on the, 70, 71, 124, 138, 156, 171, 175, 180. + +Law, Winstanley on, 102, 136, 141, 168, 171, 183, 192, 197, 220; + Definition of, 222. + +Lawyers, Questions to, 102; + Power of, 168, 225. + +Light, The Inward, 45, 46, 52, 57, 59, 60, 63, 66, 77, 141, 183, 225; + Children of, 17, 49, 54. + +Locke, John, quoted, 74, 179, 197 (note), 200 (note). + +Lockyer, Execution and burial of, 87. + +Love, The Everlasting Law of, 217; + Family of, 15, 16, 18. + +Luther, quoted, 4, 10. + + +Macaulay, quoted, 23, 24, 28. + +Mackay, Charles, quoted, 207. + +Mather, Cotton, on origin of Quakers, 48. + +Melanchthon, quoted, 9. + +Ministry, Winstanley on the work of, 207. + + +Officers, Petition of, 86; + Winstanley on functions of, 184. + + +Parliament, The Short and Long, 26; + Winstanley on work of, 194, 197. + +Peasantry, Demands of German, 8; + Condition of English, 126, 141, 151, 159. + +Penn, William, on Quaker Doctrines, 48 (note). + +People, Agreement of, 29, 32, 87, 103; + Condition of, 126, 141, 151, 159. + +Politics, Influence of religion on, 8. + +Prayer, Winstanley on, 63, 65. + +Presbyterianism, Doctrines of, 20, 32. + + +Quakers, Doctrines of, 47 (note); + Coomber on origin of, 49; + Cotton Mather on, 48 (note); + Thos. Bennet on, 49 (note); + a Declaration from, 54 (note); + Appeal of Army, 85 (note). + + +Rainborrow, Colonel, Views of, 103, 108. + +Ranters, Winstanley on the, 147. + +Reason, Luther on, 4; + Hooker on, 21; + Winstanley on, 44, 48, 59, 76. + +Reformation, influence of the, 3, 10, 12. + +Religion, Dual nature of, 6; + Winstanley, Definition of, 139. + +Restoration, the, Legislation of, 110. + +Resurrection, the, Winstanley on, 47, 60, 66. + +Revolt, The Peasants', 6, Appendix A. + +Riches, Winstanley on, 173. + +Rogers, Thorold, quoted, 7, 89, 109, 110. + +Rowntree, J. S., quoted, 48, 58. + +Ruskin, John, quoted, 61 (note). + + +Sexby, Edward, Views of, 103. + +Shelley, quoted, 162, 178, 179. + +Silence, the Law of, Winstanley on, 65. + + +Teachings, Human and divine, 52, 57, 59, 209, 211. + +Tithes, 85, 167, 173. + +Toleration, 13, 19, 31, 32, Appendix B. + + +Vagrants, Laws against, 109. + + +Wellingborrow, declaration from, 150. + +Whitelocke, quoted, 37, 86, 87, 152, 159. + +Wyclif, teachings of, 6, 13. + +Winstanley, on Baptism, 64; + Capital Punishment, 69; + Clergy, 62, 167, 189; + Dispensations, 53; + Earth, rights to use of, 70, 74, 76, 80, 83, 90, 96, 104, 118, 132, + 170, 180, 213; + Ecclesiastical Power, 55; + Education, 214; + Fall, the, 44, 53, 70; + Freedom, 100, 112, 114, 179; + Golden Rule, the, 39, 56, 80, 81, 86, 141, 154, 171, 190, 217, 225; + Government, 68, 101, 177, 181; + Israel's Commonwealth, 82, 93, 225; + Kingdom of Heaven, 47, 48, 61, 66, 211; + Kingly Power, 34, 100, 133, 168, 177, 202, 220; + Land Question, 70, 71, 124, 138, 156, 171, 175, 180; + Law, 102, 136, 141, 168, 171, 183, 192, 197, 220, 222; + Lawyers, questions to, 102; + power of, 168, 225; + Light, the Inward, 45, 46, 52, 57, 60, 63, 66, 77, 141, 183, 225; + Love, the Law of, 217; + Ministry, work of a, 207; + Officers, work of, 184; + Parliament, work of, 194, 197; + Prayer, 63, 65; + Reason, 44, 48, 59, 76; + Religion, 137; + Resurrection, the, 47, 60, 66; + Riches, 173; + Silence, the Law of, 65; + Teachings, human and divine, 52, 57, 59, 209, 211; + Tithes, 167, 173; + Titles of Honour, 173. + + + + +_Printed by_ +MORRISON & GIBB LIMITED +_Edinburgh_ + + + + +BY THE SAME AUTHOR. + +LATEST ADDITION TO +THE SOCIAL SCIENCE SERIES. + + +=TOWARD THE LIGHT:= +_ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN ETHICS AND ECONOMICS._ + +BY + +=LEWIS H. BERENS=, +Co-Author "The Story of My Dictatorship," "Government by the People," +etc. + +_=Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 2s. 6d.=_ + +CONTENTS. + + I. Preliminary Remarks. + II. Why do men work? + III. Co-operation and Division of Labour. + IV. Productive and Unproductive Labour. + V. The Same continued. + VI. Elements of Production. + VII. The Auxiliaries of Production. + VIII. Barter, Trade, and Commerce. + IX. Conflicting Tendencies. + X. Ethics and Economics. + XI. Social Ethics. + XII. The Institution of Property. + XIII. Of Wages. + XIV. Of Rent. + XV. Principles of Taxation. + XVI. Of Interest. + XVII. The Same continued. +XVIII. Of Money. + XIX. Of Government. + XX. The Way Out. + XXI. Social Evolution. + XXII. Democracy. + + +=PRESS NOTICES.= + +"This is an admirable book that may be read by everybody with +advantage."--_Sunday Special._ + +"It is clearly the thinking of a man who has personally grappled with +the grave questions of his time, and who sees the light beyond, to which +he would lead all men."--_Echo_ (London). + +"The book forms an appropriate addition to the Social Science Series, in +which it appears."--_Scotsman._ + +"A work of ripe thought, full of interest to all to whom the question of +the people of England is vital."--_New Age_ (London). + +"Earnest and instructive."--_Literary Guide._ + +"Mr. Berens treats of ethics and economics from the standpoint of one +who wishes to see the evolution of a social system on the basis of the +golden rule of righteousness, the law of equal freedom."--_Nottingham +Guardian._ + +"'Toward the Light' is a volume for all students of present day politics +and economics."--_Co-operative News._ + +"A volume which will be welcomed as an honest and tolerant attempt to +humanise economics, and to point the way to a freer, worthier +life."--_Young Oxford._ + +"A book to be read by all enthusiastic social reformers; in fact, they +cannot afford to be without it."--_Echo_ (London). + +"Mr. Berens' book is one which, by reason of its sincerity and its +fair-minded discussion of a great problem, we should read, mark, learn, +and inwardly digest.... 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(Published, 7s. 6d.) 5s. 8d.; post free, 6s. + +=THE MENACE OF PRIVILEGE.= + By HENRY GEORGE, Jun. 6s. + +="THE LAND QUESTION: What it is, and how only it can be settled."= + By HENRY GEORGE. Post free, 4d. + + +="THE PEER AND THE PROPHET."= + Articles by the DUKE OF ARGYLL and HENRY GEORGE. 6d.; post free, 7d. + +="TOWARD THE LIGHT."= + Elementary Studies in Ethics and Economics. By LEWIS H. BERENS. + Post free, 2s. 6d. + +="FIELDS, FACTORIES, AND WORKSHOPS."= + By PRINCE KROPOTKIN. New and Cheaper Edition. Cloth, 1s.; paper + covers, 6d. + +="THE STORY OF MY DICTATORSHIP: A _Vade Mecum_ on the Land Question."= + Original Edition. Post free, 2s. 6d. + +="A GREAT INIQUITY."= + By LEO TOLSTOY. With Portrait. Green Cover, 4d.; post free, 5d. + + * * * * * + +_=Complete Set of Pamphlets on the Question, post free, 2s.=_ + + * * * * * + +TO BE HAD OF-- +ENGLISH LEAGUE FOR THE TAXATION OF LAND VALUES, +376 AND 377 STRAND, LONDON, W.C. + + * * * * * + +=(Monthly Organ, "LAND VALUES," posted to every Member annually +subscribing 2s. 6d. or more to the League Funds.)= + + + + * * * * * + + + +Transcriber's notes: + + 1. Original reads 'bleibt den Nachwelt'; changed to + 'bleibt der Nachwelt'. + + 2. Footnote marker missing in original. Footnote appears on + page 21, but refers to a quotation on page 22. + + 3. Original has no opening double quotation mark before + '_Englands Proper and Only Way_'. + + 4. Original reads 'will upraid us'; changed to 'will upbraid us'. + + 5. Original has closing double quotation mark after '_Work + together; Eat bread together._' + + 6. Original has an opening double quotation mark before 'Thou + City of London'. + + 7. Original reads 'georgeous throne'; changed to 'gorgeous throne'. + + 8. Original reads 'Its perusual convinced us'; changed to 'Its + perusal convinced us'. + + 9. Original has no opening double quotation mark before '_Secondly_'. + + 10. Original has 'all that have lent asssistance'; changed to + 'all that have lent assistance'. + + 11. Original has closing double quotation mark at the end of this + paragraph. + + 12. 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