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diff --git a/17451-0.txt b/17451-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..67ac377 --- /dev/null +++ b/17451-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15796 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sign Language Among North American Indians +Compared With That Among Other Peoples And, by Garrick Mallery + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Sign Language Among North American Indians Compared With That Among Other Peoples And Deaf-Mutes + First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the + Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-1880, + Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 263-552 + +Author: Garrick Mallery + +Release Date: January 3, 2006 [EBook #17451] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGN LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by William Flis, and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at +http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + + + + + +-------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's Notes: The original uses a | + | special character of an "n" with a macron, | + | represented here by "ñ". | + | | + | The verses in the section on GESTURES OF ACTORS | + | are loosely quoted from "The Rosciad" by | + | Charles Churchill, which more accurately reads: | + | | + | "When to enforce some very tender part, | + | The right hand slips by instinct on the heart, | + | His soul, of every other thought bereft, | + | Is anxious only where to place the left;" | + +-------------------------------------------------+ + + + + +SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. + +J.W. POWELL, DIRECTOR. + +SIGN LANGUAGE + +AMONG + +NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS + +COMPARED WITH THAT AMONG OTHER PEOPLES AND DEAF-MUTES. + +BY + +GARRICK MALLERY. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + FIG. PAGE + + 61. Affirmation, approving. Old Roman 286 + 62. Approbation. Neapolitan 286 + 63. Affirmation, approbation. N.A. Indian 286 + 64. Group. Old Greek. Facing 289 + 65. Negation. Dakota 290 + 66. Love. Modern Neapolitan 290 + 67. Group. Old Greek. Facing 290 + 68. Hesitation. Neapolitan 291 + 69. Wait. N.A. Indian 291 + 70. Question, asking. Neapolitan 291 + 71. Tell me. N.A. Indian 291 + 72. Interrogation. Australian 291 + 73. Pulcinella 292 + 74. Thief. Neapolitan 292 + 75. Steal. N.A. Indian 293 + 76. Public writer. Neapolitan group. Facing 296 + 77. Money. Neapolitan 297 + 78. "Hot Corn." Neapolitan Group. Facing 297 + 79. "Horn" sign. Neapolitan 298 + 80. Reproach. Old Roman 298 + 81. Marriage contract. Neapolitan group. Facing 298 + 82. Negation. Pai-Ute sign 299 + 83. Coming home of bride. Neapolitan group. Facing 299 + 84. Pretty. Neapolitan 300 + 85. "Mano in fica." Neapolitan 300 + 86. Snapping the fingers. Neapolitan 300 + 87. Joy, acclamation 300 + 88. Invitation to drink wine 300 + 89. Woman's quarrel. Neapolitan Group. Facing 301 + 90. Chestnut vender. Facing 301 + 91. Warning. Neapolitan 302 + 92. Justice. Neapolitan 302 + 93. Little. Neapolitan 302 + 94. Little. N.A. Indian 302 + 95. Little. N.A. Indian 302 + 96. Demonstration. Neapolitan 302 + 97. "Fool." Neapolitan 303 + 98. "Fool." Ib. 303 + 99. "Fool." Ib. 303 + 100. Inquiry. Neapolitan 303 + 101. Crafty, deceitful. Neapolitan 303 + 102. Insult. Neapolitan 304 + 103. Insult. Neapolitan 304 + 104. Silence. Neapolitan 304 + 105. Child. Egyptian hieroglyph 304 + 106. Negation. Neapolitan 305 + 107. Hunger. Neapolitan 305 + 108. Mockery. Neapolitan 305 + 109. Fatigue. Neapolitan 305 + 110. Deceit. Neapolitan 305 + 111. Astuteness, readiness. Neapolitan 305 + 112. Tree. Dakota, Hidatsa 343 + 113. To grow. N.A. Indian 343 + 114. Rain. Shoshoni, Apache 344 + 115. Sun. N.A. Indian 344 + 116. Sun. Cheyenne 344 + 117. Soldier. Arikara 345 + 118. No, negation. Egyptian 355 + 119. Negation. Maya 356 + 120. Nothing. Chinese 356 + 121. Child. Egyptian figurative 356 + 122. Child. Egyptian linear 356 + 123. Child. Egyptian hieratic 356 + 124. Son. Ancient Chinese 356 + 125. Son. Modern Chinese 356 + 126. Birth. Chinese character 356 + 127. Birth. Dakota 356 + 128. Birth, generic. N.A. Indians 357 + 129. Man. Mexican 357 + 130. Man. Chinese character 357 + 131. Woman. Chinese character 357 + 132. Woman. Ute 357 + 133. Female, generic. Cheyenne 357 + 134. To give water. Chinese character 357 + 135. Water, to drink. N.A. Indian 357 + 136. Drink. Mexican 357 + 137. Water. Mexican 357 + 138. Water, giving. Egypt 358 + 139. Water. Egyptian 358 + 140. Water, abbreviated 358 + 141. Water. Chinese character 358 + 142. To weep. Ojibwa pictograph 358 + 143. Force, vigor. Egyptian 358 + 144. Night. Egyptian 358 + 145. Calling upon. Egyptian figurative 359 + 146. Calling upon. Egyptian linear 359 + 147. To collect, to unite. Egyptian 359 + 148. Locomotion. Egyptian figurative 359 + 149. Locomotion. Egyptian linear 359 + 150. Shuⁿ'-ka Lu'-ta. Dakota 365 + 151. "I am going to the east." Abnaki 369 + 152. "Am not gone far." Abnaki 369 + 153. "Gone far." Abnaki 370 + 154. "Gone five days' journey." Abnaki 370 + 155. Sun. N.A. Indian 370 + 156. Sun. Egyptian 370 + 157. Sun. Egyptian 370 + 158. Sun with rays. Ib. 371 + 159. Sun with rays. Ib. 371 + 160. Sun with rays. Moqui pictograph 371 + 161. Sun with rays. Ib. 371 + 162. Sun with rays. Ib. 371 + 163. Sun with rays. Ib. 371 + 164. Star. Moqui pictograph 371 + 165. Star. Moqui pictograph 371 + 166. Star. Moqui pictograph 371 + 167. Star. Moqui pictograph 371 + 168. Star. Peruvian pictograph 371 + 169. Star. Ojibwa pictograph 371 + 170. Sunrise. Moqui do. 371 + 171. Sunrise. Ib. 371 + 172. Sunrise. Ib. 371 + 173. Moon, month. Californian pictograph 371 + 174. Pictograph, including sun. Coyotero Apache 372 + 175. Moon. N.A. Indian 372 + 176. Moon. Moqui pictograph 372 + 177. Moon. Ojibwa pictograph 372 + 178. Sky. Ib. 372 + 179. Sky. Egyptian character 372 + 180. Clouds. Moqui pictograph 372 + 181. Clouds. Ib. 372 + 182. Clouds. Ib. 372 + 183. Cloud. Ojibwa pictograph 372 + 184. Rain. New Mexican pictograph 373 + 185. Rain. Moqui pictograph 373 + 186. Lightning. Moqui pictograph 373 + 187. Lightning. Ib. 373 + 188. Lightning, harmless. Pictograph at Jemez, N.M. 373 + 189. Lightning, fatal. Do. 373 + 190. Voice. "The-Elk-that-hollows-walking" 373 + 191. Voice. Antelope. Cheyenne drawing 373 + 192. Voice, talking. Cheyenne drawing 374 + 193. Killing the buffalo. Cheyenne drawing 375 + 194. Talking. Mexican pictograph 376 + 195. Talking, singing. Maya character 376 + 196. Hearing ears. Ojibwa pictograph 376 + 197. "I hear, but your words are from a bad heart." Ojibwa 376 + 198. Hearing serpent. Ojibwa pictograph 376 + 199. Royal edict. Maya 377 + 200. To kill. Dakota 377 + 201. "Killed Arm." Dakota 377 + 202. Pictograph, including "kill." Wyoming Ter. 378 + 203. Pictograph, including "kill." Wyoming Ter. 378 + 204. Pictograph, including "kill." Wyoming Ter. 379 + 205. Veneration. Egyptian character 379 + 206. Mercy. Supplication, favor. Egyptian 379 + 207. Supplication. Mexican pictograph 380 + 208. Smoke. Ib. 380 + 209. Fire. Ib. 381 + 210. "Making medicine." Conjuration. Dakota 381 + 211. Meda. Ojibwa pictograph 381 + 212. The God Knuphis. Egyptian 381 + 213. The God Knuphis. Ib. 381 + 214. Power. Ojibwa pictograph 381 + 215. Meda's Power. Ib. 381 + 216. Trade pictograph 382 + 217. Offering. Mexican pictograph 382 + 218. Stampede of horses. Dakota 382 + 219. Chapultepec. Mexican pictograph 383 + 220. Soil. Ib. 383 + 221. Cultivated soil. Ib. 383 + 222. Road, path. Ib. 383 + 223. Cross-roads and gesture sign. Mexican pictograph 383 + 224. Small-pox or measles. Dakota 383 + 225. "No thoroughfare." Pictograph 383 + 226. Raising of war party. Dakota 384 + 227. "Led four war parties." Dakota drawing 384 + 228. Sociality. Friendship. Ojibwa pictograph 384 + 229. Peace. Friendship. Dakota 384 + 230. Peace. Friendship with whites. Dakota 385 + 231. Friendship. Australian 385 + 232. Friend. Brulé Dakota 386 + 233. Lie, falsehood. Arikara 393 + 234. Antelope. Dakota 410 + 235. Running Antelope. Personal totem 410 + 236. Bad. Dakota 411 + 237. Bear. Cheyenne 412 + 238. Bear. Kaiowa, etc. 413 + 239. Bear. Ute 413 + 240. Bear. Moqui pictograph 413 + 241. Brave. N.A. Indian 414 + 242. Brave. Kaiowa, etc. 415 + 243. Brave. Kaiowa, etc. 415 + 244. Chief. Head of tribe. Absaroka 418 + 245. Chief. Head of tribe. Pai-Ute 418 + 246. Chief of a band. Absaroka and Arikara 419 + 247. Chief of a band. Pai-Ute 419 + 248. Warrior. Absaroka, etc. 420 + 249. Ojibwa gravestone, including "dead" 422 + 250. Dead. Shoshoni and Banak 422 + 251. Dying. Kaiowa, etc. 424 + 252. Nearly dying. Kaiowa 424 + 253. Log house. Hidatsa 428 + 254. Lodge. Dakota 430 + 255. Lodge. Kaiowa, etc. 431 + 256. Lodge. Sahaptin 431 + 257. Lodge. Pai-Ute 431 + 258. Lodge. Pai-Ute 431 + 259. Lodge. Kutchin 431 + 260. Horse. N.A. Indian 434 + 261. Horse. Dakota 434 + 262. Horse. Kaiowa, etc. 435 + 263. Horse. Caddo 435 + 264. Horse. Pima and Papago 435 + 265. Horse. Ute 435 + 266. Horse. Ute 435 + 267. Saddling a horse. Ute 437 + 268. Kill. N.A. Indian 438 + 269. Kill. Mandan and Hidatsa 439 + 270. Negation. No. Dakota 441 + 271. Negation. No. Pai-Ute 442 + 272. None. Dakota 443 + 273. None. Australian 444 + 274. Much, quantity. Apache 447 + 275. Question. Australian 449 + 276. Soldier. Dakota and Arikara 450 + 277. Trade. Dakota 452 + 278. Trade. Dakota 452 + 279. Buy. Ute 453 + 280. Yes, affirmation. Dakota 456 + 281. Absaroka tribal sign. Shoshoni 458 + 282. Apache tribal sign. Kaiowa, etc. 459 + 283. Apache tribal sign. Pima and Papago 459 + 284. Arikara tribal sign. Arapaho and Dakota 461 + 285. Arikara tribal sign. Absaroka 461 + 286. Blackfoot tribal sign. Dakota 463 + 287. Blackfoot tribal sign. Shoshoni 464 + 288. Caddo tribal sign. Arapaho and Kaiowa 464 + 289. Cheyenne tribal sign. Arapaho and Cheyenne 464 + 290. Dakota tribal sign. Dakota 467 + 291. Flathead tribal sign. Shoshoni 468 + 292. Kaiowa tribal sign. Comanche 470 + 293. Kutine tribal sign. Shoshoni 471 + 294. Lipan tribal sign. Apache 471 + 295. Pend d'Oreille tribal sign. Shoshoni 473 + 296. Sahaptin or Nez Percé tribal sign. Comanche 473 + 297. Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni 474 + 298. Buffalo. Dakota 477 + 299. Eagle Tail. Arikara 477 + 300. Eagle Tail. Moqui pictograph 477 + 301. Give me. Absaroka 480 + 302. Counting. How many? Shoshoni and Banak 482 + 303. I am going home. Dakota 485 + 304. Question. Apache 486 + 305. Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni 486 + 306. Chief. Shoshoni 487 + 307. Cold, winter, year. Apache 487 + 308. "Six." Shoshoni 487 + 309. Good, very well. Apache 487 + 310. Many. Shoshoni 488 + 311. Hear, heard. Apache 488 + 312. Night. Shoshoni 489 + 313. Rain. Shoshoni 489 + 314. See each other. Shoshoni 490 + 315. White man, American. Dakota 491 + 316. Hear, heard. Dakota 492 + 317. Brother. Pai-Ute 502 + 318. No, negation. Pai-Ute 503 + 319. Scene of Na-wa-gi-jig's story. Facing 508 + 320. We are friends. Wichita 521 + 321. Talk, talking. Wichita 521 + 322. I stay, or I stay right here. Wichita 521 + 323. A long time. Wichita 522 + 324. Done, finished. Do. 522 + 325. Sit down. Australian 523 + 326. Cut down. Wichita 524 + 327. Wagon. Wichita 525 + 328. Load upon. Wichita 525 + 329. White man; American. Hidatsa 526 + 330. With us. Hidatsa 526 + 331. Friend. Hidatsa 527 + 332. Four. Hidatsa 527 + 333. Lie, falsehood. Hidatsa 528 + 334. Done, finished. Hidatsa 528 + 335. Peace, friendship. Hualpais. Facing 530 + 336. Question, ans'd by tribal sign for Pani. Facing 531 + 337. Buffalo discovered. Dakota. Facing 532 + 338. Discovery. Dakota. Facing 533 + 339. Success of war party. Pima. Facing 538 + 340. Outline for arm positions, full face 545 + 341. Outline for arm positions, profile 545 + 342a. Types of hand positions, A to L 547 + 342b. Types of hand positions, M to Y 548 + 343. Example. To cut with an ax 550 + 344. Example. A lie 550 + 345. Example. To ride 551 + 346. Example. I am going home 551 + + * * * * * + + + + +SIGN LANGUAGE + +AMONG + +NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS + +COMPARED WITH THAT AMONG OTHER PEOPLES AND DEAF-MUTES. + + * * * * * + +BY GARRICK MALLERY. + + * * * * * + + +INTRODUCTORY. + +During the past two years the present writer has devoted the intervals +between official duties to collecting and collating materials for +the study of sign language. As the few publications on the general +subject, possessing more than historic interest, are meager in details +and vague in expression, original investigation has been necessary. +The high development of communication by gesture among the tribes +of North America, and its continued extensive use by many of them, +naturally directed the first researches to that continent, with the +result that a large body of facts procured from collaborators and +by personal examination has now been gathered and classified. A +correspondence has also been established with many persons in other +parts of the world whose character and situation rendered it probable +that they would contribute valuable information. The success of +that correspondence has been as great as could have been expected, +considering that most of the persons addressed were at distant points +sometimes not easily accessible by mail. As the collection of facts +is still successfully proceeding, not only with reference to foreign +peoples and to deaf-mutes everywhere, but also among some American +tribes not yet thoroughly examined in this respect, no exposition of +the subject pretending to be complete can yet be made. In complying, +therefore, with the request to prepare the present paper, it is +necessary to explain to correspondents and collaborators whom it may +reach, that this is not the comprehensive publication by the Bureau +of Ethnology for which their assistance has been solicited. With this +explanation some of those who have already forwarded contributions +will not be surprised at their omission, and others will not desist +from the work in which they are still kindly engaged, under the +impression that its results will not be received in time to meet with +welcome and credit. On the contrary, the urgent appeal for aid before +addressed to officers of the Army and Navy of this and other nations, +to missionaries, travelers, teachers of deaf-mutes, and philologists +generally, is now with equal urgency repeated. It is, indeed, hoped +that the continued presentation of the subject to persons either +having opportunity for observation or the power to favor with +suggestions may, by awakening some additional interest in it, secure +new collaboration from localities still unrepresented. + +It will be readily understood by other readers that, as the limits +assigned to this paper permit the insertion of but a small part of the +material already collected and of the notes of study made upon +that accumulation, it can only show the general scope of the work +undertaken, and not its accomplishment. Such extracts from the +collection have been selected as were regarded as most illustrative, +and they are preceded by a discussion perhaps sufficient to be +suggestive, though by no means exhaustive, and designed to be for +popular, rather than for scientific use. In short, the direction to +submit a progress-report and not a monograph has been complied with. + + + + +DIVISIONS OF GESTURE SPEECH. + +These are corporeal motion and facial expression. An attempt has been +made by some writers to discuss these general divisions separately, +and its success would be practically convenient if it were always +understood that their connection is so intimate that they can never +be altogether severed. A play of feature, whether instinctive or +voluntary, accentuates and qualifies all motions intended to serve +as signs, and strong instinctive facial expression is generally +accompanied by action of the body or some of its members. But, so +far as a distinction can be made, expressions of the features are the +result of emotional, and corporeal gestures, of intellectual action. +The former in general and the small number of the latter that +are distinctively emotional are nearly identical among men from +physiological causes which do not affect with the same similarity +the processes of thought. The large number of corporeal gestures +expressing intellectual operations require and admit of more variety +and conventionality. Thus the features and the body among all mankind +act almost uniformly in exhibiting fear, grief, surprise, and shame, +but all objective conceptions are varied and variously portrayed. Even +such simple indications as those for "no" and "yes" appear in several +differing motions. While, therefore, the terms sign language and +gesture speech necessarily include and suppose facial expression when +emotions are in question, they refer more particularly to corporeal +motions and attitudes. For this reason much of the valuable +contribution of DARWIN in his _Expression of the Emotions in Man and +Animals_ is not directly applicable to sign language. His analysis +of emotional gestures into those explained on the principles of +serviceable associated habits, of antithesis, and of the constitution +of the nervous system, should, nevertheless, always be remembered. +Even if it does not strictly embrace the class of gestures which +form the subject of this paper, and which often have an immediate +pantomimic origin, the earliest gestures were doubtless instinctive +and generally emotional, preceding pictorial, metaphoric, and, still +subsequent, conventional gestures even, as, according to DARWIN's +cogent reasoning, they preceded articulate speech. + +While the distinction above made between the realm of facial play and +that of motions of the body, especially those of the arms and hands, +is sufficiently correct for use in discussion, it must be admitted +that the features do express intellect as well as emotion. The +well-known saying of Charles Lamb that "jokes came in with the +candles" is in point, but the most remarkable example of conveying +detailed information without the use of sounds, hands, or arms, +is given by the late President T.H. Gallaudet, the distinguished +instructor of deaf-mutes, which, to be intelligible, requires to be +quoted at length: + +"One day, our distinguished and lamented historical painter, Col. John +Trumbull, was in my school-room during the hours of instruction, and, +on my alluding to the tact which the pupil referred to had of reading +my face, he expressed a wish to see it tried. I requested him to +select any event in Greek, Roman, English, or American history of a +scenic character, which would make a striking picture on canvas, and +said I would endeavor to communicate it to the lad. 'Tell him,' said +he, 'that Brutus (Lucius Junius) condemned his two sons to death for +resisting his authority and violating his orders.' + +"I folded my arms in front of me, and kept them in that position, +to preclude the possibility of making any signs or gestures, or of +spelling any words on my fingers, and proceeded, as best I could, by +the expression of my countenance, and a few motions of my head and +attitudes of the body, to convey the picture in my own mind to the +mind of my pupil. + +"It ought to be stated that he was already acquainted with the fact, +being familiar with the leading events in Roman history. But when I +began, he knew not from what portion of history, sacred or profane, +ancient or modern, the fact was selected. From this wide range, +my delineation on the one hand and his ingenuity on the other had +to bring it within the division of Roman history, and, still more +minutely, to the particular individual and transaction designated by +Colonel Trumbull. In carrying on the process, I made no use whatever +of any arbitrary, conventional look, motion, or attitude, before +settled between us, by which to let him understand what I wished to +communicate, with the exception of a single one, if, indeed, it ought +to be considered such. + +"The usual sign, at that time, among the teachers and pupils, for +a Roman, was portraying an aquiline nose by placing the forefinger, +crooked, in front of the nose. As I was prevented from using my finger +in this way, and having considerable command over the muscles of my +face, I endeavored to give my nose as much of the aquiline form as +possible, and succeeded well enough for my purpose.... + +"The outlines of the process were the following: + +"A stretching and stretching gaze eastward, with an undulating motion +of the head, as if looking across and beyond the Atlantic Ocean, +to denote that the event happened, not on the western, but eastern +continent. This was making a little progress, as it took the subject +out of the range of American history. + +"A turning of the eyes upward and backward, with frequently-repeated +motions of the head backward, as if looking a great way back in past +time, to denote that the event was one of ancient date. + +"The aquiline shape of the nose, already referred to, indicating that +a Roman was the person concerned. It was, of course, an old Roman. + +"Portraying, as well as I could, by my countenance, attitude, and +manner an individual high in authority, and commanding others, as if +he expected to be obeyed. + +"Looking and acting as if I were giving out a specific order to many +persons, and threatening punishment on those who should resist my +authority, even the punishment of death. + +"Here was a pause in the progress of events, which I denoted by +sleeping as it were during the night and awakening in the morning, and +doing this several times, to signify that several days had elapsed. + +"Looking with deep interest and surprise, as if at a single person +brought and standing before me, with an expression of countenance +indicating that he had violated the order which I had given, and that +I knew it. Then looking in the same way at another person near him as +also guilty. Two offending persons were thus denoted. + +"Exhibiting serious deliberation, then hesitation, accompanied with +strong conflicting emotions, producing perturbation, as if I knew not +how to feel or what to do. + +"Looking first at one of the persons before me, and then at the other, +and then at both together, _as a father would look_, indicating his +distressful parental feelings under such afflicting circumstances. + +"Composing my feelings, showing that a change was coming over me, and +exhibiting towards the imaginary persons before me the decided look of +the inflexible commander, who was determined and ready to order them +away to execution. Looking and acting as if the tender and forgiving +feelings of _the father_ had again got the ascendency, and as if I was +about to relent and pardon them. + +"These alternating states of mind I portrayed several times, to make +my representations the more graphic and impressive. + +"At length the father yields, and the stern principle of justice, as +expressed in my countenance and manners, prevails. My look and action +denote the passing of the sentence of death on the offenders, and the +ordering them away to execution. + + * * * * * + +"He quickly turned round to his slate and wrote a correct and complete +account of this story of Brutus and his two sons." + + * * * * * + +While it appears that the expressions of the features are not confined +to the emotions or to distinguishing synonyms, it must be remembered +that the meaning of the same motion of hands, arms, and fingers is +often modified, individualized, or accentuated by associated facial +changes and postures of the body not essential to the sign, which +emotional changes and postures are at once the most difficult to +describe and the most interesting when intelligently reported, not +only because they infuse life into the skeleton sign, but because they +may belong to the class of innate expressions. + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF SIGN LANGUAGE. + +In observing the maxim that nothing can be thoroughly understood +unless its beginning is known, it becomes necessary to examine into +the origin of sign language through its connection with that of oral +speech. In this examination it is essential to be free from the vague +popular impression that some oral language, of the general character +of that now used among mankind, is "natural" to mankind. It will be +admitted on reflection that all oral languages were at some past time +far less serviceable to those using them than they are now, and as +each particular language has been thoroughly studied it has become +evident that it grew out of some other and less advanced form. In +the investigation of these old forms it has been so difficult to +ascertain how any of them first became a useful instrument of +inter-communication that many conflicting theories on this subject +have been advocated. + +Oral language consists of variations and mutations of vocal sounds +produced as signs of thought and emotion. But it is not enough that +those signs should be available as the vehicle of the producer's own +thoughts. They must be also efficient for the communication of such +thoughts to others. It has been, until of late years, generally held +that thought was not possible without oral language, and that, as man +was supposed to have possessed from the first the power of thought, he +also from the first possessed and used oral language substantially +as at present. That the latter, as a special faculty, formed the +main distinction between man and the brutes has been and still is +the prevailing doctrine. In a lecture delivered before the British +Association in 1878 it was declared that "animal intelligence is +unable to elaborate that class of abstract ideas, the formation of +which depends upon the faculty of speech." If instead of "speech" the +word "utterance" had been used, as including all possible modes of +intelligent communication, the statement might pass without criticism. +But it may be doubted if there is any more necessary connection +between abstract ideas and sounds, the mere signs of thought, that +strike the ear, than there is between the same ideas and signs +addressed only to the eye. + +The point most debated for centuries has been, not whether there +was any primitive oral language, but what that language was. Some +literalists have indeed argued from the Mosaic narrative that because +the Creator, by one supernatural act, with the express purpose to +form separate peoples, had divided all tongues into their present +varieties, and could, by another similar exercise of power, obliterate +all but one which should be universal, the fact that he had not +exercised that power showed it not to be his will that any man to +whom a particular speech had been given should hold intercourse with +another miraculously set apart from him by a different speech. By this +reasoning, if the study of a foreign tongue was not impious, it was +at least clear that the primitive language had been taken away as a +disciplinary punishment, as the Paradisiac Eden had been earlier lost, +and that, therefore, the search for it was as fruitless as to attempt +the passage of the flaming sword. More liberal Christians have been +disposed to regard the Babel story as allegorical, if not mythical, +and have considered it to represent the disintegration of tongues +out of one which was primitive. In accordance with the advance of +linguistic science they have successively shifted back the postulated +primitive tongue from Hebrew to Sanscrit, then to Aryan, and now seek +to evoke from the vasty deeps of antiquity the ghosts of other rival +claimants for precedence in dissolution. As, however, the languages of +man are now recognized as extremely numerous, and as the very sounds +of which these several languages are composed are so different that +the speakers of some are unable to distinguish with the ear certain +sounds in others, still less able to reproduce them, the search for +one common parent language is more difficult than was supposed by +mediæval ignorance. + +The discussion is now, however, varied by the suggested possibility +that man at some time may have existed without any oral language. It +is conceded by some writers that mental images or representations can +be formed without any connection with sound, and may at least serve +for thought, though not for expression. It is certain that concepts, +however formed, can be expressed by other means than sound. One mode +of this expression is by gesture, and there is less reason to believe +that gestures commenced as the interpretation of, or substitute for +words than that the latter originated in, and served to translate +gestures. Many arguments have been advanced to prove that gesture +language preceded articulate speech and formed the earliest attempt +at communication, resulting from the interacting subjective and +objective conditions to which primitive man was exposed. Some of the +facts on which deductions have been based, made in accordance with +well-established modes of scientific research from study of the lower +animals, children, idiots, the lower types of mankind, and deaf-mutes, +will be briefly mentioned. + + + +_GESTURES OF THE LOWER ANIMALS._ + +Emotional expression in the features of man is to be considered in +reference to the fact that the special senses either have their seat +in, or are in close relation to the face, and that so large a number +of nerves pass to it from the brain. The same is true of the lower +animals, so that it would be inferred, as is the case, that the faces +of those animals are also expressive of emotion. There is also noticed +among them an exhibition of emotion by corporeal action. This is the +class of gestures common to them with the earliest made by man, as +above mentioned, and it is reasonable to suppose that those were made +by man at the time when, if ever, he was, like the animals, destitute +of articulate speech. The articulate cries uttered by some animals, +especially some birds, are interesting as connected with the principle +of imitation to which languages in part owe their origin, but in the +cases of forced imitation, the mere acquisition of a vocal trick, +they only serve to illustrate that power of imitation, and are without +significance. Sterne's starling, after his cage had been opened, would +have continued to complain that he could not get out. If the bird had +uttered an instinctive cry of distress when in confinement and a note +of joy on release, there would have been a nearer approach to language +than if it had clearly pronounced many sentences. Such notes and +cries of animals, many of which are connected with reproduction and +nutrition, are well worth more consideration than can now be given, +but regarding them generally it is to be questioned if they are so +expressive as the gestures of the same animals. It is contended that +the bark of a dog is distinguishable into fear, defiance, invitation, +and a note of warning, but it also appears that those notes have been +known only since the animal has been domesticated. The gestures of +the dog are far more readily distinguished than his bark, as in his +preparing for attack, or caressing his master, resenting an injury, +begging for food, or simply soliciting attention. The chief modern +use of his tail appears to be to express his ideas and sensations. But +some recent experiments of Prof. A. GRAHAM BELL, no less eminent from +his work in artificial speech than in telephones, shows that animals +are more physically capable of pronouncing articulate sounds than has +been supposed. He informed the writer that he recently succeeded by +manipulation in causing an English terrier to form a number of the +sounds of our letters, and particularly brought out from it the words +"How are you, Grandmamma?" with distinctness. This tends to prove +that only absence of brain power has kept animals from acquiring true +speech. The remarkable vocal instrument of the parrot could be used in +significance as well as in imitation, if its brain had been developed +beyond the point of expression by gesture, in which latter the bird is +expert. + +The gestures of monkeys, whose hands and arms can be used, are nearly +akin to ours. Insects communicate with each other almost entirely by +means of the antennæ. Animals in general which, though not deaf, can +not be taught by sound, frequently have been by signs, and probably +all of them understand man's gestures better than his speech. They +exhibit signs to one another with obvious intention, and they also +have often invented them as a means of obtaining their wants from man. + + + +_GESTURES OF YOUNG CHILDREN._ + +The wishes and emotions of very young children are conveyed in a +small number of sounds, but in a great variety of gestures and facial +expressions. A child's gestures are intelligent long in advance of +speech; although very early and persistent attempts are made to give +it instruction in the latter but none in the former, from the time +when it begins _risu cognoscere matrem_. It learns words only as they +are taught, and learns them through the medium of signs which are not +expressly taught. Long after familiarity with speech, it consults +the gestures and facial expressions of its parents and nurses as +if seeking thus to translate or explain their words. These facts +are important in reference to the biologic law that the order of +development of the individual is the same as that of the species. + +Among the instances of gestures common to children throughout the +world is that of protruding the lips, or pouting, when somewhat angry +or sulky. The same gesture is now made by the anthropoid apes and is +found strongly marked in the savage tribes of man. It is noticed by +evolutionists that animals retain during early youth, and subsequently +lose, characters once possessed by their progenitors when adult, and +still retained by distinct species nearly related to them. + +The fact is not, however, to be ignored that children invent words as +well as signs with as natural an origin for the one as for the other. +An interesting case was furnished to the writer by Prof. BELL of an +infant boy who used a combination of sounds given as "nyum-nyum," +an evident onomatope of gustation, to mean "good," and not only in +reference to articles of food relished but as applied to persons of +whom the child was fond, rather in the abstract idea of "niceness" +in general. It is a singular coincidence that a bright young girl, +a friend of the writer, in a letter describing a juvenile feast, +invented the same expression, with nearly the same spelling, as +characteristic of her sensations regarding the delicacies provided. +The Papuans met by Dr. Comrie also called "eating" _nam-nam_. But the +evidence of all such cases of the voluntary use of articulate speech +by young children is qualified by the fact that it has been inherited +from very many generations, if not quite so long as the faculty of +gesture. + + + +_GESTURES IN MENTAL DISORDER._ + +The insane understand and obey gestures when they have no knowledge +whatever of words. It is also found that semi-idiotic children who +cannot be taught more than the merest rudiments of speech, can receive +a considerable amount of information through signs, and can express +themselves by them. Sufferers from aphasia continue to use appropriate +gestures after their words have become uncontrollable. It is further +noticeable in them that mere ejaculations, or sounds which are only +the result of a state of feeling, instead of a desire to express +thought, are generally articulated with accuracy. Patients who have +been in the habit of swearing preserve their fluency in that division +of their vocabulary. + + + +_UNINSTRUCTED DEAF-MUTES._ + +The signs made by congenital and uninstructed deaf-mutes to be now +considered are either strictly natural signs, invented by themselves, +or those of a colloquial character used by such mutes where +associated. The accidental or merely suggestive signs peculiar to +families, one member of which happens to be a mute, are too much +affected by the other members of the family to be of certain +value. Those, again, which are taught in institutions have become +conventional and designedly adapted to translation into oral speech, +although founded by the abbé de l'Épée, followed by the abbé Sicard, +in the natural signs first above mentioned. + +A great change has doubtless occurred in the estimation of congenital +deaf-mutes since the Justinian Code, which consigned them forever to +legal infancy, as incapable of intelligence, and classed them with the +insane. Yet most modern writers, for instance Archbishop Whately and +Max Müller, have declared that deaf-mutes could not think until after +having been instructed. It cannot be denied that the deaf-mute thinks +after his instruction either in the ordinary gesture signs or in +the finger alphabet, or more lately in artificial speech. By this +instruction he has become master of a highly-developed language, such +as English or French, which he can read, write, and actually talk, +but that foreign language he has obtained through the medium of signs. +This is a conclusive proof that signs constitute a real language and +one which admits of thought, for no one can learn a foreign language +unless he had some language of his own, whether by descent or +acquisition, by which it could be translated, and such translation +into the new language could not even be commenced unless the mind had +been already in action and intelligently using the original language +for that purpose. In fact the use by deaf-mutes of signs originating +in themselves exhibits a creative action of mind and innate faculty +of expression beyond that of ordinary speakers who acquired language +without conscious effort. The thanks of students, both of philology +and psychology, are due to Prof. SAMUEL PORTER, of the National Deaf +Mute College, for his response to the question, "Is thought possible +without language?" published in the _Princeton Review_ for January, +1880. + +With regard to the sounds uttered by deaf-mutes, the same explanation +of heredity may be made as above, regarding the words invented by +young children. Congenital deaf-mutes at first make the same sounds +as hearing children of the same age, and, often being susceptible +to vibrations of the air, are not suspected of being deaf. When that +affliction is ascertained to exist, all oral utterances from the +deaf-mute are habitually repressed by the parents. + + + +_GESTURES OF THE BLIND._ + +The facial expressions and gestures of the congenitally blind are +worthy of attention. The most interesting and conclusive examples +come from the case of Laura Bridgman, who, being also deaf, could not +possibly have derived them by imitation. When a letter from a beloved +friend was communicated to her by gesture-language, she laughed +and clapped her hands. A roguish expression was given to her face, +concomitant with the emotion, by her holding the lower lip by the +teeth. She blushed, shrugged her shoulders, turned in her elbows, and +raised her eye-brows under the same circumstances as other people. +In amazement, she rounded and protruded the lips, opened them, and +breathed strongly. It is remarkable that she constantly accompanied +her "yes" with the common affirmative nod, and her "no" with our +negative shake of the head, as these gestures are by no means +universal and do not seem clearly connected with emotion. This, +possibly, may be explained by the fact that her ancestors for many +generations had used these gestures. A similar curious instance is +mentioned by Cardinal Wiseman (_Essays_, III, 547, _London_, 1853) of +an Italian blind man, the appearance of whose eyes indicated that he +had never enjoyed sight, and who yet made the same elaborate gestures +made by the people with whom he lived, but which had been used by them +immemorially, as correctly as if he had learned them by observation. + + + +_LOSS OF SPEECH BY ISOLATION._ + +When human beings have been long in solitary confinement, been +abandoned, or otherwise have become isolated from their fellows, they +have lost speech either partially or entirely, and required to have +it renewed through gestures. There are also several recorded cases of +children, born with all their faculties, who, after having been lost +or abandoned, have been afterwards found to have grown up possessed +of acute hearing, but without anything like human speech. One of these +was Peter, "the Wild Boy," who was found in the woods of Hanover in +1726, and taken to England, where vain attempts were made to teach him +language, though he lived to the age of seventy. Another was a boy of +twelve, found in the forest of Aveyron, in France, about the beginning +of this century, who was destitute of speech, and all efforts to teach +him failed. Some of these cases are to be considered in connection +with the general law of evolution, that in degeneration the last +and highest acquirements are lost first. When in these the effort +at acquiring or re-acquiring speech has been successful, it has been +through gestures, in the same manner as missionaries, explorers, +and shipwrecked mariners have become acquainted with tongues before +unknown to themselves and sometimes to civilization. All persons in +such circumstances are obliged to proceed by pointing to objects and +making gesticulations, at the same time observing what articulate +sounds were associated with those motions by the persons addressed, +and thus vocabularies and lists of phrases were formed. + + + +_LOW TRIBES OF MAN._ + +Apart from the establishment of a systematic language of signs under +special circumstances which have occasioned its development, the +gestures of the lower tribes of men may be generally classed under the +emotional or instinctive division, which can be correlated with those +of the lower animals. This may be illustrated by the modes adopted to +show friendship in salutation, taking the place of our shaking hands. +Some Pacific Islanders used to show their joy at meeting friends by +sniffing at them, after the style of well-disposed dogs. The Fuegians +pat and slap each other, and some Polynesians stroke their own faces +with the hand or foot of the friend. The practice of rubbing or +pressing noses is very common. It has been noticed in the Lapland +Alps, often in Africa, and in Australia the tips of the noses are +pressed a long time, accompanied with grunts of satisfaction. Patting +and stroking different parts of the body are still more frequent, and +prevailed among the North American Indians, though with the latter +the most common expression was hugging. In general, the civilities +exchanged are similar to those of many animals. + + + +_GESTURES AS AN OCCASIONAL RESOURCE._ + +Persons of limited vocabulary, whether foreigners to the tongue +employed or native, but not accomplished in its use, even in the midst +of a civilization where gestures are deprecated, when at fault for +words resort instinctively to physical motions that are not wild nor +meaningless, but picturesque and significant, though perhaps made +by the gesturer for the first time. An uneducated laborer, if +good-natured enough to be really desirous of responding to a request +for information, when he has exhausted his scanty stock of words will +eke them out by original gestures. While fully admitting the advice to +Coriolanus-- + + Action is eloquence, and the eyes of the ignorant + More learned than the ears-- + +it may be paraphrased to read that the hands of the ignorant are +more learned than their tongues. A stammerer, too, works his arms and +features as if determined to get his thoughts out, in a manner not +only suggestive of the physical struggle, but of the use of gestures +as a hereditary expedient. + + + +_GESTURES OF FLUENT TALKERS._ + +The same is true of the most fluent talkers on occasions when the +exact vocal formula desired does not at once suggest itself, or is +unsatisfactory without assistance from the physical machinery not +embraced in the oral apparatus. The command of a copious vocabulary +common to both speaker and hearer undoubtedly tends to a phlegmatic +delivery and disdain of subsidiary aid. An excited speaker will, +however, generally make a free use of his hands without regard to +any effect of that use upon auditors. Even among the gesture-hating +English, when they are aroused from torpidity of manner, the hands are +involuntarily clapped in approbation, rubbed with delight, wrung in +distress, raised in astonishment, and waved in triumph. The fingers +are snapped for contempt, the forefinger is vibrated to reprove or +threaten, and the fist shaken in defiance. The brow is contracted with +displeasure, and the eyes winked to show connivance. The shoulders +are shrugged to express disbelief or repugnance, the eyebrows +elevated with surprise, the lips bitten in vexation and thrust out in +sullenness or displeasure, while a higher degree of anger is shown +by a stamp of the foot. Quintilian, regarding the subject, however, +not as involuntary exhibition of feeling and intellect, but for +illustration and enforcement, becomes eloquent on the variety of +motions of which the hands alone are capable, as follows: + +"The action of the other parts of the body assists the speaker, but +the hands (I could almost say) speak themselves. By them do we +not demand, promise, call, dismiss, threaten, supplicate, express +abhorrence and terror, question and deny? Do we not by them express +joy and sorrow, doubt, confession, repentance, measure, quantity, +number, and time? Do they not also encourage, supplicate, restrain, +convict, admire, respect? and in pointing out places and persons do +they not discharge the office of adverbs and of pronouns?" + +Voss adopts almost the words of Quintilian, "_Manus non modo loquentem +adjuvant, sed ipsæ pene loqui videntur_," while Cresollius calls the +hand "the minister of reason and wisdom ... without it there is no +eloquence." + + + +_INVOLUNTARY RESPONSE TO GESTURES._ + +Further evidence of the unconscious survival of gesture language is +afforded by the ready and involuntary response made in signs to signs +when a man with the speech and habits of civilization is brought into +close contact with Indians or deaf-mutes. Without having ever before +seen or made one of their signs, he will soon not only catch the +meaning of theirs, but produce his own, which they will likewise +comprehend, the power seemingly remaining latent in him until called +forth by necessity. + + + +_NATURAL PANTOMIME._ + +In the earliest part of man's history the subjects of his discourse +must have been almost wholly sensuous, and therefore readily expressed +in pantomime. Not only was pantomime sufficient for all the actual +needs of his existence, but it is not easy to imagine how he could +have used language such as is now known to us. If the best English +dictionary and grammar had been miraculously furnished to him, +together with the art of reading with proper pronunciation, the gift +would have been valueless, because the ideas expressed by the words +had not yet been formed. + +That the early concepts were of a direct and material character is +shown by what has been ascertained of the roots of language, and there +does not appear to be much difficulty in expressing by other than +vocal instrumentality all that could have been expressed by those +roots. Even now, with our vastly increased belongings of external +life, avocations, and habits, nearly all that is absolutely necessary +for our physical needs can be expressed in pantomime. Far beyond the +mere signs for eating, drinking, sleeping, and the like, any one will +understand a skillful representation in signs of a tailor, shoemaker, +blacksmith, weaver, sailor, farmer, or doctor. So of washing, +dressing, shaving, walking, driving, writing, reading, churning, +milking, boiling, roasting or frying, making bread or preparing +coffee, shooting, fishing, rowing, sailing, sawing, planing, boring, +and, in short, an endless list. + +Max Müller properly calls touch, scent, and taste the palaioteric, +and sight and hearing the neoteric senses, the latter of which +often require to be verified by the former. Touch is the lowest in +specialization and development, and is considered to be the oldest of +the senses, the others indeed being held by some writers to be only +its modifications. Scent, of essential importance to many animals, has +with man almost ceased to be of any, except in connection with taste, +which he has developed to a high degree. Whether or not sight preceded +hearing in order of development, it is difficult, in conjecturing the +first attempts of man or his hypothetical ancestor at the expression +either of percepts or concepts, to connect vocal sounds with any +large number of objects, but it is readily conceivable that the +characteristics of their forms and movements should have been +suggested to the eye--fully exercised before the tongue--so soon +as the arms and fingers became free for the requisite simulation +or portrayal. There is little distinction between pantomime and a +developed sign language, in which thought is transmitted rapidly and +certainly from hand to eye as it is in oral speech from lips to +ear; the former is, however, the parent of the latter, which is more +abbreviated and less obvious. Pantomime acts movements, reproduces +forms and positions, presents pictures, and manifests emotions with +greater realization than any other mode of utterance. It may readily +be supposed that a troglodyte man would desire to communicate the +finding of a cave in the vicinity of a pure pool, circled with soft +grass, and shaded by trees bearing edible fruit. No sound of nature is +connected with any of those objects, but the position and size of the +cave, its distance and direction, the water, its quality, and amount, +the verdant circling carpet, and the kind and height of the trees +could have been made known by pantomime in the days of the mammoth, +if articulate speech had not then been established, as Indians or +deaf-mutes now communicate similar information by the same agency. + +The proof of this fact, as regards deaf-mutes, will hardly be +demanded, as their expressive pantomime has been so often witnessed. +That of the North American Indians, as distinct from the signs which +are generally its abbreviations, has been frequently described in +general terms, but it may be interesting to present two instances from +remote localities. + +A Maricopa Indian, in the present limits of Arizona, was offered an +advantageous trade for his horse, whereupon he stretched himself on +his horse's neck, caressed it tenderly, at the same time shutting his +eyes, meaning thereby that no offer could tempt him to part with his +charger. + +An A-tco-mâ-wi or Pit River Indian, in Northeastern California, to +explain the cause of his cheeks and forehead being covered with tar, +represented a man falling, and, despite his efforts to save him, +trembling, growing pale (pointing from his face to that of a white +man), and sinking to sleep, his spirit winging its way to the skies, +which he indicated by imitating with his hands the flight of a bird +upwards, his body sleeping still upon the river bank, to which he +pointed. The tar upon his face was thus shown to be his dress of +mourning for a friend who had fallen and died. + +Several descriptions of pure pantomime, intermixed with the more +conventionalized signs, will be found in the present paper. In +especial, reference is made to the Address of Kin Chē-ĕss, +Nátci's Narrative, the Dialogue between Alaskan Indians, and +Na-wa-gi-jig's Story. + + + + +SOME THEORIES UPON PRIMITIVE LANGUAGE. + +Cresollius, writing in 1620, was strongly in favor of giving +precedence to gesture. He says, "Man, full of wisdom and divinity, +could have appeared nothing superior to a naked trunk or block had he +not been adorned with the hand as the interpreter and messenger of +his thoughts." He quotes with approval the brother of St. Basil in +declaring that had men been formed without hands they would never have +been endowed with an articulate voice, and concludes: "Since, then, +nature has furnished us with two instruments for the purpose of +bringing into light and expressing the silent affections of the +mind, language and the hand, it has been the opinion of learned and +intelligent men that the former would be maimed and nearly useless +without the latter; whereas the hand, without the aid of language, has +produced many and wonderful effects." + +Rabelais, who incorporated into his satirical work much true learning +and philosophy, makes his hero announce the following opinion: + +"Nothing less, quoth Pantagruel [Book iii, ch. xix], do I believe than +that it is a mere abusing of our understandings to give credit to +the words of those who say that there is any such thing as a natural +language. All speeches have had their primary origin from the +arbitrary institutions, accords, and agreements of nations in their +respective condescendments to what should be noted and betokened +by them. An articulate voice, according to the dialecticians, hath +naturally no signification at all; for that the sense and meaning +thereof did totally depend upon the good will and pleasure of the +first deviser and imposer of it." + +Max Müller, following Professor Heyse, of Berlin, published an +ingenious theory of primitive speech, to the effect that man had a +creative faculty giving to each conception, as it thrilled through his +brain for the first time, a special phonetic expression, which faculty +became extinct when its necessity ceased. This theory, which makes +each radical of language to be a phonetic type rung out from the +organism of the first man or men when struck by an idea, has been +happily named the "ding-dong" theory. It has been abandoned mainly +through the destructive criticisms of Prof. W.D. WHITNEY, of Yale +College. One lucid explanation by the latter should be specially +noted: "A word is a combination of sounds which by a series of +historical reasons has come to be accepted and understood in a certain +community as the sign of a certain idea. As long as they so accept +and understand it, it has existence; when everyone ceases to use and +understand it, it ceases to exist." + +Several authors, among them Kaltschmidt, contend that there was +but one primitive language, which was purely onomatopoeic, that +is, imitative of natural sounds. This has been stigmatized as the +"bow-wow" theory, but its advocates might derive an argument from the +epithet itself, as not only our children, but the natives of Papua, +call the dog a "bow-wow." They have, however, gone too far in +attempting to trace back words in their shape as now existing to any +natural sounds instead of confining that work to the roots from which +the words have sprung. + +Another attempt has been made, represented by Professor Noiré, to +account for language by means of interjectional cries. This Max Müller +revengefully styled the "pooh-pooh" theory. In it is included the +rhythmical sounds which a body of men make seemingly by a common +impulse when engaged in a common work, such as the cries of sailors +when hauling on a rope or pulling an oar, or the yell of savages in an +attack. It also derives an argument from the impulse of life by which +the child shouts and the bird sings. There are, however, very few +either words or roots of words which can be proved to have that +derivation. + +Professor SAYCE, in his late work, _Introduction to the Science of +Language, London_, 1880, gives the origin of language in gestures, +in onomatopoeia, and to a limited extent in interjectional cries. +He concludes it to be the ordinary theory of modern comparative +philologists that all languages are traced back to a certain number +of abstract roots, each of which was a sort of sentence in embryo, +and while he does not admit this as usually presented, he believes +that there was a time in the history of speech, when the articulate +or semi-articulate sounds uttered by primitive men were made the +significant representations of thought by the gestures with which +they were accompanied. This statement is specially gratifying to the +present writer as he had advanced much the same views in his first +publication on the subject in the following paragraph, now reproduced +with greater confidence: + +"From their own failures and discordancies, linguistic scholars have +recently decided that both the 'bow-wow' and the 'ding-dong' theories +are unsatisfactory; that the search for imitative, onomatopoeic, and +directly expressive sounds to explain the origin of human speech has +been too exclusive, and that many primordial roots of language have +been founded in the involuntary sounds accompanying certain actions. +As, however, the action was the essential, and the consequent +or concomitant sound the accident, it would be expected that a +representation or feigned reproduction of the action would have been +used to express the idea before the sound associated with that +action could have been separated from it. The visual onomatopoeia of +gestures, which even yet have been subjected to but slight artificial +corruption, would therefore serve as a key to the audible. It is also +contended that in the pristine days, when the sounds of the only words +yet formed had close connection with objects and the ideas directly +derived from them, signs were as much more copious for communication +than speech, as the sight embraces more and more distinct +characteristics of objects than does the sense of hearing." + + + +_CONCLUSIONS._ + +The preponderance of authority is in favor of the view that man, when +in the possession of all his faculties, did not choose between voice +and gesture, both being originally instinctive, as they both are now, +and never, with those faculties, was in a state where the one was used +to the absolute exclusion of the other. The long neglected work of +Dalgarno, published in 1661, is now admitted to show wisdom when he +says: "_non minus naturale fit homini communicare in_ Figuris _quam_ +Sonis: _quorum utrumque dico homini_ naturale." With the voice man +at first imitated the few sounds of nature, while with gesture he +exhibited actions, motions, positions, forms, dimensions, directions, +and distances, and their derivatives. It would appear from this +unequal division of capacity that oral speech remained rudimentary +long after gesture had become an art. With the concession of all +purely imitative sounds and of the spontaneous action of the vocal +organs under excitement, it is still true that the connection between +ideas and words generally depended upon a compact between the +speaker and hearer which presupposes the existence of a prior mode of +communication. That was probably by gesture, which, in the apposite +phrase of Professor SAYCE, "like the rope-bridges of the Himalayas or +the Andes, formed the first rude means of communication between man +and man." At the very least it may be gladly accepted provisionally as +a clue leading out of the labyrinth of philologic confusion. + +For the purpose of the present paper there is, however, no need of an +absolute decision upon the priority between communication of ideas by +bodily motion and by vocal articulation. It is enough to admit that +the connection between them was so early and intimate that gestures, +in the wide sense indicated of presenting ideas under physical forms, +had a direct formative effect upon many words; that they exhibit the +earliest condition of the human mind; are traced from the remotest +antiquity among all peoples possessing records; are generally +prevalent in the savage stage of social evolution; survive agreeably +in the scenic pantomime, and still adhere to the ordinary speech of +civilized man by motions of the face, hands, head, and body, often +involuntary, often purposely in illustration or for emphasis. + +It may be unnecessary to explain that none of the signs to be +described, even those of present world-wide prevalence, are presented +as precisely those of primitive man. Signs as well as words, animals, +and plants have had their growth, development, and change, their +births and deaths, and their struggle for existence with survival of +the fittest. It is, however, thought probable from reasons hereinafter +mentioned that their radicals can be ascertained with more precision +than those of words. + + + + +HISTORY OF GESTURE LANGUAGE. + +There is ample evidence of record, besides that derived from other +sources, that the systematic use of gesture speech was of great +antiquity. Livy so declares, and Quintilian specifies that the "_lex +gestus ... ab illis temporibus heroicis orta est_." Plato classed its +practice among civil virtues, and Chrysippus gave it place among the +proper education of freemen. Athenæus tells that gestures were even +reduced to distinct classification with appropriate terminology. The +class suited to comedy was called Cordax, that to tragedy Eumelia, and +that for satire Sicinnis, from the inventor Sicinnus. Bathyllus from +these formed a fourth class, adapted to pantomime. This system appears +to have been particularly applicable to theatrical performances. +Quintilian, later, gave most elaborate rules for gestures in oratory, +which are specially noticeable from the importance attached to the +manner of disposing the fingers. He attributed to each particular +disposition a significance or suitableness which are not now obvious. +Some of them are retained by modern orators, but without the same, or +indeed any, intentional meaning, and others are wholly disused. + +[Illustration: Fig. 61.] + +The value of these digital arrangements is, however, shown by their +use among the modern Italians, to whom they have directly descended. +From many illustrations of this fact the following is selected. Fig. +61 is copied from Austin's _Chironomia_ as his graphic execution of +the gesture described by Quintilian: "The fore finger of the right +hand joining the middle of its nail to the extremity of its own thumb, +and moderately extending the rest of the fingers, is graceful in +_approving_." Fig. 62 is taken from De Jorio's plates and descriptions +of the gestures among modern Neapolitans, with the same idea of +approbation--"good." Both of these may be compared with Fig. 63, a +common sign among the North American Indians to express affirmation +and approbation. With the knowledge of these details it is possible to +believe the story of Macrobius that Cicero used to vie with Roscius, +the celebrated actor, as to which of them could express a sentiment +in the greater variety of ways, the one by gesture and the other by +speech, with the apparent result of victory to the actor who was so +satisfied with the superiority of his art that he wrote a book on the +subject. + +[Illustration: Fig. 62.] + +Gestures were treated of with still more distinction as connected +with pantomimic dances and representations. Æschylus appears to +have brought theatrical gesture to a high degree of perfection, but +Telestes, a dancer employed by him, introduced the dumb show, a dance +without marked dancing steps, and subordinated to motions of the +hands, arms, and body, which is dramatic pantomime. He was so great +an artist, says Athenæus, that when he represented the _Seven before +Thebes_ he rendered every circumstance manifest by his gestures alone. +From Greece, or rather from Egypt, the art was brought to Rome, and +in the reign of Augustus was the great delight of that Emperor and his +friend Mæcenas. Bathyllus, of Alexandria, was the first to introduce +it to the Roman public, but he had a dangerous rival in Pylades. The +latter was magnificent, pathetic, and affecting, while Bathyllus +was gay and sportive. All Rome was split into factions about their +respective merits. Athenæus speaks of a distinguished performer of his +own time (he died A.D. 194) named Memphis, whom he calls the "dancing +philosopher," because he showed what the Pythagorean philosophy could +do by exhibiting in silence everything with stronger evidence than +they could who professed to teach the arts of language. In the +reign of Nero, a celebrated pantomimist who had heard that the cynic +philosopher Demetrius spoke of the art with contempt, prevailed upon +him to witness his performance, with the result that the cynic, more +and more astonished, at last cried out aloud, "Man, I not only see, +but I hear what you do, for to me you appear to speak with your +hands!" + +[Illustration: Fig. 63.] + +Lucian, who narrates this in his work _De Saltatione_, gives another +tribute to the talent of, perhaps, the same performer. A barbarian +prince of Pontus (the story is told elsewhere of Tyridates, King of +Armenia), having come to Rome to do homage to the Emperor Nero, and +been taken to see the pantomimes, was asked on his departure by +the Emperor what present he would have as a mark of his favor. The +barbarian begged that he might have the principal pantomimist, and +upon being asked why he made such an odd request, replied that he had +many neighbors who spoke such various and discordant languages that he +found it difficult to obtain any interpreter who could understand +them or explain his commands; but if he had the dancer he could by his +assistance easily make himself intelligible to all. + +While the general effect of these pantomimes is often mentioned, there +remain but few detailed descriptions of them. Apuleius, however, +in the tenth book of his _Metamorphosis_ or "Golden Ass," gives +sufficient details of the performance of the Judgment of Paris to +show that it strongly resembled the best form of ballet opera known +in modern times. These exhibitions were so greatly in favor that, +according to Ammianus Marcellinus, there were in Rome in the year 190 +six thousand persons devoted to the art, and that when a famine raged +they were all kept in the city, though besides all the strangers all +the philosophers were forced to leave. Their popularity continued +until the sixth century, and it is evident from a decree of +Charlemagne that they were not lost, or at least, had been revived in +his time. Those of us who have enjoyed the performance of the original +Ravel troupe will admit that the art still survives, though not with +the magnificence or perfection, especially with reference to serious +subjects, which it exhibited in the age of imperial Rome. + +Early and prominent among the post-classic works upon gesture is that +of the venerable Bede (who flourished A.D. 672-735) _De Loquelâ per +Gestum Digitorum, sive de Indigitatione_. So much discussion had +indeed been carried on in reference to the use of signs for the +desideratum of a universal mode of communication, which also was +designed to be occult and mystic, that Rabelais, in the beginning of +the sixteenth century, who, however satirical, never spent his force +upon matters of little importance, devotes much attention to it. He +makes his English philosopher, Thaumast "The Wonderful" declare, "I +will dispute by signs only, without speaking, for the matters are so +abstruse, hard, and arduous, that words proceeding from the mouth of +man will never be sufficient for unfolding of them to my liking." + +The earliest contributions of practical value connected with the +subject were made by George Dalgarno, of Aberdeen, in two works, one +published in London, 1661, entitled _Ars Signorum, vulgo character +universalis et lingua philosophica_, and the other printed at Oxford, +1680, entitled, _Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's +Tutor_. He spent his life in obscurity, and his works, though he was +incidentally mentioned by Leibnitz under the name of "M. Dalgarus," +passed into oblivion. Yet he undoubtedly was the precursor of Bishop +Wilkins in his _Essay toward a Real Character and a Philosophical +Language_, published in London, 1668, though indeed the first idea was +far older, it having been, as reported by Piso, the wish of Galen that +some way might be found out to represent things by such peculiar signs +and names as should express their natures. Dalgarno's ideas respecting +the education of the dumb were also of the highest value, and though +they were too refined and enlightened to be appreciated at the period +when he wrote, they probably were used by Dr. Wallis if not by Sicard. +Some of his thoughts should be quoted: "As I think the eye to be as +docile as the ear; so neither see I any reason but the hand might be +made as tractable an organ as the tongue; and as soon brought to form, +if not fair, at least legible characters, as the tongue to imitate +and echo back articulate sounds." A paragraph prophetic of the late +success in educating blind deaf-mutes is as follows: "The soul can +exert her powers by the ministry of any of the senses: and, therefore, +when she is deprived of her principal secretaries, the eye and the +ear, then she must be contented with the service of her lackeys and +scullions, the other senses; which are no less true and faithful +to their mistress than the eye and the ear; but not so quick for +dispatch." + +In his division of the modes of "expressing the inward emotions by +outward and sensible signs" he relegates to physiology cases "when +the internal passions are expressed by such external signs as have a +natural connection, by way of cause and effect, with the passion +they discover, as laughing, weeping, frowning, &c., and this way of +interpretation being common to the brute with man belongs to natural +philosophy. And because this goes not far enough to serve the rational +soul, therefore, man has invented Sematology." This he divides into +Pneumatology, interpretation by sounds conveyed through the ear; +Schematology, by figures to the eye, and Haptology, by mutual +contact, skin to skin. Schematology is itself divided into Typology or +Grammatology, and Cheirology or Dactylology. The latter embraces +"the transient motions of the fingers, which of all other ways of +interpretation comes nearest to that of the tongue." + +As a phase in the practice of gestures in lieu of speech must be +mentioned the code of the Cistercian monks, who were vowed to silence +except in religious exercises. That they might literally observe their +vows they were obliged to invent a system of communication by signs, a +list of which is given by Leibnitz, but does not show much ingenuity. + +A curious description of the speech of the early inhabitants of +the world, given by Swedenborg in his _Arcana Coelestia_, published +1749-1756, may be compared with the present exhibitions of deaf-mutes +in institutions for their instruction. He says it was not articulate +like the vocal speech of our time, but was tacit, being produced not +by external respiration, but by internal. They were able to express +their meaning by slight motions of the lips and corresponding changes +of the face. + +[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Group from an ancient Greek vase.] + +Austin's comprehensive work, _Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical +Delivery, London_, 1806, is a repertory of information for all writers +on gesture, who have not always given credit to it, as well as on all +branches of oratory. This has been freely used by the present writer, +as has also the volume by the canon Andrea de Jorio, _La Mimica degli +Antichi investigata nel Gestire Napoletano, Napoli_, 1832. The canon's +chief object was to interpret the gestures of the ancients as shown +in their works of art and described in their writings, by the modern +gesticulations of the Neapolitans, and he has proved that the general +system of gesture once prevailing in ancient Italy is substantially +the same as now observed. With an understanding of the existing +language of gesture the scenes on the most ancient Greek vases +and reliefs obtain a new and interesting significance and form a +connecting link between the present and prehistoric times. Two of +De Jorio's plates are here reproduced, Figs. 64 and 67, with such +explanation and further illustration as is required for the present +subject. + +The spirited figures upon the ancient vase, Fig. 64, are red upon a +black ground and are described in the published account in French of +the collection of Sir John Coghill, Bart., of which the following is a +free translation: + +Dionysos or Bacchus is represented with a strong beard, his head girt +with the credemnon, clothed in a long folded tunic, above which is an +ample cloak, and holding a thyrsus. Under the form of a satyr, Comus, +or the genius of the table, plays on the double flute and tries to +excite to the dance two nymphs, the companions of Bacchus--Galené, +Tranquility, and Eudia, Serenity. The first of them is dressed in +a tunic, above which is a fawn skin, holding a tympanum or classic +drum on which she is about to strike, while her companion marks the +time by a snapping of the fingers, which custom the author of the +catalogue wisely states is still kept up in Italy in the dance of the +tarantella. The composition is said to express allegorically that pure +and serene pleasures are benefits derived from the god of wine. + +[Illustration: Fig. 65.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 66.] + +This is a fair example of the critical acumen of art-commentators. +The gestures of the two nymphs are interesting, but on very slight +examination it appears that those of Galené have nothing to do with +beat of drum, nor have those of Eudia any connection with music, +though it is not so clear what is the true subject under discussion. +Aided, however, by the light of the modern sign language of Naples, +there seems to be by no means serenity prevailing, but a quarrel +between the ladies, on a special subject which is not necessarily +pure. The nymph at the reader's left fixes her eyes upon her companion +with her index in the same direction, clearly indicating, _thou._ That +the address is reproachful is shown from her countenance, but with +greater certainty from her attitude and the corresponding one of her +companion, who raises both her hands in surprise accompanied with +negation. The latter is expressed by the right hand raised toward +the shoulder, with the palm opposed to the person to whom response is +made. This is the rejection of the idea presented, and is expressed by +some of our Indians, as shown in Fig. 65. A sign of the Dakota tribe +of Indians with the same signification is given in Fig. 270, page 441, +_infra_. At the same time the upper part of the nymph's body is drawn +backward as far as the preservation of equilibrium permits. So a +reproach or accusation is made on the one part, and denied, whether +truthfully or not, on the other. Its subject also may be ascertained. +The left hand of Eudia is not mute; it is held towards her rival with +the balls of the index and thumb united, the modern Neapolitan sign +for _love_, which is drawn more clearly in Fig. 66. It is called the +kissing of the thumb and finger, and there is ample authority to show +that among the ancient classics it was a sign of marriage. St. Jerome, +quoted by Vincenzo Requena, says: "_Nam et ipsa digitorum conjunctio, +et quasi molli osculo se complectans et foederans, maritum pingit et +conjugem_;" and Apuleius clearly alludes to the same gesture as used +in the adoration of Venus, by the words "_primore digito in erectum +pollicem residente_." The gesture is one of the few out of the +large number described in various parts of Rabelais' great work, the +significance of which is explained. It is made by Naz-de-cabre or +Goat's Nose (_Pantagruel_, Book III, Ch. XX), who lifted up into the +air his left hand, the whole fingers whereof he retained fistways +closed together, except the thumb and the forefinger, whose nails +he softly joined and coupled to one another. "I understand, quoth +Pantagruel, what he meaneth by that sign. It denotes marriage." The +quarrel is thus established to be about love; and the fluting satyr +seated between the two nymphs, behind whose back the accusation is +furtively made by the jealous one, may well be the object concerning +whom jealousy is manifested. Eudia therefore, instead of "serenely" +marking time for a "tranquil" tympanist, appears to be crying, +"Galené! you bad thing! you are having, or trying to have, an affair +with my Comus!"--an accusation which this writer verily believes to +have been just. The lady's attitude in affectation of surprised denial +is not that of injured innocence. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Group from a vase in the Homeric Gallery.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 68.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 69.] + +Fig. 67, taken from a vase in the Homeric Gallery, is rich in natural +gestures. Without them, from the costumes and attitudes it is easy +to recognize the protagonist or principal actor in the group, and its +general subject. The warrior goddess Athené stands forth in the midst +of what appears to be a council of war. After the study of modern +gesture speech, the votes of each member of the council, with the +degree of positiveness or interest felt by each, can be ascertained. +Athené in animated motion turns her eyes to the right, and extends +her left arm and hand to the left, with her right hand brandishing a +lance in the same direction, in which her feet show her to be ready to +spring. She is urging the figures on her right to follow her at once +to attempt some dangerous enterprise. Of these the elderly man, who is +calmly seated, holds his right hand flat and reversed, and suspended +slightly above his knee. This probably is the ending of the modern +Neapolitan gesture, Fig. 68, which signifies hesitation, advice to +pause before hasty action, "go slowly," and commences higher with a +gentle wavering movement downward. This can be compared with the sign +of some of our Indians, Fig. 69, for _wait! slowly!_ The female figure +at the left of the group, standing firmly and decidedly, raises her +left hand directed to the goddess with the palm vertical. If this +is supposed to be a stationary gesture it means, "_wait! stop!_" It +may, however, be the commencement of the last mentioned gesture, "_go +slow_." + +[Illustration: Fig. 70.] + +Both of these members of the council advise delay and express doubt of +the propriety of immediate action. + +[Illustration: Fig. 71.] + +The sitting warrior on the left of Athené presents his left hand flat +and carried well up. This position, supposed to be stationary, now +means to _ask, inquire_, and it may be that he inquires of the other +veteran what reasons he can produce for his temporizing policy. This +may be collated with the modern Neapolitan sign for _ask_, Fig. 70, +and the common Indian sign for "_tell me!_" Fig. 71. In connection +with this it is also interesting to compare the Australian sign for +interrogation, Fig. 72, and also the Comanche Indian sign for _give +me_, Fig. 301, page 480, _infra_. If, however, the artist had the +intention to represent the flat hand as in motion from below upward, +as is probable from the connection, the meaning is _much, greatly_. +He strongly disapproves the counsel of the opposite side. Our Indians +often express the idea of quantity, _much_, with the same conception +of comparative height, by an upward motion of the extended palm, but +with them the palm is held downward. The last figure to the right, +by the action of his whole body, shows his rejection of the proposed +delay, and his right hand gives the modern sign of combined surprise +and reproof. + +[Illustration: Fig. 72.] + +It is interesting to note the similarity of the merely emotional +gestures and attitudes of modern Italy with those of the classics. The +Pulcinella, Fig. 73, for instance, drawn from life in the streets of +Naples, has the same pliancy and _abandon_ of the limbs as appears in +the supposed foolish slaves of the Vatican Terence. + +[Illustration: Fig. 73.] + +In close connection with this branch of the study reference must be +made to the gestures exhibited in the works of Italian art only modern +in comparison with the high antiquity of their predecessors. A good +instance is in the Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci, painted toward +the close of the fifteenth century, and to the figure of Judas +as there portrayed. The gospel denounces him as a thief, which is +expressed in the painting by the hand extended and slightly curved; +imitative of the pilferer's act in clutching and drawing toward +him furtively the stolen object, and is the same gesture that now +indicates _theft_ in Naples, Fig. 74, and among some of the North +American Indians, Fig. 75. The pictorial propriety of the sign is +preserved by the apparent desire of the traitor to obtain the one +white loaf of bread on the table (the remainder being of coarser +quality) which lies near where his hand is tending. Raffaelle was +equally particular in his exhibition of gesture language, even +unto the minutest detail of the arrangement of the fingers. It is +traditional that he sketched the Madonna's hands for the Spasimo di +Sicilia in eleven different positions before he was satisfied. + +[Illustration: Fig. 74.] + +No allusion to the bibliography of gesture speech, however slight, +should close without including the works of Mgr. D. De Haerne, +who has, as a member of the Belgian Chamber of Representatives, in +addition to his rank in the Roman Catholic Church, been active in +promoting the cause of education in general, and especially that of +the deaf and dumb. His admirable treatise _The Natural Language of +Signs_ has been translated and is accessible to American readers in +the _American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb_, 1875. In that valuable +serial, conducted by Prof. E.A. FAY, of the National Deaf Mute College +at Washington, and now in its twenty-sixth volume, a large amount of +the current literature on the subject indicated by its title can be +found. + +[Illustration: Fig. 75.] + + + + +MODERN USE OF GESTURE SPEECH. + +Dr. TYLOR says (_Early History of Mankind_, 44): "We cannot lay down +as a rule that gesticulation decreases as civilization advances, and +say, for instance, that a Southern Frenchman, because his talk is +illustrated with gestures as a book with pictures, is less civilized +than a German or Englishman." This is true, and yet it is almost +impossible for persons not accustomed to gestures to observe them +without associating the idea of low culture. Thus in Mr. Darwin's +summing up of those characteristics of the natives of Tierra +del Fuego, which rendered it difficult to believe them to be +fellow-creatures, he classes their "violent gestures" with their +filthy and greasy skins, discordant voices, and hideous faces bedaubed +with paint. This description is quoted by the Duke of Argyle in his +_Unity of Nature_ in approval of those characteristics as evidence, of +the lowest condition of humanity. + +Whether or not the power of the visible gesture relative to, and +its influence upon the words of modern oral speech are in inverse +proportion to the general culture, it seems established that they do +not bear that or any constant proportion to the development of the +several languages with which gesture is still more or less associated. +The statement has frequently been made that gesture is yet to some +highly-advanced languages a necessary modifying factor, and that +only when a language has become so artificial as to be completely +expressible in written signs--indeed, has been remodeled through their +long familiar use--can the bodily signs be wholly dispensed with. The +evidence for this statement is now doubted, and it is safer to +affirm that a common use of gesture depends more upon the sociologic +conditions of the speakers than upon the degree of copiousness of +their oral speech. + + + +USE BY OTHER PEOPLES THAN NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. + +The nearest approach to a general rule which it is now proposed to +hazard is that where people speaking precisely the same dialect are +not numerous, and are thrown into constant contact on equal terms with +others of differing dialects and languages, gesture is necessarily +resorted to for converse with the latter, and remains for an +indefinite time as a habit or accomplishment among themselves, +while large bodies enjoying common speech, and either isolated from +foreigners, or, when in contact with them, so dominant as to compel +the learning and adoption of their own tongue, become impassive in its +delivery. The ungesturing English, long insular, and now rulers +when spread over continents, may be compared with the profusely +gesticulating Italians dwelling in a maze of dialects and subject for +centuries either to foreign rule or to the influx of strangers on whom +they depended. So common is the use of gestures in Italy, especially +among the lower and uneducated classes, that utterance without them +seems to be nearly impossible. The driver or boatman will often, +on being addressed, involuntarily drop the reins or oars, at the +risk of a serious accident, to respond with his arms and fingers +in accompaniment of his tongue. Nor is the habit confined to the +uneducated. King Ferdinand returning to Naples after the revolt of +1821, and finding that the boisterous multitude would not allow his +voice to be heard, resorted successfully to a royal address in signs, +giving reproaches, threats, admonitions, pardon, and dismissal, to +the entire satisfaction of the assembled lazzaroni. The medium, though +probably not the precise manner of its employment, recalls Lucan's +account of the quieting of an older tumult-- + + tumultum + Composuit vultu, dextraque silentia fecit. + +This rivalry of Punch would, in London, have occasioned measureless +ridicule and disgust. The difference in what is vaguely styled +temperament does not wholly explain the contrast between the two +peoples, for the performance was creditable both to the readiness of +the King in an emergency and to the aptness of his people, the main +distinction being that in Italy there was in 1821, and still is, a +recognized and cultivated language of signs long disused in Great +Britain. In seeking to account for this it will be remembered that the +Italians have a more direct descent from the people who, as has been +above shown, in classic times so long and lovingly cultivated gesture +as a system. They have also had more generally before their eyes the +artistic relics in which gestures have been preserved. + +It is a curious fact that some English writers, notably Addison +(_Spectator_, 407), have contended that it does not suit the genius +of that nation to use gestures even in public speaking, against which +doctrine Austin vigorously remonstrates. He says: "There may possibly +be nations whose livelier feelings incline them more to gesticulation +than is common among us, as there are also countries in which plants +of excellent use to man grow spontaneously; these, by care and +culture, are found to thrive also in colder countries." + +It is in general to be remarked that as the number of dialects in any +district decreases so will the gestures, though doubtless there is +also weight in the fact not merely that a language has been reduced to +and modified by writing, but that people who are accustomed generally +to read and write, as are the English and Germans, will after a time +think and talk as they write, and without the accompaniments still +persistent among Hindus, Arabs, and the less literate of European +nations. + +The fact that in the comparatively small island of Sicily gesture +language has been maintained until the present time in a perfection +not observed elsewhere in Europe must be considered in connection with +the above remark on England's insularity, and it must also be admitted +that several languages have prevailed in the latter, still leaving +dialects. This apparent similarity of conditions renders the contrast +as regards use of gestures more remarkable, yet there are some reasons +for their persistence in Sicily which apply with greater force than +to Great Britain. The explanation, through mere tradition, is that the +common usage of signs dates from the time of Dionysius, the tyrant of +Syracuse, who prohibited meetings and conversation among his subjects, +under the direst penalties, so that they adopted that expedient to +hold communication. It would be more useful to consider the peculiar +history of the island. The Sicanians being its aborigines it was +colonized by Greeks, who, as the Romans asserted, were still more apt +at gesture than themselves. This colonization was also by separate +bands of adventurers from several different states of Greece, so that +they started with dialects and did not unite in a common or national +organization, the separate cities and their territories being governed +by oligarchies or tyrants frequently at war with each other, until, +in the fifth century B.C., the Carthaginians began to contribute a new +admixture of language and blood, followed by Roman, Vandal, Gothic, +Herulian, Arab, and Norman subjugation. Thus some of the conditions +above suggested have existed in this case, but, whatever the +explanation, the accounts given by travelers of the extent to which +the language of signs has been used even during the present generation +are so marvelous as to deserve quotation. The one selected is from +the pen of Alexandre Dumas, who, it is to be hoped, did not carry his +genius for romance into a professedly sober account of travel: + +"In the intervals of the acts of the opera I saw lively conversations +carried on between the orchestra and the boxes. Arami, in particular, +recognized a friend whom he had not seen for three years, and who +related to him, by means of his eyes and his hands, what, to judge by +the eager gestures of my companion, must have been matters of great +interest. The conversation ended, I asked him if I might know without +impropriety what was the intelligence which had seemed to interest +him so deeply. 'O, yes,' he replied, 'that person is one of my good +friends, who has been away from Palermo for three years, and he has +been telling me that he was married at Naples; then traveled with +his wife in Austria and in France; there his wife gave birth to a +daughter, whom he had the misfortune to lose; he arrived by steamboat +yesterday, but his wife had suffered so much from sea-sickness that +she kept her bed, and he came alone to the play.' 'My dear friend,' +said I to Arami, 'if you would have me believe you, you must grant +me a favor.' 'What is it?' said he. 'It is, that you do not leave me +during the evening, so that I may be sure you give no instructions to +your friend, and when we join him, that you ask him to repeat aloud +what he said to you by signs.' 'That I will,' said Arami. The curtain +then rose; the second act of Norma was played; the curtain falling, +and the actors being recalled, as usual, we went to the side-room, +where we met the traveler. 'My dear friend,' said Arami, 'I did not +perfectly comprehend what you wanted to tell me; be so good as to +repeat it.' The traveler repeated the story word for word, and without +varying a syllable from the translation, which Arami had made of his +signs; it was marvelous indeed. + +"Six weeks after this, I saw a second example of this faculty of mute +communication. This was at Naples. I was walking with a young man +of Syracuse. We passed by a sentinel. The soldier and my companion +exchanged two or three grimaces, which at another time I should not +even have noticed, but the instances I had before seen led me to give +attention. 'Poor fellow,' sighed my companion. 'What did he say to +you?' I asked. 'Well,' said he, 'I thought that I recognized him as +a Sicilian, and I learned from him, as we passed, from what place he +came; he said he was from Syracuse, and that he knew me well. Then +I asked him how he liked the Neapolitan service; he said he did not +like it at all, and if his officers did not treat him better he should +certainly finish by deserting. I then signified to him that if he ever +should be reduced to that extremity, he might rely upon me, and that +I would aid him all in my power. The poor fellow thanked me with all +his heart, and I have no doubt that one day or other I shall see him +come.' Three days after, I was at the quarters of my Syracusan friend, +when he was told that a man asked to see him who would not give his +name; he went out and left me nearly ten minutes. 'Well,' said he, +on returning, 'just as I said.' 'What?' said I. 'That the poor fellow +would desert.'" + +After this there is an excuse for believing the tradition that the +revolt called "the Sicilian Vespers," in 1282, was arranged throughout +the island without the use of a syllable, and even the day and hour +for the massacre of the obnoxious foreigners fixed upon by signs only. +Indeed, the popular story goes so far as to assert that all this was +done by facial expression, without even manual signs. + + +NEAPOLITAN SIGNS. + +It is fortunately possible to produce some illustrations of the modern +Neapolitan sign language traced from the plates of De Jorio, with +translations, somewhat condensed, of his descriptions and remarks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Neapolitan public letter-writer and clients.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 77.] + +In Fig. 76 an ambulant secretary or public writer is seated at his +little table, on which are the meager tools of his trade. He wears +spectacles in token that he has read and written much, and has one +seat at his side to accommodate his customers. On this is seated a +married woman who asks him to write a letter to her absent husband. +The secretary, not being told what to write about, without surprise, +but somewhat amused, raises his left hand with the ends of the thumb +and finger joined, the other fingers naturally open, a common sign for +_inquiry_. "What shall the letter be about?" The wife, not being ready +of speech, to rid herself of the embarrassment, resorts to the mimic +art, and, without opening her mouth, tells with simple gestures all +that is in her mind. Bringing her right hand to her heart, with a +corresponding glance of the eyes she shows that the theme is to be +_love_. For emphasis also she curves the whole upper part of her body +towards him, to exhibit the intensity of her passion. To complete the +mimic story, she makes with her left hand the sign of _asking_ for +something, which has been above described (see page 291). The letter, +then, is to assure her husband of her love and to beg him to return it +with corresponding affection. The other woman, perhaps her sister, who +has understood the whole direction, regards the request as silly and +fruitless and is much disgusted. Being on her feet, she takes a step +toward the wife, who she thinks is unadvised, and raises her left hand +with a sign of disapprobation. This position of the hand is described +in full as open, raised high, and oscillated from right to left. +Several of the Indian signs have the same idea of oscillation of +the hand raised, often near the head, to express _folly, fool_. She +clearly says, "What a thing to ask! what a fool you are!" and at the +same time makes with the right hand the sign of _money_. This is made +by the extremities of the thumb and index rapidly rubbed against each +other, and is shown more clearly in Fig. 77. It is taken from the +handling and counting of coin. This may be compared with an Indian +sign, see Fig. 115, page 344. + +So the sister is clearly disapproving with her left hand and with her +right giving good counsel, as if to say, in the combination, "What a +fool you are to ask for his love; you had better ask him to send you +some money." + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Neapolitan hot-corn vender.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 79.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 80.] + +In Naples, as in American cities, boiled ears of green corn are vended +with much outcry. Fig. 78 shows a boy who is attracted by the local +cry "_Pollanchelle tenerelle!_" and seeing the sweet golden ears still +boiling in the kettle from which steams forth fragrance, has an ardent +desire to taste the same, but is without a _soldo_. He tries begging. +His right open hand is advanced toward the desired object with the +sign of _asking_ or _begging_, and he also raises his left forefinger +to indicate the number one--"Pretty girl, please only give me one!" +The pretty girl is by no means cajoled, and while her left hand holds +the ladle ready to use if he dares to touch her merchandise, she +replies by gesture "_Te voglio dà no cuorno!_" freely translated, +"I'll give you one _in a horn!_" This gesture is drawn, with clearer +outline in Fig. 79, and has many significations, according to the +subject-matter and context, and also as applied to different parts of +the body. Applied to the head it has allusion, descending from high +antiquity, to a marital misfortune which was probably common in +prehistoric times as well as the present. It is also often used as an +amulet against the _jettatura_ or evil eye, and misfortune in general, +and directed toward another person is a prayerful wish for his or her +preservation from evil. This use is ancient, as is shown on medals +and statues, and is supposed by some to refer to the horns of animals +slaughtered in sacrifice. The position of the fingers, Fig. 80, is +also given as one of Quintilian's oratorical gestures by the words +"_Duo quoque medii sub pollicem veniunt_," and is said by him to be +vehement and connected with reproach or argument. In the present case, +as a response to an impertinent or disagreeable petition, it simply +means, "instead of giving what you ask, I will give you nothing but +what is vile and useless, as horns are." + + * * * * * + +Fig. 81 tells a story which is substantially the foundation of the +slender plot of most modern scenic pantomimes preliminary to the +bursting forth from their chrysalides of Harlequin, Columbine, +Pantaloon, and company. A young girl, with the consent of her parents, +has for some time promised her hand to an honest youth. The old +mother, in despite of her word, has taken a caprice to give her +daughter to another suitor. The father, though much under the sway of +his spouse, is in his heart desirous to keep his engagement, and has +called in the notary to draw the contract. At this moment the scene +begins, the actors of which, for greater perspicuity and brevity, may +be provided with stage names as follows: + + Cecca, diminutive for Francisca, the mother of-- + Nanella, diminutive of Antoniella, the betrothed of-- + Peppino, diminutive of Peppe, which is diminutive of Giuseppe. + Pasquale, husband of Cecca and father of Nanella. + Tonno, diminutive of Antonio, favored by Cecca. + D. Alfonso, notary. + +[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Disturbance at signing of Neapolitan marriage +contract.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 82.] + +Cecca tries to pick a quarrel with Peppino, and declares that +the contract shall not be signed. He reminds her of her promise, +and accuses her of breach of faith. In her passion she calls +on her daughter to repudiate her lover, and casting her arms +around her, commands her to make the sign of breaking off +friendship--"_scocchiare_"--which, she has herself made to Peppino, +and which consists in extending the hand with the joined ends of +finger and thumb before described, see Fig. 66, and then separating +them, thus breaking the union. This the latter reluctantly pretends +to do with one hand, yet with the other, which is concealed from her +irate mother's sight, shows her constancy by continuing with emphatic +pressure the sign of _love_. According to the gesture vocabulary, on +the sign _scocchiare_ being made to a person who is willing to accept +the breach of former affection, he replies in the same manner, or +still more forcibly by inserting the index of the other hand between +the index and thumb of the first, thus showing the separation by the +presence of a material obstacle. Simply refraining from holding out +the hand in any responsive gesture is sufficient to indicate that +the breach is not accepted, but that the party addressed desires to +continue in friendship instead of resolving into enmity. This weak +and inactive negative, however, does not suit Peppino's vivacity, who, +placing his left hand on his bosom, makes, with his right, one of the +signs for emphatic negation. This consists of the palm turned to the +person addressed with the index somewhat extended and separated from +the other fingers, the whole hand being oscillated from right to left. +This gesture appears on ancient Greek vases, and is compound, the +index being demonstrative and the negation shown by the horizontal +oscillation, the whole being translatable as, "That thing I want not, +won't have, reject." The sign is virtually the same as that made by +Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians (see EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY, page 440, +_infra_.). The conception of oscillation to show negation also appears +with different execution in the sign of the Jicarilla Apaches and the +Pai-Utes, Fig. 82. The same sign is reported from Japan, in the same +sense. + +[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Coming home of Neapolitan bride.] + +Tonno, in hopes that the quarrel is definitive, to do his part in +stopping the ceremony, proceeds to blow out the three lighted candles, +which are an important traditional feature of the rite. The good old +man Pasquale, with his hands extended, raised in surprised displeasure +and directed toward the insolent youth, stops his attempt. The veteran +notary, familiar with such quarrels in his experience, smiles at this +one, and, continuing in his quiet attitude, extends his right hand +placidly to Peppino with the sign of _adagio_, before described, see +Fig. 68, advising him not to get excited, but to persist quietly, and +all would be well. + + * * * * * + +Fig. 83 portrays the first entrance of a bride to her husband's +house. She comes in with a tender and languid mien, her pendent +arms indicating soft yielding, and the right hand loosely holds a +handkerchief, ready to apply in case of overpowering emotion. She is, +or feigns to be, so timid and embarrassed as to require support by +the arm of a friend who introduces her. She is followed by a male +friend of the family, whose joyful face is turned toward supposed +by-standers, right hand pointing to the new acquisition, while with +his left he makes the sign of horns before described, see Fig. 79, +which in this connection is to wish prosperity and avert misfortune, +and is equivalent to the words in the Neapolitan dialect, +"_Mal'uocchie non nce pozzano_"--may evil eyes never have power over +her. + +[Illustration: Fig. 84.] + +The female confidant, who supports and guides her embarrassed +friend with her right arm, brings her left hand into the sign of +_beautiful_--"See what a beauty she is!" This sign is made by the +thumb and index open and severally lightly touching each side of the +lower cheek, the other fingers open. It is given on a larger scale and +slightly varied in Fig. 84, evidently referring to a fat and rounded +visage. Almost the same sign is made by the Ojibwas of Lake Superior, +and a mere variant of it is made by the Dakotas--stroking the cheeks +alternately down to the tip of the chin with the palm or surface of +the extended fingers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 85.] + +The mother-in-law greets the bride by making the sign _mano in fica_ +with her right hand. This sign, made with the hand clenched and +the point of the thumb between and projecting beyond the fore and +middle fingers, is more distinctly shown in Fig. 85. It has a very +ancient origin, being found on Greek antiques that have escaped the +destruction of time, more particularly in bronzes, and undoubtedly +refers to the _pudendum muliebre_. It is used offensively and +ironically, but also--which is doubtless the case in this instance--as +an invocation or prayer against evil, being more forcible than the +horn-shaped gesture before described. With this sign the Indian sign +for _female_, see Fig. 132, page 357, _infra_, may be compared. + +The mother-in-law also places her left hand hollowed in front of her +abdomen, drawing with it her gown slightly forward, thereby making a +pantomimic representation of the state in which "women wish to be who +love their lords"; the idea being plainly an expressed hope that the +household will be blessed with a new generation. + +[Illustration: Fig. 86.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 87.] + +Next to her is a hunchback, who is present as a familiar clown or +merrymaker, and dances and laughs to please the company, at the same +time snapping his fingers. Two other illustrations of this action, the +middle finger in one leaving and in the other having left the thumb +and passed to its base, are seen in Figs. 86, 87. This gesture by +itself has, like others mentioned, a great variety of significations, +but here means _joy_ and acclamation. It is frequently used among us +for subdued applause, less violent than clapping the two hands, but +still oftener to express negation with disdain, and also carelessness. +Both these uses of it are common in Naples, and appear in Etruscan +vases and Pompeian paintings, as well as in the classic authors. The +significance of the action in the hand of the contemporary statue of +Sardanapalus at Anchiale is clearly _worthlessness_, as shown by the +inscription in Assyrian, "Sardanapalus, the son of Anacyndaraxes, +built in one day Anchiale and Tarsus. Eat, drink, play; the rest is +not worth _that_!" + +[Illustration: Fig. 88.] + +The bridegroom has left his mother to do the honors to the bride, and +himself attends to the rest of the company, inviting one of them to +drink some wine by a sign, enlarged in Fig. 88, which is not merely +pointing to the mouth with the thumb, but the hand with the incurved +fingers represents the body of the common glass flask which the +Neapolitans use, the extended thumb being its neck; the invitation is +therefore specially to drink wine. The guest, however, responds by +a very obvious gesture that he don't wish anything to drink, but he +would like to eat some macaroni, the fingers being disposed as if +handling that comestible in the fashion of vulgar Italians. If the +idea were only to eat generally, it would have been expressed by the +fingers and thumb united in a point and moved several times near and +toward the mouth, not raised above it, as is necessary for suspending +the strings of macaroni. + +[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Quarrel between Neapolitan women.] + +In Fig. 89 the female in the left of the group is much disgusted at +seeing one of her former acquaintances, who has met with good fortune, +promenade in a fine costume with her husband. Overcome with jealousy, +she spreads out her dress derisively on both sides, in imitation of +the hoop-skirts once worn by women of rank, as if to say "So you are +playing the great lady!" The insulted woman, in resentment, makes with +both hands, for double effect, the sign of horns, before described, +which in this case is done obviously in menace and imprecation. The +husband is a pacific fellow who is not willing to get into a woman's +quarrel, and is very easily held back by a woman and small boy who +happen to join the group. He contents himself with pretending to be in +a great passion and biting his finger, which gesture may be collated +with the emotional clinching of the teeth and biting the lips in +anger, common to all mankind. + +[Illustration: Fig. 90.--The cheating Neapolitan chestnut huckster.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 91.] + +In Fig. 90 a contadina, or woman from the country, who has come to the +city to sell eggs (shown to be such by her head-dress, and the form of +the basket which she has deposited on the ground), accosts a vender of +roast chestnuts and asks for a measure of them. The chestnut huckster +says they are very fine and asks a price beyond that of the market; +but a boy sees that the rustic woman is not sharp in worldly matters +and desires to warn her against the cheat. He therefore, at the moment +when he can catch her eye, pretending to lean upon his basket, and +moving thus a little behind the huckster, so as not to be seen, points +him out with his index finger, and lays his left forefinger under his +eye, pulling down the skin slightly, so as to deform the regularity +of the lower eyelid. This is a _warning against a cheat_, shown more +clearly in Fig. 91. This sign primarily indicates a squinting person, +and metaphorically one whose looks cannot be trusted, even as in +a squinting person you cannot be certain in which direction he is +looking. + +[Illustration: Fig. 92.] + +Fig. 92 shows the extremities of the index and thumb closely joined in +form of a cone, and turned down, the other fingers held at pleasure, +and the hand and arm advanced to the point and held steady. This +signifies _justice_, a just person, that which is just and right. The +same sign may denote friendship, a menace, which specifically is that +of being brought to justice, and snuff, i.e. powdered tobacco; but the +expression of the countenance and the circumstance of the use of the +sign determine these distinctions. Its origin is clearly the balance +or emblem of justice, the office of which consists in ascertaining +physical weight, and thence comes the moral idea of distinguishing +clearly what is just and accurate and what is not. The hand is +presented in the usual manner of holding the balance to weigh +articles. + +[Illustration: Fig. 93.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 94.] + +Fig. 93 signifies _little, small_, both as regards the size of +physical objects or figuratively, as of a small degree of talent, +affection, or the like. It is made either by the point of the thumb +placed under the end of the index (a), or _vice versa_ (b), and the +other fingers held at will, but separated from those mentioned. The +intention is to exhibit a small portion either of the thumb or +index separated from the rest of the hand. The gesture is found in +Herculanean bronzes, with obviously the same signification. The +signs made by some tribes of Indians for the same conception are very +similar, as is seen by Figs. 94 and 95. + +[Illustration: Fig. 95.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 96.] + +Fig. 96 is simply the index extended by itself. The other fingers are +generally bent inwards and pressed down by the thumb, as mentioned by +Quintilian, but that is not necessary to the gesture if the forefinger +is distinctly separated from the rest. It is most commonly used for +indication, pointing out, as it is over all the world, from which +comes the name index, applied by the Romans as also by us, to the +forefinger. In different relations to the several parts of the +body and arm positions it has many significations, e.g., attention, +meditation, derision, silence, number, and demonstration in general. + +[Illustration: Fig. 97.] + +Fig. 97 represents the head of a jackass, the thumbs being the ears, +and the separation of the little from the third fingers showing the +jaws. + +[Illustration: Fig. 98.] + +Fig. 98 is intended to portray the head of the same animal in a front +view, the hands being laid upon each other, with thumbs extending on +each side to represent the ears. In each case the thumbs are generally +moved forward and back, in the manner of the quadruped, which, without +much apparent reason, has been selected as the emblem of stupidity. +The sign, therefore, means _stupid, fool_. Another mode of executing +the same conception--the ears of an ass--is shown in Fig. 99, where +the end of the thumb is applied to the ear or temple and the hand +is wagged up and down. Whether the ancient Greeks had the same low +opinion of the ass as is now entertained is not clear, but they +regarded long ears with derision, and Apollo, as a punishment to Midas +for his foolish decision, bestowed on him the lengthy ornaments of the +patient beast. + +[Illustration: Fig. 99.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 100.] + +Fig. 100 is the fingers elongated and united in a point, turned +upwards. The hand is raised slightly toward the face of the gesturer +and shaken a few times in the direction of the person conversed with. +This is _inquiry_, not a mere interrogative, but to express that the +person addressed has not been clearly understood, perhaps from the +vagueness or diffusiveness of his expressions. The idea appears to +suggest the gathering of his thoughts together into one distinct +expression, or to be _pointed_ in what he wishes to say. + +_Crafty, deceitful_, Fig. 101. The little fingers of both reversed +hands are hooked together, the others open but slightly curved, and, +with the hands, moved several times to the right and left. The gesture +is intended to represent a crab and the tortuous movements of the +crustacean, which are likened to those of a man who cannot be depended +on in his walk through life. He is not straight. + +[Illustration: Fig. 101.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 102.] + +Figs. 102 and 103 are different positions of the hand in which the +approximating thumb and forefinger form a circle. This is the direst +insult that can be given. The amiable canon De Jorio only hints at +its special significance, but it may be evident to persons aware of a +practice disgraceful to Italy. It is very ancient. + +[Illustration: Fig. 104.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 103.] + +Fig. 104 is easily recognized as a request or command to be _silent_, +either on the occasion or on the subject. The mouth, supposed to be +forcibly closed, prevents speaking, and the natural gesture, as might +be supposed, is historically ancient, but the instance, frequently +adduced from the attitude of the god Harpokrates, whose finger is on +his lips, is an error. The Egyptian hieroglyphists, notably in the +designation of Horus, their dawn-god, used the finger in or on the +lips for "child." It has been conjectured in the last instance that +the gesture implied, not the mode of taking nourishment, but inability +to speak--_in-fans_. This conjecture, however, was only made to +explain the blunder of the Greeks, who saw in the hand placed +connected with the mouth in the hieroglyph of Horus (the) son, +"Hor-(p)-chrot," the gesture familiar to themselves of a finger on +the lips to express "silence," and so, mistaking both the name and the +characterization, invented the God of Silence, Harpokrates. A careful +examination of all the linear hieroglyphs given by Champollion +(_Dictionnaire Egyptien_) shows that the finger or the hand to the +mouth of an adult (whose posture is always distinct from that of +a child) is always in connection with the positive ideas of voice, +mouth, speech, writing, eating, drinking, &c., and never with the +negative idea of silence. The special character for _child_, Fig. +105, always has the above-mentioned part of the sign with reference to +nourishment from the breast. + +[Illustration: Fig. 105.] + +Fig. 106 is a forcible _negation_. The outer ends of the fingers +united in a point under the chin are violently thrust forward. This +is the rejection of an idea or proposition, the same conception being +executed in several different modes by the North American Indians. + +[Illustration: Fig. 106.] + +Fig. 107 signifies _hunger_, and is made by extending the thumb +and index under the open mouth and turning them horizontally and +vertically several times. The idea is emptiness and desire to be +filled. It is also expressed by beating the ribs with the flat hands, +to show that the sides meet or are weak for the want of something +between them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 107.] + +Fig. 108 is made in mocking and ridicule. The open and oscillating +hand touches the point of the nose with that of the thumb. It has the +particular sense of stigmatizing the person addressed or in question +as a dupe. A credulous person is generally imagined with a gaping +mouth and staring eyes, and as thrusting forward his face, with +pendant chin, so that the nose is well advanced and therefore most +prominent in the profile. A dupe is therefore called _naso lungo_ +or long-nose, and with Italian writers "_restare con un palmo di +naso_"--to be left with a palm's length of nose--means to have met +with loss, injury, or disappointment. + +[Illustration: Fig. 108.] + +The thumb stroking the forehead from one side to the other, Fig. 109, +is a natural sign of _fatigue_, and of the physical toil that produces +fatigue. The wiping off of perspiration is obviously indicated. This +gesture is often used ironically. + +[Illustration: Fig. 109.] + +As a _dupe_ was shown above, now the _duper_ is signified, by Fig. +110. The gesture is to place the fingers between the cravat and the +neck and rub the latter with the back of the hand. The idea is that +the deceit is put within the cravat, taken in and down, similar to our +phrase to "swallow" a false and deceitful story, and a "cram" is also +an English slang word for an incredible lie. The conception of the +slang term is nearly related to that of the Neapolitan sign, viz., the +artificial enlargement of the oesophagus of the person victimized or +on whom imposition is attempted to be practiced, which is necessary to +take it down. + +[Illustration: Fig. 110.] + +Fig. 111 shows the ends of the index and thumb stroking the two sides +of the nose from base to point. This means _astute, attentive, ready_. +Sharpness of the nasal organ is popularly associated with subtlety +and finesse. The old Romans by _homo emunctæ naris_ meant an acute +man attentive to his interests. The sign is often used in a bad sense, +then signifying _too_ sharp to be trusted. + +[Illustration: Fig. 111.] + +This somewhat lengthy but yet only partial list of Neapolitan +gesture-signs must conclude with one common throughout Italy, and also +among us with a somewhat different signification, yet perhaps also +derived from classic times. To express suspicion of a person the +forefinger of the right hand is placed upon the side of the nose. It +means _tainted_, not sound. It is used to give an unfavorable report +of a person inquired of and to warn against such. + + * * * * * + +The Chinese, though ready in gesticulation and divided by dialects, +do not appear to make general use of a systematic sign language, but +they adopt an expedient rendered possible by the peculiarity of their +written characters, with which a large proportion of their adults +are acquainted, and which are common in form to the whole empire. The +inhabitants of different provinces when meeting, and being unable to +converse orally, do not try to do so, but write the characters of the +words upon the ground or trace them on the palm of the hand or in the +air. Those written characters each represent words in the same manner +as do the Arabic or Roman numerals, which are the same to Italians, +Germans, French, and English, and therefore intelligible, but if +expressed in sound or written in full by the alphabet, would not be +mutually understood. This device of the Chinese was with less apparent +necessity resorted to in the writer's personal knowledge between +a Hungarian who could talk Latin, and a then recent graduate from +college who could also do so to some extent, but their pronunciation +was so different as to occasion constant difficulty, so they both +wrote the words on paper, instead of attempting to speak them. + +The efforts at intercommunication of all savage and barbarian tribes, +when brought into contact with other bodies of men not speaking +an oral language common to both, and especially when uncivilized +inhabitants of the same territory are separated by many linguistic +divisions, should in theory resemble the devices of the North American +Indians. They are not shown by published works to prevail in the +Eastern hemisphere to the same extent and in the same manner as +in North America. It is, however, probable that they exist in many +localities, though not reported, and also that some of them survive +after partial or even high civilization has been attained, and +after changed environment has rendered their systematic employment +unnecessary. Such signs may be, first, unconnected with existing +oral language, and used in place of it; second, used to explain or +accentuate the words of ordinary speech, or third, they may consist +of gestures, emotional or not, which are only noticed in oratory +or impassioned conversation, being, possibly, survivals of a former +gesture language. + +From correspondence instituted it may be expected that a considerable +collection of signs will be obtained from West and South Africa, +India, Arabia, Turkey, the Fiji Islands, Sumatra, Madagascar, Ceylon, +and especially from Australia, where the conditions are similar +in many respects to those prevailing in North America prior to the +Columbian discovery. In the _Aborigines of Victoria, Melbourne_, +1878, by R. Brough Smythe, the author makes the following curious +remarks: "It is believed that they have several signs, known only to +themselves, or to those among the whites who have had intercourse +with them for lengthened periods, which convey information readily +and accurately. Indeed, because of their use of signs, it is the firm +belief of many (some uneducated and some educated) that the natives of +Australia are acquainted with the secrets of Freemasonry." + +In the _Report of the cruise of the United States Revenue steamer +Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, Washington_, 1881, it appears that +the Innuits of the northwestern extremity of America use signs +continually. Captain Hooper, commanding that steamer, is reported +by Mr. Petroff to have found that the natives of Nunivak Island, on +the American side, below Behring Strait, trade by signs with those +of the Asiatic coast, whose language is different. Humboldt in his +journeyings among the Indians of the Orinoco, where many small +isolated tribes spoke languages not understood by any other, found the +language of signs in full operation. Spix and Martius give a similar +account of the Puris and Coroados of Brazil. + + * * * * * + +It is not necessary to enlarge under the present heading upon the +signs of deaf-mutes, except to show the intimate relation between sign +language as practiced by them and the gesture signs, which, even +if not "natural," are intelligible to the most widely separated of +mankind. A Sandwich Islander, a Chinese, and the Africans from the +slaver Amistad have, in published instances, visited our deaf-mute +institutions with the same result of free and pleasurable intercourse; +and an English deaf-mute had no difficulty in conversing with +Laplanders. It appears, also, on the authority of Sibscota, whose +treatise was published in 1670, that Cornelius Haga, ambassador of +the United Provinces to the Sublime Porte, found the Sultan's mutes +to have established a language among themselves in which they +could discourse with a speaking interpreter, a degree of ingenuity +interfering with the object of their selection as slaves unable to +repeat conversation. A curious instance has also been reported to the +writer of operatives in a large mill where the constant rattling of +the machinery rendered them practically deaf during the hours of work +and where an original system of gestures was adopted. + +In connection with the late international convention, at Milan, of +persons interested in the instruction of deaf-mutes which, in the +enthusiasm of the members for the new system of artificial articulate +speech, made war upon all gesture-signs, it is curious that such +prohibition of gesture should be urged regarding mutes when it was +prevalent to so great an extent among the speaking people of the +country where the convention was held, and when the advocates of it +were themselves so dependent on gestures to assist their own oratory +if not their ordinary conversation. Artificial articulation surely +needs the aid of significant gestures more, when in the highest +perfection to which it can attain, than does oral speech in its own +high development. The use of artificial speech is also necessarily +confined to the oral language acquired by the interlocutors and throws +away the advantage of universality possessed by signs. + + + +_USE BY MODERN ACTORS AND ORATORS._ + +Less of practical value can be learned of sign language, considered as +a system, from the study of gestures of actors and orators than would +appear without reflection. The pantomimist who uses no words whatever +is obliged to avail himself of every natural or imagined connection +between thought and gesture, and, depending wholly on the latter, +makes himself intelligible. On the stage and the rostrum words are +the main reliance, and gestures generally serve for rhythmic movement +and to display personal grace. At the most they give the appropriate +representation of the general idea expressed by the words, but do not +attempt to indicate the idea itself. An instance is recorded of +the addition of significance to gesture when it is employed by the +gesturer, himself silent, to accompany words used by another. Livius +Andronicus, being hoarse, obtained permission to have his part sung by +another actor while he continued to make the gestures, and he did +so with much greater effect than before, as Livy, the historian, +explains, because he was not impeded by the exertion of the voice; +but the correct explanation probably is, because his attention was +directed to ideas, not mere words. + + +GESTURES OF ACTORS. + +To look at the performance of a play through thick glass or with +closed ears has much the same absurd effect that is produced by +also stopping the ears while at a ball and watching the apparently +objectless capering of the dancers, without the aid of musical +accompaniment. Diderot, in his _Lettre sur les sourds muets_, gives +his experience as follows: + +"I used frequently to attend the theater and I knew by heart most +of our good plays. Whenever I wished to criticise the movements and +gestures of the actors I went to the third tier of boxes, for the +further I was from them the better I was situated for this purpose. +As soon as the curtain rose, and the moment came when the other +spectators disposed themselves to listen, I put my fingers into my +ears, not without causing some surprise among those who surrounded me, +who, not understanding, almost regarded me as a crazy man who had +come to the play only not to hear it. I was very little embarrassed by +their comments, however, and obstinately kept my ears closed as long +as the action and gestures of the players seemed to me to accord with +the discourse which I recollected. I listened only when I failed to +see the appropriateness of the gestures.. There are few actors capable +of sustaining such a test, and the details into which I could enter +would be mortifying to most of them." + +It will be noticed that Diderot made this test with regard to the +appropriate gestural representation of plays that he knew by heart, +but if he had been entirely without any knowledge of the plot, the +difficulty in his comprehending it from gestures alone would have been +enormously increased. When many admirers of Ristori, who were wholly +unacquainted with the language in which her words were delivered, +declared that her gesture and expression were so perfect that they +understood every sentence, it is to be doubted if they would have been +so delighted if they had not been thoroughly familiar with the plots +of Queen Elizabeth and Mary Stuart. This view is confirmed by the case +of a deaf-mute, told to the writer by Professor FAY, who had prepared +to enjoy Ristori's acting by reading in advance the advertised play, +but on his reaching the theater another play was substituted and he +could derive no idea from its presentation. The experience of the +present writer is that he could gain very little meaning in detail out +of the performance at a Chinese theater, where there is much more +true pantomime than in the European, without a general notion of the +subject as conveyed from time to time by an interpreter. A crucial +test on this subject was made at the representation at Washington, +in April, 1881, of _Frou-Frou_ by Sarah Bernhardt and the excellent +French company supporting her. Several persons of special intelligence +and familiar with theatrical performances, but who did not understand +spoken French, and had not heard or read the play before or even seen +an abstract of it, paid close attention to ascertain what they could +learn of the plot and incidents from the gestures alone. This could be +determined in the special play the more certainly as it is not founded +on historic events or any known facts. The result was that from the +entrance of the heroine during the first scene in a peacock-blue +riding habit to her death in a black walking-suit, three hours or five +acts later, none of the students formed any distinct conception of the +plot. This want of apprehension extended even to uncertainty whether +_Gilberte_ was married or not; that is, whether her adventures were +those of a disobedient daughter or a faithless wife, and, if married, +which of the half dozen male personages was her husband. There were +gestures enough, indeed rather a profusion of them, and they were +thoroughly appropriate to the words (when those were understood) in +which fun, distress, rage, and other emotions were expressed, but in +no cases did they interpret the motive for those emotions. They were +the dressing for the words of the actors as the superb millinery +was that of their persons, and perhaps acted as varnish to bring out +dialogues and soliloquies in heightened effect. But though varnish can +bring into plainer view dull or faded characters, it cannot introduce +into them significance where none before existed. The simple fact was +that the gestures of the most famed histrionic school, the Comédie +Française, were not significant, far less self-interpreting, and +though praised as the perfection of art, have diverged widely +from nature. It thus appears that the absence of absolute +self-interpretation by gesture is by no means confined to the lower +grade of actors, such as are criticised in the old lines: + + When to enforce some very tender part + His left hand sleeps by instinct on the heart; + His soul, of every other thought bereft, + Seems anxious only--where to place the left! + +Without relying wholly upon the facts above mentioned, it will be +admitted upon reflection that however numerous and correct may be +the actually significant gestures made by a great actor in the +representation of his part, they must be in small proportion to the +number of gestures not at all significant, and which are no less +necessary to give to his declamation precision, grace, and force. +Significant gestures on the stage may be regarded in the nature of +high seasoning and ornamentation, which by undue use defeat their +object and create disgust. Histrionic perfection is, indeed, more +shown in the slight shades of movement of the head, glances of the +eye, and poises of the body than in violent attitudes; but these +slight movements are wholly unintelligible without the words uttered +with them. Even in the expression of strong emotion the same gesture +will apply to many and utterly diverse conditions of fact. The +greatest actor in telling that his father was dead can convey his +grief with a shade of difference from that which he would use if +saying that his wife had run away, his son been arrested for murder, +or his house burned down; but that shade would not without words +inform any person, ignorant of the supposed event, which of the four +misfortunes had occurred. A true sign language, however, would fully +express the exact circumstances, either with or without any exhibition +of the general emotion appropriate to them. + +Even among the best sign-talkers, whether Indian or deaf-mute, it +is necessary to establish some _rapport_ relating to theme or +subject-matter, since many gestures, as indeed is the case in a +less degree with spoken words, have widely different significations, +according to the object of their exhibition, as well as the context. +Panurge (_Pantagruel_, Book III, ch. xix) hits the truth upon this +point, however ungallant in his application of it to the fair sex. +He is desirous to consult a dumb man, but says it would be useless +to apply to a woman, for "whatever it be that they see they do always +represent unto their fancies, and imagine that it hath some relation +to love. Whatever signs, shows, or gestures we shall make, or whatever +our behavior, carriage, or demeanor shall happen to be in their +view and presence, they will interpret the whole in reference to +androgynation." A story is told to the same point by Guevara, in his +fabulous life of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. A young Roman gentleman +encountering at the foot of Mount Celion a beautiful Latin lady, who +from her very cradle had been deaf and dumb, asked her in gesture what +senators in her descent from the top of the hill she had met with, +going up thither. She straightway imagined that he had fallen in love +with her and was eloquently proposing marriage, whereupon she at once +threw herself into his arms in acceptance. The experience of travelers +on the Plains is to the same general effect, that signs commonly used +to men are understood by women in a sense so different as to occasion +embarrassment. So necessary was it to strike the mental key-note +of the spectators by adapting their minds to time, place, and +circumstance, that even in the palmiest days of pantomime it was +customary for the crier to give some short preliminary explanation +of what was to be acted, which advantage is now retained by our +play-bills, always more specific when the performance is in a foreign +language, unless, indeed, the management is interested in the sale of +librettos. + + +GESTURES OF OUR PUBLIC SPEAKERS. + +If the scenic gestures are so seldom significant, those appropriate to +oratory are of course still less so. They require energy, variety, and +precision, but also a degree of simplicity which is incompatible with +the needs of sign language. As regards imitation, they are restrained +within narrow bounds and are equally suited to a great variety of +sentiments. Among the admirable illustrations in Austin's _Chironomia_ +of gestures applicable to the several passages in Gay's "Miser and +Plutus" one is given for "But virtue's sold" which is perfectly +appropriate, but is not in the slightest degree suggestive either +of virtue or of the transaction of sale. It could be used for an +indefinite number of thoughts or objects which properly excited +abhorrence, and therefore without the words gives no special +interpretation. Oratorical delivery demands general grace--cannot rely +upon the emotions of the moment for spontaneous appropriateness, and +therefore requires preliminary study and practice, such as are applied +to dancing and fencing with a similar object; indeed, accomplishment +in both dancing and fencing has been recommended as of use to +all orators. In reference to this subject a quotation from Lord +Chesterfield's letters is in place: "I knew a young man, who, +being just elected a member of Parliament, was laughed at for being +discovered, through the key-hole of his chamber door, speaking to +himself in the glass and forming his looks and gestures. I could not +join in that laugh, but, on the contrary, thought him much wiser than +those that laughed at him, for he knew the importance of those little +graces in a public assembly and they did not." + + + + +OUR INDIAN CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SIGN LANGUAGE. + + +In no other thoroughly explored part of the world has there been found +spread over so large a space so small a number of individuals divided +by so many linguistic and dialectic boundaries as in North America. +Many wholly distinct tongues have for an indefinitely long time been +confined to a few scores of speakers, verbally incomprehensible to +all others on the face of the earth who did not, from some rarely +operating motive, laboriously acquire their language. Even when the +American race, so styled, flourished in the greatest population of +which we have any evidence (at least according to the published views +of the present writer, which seem to have been generally accepted), +the immense number of languages and dialects still preserved, or known +by early recorded fragments to have once existed, so subdivided it +that only the dwellers in a very few villages could talk together with +ease. They were all interdistributed among unresponsive vernaculars, +each to the other being _bar-bar-ous_ in every meaning of the term. +The number of known stocks or families of Indian languages within the +territory of the United States amounts now to sixty-five, and these +differ among themselves as radically as each differs from the Hebrew, +Chinese, or English. In each of these linguistic families there are +several, sometimes as many as twenty, separate languages, which also +differ from each other as much as do the English, French, German, and +Persian divisions of the Aryan linguistic stock. + +The use of gesture-signs, continued, if not originating, in necessity +for communication with the outer world, became entribally convenient +from the habits of hunters, the main occupation of all savages, +depending largely upon stealthy approach to game, and from the sole +form of their military tactics--to surprise an enemy. In the still +expanse of virgin forests, and especially in the boundless solitudes +of the great plains, a slight sound can be heard over a large area, +that of the human voice being from its rarity the most startling, +so that it is now, as it probably has been for centuries, a common +precaution for members of a hunting or war party not to speak together +when on such expeditions, communicating exclusively by signs. The +acquired habit also exhibits itself not only in formal oratory and +in impassioned or emphatic conversation, but also as a picturesque +accompaniment to ordinary social talk. Hon. LEWIS H. MORGAN mentions +in a letter to this writer that he found a silent but happy family +composed of an Atsina (commonly called Gros Ventre of the Prairie) +woman, who had been married two years to a Frenchman, during which +time they had neither of them attempted to learn each other's +language; but the husband having taken kindly to the language of +signs, they conversed together by that means with great contentment. +It is also often resorted to in mere laziness, one gesture saving +many words. The gracefulness, ingenuity, and apparent spontaneity of +the greater part of the signs can never be realized until actually +witnessed, and their beauty is much heightened by the free play to +which the arms of these people are accustomed, and the small and +well-shaped hands for which they are remarkable. Among them can seldom +be noticed in literal fact-- + + The graceless action of a heavy hand-- + +which the Bastard metaphorically condemns in King John. + +The conditions upon which the survival of sign language among +the Indians has depended is well shown by those attending its +discontinuance among certain tribes. + +Many instances are known of the discontinuance of gesture speech with +no development in the native language of the gesturers, but from the +invention for intercommunication of one used in common. The Kalapuyas +of Southern Oregon until recently used a sign language, but have +gradually adopted for foreign intercourse the composite tongue, +commonly called the Tsinuk or Chinook jargon, which probably arose for +trade purposes on the Columbia River before the advent of Europeans, +founded on the Tsinuk, Tsihali, Nutka, &c., but now enriched by +English and French terms, and have nearly forgotten their old signs. +The prevalence of this mongrel speech, originating in the same causes +that produced the pigeon-English or _lingua-franca_ of the Orient, +explains the marked scantiness of sign language among the tribes of +the Northwest coast. + +Where the Chinook jargon has not extended on the coast to the North, +the Russian language commences, used in the same manner, but it +has not reached so deeply into the interior of the continent as the +Chinook, which has been largely adopted within the region bounded by +the eastern line of Oregon and Washington, and has become known even +to the Pai-Utes of Nevada. The latter, however, while using it with +the Oregonian tribes to their west and north, still keep up sign +language for communication with the Banaks, who have not become so +familiar with the Chinook. The Alaskan tribes on the coast also used +signs not more than a generation ago, as is proved by the fact that +some of the older men can yet converse by this means with the natives +of the interior, whom they occasionally meet. Before the advent of +the Russians the coast tribes traded their dried fish and oil for the +skins and paints of the eastern tribes by visiting the latter, whom +they did not allow to come to the coast, and this trade was conducted +mainly in sign language. The Russians brought a better market, so +the travel to the interior ceased, and with it the necessity for the +signs, which therefore gradually died out, and are little known to +the present generation on the coast, though still continuing in the +interior, where the inhabitants are divided by dialects. + +No explanation is needed for the disuse of a language of signs for +the special purpose now in question when the speech of surrounding +civilization is recognized as necessary or important to be acquired, +and gradually becomes known as the best common medium, even before it +is actually spoken by many individuals of the several tribes. When +it has become general, signs, as systematically employed before, +gradually fade away. + + + + +THEORIES ENTERTAINED RESPECTING INDIAN SIGNS. + + +In this paper it is not designed to pronounce upon theories, and +certainly none will be advocated in a spirit of dogmatism. The writer +recognizes that the subject in its novelty specially requires an +objective and not a subjective consideration. His duty is to collect +the facts as they are, and this as soon as possible, since every +year will add to the confusion and difficulty. After the facts are +established the theories will take care of themselves, and their final +enunciation will be in the hands of men more competent than the writer +will ever pretend to be, although his knowledge, after careful study +of all data attainable, may be considerably increased. The mere +collection of facts, however, cannot be prosecuted to advantage +without predetermined rules of judgment, nor can they be classified at +all without the adoption of some principle which involves a tentative +theory. More than a generation ago Baader noticed that scientific +observers only accumulated great masses of separate facts without +establishing more connection between them than an arbitrary and +imperfect classification; and before him Goethe complained of the +indisposition of students of nature to look upon the universe as a +whole. But since the great theory of evolution has been brought to +general notice no one will be satisfied at knowing a fact without also +trying to establish its relation to other facts. Therefore a working +hypothesis, which shall not be held to with tenacity, is not only +allowable but necessary. It is also important to examine with proper +respect the theories advanced by others. Some of these, suggested in +the few publications on the subject and also by correspondents, will +be mentioned. + + + +_NOT CORRELATED WITH MEAGERNESS OF LANGUAGE._ + +The story has been told by travelers in many parts of the world that +various languages cannot be clearly understood in the dark by their +possessors, using their mother tongue between themselves. The evidence +for this anywhere is suspicious; and when it is asserted, as it +often has been, in reference to some of the tribes of North American +Indians, it is absolutely false, and must be attributed to the error +of travelers who, ignorant of the dialect, never see the natives +except when trying to make themselves intelligible to their visitors +by a practice which they have found by experience to have been +successful with strangers to their tongue, or perhaps when they are +guarding against being overheard by others. Captain Burton, in his +_City of the Saints_, specially states that the Arapahos possess a +very scanty vocabulary, pronounced in a quasi-unintelligible way, and +can hardly converse with one another in the dark. The truth is that +their vocabulary is by no means scanty, and they do converse with each +other with perfect freedom without any gestures when they so please. +The difficulty in speaking or understanding their language is in the +large number of guttural and interrupted sounds which are not helped +by external motions of the mouth and lips in articulation, and the +light gives little advantage to its comprehension so far as concerns +the vocal apparatus, which, in many languages, can be seen as well +as heard, as is proved by the modern deaf-mute practice of artificial +speech. The corresponding story that no white man ever learned Arapaho +is also false. A member of Frémont's party so long ago as 1842 spoke +the language. Burton in the same connection gives a story "of a +man who, being sent among the Cheyennes to qualify himself for +interpreting, returned in a week and proved his competency; all he +did, however, was to go through the usual pantomime with a running +accompaniment of grunts." And he might as well have omitted the +grunts, for he obviously only used sign language. Lieutenant Abert, in +1846-'47, made much more sensible remarks from his actual observation +than Captain Burton repeated at second-hand from a Mormon met by +him at Salt Lake. He said: "Some persons think that it [the Cheyenne +language] would be incomplete without gesture, because the Indians use +gestures constantly. But I have been assured that the language is in +itself capable of bodying forth any idea to which one may wish to give +utterance." + +In fact, individuals of those American tribes specially instanced in +these reports as unable to converse without gesture, often, in their +domestic _abandon_, wrap themselves up in robes or blankets with only +breathing holes before the nose, so that no part of the body is seen, +and chatter away for hours, telling long stories. If in daylight +they thus voluntarily deprive themselves of the possibility of making +signs, it is clear that their preference for talks around the fire at +night is explicable by very natural reasons wholly distinct from the +one attributed. The inference, once carelessly made from the free use +of gesture by some of the Shoshonian stock, that their tongue was too +meager for use without signs, is refuted by the now ascertained fact +that their vocabulary is remarkably copious and their parts of speech +better differentiated than those of many people on whom no such +stigma has been affixed. The proof of this was seen in the writer's +experience, when Ouray, the head chief of the Utes, was at Washington, +in the early part of 1880, and after an interview with the Secretary +of the Interior made report of it to the rest of the delegation who +had not been present. He spoke without pause in his own language for +nearly an hour, in a monotone and without a single gesture. The reason +for this depressed manner was undoubtedly because he was very sad at +the result, involving loss of land and change of home; but the fact +remains that full information was communicated on a complicated +subject without the aid of a manual sign, and also without even +such change of inflection of voice as is common among Europeans. All +theories based upon the supposed poverty of American languages must be +abandoned. + +The grievous accusation against foreign people that they have no +intelligible language is venerable and general. With the Greeks +the term [Greek: aglossos], "tongueless," was used synonymous with +[Greek: barbaros], "barbarian" of all who were not Greek. The name +"Slav," assumed by a grand division of the Aryan family, means "the +speaker," and is contradistinguished from the other peoples of the +world, such as the Germans, who are called in Russian "Njemez," that is, +"speechless." In Isaiah (xxxiii, 19) the Assyrians are called a people +"of a stammering tongue, that one cannot understand." The common use of +the expression "tongueless" and "speechless," so applied, has probably +given rise, as TYLOR suggests, to the mythical stories of actually +speechless tribes of savages, and the considerations and instances +above presented tend to discredit the many other accounts of languages +which are incomplete without the help of gesture. The theory that sign +language was in whole or in chief the original utterance of mankind +would be strongly supported by conclusive evidence to the truth of such +travelers' tales, but does not depend upon them. Nor, considering the +immeasurable period during which, in accordance with modern geologic +views, man has been on the earth, is it probable that any existing +races can be found in which speech has not obviated the absolute +necessity for gesture in communication among themselves. The signs +survive for convenience, used together with oral language, and for +special employment when language is unavailable. + +A comparison sometimes drawn between sign language and that of our +Indians, founded on the statement of their common poverty in abstract +expressions, is not just to either. This paper will be written in +vain if it shall not suggest the capacities of gesture speech in that +regard, and a deeper study into Indian tongues has shown that they are +by no means so confined to the concrete as was once believed. + + + +_ITS ORIGIN FROM ONE TRIBE OR REGION._ + +Col. Richard I. Dodge, United States Army, whose long experience among +the Indians entitles his opinion to great respect, says in a letter: + +"The embodiment of signs into a systematic language is, I believe, +confined to the Indians of the Plains. Contiguous tribes gain, here +and there, a greater or less knowledge of this language; these again +extend the knowledge, diminished and probably perverted, to their +neighbors, until almost all the Indian tribes of the United States +east of the Sierras have some little smattering of it. The Plains +Indians believe the Kiowas to have invented the sign language, and +that by them its use was communicated to other Plains tribes. If this +is correct, analogy would lead us to believe that those tribes most +nearly in contact with the Kiowas would use it most fluently and +correctly, the knowledge becoming less as the contact diminishes. +Thus the Utes, though nearly contiguous (in territory) to the Plains +Indians, have only the merest 'picked up' knowledge of this language, +and never use it among themselves, simply because, they and the Plains +tribes having been, since the memory of their oldest men, in a chronic +state of war, there has been no social contact." + +In another communication Colonel Dodge is still more definite: + +"The Plains Indians themselves believe the sign language was invented +by the Kiowas, who holding an intermediate position between the +Comanches, Tonkaways, Lipans, and other inhabitants of the vast +plains of Texas, and the Pawnees, Sioux, Blackfeet, and other northern +tribes, were the general go-betweens, trading with all, making peace +or war with or for any or all. It is certain that the Kiowas are at +present more universally proficient in this language than any other +Plains tribe. It is also certain that the tribes farthest away from +them and with whom they have least intercourse use it with least +facility." + +Dr. William H. Corbusier, assistant surgeon United States Army, a +valued contributor, gives information as follows: + +"The traditions of the Indians point toward the south as the direction +from which the sign language came. They refer to the time when they +did not use it; and each tribe say they learned it from those south +of them. The Comanches, who acquired it in Mexico, taught it to the +Arapahoes and Kiowas, and from these the Cheyennes learned it. The +Sioux say that they had no knowledge of it before they crossed the +Missouri River and came in contact with the Cheyennes, but have quite +recently learned it from them. It would thus appear that the Plains +Indians did not invent it, but finding it adapted to their wants +adopted it as a convenient means of communicating with those whose +language they did not understand, and it rapidly spread from tribe +to tribe over the Plains. As the sign language came from Mexico, +the Spaniards suggest themselves as the introducers of it on this +continent. They are adepts in the use of signs. Cortez as he marched +through Mexico would naturally have resorted to signs in communicating +with the numerous tribes with which he came in contract. Finding them +very necessary, one sign after another would suggest itself and be +adopted by Spaniards and Indians, and, as the former advanced, one +tribe after another would learn to use them. The Indians on the +Plains, finding them so useful, preserved them and each tribe modified +them to suit their convenience, but the signs remained essentially +the same. The Shoshones took the sign language with them as they moved +northwest, and a few of the Piutes may have learned it from them, but +the Piutes as a tribe do not use it." + +Mr. Ben. Clarke, the respected and skillful interpreter at Fort Reno +writes to the same general effect: + +"The Cheyennes think that the sign language used by the Cheyennes, +Arapahoes, Ogallala and Brulé Sioux, Kiowas, and Comanches originated +with the Kiowas. It is a tradition that, many years ago, when the +Northern Indians were still without horses, the Kiowas often raided +among the Mexican Indians and captured droves of horses on these +trips. The Northern Plains Indians used to journey to them and trade +for horses. The Kiowas were already proficient in signs, and the +others learned from them. It was the journeying to the South that +finally divided the Cheyennes, making the Northern and Southern +Cheyennes. The same may be said of the Arapahoes. That the Kiowas were +the first sign talkers is only a tradition, but as a tribe they are +now considered to be the best or most thorough of the Plains Indians." + +Without engaging in any controversy on this subject it may be noticed +that the theory advanced supposes a comparatively recent origin of +sign language from one tribe and one region, whereas, so far as can be +traced, the conditions favorable to a sign language existed very long +ago and were co-extensive with the territory of North America occupied +by any of the tribes. To avoid repetition reference is made to the +discussion below under the heads of universality, antiquity, identity, +and permanence. At this point it is only desired to call attention +to the ancient prevalence of signs among tribes such as the Iroquois, +Wyandot, Ojibwa, and at least three generations back among the Crees +beyond our northern boundary and the Mandans and other far-northern +Dakotas, not likely at that time to have had communication, even +through intertribal channels, with the Kaiowas. It is also difficult +to understand how their signs would have in that manner reached +the Kutchin of Eastern Alaska and the Kutine and Selish of British +Columbia, who use signs now. At the same time due consideration must +be given to the great change in the intercommunication of tribes, +produced by the importation of the horse, by which the habits of +those Indians now, but not very anciently, inhabiting the Plains were +entirely changed. It is probable that a sign language before existing +became, contemporaneously with nomadic life, cultivated and enriched. + +As regards the Spanish origin suggested, there is ample evidence that +the Spaniards met signs in their early explorations north of and in +the northern parts of Mexico, and availed themselves of them but did +not introduce them. It is believed also that the elaborate picture +writing of Mexico was founded on gesture signs. + +With reference to the statement that the Kaiowas are the most expert +sign talkers of the Plains, a number of authorities and correspondents +give the precedence to the Cheyennes, and an equal number to the +Arapahos. Probably the accident of meeting specially skillful talkers +in the several tribes visited influences such opinions. + +The writer's experience, both of the Utes and Pai-Utes, is different +from the above statement respecting the absence of signs among them. +They not only use their own signs but fully understand the difference +between the signs regarded as their own and those of the Kaiowas. On +special examination they understood some of the latter only as words +of a foreign language interpolated in an oral conversation would be +comprehended from the context, and others they would recognize as +having seen before among other tribes without adoption. The same is +true regarding the Brulé Sioux, as was clearly expressed by Medicine +Bull, their chief. The Pimas, Papagos, and Maricopas examined had a +copious sign language, yet were not familiar with many Kaiowa signs +presented to them. + +Instead of referring to a time past when they did not use signs, the +Indians examined by the writer and by most of his correspondents +speak of a time when they and their fathers used it more freely +and copiously than at present, its disuse being from causes before +mentioned. It, however, may be true in some cases that a tribe, having +been for a long time in contact only with others the dialect of which +was so nearly akin as to be comprehensible, or from any reason being +separated from those of a strange speech, discontinued sign language +for a time, and then upon migration or forced removal came into +circumstances where it was useful, and revived it. It is asserted that +some of the Muskoki and the Ponkas now in the Indian Territory never +saw sign language until they arrived there. Yet there is some evidence +that the Muskoki did use signs a century ago, and some of the Ponkas +still remaining on their old homes on the Missouri remember it and +have given their knowledge to an accurate correspondent, Rev. J.O. +Dorsey, though for many years they have not been in circumstances to +require its employment. + +Perhaps the most salutary criticism to be offered regarding the theory +would be in the form of a query whether sign language has ever been +invented by any one body of people at any one time, and whether it is +not simply a phase in evolution, surviving and reviving when needed. +Criticism on this subject is made reluctantly, as it would be highly +interesting to determine that sign language on this continent came +from a particular stock, and to ascertain that stock. Such research +would be similar to that into the Aryan and Semitic sources to +which many modern languages have been traced backwards from existing +varieties, and if there appear to be existing varieties in signs their +roots may still be found to be _sui generis_. The possibility that the +discrepancy between signs was formerly greater than at present will +receive attention in discussing the distinction between the identity +of signs and their common use as an art. It is sufficient to add +now that not only does the burden of proof rest unfavorably upon +the attempt to establish one parent stock for sign language in North +America, but it also comes under the stigma now fastened upon the +immemorial effort to name and locate the original oral speech of man. +It is only next in difficulty to the old persistent determination +to decide upon the origin of the whole Indian "race," in which most +peoples of antiquity in the eastern hemisphere, including the +lost tribes of Israel, the Gipsies, and the Welsh, have figured +conspicuously as putative parents. + + + +_IS THE INDIAN SYSTEM SPECIAL AND PECULIAR?_ + +This inquiry is closely connected with the last. If the system of +signs was invented here in the correct sense of that term, and by a +known and existing tribe, it is probable that it would not be +found prevailing in any important degree where the influence of the +inventors could not readily have penetrated. An affirmative answer +to the question also presupposes the same answer to another question, +viz, whether there is any one uniform system among the North American +Indians which can therefore be compared with any other system. This +last inquiry will be considered in its order. In comparing the system +as a whole with others, the latter are naturally divided into signs of +speaking men foreign to America and those of deaf-mutes. + + +COMPARISONS WITH FOREIGN SIGNS. + +The generalization of TYLOR that "gesture language is substantially +the same among savage tribes all over the world," interpreted by his +remarks in another connection, is understood as referring to their +common use of signs, and of signs formed on the same principles, but +not of precisely the same signs to express the same ideas. In this +sense of the generalization the result of the writer's study not only +sustains it, but shows a surprising number of signs for the same idea +which are substantially identical, not only among savage tribes, but +among all peoples that use gesture signs with any freedom. Men, in +groping for a mode of communication with each other, and using the +same general methods, have been under many varying conditions and +circumstances which have determined differently many conceptions and +their semiotic execution, but there have also been many of both which +were similar. Our Indians have no special superstition concerning the +evil-eye like the Italians, nor have they been long familiar with the +jackass so as to make him emblematical of stupidity; therefore signs +for these concepts are not cisatlantic, but even in this paper many +are shown which are substantially in common between our Indians +and Italians. The large collection already obtained, but not now +published, shows many others identical, not only with those of the +Italians and the classic Greeks and Romans, but of other peoples of +the Old World, both savage and civilized. The generic uniformity +is obvious, while the occasion of specific varieties can be readily +understood. + + +COMPARISON WITH DEAF-MUTE SIGNS. + +The Indians who have been shown over the civilized East have often +succeeded in holding intercourse, by means of their invention and +application of principles in what may be called the voiceless mother +utterance, with white deaf-mutes, who surely have no semiotic code +more nearly connected with that attributed to the plain-roamers +than is derived from their common humanity. They showed the greatest +pleasure in meeting deaf-mutes, precisely as travelers in a foreign +country are rejoiced to meet persons speaking their language, with +whom they can hold direct communication without the tiresome and often +suspected medium of an interpreter. When they met together they were +found to pursue the same course as that noticed at the meeting of +deaf-mutes who were either not instructed in any methodical dialect +or who had received such instruction by different methods. They often +disagreed in the signs at first presented, but soon understood them, +and finished by adopting some in mutual compromise, which proved to be +those most strikingly appropriate, graceful, and convenient; but there +still remained in some cases a plurality of fitting signs for the same +idea or object. On one of the most interesting of these occasions, at +the Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, in 1873, it was +remarked that the signs of the deaf-mutes were much more readily +understood by the Indians, who were Absaroka or Crows, Arapahos, and +Cheyennes, than were theirs by the deaf-mutes, and that the latter +greatly excelled in pantomimic effect. This need not be surprising +when it is considered that what is to the Indian a mere adjunct or +accomplishment is to the deaf-mute the natural mode of utterance, and +that there is still greater freedom from the trammel of translating +words into action--instead of acting the ideas themselves--when, the +sound of words being unknown, they remain still as they originated, +but another kind of sign, even after the art of reading is acquired, +and do not become entities as with us. The "action, action, action," +of Demosthenes is their only oratory, not the mere heightening of it, +however valuable. + +On March 6, 1880, the writer had an interesting experience in taking +to the National Deaf-Mute College at Washington seven Utes (which +tribe, according to report, is unacquainted with sign language), among +whom were Augustin, Alejandro, Jakonik, Severio, and Wash. By the kind +attention of President GALLAUDET a thorough test was given, an equal +number of deaf-mute pupils being placed in communication with the +Indians, alternating with them both in making individual signs and in +telling narratives in gesture, which were afterwards interpreted in +speech by the Ute interpreter and the officers of the college. Notes +of a few of them were taken, as follows: + +Among the signs was that for _squirrel_, given by a deaf-mute. The +right hand was placed over and facing the left, and about four inches +above the latter, to show the height of the animal; then the two hands +were held edgewise and horizontally in front, about eight inches apart +(showing _length_); then imitating the grasping of a small object and +biting it rapidly with the incisors, the extended index was pointed +upward and forward (_in a tree_). + +This was not understood, as the Utes have no sign for the tree +squirrel, the arboreal animal not being now found in their region. + +Deaf-mute sign for _jack-rabbit_: The first two fingers of each hand +extended (the remaining fingers and thumbs closed) were placed on +either side of the head, pointing upward; then arching the hands, palm +down, quick, interrupted, jumping movements forward were made. + +This was readily understood. + +The signs for the following narrative were given by a deaf-mute: When +he was a boy he mounted a horse without either bridle or saddle, and +as the horse began to go he grasped him by the neck for support; a dog +flew at the horse, began to bark, when the rider was thrown off and +considerably hurt. + +In this the sign for _dog_ was as follows: Pass the arched hand +forward from the lower part of the face, to illustrate elongated nose +and mouth, then with both forefingers extended, remaining fingers and +thumbs closed, place them upon either side of the lower jaw, pointing +upward, to show lower canines, at the same time accompanying the +gesture with an expression of withdrawing the lips so as to show the +teeth snarling; then, with the fingers of the right hand extended and +separated throw them quickly forward and slightly upward (_voice_ or +_talking_). + +This sign was understood to mean _bear_, as that for _dog_ is +different among the Utes, i.e., by merely showing the height of the +dog and pushing the flat hand forward, finger-tips first. + +Another deaf-mute gestured to tell that when he was a boy he went to +a melon-field, tapped several melons, finding them to be green or +unripe; finally reaching a good one he took his knife, cut a slice, +and ate it. A man made his appearance on horseback, entered the patch +on foot, found the cut melon, and detecting the thief, threw the melon +towards him, hitting him in the back, whereupon he ran away crying. +The man mounted and rode off in an opposite direction. + +All of these signs were readily comprehended, although some of the +Indians varied very slightly in their translation. + +When the Indians were asked whether, if they (the deaf-mutes) were to +come to the Ute country they would be scalped, the answer was given, +"Nothing would be done to you; but we would be friends," as follows: + +The palm of the right hand was brushed toward the right over that of +the left (_nothing_), and the right hand made to grasp the palm of +the left, thumbs extended over and lying upon the back of the opposing +hand. + +This was readily understood by the deaf-mutes. + +Deaf-mute sign of milking a cow and drinking the milk was fully and +quickly understood. + +The narrative of a boy going to an apple-tree, hunting for ripe fruit +and filling his pockets, being surprised by the owner and hit upon the +head with a stone, was much appreciated by the Indians and completely +understood. + +A deaf-mute asked Alejandro how long it took him to come to Washington +from his country. He replied by placing the index and second finger of +the right hand astride the extended forefinger (others closed) of the +left; then elevating the fingers of the left hand (except thumb and +forefinger) back forward (_three_); then extending the fingers of both +hands and bringing them to a point, thumbs resting on palmar sides and +extended, placing the hands in front of the body, the tips opposite +the opposing wrist, and about four inches apart; then, revolving them +in imitation of _wheels_, he elevated the extended forefinger of +the left hand (_one_); then placing the extended flat hands, thumbs +touching, the backs sloping downward towards the respective right +and left sides, like the roof of a house; then repeating the sign of +wheels as in the preceding, after which the left hand was extended +before the body, fingers toward the right, horizontal, palm down and +slightly arched, the right wrist held under it, the fingers extending +upward beyond it, and quickly and repeatedly snapped upward (_smoke_); +the last three signs being _covered--wagon--smoke_, i.e., _cars_; then +elevating four fingers of the left hand (_four_). + +_Translation_.--Traveled three days on horseback, one in a wagon, and +four in the cars. + +The deaf-mutes understood all but the sign for wheel, which they make +as a large circle, with _one_ hand. + +Another example: A deaf-mute pretended to hunt something; found birds, +took his bow and arrows and killed several. + +This was fully understood. + +A narrative given by Alejandro was also understood by the deaf-mutes, +to the effect that he made search for deer, shot one with a gun, +killed and skinned it, and packed it up. + +It will be observed that many of the above signs admitted of and were +expressed by pantomime, yet that was not the case with all that were +made. President GALLAUDET made also some remarks in gesture which were +understood by the Indians, yet were not strictly pantomimic. + +The opinion of all present at the test was that two intelligent mimes +would seldom fail of mutual understanding, their attention being +exclusively directed to the expression of thoughts by the means of +comprehension and reply equally possessed by both, without the mental +confusion of conventional sounds only intelligible to one. + +A large collection has been made of natural deaf-mute signs, and also +of those more conventional, which have been collated with those of the +several tribes of Indians. Many of them show marked similarity, not +only in principle but often in detail. + + * * * * * + +The result of the studies so far as prosecuted is that what is +called _the_ sign language of Indians is not, properly speaking, one +language, but that it and the gesture systems of deaf-mutes and of +all peoples constitute together one language--the gesture speech of +mankind--of which each system is a dialect. + + + +_TO WHAT EXTENT PREVALENT AS A SYSTEM._ + +The assertion has been made by many writers, and is currently repeated +by Indian traders and some Army officers, that all the tribes of North +America have long had and still use a _common_ and _identical_ +sign language, in which they can communicate freely without oral +assistance. Although this remarkable statement is at variance with +some of the principles of the formation and use of signs set forth +by Dr. E.B. TYLOR, whose admirable chapters on gesture speech in his +_Researches into the Early History of Mankind_ have in a great degree +prompted the present inquiries, that eminent authority did not see fit +to discredit it. He repeats the report as he received it, in the words +that "the same signs serve as a medium of converse from Hudson Bay to +the Gulf of Mexico." Its truth or falsity can only be established by +careful comparison of lists or vocabularies of signs taken under test +conditions at widely different times and places. For this purpose +lists have been collated by the writer, taken in different parts of +the country at several dates, from the last century to the last month, +comprising together several thousand signs, many of them, however, +being mere variants or synonyms for the same object or quality, some +being repetitions of others and some of small value from uncertainty +in description or authority, or both. + + +ONCE PROBABLY UNIVERSAL IN NORTH AMERICA. + +The conclusion reached from the researches made is to the effect +that before the changes wrought by the Columbian discovery the use of +gesture illustrated the remark of Quintilian upon the same subject +(l. xi, c. 3) that "_In tanta per omnes gentes nationesque linguæ +diversitate hic mihi omnium hominum communis sermo videatur._" + +Quotations may be taken from some old authorities referring to widely +separated regions. The Indians of Tampa Bay, identified with the +Timucua, met by Cabeça de Vaca in 1528, were active in the use of +signs, and in his journeying for eight subsequent years, probably +through Texas and Mexico, he remarks that he passed through many +dissimilar tongues, but that he questioned and received the answers +of the Indians by signs "just as if they spoke our language and we +theirs." Michaëlius, writing in 1628, says of the Algonkins on or near +the Hudson River: "For purposes of trading as much was done by signs +with the thumb and fingers as by speaking." In Bossu's _Travels +through that part of North America formerly called Louisiana_, +_London_, 1771 (Forster's translation), an account is given of +Monsieur de Belle-Isle some years previously captured by the Atak-apa, +who remained with them two years and "conversed in their pantomimes +with them." He was rescued by Governor Bienville and was sufficiently +expert in the sign language to interpret between Bienville and the +tribe. In Bushmann's _Spuren_, p. 424, there is a reference to the +"Accocessaws on the west side of the Colorado, two hundred miles +southwest of Nacogdoches," who use thumb signs which they understand: +"_Theilen sich aber auch durch Daum-Zeichen mit, die sie alle +verstehen._" + +Omitting many authorities, and for brevity allowing a break in the +continuity of time, reference may be made to the statement in Major +Long's expedition of 1819, concerning the Arapahos, Kaiowas, Ietans, +and Cheyennes, to the effect that, being ignorant of each other's +languages, many of them when they met would communicate by means +of signs, and would thus maintain a conversation without the least +difficulty or interruption. A list of the tribes reported upon by +Prince Maximilian von Wied-Neuweid, in 1832-'34, appears elsewhere +in this paper. In Frémont's expedition of 1844 special and repeated +allusion is made to the expertness of the Pai-Utes in signs, which is +contradictory to the statement above made by correspondents. The same +is mentioned regarding a band of Shoshonis met near the summit of the +Sierra Nevada, and one of "Diggers," probably Chemehuevas, encountered +on a tributary of the Rio Virgen. + +Ruxton, in his _Adventures in Mexico and the Rocky Mountains_, _New +York_, 1848, p. 278, sums up his experience with regard to the Western +tribes so well as to require quotation: "The language of signs is +so perfectly understood in the Western country, and the Indians +themselves are such admirable pantomimists, that, after a little use, +no difficulty whatever exists in carrying on a conversation by such +a channel; and there are few mountain men who are at a loss in +thoroughly understanding and making themselves intelligible by signs +alone, although they neither speak nor understand a word of the Indian +tongue." + +Passing to the correspondents of the writer from remote parts of +North America, it is important to notice that Mr. J.W. Powell, Indian +superintendent, reports the use of sign language among the Kutine, +and Mr. James Lenihan, Indian agent, among the Selish, both tribes +of British Columbia. The Very Rev. Edward Jacker, while contributing +information upon the present use of gesture language among the Ojibwas +of Lake Superior, mentions that it has fallen into comparative neglect +because for three generations they had not been in contact with +tribes of a different speech. Dr. Francis H. Atkins, acting assistant +surgeon, United States Army, in forwarding a contribution of signs +of the Mescalero Apaches remarks: "I think it probable that they have +used sign language rather less than many other Indians. They do not +seem to use it to any extent at home, and abroad the only tribes they +were likely to come into contact with were the Navajos, the Lipans +of old Mexico, and the Comanches. Probably the last have been almost +alone their visiting neighbors. They have also seen the Pueblos +a little, these appearing to be, like the Phoenicians of old, the +traders of this region." He also alludes to the effect of the Spanish, +or rather _lingua Mexicana_, upon all the Southern tribes and, indeed, +upon those as far north as the Utes, by which recourse to signs is now +rendered less necessary. + +Before leaving this particular topic it is proper to admit that, while +there is not only recorded testimony to the past use of gesture +signs by several tribes of the Iroquoian and Algonkian families, but +evidence that it still remains, it is, however, noticeable that these +families when met by their first visitors do not appear to have often +impressed the latter with their reliance upon gesture language to the +same extent as has always been reported of the tribes now and formerly +found farther inland. An explanation may be suggested from the +fact that among those families there were more people dwelling near +together in communities speaking the same language, though with +dialectic peculiarities, than became known later in the farther West, +and not being nomadic their intercourse with strange tribes was less +individual and conversational. Some of the tribes, in especial the +Iroquois proper, were in a comparatively advanced social condition. A +Mohawk or Seneca would probably have repeated the arrogance of the old +Romans, whom in other respects they resembled, and compelled persons +of inferior tribes to learn his language if they desired to converse +with him, instead of resorting to the compromise of gesture +speech, which he had practiced before the prowess and policy of the +confederated Five Nations had gained supremacy and which was still +used for special purposes between the members of his own tribe. The +studies thus far pursued lead to the conclusion that at the time of +the discovery of North America all its inhabitants practiced sign +language, though with different degrees of expertness, and that +while under changed circumstances it was disused by some, others, in +especial those who after the acquisition of horses became nomads of +the Great Plains, retained and cultivated it to the high development +now attained, from which it will surely and speedily decay. + + +MISTAKEN DENIAL THAT SIGN LANGUAGE EXISTS. + +The most useful suggestion to persons interested in the collection +of signs is that they shall not too readily abandon the attempt to +discover recollections of them even among tribes long exposed +to European influence and officially segregated from others. The +instances where their existence, at first denied, has been ascertained +are important with reference to the theories advanced. + +Rev. J. Owen Dorsey has furnished a considerable vocabulary of signs +finally procured from the Poncas, although, after residing among them +for years, with thorough familiarity with their language, and after +special and intelligent exertion to obtain some of their disused +gesture language, he had before reported it to be entirely forgotten. +A similar report was made by two missionaries among the Ojibwas, +though other trustworthy authorities have furnished a copious list +of signs obtained from that tribe. This is no imputation against +the missionaries, as in October, 1880, five intelligent Ojibwas from +Petoskey, Mich., told the writer that they had never heard of gesture +language. An interesting letter from Mr. B.O. Williams, sr., of +Owasso, Mich., explains the gradual decadence of signs used by the +Ojibwas in his recollection, embracing sixty years, as chiefly +arising from general acquaintance with the English language. Further +discouragement came from an Indian agent giving the decided statement, +after four years of intercourse with the Pai-Utes, that no such thing +as a communication by signs was known or even remembered by them, +which, however, was less difficult to bear because on the day of the +receipt of that well-intentioned missive some officers of the Bureau +of Ethnology were actually talking in signs with a delegation of that +very tribe of Indians then in Washington, from one of whom, Nátci, a +narrative printed in this paper (page 500), was received. + +The report from missionaries, army officers, and travelers in Alaska +was unanimous against the existence of a sign language there until +Mr. Ivan Petroff, whose explorations had been more extensive, gave +the excellent exposition and dialogue now produced (see page 492). +Collections were also obtained from the Apaches and Zuñi, Pimas, +Papagos, and Maricopas, after agents and travelers had denied them to +be possessed of any knowledge on the subject. + +For the reasons mentioned under the last heading, little hope was +entertained of procuring a collection from any of the Iroquoian stock, +but the intelligent and respectable chief of the Wyandots, Hénto (Gray +Eyes), came to the rescue. His tribe was moved from Ohio in July, +1843, to the territory now occupied by the State of Kansas, and +then again moved to Indian Territory, in 1870. He asserts that about +one-third of the tribe, the older portion, know many signs, a partial +list of which he gave with their descriptions. He was sure that those +signs were used before the removal from Ohio, and he saw them used +also by Shawnees, Delawares, and Senecas there. + +Unanimous denial of any existence of sign language came from the +British provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and was followed by the +collection obtained by the Hon. Horatio Hale. His statement of the +time and manner of its being procured by him is not only interesting +but highly instructive: + +"The aged Mohawk chief, from whom the information on this subject has +been obtained, is commonly known by his English name of John +Smoke Johnson. 'Smoke' is a rude version of his Indian name, +_Sakayenkwaraton_, which may be rendered 'Disappearing Mist.' It is +the term applied to the haze which rises in the morning of an autumn +day, and gradually passes away. Chief Johnson has been for many years +'speaker' of the great council of the Six Nations. In former times he +was noted as a warrior, and later has been esteemed one of the most +eloquent orators of his race. At the age of eighty-eight years he +retains much of his original energy. He is considered to have a better +knowledge of the traditions and ancient customs of his people than +any other person now living. This superior knowledge was strikingly +apparent in the course of the investigations which were made +respecting the sign language. Two other members of his tribe, +well-educated and very intelligent men of middle age, the one a chief +and government interpreter, the other a clergyman now settled over a +white congregation, had both been consulted on the subject and both +expressed the opinion that nothing of the sign language, properly +speaking, was known among the Six Nations. They were alike surprised +and interested when the old chief, in their presence, after much +consideration, gradually drew forth from the stores of his memory the +proofs of an accomplishment which had probably lain unused for more +than half a century." + +One of the most conclusive instances of the general knowledge of +sign language, even when seldom used, was shown in the visit of five +Jicarilla Apaches to Washington in April, 1880, under the charge of +Dr. Benjamin Thomas, their agent. The latter said he had never heard +of any use of signs among them. But it happened that there was a +delegation of Absaroka (Crows) at the same hotel, and the two parties +from such widely separated regions, not knowing a word of each other's +language, immediately began to converse in signs, resulting in a +decided sensation. One of the Crows asked the Apaches whether they ate +horses, and it happening that the sign for _eating_ was misapprehended +for that known by the Apaches for _many_, the question was supposed +to be whether the latter had many horses, which was answered in +the affirmative. Thence ensued a misunderstanding on the subject of +hippophagy, which was curious both as showing the general use of +signs as a practice and the diversity in special signs for particular +meanings. The surprise of the agent at the unsuspected accomplishment +of his charges was not unlike that of a hen who, having hatched a +number of duck eggs, is perplexed at the instinct with which the brood +takes to the water. + +The denial of the use of signs is often faithfully though erroneously +reported from the distinct statements of Indians to that effect. In +that, as in other matters, they are often provokingly reticent about +their old habits and traditions. Chief Ouray asserted to the writer, +as he also did to Colonel Dodge, that his people, the Utes, had not +the practice of sign talk, and had no use for it. This was much in +the proud spirit in which an Englishman would have made the same +statement, as the idea involved an accusation against the civilization +of his people, which he wished to appear highly advanced. Still more +frequently the Indians do not distinctly comprehend what is sought +to be obtained. Sometimes, also, the art, abandoned in general, +only remains in the memories of a few persons influenced by special +circumstances or individual fancy. + +In this latter regard a comparison may be made with the old science +of heraldry, once of practical use and a necessary part of a liberal +education, of which hardly a score of persons in the United States +have any but the vague knowledge that it once existed; yet the united +memories of those persons could, in the absence of records, reproduce +all essential points on the subject. + +Another cause for the mistaken denial in question must be mentioned. +When travelers or sojourners have become acquainted with signs in +any one place they may assume that those signs constitute _the_ sign +language, and if they afterwards meet tribes not at once recognizing +those signs, they remove all difficulty about the theory of a "one and +indivisible" sign language by simply asserting that the tribes so met +do not understand _the_ sign language, or perhaps that they do not +use signs at all. This precise assertion has, as above mentioned, been +made regarding the Utes and Apaches. Of course, also, Indians who have +not been brought into sufficient contact with certain tribes using +different signs, for the actual trial which would probably result +in mutual comprehension, tell the travelers the same story. It is +the venerable one of "[Greek: aglossos]," "Njemez," "barbarian," and +"stammering," above noted, applied to the hands instead of the tongue. +Thus an observer possessed by a restrictive theory will find no signs +where they are in plenty, while another determined on the universality +and identity of sign language can, as elsewhere explained, produce, +from perhaps the same individuals, evidence in his favor from the +apparently conclusive result of successful communication. + + +PERMANENCE OF SIGNS. + +In connection with any theory it is important to inquire into the +permanence of particular gesture signs to express a special idea or +object when the system has been long continued. Many examples have +been given above showing that the gestures of classic times are still +in use by the modern Italians with the same signification; indeed that +the former on Greek vases or reliefs or in Herculanean bronzes +can only be interpreted by the latter. In regard to the signs of +instructed deaf-mutes in this country there appears to be a permanence +beyond expectation. Mr. Edmund Booth, a pupil of the Hartford +Institute half a century ago, and afterwards a teacher, says in the +"_Annals_" for April, 1880, that the signs used by teachers and pupils +at Hartford, Philadelphia, Washington, Council Bluffs, and Omaha were +nearly the same as he had learned. "We still adhere to the old sign +for President from Monroe's three-cornered hat, and for governor we +designate the cockade worn by that dignitary on grand occasions three +generations ago." + +The specific comparisons made, especially by Dr. Washington Matthews +and Dr. W.O. Boteler, of the signs reported by the Prince of Wied +in 1832 with those now used by the same tribes from whom he obtained +them, show a remarkable degree of permanency in many of those that +were so clearly described by the Prince as to be proper subjects of +any comparison. If they have persisted for half a century their age +is probably much greater. In general it is believed that signs, +constituting as they do a natural mode of expression, though enlarging +in scope as new ideas and new objects require to be included and +though abbreviated as hereinafter explained, do not readily change in +their essentials. + +The writer has before been careful to explain that he does not present +any signs as precisely those of primitive man, not being so carried +away by enthusiasm as to suppose them possessed of immutability and +immortality not found in any other mode of human utterance. Yet such +signs as are generally prevalent among Indian tribes, and also in +other parts of the world, must be of great antiquity. The use of +derivative meanings to a sign only enhances this presumption. At +first there might not appear to be any connection between the ideas of +_same_ and _wife_, expressed by the sign of horizontally extending +the two forefingers side by side. The original idea was doubtless that +given by the Welsh captain in Shakspere's Henry V: "'Tis so like as +my fingers is to my fingers," and from this similarity comes "equal," +"companion," and subsequently the close life-companion "wife." The +sign is used in each of these senses by different Indian tribes, +and sometimes the same tribe applies it in all of the senses as +the context determines. It appears also in many lands with all the +significations except that of "wife." It is proper here to mention +that the suggestion of several correspondents that the Indian sign as +applied to "wife" refers to "lying together" is rendered improbable +by the fact that when the same tribes desire to express the sexual +relation of marriage it is gestured otherwise. Many signs but little +differentiated were unstable, while others that have proved the best +modes of expression have survived as definite and established. Their +prevalence and permanence being mainly determined by the experience of +their utility, it would be highly interesting to ascertain how long a +time was required for a distinctly new conception or execution to gain +currency, become "the fashion," so to speak, over a large part of the +continent, and to be supplanted by a new "mode." A note may be made in +this connection of the large number of diverse signs for _horse_, all +of which must have been invented within a comparatively recent period, +and the small variation in the signs for _dog_, which are probably +ancient. + + +SURVIVAL IN GESTURE. + +Even when the specific practice of sign language has been generally +discontinued for more than one generation, either from the adoption +of a jargon or from the common use of the tongue of the conquering +English, French, or Spanish, some of the gestures formerly employed +as substitutes for words may survive as a customary accompaniment to +oratory or impassioned conversation, and, when ascertained, should be +carefully noted. An example, among many, may be found in the fact +that the now civilized Muskoki or Creeks, as mentioned by Rev. H.F. +Buckner, when speaking of the height of children or women, illustrate +their words by holding their hands at the proper elevation, palm up; +but when describing the height of "soulless" animals or inanimate +objects, they hold the palm downward. This, when correlated with the +distinctive signs of other Indians, is an interesting case of the +survival of a practice which, so far as yet reported, the oldest men +of the tribe, now living only remember to have once existed. It is +probable that a collection of such distinctive gestures among the most +civilized Indians would reproduce enough of their ancient system to be +valuable, while possibly the persistent inquirer might in his search +discover some of its surviving custodians even among Chabta or +Cheroki, Innuit or Abnaki, Klamath or Nutka. + + +DISTINCTION BETWEEN IDENTITY OF SIGNS AND THEIR USE AS AN ART. + +The general report that there is but one sign language in North +America, any deviation from which is either blunder, corruption, or a +dialect in the nature of provincialism, may be examined in reference +to some of the misconceived facts which gave it origin and credence. +It may not appear to be necessary that such examination should be +directed to any mode of collecting and comparing signs which would +amount to their distortion. It is useful, however, to explain that +distortion would result from following the views of a recent essayist, +who takes the ground that the description of signs should be made +according to a "mean" or average. There can be no philosophic +consideration of signs according to a "mean" of observations. The +proper object is to ascertain the radical or essential part as +distinct from any individual flourish or mannerism on the one hand, +and from a conventional or accidental abbreviation on the other; but +a mere average will not accomplish that object. If the hand, being +in any position whatever, is, according to five observations, moved +horizontally one foot to the right, and, according to five other +observations, moved one foot horizontally to the left, the "mean" +or resultant will be that it is stationary, which sign does not +correspond with any of the ten observations. So if six observations +give it a rapid motion of one foot to the right and five a rapid +motion of the same distance to the left, the mean or resultant would +be somewhat difficult to express, but perhaps would be a slow movement +to the right for an inch or two, having certainly no resemblance +either in essentials or accidents to any of the signs actually +observed. In like manner the tail of the written letter "_y_" (which, +regarding its mere formation, might be a graphic sign) may have in +the chirography of several persons various degrees of slope, may be +a straight line, or looped, and may be curved on either side; but a +"mean" taken from the several manuscripts would leave the unfortunate +letter without any tail whatever, or travestied as a "_u_" with an +amorphous flourish. A definition of the radical form of the letter or +sign by which it can be distinguished from any other letter or sign +is a very different proceeding. Therefore, if a "mean" or resultant of +any number of radically different signs to express the same object or +idea, observed either among several individuals of the same tribe or +among different tribes, is made to represent those signs, they are +all mutilated and ignored as distinctive signs, though the result may +possibly be made intelligible in practice, according to principles +mentioned in the present paper. The expedient of a "mean" may be +practically useful in the formation of a mere interpreter's jargon, +but it elucidates no principle. It is also convenient for any one +determined to argue for the uniformity of sign language as against the +variety in unity apparent in all the realms of nature. On the "mean" +principle, he only needs to take his two-foot rule and arithmetical +tables and make all signs his signs and his signs all signs. Of course +they are uniform, because he has made them so after the brutal example +of Procrustes. + +In this connection it is proper to urge a warning that a mere sign +talker is often a bad authority upon principles and theories. He +may not be liable to the satirical compliment of Dickens's "brave +courier," who "understood all languages indifferently ill"; but many +men speak some one language fluently, and yet are wholly unable to +explain or analyze its words and forms so as to teach it to another +person, or even to give an intelligent summary or classification +of their own knowledge. What such a sign talker has learned is by +memorizing, as a child may learn English, and though both the sign +talker and the child may be able to give some separate items useful to +a philologist or foreigner, such items are spoiled when colored by the +attempt of ignorance to theorize. A German who has studied English +to thorough mastery, except in the mere facility of speech, may in +a discussion upon some of its principles be contradicted by any mere +English speaker, who insists upon his superior knowledge because he +actually speaks the language and his antagonist does not, but the +student will probably be correct and the talker wrong. It is an old +adage about oral speech that a man who understands but one language +understands none. The science of a sign talker possessed by a +restrictive theory is like that of Mirabeau, who was greater as an +orator than as a philologist, and who on a visit to England gravely +argued that there was something seriously wrong in the British mind +because the people would persist in saying "give me some bread" +instead of "_donnez-moi du pain_," which was so much easier and more +natural. A designedly ludicrous instance to the same effect was Hood's +arraignment of the French because they called their mothers "mares" +and their daughters "fillies." It is necessary to take with caution +any statement from a person who, having memorized or hashed up any +number of signs, large or small, has decided in his conceit that those +he uses are the only genuine Simon Pure, to be exclusively employed +according to his direction, all others being counterfeits or blunders. +His vocabulary has ceased to give the signs of any Indian or body of +Indians whatever, but becomes his own, the proprietorship of which he +fights for as if secured by letters-patent. When a sign is contributed +by one of the present collaborators, which such a sign talker has not +before seen or heard of, he will at once condemn it as bad, just as a +United States Minister to Vienna, who had been nursed in the mongrel +Dutch of Berks County, Pennsylvania, declared that the people of +Germany spoke very bad German. + +An argument for the uniformity of the signs of our Indians is derived +from the fact that those used by any of them are generally understood +by others. But signs may be understood without being identical with +any before seen. The entribal as well as intertribal exercise of +Indians for generations in gesture language has naturally produced +great skill both in expression and reception, so as to render them +measurably independent of any prior mutual understanding, or what in +a system of signals is called preconcert. Two accomplished army +signalists can, after sufficient trial, communicate without having +any code in common between them, one being mutually devised, and those +specially designed for secrecy are often deciphered. So, if any one +of the more conventional signs is not quickly comprehended, an Indian +skilled in the principle of signs resorts to another expression of his +flexible art, perhaps reproducing the gesture unabbreviated and made +more graphic, perhaps presenting either the same or another conception +or quality of the same object or idea by an original portraiture. + +An impression of the community of signs is the more readily made +because explorers and officials are naturally brought into contact +more closely with those individuals of the tribes visited who are +experts in sign language than with their other members, and those +experts, on account of their skill as interpreters, are selected as +guides to accompany the visitors. The latter also seek occasion to +be present when signs are used, whether with or without words, in +intertribal councils, and then the same class of experts comprises +the orators, for long exercise in gesture speech has made the Indian +politicians, with no special effort, masters of the art acquired by +our public speakers only after laborious apprenticeship. The whole +theory and practice of sign language being that all who understand its +principles can make themselves mutually intelligible, the fact of the +ready comprehension and response among all the skilled gesturers gives +the impression of a common code. Furthermore, if the explorer learn +to employ with ingenuity the signs used by any of the tribes, he will +probably be understood in any other by the same class of persons +who will surround him in the latter, thereby confirming him in the +"common" theory. Those of the tribe who are less skilled, but who are +not noticed, might be unable to catch the meaning of signs which have +not been actually taught to them, just as ignorant persons among us +cannot derive any sense from newly-coined words or those strange +to their habitual vocabulary, which, though never before heard, +linguistic scholars would instantly understand and might afterward +adopt. + +It is also common experience that when Indians find that a sign which +has become conventional among their tribe is not understood by an +interlocutor, a self-expressive sign is substituted for it, from +which a visitor may form the impression that there are no conventional +signs. It may likewise occur that the self-expressive sign substituted +will be met with by a visitor in several localities, different +Indians, in their ingenuity, taking the best and the same means of +reaching the exotic intelligence. + +There is some evidence that where sign language is now found among +Indian tribes it has become more uniform than ever before, simply +because many tribes have for some time past been forced to dwell near +together at peace. A collection was obtained in the spring of 1880, at +Washington, from a united delegation of the Kaiowa, Comanche, Apache, +and Wichita tribes, which was nearly uniform, but the individuals who +gave the signs had actually lived together at or near Anadarko, Indian +Territory, for a considerable time, and the resulting uniformity of +their signs might either be considered as a jargon or as the natural +tendency to a compromise for mutual understanding--the unification so +often observed in oral speech, coming under many circumstances out of +former heterogeneity. The rule is that dialects precede languages and +that out of many dialects comes one language. It may be found that +other individuals of those same tribes who have from any cause +not lived in the union explained may have signs for the same ideas +different from those in the collection above mentioned. This is +probable, because some signs of other representatives of one of the +component bodies--Apache--have actually been reported differing from +those for the same ideas given by the Anadarko group. The uniformity +of the signs of those Arapahos, Cheyennes, and Sioux who have been +secluded for years at one particular reservation, so far as could be +done by governmental power, from the outer world, was used in argument +by a correspondent; but some collected signs of other Cheyennes and +Sioux differ, not only from those on the reservation, but among +each other. Therefore the signs used in common by the tribes at +the reservation seem to have been modified and to a certain extent +unified. + +The result of the collation and analysis of the large number of signs +collected is that in numerous instances there is an entire discrepancy +between the signs made by different bodies of Indians to express +the same idea, and that if any of these are regarded as rigidly +determinate, or even conventional with a limited range, and used +without further devices, they will fail in conveying the desired +impression to any one unskilled in gesture as an art, who had not +formed the same precise conception or been instructed in the arbitrary +motion. Few of the gestures that are found in current use are, in +their origin, conventional. They are only portions, more or less +elaborate, of obvious natural pantomime, and those proving efficient +to convey most successfully at any time the several ideas became +the most widely adopted, liable, however, to be superseded by more +appropriate conceptions and delineations. The skill of any tribe and +the copiousness of its signs are proportioned first to the necessity +for their use, and secondly to the accidental ability of the +individuals in it who act as custodians and teachers, so that the +several tribes at different times vary in their degree of proficiency, +and therefore both the precise mode of semiotic expression and the +amount of its general use are always fluctuating. Sign language as a +product of evolution has been developed rather than invented, and yet +it seems probable that each of the separate signs, like the several +steps that lead to any true invention, had a definite origin arising +out of some appropriate occasion, and the same sign may in this +manner have had many independent origins due to identity in the +circumstances, or if lost, may have been reproduced. + +The process is precisely the same as that observed among deaf-mutes. +One of those unfortunate persons, living with his speaking relatives, +may invent signs which the latter are taught to understand, though +strangers sometimes will not, because they may be by no means the +fittest expressions. Should a dozen or more deaf-mutes, possessed +only of such crude signs, come together, they will be able at first to +communicate only on a few common subjects, but the number of those and +the general scope of expression will be continually enlarged. Each one +commences with his own conception and his own presentment of it, +but the universality of the medium used makes it sooner or later +understood. This independent development, thus creating diversity, +often renders the first interchange of thought between strangers +slow, for the signs must be self-interpreting. There can be no natural +universal language which is absolute and arbitrary. When used without +convention, as sign language alone of all modes of utterance can be, +it must be tentative, experimental, and flexible. The mutes will also +resort to the invention of new signs for new ideas as they +arise, which will be made intelligible, if necessary, through the +illustration and definition given by signs formerly adopted, so that +the fittest signs will be evolved, after rivalry and trial, and will +survive. But there may not always be such a preponderance of fitness +that all but one of the rival signs shall die out, and some, being +equal in value to express the same idea or object, will continue to +be used indifferently, or as a matter of individual taste, without +confusion. A multiplication of the numbers confined together, either +of deaf-mutes or of Indians whose speech is diverse, will not decrease +the resulting uniformity, though it will increase both the copiousness +and the precision of the vocabulary. The Indian use of signs, though +maintained by linguistic diversities, is not coincident with any +linguistic boundaries. The tendency is to their uniformity among +groups of people who from any cause are brought into contact with each +other while still speaking different languages. The longer and closer +such contact, while no common tongue is adopted, the greater will be +the uniformity of signs. + +Colonel Dodge takes a middle ground with regard to the identity of +the signs used by our Indians, comparing it with the dialects and +provincialisms of the English language, as spoken in England, Ireland, +Scotland, and Wales. But those dialects are the remains of actually +diverse languages, which to some speakers have not become integrated. +In England alone the provincial dialects are traceable as the legacies +of Saxons, Angles, Jutes, and Danes, with a varying amount of Norman +influence. A thorough scholar in the composite tongue, now +called English, will be able to understand all the dialects and +provincialisms of English in the British Isles, but the uneducated +man of Yorkshire is not able to communicate readily with the equally +uneducated man of Somersetshire. This is the true distinction to +be made. A thorough sign talker would be able to talk with several +Indians who have no signs in common, and who, if their knowledge of +signs were only memorized, could not communicate together. So also, as +an educated Englishman will understand the attempts of a foreigner to +speak in very imperfect and broken English, a good Indian sign expert +will apprehend the feeble efforts of a tyro in gestures. But Colonel +Dodge's conclusion that there is but one true Indian sign language, +just as there is but one true English language, is not proved unless +it can be shown that a much larger proportion of the Indians who +use signs at all, than present researches show to be the case, use +identically the same signs to express the same ideas. It would also +seem necessary to the parallel that the signs so used should be +absolute, if not arbitrary, as are the words of an oral language, and +not independent of preconcert and self-interpreting at the instant of +their invention or first exhibition, as all true signs must originally +have been and still measurably remain. All Indians, as all gesturing +men, have many natural signs in common and many others which are now +conventional. The conventions by which the latter were established +occurred during long periods, when the tribes forming them were +so separated as to have established altogether diverse customs and +mythologies, and when the several tribes were with such different +environment as to have formed varying conceptions needing appropriate +sign expression. The old error that the North American Indians +constitute one homogeneous race is now abandoned. Nearly all the +characteristics once alleged as segregating them from the rest of +mankind have proved not to belong to the whole of the pre-Columbian +population, but only to those portions of it first explored. The +practice of scalping is not now universal, even among the tribes +least influenced by civilization, if it ever was, and therefore the +cultivation of the scalp-lock separated from the rest of the hair +of the head, or with the removal of all other hair, is not a general +feature of their appearance. The arrangement of the hair is so +different among tribes as to be one of the most convenient modes for +their pictorial distinction. The war paint, red in some tribes, was +black in others; the mystic rites of the calumet were in many regions +unknown, and the use of wampum was by no means extensive. The wigwam +is not the type of native dwellings, which show as many differing +forms as those of Europe. In color there is great variety, and even +admitting that the term "race" is properly applied, no competent +observer would characterize it as red, still less copper-colored. Some +tribes differ from each other in all respects nearly as much as either +of them do from the lazzaroni of Naples, and more than either do +from certain tribes of Australia. It would therefore be expected, +as appears to be the case, that the conventional signs of different +stocks and regions differ as do the words of English, French, and +German, which, nevertheless, have sprung from the same linguistic +roots. No one of those languages is a dialect of any of the others; +and although the sign systems of the several tribes have greater +generic unity with less specific variety than oral languages, no one +of them is necessarily the dialect of any other. + +Instead, therefore, of admitting, with present knowledge, that the +signs of our Indians are "identical" and "universal," it is the more +accurate statement that the systematic attempt to convey meaning by +signs is universal among the Indians of the Plains, and those still +comparatively unchanged by civilization. Its successful execution is +by an _art_, which, however it may have commenced as an instinctive +mental process, has been cultivated, and consists in actually pointing +out objects in sight not only for designation, but for application and +predication, and in suggesting others to the mind by action and the +airy forms produced by action. To insist that sign language is uniform +were to assert that it is perfect--"That faultless monster that the +world ne'er saw." + + +FORCED AND MISTAKEN SIGNS. + +Examination into the identity of signs is complicated by the fact that +in the collection and description of Indian signs there is danger lest +the civilized understanding of them may be mistaken or forced. The +liability to those errors is much increased when the collections +are not taken directly from the Indians themselves, but are given +as obtained at second-hand from white traders, trappers, and +interpreters, who, through misconception in the beginning and their +own introduction or modification of gestures, have produced a jargon +in the sign, as well as in the oral intercourse. An Indian talking in +signs, either to a white man or to another Indian using signs which he +never saw before, catches the meaning of that which is presented and +adapts himself to it, at least for the occasion. Even when he finds +that his interlocutor insists upon understanding and presenting a +certain sign in a manner and with a significance widely different from +those to which he has been accustomed, it is within the very nature, +tentative and elastic, of the gesture art--both performers being on an +equality--that he should adopt the one that seems to be recognized +or that is pressed upon him, as with much greater difficulty he +has learned and adopted many foreign terms used with whites before +attempting to acquire their language, but never with his own race. +Thus there is now, and perhaps always has been, what may be called a +_lingua-franca_, in the sign vocabulary. It is well known that all the +tribes of the Plains having learned by experience that white visitors +expect to receive certain signs really originating with the latter, +use them in their intercourse just as they sometimes do the words +"squaw" and "papoose," corruptions of the Algonkian, and once as +meaningless in the present West as the English terms "woman" and +"child," but which the first pioneers, having learned them on the +Atlantic coast, insisted upon treating as generally intelligible. + +The perversity in attaching through preconceived views a wrong +significance to signs is illustrated by an anecdote found in several +versions and in several languages, but repeated as a veritable Scotch +legend by Duncan Anderson, esq., Principal of the Glasgow Institution +for the Deaf and Dumb, when he visited Washington in 1853. + +King James I. of England, desiring to play a trick upon the Spanish +ambassador, a man of great erudition, but who had a crotchet in his +head upon sign language, informed him that there was a distinguished +professor of that science in the university at Aberdeen. The +ambassador set out for that place, preceded by a letter from the King +with instructions to make the best of him. There was in the town +one Geordy, a butcher, blind of one eye, a fellow of much wit and +drollery. Geordy is told to play the part of a professor, with the +warning not to speak a word; is gowned, wigged, and placed in a chair +of state, when the ambassador is shown in and they are left alone +together. Presently the nobleman came out greatly pleased with the +experiment, claiming that his theory was demonstrated. He said: "When +I entered the room I raised one finger to signify there is one God. He +replied by raising two fingers to signify that this Being rules +over two worlds, the material and the spiritual. Then I raised three +fingers, to say there are three persons in the Godhead. He then +closed his fingers, evidently to say these three are one." After this +explanation on the part of the nobleman the professors sent for the +butcher and asked him what took place in the recitation room. He +appeared very angry and said: "When the crazy man entered the room +where I was he raised one finger, as much as to say I had but one eye, +and I raised two fingers to signify that I could see out of my one eye +as well as he could out of both of his. When he raised three fingers, +as much as to say there were but three eyes between us, I doubled up +my fist, and if he had not gone out of that room in a hurry I would +have knocked him down." + +The readiness with which a significance may be found in signs when +none whatever exists is also shown in the great contest narrated +by Rabelais between Panurge and the English philosopher, Thaumast, +commencing as follows: + +"Everybody then taking heed in great silence, the Englishman lifted +his two hands separately, clinching the ends of his fingers in the +form that at Chion they call the fowl's tail. Then he struck them, +together by the nails four times. Then he opened them and struck one +flat upon the other with a clash once; after which, joining them as +above, he struck twice, and four times afterwards, on opening them. +Then he placed them, joined and extended the one above the other, +seeming to pray God devoutly. + +"Panurge suddenly moved his right hand in the air, placed the +right-hand thumb at the right-hand nostril, holding the four fingers +stretched out and arrayed in parallel lines with the point of the +nose; shutting the left eye entirely, and winking with the right, +making a profound depression with eyebrow and eyelid. Next he raised +aloft the left with a strong clinching and extension of the four +fingers and elevation of the thumb, and held it in line directly +corresponding with the position of the right, the distance between the +two being a cubit and a half. This done, in the like manner he lowered +towards the ground both hands, and finally held them in the midst as +if aiming straight at the Englishman's nose." + +And so on at great length. The whole performance of Panurge was to +save the credit of Pantagruel by making fantastic and mystic motions +in pretended disputation with the signs given by Thaumast in good +faith. Yet the latter confessed himself conquered, and declared that +he had derived inestimable information from the purposely meaningless +gestures. The satire upon the diverse interpretations of the gestures +of Naz-de-cabre (_Pantagruel_, Book III, chap. xx) is to the same +effect, showing it to have been a favorite theme with Rabelais. + + +ABBREVIATIONS. + +A lesson was learned by the writer as to the abbreviation of signs, +and the possibility of discovering the original meaning of those most +obscure, from the attempts of a Cheyenne to convey the idea of _old +man_. He held his right hand forward, bent at elbow, fingers and thumb +closed sidewise. This not conveying any sense, he found a long stick, +bent his back, and supported his frame in a tottering step by the +stick held, as was before only imagined. Here at once was decrepit age +dependent on a staff. The principle of abbreviation or reduction may +be illustrated by supposing a person, under circumstances forbidding +the use of the voice, seeking to call attention to a particular bird +on a tree, and failing to do so by mere indication. Descriptive signs +are resorted to, perhaps suggesting the bill and wings of the bird, +its manner of clinging to the twig with its feet, its size by seeming +to hold it between the hands, its color by pointing to objects of the +same hue; perhaps by the action of shooting into a tree, picking up +the supposed fallen game, and plucking feathers. These are continued +until understood, and if one sign or combination of signs proves to +be successful it will be repeated on the next occasion by both persons +engaged, and after becoming familiar between them and others will be +more and more abbreviated. Conventionality in signs largely consists +in the form of abbreviation which is agreed upon. When the signs of +the Indians have from ideographic form thus become demotic, they may +be called conventional, but still not arbitrary. In them, as in all +his actions, man had at the first a definite meaning or purpose, +together with method in their subsequent changes or modifications. + +Colonel Dodge gives a clear account of the manner in which an +established sign is abbreviated in practice, as follows: "There are an +almost infinite number and variety of abbreviations. For instance, to +tell a man to 'talk,' the most common formal sign is made thus: Hold +the right hand in front of, the back near, the mouth, end of thumb and +index-finger joined into an 'O,' the outer fingers closed on the palm; +throw the hand forward sharply by a quick motion of the wrist, and at +the same time flip forward the index-finger. This may be done once or +several times. + +"The formal sign to 'cease' or 'stop doing' anything is made by +bringing the two hands open and held vertically in front of the +body, one behind the other, then quickly pass one upward, the other +downward, simulating somewhat the motion of the limbs of a pair +of scissors, meaning 'cut it off.' The latter sign is made in +conversation in a variety of ways, but habitually with one hand only. + +"The formal sign to 'stop talking' is first to make the formal sign +for 'talk,' then the formal sign for 'cut;' but this is commonly +abbreviated by first making the formal sign for 'talk' with the +right hand, and then immediately passing the same hand, open, fingers +extended, downward across and in front of the mouth, 'talk, cut.' + +"But though the Plains Indian, if asked for the sign to 'stop +talking,' will properly give the sign either in its extended or +abbreviated form as above, he in conversation abbreviates it so much +further that the sign loses almost all resemblance to its former self. +Whatever the position of the hand, a turn of the wrist, a flip of the +forefinger, and a turn, of the wrist back to its original position is +fully equivalent to the elaborate signs." + +It may be added that nearly every sign which to be intelligibly +described and as exhibited in full requires the use of both hands, is +outlined, with one hand only, by skillful Indians gesturing between +themselves, so as to be clearly understood between them. Two Indians, +whose blankets are closely held to their bodies by the left hand, +which is necessarily rendered unavailable for gesture, will severally +thrust the right from beneath the protecting folds and converse +freely. The same is true when one hand of each holds the bridle of a +horse. + +The Italian signs are also made in such abbreviated forms as to be +little more than hinted at, requiring a perfect knowledge of the full +and original form before the slight and often furtive suggestion of it +can be understood. Deaf-mutes continually seek by tacit agreement to +shorten their signs more and more. While the original of each may be +preserved in root or stem, it is only known to the proficient, as +the root or stem of a plant enables botanists, but no others, to +distinguish it. Thus the natural character of signs, the universal +significance which is their peculiarly distinctive feature, may +and often does become lost. From the operation of the principle of +independent and individual abbreviation inherent in all sign language, +without any other cause, that of the Indians must in one or two +generations have become diverse, even if it had in fact originated +from one tribe in which all conceptions and executions were absolute. + + + +_ARE SIGNS CONVENTIONAL OR INSTINCTIVE?_ + +There has been much discussion on the question whether gesture signs +were originally invented, in the strict sense of that term, or whether +they result from a natural connection between them and the ideas +represented by them, that is whether they are conventional or +instinctive. Cardinal Wiseman (_Essays_, III, 537) thinks that they +are of both characters; but referring particularly to the Italian +signs and the proper mode of discovering their meaning, observes that +they are used primarily with words and from the usual accompaniment of +certain phrases. "For these the gestures become substitutes, and then +by association express all their meaning, even when used alone." +This would be the process only where systematic gestures had never +prevailed or had been so disused as to be forgotten, and were adopted +after elaborate oral phrases and traditional oral expressions had +become common. In other parts of this paper it is suggested that +conventionality chiefly consists in abbreviation, and that signs are +originally self-interpreting, independent of words, and therefore in a +certain sense instinctive. + +Another form of the above query, having the same intent, is whether +signs are arbitrary or natural. The answer will depend upon what the +observer considers to be natural to himself. A common sign among +both deaf-mutes and Indians for _woman_ consists in designating the +arrangement of the hair, but such a represented arrangement of +hair familiar to the gesturer as had never been seen by the person +addressed would not seem "natural" to the latter. It would be +classed as arbitrary, and could not be understood without context +or explanation, indeed without translation such as is required from +foreign oral speech. Signs most naturally, that is, appropriately, +expressing a conception of the thing signified, are first adopted and +afterwards modified by circumstances of environment, so as to appear, +without full understanding, conventional and arbitrary, yet they +are as truly "natural" as the signs for hearing, seeing, eating, and +drinking, which continue all over the world as they were first formed +because there is no change in those operations. + + + +_CLASSES OF DIVERSITIES IN SIGNS._ + +While there is not sufficient evidence that any exhibition of sign +language in any tribe is a dialect derived or corrupted from an +ascertained language in any other tribe, it still is convenient to +consider the different forms appearing in different tribes as several +dialects (in the usual mode of using that term) of a common language. +Every sign talker necessarily has, to some extent, a dialect of his +own. No one can use sign language without original invention and +without modification of the inventions of others; and all such new +inventions and modifications have a tendency to spread and influence +the production of other variations. The diversities thus occasioned +are more distinct than that mere individuality of style or expression +which may be likened to the differing chirography of men who write, +although such individual characteristics also constitute an important +element of confusion to the inexperienced observer. In differing +handwriting there is always an attempt or desire to represent an +alphabet which is essentially determinate, but no such fixedness or +limited condition of form restricts gesture speech. + +Those variations and diversities of form and connected significance +specially calling for notice may be: 1st. In the nature of synonyms. +2d. Substantially the same form with such different signification as +not to be synonymous. 3d. Difference in significance produced by +such slight variation in form as to be, to a careless observer, +_symmorphic_. + + +SYNONYMS. + +In this division are placed signs of differing forms which are used +in senses so nearly the same as to have only a slight shade of +distinction, or sometimes to be practically interchangeable. The +comprehensive and metaphorical character of signs renders more of them +interchangeable than is the case with words; still, like words, +some signs with essential resemblance of meaning have partial and +subordinate differences made by etymology or usage. Doubtless signs +are purposely selected as delineating the most striking outlines of +an object, or the most characteristic features of an action; but +different individuals, and likewise different bodies of people, would +not always agree in the selection of those outlines and features. +Taking the illustration of the attempt to invent a sign for _bird_, +before used, any one of a dozen, signs might have been agreed upon +with equal appropriateness, and, in fact, a number have been so +selected by several individuals and tribes, each one, therefore, being +a synonym of the other. Another example of this is in the signs for +_deer_, designated by various modes of expressing fleetness, by his +gait when not in rapid motion, by the shape of his horns, by the +color of his tail, and sometimes by combinations of several of those +characteristics. Each of these signs may be indefinitely abbreviated, +and therefore create indefinite diversity. Another illustration, in +which an association of ideas is apparent, is in the upward raising +of the index in front of and above the head, which means _above_ +(sometimes containing the religious conception of _heaven, great +spirit_, &c.), and also _now, to-day_. Not unfrequently these several +signs to express the same ideas are used interchangeably by the same +people, and some one of the duplicates or triplicates may have been +noticed by separate observers to the exclusion of the others. On +the other hand, they might all have been noticed, but each one among +different bodies. Thus confusing reports would be received, which +might either be erroneous in deducing the prevalence of particular +signs or the opposite. Sometimes the synonym may be recognized as an +imported sign, used with another tribe known to affect it. Sometimes +the diverse signs to express the same thing are only different trials +at reaching the intelligence of the person addressed. An account is +given by Lieut. Heber M. Creel, Seventh Cavalry, U.S.A., of an old +Cheyenne squaw, who made about twenty successive and original signs +to a recruit of the Fourth Cavalry to let him know that she wanted to +obtain out of a wagon a piece of cloth belonging to her, to wipe out +an oven preparatory to baking bread. Thus by tradition, importation, +recent invention, or from all these causes together, several signs +entirely distinct are produced for the same object or action. + +This class is not intended to embrace the cases common both to sign +and oral language where the same sign has several meanings, according +to the expression, whether facial or vocal, and the general manner +accompanying its delivery. The sign given, for "stop talking" on page +339 may be used in simple acquiescence, "very well," "all right!" or +for comprehension, "I understand;" or in impatience, "you have talked +enough!" which may be carried further to express actual anger in the +violent "shut up!" But all these grades of thought accompany the idea +of a cessation of talk. In like manner an acquaintance of the writer +asking the same favor (a permission to go through their camp) of +two chiefs, was answered by both with the sign generally used for +repletion after eating, viz., the index and thumb turned toward the +body, passed up from the abdomen to the throat; but in the one case, +being made with a gentle motion and pleasant look, it meant, "I am +satisfied," and granted the request; in the other, made violently, +with the accompaniment of a truculent frown, it read, "I have had +enough of that!" But these two meanings might also have been expressed +by different intonations of the English word "enough." The class of +signs now in view is better exemplified by the French word _souris_, +which is spelled and pronounced precisely the same with the two wholly +distinct and independent significations of _smile_ and _mouse_. From +many examples may be selected the Omaha sign for _think, guess_, which +is precisely the same as that of the Absaroka, Shoshoni and Banak for +_brave_, see page 414. The context alone, both of the sign and the +word, determines in what one of its senses it is at the time used, but +it is not discriminated merely by a difference in expression. + +It would have been very remarkable if precisely the same sign were not +used by different or even the same persons or bodies of people with +wholly distinct significations. The graphic forms for objects and +ideas are much more likely to be coincident than sound is for similar +expressions, yet in all oral languages the same precise sound is used +for utterly diverse meanings. The first conception of many different +objects must have been the same. It has been found; indeed, that +the homophony of words and the homomorphy of ideographic pictures is +noticeable in opposite significations, the conceptions arising from +the opposition itself. The differentiation in portraiture or accent is +a subsequent and remedial step not taken until after the confusion +has been observed and become inconvenient. Such confusion and +contradiction would only be eliminated if sign language were +absolutely perfect as well as absolutely universal. + + +SYMMORPHS. + +In this class are included those signs conveying different ideas, and +really different in form of execution as well as in conception, yet +in which the difference in form is so slight as practically to require +attention and discrimination. An example from oral speech may be +found in the English word "desert," which, as pronounced "des'-ert" or +"desert'," and in a slightly changed form, "dessert," has such widely +varying significations. These distinctions relating to signs require +graphic illustration. + +[Illustration: Fig. 112.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 113.] + +The sign made by the Dakota, Hidatsa, and several other tribes, +for _tree_ is made by holding the right hand before the body, back +forward, fingers and thumb separated, then pushing it slightly upward, +Fig. 112. That for _grass_ is the same made near the ground; that for +_grow_ is made like _grass_, though instead of holding the back of +the hand near the ground the hand is pushed upward in an interrupted +manner, Fig. 113. For _smoke_, the hand (with the back down, fingers +pointing upward as in _grow_) is thrown upward several times from the +same place instead of continuing the whole motion upward. Frequently +the fingers are thrown forward from under the thumb with each +successive upward motion. For _fire_, the hand is employed as in the +gesture for _smoke_, but the motion is frequently more waving, and in +other cases made higher from the ground. + +The sign for _rain_, made by the Shoshoni, Apache, and other Indians, +is by holding the hand (or hands) at the height of and before the +shoulder, fingers pendent, palm down, then pushing it downward a short +distance, Fig. 114. That for _heat_ is the same, with the difference +that the hand is held above the head and thrust downward toward the +forehead; that for _to weep_ is made by holding the hand as in _rain_, +and the gesture made from the eye downward over the cheek, back of the +fingers nearly touching the face. + +[Illustration: Fig. 114.] + +The common sign for _sun_ is made by bringing the tips of the thumb +and index together so as to form a circle; remaining fingers closed. +The hand is then held toward the sky, Fig. 115. The motion with the +same circular position of index and thumb is for _want_, by bringing +the hand backward toward the mouth, in a curve forming a short arch +between the origin and termination of the gesture. + +[Illustration: Fig. 115.] + +For _drink_ the gesture by several tribes is the same as for _want_, +with the slight difference in the position of the last three fingers, +which are not so tightly clinched, forming somewhat the shape of a +cup; and that for _money_ is made by holding out the hand with the +same arrangement of fingers in front of the hips, at a distance of +about twelve or fifteen inches. + +[Illustration: Fig. 116.] + +Another sign for _sun_, made by the Cheyennes, is by placing the tips +of the partly separated thumb and index of one hand against those of +the other, approximating a circle, and holding them toward the sky, +Fig. 116, and that for _various things_, observed among the Brulé +Sioux with the same position of the hands, is made by placing the +circle horizontal, and moving it interruptedly toward the right +side, each movement forming a short arch. Compare also the sign for +_village_, described on page 386. + +The Arikara sign for _soldier_ is by placing the clinched hands +together before the breast, thumbs touching, then drawing them +horizontally outward toward their respective sides, Fig. 117. That for +_done_, made by the Hidatsa, is shown below in this paper, see Fig. +334, page 528. That for _much_ (_Cheyenne_ I, _Comanche_ III), see +Fig. 274, page 447, is to be correlated with the above. + +[Illustration: Fig. 117.] + +The sign for _to be told_ or _talked to_, and for the reception of +speech, by the tribes generally, is made by placing the flat right +hand, palm upward, about fifteen inches in front of the right side +of the face or breast, fingers pointing to the left, then drawing the +hand toward the bottom of the chin, and is illustrated in Fig. 71, +page 291. The Comanche sign for _give_ or _asking_ is shown in Fig. +301, page 480 (_Comanche_ III), and is made by bringing the hand +toward the body but a short distance, and the motion repeated, the +tips of the fingers indicating the outline of a circle. + +The tribal sign for _Kaiowa_, illustrated in its place among the +TRIBAL SIGNS, is made by holding the hand with extended and separated +fingers and thumb near the side of the head, back outward, and giving +it a rotary motion. This gesture is made in front of the face by +many tribes. The generic sign for _deer_, made by the Dakota and some +others, is by holding the hand motionless at the side of the head, +with extended and separated thumb and fingers, representing the +branched antlers. That for _fool_, reported from the same Indians, +is the same as above described for _Kaiowa_, which it also signifies, +though frequently only one or two fingers are used. + +The tribal sign both for the _Sahaptin_ or _Nez Percés_ and for +_Caddo_ (see TRIBAL SIGNS) is made by passing the extended index, +pointing under the nose from right to left. When the second finger is +not tightly closed it strongly resembles the sign often made for _lie, +falsehood_, by passing the extended index and second fingers separated +toward the left, over the mouth. + +The tribal sign for Cheyenne (see TRIBAL SIGNS) differs from the +sign for _spotted_ only in the finger (or hand) in the latter being +alternately passed across the upper and lower sides of the left +forearm. + +The sign for _steal, theft_, see Fig. 75, page 293, is but slightly +different from that for _bear_, see Fig. 239, page 413, especially +when the latter is made with one hand only. The distinction, however, +is that the grasping in the latter sign is not followed by the idea of +concealment in the former, which is executed by the right hand, after +the motion of grasping, being brought toward and sometimes under the +left armpit. + +_Cold_ and _winter_, see Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue, page 486, may be +compared with _love_, see Kin Chē-ĕss' speech, page 521, and +with _prisoner_. In these the difference consists in that _cold_ and +_winter_ are represented by crossing the arms with clinched hands +before the breast; _love_ by crossing the arms so as to bring the +fists more under the chin, and _prisoner_ by holding the crossed +wrists a foot in front of the breast. + +_Melon, squash, muskmelon_, used by the Utes and Apaches, is made by +holding the hand arched, fingers separated and pointing forward, and +pushing the hand forward over a slight curve near the ground, and the +generic sign for _animals_ by the Apaches is made in the same manner +at the height intended to represent the object. + +The sign for _where?_, and _to search, to seek for_, made by the +Dakota (IV), is by holding the back of the hand upward, index pointing +forward, and carrying it from left to right about eight inches, +raising and lowering it several times while so doing, as if quickly +pointing at different objects. That for _some of them_, a part of a +number of things or persons, made by the Kaiowa, Comanche, Wichita, +and Apache Indians is nearly identical, the gesture being made less +rapidly. + + + + +RESULTS SOUGHT IN THE STUDY OF SIGN LANGUAGE. + + +These may be divided into (1) its practical application, (2) its aid +to philologic researches in general with (3) particular reference +to the grammatic machinery of language, and (4) its archæologic +relations. + + + +_PRACTICAL APPLICATION._ + +The most obvious application of Indian sign language will for its +practical utility depend, to a large extent, upon the correctness +of the view submitted by the present writer that it is not a mere +semaphoric repetition of motions to be memorized from a limited +traditional list, but is a cultivated art, founded upon principles +which can be readily applied by travelers and officials, so as to +give them much independence of professional interpreters--as a +class dangerously deceitful and tricky. This advantage is not merely +theoretical, but has been demonstrated to be practical by a professor +in a deaf mute college who, lately visiting several of the wild tribes +of the plains, made himself understood among all of them without +knowing a word of any of their languages; nor would it only be +experienced in connection with American tribes, being applicable +to intercourse with savages in Africa and Asia, though it is not +pretended to fulfill by this agency the schoolmen's dream of an +ecumenical mode of communication between all peoples in spite of their +dialectic divisions. + +It must be admitted that the practical value of signs for intercourse +with the American Indians will not long continue, their general +progress in the acquisition of English or of Spanish being so rapid +that those languages are becoming, to a surprising extent, the common +medium, and signs are proportionally disused. Nor is a systematic +use of signs of so great assistance in communicating with foreigners, +whose speech is not understood, as might at first be supposed, unless +indeed both parties agree to cease all attempt at oral language, +relying wholly upon gestures. So long as words are used at all, signs +will be made only as their accompaniment, and they will not always +be ideographic. An amusing instance in which savages showed their +preference to signs instead of even an onomatope may be quoted from +Wilfred Powell's _Observations on New Britain and neighboring Islands +during Six Years' Exploration_, in _Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc._, vol. +iii, No. 2 (new monthly series), February, 1881, p. 89, 90: "On one +occasion, wishing to purchase a pig, and not knowing very well how +to set about it, being ignorant of the dialect, which is totally +different from that of the natives in the north, I asked Mr. Brown how +I should manage, or what he thought would be the best way of making +them understand. He said, 'Why don't you try granting?' whereupon I +began to grunt most vociferously. The effect was magical. Some of +them jumped back, holding their spears in readiness to throw; others +ran away, covering their eyes with their hands, and all exhibited the +utmost astonishment and alarm. In fact, it was so evident that they +expected me to turn into a pig, and their alarm was so irresistibly +comic, that Mr. Brown and I both burst out laughing, on which they +gradually became more reassured, and those that had run away came +back, and seeing us so heartily amused, and that I had not undergone +any metamorphosis, began to laugh too; but when I drew a pig on the +sand with a piece of stick, and made motions of eating, it suddenly +seemed to strike them what was the matter, for they all burst out +laughing, nodding their heads, and several of them ran off, evidently +in quest of the pig that was required." + + +POWERS OF SIGNS COMPARED WITH SPEECH. + +Sign language, being the mother utterance of nature, poetically styled +by Lamartine the visible attitudes of the soul, is superior to all +others in that it permits every one to find in nature an image to +express his thoughts on the most needful matters intelligently to any +other person. The direct or substantial natural analogy peculiar to +it prevents a confusion of ideas. It is to some extent possible to +use words without understanding them which yet may be understood by +those addressed, but it is hardly possible to use signs without full +comprehension of them. Separate words may also be comprehended by +persons hearing them without the whole connected sense of the words +taken together being caught, but signs are more intimately connected. +Even those most appropriate will not be understood if the subject +is beyond the comprehension of their beholders. They would be as +unintelligible as the wild clicks of his instrument, in an electric +storm, would be to the telegrapher, or as the semaphore, driven by +wind, to the signalist. In oral speech even onomatopes are arbitrary, +the most strictly natural sounds striking the ear of different +individuals and nations in a manner wholly diverse. The instances +given by SAYCE are in point. Exactly the same sound was intended to +be reproduced in the "_bilbit_ amphora" of Nævius, the "_glut glut_ +murmurat unda sonans" of the Latin Anthology, and the "_puls_" of +Varro. The Persian "_bulbul_," the "_jugjug_" of Gascoigne, and the +"_whitwhit_" of others are all attempts at imitating the note of the +nightingale. Successful signs must have a much closer analogy and +establish, a _consensus_ between the talkers far beyond that produced +by the mere sound of words. + +Gestures, in the degree of their pantomimic character, excel in +graphic and dramatic effect applied to narrative and to rhetorical +exhibition, and beyond any other mode of description give the force +of reality. Speech, when highly cultivated, is better adapted to +generalization and abstraction; therefore to logic and metaphysics. +The latter must ever henceforth, be the superior in formulating +thoughts. Some of the enthusiasts in signs have contended that this +unfavorable distinction is not from any inherent incapability, but +because their employment has not been continued unto perfection, +and that if they had been elaborated by the secular labor devoted +to spoken language they might in resources and distinctiveness have +exceeded many forms of the latter. Gallaudet, Peet, and others maybe +right in asserting that man could by his arms, hands, and fingers, +with facial and bodily accentuation, express any idea that could be +conveyed by words. + +The combinations which can be made with corporeal signs are infinite. +It has been before argued that a high degree of culture might have +been attained by man without articulate speech and it is but a further +step in the reasoning to conclude that if articulate speech had not +been possessed or acquired, necessity would have developed gesture +language to a degree far beyond any known exhibition of it. The +continually advancing civilization and continually increasing +intercourse of countless ages has perfected oral speech, and as both, +civilization and intercourse were possible with signs alone it is +to be supposed that they would have advanced in some corresponding +manner. But as sign language has been chiefly used during historic +time either as a scaffolding around a more valuable structure to +be thrown aside when the latter was completed, or as an occasional +substitute, such development was not to be expected. + +The process of forming signs to express abstract ideas is only a +variant from that of oral speech, in which the words for the most +abstract ideas, such as law, virtue, infinitude, and immortality, +are shown by Max Müller to have been derived and deduced, that +is, abstracted, from sensuous impressions. In the use of signs the +countenance and manner as well as the tenor decide whether objects +themselves are intended, or the forms, positions, qualities, and +motions of other objects which are suggested, and signs for moral +and intellectual ideas, founded on analogies, are common all over +the world as well as among deaf-mutes. Concepts of the intangible and +invisible are only learned through percepts of tangible and visible +objects, whether finally expressed to the eye or to the ear, in terms +of sight or of sound. + +Sign language is so faithful to nature, and so essentially living in +its expression, that it is not probable that it will ever die. It may +become disused, but will revert. Its elements are ever natural and +universal, by recurring to which the less natural signs adopted +dialectically or for expedition can always, with, some circumlocution, +be explained. This power of interpreting itself is a peculiar +advantage, for spoken languages, unless explained by gestures or +indications, can only be interpreted by means of some other spoken +language. When highly cultivated, its rapidity on familiar subjects +exceeds that of speech and approaches to that of thought itself. This +statement may be startling to those who only notice that a selected +spoken word may convey in an instant a meaning for which the motions +of even an expert in signs may require a much longer time, but it must +be considered that oral speech is now wholly conventional, and that +with the similar development of sign language conventional expressions +with hands and body could be made more quickly than with the vocal +organs, because more organs could be worked at once. Without such +supposed development the habitual communication between deaf-mutes and +among Indians using signs is perhaps as rapid as between the ignorant +class of speakers upon the same subjects, and in many instances the +signs would win at a trial of speed. At the same time it must be +admitted that great increase in rapidity is chiefly obtained by the +system of preconcerted abbreviations, before explained, and by the +adoption of arbitrary forms, in which naturalness is sacrificed and +conventionality established, as has been the case with all spoken +languages in the degree in which they have become copious and +convenient. + +There is another characteristic of the gesture speech that, though +it cannot be resorted to in the dark, nor where the attention of +the person addressed has not been otherwise attracted, it has the +countervailing benefit of use when the voice could not be employed. +This may be an advantage at a distance which the eye can reach, but +not the ear, and still more frequently when silence or secrecy is +desired. Dalgarno recommends it for use in the presence of great +people, who ought not to be disturbed, and curiously enough +"Disappearing Mist," the Iroquois chief, speaks of the former +extensive use of signs in his tribe by women and boys as a mark of +respect to warriors and elders, their voices, in the good old days, +not being uplifted in the presence of the latter. The decay of that +wholesome state of discipline, he thinks, accounts partly for the +disappearance of the use of signs among the modern impudent youth and +the dusky claimants of woman's rights. + +An instance of the additional power gained to a speaker of ordinary +language by the use of signs, impressed the writer while dictating to +two amanuenses at the same moment, to the one by signs and the other +by words, on different subjects, a practice which would have enabled +Cæsar to surpass his celebrated feat. It would also be easy to talk to +a deaf and blind man at once, the latter being addressed by the voice +and the former in signs. + + + +_RELATIONS TO PHILOLOGY._ + +The aid to be derived from the study of sign language in prosecuting +researches into the science of language was pointed out by LEIBNITZ, +in his _Collectanea Etymologica_, without hitherto exciting any +thorough or scientific work in that direction, the obstacle to it +probably being that scholars competent in other respects had no +adequate data of the gesture speech of man to be used in comparison. +The latter will, it is hoped, be supplied by the work now undertaken. + +In the first part of this paper it was suggested that signs played an +important part in giving meaning to spoken words. Philology, comparing +the languages of earth in their radicals, must therefore include the +graphic or manual presentation of thought, and compare the elements of +ideography with those of phonics. Etymology now examines the ultimate +roots, not the fanciful resemblances between oral forms, in the +different tongues; the internal, not the mere external parts of +language. A marked peculiarity of sign language consists in its +limited number of radicals and the infinite combinations into +which those radicals enter while still remaining distinctive. It is +therefore a proper field for etymologic study. + +From these and other considerations it is supposed that an analysis +of the original conceptions of gestures, studied together with the +holophrastic roots in the speech of the gesturers, may aid in the +ascertainment of some relation between concrete ideas and words. +Meaning does not adhere to the phonic presentation of thought, while +it does to signs. The latter are doubtless more flexible and in that +sense more mutable than words, but the ideas attached to them are +persistent, and therefore there is not much greater metamorphosis +in the signs than in the cognitions. The further a language has been +developed from its primordial roots, which have been twisted into +forms no longer suggesting any reason for their original selection, +and the more the primitive significance of its words has disappeared, +the fewer points of contact can it retain with signs. The higher +languages are more precise because the consciousness of the derivation +of most of their words is lost, so that they have become counters, +good for any sense agreed upon and for no other. + +It is, however, possible to ascertain the included gesture even in +many English words. The class represented by the word _supercilious_ +will occur to all readers, but one or two examples may be given not +so obvious and more immediately connected with the gestures of our +Indians. _Imbecile_, generally applied to the weakness of old age, +is derived from the Latin _in_, in the sense of on, and _bacillum_, +a staff, which at once recalls the Cheyenne sign for _old man_, +mentioned above, page 339. So _time_ appears more nearly connected +with [Greek: teino] to stretch, when information is given of the sign +for _long time_, in the Speech of Kin Chē-ĕss, in this paper, +viz., placing the thumbs and forefingers in such a position as if a +small thread was held between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, +the hands first touching each other, and then moving slowly from each +other, as if _stretching_ a piece of gum-elastic. + +In the languages of North America, which have not become arbitrary to +the degree exhibited by those of civilized man, the connection between +the idea and the word is only less obvious than, that still unbroken +between the idea and the sign, and they remain strongly affected +by the concepts of outline, form, place, position, and feature on +which gesture is founded, while they are similar in their fertile +combination of radicals. + +Indian language consists of a series of words that are but slightly +differentiated parts of speech following each other in the order +suggested in the mind of the speaker without absolute laws of +arrangement, as its sentences are not completely integrated. The +sentence necessitates parts of speech, and parts of speech are +possible only when a language has reached that stage where sentences +are logically constructed. The words of an Indian tongue, being +synthetic or undifferentiated parts of speech, are in this respect +strictly analogous to the gesture elements which enter into a sign +language. The study of the latter is therefore valuable for comparison +with the words of the former. The one language throws much light upon +the other, and neither can be studied to the best advantage without a +knowledge of the other. + +Some special resemblances between the language of signs and the +character of the oral languages found on this continent may be +mentioned. Dr. J. HAMMOND TRUMBULL remarks of the composition of their +words that they were "so constructed as to be thoroughly self-defining +and immediately intelligible to the hearer." In another connection the +remark is further enforced: "Indeed, it is a requirement of the Indian +languages that every word shall be so framed as to admit of immediate +resolution to its significant elements by the hearer. It must be +thoroughly _self-defining_, for (as Max Müller has expressed it) 'it +requires tradition, society, and literature to maintain words which +can no longer be analyzed at once.'... In the ever-shifting state of +a nomadic society no debased coin can be tolerated in language, no +obscure legend accepted on trust. The metal must be pure and the +legend distinct." + +Indian languages, like those of higher development, sometimes +exhibit changes of form by the permutation of vowels, but often an +incorporated particle, whether suffix, affix, or infix, shows the +etymology which often, also, exhibits the same objective conception +that would be executed in gesture. There are, for instance, different +forms for standing, sitting, lying, falling, &c., and for standing, +sitting, lying on or falling from the same level or a higher or lower +level. This resembles the pictorial conception and execution of signs. + +Major J.W. POWELL, with particular reference to the disadvantages of +the multiplied inflections in Indian languages, alike with the Greek +and Latin, when the speaker is compelled, in the choice of a word to +express his idea, to think of a great multiplicity of things, gives +the following instance: + +"A Ponca Indian in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would have to +say: the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case, +purposely killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the one, +animate, sitting, in the objective case; for the form of a verb to +kill would have to be selected, and the verb changes its form by +inflection and incorporated particles to denote person, number, and +gender as animate or inanimate, and gender as standing, sitting, or +lying, and case; and the form of the verb would also express whether +the killing was done accidentally or purposely, and whether it was by +shooting or by some other process, and, if by shooting, whether by +bow and arrow, or with a gun; and the form of the verb would in like +manner have to express all of these things relating to the object; +that is, the person, number, gender, and case of the object; and +from the multiplicity of paradigmatic forms of the verb to kill, this +particular one would have to be selected." This is substantially the +mode in which an Indian sign talker would find it necessary to tell +the story, as is shown by several examples given below in narratives, +speeches, and dialogues. + +Indian languages exhibit the same fondness for demonstration which is +necessary in sign language. The two forms of utterance are alike in +their want of power to express certain words, such as the verb "to +be," and in the criterion of organization, so far as concerns a +high degree of synthesis and imperfect differentiation, they bear +substantially the same relation to the English language. + +It may finally be added that as not only proper names but nouns, +generally in Indian languages are connotive, predicating some +attribute of the object, they can readily be expressed by gesture +signs, and therefore among them, if anywhere, it is to be expected +that relations may be established between the words and the signs. + + +ETYMOLOGY OF WORDS FROM GESTURES. + +There can be no attempt in the present limits to trace the etymology +of any large number of words in the several Indian languages to a +gestural origin, nor, if the space allowed, would it be satisfactory. +The signs have scarcely yet been collected, verified, and collated +in sufficient numbers for such comparison, even with the few of +the Indian languages the radicals of which have been scientifically +studied. The signs will, in a future work, be frequently presented in +connection with the corresponding words of the gesturers, as is done +now in a few instances in another part of this paper. For the present +the subject is only indicated by the following examples, introduced to +suggest the character of the study in which the students of American +linguistics are urgently requested to assist: + +The Dakota word _Shaⁿte-suta_--from _shaⁿte_, heart, and _suta_, +strong--_brave_, not cowardly, literally strong-hearted, is made by +several tribes of that stock, and particularly by the Brulé Sioux, in +gestures by collecting the tips of the fingers and thumb of the right +hand to a point, and then placing the radial side of the hand over +the heart, finger tips pointing downward--_heart_; then place the +left fist, palm inward, horizontally before the lower portion of the +breast, the right fist back of the left, then raise the right and +throw it forcibly over and downward in front of the left--_brave_, +_strong_. See Fig. 242, page 415. + +The Arikaras make the sign for _brave_ by striking the clinched fist +forcibly toward the ground in front of and near the breast. + +Brave, or "strong-hearted," is made by the Absaroka, Shoshoni, and +Banak Indians by merely placing the clinched fist to the breast, the +latter having allusion to the heart, the clinching of the hand to +strength, vigor, or force. + +An Ojibwa sign for _death, to die_, is as follows: + +Place the palm of the hand at a short distance from the side of +the head, then withdraw it gently in an oblique downward direction, +inclining the head and upper part of the body in the same direction. + +The same authority, The Very Rev. E. Jacker, who contributes it, +notes that there is an apparent connection between this conception and +execution and the etymology of the corresponding terms in Ojibwa. "He +dies," is _nibo_; "he sleeps," is _niba_. The common idea expressed +by the gesture is a sinking to rest. The original significance of +the root _nib_ seems to be "leaning;" _anibeia_, "it is leaning"; +_anibekweni_, "he inclines the head sidewards." The word _niba_ or +_nibe_ (only in compounds) conveys the idea of "night," perhaps as the +falling over, the going to rest, or the death of the day. + +_Ogima_, the Ojibwa term for _chief_, is derived from a root which +signifies "above" (_Ogidjaii_, upon; _ogidjina_, above; _ogidaki_, +on a hill or mountain, etc.). _Ogitchida_, a brave, a hero (Otawa, +_ogida_), is probably from the same root. + +_Sagima_, the Ojibwa form of sachem, is from the root _sag_, which +implies a coming forth, or stretching out. These roots are to be +considered in connection with several gestures described under the +head of _Chief_, in EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY, _infra_. + +_Onijishin_, it is _good_ (_Ojibwa_), originally signifies "it +lies level." This may be compared with the sign for _good_, in +the Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue, Fig. 309, page 487, and also that for +_happy, contentment_, in the Speech of Kin Chē-ĕss, page 523. + +In Klamath the radix _lam_ designates a whirling motion, and appears +in the word _láma_, "to be crazy, mad," readily correlated with the +common gesture for _madman_ and _fool_, in which the hand is rotated +above and near the head. + +_Evening_, in Klamath, is _litkhí_, from _luta_, to hang down, meaning +the time when the sun hangs down, the gesture for which, described +elsewhere in this paper (see Nátci's Narrative, page 503), is +executive of the same conception, which is allied to the etymology +usually given for _eve, even_, "the decline of the day." These +Klamath etymologies have been kindly contributed by Mr. A.S. Gatschet. + +The Very Rev. E. Jacker also communicates a suggestive _excursus +exegeticus_ upon the probable gestural origin of the Ojibwa word +_tibishko_, "opposite in space; just so; likewise:" + +"The adverb _tibishko_ (or _dibishko_) is an offshoot of the root +_tib_ (or _dib_), which in most cases conveys the idea of measuring +or weighing, as appears from the following samples: _dibaige_, he +measures; _dibowe_, he settles matters by his speech or word, e.g., +as a juryman; _dibaamage_, he pays out; _dibakonige_, he judges; +_dibabishkodjige_, he weighs; _dibamenimo_, he restricts himself, +e.g., to a certain quantity of food; _dibissitchige_, he fulfills a +promise; _dibijigan_, a pattern for cutting clothes. + +"The original, meaning of _tib_, however, must be supposed to +have been more comprehensive, if we would explain other (apparent) +derivatives, such as: _tibi_, 'I don't know where, where to, where +from,' &c.; _tibik_, night; _dibendjige_, he is master or +owner; _titibisse_, it rolls (as a ball), it turns (as a wheel); +_dibaboweigan_, the cover of a kettle. The notion of measuring does +not very naturally enter into the ideas expressed by these terms. + +"The difficulty disappears if we assume the root _tib_ or _dib_ to +have been originally the phonetic equivalent of a _gesture_ expressive +of the notion of covering as well as of that of measuring. This +gesture would seem to be the holding of one hand above the other, +horizontally, at some distance, palms opposite or both downwards. +This, or some similar gesture would most naturally accompany the above +terms. As for _tibik_, night, compare (_Dunbar_): 'The two hands open +and extended, crossing one another horizontally.' The idea of covering +evidently enters into this conception. The strange adverb _tibi_ ('I +don't know where,' &c., or 'in a place unknown to me'), if +derived from the same root, would originally signify 'covered.' In +_titibisse_, or _didibisse_ (it rolls, it turns), the reduplication +of the radical syllable indicates the repetition of the gesture, by +holding the hands alternately above one another, palms downwards, and +thus producing a rotary motion. + +"In German, the clasping of the hands in a horizontal position, +expressive of a promise or the conclusion of a bargain, is frequently +accompanied by the interjection _top!_ the same radical consonants +as in _tib_. Compare also the English _tap_, the French _tape_, the +Greek, [Greek: tupto] the Sanscrit _tup_ and _tub_, &c." + + +GESTURES CONNECTED WITH THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. + +Though written characters are generally associated with speech, they +are shown, by successful employment in hieroglyphs and by educated +deaf-mutes to be representative of ideas without the intervention +of sounds, and so also are the outlines of signs. This will be +more apparent if the motions expressing the most prominent feature, +attribute, or function of an object are made, or supposed to be made, +so as to leave a luminous track impressible upon the eye separate from +the members producing it. The actual result is an immateriate graphic +representation of visible objects and qualities which, invested with +substance, has become familiar to us as the _rebus_, and also appears +in the form of heraldic blazonry styled punning or "canting." + +Gesture language is, in fact, not only a picture language, but +is actual writing, though dissolving and sympathetic, and neither +alphabetic nor phonetic. + +Dalgarno aptly says: "_Qui enim caput nutat, oculo connivet, digitum +movet in aëre, &c., (ad mentis cogitata exprimendum); is non minus +vere scribit, quam qui Literas pingit in Charta, Marmore, vel ære._" + +It is neither necessary nor proper to enter now upon any prolonged +account of the origin, of alphabetic writing. There is, however, +propriety, if not necessity, for the present writer, when making +any remarks under this heading and under some others in this paper +indicating special lines of research, to disclaim all pretension +to being a Sinologue or Egyptologist, or even profoundly versed in +Mexican antiquities. His partial and recently commenced studies only +enable him to present suggestions for the examination of scholars. +These suggestions may safely be introduced by the statement that the +common modern alphabetic characters, coming directly from the Romans, +were obtained by them from the Greeks, and by the latter from the +Phoenicians, whose alphabet was connected with that of the old Hebrew. +It has also been of late the general opinion that the whole family of +alphabets to which the Greek, Latin, Gothic, Runic, and others belong, +appearing earlier in the Phoenician, Moabite, and Hebrew, had its +beginning in the ideographic pictures of the Egyptians, afterwards +used by them to express sounds. That the Chinese, though in a +different manner from the Egyptians, passed from picture writing to +phonetic writing, is established by delineations still extant among +them, called _ku-wăn_, or "ancient pictures," with which some of +the modern written characters can be identified. The ancient Mexicans +also, to some extent, developed phonetic expressions out of a very +elaborate system of ideographic picture writing. Assuming that +ideographic pictures made by ancient peoples would be likely to +contain representations of gesture signs, which subject is treated of +below, it is proper to examine if traces of such gesture signs may not +be found in the Egyptian, Chinese, and Aztec characters. Only a few +presumptive examples, selected from a considerable number, are now +presented in which the signs of the North American Indians appear to +be included, with the hope that further investigation by collaborators +will establish many more instances not confined to Indian signs. + +A typical sign made by the Indians for _no, negation_, is as +follows: The hand extended or slightly curved is held in front of the +body, a little to the right of the median line; it is then carried +with a rapid sweep a foot or more farther to the right. (_Mandan and +Hidatsa_ I.) + +One for _none, nothing_, sometimes used for simple negation, is also +given: Throw both hands outward toward their respective sides from the +breast. (_Wyandot_ I.) + +With these compare the two forms of the Egyptian character for _no_, +_negation_, Fig. 118, taken from Champollion, _Grammaire Égyptienne_, +_Paris_, 1836, p. 519. + +[Illustration: Fig. 118.] + +No vivid fancy is needed to see the hands indicated at the extremities +of arms extended symmetrically from the body on each side. + +[Illustration: Fig. 119.] + +Also compare the Maya character for the same idea of negation, Fig. +119, found in Landa, _Relation des Choses de Yucatan_, _Paris_, 1864, +316. The Maya word for negation is "_ma_," and the word "_mak_," +a six-foot measuring rod, given by Brasseur de Bourbourg in his +dictionary, apparently having connection with this character, would +in use separate the hands as illustrated, giving the same form as the +gesture made without the rod. + +Another sign for _nothing, none_, made by the Comanches, is: Flat +hand thrown forward, back to the ground, fingers pointing forward +and downward. Frequently the right hand is brushed over the left thus +thrown out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 120.] + +Compare the Chinese character for the same meaning, Fig. 120. This +will not be recognized as a hand without study of similar characters, +which generally have a cross-line cutting off the wrist. Here the +wrist bones follow under the cross cut, then the metacarpal bones, and +last the fingers, pointing forward and downward. + +[Illustration: Fig. 121.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 122.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 123.] + +The Arapaho sign for _child, baby_, is the forefinger in the mouth, +i.e., a nursing child, and a natural sign of a deaf-mute is the same. +The Egyptian figurative character for the same is seen in Fig. +121. Its linear form is Fig. 122, and its hieratic is Fig. 123 +(Champollion, _Dictionnaire Egyptien_, _Paris_, 1841, p. 31.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 124.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 125.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 126.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 127.] + +These afford an interpretation to the ancient Chinese form for _son_, +Fig. 124, given in _Journ. Royal Asiatic Society_, I, 1834, p. 219, +as belonging to the Shang dynasty, 1756, 1112 B.C., and the modern +Chinese form, Fig. 125, which, without the comparison, would not be +supposed to have any pictured reference to an infant with hand +or finger at or approaching the mouth, denoting the taking of +nourishment. Having now suggested this, the Chinese character for +_birth_, Fig. 126, is understood as the expression of a common gesture +among the Indians, particularly reported from the Dakota, for _born_, +_to be born_, viz: Place the left hand in front of the body, a little +to the right, the palm downward and slightly arched, then pass the +extended right hand downward, forward, and upward, forming a short +curve underneath the left, as in Fig. 127 (_Dakota_ V). This is based +upon the curve followed by the head of the child during birth, and is +used generically. The same curve, when made with one hand, appears in +Fig. 128. + +[Illustration: Fig. 128.] + +It may be of interest to compare with the Chinese _child_ the Mexican +abbreviated character for _man_, Fig. 129, found in Pipart in _Compte +Rendu Cong. Inter. des Américanistes, 2me Session_, _Luxembourg_, +1877, 1878, II, 359. The figure on the right is called the abbreviated +form of that by its side, yet its origin may be different. + +[Illustration: Fig. 129.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 130.] + +The Chinese character for _man_, is Fig. 130, and may have the same +obvious conception as a Dakota sign for the same signification: "Place +the extended index, pointing upward and forward before the lower +portion of the abdomen." + +The Chinese specific character for _woman_ is Fig. 131, the cross mark +denoting the wrist, and if the remainder be considered the hand, +the fingers may be imagined in the position made by many tribes, and +especially the Utes, as depicting the _pudendum muliebre_, Fig. 132. + +[Illustration: Fig. 131.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 132.] + +The Egyptian generic character for _female_ is [Symbol: semicircle] +(Champollion, _Dict._,) believed to represent the curve of the mammæ +supposed to be cut off or separated from the chest, and the gesture +with the same meaning was made by the Cheyenne Titchkematski, and +photographed, as in Fig. 133. It forms the same figure as the Egyptian +character as well as can be done by a position of the human hand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 133.] + +The Chinese character for _to give water_ is Fig. 134, which may be +compared with the common Indian gesture _to drink, to give water_, +viz: "Hand held with tips of fingers brought together and passed to +the mouth, as if scooping up water", Fig. 135, obviously from the +primitive custom, as with Mojaves, who still drink with scooped hands. + +[Illustration: Fig. 134.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 135.] + +Another common Indian gesture sign for _water to drink, I want +to drink_, is: "Hand brought downward past the mouth with loosely +extended fingers, palm toward the face." This appears in the Mexican +character for _drink_, Fig. 136, taken from Pipart, _loc. cit._, p. +351. _Water_, i.e., the pouring out of water with the drops falling +or about to fall, is shown in Fig. 137, taken from the same author (p. +349), being the same arrangement of them as in the sign for _rain_, +Fig. 114, p. 344, the hand, however, being inverted. _Rain_ in the +Mexican picture writing is shown by small circles inclosing a dot, +as in the last two figures, but not connected together, each having a +short line upward marking the line of descent. + +[Illustration: Fig. 136.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 137.] + +With the gesture for drink may be compared Fig. 138, the Egyptian +Goddess Nu in the sacred sycamore tree, pouring out the water of life +to the Osirian and his soul, represented as a bird, in Amenti (Sharpe, +from a funereal stele in the British Museum, in _Cooper's Serpent +Myths_, p. 43). + +[Illustration: Fig. 138.] + +The common Indian gesture for _river_ or _stream, water_, is made by +passing the horizontal flat hand, palm down, forward and to the left +from the right side in a serpentine manner. + +[Illustration: Fig. 139.] + +The Egyptian character for the same is Fig. 139 (Champollion, _Dict._, +p. 429). The broken line is held to represent the movement of the +water on the surface of the stream. When made with one line less +angular and more waving it means _water_. It is interesting to compare +with this the identical character in the syllabary invented by a West +African negro, Mormoru Doalu Bukere, for _water_, [Symbol: water, +represented by a wavy line], mentioned by TYLOR in his _Early History +of Mankind_, p. 103. + +The abbreviated Egyptian sign for _water_ as a stream is Fig. 140 +(Champollion, _loc. cit._), and the Chinese for the same is as in Fig. +141. + +[Illustration: Fig. 140.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 141.] + +In the picture-writing of the Ojibwa the Egyptian abbreviated +character, with two lines instead of three, appears with the same +signification. + +The Egyptian character for _weep_, Fig. 142, an eye, with tears +falling, is also found in the pictographs of the Ojibwa (Schoolcraft, +I, pl. 54, Fig. 27), and is also made by the Indian gesture of drawing +lines by the index repeatedly downward from the eye, though perhaps +more frequently made by the full sign for _rain_, described on page +344, made with the back of the hand downward from the eye--"eye rain." + +[Illustration: Fig. 142.] + +The Egyptian character for _to be strong_ is Fig. 143 (Champollion, +_Dict._, p. 91), which is sufficiently obvious, but may be compared +with the sign for _strong_, made by some tribes as follows: Hold the +clinched fist in front of the right side, a little higher than the +elbow, then throw it forcibly about six inches toward the ground. + +[Illustration: Fig. 143.] + +A typical gesture for _night_ is as follows: Place the flat hands, +horizontally, about two feet apart, move them quickly in an upward +curve toward one another until the right lies across the left. +"Darkness covers all." See Fig. 312, page 489. + +The conception of covering executed by delineating the object covered +beneath the middle point of an arch or curve, appears also clearly in +the Egyptian characters for _night_, Fig. 144 (Champollion, _Dict._, +p. 3). + +[Illustration: Fig. 144.] + +The upper part of the character is taken separately to form that for +sky (see page 372, _infra_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 145.] + +The Egyptian figurative and linear characters, Figs. 145 and 146 +(Champollion, _Dict._, p. 28), for _calling upon_ and _invocation_, +also used as an interjection, scarcely require the quotation of an +Indian sign, being common all over the world. + +[Illustration: Fig. 146.] + +The gesture sign made by several tribes for _many_ is as follows: Both +hands, with spread and slightly curved fingers, are held pendent about +two feet apart before the thighs; then bring them toward one another, +horizontally, drawing them upward as they come together. (_Absaroka_ +I; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I; _Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) "An accumulation of objects." This may be the same +motion indicated by the Egyptian character, Fig. 147, meaning to +_gather together_ (Champollion, _Dict._, p. 459). + +[Illustration: Fig. 147.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 148.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 149.] + +The Egyptian character, Fig. 148, which in its linear form is +represented in Fig. 149, and meaning to _go_, to _come, locomotion_, +is presented to show readers unfamiliar with hieroglyphics how a +corporeal action may be included in a linear character without +being obvious or at least certain, unless it should be made clear +by comparison with the full figurative form or by other means. This +linear form might be noticed many times without certainty or perhaps +suspicion that it represented the human legs and feet in the act of +walking. The same difficulty, of course, as also the same prospect of +success by careful research, attends the tracing of other corporeal +motions which more properly come under the head of gesture signs. + + + +_SIGN LANGUAGE WITH REFERENCE TO GRAMMAR._ + +Apart from the more material and substantive relations between signs +and language, it is to be expected that analogies can by proper +research be ascertained between their several developments in the +manner of their use, that is, in their grammatic mechanism, and in the +genesis of the sentence. The science of language, ever henceforward to +be studied historically, must take account of the similar early mental +processes in which the phrase or sentence originated, both in sign and +oral utterance. In this respect, as in many others, the North American +Indians may be considered to be living representatives of prehistoric +man. + + +SYNTAX. + +The reader will understand without explanation that there is in the +gesture speech no organized sentence such as is integrated in the +languages of civilization, and that he must not look for articles or +particles or passive voice or case or grammatic gender, or even what +appears in those languages as a substantive or a verb, as a subject +or a predicate, or as qualifiers or inflexions. The sign radicals, +without being specifically any of our parts of speech, may be all +of them in turn. There is, however, a grouping and sequence of the +ideographic pictures, an arrangement of signs in connected succession, +which may be classed under the scholastic head of syntax. This +subject, with special reference to the order of deaf-mute signs as +compared with oral speech, has been the theme of much discussion, some +notes of which, condensed from the speculations of M. Rémi Valade and +others, follow in the next paragraph without further comment than may +invite attention to the profound remark of LEIBNITZ. + +In mimic construction there are to be considered both the order in +which the signs succeed one another and the relative positions in +which they are made, the latter remaining longer in the memory than +the former, and spoken language may sometimes in its early infancy +have reproduced the ideas of a sign picture without commencing from +the same point. So the order, as in Greek and Latin, is very variable. +In nations among whom the alphabet was introduced without the +intermediary to any impressive degree of picture-writing, the order +being (1) language of signs, almost superseded by (2) spoken language, +and (3) alphabetic writing, men would write in the order in which they +had been accustomed to speak. But if at a time when spoken language +was still rudimentary, intercourse being mainly carried on by signs, +figurative writing had been invented, the order of the figures would +be the order of the signs, and the same order would pass into the +spoken language. Hence LEIBNITZ says truly that "the writing of the +Chinese might seem to have been invented by a deaf person." The +oral language has not known the phases which have given to the +Indo-European tongues their formation and grammatical parts. In the +latter, signs were conquered by speech, while in the former, speech +received the yoke. + +Sign language cannot show by inflection the reciprocal dependence +of words and sentences. Degrees of motion corresponding with vocal +intonation are only used rhetorically or for degrees of comparison. +The relations of ideas and objects are therefore expressed by +placement, and their connection is established when necessary by the +abstraction of ideas. The sign talker is an artist, grouping persons +and things so as to show the relations between them, and the effect +is that which is seen in a picture. But though the artist has the +advantage in presenting in a permanent connected scene the result of +several transient signs, he can only present it as it appears at +a single moment. The sign talker has the succession of time at his +disposal, and his scenes move and act, are localized and animated, and +their arrangement is therefore more varied and significant. + +It is not satisfactory to give the order of equivalent words +as representative of the order of signs, because the pictorial +arrangement is wholly lost; but adopting this expedient as a +mere illustration of the sequence in the presentation of signs by +deaf-mutes, the following is quoted from an essay by Rev. J.R. Keep, +in _American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb_, vol. xvi, p. 223, as the +order in which the parable of the Prodigal Son is translated into +signs: + +"Once, man one, sons two. Son younger say, Father property your +divide: part my, me give. Father so.--Son each, part his give. Days +few after, son younger money all take, country far go, money +spend, wine drink, food nice eat. Money by and by gone all. Country +everywhere food little: son hungry very. Go seek man any, me hire. +Gentleman meet. Gentleman son send field swine feed. Son swine husks +eat, see--self husks eat want--cannot--husks him give nobody. Son +thinks, say, father my, servants many, bread enough, part give away +can--I none--starve, die. I decide: Father I go to, say I bad, God +disobey, you disobey--name my hereafter _son_, no--I unworthy. You +me work give servant like. So son begin go. Father far look: son see, +pity, run, meet, embrace. Son father say, I bad, you disobey, God +disobey--name my hereafter _son_, no--I unworthy. But father servants +call, command robe best bring, son put on, ring finger put on, shoes +feet put on, calf fat bring, kill. We all eat, merry. Why? Son this my +formerly dead, now alive: formerly lost, now found: rejoice." + +It may be remarked, not only from this example, but from general +study, that the verb "to be" as a copula or predicant does not have +any place in sign language. It is shown, however, among deaf-mutes as +an assertion of presence or existence by a sign of stretching the arms +and hands forward and then adding the sign of affirmation. _Time_ as +referred to in the conjunctions _when_ and _then_ is not gestured. +Instead of the form, "When I have had a sleep I will go to the river," +or "After sleeping I will go to the river," both deaf-mutes and +Indians would express the intention by "Sleep done, I river go." +Though time present, past, and future is readily expressed in signs +(see page 366), it is done once for all in the connection to which +it belongs, and once established is not repeated by any subsequent +intimation, as is commonly the case in oral speech. Inversion, by +which the object is placed before the action, is a striking feature +of the language of deaf-mutes, and it appears to follow the natural +method by which objects and actions enter into the mental conception. +In striking a rock the natural conception is not first of the abstract +idea of striking or of sending a stroke into vacancy, seeing nothing +and having no intention of striking anything in particular, when +suddenly a rock rises up to the mental vision and receives the blow; +the order is that the man sees the rock, has the intention to strike +it, and does so; therefore he gestures, "I rock strike." For further +illustration of this subject, a deaf-mute boy, giving in signs +the compound action of a man shooting a bird from a tree, first +represented the tree, then the bird as alighting upon it, then a +hunter coming toward and looking at it, taking aim with a gun, then +the report of the latter and the falling and the dying gasps of the +bird. These are undoubtedly the successive steps that an artist would +have taken in drawing the picture, or rather successive pictures, to +illustrate the story. It is, however, urged that this pictorial order +natural to deaf-mutes is not natural to the congenitally blind who are +not deaf-mute, among whom it is found to be rhythmical. It is asserted +that blind persons not carefully educated usually converse in a +metrical cadence, the action usually coming first in the structure of +the sentence. The deduction is that all the senses when intact enter +into the mode of intellectual conception in proportion to their +relative sensitiveness and intensity, and hence no one mode of +ideation can be insisted on as normal to the exclusion of others. + +Whether or not the above statement concerning the blind is true, the +conceptions and presentations of deaf-mutes and of Indians using sign +language because they cannot communicate by speech, are confined to +optic and, therefore, to pictorial arrangement. + +The abbé Sicard, dissatisfied with the want of tenses and +conjunctions, indeed of most of the modern parts of speech, in the +natural signs, and with their inverted order, attempted to construct a +new language of signs, in which the words should be given in the +order of the French or other spoken language adopted, which of course +required him to supply a sign for every word of spoken language. +Signs, whatever their character, could not become associated with +words, or suggest them, until words had been learned. The first step, +therefore, was to explain by means of natural signs, as distinct from +the new signs styled methodical, the meaning of a passage of verbal +language. Then each word was taken separately and a sign affixed to +it, which was to be learned by the pupil. If the word represented a +physical object, the sign would be the same as the natural sign, and +would be already understood, provided the object had been seen and was +familiar; and in all cases the endeavor was to have the sign convey +as strong a suggestion of the meaning of the word as was possible. The +final step was to gesticulate these signs, thus associated with words, +in the exact order in which the words were to stand in a sentence. +Then the pupil would write the very words desired in the exact order +desired. If the previous explanation in natural signs had not been +sufficiently full and careful, he would not understand the passage. +The methodical signs did not profess to give him the ideas, except +in a very limited degree, but only to show him how to express ideas +according to the order and methods of spoken language. As there were +no repetitions of time in narratives in the sign language, it became +necessary to unite with the word-sign for verbs others, to indicate +the different tenses of the verbs, and so by degrees the methodical +signs not only were required to comprise signs for every word, but +also, with every such sign, a grammatical sign to indicate what part +of speech the word was, and, in the case of verbs, still other signs +to show their tenses and corresponding inflections. It was, as Dr. +Peet remarks, a cumbrous and unwieldly vehicle, ready at every step to +break down under the weight of its own machinery. Nevertheless, it was +industriously taught in all our schools from the date of the founding +of the American Asylum in 1817 down to about the year 1835, when it +was abandoned. + +The collection of narratives, speeches, and dialogues of our Indians +in sign language, first systematically commenced by the present +writer, several examples of which are in this paper, has not yet +been sufficiently complete and exact to establish conclusions on the +subject of the syntactic arrangement of their signs. So far as +studied it seems to be similar to that of deaf-mutes and to retain the +characteristic of pantomimes in figuring first the principal idea and +adding the accessories successively in the order of importance, the +ideographic expressions being in the ideologic order. If the examples +given are not enough to establish general rules of construction, they +at least show the natural order of ideas in the minds of the gesturers +and the several modes of inversion by which they pass from the known +to the unknown, beginning with the dominant idea or that supposed +to be best known. Some special instances of expedients other than +strictly syntactic coming under the machinery broadly designated as +grammar may be mentioned. + + +DEGREES OF COMPARISON. + +Degrees of comparison are frequently expressed, both by deaf-mutes +and by Indians, by adding to the generic or descriptive sign that +for "big" or "little." _Damp_ would be "wet--little"; _cool_, +"cold--little"; _hot_, "warm--much." The amount or force of motion +also often indicates corresponding diminution or augmentation, but +sometimes expresses a different shade of meaning, as is reported by +Dr. Matthews with reference to the sign for _bad_ and _contempt_, see +page 411. This change in degree of motion is, however, often used for +emphasis only, as is the raising of the voice in speech or italicizing +and capitalizing in print. The Prince of Wied gives an instance of a +comparison in his sign for _excessively hard_, first giving that for +_hard_, viz: Open the left hand, and strike against it several times +with the right (with the backs of the fingers). Afterwards he gives +_hard, excessively_, as follows: Sign for _hard_, then place the left +index-finger upon the right shoulder, at the same time extend +and raise the right arm high, extending the index-finger upward, +perpendicularly. + +Rev. G.L. Deffenbaugh describes what may perhaps be regarded as an +intensive sign among the Sahaptins in connection with the sign for +_good_; i.e., _very good_. "Place the left hand in position in front +of the body with all fingers closed except first, thumb lying on +second, then with forefinger of right hand extended in same way point +to end of forefinger of left hand, move it up the arm till near the +body and then to a point in front of breast to make the sign _good_." +For the latter see EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY page 487, _infra_. The +same special motion is prefixed to the sign for _bad_ as an intensive. + +Another intensive is reported by Mr. Benjamin Clark, interpreter at +the Kaiowa, Comanche, and Wichita agency, Indian Territory, in which +after the sign for _bad_ is made, that for _strong_ is used by the +Comanches as follows: Place the clinched left fist horizontally in +front of the breast, back forward, then pass the palmar side of the +right fist downward in front of the knuckles of the left. + +Dr. W.H. Corbusier, assistant surgeon U.S.A., writes as follows in +response to a special inquiry on the subject: "By carrying the right +fist from behind forward over the left, instead of beginning the +motion six inches above it, the Arapaho sign for _strong_ is made. For +_brave_, first strike the chest over the heart with the right fist two +or three times, and then make the sign for _strong_. + +"The sign for _strong_ expresses the superlative when used with other +signs; with coward it denotes a base coward; with hunger, starvation; +and with sorrow, bitter sorrow. I have not seen it used with the sign +for pleasure or that of hunger, nor can I learn that it is ever used +with them." + + +OPPOSITION. + +The principle of opposition, as between the right and left hands, and +between the thumb and forefinger and the little finger, appears among +Indians in some expressions for "above," "below," "forward," "back," +but is not so common as among the methodical, distinguished from the +natural, signs of deaf-mutes. It is also connected with the attempt +to express degrees of comparison. _Above_ is sometimes expressed by +holding the left hand horizontal, and in front of the body, fingers +open, but joined together, palm upward. The right hand is then placed +horizontal, fingers open but joined, palm downward, an inch or more +above the left, and raised and lowered a few inches several times, the +left hand being perfectly still. If the thing indicated as "above" +is only a _little_ above, this concludes the sign, but if it be +_considerably_ above, the right hand is raised higher and higher as +the height to be expressed is greater, until, if _enormously_ above, +the Indian will raise his right hand as high as possible, and, fixing +his eyes on the zenith, emit a duplicate grunt, the more prolonged as +he desires to express the greater height. All this time the left hand +is held perfectly motionless. _Below_ is gestured in a corresponding +manner, all movement being made by the left or lower hand, the right +being held motionless, palm downward, and the eyes looking down. + +The code of the Cistercian monks was based in large part on a system +of opposition which seems to have been wrought out by an elaborate +process of invention rather than by spontaneous figuration, and is +more of mnemonic than suggestive value. They made two fingers at the +right side of the nose stand for "friend," and the same at the left +side for "enemy," by some fanciful connection with right and wrong, +and placed the little finger on the tip of the nose for "fool" merely +because it had been decided to put the forefinger there for "wise +man." + + +PROPER NAMES. + +It is well known that the names of Indians are almost always +connotive, and particularly that they generally refer to some animal, +predicating often some attribute or position of that animal. Such +names readily admit of being expressed in sign language, but there may +be sometimes a confusion between the sign expressing the animal which +is taken as a name-totem, and the sign used, not to designate that +animal, but as a proper name. A curious device to differentiate proper +names was observed as resorted to by a Brulé Dakota. After making the +sign of the animal he passed his index forward from the mouth in a +direct line, and explained it orally as "that is his name," i.e., the +name of the person referred to. This approach to a grammatic division +of substantives maybe correlated with the mode in which many tribes, +especially the Dakotas, designate names in their pictographs, i.e., +by a line from the mouth of the figure drawn representing a man to the +animal, also drawn with proper color or position. Fig. 150 thus +shows the name of Shun-ka Luta, Red Dog, an Ogallalla chief, drawn +by himself. The shading of the dog by vertical lines is designed to +represent red, or _gules_, according to the heraldic scheme of colors, +which is used in other parts of this paper where it seemed useful to +designate particular colors. The writer possesses in painted robes +many examples in which lines are drawn from the mouth to a name-totem. + +[Illustration: Fig. 150.] + +It would be interesting to dwell more than is now allowed upon the +peculiar objectiveness of Indian proper names with the result, if not +the intention, that they can all be signified in gesture, whereas the +best sign-talker among deaf-mutes is unable to translate the proper +names occurring in his speech or narrative and, necessarily ceasing +signs, resorts to the dactylic alphabet. Indians are generally named +at first according to a clan or totemic system, but later in life +often acquire a new name or perhaps several names in succession from +some exploit or adventure. Frequently a sobriquet is given by no +means complimentary. All of the subsequently acquired, as well as +the original names, are connected with material objects or with +substantive actions so as to be expressible in a graphic picture, and, +therefore, in a pictorial sign. The determination to use names of this +connotive character is shown by the objective translation, whenever +possible, of those European names which it became necessary to +introduce into their speech. William Penn was called "Onas," that +being the word for feather-quill in the Mohawk dialect. The name +of the second French governor of Canada was "Montmagny" which was +translated by the Iroquois "Onontio"--"Great Mountain," and becoming +associated with the title, has been applied to all successive Canadian +governors, though the origin being generally forgotten, it has been +considered as a metaphorical compliment. It is also said that Governor +Fletcher was not named by the Iroquois "Cajenquiragoe," "the great +swift arrow," because of his speedy arrival at a critical time, +but because they had somehow been informed of the etymology of his +name--"arrow maker" (_Fr. fléchier_). + + +GENDER. + +This is sometimes expressed by different signs to distinguish the sex +of animals, when the difference in appearance allows of such varied +portraiture. An example is in the signs for the male and female +buffalo, given by the Prince of Wied. The former is, "Place the +tightly closed hands on both sides of the head, with the fingers +forward;" the latter is, "Curve the two forefingers, place them on +the sides of the head and move them several times." The short stubby +horns of the bull appear to be indicated, and the cow's ears are seen +moving, not being covered by the bull's shock mane. Tribes in which +the hair of the women is differently arranged from that of men often +denote their females by corresponding gesture. In many cases the sex +of animals is indicated by the addition of a generic sign for male or +female. + + +TENSE. + +While it has been mentioned that there is no inflection of signs to +express tense, yet the conception of present, past, and future is +gestured without difficulty. A common mode of indicating the present +time is by the use of signs for _to-day_, one of which is, "(1) both +hands extended, palms outward; (2) swept slowly forward and to each +side, to convey the idea of openness." (_Cheyenne_ II.) This may +combine the idea of _now_ with _openness_, the first part of it +resembling the general deaf-mute sign for _here_ or _now_. + +Two signs nearly related together are also reported as expressing the +meaning _now, at once_, viz.: "Forefinger of the right hand extended, +upright, &c. (J), is carried upward in front of the right side of the +body and above the head so that the extended finger points toward +the center of the heavens, and then carried downward in front of the +right breast, forefinger still pointing upright." (_Dakota_ I.) "Place +the extended index, pointing upward, palm to the left, as high as +and before the top of the head; push the hand up and down a slight +distance several times, the eyes being directed upward at the time." +(_Hidatsa_ I; _Kaiowa_ I; _Arikara_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) + +Time past is not only expressed, but some tribes give a distinct +modification to show a short or long time past. The following are +examples: + +_Lately, recently_.--Hold the left hand at arm's length, closed, with +forefinger only extended and pointing in the direction of the place +where the event occurred; then hold the right hand against the +right shoulder, closed, but with index extended and pointing in +the direction of the left. The hands may be exchanged, the right +extended and the left retained, as the case may require for ease in +description. (_Absaroka I; Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) + +_Long ago_.--Both hands closed, forefingers extended and straight; +pass one hand slowly at arm's length, pointing horizontally, the other +against the shoulder or near it, pointing in the same direction as +the opposite one. Frequently the tips of the forefingers are placed +together, and the hands drawn apart, until they reach the positions +described. (_Absaroka_ I; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) + +The Comanche, Wichita, and other Indians designate a _short time +ago_ by placing the tips of the forefinger and thumb of the left hand +together, the remaining fingers closed, and holding the hand before +the body with forefinger and thumb pointing toward the right shoulder; +the index and thumb of the right hand are then similarly held and +placed against those of the left, when the hands are slowly drawn +apart a short distance. For a _long time ago_ the hands are similarly +held, but drawn farther apart. Either of these signs may be and +frequently is preceded by those for _day, month_, or _year_, when it +is desired to convey a definite idea of the time past. + +A sign is reported with the abstract idea of _future_, as follows: +"The arms are flexed and hands brought together in front of the body +as in type-position (W). The hands are made to move in wave-like +motions up and down together and from side to side." (_Oto_ I.) The +authority gives the poetical conception of "Floating on the tide of +time." + +The ordinary mode of expressing future time is, however, by some +figurative reference, as the following: Count off fingers, then shut +all the fingers of both hands several times, and touch the hair and +tent or other white object. (_Apache_ III.) "Many years; when I am old +(whitehaired)." + + +CONJUNCTIONS. + +An interesting instance where the rapid connection of signs has +the effect of the conjunction _and_ is shown in NÁTCI'S NARRATIVE, +_infra_. + + +PREPOSITIONS. + +In the TENDOY-HUERITO DIALOGUE (page 489) the combination of gestures +supplies the want of the proposition _to_. + + +PUNCTUATION. + +While this is generally accompanied by facial expression, manner of +action, or pause, instances have been noticed suggesting the device of +interrogation points and periods. + +_MARK OF INTERROGATION._ + +The Shoshoni, Absaroka, Dakota, Comanche, and other Indians, when +desiring to ask a question, precede the gestures constituting the +information desired by a sign intended to attract attention and +"asking for," viz., by holding the flat right hand, with the palm +down, directed, to the individual interrogated, with or without +lateral oscillating motion; the gestural sentence, when completed, +being closed by the same sign and a look of inquiry. This recalls the +Spanish use of the interrogation points before and after the question. + +_PERIOD_. + +A Hidatsa, after concluding a short statement, indicated its +conclusion by placing the inner edges of the clinched hands together +before the breast, and passing them outward and downward to their +respective sides in an emphatic manner, Fig. 334, page 528. This sign +is also used in other connections to express _done_. + +The same mode of indicating the close of a narrative or statement is +made by the Wichitas, by holding the extended left hand horizontally +before the body, fingers pointing to the right, palm either toward the +body or downward, and cutting edgewise downward past the tips of the +left with the extended right hand. This is the same sign given in the +ADDRESS OF KIN CHĒ-ĔSS as _cut off_, and is illustrated in Fig. +324, page 522. This is more ideographic and convenient than the device +of the Abyssinian Galla, reported by M.A. d'Abbadie, who denoted a +comma by a slight stroke of a leather whip, a semicolon by a harder +one, and a full stop by one still harder. + + + +_GESTURES AIDING ARCHÆOLOGIC RESEARCH._ + +The most interesting light in which the Indians of North America can +be regarded is in their present representation of a stage of evolution +once passed through by our own ancestors. Their signs, as well as +their myths and customs, form a part of the paleontology of humanity +to be studied in the history of the latter as the geologist, with +similar object, studies all the strata of the physical world. At this +time it is only possible to suggest the application of gesture signs +to elucidate pictographs, and also their examination to discover +religious, sociologic, and historic ideas preserved in them, as has +been done with great success in the radicals of oral speech. + + +SIGNS CONNECTED WITH PICTOGRAPHS. + +The picture writing of Indians is the sole form in which they recorded +events and ideas that can ever be interpreted without the aid of a +traditional key, such as is required for the signification of the +wampum belts of the Northeastern tribes and the _quippus_ of Peru. +Strips of bark, tablets of wood, dressed skins of animals, and the +smooth surfaces of rock have been and still are used for such records, +those most ancient, and therefore most interesting, being of course +the rock etchings; but they can only be deciphered, if at all, by the +ascertained principles on which the more modern and the more obvious +are made. Many of the numerous and widespread rock carvings are mere +idle sketches--of natural objects, mainly animals, and others are as +exclusively mnemonic as the wampum above mentioned. Even since the +Columbian discovery some tribes have employed devices yet ruder than +the rudest pictorial attempt as markers for the memory. An account +of one of these is given in E. Winslow's Relation (A.D. 1624), _Col. +Mass. Hist. Soc._, 2d series, ix, 1822, p. 99, as follows: + +"Instead of records and chronicles they take this course: Where any +remarkable act is done, in memory of it, either in the place or by +some pathway near adjoining, they make a round hole in the ground +about a foot deep, and as much over, which, when others passing by +behold, they inquire the cause and occasion of the same, which being +once known, they are careful to acquaint all men as occasion serveth +therewith. And lest such holes should be filled or grown over by any +accident, as men pass by they will often renew the same; by which +means many things of great antiquity are fresh in memory. So that as a +man traveleth, if he can understand his guide, his journey will be the +less tedious, by reason of the many historical discourses which will +be related unto him." + +Gregg, in _Commerce of the Prairies_, _New York_, 1844, II, 286, says +of the Plains tribes: "When traveling, they will also pile heaps +of stones upon mounds or conspicuous points, so arranged as to be +understood by their passing comrades; and sometimes they set up the +bleached buffalo heads, which are everywhere scattered over those +plains, to indicate the direction of their march, and many other facts +which may be communicated by those simple signs." + +[Illustration: Fig. 151.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 152.] + +A more ingenious but still arbitrary mode of giving intelligence is +practiced at this day by the Abnaki, as reported by H.L. Masta, chief +of that tribe, now living at Pierreville, Quebec. When they are in the +woods, to say "I am going to the east," a stick is stuck in the ground +pointing to that direction, Fig. 151. "Am not gone far," another stick +is stuck across the former, close to the ground, Fig. 152. "Gone +far" is the reverse, Fig. 153. The number of days journey of proposed +absence is shown by the same number of sticks across the first; thus +Fig. 154 signifies five days' journey. Cutting the bark off from a +tree on one, two, three or four sides near the butt means "Have had +poor, poorer, poorest luck." Cutting it off all around the tree means +"I am starving." Smoking a piece of birch bark and hanging it on a +tree means "I am sick." + +[Illustration: Fig. 153.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 154.] + +Where there has existed any form of artistic representation, however +rude, and at the same time a system of ideographic gesture signs +prevailed, it would be expected that the form of the latter would +appear in the former. The sign of _river_ and _water_ mentioned on +page 358 being established, when it became necessary or desirable to +draw a character or design to convey the same idea, nothing would be +more natural than to use the graphic form of delineation which is +also above described. It was but one more and an easy step to fasten +upon bark, skins, or rocks the evanescent air pictures that still in +pigments or carvings preserve their skeleton outline, and in their +ideography approach, as has been shown above, the rudiments of the +phonetic alphabets that have been constructed by other peoples. A +transition stage between gestures and pictographs, in which the left +hand is used as a supposed drafting surface upon which the index draws +lines, is exhibited in the DIALOGUE BETWEEN ALASKAN INDIANS, _infra_, +page 498. This device is common among deaf-mutes, without equal +archæologic importance, as it may have been suggested by the art +of writing, with which they are generally acquainted, even if not +instructed in it. + +The reproduction of apparent gesture lines in the pictographs made +by our Indians has, for obvious reasons, been most frequent in the +attempt to convey those subjective ideas which were beyond the range +of an artistic skill limited to the direct representation of objects, +so that the part of the pictographs which is still the most difficult +of interpretation is precisely the one which the study of sign +language is likely to elucidate. The following examples of pictographs +of the Indians, in some cases compared with those from foreign +sources, have been selected because their interpretation is definitely +known and the gestures corresponding with or suggested by them are +well determined. + +[Illustration: Fig. 155.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 156.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 157.] + +The common Indian gesture sign for _sun_ is: "Right hand closed, +the index and thumb curved, with tips touching, thus approximating a +circle, and held toward the sky," the position of the fingers of the +hand forming a circle being shown in Fig. 155. Two of the Egyptian +characters for sun, Figs. 156 and 157, are plainly the universal +conception of the disk. The latter, together with indications of rays, +Fig. 158, and in its linear form, Fig. 159, (Champollion, _Dict._, +9), constitutes the Egyptian character for _light_. The rays emanating +from the whole disk appear in Figs. 160 and 161, taken from a MS. +contributed by Mr. G.K. GILBERT of the United States Geological +Survey, from the rock etchings of the Moqui pueblos in Arizona. The +same authority gives from the same locality Figs. 162 and 163 for +_sun_, which may be distinguished from several other similar etchings +for _star_ also given by him, Figs. 164, 165, 166, 167, by always +showing some indication of a face, the latter being absent in the +characters denoting _star_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 158.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 159.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 160.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 161.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 162.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 163.] + +With the above characters for sun compare Fig. 168, found at Cuzco, +Peru, and taken from Wiener's _Pérou et Bolivie, Paris_, 1880, p. 706. + +[Illustration: Fig. 164.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 165.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 166.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 167.] + +The Ojibwa pictograph for sun is seen in Fig. 169, taken from +Schoolcraft, _loc. cit._, v. 1, pl. 56, Fig. 67. + +[Illustration: Fig. 168.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 169.] + +A gesture sign for _sunrise, morning_, is: Forefinger of right hand +crooked to represent half of the sun's disk and pointed or extended to +the left, then slightly elevated. (_Cheyenne_ II.) In this connection +it may be noted that when the gesture is carefully made in open +country the pointing would generally be to the east, and the body +turned so that its left would be in that direction. In a room in a +city, or under circumstances where the points of the compass are +not specially attended to, the left side supposes the east, and the +gestures relating to sun, day, &c., are made with such reference. The +half only of the disk represented in the above gesture appears in the +following Moqui pueblo etchings for _morning_ and _sunrise_, Figs. +170, 171, and 172. (Gilbert, _MS._) + +[Illustration: Fig. 170.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 171.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 172.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 173.] + +A common gesture for _day_ is when the index and thumb form a circle +(remaining fingers closed) and are passed from east to west. + +Fig. 173 shows a pictograph found in Owen's Valley, California, a +similar one being reported in the _Ann. Rep. Geog. Survey west of the +100th Meridian for 1876, Washington_, 1876, pl. opp. p. 326, in which +the circle may indicate either _day_ or _month_ (both these gestures +having the same execution), the course of the sun or moon being +represented perhaps in mere contradistinction to the vertical line, or +perhaps the latter signifies _one_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 174.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 175.] + +Fig. 174 is a pictograph of the Coyotero Apaches, found at Camp +Apache, in Arizona, reported in the _Tenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geolog. and +Geograph. Survey of the Territories for 1876_, _Washington_, 1878, +pl. lxxvii. The sun and the ten spots of approximately the same shape +represent the days, eleven, which the party with five pack mules +passed in traveling through the country. The separating lines are the +nights, and may include the conception of covering over and consequent +obscurity above referred to (page 354). + +[Illustration: Fig. 176.] + +A common sign for _moon, month_, is the right hand closed, leaving +the thumb and index extended, but curved to form a half circle and the +hand held toward the sky, in a position which is illustrated in Fig. +175, to which curve the Moqui etching, Fig. 176, and the identical +form in the ancient Chinese has an obvious resemblance. + +[Illustration: Fig. 177.] + +The crescent, as we commonly figure the satellite, appears also in +the Ojibwa pictograph, Fig. 177 (Schoolcraft, I, pl. 58), which is the +same, with a slight addition, as the Egyptian figurative character. + +[Illustration: Fig. 178.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 179.] + +The sign for _sky_, also _heaven_, is generally made by passing the +index from east to west across the zenith. This curve is apparent in +the Ojibwa pictograph Fig. 178, reported in Schoolcraft, I, pl. 18, +Fig. 21, and is abbreviated in the Egyptian character with the same +meaning, Fig. 179 (Champollion, _Dict._, p. 1). + +[Illustration: Fig. 180.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 181.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 182.] + +A sign for _cloud_ is as follows: (1) Both hands partially closed, +palms facing and near each other, brought up to level with or slightly +above, but in front of the head; (2) suddenly separated sidewise, +describing a curve like a scallop; this scallop motion is repeated for +"many clouds." (_Cheyenne_ II.) The same conception is in the Moqui +etchings, Figs. 180, 181, and 182 (Gilbert _MS._) + +[Illustration: Fig. 183.] + +The Ojibwa pictograph for _cloud_ is more elaborate, Fig. 183, +reported in Schoolcraft, I, pl. 58. It is composed of the sign for +_sky_, to which that for _clouds_ is added, the latter being reversed +as compared with the Moqui etchings, and picturesquely hanging from +the sky. + +[Illustration: Fig. 184.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 185.] + +The gesture sign for _rain_ is described and illustrated on page +344. The pictograph, Fig. 184, reported as found in New Mexico by +Lieutenant Simpson (_Ex. Doc. No. 64, Thirty-first Congress, first +session_, 1850, pl. 9) is said to represent Montezuma's adjutants +sounding a blast to him for rain. The small character inside the curve +which represents the sky, corresponds with the gesturing hand. The +Moqui etching (Gilbert _MS._) for _rain_, i.e., a cloud from which the +drops are falling, is given in Fig. 185. + +[Illustration: Fig. 186.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 187.] + +The same authority gives two signs for _lightning_, Figs. 186 and 187. +In the latter the sky is shown, the changing direction of the streak, +and clouds with rain falling. The part relating specially to the +streak is portrayed in a sign as follows: Right hand elevated before +and above the head, forefinger pointing upward, brought down with +great rapidity with a sinuous, undulating motion; finger still +extended diagonally downward toward the right. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 188.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 189.] + +Figs. 188 and 189 also represent _lightning_, taken by Mr. W.H. +Jackson, photographer of the late U.S. Geolog. and Geog. Survey, from +the decorated walls of an estufa in the Pueblo de Jemez, New Mexico. +The former is blunt, for harmless, and the latter terminating in an +arrow or spear point, for destructive or fatal, lightning. + +[Illustration: Fig. 190.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 191.] + +A common sign for _speech, speak_, among the Indians is the repeated +motion of the index in a straight line forward from the mouth. This +line, indicating the voice, is shown in Fig. 190, taken from +the _Dakota Calendar_, being the expression for the fact that +"the-Elk-that-hollows-walking," a Minneconjou chief, "made medicine." +The ceremony is indicated by the head of an albino buffalo. A more +graphic portraiture of the conception of _voice_ is in Fig. 191, +representing an antelope and the whistling sound produced by the +animal on being surprised or alarmed. This is taken from MS. drawing +book of an Indian prisoner at Saint Augustine, Fla., now in the +Smithsonian Institution, No. 30664. + +[Illustration: Fig. 192.] + +Fig. 192 is the exhibition of wrestling for a turkey, the point of +interest in the present connection being the lines from the mouth to +the objects of conversation. It is taken from the above-mentioned MS. +drawing book. + +The wrestlers, according to the foot prints, had evidently come +together, when, meeting the returning hunter, who is wrapped in his +blanket with only one foot protruding, they separated and threw off +their blankets, leggings, and moccasins, both endeavoring to win the +turkey, which lies between them and the donor. + +In Fig. 193, taken from the same MS. drawing book, the conversation is +about the lassoing, shooting, and final killing of a buffalo which has +wandered to a camp. The dotted lines indicate footprints. The Indian +drawn under the buffalo having secured the animal by the fore feet, so +informs his companions, as indicated by the line drawn from his mouth +to the object mentioned; the left-hand figure, having also secured +the buffalo by the horns, gives his nearest comrade an opportunity to +strike it with an ax, which he no doubt announces that he will do, as +the line from his mouth to the head of the animal suggests. The Indian +in the upper left-hand corner is told by a squaw to take an arrow and +join his companions, when he turns his head to inform her that he has +one already, which fact he demonstrates by holding up the weapon. + +[Illustration: Fig. 193.] + +The Mexican pictograph, Fig. 194, taken from Kingsborough, II, pt. 1, +p. 100, is illustrative of the sign made by the Arikara and Hidatsa +for _tell_ and _conversation_. _Tell me_ is: Place the flat right +hand, palm upward, about fifteen inches in front of the right side of +the face, fingers pointing to the left and front; then draw the hand +inward toward and against the bottom of the chin. For _conversation_, +talking between two persons, both hands are held before the breast, +pointing forward, palms up, the edges being moved several times toward +one another. Perhaps, however, the picture in fact only means the +common poetical image of "flying words." + +[Illustration: Fig. 194.] + +Fig. 195 is one of Landa's characters, found in _Rel. des choses de +Yucatan_ p. 316, and suggests one of the gestures for _talk_ and +more especially that for _sing_, in which the extended and separated +fingers are passed forward and slightly downward from the mouth--"many +voices." Although the last opinion about the bishop is unfavorable to +the authenticity of his work, yet even if it were prepared by a Maya, +under his supervision, the latter would probably have given him some +genuine native conceptions, and among them gestures would be likely to +occur. + +[Illustration: Fig. 195.] + +The natural sign for _hear_, made both by Indians and deaf-mutes, +consisting in the motion of the index, or the index and thumb joined, +in a straight line to the ear, is illustrated in the Ojibwa pictograph +Fig. 196, "hearing ears," and those of the same people, Figs. 197 and +198, the latter of which is a hearing serpent, and the former means "I +hear, but your words are from a bad heart," the hands being thrown out +as in the final part of a gesture for _bad heart_, which is made by +the hand being closed and held near the breast, with the back toward +the breast, then as the arm is suddenly extended the hand is opened +and the fingers separated from each other. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 196.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 197.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 198.] + +The final part of the gesture, representing the idea of _bad_, not +connected with heart, is illustrated in Fig. 236 on page 411. + +The above Ojibwa pictographs are taken from Schoolcraft, _loc. cit._ +I, plates 58, 53, 59. + +Fig. 199, a bas-relief taken from Dupaix's Monuments of New Spain, in +Kingsborough, _loc. cit._ IV, pt. 3, p. 31, has been considered to be +a royal edict or command. The gesture _to hear_ is plainly depicted, +and the right hand is directed to the persons addressed, so the +command appears to be uttered with the preface of _Hear Ye! Oyez!_ + +[Illustration: Fig. 199.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 200.] + +The typical sign for _kill_ or _killed_ is: Right hand clinched, +thumb lying along finger tips, elevated to near the shoulder, strike +downward and outward vaguely in the direction of the object to be +killed. The abbreviated sign is simply to clinch the right hand in +the manner described and strike it down and out from the right side. +(_Cheyenne_ II.) This gesture, also appears among the Dakotas and is +illustrated in Fig. 200. + +[Illustration: Fig. 201.] + +Fig. 201, taken from the _Dakota Calendar_, illustrates this gesture. +It represents the year in which a Minneconjou chief was stabbed in the +shoulder by a Gros Ventre, and afterwards named "Dead Arm" or "Killed +Arm." At first the figure was supposed to show the permanent drawing +up of the arm by anchylosis, but that would not be likely to be the +result of the wound described, and with knowledge of the gesture the +meaning is more clear. + +[Illustration: Fig. 202.] + +Fig. 202, taken from _Report upon the Reconnaissance of Northwestern +Wyoming, &c., Washington_, 1875, p. 207, Fig. 53, found in the Wind +River Valley, Wyoming Territory, was interpreted by members of a +Shoshoni and Banak delegation to Washington in 1880 as "an Indian +killed another." The latter is very roughly delineated in the +horizontal figure, but is also represented by the line under the hand +of the upright figure, meaning the same individual. At the right is +the scalp taken and the two feathers showing the dead warrior's rank. +The arm nearest the prostrate foe shows the gesture for _killed_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 203.] + +The same gesture appears in Fig. 203, from the same authority and +locality. The scalp is here held forth, and the numeral _one_ is +designated by the stroke at the bottom. + +Fig. 204, from the same locality and authority, was also interpreted +by the Shoshoni and Banak. It appears from their description that a +Blackfoot had attacked the habitation of some of his own people. The +right-hand upper figure represents his horse with the lance suspended +from the side. The lower figure illustrates the log house built +against a stream. The dots are the prints of the horse's hoofs, while +the two lines running outward from the upper inclosure show that +two thrusts of the lance were made over the wall of the house, +thus killing the occupant and securing two bows and five arrows, as +represented in the left-hand group. The right-hand figure of that +group shows the hand raised in the attitude of making the gesture for +_kill_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 204.] + +As the Blackfeet, according to the interpreters, were the only Indians +in the locality mentioned who constructed log houses, the drawing +becomes additionally interesting, as an attempt appears to have +been made to illustrate the crossing of the logs at the corners, the +gesture for which (_log-house_) will be found on page 428. + +Fig. 205 is the Egyptian character for _veneration, to glorify_ +(Champollion, _Dict._, 29), the author's understanding being that the +hands are raised in surprise, astonishment. + +[Illustration: Fig. 205.] + +The Menomoni Indians now begin their prayers by raising their hands in +the same manner. They may have been influenced in this respect by +the attitudes of their missionaries in prayer and benediction. The +Apaches, who have received less civilized tuition, in a religious +gesture corresponding with prayer spread their hands opposite the +face, palms up and backward, apparently expressing the desire to +_receive_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 206.] + +Fig. 206 is a copy of an Egyptian tablet reproduced from Cooper's +_Serpent Myths_, page 28. A priest kneels before the great goddess +Ranno, while supplicating her favor. The conception of the author is +that the hands are raised by the supplicant to shield his face from +the glory of the divinity. It may be compared with signs for asking +for _mercy_ and for giving mercy to another, the former being: Extend +both forefingers, pointing upward, palms toward the breast, and +hold the hands before the chest; then draw them inward toward their +respective sides, and pass them up ward as high as the sides of +the head by either cheek. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) The latter, _to have mercy on another_, as made by the +same tribes, is: Hold both hands nearly side by side before the chest, +palms forward, forefinger only extended and pointing upward; then move +them forward and upward, as if passing them by the cheeks of another +person from the breast to the sides of the head. + +[Illustration: Fig. 207.] + +A similar gesture for _supplication_ appears in Fig. 207, taken from +Kingsborough, _loc. cit._, III, pt. I, p. 24. + +[Illustration: Fig. 208.] + +An Indian gesture sign for _smoke_, and also one for _fire_, has been +described above, page 344. With the former is connected the Aztec +design (Fig. 208) taken from Pipart, _loc. cit._, II, 352, and the +latter appears in Fig. 209, taken from Kingsborough, III, pt. I, p. +21. + +[Illustration: Fig. 209.] + +A sign for _medicine-man, shaman_, is thus described: "With its +index-finger extended and pointing upward, or all the fingers +extended, back of hand outward, move the right hand from just in front +of the forehead, spirally upward, nearly to arm's length, from left to +right." (_Dakota_ IV.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 210.] + +Fig. 210, from the _Dakota Calendar_, represents the making of +medicine or conjuration. In that case the head and horns of a white +buffalo cow were used. + +[Illustration: Fig. 211.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 212.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 213.] + +Fig. 211 is an Ojibwa pictograph taken from Schoolcraft, _loc. cit._, +representing _medicine-man, meda_. With these horns and spiral may be +collated Fig. 212 which portrays the ram-headed Egyptian god Knuphis, +or Chnum, the spirit, in a shrine on the boat of the sun, canopied +by the serpent-goddess Ranno, who is also seen facing him inside the +shrine. This is reproduced from Cooper's _Serpent Myths_, p. 24. +The same deity is represented in Champollion, _Gram._, p. 113, as +reproduced in Fig. 213. + +Fig. 214 is an Ojibwa pictograph found in Schoolcraft, I, pl. 58, +and given as _power_. It corresponds with the sign for _doctor_, or +_medicine-man_, made by the Absarokas by passing the extended and +separated index and second finger of the right hand upward from +the forehead, spirally, and is considered to indicate "superior +knowledge." Among the Otos, as part of the sign with the same meaning, +both hands are raised to the side of the head, and the extended +indices pressing the temples. + +[Illustration: Fig. 214.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 215.] + +Fig. 215 is also an Ojibwa pictograph from Schoolcraft I, pl. 59, and +is said to signify _Meda's power_. It corresponds with another sign +made for _medicine-man_ by the Absarokas and Comanches, viz, The +hand passed upward before the forehead, with index loosely extended. +Combined with the sign for _sky_, before given, page 372, it means +knowledge of superior matters; spiritual power. + +The common sign for _trade_ is made by extending the forefingers, +holding them obliquely upward, and crossing them at right angles to +one another, usually in front of the chest. This is often abbreviated +by merely crossing the forefingers, see Fig. 278, page 452. It is +illustrated in Fig. 216, taken from the Prince of Wied's _Travels in +the Interior of North America; London_, 1843, p. 352. + +[Illustration: Fig. 216.] + +To this the following explanation is given: "The cross signifies, 'I +will barter or trade.' Three animals are drawn on the right hand +of the cross; one is a buffalo; the two others, a weasel (_Mustela +Canadensis_) and an otter. The writer offers in exchange for the +skins of these animals (probably meaning that of a white buffalo) the +articles which he has drawn on the left side of the cross. He has, in +the first place, depicted a beaver very plainly, behind which there +is a gun; to the left of the beaver are thirty strokes, each ten +separated by a longer line; this means, I will give thirty beaver +skins and a gun for the skins of the three animals on the right hand +of the cross." + +Fig. 217 is from Kingsborough, III, pt. 1, p. 25, and illustrates +the sign for to _give_ or _to present_, made by the Brulé-Dakotas by +holding both hands edgewise before the breast, pointing forward and +upward, the right above the left, then throwing them quickly downward +until the forearms reach a horizontal position. + +[Illustration: Fig. 217.] + +Fig. 218 is taken from the _Dakota Calendar_, representing a +successful raid of the Absarokas or Crows upon the Brulé-Sioux, in +which the village of the latter was surprised and a large number of +horses captured. That capture is exhibited by the horse-tracks moving +from the _village_, the gesture sign for which is often made by a +circle formed either by the opposed thumbs and forefingers of both +hands or by a circular motion of both hands, palms inward, toward +each other. In some cases there is a motion of the circle, from above +downward, as formed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 218.] + +Fig. 219, from Kingsborough I, pt. 3, p. 10, represents _Chapultepec_, +"Mountain of the Locust," by one enormous locust on top of a hill. +This shows the mode of augmentation in the same manner as is often +done by an exaggerated gesture. The curves at the base of the +mountain are intelligible only as being formed in the sign for _many_, +described on pages 359 and 488. + +[Illustration: Fig. 219.] + +Fig. 220, taken from Pipart, _loc. cit._, is the Mexican pictograph +for _soil cultivated_, i.e., tilled and planted. Fig. 221, from the +same authority, shows the sprouts coming from the cultivated soil, and +may be compared with the signs for _grass_ and _grow_ on page 343. + +[Illustration: Fig. 220.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 221.] + +The gesture sign for _road, path_, is sometimes made by indicating +two lines forward from the body, then imitating walking with the hands +upon the imaginary road. The same natural representation of road is +seen in Fig. 222, taken from Pipart, _loc. cit._, page 352. A +place where two roads meet--cross-roads--is shown in Fig. 223, from +Kingsborough. Two persons are evidently having a chat in sign language +at the cross-roads. + +[Illustration: Fig. 222.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 223.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 224.] + +If no gesture is actually included in all of the foregoing +pictographs, it is seen that a gesture sign is made with the same +conception which is obvious in the ideographic pictures. They are +selected as specially transparent and clear. Many others less distinct +are now the subject of examination for elucidation. The following +examples are added to show the ideographic style of pictographs not +connected with gestures, lest it may be suspected that an attempt is +made to prove that gestures are always included in or connected with +them. Fig. 224, from the _Dakota Calendar_, refers to the small-pox +which broke out in the year (1802) which it specifies. Fig. 225 shows +in the design at the left, a warning or notice, that though a goat can +climb up the rocky trail a horse will tumble--"No Thoroughfare." This +was contributed by Mr. J.K. Hillers, photographer of the United States +Geological Survey, as observed by him in Cañon De Chelly, New Mexico, +in 1880. + +[Illustration: Fig. 225.] + + +SIGNS CONNECTED WITH ETHNOLOGIC FACTS. + +The present limits permit only a few examples of the manner in which +the signs of Indians refer to sociologic, religious, historic, and +other ethnologic facts. They may incite research to elicit further +information of the same character. + +[Illustration: Fig. 226.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 227.] + +The Prince of Wied gives in his list of signs the heading _Partisan_, +a term of the Canadian voyageurs, signifying a leader of an occasional +or volunteer war party, the sign being reported as follows: Make first +the sign of the pipe, afterwards open the thumb and index-finger of +the right hand, back of the hand outward, and move it forward and +upward in a curve. This is explained by the author's account in a +different connection, that to become recognized as a leader of such a +war party as above mentioned, the first act among the tribes using +the sign was the consecration, by fasting succeeded by feasting, of +a medicine pipe without ornament, which the leader of the expedition +afterward bore before him as his badge of authority, and it therefore +naturally became an emblematic sign. This sign with its interpretation +supplies a meaning to Fig. 226 from the _Dakota Calendar_ showing +"One Feather," a Sioux chief who raised in that year a large war party +against the Crows, which fact is simply denoted by his holding out +demonstratively an unornamented pipe. In connection with this subject, +Fig. 227, drawn and explained by Two Strike, an Ogalala Dakota, +relating to his own achievements, displays four plain pipes to exhibit +the fact that he had led four war parties. + +[Illustration: Fig. 228.] + +The sign of the pipe or of smoking is made in a different manner, when +used to mean _friend_, as follows: (1) Tips of the two first fingers +of the right hand placed against or at right angles to the mouth; +(2) suddenly elevated upward and outward to imitate smoke expelled. +(_Cheyenne_ II). "We two smoke together." This is illustrated in the +Ojibwa pictograph, Fig. 228, taken from Schoolcraft I, pl. 59. + +[Illustration: Fig. 229.] + +A ceremonial sign for _peace, friendship_, is the extended fingers, +separated (R), interlocked in front of the breast, hands horizontal, +backs outward. (_Dakota_ I.) Fig. 229 from the _Dakota Calendar_ +exhibits the beginning of this gesture. When the idea conveyed is +peace or friendship with the whites, the hand shaking of the latter +is adopted as in Fig. 230, also taken from the _Dakota Calendar_, and +referring to the peace made in 1855 by General Harney, at Fort Pierre, +with a number of the tribes of the Dakotas. + +[Illustration: Fig. 230.] + +It is noticeable that while the ceremonial gesture of uniting or +linking hands is common and ancient in token of peace, the practice of +shaking hands on meeting, now the annoying etiquette of the Indians in +their intercourse with whites, was not until very recently and is even +now seldom used by them between each other, and is clearly a foreign +importation. Their fancy for affectionate greeting was in giving +a pleasant bodily, sensation by rubbing each other on the breast, +abdomen, and limbs, or by a hug. The senseless and inconvenient custom +of shaking hands is, indeed, by no means general throughout the world, +and in the extent to which it prevails in the United States is +a subject of ridicule by foreigners. The Chinese, with a higher +conception of politeness, shake their own hands. The account of a +recent observer of the meeting of two polite Celestials is: "Each +placed the fingers of one hand over the fist of the other, so that the +thumbs met, and then standing a few feet apart raised his hands gently +up and down in front of his breast. For special courtesy, after the +foregoing gesture, they place the hand which had been the actor in it +on the stomach of its owner, not on that part of the interlocutor, the +whole proceeding being subjective, but perhaps a relic of objective +performance." In Miss Bird's _Unbeaten Trades in Japan, London_, 1880, +the following is given as the salutatory etiquette of that empire: "As +acquaintances come in sight of each other they slacken their pace +and approach with downcast eyes and averted faces as if neither were +worthy of beholding each other; then they bow low, so low as to bring +the face, still kept carefully averted, on a level with the knees, +on which the palms of the hands are pressed. Afterwards, during the +friendly strife of each to give the _pas_ to the other, the palms of +the hands are diligently rubbed against each other." + +[Illustration: Fig. 231.] + +The interlocking of the fingers of both hands above given as an Indian +sign (other instances being mentioned under the head of SIGNALS, +_infra_) is also reported by R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of +Victoria_, _loc. cit._, Vol. II, p. 308, as made by the natives +of Cooper's Creek, Australia, to express the highest degree of +friendship, including a special form of hospitality in which the wives +of the entertainer performed a part. Fig. 231 is reproduced from a cut +in the work referred to. + +But besides this interlocked form of signifying the union of +friendship the hands are frequently grasped together. Sometimes the +sign is abbreviated by simply extending the hand as if about to grasp +that of another, and sometimes the two forefingers are laid side by +side, which last sign also means, _same, brother_ and _companion_. For +description and illustration of these three signs, see respectively +pages 521, 527, and 317. A different execution of the same conception +of union or linking to signify _friend_ is often made as follows: Hook +the curved index over the curved forefinger of the left hand, the +palm of the latter pointing forward, the palm of the right hand being +turned toward the face; remaining fingers and thumbs being closed. +(_Dakota_ VIII.) Fig. 232. + +[Illustration: Fig. 232.] + +Wied's sign for medicine is "Stir with the right hand into the left, +and afterward blow into the latter." All persons familiar with the +Indians will understand that the term "medicine," foolishly enough +adopted by both French and English to express the aboriginal magic +arts, has no therapeutic significance. Very few even pretended +remedies were administered to the natives and probably never by the +professional shaman, who worked by incantation, often pulverizing and +mixing the substances mystically used, to prevent their detection. +The same mixtures were employed in divination. The author particularly +mentions Mandan ceremonies, in which a white "medicine" stone, as +hard as pyrites, was produced by rubbing in the hand snow or the white +feathers of a bird. The blowing away of the disease, considered to be +introduced by a supernatural power foreign to the body, was a common +part of the juggling performance. + +A sign for _stone_ is as follows: With the back of the arched right +hand (H) strike repeatedly in the palm of the left, held horizontal, +back outward, at the height of the breast and about a foot in front; +the ends of the fingers point in opposite directions. (_Dakota_ I.) +From its use when the stone was the only hammer. + +A suggestive sign for _knife_ is reported, viz: Cut past the mouth +with the raised right hand. (_Wied._) This probably refers to the +general practice of cutting off food, as much being crammed into the +mouth as can be managed and then separated from the remaining mass +by a stroke of a knife. This is specially the usage with fat and +entrails, the Indian delicacies. + +An old sign for _tomahawk, ax_, is as follows: Cross the arms and +slide the edge of the right hand, held vertically, down over the left +arm. (_Wied._) This is still employed, at least for a small hatchet, +or "dress tomahawk," and would be unintelligible without special +knowledge. The essential point is laying the extended right hand in +the bend of the left elbow. The sliding down over the left arm is an +almost unavoidable but quite unnecessary accompaniment to the sign, +which indicates the way in which the hatchet is usually carried. +Pipes, whips, bows and arrows, fans, and other dress or emblematic +articles of the "buck" are seldom or never carried in the bend of the +left elbow as is the ax. The pipe is usually held in the left hand. + +The following sign for _Indian village_ is given by Wied: Place the +open thumb and forefinger of each hand opposite to each other, as if +to make a circle, but leaving between them a small interval; afterward +move them from above downward simultaneously. The villages of the +tribes with which the author was longest resident, particularly the +Mandans and Arikaras, were surrounded by a strong circular stockade, +spaces or breaks in the circle being left for entrance or exit. + +Signs for _dog_ are made by some of the tribes of the plains +essentially the same as the following: Extend and spread the right, +fore, and middle fingers, and draw the hand about eighteen inches from +left to right across the front of the body at the height of the navel, +palm downward, fingers pointing toward the left and a little downward, +little and ring fingers to be loosely closed, the thumb against the +ring-finger. (_Dakota_ IV.) The sign would not be intelligible without +knowledge of the fact that before the introduction of the horse, and +even yet, the dog has been used to draw the tent- or lodge-poles in +moving camp, and the sign represents the trail. Indians less nomadic, +who built more substantial lodges, and to whom the material for poles +was less precious than on the plains, would not have comprehended this +sign without such explanation as is equivalent to a translation from +a foreign language, and the more general one is the palm lowered as if +to stroke gently in a line conforming to the animal's head and neck. +It is abbreviated by simply lowering the hand to the usual height +of the wolfish aboriginal breed, and suggests _the_ animal _par +excellence_ domesticated by the Indians and made a companion. + +Several examples connected with this heading may be noticed under the +preceding head of gestures connected with pictographs, and others of +historic interest will be found among the TRIBAL SIGNS, _infra_. + + + + +NOTABLE POINTS FOR FURTHER RESEARCHES. + + +It is considered desirable to indicate some points to which for +special reasons the attention of collaborators for the future +publication on the general subject of sign language may be invited. +These now follow: + + + +_INVENTION OF NEW SIGNS._ + +It is probable that signs will often be invented by individual Indians +who may be pressed for them by collectors to express certain ideas, +which signs of course form no part of any current language; but while +that fact should, if possible, be ascertained and reported, the signs +so invented are not valueless merely because they are original and not +traditional, if they are made in good faith and in accordance with the +principles of sign formation. Less error will arise in this direction +than from the misinterpretation of the idea intended to be conveyed by +spontaneous signs. The process resembles the coining of new words to +which the higher languages owe their copiousness. It is observed in +the signs invented by Indians for each new product of civilization +brought to their notice. + +An interesting instance is in the sign for _steamboat_, made at the +request of the writer by White Man (who, however, did not like that +sobriquet and announced his intention to change his name to Lean +Bear), an Apache, in June, 1880, who had a few days before seen a +steamboat for the first time. After thinking a moment he gave an +original sign, described as follows: + +Make the sign for _water_, by placing the flat right hand before the +face, pointing upward and forward, the back forward, with the wrist as +high as the nose; then draw it down and inward toward the chin; then +with both hands indicate the outlines of a horizontal oval figure +from before the body back to near the chest (being the outline of the +deck); then place both flat hands, pointing forward, thumbs +higher than the outer edges, and push them forward to arms'-length +(illustrating the powerful forward motion of the vessel). + +An original sign for _telegraph_ is given in NÁTCI'S NARRATIVE, +_infra_. + +An Indian skilled in signs, as also a deaf-mute, at the sight of a +new object, or at the first experience of some new feeling or mental +relation, will devise some mode of expressing it in pantomimic gesture +or by a combination of previously understood signs, which will be +intelligible to others, similarly skilled, provided that they have +seen the same objects or have felt the same emotions. But if a number +of such Indians or deaf-mutes were to see an object--for instance an +elephant--for the first time, each would perhaps hit upon a different +sign, in accordance with the characteristic appearance most striking +to him. That animal's trunk is generally the most attractive lineament +to deaf-mutes, who make a sign by pointing to the nose and moving the +arm as the trunk is moved. Others regard the long tusks as the most +significant feature, while others are struck by the large head and +small eyes. This diversity of conception brings to mind the poem of +"The Blind Men and the Elephant," which with true philosophy in an +amusing guise explains how the sense of touch led the "six men of +Indostan" severally to liken the animal to a wall, spear, snake, +tree, fan, and rope. A consideration of invented or original signs, +as showing the operation of the mind of an Indian or other uncivilized +gesturer, has a psychologic interest, and as connected with the vocal +expression, often also invented at the same time, has further value. + + + +_DANGER OF SYMBOLIC INTERPRETATION._ + +In the examination of sign language it is important to form a clear +distinction between signs proper and symbols. The terms signs +and symbols are often used interchangeably, but with liability to +misconstruction, as many persons, whether with right or wrong lexical +definition, ascribe to symbols an occult and mystic signification. All +characters in Indian picture-writing have been loosely styled symbols, +and, as there is no logical distinction, between the characters +impressed with enduring form and when merely outlined in the ambient +air, all Indian gestures, motions, and attitudes might with equal +appropriateness be called symbolic. While, however, all symbols +come under the generic head of signs, very few signs are in accurate +classification symbols. S.T. Coleridge has defined a symbol to be a +sign included in the idea it represents. This may be intelligible if +it is intended that an ordinary sign is extraneous to the concept +and, rather than suggested by it, is invented to express it by some +representation or analogy, while a symbol may be evolved by a process +of thought from the concept itself; but it is no very exhaustive or +practically useful distinction. Symbols are less obvious and more +artificial than mere signs, require convention, are not only abstract, +but metaphysical, and often need explanation from history, religion, +and customs. They do not depict but suggest subjects; do not speak +directly through the eye to the intelligence, but presuppose in the +mind knowledge of an event or fact which the sign recalls. The +symbols of the ark, dove, olive branch, and rainbow would be wholly +meaningless to people unfamiliar with the Mosaic or some similar +cosmology, as would be the cross and the crescent to those ignorant +of history. The last named objects appeared in the class of _emblems_ +when used in designating the conflicting powers of Christendom and +Islamism. Emblems do not necessarily require any analogy between the +objects representing, and the objects or qualities represented, but +may arise from pure accident. After a scurrilous jest the beggar's +wallet became the emblem of the confederated nobles, the Gueux of +the Netherlands; and a sling, in the early minority of Louis XIV, +was adopted from the refrain of a song by the Frondeur opponents of +Mazarin. The portraiture of a fish, used, especially by the early +Christians, for the name and title of Jesus Christ was still +more accidental, being, in the Greek word [Greek: ichthus], an +acrostic composed of the initials of the several Greek words +signifying that name and title. This origin being unknown to persons +whose religious enthusiasm was as usual in direct proportion to their +ignorance, they expended much rhetoric to prove that there was some +true symbolic relation between an actual fish and the Saviour of men. +Apart from this misapplication, the fish undoubtedly became an emblem +of Christ and of Christianity, appearing frequently on the Roman +catacombs and at one time it was used hermeneutically. + +The several tribal signs for the Sioux, Arapahos, Cheyennes, &c., +are their emblems precisely as the star-spangled flag is that of the +United States, but there is nothing symbolic in any of them. So the +signs for individual chiefs, when not merely translations of their +names, are emblematic of their family totems or personal distinctions, +and are no more symbols than are the distinctive shoulder-straps of +army officers. The _crux ansata_ and the circle formed by a snake +biting its tail are symbols, but _consensus_ as well as invention +was necessary for their establishment, and the Indians have produced +nothing so esoteric, nothing which they intended for hermeneutic as +distinct from descriptive or mnemonic purposes. Sign language can +undoubtedly be and is employed to express highly metaphysical ideas, +but to do that in a symbolic system requires a development of the +mode of expression consequent upon a similar development of the mental +idiocrasy of the gesturers far beyond any yet found among historic +tribes north of Mexico. A very few of their signs may at first appear +to be symbolic, yet even those on closer examination will probably be +relegated to the class of emblems. + +The point urged is that while many signs can be used as emblems and +both can be converted by convention into symbols or be explained as +such by perverted ingenuity, it is futile to seek for that form of +psychologic exuberance in the stage of development attained by the +tribes now under consideration. All predetermination to interpret +either their signs or their pictographs on the principles of symbolism +as understood or pretended to be understood by its admirers, and +as are sometimes properly applied to Egyptian hieroglyphs, results +in mooning mysticism. This was shown by a correspondent who +enthusiastically lauded the _Dakota Calendar_ (edited by the present +writer, and which is a mere figuration of successive occurrences in +the history of the people), as a numerical exposition of the great +doctrines of the Sun religion in the equations of time, and proved to +his own satisfaction that our Indians preserved hermeneutically the +lost geometric cultus of pre-Cushite scientists. + +Another exhibition of this vicious practice was recently made in the +interpretation of an inscribed stone alleged to have been unearthed +near Zanesville, Ohio. Two of the characters were supposed, in liberal +exercise of the imagination, to represent the [Greek letter: Alpha] +and [Greek letter: Omega] of the Greek alphabet. At the comparatively +late date when the arbitrary arrangement of the letters of that +alphabet had become fixed, the initial and concluding letters might +readily have been used to represent respectively the beginning and the +end of any series or number of things, and this figure of speech was +employed in the book of Revelations. In the attempted interpretation +of the inscription mentioned, which was hawked about to many scientific +bodies, and published over the whole country, the supposed alpha +and omega were assumed to constitute a universal as well as sacred +symbol for the everlasting Creator. The usual _menu_ of Roman feasts, +commencing with eggs and ending with apples, was also commonly known +at the time when the book of Revelations was written, and the phrase +"_ab ovo usque ad mala_" was as appropriate as "from alpha to omega" to +express "from the beginning to the end." In deciphering the stone it +would, therefore, be as correct in principle to take one of its oval +and one of its round figures, call them egg and apple, and make them +the symbols of eternity. In fact, not depending wholly for significance +upon the order of courses of a feast or the accident of alphabetical +position, but having intrinsic characteristics in reference to the +origin and fruition of life, the egg and apple translation, would +be more acceptable to the general judgment, and it is recommended to +enthusiasts who insist on finding symbols where none exist. + + + +_SIGNS USED BY WOMEN AND CHILDREN._ + +For reasons before given it is important to ascertain the varying +extent of familiarity with sign language among the members of the +several tribes, how large a proportion possesses any skill in it, and +the average amount of their vocabulary. It is also of special interest +to learn the degree to which women become proficient, and the age +at which children commence its practice; also whether they receive +systematic instruction in it. The statement was made by Titchkemátski +that the Kaiowa and Comanche women know nothing of sign language, +while the Cheyenne women are versed in it. As he is a Cheyenne, +however, he may not have a large circle of feminine acquaintances +beyond his own tribe, and his negative testimony is not valuable. Rev. +A.J. Holt, from large experience, asserts that the Kaiowa and Comanche +women do know and practice sign language, though the Cheyenne either +are more familiar with it than the Kaiowa or have a greater degree +of expertness. The Comanche women, he says, are the peers of any +sign-talkers. Colonel Dodge makes the broad assertion that even among +the Plains tribes only the old, or at least middle-aged, men use signs +properly, and that he has not seen any women or even young men who +were at all reliable in signs. He gives this statement to show the +difficulty in acquiring sign language; but it is questionable if the +fact is not simply the result of the rapid disuse of signs, in many +tribes, by which, cause women, not so frequently called upon to employ +them, and the younger generation, who have had no necessity to learn +them, do not become expert. Disappearing Mist, as before mentioned, +remembers a time when the Iroquois women and children used signs more +than the men. + +It is also asserted, with some evidence, that the signs used by males +and females are different, though mutually understood, and some +minor points for observation may be indicated, such as whether the +commencement of counting upon the fingers is upon those of the right +or the left hand, and whether Indians take pains to look toward the +south when suggesting the course of the sun, which would give the +motion from left to right. + + * * * * * + +A suggestion has been made by a correspondent that some secret signs +of affiliation are known and used by the members of the several +associations, religious and totemic, which have been often noticed +among several Indian tribes. No evidence of this has been received, +but the point is worth attention. + + + +_POSITIVE SIGNS RENDERED NEGATIVE._ + +In many cases positive signs to convey some particular idea are not +reported, and in their place a sign with the opposite signification +is given, coupled with the sign of negation. In other words, the only +mode of expressing the intended meaning is supposed to be by negation +of the reverse of what it is desired to describe. In this manner +"fool--no," would be "wise," and "good--no," would be "bad." This mode +of expression is very frequent as a matter of option when the positive +signs are in fact also used. The reported absence of positive signs +for the ideas negatived is therefore often made with as little +propriety as if when an ordinary speaker chose to use the negative +form "not good," it should be inferred that he was ignorant of the +word "bad." It will seldom prove, on proper investigation, that where +sign language has reached and retained any high degree of development +it will show such poverty as to require the expedient of negation of +an affirmative to express an idea which is intrinsically positive. + + + +_DETAILS OF POSITIONS OF FINGERS._ + +The signs of the Indians appear to consist of motions more often +than of positions--a fact enhancing the difficulty both of their +description and illustration--and the motions when not designedly +abbreviated are generally large, free, and striking, seldom minute. +It seems also to be the general rule among Indians as among deaf-mutes +that the point of the finger is used to trace outlines and the palm +of the hand to describe surfaces. From an examination of the identical +signs made to each other for the same object by Indians of the same +tribe and band, they appear to make many gestures with little regard +to the position of the fingers and to vary in such arrangement from +individual taste. Some of the elaborate descriptions, giving with +great detail the attitude of the fingers of any particular gesturer +and the inches traced by his motions, are of as little necessity as +would be, when quoting a written word, a careful reproduction of the +flourishes of tailed letters and the thickness of down-strokes in +individual chirography. The fingers must be in _some_ position, but +that is frequently accidental, not contributing to the general and +essential effect. An example may be given in the sign for _white man_ +which Medicine Bull, _infra_, page 491, made by drawing the palmar +surface of the extended index across the forehead, and in LEAN WOLF'S +COMPLAINT, _infra_, page 526, the same motion is made by the back of +the thumb pressed upon the middle joint of the index, fist closed. The +execution as well as the conception in both cases was the indication +of the line of the hat on the forehead, and the position of the +fingers in forming the line is altogether immaterial. There is often +also a custom or "fashion" in which not only different tribes, but +different persons in the same tribe, gesture the same sign with +different degrees of beauty, for there is calligraphy in sign +language, though no recognized orthography. It is nevertheless better +to describe and illustrate with unnecessary minuteness than to fail +in reporting a real distinction. There are, also, in fact, many +signs formed by mere positions of the fingers, some of which are +abbreviations, but in others the arrangement of the fingers in itself +forms a picture. An instance of the latter is one of the signs given +for the _bear_, viz.: Middle and third finger of right hand clasped +down by the thumb, fore and little finger extended crooked downward. +See EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY, _infra_. This reproduction, of the +animals peculiar claws, with the hand and in any position relative +to the body, would suffice without the pantomime of scratching in the +air, which is added only if the sign without it should not be at once +comprehended. + + + +_MOTIONS RELATIVE TO PARTS OF THE BODY._ + + +[Illustration: Fig. 233.] + +The specified relation of the positions and motions of the hands +to different parts of the body is essential to the formation and +description of many signs. Those for _speak, hear_, and _see_, +which must be respectively made relative to the mouth, ear and eye, +are manifest examples; and there are others less obviously dependent +upon parts of the body, such as the heart or head, which would not +be intelligible without apposition. There are also some directly +connected with height from the ground and other points of reference. +In, however, a large proportion of the signs noted the position of +the hands with reference to the body can be varied or disregarded. +The hands making the motions can be held high or low, as the gesturer +is standing or sitting, or the person addressed is distant or near +by. These variations have been partly discussed under the head of +abbreviations. While descriptions made with great particularity are +cumbrous, it is desirable to give the full detail of that gesture +which most clearly carries out the generic conception, with, if +possible, also the description of such deviations and abbreviations +as are most confusing. For instance, it is well to explain that signs +for yes and no, described with precise detail as in EXTRACTS FROM +DICTIONARY, _infra_, are also often made by an Indian when wrapped +in his blanket with only a forefinger protruding, the former by a +mere downward and the latter by a simple outward bend of that finger. +An example may be also taken from the following sign for _lie, +falsehood_, made by an Ankara, Fig. 233. in which the separated index +and second fingers are moved sidewise in a downward line near but +below the mouth, which may be compared with other executions of the +motion with the same position of the fingers directly forward from the +mouth, and with that given in LEAN WOLF'S COMPLAINT, illustrated on +page 528, in which the motion is made carelessly across the body. +The original sign was undoubtedly made directly from the mouth, the +conception being "two tongues," two accounts or opposed statements, +one of which must be false, but the finger-position coming to be +established for two tongues has relation to the original conception +whether or not made near or in reference to the mouth, the latter +being understood. + +It will thus be seen that sometimes the position of the fingers +is material as forming or suggesting a figure without reference to +motion, while in other cases the relative position of the hands +to each other and to parts of the body are significant without any +special arrangement of the fingers. Again, in others, the lines drawn +in the air by the hand or hands execute the conception without further +detail. In each case only the essential details, when they can be +ascertained, should be minutely described. + + + +_SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLECTING SIGNS._ + +The object always should be, not to translate from English into signs, +but to ascertain the real signs and their meaning. By far the most +satisfactory mode of obtaining this result is to induce Indians or +other gesturers observed to tell stories, make speeches, or hold talks +in gesture, with one of themselves as interpreter in his own oral +language if the latter is understood by the observer, and, if not, +the words, not the signs, should be translated by an intermediary +linguistic interpreter. It will be easy afterward to dissect and +separate the particular signs used. This mode will determine the +genuine shade of meaning of each sign, and corresponds with the plan +now adopted by the Bureau of Ethnology for the study of the tribal +vocal languages, instead of that arising out of exclusively missionary +purposes, which was to force a translation of the Bible from a tongue +not adapted to its terms and ideas, and then to compile a grammar and +dictionary from the artificial result. A little ingenuity will direct +the more intelligent or complaisant gesturers to the expression of +the thoughts, signs for which are specially sought; and full orderly +descriptions of such tales and talks with or even without analysis and +illustration are more desired than any other form of contribution. + +The original authorities, or the best evidence, for Indian +signs--i.e., the Indians themselves--being still accessible, the +collaborators in this work should not be content with secondary +authority. White sign talkers and interpreters may give some genuine +signs, but they are very apt to interpolate their own improvements. +Experience has led to the apparently paradoxical judgment that the +direct contribution of signs purporting to be those of Indians, made +by a habitual practitioner of signs who is not an Indian, is less +valuable than that of a discriminating observer who is not himself +an actor in gesture speech. The former, being to himself the best +authority, unwittingly invents and modifies signs, or describes what +he thinks they ought to be, often with a very different conception +from that of an Indian. Sign language not being fixed and limited, as +is the case with oral languages, expertness in it is not necessarily +a proof of accuracy in anyone of its forms. The proper inquiry is not +what a sign might, could, would, or should be, or what is the best +sign for a particular meaning, but what is any sign actually used +for such meaning. If any one sign is honestly invented or adopted by +any one man, whether Indian, African, Asiatic, or deaf-mute, it has +its value, but it should be identified to be in accordance with the +fact and should not be subject to the suspicion that it has been +assimilated or garbled in interpretation. Its prevalence and special +range present considerations of different interest and requiring +further evidence. + +The genuine signs alone should be presented to scholars, to give +their studies proper direction, while the true article can always be +adulterated into a composite jargon by those whose ambition is only to +be sign talkers instead of making an honest contribution to ethnologic +and philologic science. The few direct contributions of interpreters +to the present work are, it is believed, valuable, because they were +made without expression of self-conceit or symptom of possession by a +pet theory. + + + + +MODE IN WHICH RESEARCHES HAVE BEEN MADE. + + +It is proper to give to all readers interested in the subject, but +particularly to those whose collaboration for the more complete work +above mentioned is solicited, an account of the mode in which the +researches have thus far been conducted and in which it is proposed +to continue them. After study of all that could be obtained in printed +form, and a considerable amount of personal correspondence, the +results were embraced in a pamphlet issued by the Bureau of Ethnology +in the early part of 1880, entitled "_Introduction to the Study of +Sign Language among the North American Indians as Illustrating the +Gesture Speech of Mankind._" In this, suggestions were made as to +points and manner of observation and report, and forms prepared to +secure uniformity and accuracy were explained, many separate sheets of +which with the pamphlet were distributed, not only to all applicants, +but to all known and accessible persons in this country and abroad +who, there was reason to hope, would take sufficient interest in the +undertaking to contribute their assistance. Those forms, TYPES OF HAND +POSITIONS, OUTLINES OF ARM POSITIONS, and EXAMPLES, thus distributed, +are reproduced at the end of this paper. + +The main object of those forms was to eliminate the source of +confusion produced by attempts of different persons at the difficult +description of positions and motions. The comprehensive plan required +that many persons should be at work in many parts of the world. +It will readily be understood that if a number of persons should +undertake to describe in words the same motions, whether of +pantomimists on the stage or of other gesturers, even if the visual +perception of all the observers should be the same in the apprehension +of the particular gestures, their language in description might be so +varied as to give very diverse impressions to a reader who had never +seen the gestures described. But with a set form of expressions for +the typical positions, and skeleton outlines to be filled up and, when +necessary, altered in a uniform style, this source of confusion is +greatly reduced. The graphic lines drawn to represent the positions +and motions on the same diagrams will vary but little in comparison +with the similar attempt of explanation in writing. Both modes of +description were, however, requested, each tending to supplement +and correct the other, and provision was also made for the notation +of such striking facial changes or emotional postures as might +individualize or accentuate the gestures. It was also pointed out that +the prepared sheets could be used by cutting and pasting them in the +proper order, for successive signs forming a speech or story, so as to +exhibit the semiotic syntax. Attention was specially directed to the +importance of ascertaining the intrinsic idea or conception of all +signs, which it was urged should be obtained directly from the persons +using them and not by inference. + +In the autumn of 1880 the prompt and industrious co-operation of +many observers in this country, and of a few from foreign lands, +had supplied a large number of descriptions which were collated and +collected into a quarto volume of 329 pages, called "_A Collection +of Gesture Signs and Signals of the North American Indians, with some +comparisons_." + +This was printed on sized paper with wide margins to allow of +convenient correction and addition. It was not published, but was +regarded as proof, a copy being sent to each correspondent with +a request for his annotations, not only in revision of his own +contribution, but for its comparison with those made by others. Even +when it was supposed that mistakes had been made in either description +or reported conception, or both, the contribution was printed as +received, in order that a number of skilled and disinterested persons +might examine it and thus ascertain the amount and character of error. +The attention of each contributor was invited to the fact that, in +some instances, a sign as described by one of the other contributors +might be recognized as intended for the same idea or object as that +furnished by himself, and the former might prove to be the better +description. Each was also requested to examine if a peculiar +abbreviation or fanciful flourish might not have induced a difference +in his own description from that of another contributor with no +real distinction either in conception or essential formation. All +collaborators were therefore urged to be candid in admitting, when +such cases occurred, that their own descriptions were mere unessential +variants from others printed, otherwise to adhere to their own and +explain the true distinction. When the descriptions showed substantial +identity, they were united with the reference to all the authorities +giving them. + +Many of these copies have been returned with valuable annotations, not +only of correction but of addition and suggestion, and are now being +collated again into one general revision. + +The above statement will, it is hoped, give assurance that the work of +the Bureau of Ethnology has been careful and thorough. No scheme has +been neglected which could be contrived and no labor has been spared +to secure the accuracy and completeness of the publication still in +preparation. It may also be mentioned that although the writer has +made personal observations of signs, no description of any sign has +been printed by him which rests on his authority alone. Personal +controversy and individual bias were thus avoided. For every sign +there is a special reference either to an author or to some one or +more of the collaborators. While the latter have received full +credit, full responsibility was also imposed, and that course will be +continued. + +No contribution has been printed which asserted that any described +sign is used by "all Indians," for the reason that such statement is +not admissible evidence unless the authority had personally examined +all Indians. If any credible person had affirmatively stated that a +certain identical, or substantially identical, sign had been found by +him, actually used by Abnaki, Absaroka, Arikara, Assiniboins, etc., +going through the whole list of tribes, or any definite portion of +that list, it would have been so inserted under the several tribal +heads. But the expression "all Indians," besides being insusceptible +of methodical classification, involves hearsay, which is not the kind +of authority desired in a serious study. Such loose talk long delayed +the recognition of Anthropology as a science. It is true that some +general statements of this character are made by some old authors +quoted in the Dictionary, but their descriptions are reprinted, as +being all that can be used of the past, for whatever weight they may +have, and they are kept separate from the linguistic classification +given below. + +Regarding the difficulties met with in the task proposed, the same +motto might be adopted as was prefixed to Austin's _Chironomia_: "_Non +sum nescius, quantum susceperim negotii, qui motus corporis exprimere +verbis, imitari scriptura conatus sim voces._" _Rhet. ad Herenn_, 1.3. +If the descriptive recital of the signs collected had been absolutely +restricted to written or printed words the work would have been +still more difficult and the result less intelligible. The facilities +enjoyed of presenting pictorial illustrations have been of great value +and will give still more assistance in the complete work than in the +present paper. + +In connection with the subject of illustrations it may be noted that +a writer in the _Journal of the Military Service Institution of the +United States_, Vol. II, No. 5, the same who had before invented the +mode of describing signs by "means" mentioned on page 330 _supra_, +gives a curious distinction between deaf-mute and Indian signs +regarding their respective capability of illustration, as follows: +"This French system is taught, I believe, in most of the schools for +deaf-mutes in this country, and in Europe; but so great has been the +difficulty of fixing the hands in space, either by written description +or illustrated cuts, that no text books are used. I must therefore +conclude that the Indian sign language is not only the more natural, +but the more simple, as the gestures can be described quite accurately +in writing, and I think can be illustrated." The readers of this +paper will also, probably, "think" that the signs of Indians can be +illustrated, and as the signs of deaf-mutes are often identical with +the Indian, whether expressing the same or different ideas, and when +not precisely identical are always made on the same principle and with +the same members, it is not easy to imagine any greater difficulty +either in their graphic illustration or in their written description. +The assertion is as incorrect as if it were paraphrased to declare +that a portrait of an Indian in a certain attitude could be taken by +a pencil or with the camera while by some occult influence the same +artistic skill would be paralysed in attempting that of a deaf-mute +in the same attitude. In fact, text books on the "French system" are +used and one in the writer's possession published in Paris twenty-five +years ago, contains over four hundred illustrated cuts of deaf-mute +gesture signs. + +The proper arrangement and classification of signs will always be +troublesome and unsatisfactory. There can be no accurate translation +either of sentences or of words from signs into written English. So +far from the signs representing words as logographs, they do not in +their presentation of the ideas of actions, objects, and events, under +physical forms, even suggest words, which must be skillfully fitted +to them by the glossarist and laboriously derived from, them by +the philologer. The use of words in formulation, still more in +terminology, is so wide a departure from primitive conditions as to +be incompatible with the only primordial language yet discovered. No +vocabulary of signs will be exhaustive for the simple reason that the +signs are exhaustless, nor will it be exact because there cannot be a +correspondence between signs and words taken individually. Not only +do words and signs both change their meaning from the context, but a +single word may express a complex idea, to be fully rendered only by +a group of signs, and, _vice versa_, a single sign may suffice for a +number of words. The elementary principles by which the combinations +in sign and in the oral languages of civilization are effected are +also discrepant. The attempt must therefore be made to collate and +compare the signs according to general ideas, conceptions, and, if +possible, the ideas and conceptions of the gesturers themselves, +instead of in order of words as usually arranged in dictionaries. + +The hearty thanks of the writer are rendered to all his collaborators, +a list of whom is given below, and will in future be presented in +a manner more worthy of them. It remains to give an explanation of +the mode in which a large collection of signs has been made directly +by the officers of the Bureau of Ethnology. Fortunately for this +undertaking, the policy of the government brought to Washington during +the year 1880 delegations, sometimes quite large, of most of the +important tribes. Thus the most intelligent of the race from many +distant and far separated localities were here in considerable numbers +for weeks, and indeed, in some cases, months, and, together with +their interpreters and agents, were, by the considerate order of the +honorable Secretary of the Interior, placed at the disposal of this +Bureau for all purposes of gathering ethnologic information. The +facilities thus obtained were much greater than could have been +enjoyed by a large number of observers traveling for a long time over +the continent for the same express purpose. The observations relating +to signs were all made here by the same persons, according to a +uniform method, in which the gestures were obtained directly from the +Indians, and their meaning (often in itself clear from the context +of signs before known) was translated sometimes through the medium of +English or Spanish, or of a native language known in common by some +one or more of the Indians and by some one of the observers. When an +interpreter was employed, he translated the words used by an Indian +in his oral paraphrase of the signs, and was not relied upon to +explain the signs according to his own ideas. Such translations +and a description of minute and rapidly-executed signs, dictated +at the moment of their exhibition, were sometimes taken down by +a phonographer, that there might be no lapse of memory in any +particular, and in many cases the signs were made in successive +motions before the camera, and prints secured as certain evidence +of their accuracy. Not only were more than one hundred Indians thus +examined individually, at leisure, but, on occasions, several parties +of different tribes, who had never before met each other, and could +not communicate by speech, were examined at the same time, both by +inquiry of individuals whose answers were consulted upon by all the +Indians present, and also by inducing several of the Indians to engage +in talk and story-telling in signs between themselves. Thus it was +possible to notice the difference in the signs made for the same +objects and the degree of mutual comprehension notwithstanding such +differences. Similar studies were made by taking Indians to the +National Deaf Mute College and bringing them in contact with the +pupils. + +By far the greater part of the actual work of the observation and +record of the signs obtained at Washington has been ably performed by +Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN, the assistant of the present writer. When the latter +has made personal observations the former has always been present, +taking the necessary notes and sketches and superintending the +photographing. To him, therefore, belongs the credit for all those +references in the following "LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND COLLABORATORS," +in which it is stated that the signs were obtained at Washington from +Indian delegations. Dr. HOFFMAN acquired in the West, through his +service as acting assistant surgeon, United States Army, at a large +reservation, the indispensable advantage of becoming acquainted with +the Indian character so as to conduct skillfully such researches as +that in question, and in addition has the eye and pencil of an artist, +so that he seizes readily, describes with physiological accuracy, +and reproduces in action and in permanent illustration all shades +of gesture exhibited. Nearly all of the pictorial illustrations in +this paper are from his pencil. For the remainder, and for general +superintendence of the artistic department of the work, thanks are due +to Mr. W.H. HOLMES, whose high reputation needs no indorsement here. + + + + +LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND COLLABORATORS. + + +1. A list prepared by WILLIAM DUNBAR, dated Natchez, June 30, 1800, +collected from tribes then "west of the Mississippi," but probably not +from those very far west of that river, published in the _Transactions +of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. vi, pp. 1-8, as read +January 16, 1801, and communicated by Thomas Jefferson, president of +the society. + +2. The one published in _An Account of an Expedition from +Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, performed in the years 1819-1820, +Philadelphia_, 1823, vol. i, pp. 378-394. This expedition was made by +order of the Hon. J.O. Calhoun, Secretary of War, under the command of +Maj. S.H. LONG, of the United States Topographical Engineers, and is +commonly called James' Long's Expedition. This list appears to have +been collected chiefly by Mr. T. Say, from the Pani, and the Kansas, +Otos, Missouris, Iowas, Omahas, and other southern branches of the +great Dakota family. + +3. The one collected by Prince MAXIMILIAN VON WIED-NEUWIED in _Reise +in das Innere Nord-America in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834_. _Coblenz_, +1839 [--1841], vol. ii, pp. 645-653. His statement is, "the Arikaras, +Mandans, Minnitarris [Hidatsa], Crows [Absaroka], Cheyennes, Snakes +[Shoshoni], and Blackfeet [Satsika] all understand certain signs, +which, on the contrary, as we are told, are unintelligible to the +Dakotas, Assiniboins, Ojibwas, Krihs [Crees], and other nations. The +list gives examples of the sign language of the former." From the +much greater proportion of time spent and information obtained by the +author among the Mandans and Hidatsa then and now dwelling near Port +Berthold, on the Upper Missouri, it might be safe to consider that all +the signs in his list were in fact procured from those tribes. But as +the author does not say so, he is not made to say so in this work. If +it shall prove that the signs now used by the Mandans and Hidatsa more +closely resemble those on his list than do those of other tribes, the +internal evidence will be verified. This list is not published in +the English edition, _London_, 1843, but appears in the German, above +cited, and in the French, _Paris_, 1840. Bibliographic reference is +often made to this distinguished explorer as "Prince Maximilian," as +if there were but one possessor of that Christian name among princely +families. For brevity the reference in this paper will be _Wied_. + +No translation of this list into English appears to have been printed +in any shape before that recently published by the present writer +in the _American Antiquarian_, vol. ii, No. 3, while the German and +French editions are costly and difficult of access, so the collection +cannot readily be compared by readers with the signs now made by the +same tribes. The translation, now presented is based upon the German +original, but in a few cases where the language was so curt as not +to give a clear idea, was collated with the French edition of the +succeeding year, which, from some internal evidence, appears to have +been published with the assistance or supervision of the author. Many +of the descriptions are, however, so brief and indefinite in both +their German and French forms that they necessarily remain so in +the present translation. The princely explorer, with the keen +discrimination shown in all his work, doubtless observed what has +escaped many recent reporters of Indian signs, that the latter depend +much more upon motion than mere position, and are generally large and +free, seldom minute. His object was to express the general effect of +the motion rather than to describe it with such precision as to allow +of its accurate reproduction by a reader who had never seen it. To +have presented the signs as now desired for comparison, toilsome +elaboration would have been necessary, and even that would not in all +cases have sufficed without pictorial illustration. + +On account of the manifest importance of determining the prevalence +and persistence of the signs as observed half a century ago, an +exception is made to the general arrangement hereafter mentioned by +introducing after the _Wied_ signs remarks of collaborators who have +made special comparisons, and adding to the latter the respective +names of those collaborators--as, (_Matthews_), (_Boteler_). It is +hoped that the work of those gentlemen will be imitated, not only +regarding the _Wied_, signs, but many others. + +4. The signs given to publication by Capt. R.F. BURTON, which, it +would be inferred, were collected in 1860-'61, from the tribes met or +learned of on the overland stage route, including Southern Dakotas, +Utes, Shoshoni, Arapahos, Crows, Pani, and Apaches. They are contained +in _The City of the Saints_, _New York_, 1862, pp. 123-130. + +Information has been recently received to the effect that this +collection was not made by the distinguished English explorer from +his personal observation, but was obtained by him from one man in Salt +Lake City, a Mormon bishop, who, it is feared, gave his own ideas of +the formation and use of signs rather than their faithful description. + +5. A list read by Dr. D.G. MACGOWAN, at a meeting of the American +Ethnological Society, January 23, 1866, and published in the +_Historical Magazine_, vol. x, 1866, pp. 86, 87, purporting to be the +signs of the Caddos, Wichitas, and Comanches. + +6. Annotations by Lieut. HEBER M. CREEL, Seventh United States +Cavalry, received in January, 1881. This officer is supposed to +be specially familiar with the Cheyennes, among whom he lived for +eighteen months; but his recollection is that most of the signs +described by him were also observed among the Arapaho, Sioux, and +several other tribes. + +7. A special contribution from Mr. F.F. GERARD, of Fort A. Lincoln, +D.T., of signs obtained chiefly from a deaf-mute Dakota, who has +traveled among most of the Indian tribes living between the Missouri +River and the Rocky Mountains. Mr. Gerard's own observations are based +upon the experience of thirty-two years' residence in that country, +during which long period he has had almost daily intercourse with +Indians. He states that the signs contributed by him are used by the +Blackfeet, (Satsika), Absaroka, Dakota, Hidatsa, Mandan, and Arikara +Indians, who may in general be considered to be the group of tribes +referred to by the Prince of Wied. + +In the above noted collections the generality of the statements as +to locality of the observation and use of the signs rendered it +impossible to arrange them in the manner considered to be the best to +study the diversities and agreements of signs. For that purpose it is +more convenient that the names of the tribe or tribes among which the +described signs have been observed should catch the eye in immediate +connection with them than that those of the observers only should +follow. Some of the latter indeed have given both similar and +different signs for more than one tribe, so that the use of the +contributor's name alone would create confusion. To print in every +case the name of the contributor, together with the name of the tribe, +would seriously burden the paper and be unnecessary to the student, +the reference being readily made to each authority through this LIST +which also serves as an index. The seven collections above mentioned +will therefore be referred to by the names of the authorities +responsible for them. Those which now follow are arranged +alphabetically by tribes, under headings of Linguistic Families +according to Major J.W. POWELL's classification, which are also given +below in alphabetic order. Example: The first authority is under the +heading ALGONKIAN, and, concerning only the Abnaki tribe, is referred +to as (_Abnaki_ I), Chief MASTA being the personal authority. + + +_ALGONKIAN._ + +_Abnaki_ I. A letter dated December 15, 1879, from H.L. MASTA, chief +of the Abnaki, residing near Pierreville, Quebec. + +_Arapaho_ I. A contribution from Lieut. H.B. LEMLY, Third United +States Artillery, compiled from notes and observations taken by him in +1877, among the Northern Arapahos. + +_Arapaho_ II. A list of signs obtained from O-QO-HIS'-SA (the Mare, +better known as Little Raven) and NA'-WATC (Left Hand), members of a +delegation of Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians, from Darlington, Ind. T., +who visited Washington during the summer of 1880. + +_Cheyenne_ I. Extracts from the _Report of Lieut. J.W. ABERT, of his +Examination of New Mexico in the years 1846-'47_, in Ex. Doc. No. 41, +Thirtieth Congress, first session, Washington, 1848, p. 417, _et seq._ + +_Cheyenne_ II. A list prepared in July, 1879, by Mr. FRANK H. CUSHING, +of the Smithsonian Institution, from continued interviews with +TITC-KE-MA'-TSKI (Cross-Eyes), an intelligent Cheyenne, then employed +at that Institution. + +_Cheyenne_ III. A special contribution with diagrams from Mr. BEN +CLARK, scout and interpreter, of signs collected from the Cheyennes +during his long residence among that tribe. + +_Cheyenne_ IV. Several communications from Col. RICHARD I. DODGE, +A.D.C., United States Army, author of _The Plains of the Great West +and their Inhabitants_, _New York_, 1877, relating to his large +experience with the Indians of the prairies. + +_Cheyenne_ V. A list of signs obtained from WA-Uⁿ' (Bob-tail) and +MO-HI'NUK-MA-HA'-IT (Big Horse), members of a delegation of Arapaho +and Cheyenne Indians from Darlington, Ind. T., who visited Washington +during the summer of 1880. + +_Ojibwa_ I. The small collection of J.G. KOHL, made about the middle +of the present century, among the Ojibwas around Lake Superior. +Published in his _Kitchigami. Wanderings Around Lake Superior, +London_, 1860. + +_Ojibwa_ II. Several letters from the Very Rev. EDWARD JACKER, Pointe +St. Ignace, Mich., respecting the Ojibwas. + +_Ojibwa_ III. A communication from Rev. JAMES A. GILFILLAN, White +Earth, Minn., relating to signs observed among the Ojibwas during his +long period of missionary duty, still continuing. + +_Ojibwa_ IV. A list from Mr. B.O. WILLIAMS, Sr., of Owosso, Mich., +from recollection of signs observed among the Ojibwas of Michigan +sixty years ago. + +_Ojibwa_ V. Contributions received in 1880 and 1881 from Mr. F. +JACKER, of Portage River, Houghton County, Michigan, who has resided +many years among and near the tribe mentioned. + +_Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I. A list from Rev. H.F. BUCKNER, D.D., of +Eufaula, Ind. T., consisting chiefly of tribal signs observed by him +among the Sac and Fox, Kickapoos, &c., during the early part of the +year 1880. + + +_DAKOTAN._ + +_Absaroka_ I. A list of signs obtained from DE-E'-KI-TCIS (Pretty +Eagle), É-TCI-DI-KA-HĂTC'-KI (Long Elk), and PE-RI'-TCI-KA'-DI-A +(Old Crow), members of a delegation of Absaroka or Crow Indians from +Montana Territory, who visited Washington during the months of April +and May, 1880. + +_Dakota_ I. A comprehensive list, arranged with great care and skill, +from Dr. CHARLES E. MCCHESNEY, acting assistant surgeon, United States +Army, of signs collected among the Dakotas (Sioux) near Fort Bennett, +Dakota, during the year 1880. Dr. McChesney requests that recognition +should be made of the valuable assistance rendered to him by Mr. +WILLIAM FIELDEN, the interpreter at Cheyenne Agency, Dakota Territory. + +_Dakota_ II. A short list from Dr. BLAIR D. TAYLOR, assistant surgeon, +United States Army, from recollection of signs observed among the +Sioux during his late service in the region inhabited by that tribe. + +_Dakota_ III. A special contribution from Capt. A.W. CORLISS, Eighth +United States Infantry, of signs observed by him during his late +service among the Sioux. + +_Dakota_ IV. A copious contribution with diagrams from Dr. WILLIAM H. +CORBUSIER, assistant surgeon, United States Army, of signs obtained +from the Ogalala Sioux at Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota Territory, during +1879-'80. + +_Dakota_ V. A report of Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN, from observations among the +Teton Dakotas while acting assistant surgeon, United States Army, and +stationed at Grand River Agency, Dakota, during 1872-'73. + +_Dakota_ VI. A list of signs obtained from PE-ZHI' (Grass), chief of +the Blackfoot Sioux; NA-ZU'-LA-TAⁿ-KA (Big Head), chief of the Upper +Yanktonais; and CE-TAⁿ-KIⁿ-YAⁿ (Thunder Hawk), chief of the Uncpapas, +Teton Dakotas, located at Standing Rock, Dakota Territory, while at +Washington in June, 1880. + +_Dakota_ VII. A list of signs obtained from SHUN-KU LU-TA (Red Dog), +an Ogalala chief from the Red Cloud Agency, who visited Washington in +company with a large delegation of Dakotas in June, 1880. + +_Dakota_ VIII. A special list obtained from TA-TAⁿKA WA-KAⁿ +(Medicine Bull), and other members of a delegation of Lower Brulé +Dakotas, while at Washington during the winter of 1880-'81. + +_Hidatsa_ I. A list of signs obtained from TCE-CAQ'-A-DAQ-A-QIC +(Lean Wolf), chief of the Hidatsa, located at Fort Berthold, Dakota +Territory, while at Washington with a delegation of Sioux Indians, in +June, 1880. + +_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I. A valuable and illustrated contribution from +Dr. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, assistant surgeon, United States Army, author +of _Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians, Washington_, +1877, &c., lately prepared from his notes and recollections of signs +observed during his long service among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians +of the Upper Missouri. + +_Omaha_ I. A special list from Rev. J. OWEN DORSEY, lately missionary +at Omaha Agency, Nebraska, from observations made by him at that +agency in 1880. + +_Oto_ I. An elaborate list, with diagrams, from Dr. W.G. BOTELER, +United States Indian service, collected from the Otos at the Oto +Agency, Nebraska, during 1879-'80. + +_Oto and Missouri_ I. A similar contribution by the same authority +respecting the signs of the Otos and Missouris, of Nebraska, collected +during the winter of 1879-'80, in the description of many of which he +was joined by Miss KATIE BARNES. + +_Ponka_ I. A short list from Rev. J. OWEN DORSEY, obtained by him in +1880 from the Ponkas in Nebraska. + +_Ponka_ II. A short list obtained at Washington from KHI-DHA-SKĂ, +(White Eagle), and other chiefs, a delegation from Kansas in January, +1881. + + +_IROQUOIAN._ + +_Iroquois_ I. A list of signs contributed by the Hon. HORATIO HALE, +author of "Philology" of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, &c., now +residing at Clinton, Ontario, Canada, obtained in June, 1880, from +SAKAYENKWARATON (Disappearing Mist), familiarly known as John Smoke +Johnson, chief of the Canadian division of the Six Nations, or +Iroquois proper, now a very aged man, residing at Brantford, Canada. + +_Wyandot_ I. A list of signs from HEN'-TO (Gray Eyes), chief of the +Wyandots, who visited Washington during the spring of 1880, in the +interest of that tribe, now dwelling in Indian Territory. + + +_KAIOWAN._ + +_Kaiowa_ I. A list of signs from SITTIMGEA (Stumbling Bear), a Kaiowa +chief from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in June, 1880. + + +_KUTINEAN._ + +_Kutine_ I. A letter from J.W. POWELL, Esq., Indian superintendent, +British Columbia, relating to his observations among the Kutine and +others. + + +_PANIAN._ + +_Arikara_ I. A list of signs obtained from KUA-NUQ'-KNA-UI'-UQ (Son +of the Star), chief of the Arikaras, residing at Fort Berthold, Dakota +Territory, while at Washington with a delegation of Indians, in June, +1880. + +_Pani_ I. A short list obtained from "ESAU," a Pani Indian, acting as +interpreter to the Ponka delegation at Washington, in January, 1881. + + +_PIMAN._ + +_Pima and Papago_ I. A special contribution obtained from ANTONITO, +son of the chief of the Pima Indians in Arizona Territory, while on a +visit to Washington in February, 1881. + + +_SAHAPTIAN._ + +_Sahaptian_ I. A list contributed by Rev. G.L. DEFFENBAUGH, of Lapwai, +Idaho, giving signs obtained at Kamiah, Idaho, chiefly from FELIX, +chief of the Nez Percés, and used by the Sahaptin or Nez Percés. + + +_SHOSHONIAN._ + +_Comanche_ I. Notes from Rev. A.J. HOLT, Denison, Texas, respecting, +the Comanche signs, obtained at Anadarko, Indian Territory. + +_Comanche_ II. Information obtained at Washington, in February, 1880, +from Maj. J.M. HAWORTH, Indian inspector, relating to signs used by +the Comanches of Indian Territory. + +_Comanche_ III. A list of signs obtained from KOBI (Wild Horse), a +Comanche chief from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in June, +1880. + +_Pai-Ute_ I. Information obtained at Washington from NA'TOI, a Pai-Ute +chief, who was one of a delegation of that tribe to Washington in +January, 1880. + +_Shoshoni and Banak_ I. A list of signs obtained from TENDOY (The +Climber), TISIDIMIT, PETE, and WI'AGAT, members of a delegation of +Shoshoni and Banak chiefs from Idaho, who visited Washington during +the months of April and May, 1880. + +_Ute_ I. A list of signs obtained from ALEJANDRE, GA-LO-TE, AUGUSTIN, +and other chiefs, members of a delegation of Ute Indians of Colorado, +who visited Washington during the early months of the year 1880. + + +_TINNEAN._ + +_Apache_ I. A list of signs obtained from HUERITO (Little Blonde), +AGUSTIN VIJEL, and SANTIAGO LARGO (James Long), members of a +delegation of Apache chief from Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico, who were +brought to Washington in the months of March and April, 1880. + +_Apache_ II. A list of signs obtained from NA'-KA'-NA'-NI-TEN (White +Man), an Apache chief from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in +June, 1880. + +_Apache_ III. A large collection made during the summer of 1880, by +Dr. FRANCIS H. ATKINS, acting assistant surgeon, United States Army, +from the Mescalero Apaches, near South Fork, N. Mex. + +_Kutchin_ I. A communication, received in 1881, from Mr. IVAN PETROFF, +special agent United States census, transmitting a dialogue, taken +down by himself in 1866, between the Kenaitze Indians on the lower +Kinnik River, in Alaska, and some natives of the interior who called +themselves _Tennanah_ or _Mountain-River-Men_, belonging to the Tinne +Kutchin tribe. + + +_WICHITAN._ + +_Wichita_ I. A list of signs from Rev. A.J. HOLT, missionary, obtained +from KIN-CHĒ-ĔSS (Spectacles), medicine-man of the Wichitas, at +the Wichita Agency, Indian Territory, in 1879. + +_Wichita_ II. A list of signs from TSODIÁKO (Shaved Head Boy), a +Wichita chief, from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in June, +1880. + + +_ZUÑIAN._ + +_Zuñi_ I. Some preliminary notes received in 1880 from Rev. TAYLOR F. +EALY, missionary among the Zuñi, upon the signs of that body of +Indians. + + +_FOREIGN CORRESPONDENCE._ + +Valuable contributions have been received in 1880-'81 and collated +under their proper headings, from the following correspondents in +distant countries: + +Rev. HERMAN N. BARNUM, D.D., of Harpoot, Turkey, furnishes a list of +signs in common use among Turks, Armenians, and Koords in that region. + +Miss L.O. LLOYD, Charleton House, Mowbray, near Cape Town, Africa, +gives information concerning the gestures and signals of the Bushmen. + +Rev. LORIMER FISON, Navuloa, Fiji, notes in letters comparisons +between the signs and gestures of the Fijians and those of the +North American Indians. As this paper is passing through the press +a _Collection_ is returned with annotations by him and also by Mr. +WALTER CAREW, Commissioner for the Interior of Navitilevu. The +last named gentleman describes some signs of a Fijian uninstructed +deaf-mute. + +Mr. F.A. VON RUPPRECHT, Kepahiang, Sumatra, supplies information +and comparisons respecting the signs and signals of the Redjangs and +Lelongs, showing agreement with some Dakota, Comanche, and Ojibwa +signs. + +Letters from Mr. A.W. HOWITT, F.G.S., Sale, Gippsland, Victoria, upon +Australian signs, and from Rev. JAMES SIBREE, jr., F.R.G.S., relative +to the tribes of Madagascar, are gratefully acknowledged. + +Many other correspondents are now, according to their kind promises, +engaged in researches, the result of which have not yet been received. +The organization of those researches in India and Ceylon has been +accomplished through the active interest of Col. H.S. OLCOTT, U.S. +Commissioner, Breach Candy, Bombay. + + * * * * * + +Grateful acknowledgment must be made to Prof. E.A. FAY, of the +National Deaf Mute College, through whose special attention a large +number of the natural signs of deaf-mutes, remembered by them as +having been invented and used before instruction in conventional +signs, indeed before attending any school, was obtained. The gentlemen +who made the contributions in their own MS., and without prompting, +are as follows: Messrs. M. BALLARD, R.M. ZIEGLER, J. CROSS, PHILIP +J. HASENSTAB, and LARS LARSON. Their names respectively follow their +several descriptions. Mr. BALLARD is an instructor in the college, and +the other gentlemen were pupils during the session of 1880. + +Similar thanks are due to Mr. J.L. NOYES, superintendent of the +Minnesota Institution for the education of the Deaf and Dumb, +Faribault, Minn., and to Messrs. GEORGE WING and D.H. CARROLL, +teachers in that institution, for annotations and suggestions +respecting deaf-mute signs. The notes made by the last named gentlemen +are followed by their respective names in reference. + + * * * * * + +Special thanks are also rendered to Prof. JAMES D. BUTLER, of Madison, +Wis., for contribution of Italian gesture-signs, noted by him in 1843, +and for many useful suggestions. + + * * * * * + +Other Italian signs are quoted from the Essay on Italian +gesticulations by his eminence Cardinal WISEMAN, in his _Essays +on Various Subjects, London_, 1855, Vol. III, pp. 533-555. Many +Neapolitan signs are extracted from the illustrated work of the canon +ANDREA DE JORIO, _La Mimica degli Antichi investigata nel gestire +Napoletano_, _Napoli_, 1832. + + * * * * * + +A small collection of Australian signs has been extracted from R. +BROUGH SMYTH's _The Aborigines of Victoria_, _London_, 1878. + + + + +EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY. + +In the printed but unpublished _Collection_ before mentioned, page +396, nearly three hundred quarto pages are devoted to descriptions of +signs arranged in alphabetic order. A few of these are now presented +to show the method adopted. They have been selected either as having +connection with the foregoing discussion of the subject or because for +some of them pictorial illustrations had already been prepared. There +is propriety in giving all the signs under some of the title words +when descriptions of only one or two of those signs have been used in +the foregoing remarks. This prevents an erroneous inference that +the signs so mentioned are the only or the common or the generally +prevailing signs for the idea conveyed. This course has involved some +slight repetition both of descriptions and of illustrations, as it +seemed desirable that they should appear to the eye in the several +connections indicated. The extracts are rendered less interesting and +instructive by the necessity for omitting cross-references which would +show contrasts and similarities for comparison, but would require a +much larger part of the collected material to be now printed than is +consistent with the present plan. Instead of occupying in this manner +the remaining space allotted to this paper, it was decided to present, +as of more general interest, the descriptions of TRIBAL SIGNS, PROPER +NAMES, PHRASES, DIALOGUES, NARRATIVES, DISCOURSES, and SIGNALS, which +follow the EXTRACTS. + +It will be observed that in the following extracts there has been an +attempt to supply the conceptions or origin of the several signs. When +the supposed conception, obtained through collaborators, is printed +before the authority given as reference, it is understood to have been +gathered from an Indian as being his own conception, and is therefore +of special value. When printed after the authority and within +quotation marks it is in the words of the collaborator as offered by +himself. When printed after the authority and without quotation marks +it is suggested by this writer. + +The letters of the alphabet within parentheses, used in some of the +descriptions, refer to the corresponding figures in TYPES OF HAND +POSITIONS at the end of this paper. When such letters are followed +by Arabic numerals it is meant that there is some deviation, which is +described in the text, from that type of hand position corresponding +with the letter which is still used as the basis of description. +Example: In the first description from (_Sahaptin_ I) for _bad_, +_mean_, page 412, (G) refers to the type of hand position so marked, +being identically that position, but in the following reference, to +(R 1), the type referred to by the letter R has the palm to the front +instead of backward, being in all other respects the position which it +is desired to illustrate; (R), therefore, taken in connection with +the description, indicates that change, and that alone. This mode +of reference is farther explained in the EXAMPLES at the end of this +paper. + +References to another title word as explaining a part of a description +or to supply any other portions of a compound sign will always be +understood as being made to the description by the same authority +of the sign under the other title-word. Example: In the second +description by (_Sahaptin_ I) for _bad, mean_, above mentioned, the +reference to GOOD is to that sign for _good_ which is contributed by +Rev. G.L. DEFFENBAUGH, and is referred to as (_Sahaptin_ I.). + + +ANTELOPE. + +Pass the open right hand outward from the small of the back. (_Wied_.) +This, as explained by Indians lately examined, indicates the lighter +coloration upon the animal's flanks. A Ute who could speak Spanish +accompanied it with the word _blanco_, as if recognizing that it +required explanation. + +With the index only extended, hold the hand eighteen or twenty inches +transversely in front of the head, index pointing to the left, +then rub the sides of the body with the flat hands. (_Cheyenne_ +IV; _Dakota_ VI.) "The latter sign refers to the white sides of the +animal; the former could not be explained." + +[Illustration: Fig. 234.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 235.] + +Extend and separate the forefingers and thumbs, nearly close all the +other fingers, and place the hands with backs outward above and a +little in front of the ears, about four inches from the head, and +shake them back and forth several times. Antelope's horns. This is an +Arapaho sign. (_Dakota_ I, II, IV.) + +Close the right hand, leaving the end of the index in the form of +a hook, and the thumb extended as in Fig. 234; then wave the hand +quickly back and forth a short distance, opposite the temple. +(_Hidatsa_ I; _Arikara_ I.) "Represents the pronged horn of the +animal. This is the sign ordinarily used, but it was noticed that in +conversing with one of the Dakotas the sign of the latter (_Dakota_ +VI) was used several times, to be more readily understood." + +Place both hands, fingers fully extended and spread, close to the +sides of the head. _Wied's_ sign was readily understood as signifying +the white flanks. (_Apache_ I.) + +In connection with the above signs Fig. 235 is presented, which was +drawn by Running Antelope, an Uncpapa Dakota, as his personal totem, +or proper name. + + +BAD, MEAN. + +Make the sign for GOOD and then that of NOT. (_Long._) + +Close the hand, and open it whilst passing it downward. (_Wied._) This +is the same as my description; but differently worded, possibly notes +a less forcible form. I say, however, that the arm is "extended." +The precise direction in which the hand is moved is not, I think, +essential. (_Matthews._) This sign is invariably accompanied by a +countenance expressive of contempt. (_F. Jacker._). + +Scatter the dexter fingers outward, as if spurting away water from +them. (_Burton_.) + +(1) Right hand partially elevated, fingers closed, thumb clasping the +tips; (2) sudden motion downward and outward accompanied by equally +sudden opening of fingers and snapping of the fingers from the thumb. +(_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Right hand closed back to front is moved forcibly downward and +forward, the fingers being violently opened at instant of stopping the +motion of hand. (_Cheyenne_ IV.) + +Right hand closed (B) carried forward in front of the body toward the +right and downward, during which the hand is opened, fingers downward, +as if dropping out the contents. (_Dakota_ I.) "Not worth keeping." + +Half close the fingers of the right hand, hook the thumb over the fore +and middle fingers; move the hand, back upward, a foot or so toward +the object referred to, and suddenly let the fingers fly open. +Scattered around, therefore bad. An Arapaho sign. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Close the fingers of the right hand, resting the tips against the +thumb, then throw the hand downward and outward toward the right to +arm's length, and spring open the fingers. Fig. 236. (_Dakota_ VI, VII, +VIII; _Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 236.] + +The sign most commonly used for this idea is made by the hand being +closed near the breast, with the back toward the breast, then as the +arm is suddenly extended the hand is opened and the fingers separated +from each other. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +Hands open, palms turned in; move one hand toward, and the other from, +the body; then vice versâ. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Throw the clinched right hand forward, downward, and outward, and when +near at arm's length, suddenly snap the fingers from the thumb as if +sprinkling water. (_Wyandot_ I.) "To throw away contemptuously; not +worth keeping." + +Raise hand in front of breast, fingers hooked, thumb resting against +second finger, palm downward (G), then with a nervous movement throw +the hand downward to the right and a little behind the body, with an +expression of disgust on the face. During motion of hand the fingers +are suddenly extended as though throwing something out of the +hand, and in final position the fingers and thumb are straight and +separated, palm backward (R 1). (_Sahaptin_ I.) "Away with it!" + +Another: Same motion of arm and hand as in _good_. But in the first +position fingers are closed, and as the hand moves to the right they +are thrown open, until in final position all are extended as in final +for _good_. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +Extend the right hand, palm downward, and move it in a horizontal line +from the body, then suddenly turn the hand over as if throwing water +from the back of it or the index. (_Comanche_ I.) "Good, no." + +Pass the flat right hand, interruptedly, downward and backward past +the right side. (_Pima and Papago_ I.) "Putting aside." + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Hold forward the closed hand with the little finger up, at the same +time nodding the head. (_Ballard_.) + +Draw the tongue out a little and then shake the head with a displeased +look. (_Larson_.) + +Use the sign for _handsome_ (see first part of the sign for GOOD), at +the same time shake the head as if to say "no." (_Ziegler_.) + +_Deaf-mute signs_: + +The hand closed (except the little finger which is extended and +raised), and held forward with the fingers to the front is the sign +for _bad_ illustrated in the Report for 1879 of the Ohio Institution +for the Deaf and Dumb. This sign is used among the deaf-mutes in +England. + + +BEAR, ANIMAL. + +Pass the hand before the face to mean ugliness, at the same time +grinning and extending the fingers like claws. (_Burton_.) + +Hands in front of and about eight inches above the elbows, fingers +slightly bent and open, thumbs and palms to the front to represent +claws,--or bear in standing position. Sometimes accompanied by clawing +motion. (_Creel_.) + +(1) Middle and third finger of right hand clasped down by the thumb, +forefinger and little finger extended, crooked downward; (2) the +motion of scratching made in the air. (_Cheyenne_ II.) Fig. 237. + +[Illustration: Fig. 237.] + +Fingers of both hands closed, except the thumb and little finger, +which are extended, and point straight toward the front, hands +horizontal, backs upward, are held in front of their respective sides +near the body, and then moved directly forward with, short, sharp +jerking motions. (_Dakota_ I.) "From the motion of the bear in +running." This is also reported as an Arapaho sign. (_Dakota_ IV.) The +paws and claws are represented. + +Seize a short piece of wood, say about two feet long, wave in the +right hand, and strike a blow at an imaginary person. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Seize a short thing about six inches long, hold it as dagger, +pretend to thrust it downward under the breast-bone repeatedly, and +each time farther, grunting or gasping in doing so; withdraw the +stick, holding it up, and, showing the blood, point to the breast +with the left forefinger, meaning to say _so do thou when you meet the +bear_. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Pretend to stab yourself with an arrow in various parts of +the body, then point towards the body with the left-hand forefinger. +(_Omaha_ I.) + +Arms are flexed and hands clasped about center of breast; then slowly +fall with arms pendulous and both hands in type-position (Q). The sign +is completed by slowly lifting the hands and arms several times in +imitation of the animal's locomotion. Movement and appearance of +animal's front feet. (_Oto_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 238.] + +Hold the closed right hand at the height of the elbow before the right +side, palm downward, extend and curve the thumb and little finger +so that their tips are nearly directed toward one another before the +knuckles of the closed fingers; then push the hand forward several +times. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) "Paw +and long claws." Fig. 238. + +[Illustration: Fig. 239.] + +Hold both closed hands before the body, palms down, and about eight +inches apart; reach forward a short distance, relaxing the fingers as +if grasping something with them, and draw them back again as the hands +are withdrawn to their former position. Ordinarily but one hand is +used, as in Fig. 239. (_Ute_ I.) "Scratching, and grasping with the +claws." + +The right hand thrown in the position as for _horse_, as follows: +Elevate the right-hand, extended, with fingers joined, outer edge +toward the ground, in front of the body or right shoulder, and +pointing forward, resting the curved thumb against the palmar side of +the index, then extend both hands with fingers extended and curved, +separated, palms down, and push them forward several times, making a +short arch. (_Apache_ I.) "The animal that scratches with long claws." + +[Illustration: Fig. 240.] + +Fig. 240 is from a Moqui rock etching, contributed by Mr. G.K. +Gilbert, showing the pictorial mode of representing the animal. + +_Deaf-mute sign_: + +Claw both shoulders with the fingers. (_Wing_.) + + +---- Grizzly. + +Right hand flat and extended, held at height of shoulder, palm +forward, then bring the palm to the mouth, lick it with the tongue, +and return it to first position. (_Omaha_ I.) "Showing blood on the +paw." + +Other remarks upon the signs for _bear_ are made on pages 293 and 345. + + +BRAVE. + +Close the fists, place the left near the breast, and move the right +over the left toward the left side. (_Wied_.) A motion something +like this, which I do not now distinctly recall--a short of wrenching +motion with the fists in front of the chest--I have seen used for +_strong_. If _Wied's_ sign-maker's hand first struck the region over +the heart (as he may have done) he would then have indicated a "strong +heart," which is the equivalent for _brave_. (_Matthews_.) This +sign is used by the Sioux at the present day to denote _small_. +(_McChesney_.) I have seen a similar sign repeatedly, the only +variation being that the right fist is passed over and downward, in +front of the left, instead of toward the left side. (_Hoffman_.) Fig. +241. + +[Illustration: Fig. 241.] + +Clinch the right fist, and place it to the breast. (_Absaroka_ I; +_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) + +Both hands fists, backs outward, obliquely upward, near together, +right inside of left, are moved forward from in front of the chest, +two or three times and back again to original position and then the +right-hand fist is thrown with some force over the left on a curve. +_Endurance_ is expressed by this sign, and it is connected with the +sun-dance trials of the young man in testing his bravery and powers of +endurance before admission to the ranks of the warriors. (_Dakota_ I.) + +Push the two fists forward about a foot, at the height of the breast, +the right about two inches behind the left, palms inward. (_Dakota_ +IV.) "The hands push all before them." + +Hold the left arm in front as if supporting a shield, and the right +drawn back as if grasping a weapon. Close the fists, lower the head, +moving it a little forward (with a "lunge") as well as the arms and +fists.. (_Omaha_ I.) "I am brave." + +Another: Index and thumb extended parallel, palm to left, the other +fingers bent. Shake the open fingers several times at the person +referred to, the forearm being held at an angle of about 20°. (_Omaha_ +I.) "You are very brave; you do not fear death when you see the +danger." + +Strike the breast gently with the palmar side of the right fist. +(_Wyandot_ I.) + +Place the left clinched hand horizontally before the breast, palm +toward the body, and at the same time strike forcibly downward in +front of it with the right fist, as in Fig. 242. Sometimes the right +fist is placed back of the left, then thrown over the latter toward +the front and downward, as in Fig. 241 above. The same gesture has +also been made by throwing the palmar side of the right fist edgewise +downward in front of the knuckles of the left, as in Fig. 243. In each +instance the left fist is jerked upward very perceptibly as the right +one is thrust downward. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 242.] + +Strike the clinched fist forcibly toward the ground in front of and +near the breast. (_Arikara_ I.) + + +---- He is the bravest of all. + +Make the sign for BRAVE and then the left forefinger, upright, back +inward about twelve inches in front of left breast, right index +similarly held near the right breast, move them at the same time +outward or forward, obliquely to the left, (_Dakota_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 243.] + +Raise right hand, fingers extended, palm downward (W 1), swing it +around "over all," then point to the man, raise left fist (A 1, +changed to left and palm inward) to a point in front of and near +the body, close fingers of right hand and place the fist (A 2, palm +inward) between left fist and body and then with violent movement +throw it over left fist, as though breaking something, and stop at +a point in front of and a little below left fist, and lastly point +upward with right hand. (_Sahaptin_ I.) "Of all here he is strongest." + +The right fist, palm downward, is struck against the breast several +times, and the index is then quickly elevated before the face, +pointing upward. (_Apache_ I.) + +Move the fist, thumb to the head, across the forehead from right to +left, and cast it toward the earth over the left shoulder. (_Apache_ +III.) + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Run forward with a bold expression of the countenance. (_Larson_.) + +Not to run back but to run forward. (_Ziegler_.) + +_Deaf-mute sign_: + +Left hand held as if pressing a loaf against the chest. Make a motion +with the right hand, palm upward as if cutting through the fingers of +the left with a sawing motion. (_Wing_.) + +Other remarks connected with the signs for _brave_ appear on pages +352, 353, and 358, _supra_. + + +CHIEF. + +The forefinger of the right hand extended, pass it perpendicularly +downward, then turn it upward, and raise it in a right line as high as +the head. (_Long_.) "Rising above others." + +Raise the index finger of the right hand, holding it straight upward, +then turn it in a circle and bring it straight down, a little toward +the earth. (_Wied_.) The right hand is raised, and in position (J) +describes a semicircle as in beginning the act of throwing. The arm +is elevated perfectly erect aside of the head, the palm of the index +and hand should be outward. There is an evident similarity in both +execution and conception of this sign and _Wied's_; the little +variation may be the result of different interpretation. The idea of +superiority is most prominent in both. (_Boteler_.) "A prominent one +before whom all succumb." The Arikaras understood this sign, and they +afterwards used it in talking to me. (_Creel_.) _Wied's_ air-picture +reminds of the royal scepter with its sphere. + +Raise the forefinger, pointed upwards, in a vertical direction, and +then reverse both finger and motion; the greater the elevation the +"bigger" the chief. (_Arapaho_ I.) + +Place the closed hand, with the index extended and pointing upward, +near the right cheek, pass it upward as high as the head, then turn +it forward and downward toward the ground, the movement terminating +a little below the initial point. See Fig. 306 in TENDOY-HUERITO +DIALOGUE, p. 487. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Ponka_ II; _Shoshoni_ +I.) + +(1) Sign for MAN, as follows: Right hand, palm inward, elevated to +about the level of the breast, index carelessly pointing upward, +suddenly pointed straight upward, and the whole hand moved a little +forward, at the same time taking care to keep the back of the hand +toward the person addressed; (2) middle, third, little finger, and +thumb slightly closed together, forefinger pointing forward and +downward; (3) curved motion made forward, outward, and downward. +(_Cheyenne_ II.) "He who stands still and commands," as shown by +similarity of signs to _sit here_ or _stand here_. + +Extend the index, remaining fingers closed, and raise it to the right +side of the head and above it as far as the arm can reach. Have also +seen the sign given by _Wyandot_ I. (_Ojibwa_ V.) + +The extended forefinger of the right hand (J), of which the other +fingers are closed, is raised to the right side of the head and above +it as far as the arm can be extended, and then the hand is brought +down in front of the body with the wrist bent, the back of hand in +front and the extended forefinger pointing downward. (_Dakota_ I.) +"Raised above others." + +Move the upright and extended right index, palm forward, from the +shoulder upward as high, as the top of the head, then forward six +inches through a curve, and move it forward six inches, and then +downward, its palm backward, to the height of the shoulder. An Arapaho +sign, Above all others. He looks over or after us. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Elevate the extended index before the shoulder, palm forward, pass it +upward as high as the head, and forming a short curve to the front, +then downward again slightly to the front to before the breast and +about fifteen inches from it. (_Dakota_ VI, VII, VIII; _Hidatsa_ I; +_Arikara_ I.) + +Right hand closed, forefinger pointing up, raise the hand from the +waist in front of the body till it passes above the head. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Bring the closed right hand, forefinger pointing up, on a +level with the face; then bring the palm of the left hand with force +against the right forefinger; next send up the right hand above the +head, leaving the left as it is. (_Omaha_ I.) + +The right arm is extended by side of head, with the hand in position +(J). The arm and hand then descend, the finger describing a semicircle +with the arm as a radius. The sign stops with arm hanging at full +length. (_Oto_ I.) "The arm of authority before whom all must fall." + +Both hands elevated to a position in front of and as high as the +shoulders, palms facing, fingers and thumbs spread and slightly +curved; the hands are then drawn outward a short distance towards +their respective sides and gently elevated as high as the top of the +head. (_Wyandot_ I.) "One who is elevated by others." + +Elevate the closed hand--index only extended and pointing upward--to +the front of the right side of the face or neck or shoulder; pass it +quickly upward, and when as high as the top of the head, direct it +forward and downward again toward the ground. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ +III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) Close the right hand, index raised, +extended, and placed before the breast, then move it forward from the +mouth, pointing forward, until at arm's length. (_Ute_ I.) + + +----, Head, of tribe. + +Place the extended index, pointing upward, at some distance before +the right shoulder, then place the left hand, with fingers and thumb +extended and separated, just back of the index; then in passing the +index upward as high as the head, draw the left hand downward a short +distance, as in Fig. 244. Superior to others. (_Absaroka_ I; _Arikara_ +I.) + +Place both flat hands before the body, palms down, and pass them +horizontally outward toward their respective sides, then make the sign +for CHIEF. (_Arikara_ I.) "Chief of the wide region and those upon +it." + +[Illustration: Fig. 244.] + +After pointing out the man, point to the ground, all fingers closed +except first (J 1, pointing downward in stead of upward), then point +upward with same hand (J 2), then move hand to a point in front +of body, fingers extended, palm downward (W 1), and move around +horizontally. (_Sahaptin_ I.) "In this place he is head over all." + +[Illustration: Fig. 245.] + +Grasp the forelock with the right hand, palm backward, pass the +hand upward about six inches and hold it in that position a moment. +(_Pai-Ute_ I.) Fig 245. + +Elevate the extended index vertically above and in front of the head, +holding the left hand, forefinger pointing upward, from one to two +feet below and underneath the right, the position of the left, either +elevated or depressed, also denoting the relative position of the +second individual to that of the chief. (_Apache_ I.) + + +----, War. Head of a war party; Partisan. + +First make the sign of the _pipe_; then open the thumb and index +finger of the right hand, back of the hand outward, moving it forward +and upward in a curve. (_Wied_.) For remarks upon this sign see page +384. + +Place the right hand, index only extended and pointing forward and +upward, before the right side of the breast nearly at arm's length, +then place the left hand, palm forward with fingers spread and +extended, midway between the breast and the right hand. (_Arapaho_ II; +_Cheyenne_ V; _Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I.) + +First make the sign for BATTLE, viz: Both hands (A 1) brought to the +median line of the body on a level with the breast and close together; +describe with both hands at the same time a series of circular +movements of small circumference; and then add the sign for CHIEF, +(_Dakota_ I.) "First in battle." + +---- of a band. + +Point toward the left and front with the extended forefinger of the +left hand, palm down; then place the extended index about twelve +inches behind the left hand, pointing in the same direction. +(_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 246.] + +Place the extended index at some distance before the right shoulder, +pointing forward and slightly upward, then place the left hand with +fingers and thumb extended and separated over the index, and while +pushing the index to the front, draw the left hand backward toward +body and to the left. Ahead of others. (_Absaroka_ I; _Arikara_ I.) +Fig. 246. + +Point the extended index forward and upward before the chest, then +place the spread fingers of the left hand around the index, but at a +short distance behind it, all pointing the same direction. Ahead of +the remainder. (_Arikara_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 247.] + +Grasp the forelock with the right hand, palm backward, and pretend to +lay the hair down over the right side of the head by passing the hand +in that direction. (_Pai-Ute_ I.) Fig. 247. + +The French deaf-mute sign for _order, command_, maybe compared with +several of the above signs. In it the index tip first touches the +lower lip, then is raised above the head and brought down with +violence. (_L'enseignment primaire des sourds-muets; par M. Pélissier. +Paris, 1856_.) + +Not only in Naples, but, according to De Jorio, in Italy generally the +conception of _authority_ in gesture is by pressing the right hand +on the flank, accompanied by an erect and squared posture of the bust +with the head slightly inclined to the right. The idea of _substance_ +is conveyed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 248.] + + +----, Warrior lower than actual, but distinguished for bravery. + +Place the left forefinger, pointing toward the left and front, before +the left side of the chest, then place the extended index near (or +against) the forefinger, and, while passing the latter outward toward +the left, draw the index toward the right. (_Absaroka_ I; _Arikara_ I; +_Shoshoni_ I.) Fig. 248. + + +DEAD, DEATH. + +Throw the forefinger from the perpendicular into a horizontal position +toward the earth, with the back downward. (_Long_.) + +Hold the left hand flat over the face, back outward, and pass with +the similarly held right hand below the former, gently striking or +touching it. (_Wied_.) The sign given (_Oto and Missouri_ I) has no +similarity in execution or conception with _Wied's_. (_Boteler_.) This +sign may convey the idea of _under_ or _burial_, quite differently +executed from most others reported. Dr. McChesney conjectures this +sign to be that of wonder or surprise at hearing of a death, but not a +distinct sign for the latter. + +The finger of the right hand passed to the left hand and then cast +down. (_Macgowan_.) + +Hold the left hand slightly arched, palm down, fingers pointing toward +the right about fifteen inches before the breast, then place the +extended index nearer the breast, pointing toward the left, pass it +quickly forward underneath the left hand and in an upward curve to +termination. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I.) + +Place the palm of the hand at a short distance from the side of the +head, then withdrawing it gently in an oblique downward direction and +inclining the head and upper part of the body in the same direction. +(_Ojibwa_ II.) See page 353 for remarks upon this sign. + +Hold both hands open, with palms over ears, extend fingers back on +brain, close eyes, and incline body a little forward and to right or +left very low, and remain motionless a short time, pronouncing the +word _Ke-nee-boo_ slowly. (_Ojibwa_ IV.) + +Left hand flattened and held back upward, thumb inward in front of and +a few inches from the breast. Right hand slightly clasped, forefinger +more extended than the others, and passed suddenly under the left +hand, the latter being at the same time gently moved toward the +breast. (_Cheyenne_ II.) "Gone under." + +Both hands horizontal in front of body, backs outward, index of each +hand alone extended, the right index is passed under the left with a +downward, outward and then upward and inward curved motion at the +same time that the left is moved inward toward the body two or three +inches, the movements being ended on the same level as begun. "Upset, +keeled over." For _many deaths_ repeat the sign many times. The sign +of (_Cheyenne_ II) expresses "gone under," but is not used in the +sense of _death, dead_, but _going under a cover_, as entering a +lodge, under a table, &c. (_Dakota_ I.) + +Make the sign for ALIVE, viz.: The right hand, back upward, is to +be at the height of the elbow and forward, the index extended and +pointing forward, the other fingers closed, thumb against middle +finger; then, while rotating the hand outward, move it to a position +about four inches in front of the face, the back looking forward and +the index pointing upward; then the sign for No. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Another: Hold the left hand pointing toward the right, palm obliquely +downward and backward, about a foot in front of the lower part of +the chest, and pass the right hand pointing toward the left, palm +downward, from behind forward underneath it. Or from an upright +position in front of the face, back forward, index extended and other +fingers closed, carry the right hand downward and forward underneath +the left and about four inches beyond it, gradually turning the right +hand until its back is upward and its index points toward the left. An +Arapaho sign. Gone under or buried. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Hold the left hand slightly bent with the palm down, before the +breast, then pass the extended right hand, pointing toward the left, +forward under and beyond the left. (_Dakota_ VI, VII.) + +Hold the right hand, flat, palm downward, before the body; then throw +it over on its back to the right, making a curve of about fifteen +inches. (_Dakota_ VI; _Hidatsa_ I; _Arikara_ I.) The gesture +of reversal in this and other instances may be compared with +picture-writings in which the reversed character for the name or totem +of a person signifies his death. One of these is given in Fig. 249, +taken from Schoolcraft's _Hist. Am. Tribes_, I, p. 356, showing the +cedar burial post or _adjedatig_ of Wabojeeg, an Ojibwa war chief, who +died on Lake Superior about 1793. He belonged to the deer clan of his +tribe and the animal is drawn reversed on the post. + +[Illustration: Fig. 249.] + +Extend right hand, palm down, hand curved. Turn the palm up in moving +the hand down towards the earth. (_Omaha_ I.) + +The countenance is brought to a sleeping composure with the eyes +closed. This countenance being gradually assumed, the head next falls +toward either shoulder. The arms having been closed and crossed upon +the chest with the hands in type positions (B B) are relaxed and drop +simultaneously towards the ground, with the fall of the head. This +attitude is maintained some seconds. (_Oto and Missouri_ I.) "The +bodily appearance at death." + +Place the open hand, back upward, fingers a little drawn together, +at the height of the breast, pointing forward; then move it slowly +forward and downward, turning it over at the same time. (_Iroquois_ +I.) "To express 'gone into the earth, face upward.'" + +The flat right hand is waved outward and downward toward the same +side, the head being inclined in the same direction at the time, with +eyes closed. (_Wyandot_ I.) + +Hold the left hand loosely extended about fifteen inches in front of +the breast, palm down, then pass the index, pointing to the left, in +a short curve downward, forward, and upward beneath the left palm. +(_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 250.] + +Bring the left hand to the left breast, hand half clinched (H), then +bring the right hand to the left with the thumb and forefinger in +such a position as if you were going to take a bit of string from the +fingers of the left hand, and pull the right hand off in a horizontal +line as if you were stretching a string out, extend the hand to the +full length of the arm from you and let the index finger point outward +at the conclusion of the sign. (_Comanche_ I.) "Soul going to happy +hunting-grounds." + +The left hand is held slightly arched, palm down, nearly at arm's +length before the breast; the right extended, flat, palm down, +and pointing forward, is pushed from the top of the breast, +straightforward, underneath, and beyond the left. (_Shoshoni and +Banak_ I.) Fig. 250. + +Close both eyes, and after a moment throw the palm of the right hand +from the face downward and outward toward the right side, the head +being dropped in the same direction. (_Ute_ I.) + +Touch the breast with the extended and joined fingers of the right +hand, then throw the hand, palm to the left, outward toward the right, +leaning the head in that direction at the same time. (_Apache_ I.) + +Close the eyes with the tips of the index and second finger, +respectively, then both hands are placed side by side, horizontally, +palms downward, fingers extended and united; hands separated by slow +horizontal movement to right and left. (_Kutchin_ I.) + +Palm of hand upward, then a wave-like motion toward the ground. +(_Zuñi_ I.) + + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Place the hand upon the cheek, and shut the eyes, and move the hand +downward toward the ground. (_Ballard._) + +Let your head lie on the open hand with eyes shut. (_Cross._) + +Use the right shut hand as if to draw a screw down to fasten the lid +to the coffin and keep the eyes upon the hand. (_Hasenstab._) + +Move the head toward the shoulder and then close the eyes. (_Larson._) + +_Deaf mute signs_: + +The French deaf-mute conception is that of gently falling or sinking, +the right index falling from the height of the right shoulder upon the +left forefinger, toward which the head is inclined. + +The deaf-mute sign commonly used in the United States is the same as +_Dakota_ VI; _Hidatsa_ I; _Arikara_ I; above. Italians with obvious +conception, make the sign of the cross. + + +---- To Die. + +Right hand, forefinger extended, side up, forming with the thumb +a 'U'; the other fingers slightly curved, touching each other, the +little finger having its side toward the ground. Move the hand right +and left then forward, several times; then turn it over suddenly, +letting it fall toward the earth. (_Ojibwa_ V; _Omaha_ I.) "An animal +wounded, but staggering a little before it falls and dies." + +[Illustration: Fig. 251.] + + +---- Dying. + +Hold the left hand as in _dead_; pass the index in the same manner +underneath the left, but in a slow, gentle, interrupted movement. +(_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) "Step by +step; inch by inch." Fig. 251. + +[Illustration: Fig. 252.] + + +---- Nearly, but recovers. + +Hold the left hand as in _dead_; pass the index with a slow, easy, +interrupted movement downward, under the left palm, as in _dying_, +but before passing from under the palm on the opposite side return +the index in the same manner to point of starting; then elevate it. +(_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) Fig. 252. + +Other remarks upon the signs for _dead_ are given on page 353. + + +GOOD. + +The hand held horizontally, back upward, describes with the arm a +horizontal curve outward. (_Long._) This is like the Eurasian motion +of benediction, but may more suggestively be compared with several of +the signs for _yes_, and in opposition to several of those for _bad_ +and _no_, showing the idea of acceptance or selection of objects +presented, instead of their rejection. + +Place the right hand horizontally in front of the breast and move it +forward. (_Wied._) This description is essentially the same as the +one I furnished. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) I stated, however, that the +hand was moved outward (i.e., to the right). I do not remember seeing +it moved directly forward. In making the motion as I have described it +the hand would have to go both outward and forward. (_Matthews_.) The +left arm is elevated and the hand held in position (W). The arm and +hand are thus extended from the body on a level with the chest; the +elbow being slightly bent, the arm resembles a bent bow. The right arm +is bent and the right hand, in position (W), sweeps smoothly over the +left arm from the biceps muscle over the ends of the fingers. This +sign and _Wied's_ are noticeably similar. The difference is, the _Oto_ +sign uses the left arm in conjunction and both _more to the left_. The +conception is of something that easily passes; smoothness, evenness, +etc., in both. (_Boteler_.) + +Wave the hand from the mouth, extending the thumb from the index +and closing the other three fingers. This sign also means _I know_. +(_Burton_.) + +(1) Right-hand fingers pointing to the left placed on a level with +mouth, thumb inward; (2) suddenly moved with curve outward so as to +present palm to person addressed. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Pass the open right hand, palm downward, from the heart, twenty-four +inches horizontally forward and to the right through an arc of about +90°. (_Dakota_ IV.) "Heart easy or smooth." + +Another: Gently strike the chest two or three times over the heart +with the radial side of the right hand, the fingers partly flexed and +pointing downward. An Arapaho sign. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Place the flat right hand, palm down, thumb touching the breast, then +move it forward and slightly upward and to the right. (_Arapaho_ II; +_Cheyenne_ V; _Ojibwa_ V; _Dakota_ VI, VII, VIII; _Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ +III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +Pass the flat hand, palm down, from the breast forward and in a slight +curve to the right. (_Dakota_ VI; _Hidatsa_ I; _Ankara_ I.) + +The extended right hand, palm downward, thumb backward, fingers +pointing to the left, is held nearly or quite in contact with the body +about on a level with the stomach; it is then carried outward to the +right a foot or two with a rapid sweep, in which the forearm is moved +but not necessarily the humerus. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +Move right hand, palm down, over the blanket, right and left, several +times. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Hit the blanket, first on the right, then on the left, palm +down, several times. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Point at the object with the right forefinger, shaking it a +little up and down, the other fingers being closed. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Same as preceding, but with the hand open, the thumb crooked +under and touching the forefinger; hand held at an angle of 45° while +shaking a little back and forth. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Hold the closed hands together, thumbs up; separate by +turning the wrists down, and move the fists a little apart; then +reverse movements till back to first position. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Hold the left hand with back toward the ground, fingers and +thumb apart, and curved; hold the right hand opposite it, palm down, +hands about six inches apart; shake the hands held thus, up and down, +keeping them the same distance apart. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Hold the hands with the palms in, thumbs up, move hands right +and left, keeping them about six inches apart. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Look at the right hand, first on the back, then on the palm, +then on the back again. (_Omaha_ I.) + +The flat right hand, palm down, is moved forward and upward, starting +at a point about twelve inches before the breast. (_Wyandot_ I.) + +Hold the flat right hand forward and slightly outward from the +shoulder, palm either upward or downward, and pass it edgewise +horizontally to the right and left. This sign was made when no +personality was involved. The same gesturer when claiming for himself +the character of goodness made the following: Rapidly pat the breast +with the flat right hand. (_Pima and Papago_ I.) + +Throw right hand from front to side, fingers extended and palm down, +forearm horizontal. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +Make an inclination of the body forward, moving at the same time +both hands forward from the breast, open, with the palm upward, +and gradually lowering them. This is also used for _glad, pleased_. +(_Iroquois_ I.) + +Bring both hands to the front, arms extended, palms outward; elevate +them upward and slightly forward; the face meanwhile expressive of +wonder. (_Comanche_ I.) + +Bring the hand opposite the breast, a little below, hand extended, +palm downward (W), and let it move off in a horizontal direction. If +it be very good, this may be repeated. If comparatively good, repeat +it more violently. (_Comanche_ I.) + +Hold the right hand palm down, pointing to the left, and placed +horizontally before the breast, then raise it several times slightly. +Good and glad. (_Kutchin_ I.) + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Smack the lips. (_Ballard_.) + +Close the hand while the thumb is up, and nod the head and smile as if +to approve of something good. (_Hasenstab_.) + +Point the forefinger to the mouth and move the lips with a pleased +look as if tasting sweet fruit. (_Larson_.) + +Use the sign for _handsome_ by drawing the outstretched palm of the +right hand down over the right cheek; at the same time nod the head as +if to say "yes." (_Ziegler_.) + +_Deaf-mute signs_: + +Some of the Indian signs appear to be connected with a pleasant taste +in the month, as is the sign of the French and American deaf-mutes, +waving thence the hand, either with or without touching the lips, back +upward, with fingers straight and joined, in a forward and downward +curve. They make nearly the same gesture with hand sidewise for +general assent: "Very well!" + +The conventional sign for _good_, given in the illustration to the +report of the Ohio Institution for the education of the deaf and dumb, +is: The right hand raised forward and closed, except the thumb, which +is extended upward, held vertically, its nail being toward the body; +this is in opposition to the sign for _bad_ in the same illustration, +the one being merely the exhibition of the thumb toward and the other +of the little finger away from the body. They are English signs, the +traditional conception being acceptance and rejection respectively. + +_Italian signs_: + +The fingers gathered on the mouth, kissed and stretched out and +spread, intimate a dainty morsel. The open hand stretched out +horizontally, and gently shaken, intimates that a thing is so-so, not +good and not bad. (_Butler_.) Compare also the Neapolitan sign given +by De Jorio, see Fig. 62, p. 286, _supra_. Cardinal Wiseman gives as +the Italian sign for _good_ "the hand thrown upwards and the head back +with a prolonged ah!" _Loc. cit._, p. 543. + +---- Heart is. + +Strike with right hand on the heart and make the sign for GOOD from +the heart outward. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Touch the left breast over the heart two or three times with the +ends of the fingers of the right hand; then make the sign for GOOD. +(_Dakota_ IV.) + +Place the fingers of the flat right hand over the breast, then make +the sign for GOOD. (_Dakota_ VII.) + +Move hand to position in front of breast, fingers extended, palm +downward (W), then with quick movement throw hand forward and to +the side to a point 12 or 15 inches from body, hand same as in first +position. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +For further remarks on the signs for _good_, see page 286. + +HABITATION, INCLUDING HOUSE, LODGE, TIPI, WIGWAM. + +---- HOUSE. + +The hand half open and the forefinger extended and separated; +then raise the hand upward and give it a half turn, as if screwing +something. (_Dunbar_.) + +Cross the ends of the extended fingers of the two hands, the hands to +be nearly at right angle, radial side up, palms inward and backward, +thumbs in palms. Represents the logs at the end of a log house. +(_Creel_; _Dakota_ IV.) + +Partly fold the hands; the fingers extended in imitation of the corner +of an ordinary log house. (_Arapaho_ I.) + +Both hands outspread near each other, elevated to front of face; +suddenly separated, turned at right angles, palms facing; brought +down at right angles, suddenly stopped. Representing square form of a +house. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +The fingers of both hands extended and slightly separated, then those +of the right are placed into the several spaces between those of the +left, the tips extending to about the first joints. (_Absaroka_ I.) +"From the arrangement of the logs in a log building." + +Both hands extended, fingers spread, place those of the right into the +spaces between those of the left, then move the hands in this position +a short distance upward. (_Wyandot_ I.) "Arrangement of logs and +elevation." + +[Illustration: Fig. 253.] + +Both hands are held edgewise before the body, palms facing, spread the +fingers, and place those of one hand into the spaces between those +of the other, so that the tips of each protrude about an inch beyond. +(_Hidatsa_ I; _Kaiowa_ I; _Arikara_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) "The arrangement of logs in a frontier house." Fig. +253. In connection with this sign compare the pictograph, Fig. 204, +page 379, _supra_. In ordinary conversation the sign for _white man's +house_ is often dropped, using instead the generic term employed for +_lodge_, and this in turn is often abbreviated, as by the Kaiowas, +Comanches, Wichitas, and others, by merely placing the tips of the +extended forefingers together, leaving the other fingers and thumbs +closed, with the wrists about three or four inches apart. + +Both hands held pointing forward, edges down, fingers extended and +slightly separated, then place the fingers of one hand into the spaces +between the fingers of the other, allowing the tips of the fingers +of either hand to protrude as far as the first joint, or near it. +(_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) "From the appearance of a corner of a log +house--protruding and alternate layers of logs." + +Fingers of both hands interlaced at right angles several times; then +the sign for LODGE. (_Kutchin_ I.) + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Draw the outlines of a house in the air with hands tip to tip at a +right angle. (_Ballard_.) + +Put the open hands together toward the face, forming a right angle +with the arms. (_Larson_.) + +----, Stone; Fort. + +Strike the back of the right fist against the palm of the left hand, +the left palm backward, the fist upright ("idea of resistance or +strength"); then with both hands opened, relaxed, horizontal, and +palms backward, place the ends of the right fingers behind and against +the ends of the left; then separate them, and moving them backward, +each through a semicircle, bring their bases together. The latter sign +is also that of the Arapahos for _house_. An inclosure. (_Dakota_ IV.) +The first part of this sign is that for _stone_. + +---- LODGE, TIPI, WIGWAM. + +The two hands are reared together in the form of the roof of a house, +the ends of the fingers upward. (_Long_.) + +Place the opened thumb and forefinger of each hand opposite each +other, as if to make a circle, but leaving between them a small +interval; afterward move them from above downward simultaneously +(which is the sign for _village_); then elevate the finger to indicate +the number--one. (_Wied_.) Probably he refers to an earthen lodge. I +think that the sign I have given you is nearly the same with all the +Upper Missouri Indians. (_Matthews_.) + +Place the fingers of both hands ridge-fashion before the breast. +(_Burton_.) + +Indicate outlines (an inverted V, thus ^), with the forefingers +touching or crossed at the tips, the other fingers closed. (_Creel_; +_Arapaho_ I.) + +Both hands open, fingers upward, tips touching, brought downward, +and at same time separated to describe outline of a cone, suddenly +stopped. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Both hands approximated, held forward horizontally, fingers joined +and slightly arched, backs upward, withdraw them in a sideward and +downward direction, each hand moving to its corresponding side, thus +combinedly describing a hemisphere. Carry up the right and, with its +index pointing downward indicate a spiral line rising upward from +the center of the previously formed arch. (_Ojibwa_ V.) "From the +dome-shaped form of the wigwam, and the smoke rising from the opening +in the roof." + +Both hands flat and extended, placing the tips of the fingers of one +against those of the other, leaving the palms or wrists about four +inches apart. (_Absaroka_ I; _Wyandot_ I; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) +"From its exterior outline." + +Both hands carried to the front of the breast and placed V-shaped, +inverted, thus ^, with the palms, looking toward each other, edge of +fingers outward, thumbs inward. (_Dakota_ I.) "From the outline of the +tipi." + +With the hands nearly upright, palms inward, cross the ends of the +extended forefingers, the right one either in front or behind the +left, or lay the ends together; resting the ends of the thumbs +together side by side, the other fingers to be nearly closed, and +resting against each other, palms inward. Represents the tipi poles +and the profile of the tipi. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 254.] + +Place the tips of the fingers of both hands together in front of the +breast, with the wrists some distance apart. (_Dakota_ V.) Fig. 254. + +Fingers of both hands extended and separated; then interlace them so +that the tips of the fingers of one hand protrude beyond the backs +of those of the opposing one; hold the hands in front of the breast, +pointing upward, leaving the wrists about six inches apart. (_Dakota_ +VII, VIII; _Hidatsa_ I; _Ponka_ II; _Arikara_ I; _Pani_ I.) + +The extended hands, with finger tips upward and touching, the palms +facing one another, and the wrists about two inches apart, are held +before the chest. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +Place the tip of the index against the tip of the forefinger of the +left hand, the remaining fingers and thumbs closed, before the chest, +leaving the wrists about six inches apart. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ +III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) "Outline of lodge." This is an +abbreviated sign, and care must be taken to distinguish it from _to +meet_, in which the fingers are brought from their respective sides +instead of upward to form the gesture. + +Another: Place the tips of the fingers of the flat extended hands +together before the breast, leaving the wrists about six inches apart. +(_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 255.] + +Another: Both hands flat and extended, fingers slightly separated; +then place the fingers of the right hand between the fingers of the +left as far as the second joints, so that the fingers of one hand +protrude about an inch beyond those of the other; the wrists must be +held about six inches apart. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ +II; _Wichita_ II.) "Outline of Indian lodge and crossing of tent-poles +above the covering." Fig. 255. + +Fig. 256 represents a Sahaptin sign given to the writer by a gentleman +long familiar with the northwestern tribes of Indians. The conception +is the same union of the lodge poles at the top, shown in several +other signs, differently executed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 256.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 257.] + +Place the tips of the spread fingers of both hands against one another +pointing upward before the body, leaving a space of from four to six +inches between the wrists. Fig. 257. The fingers are sometimes bent so +as to more nearly represent the outline of a house and roof. Fig. 258. +This, however, is accidental. (_Pai-Ute_ I.) "Represents the boughs +and branches used in the construction of a Pai-Ute 'wik-i-up.'" + +[Illustration: Fig. 258.] + +Place the tips of the two flat hands together before the body, leaving +a space of about six inches between the wrists. (_Ute_ I.) "Outline of +the shape of the lodge." + +[Illustration: Fig. 259.] + +Left hand and right hand put together in shape of sloping shelter +(_Kutchin_ I.) Fig. 259. + +---- Great Council House. + +Place both flat and extended hands in front of the shoulders, pointing +forward, palms facing; then pass them straight upward and slightly +inward near the termination of the gesture. This appears to combine +the gestures for _much, large_, and _lodge_. (_Arikara_ I.) + +----, Coming or going out of a. + +Same as the sign for _entering a lodge_, only the fingers of the +right hand point obliquely upward after passing under the left hand. +(_Dakota_ I.) "Coming out from under cover." + +Hold the open left hand a foot or eighteen inches in front of the +breast, palm downward or backward, fingers pointing toward the right +and pass the right, back upward, with index extended, or all of the +fingers extended, and pointing forward, about eighteen inches forward +underneath the left through an arc from near the mouth. Some at the +same time move the left hand toward the breast. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +----, Entering a. + +The left hand is held with the back upward, and the right hand also +with the back up is passed in a curvilinear direction down under the +other, so as to rub against its palm, then up on the other side of it. +The left hand here represents the low door of the skin lodge and the +right the man stooping down to pass in, (_Long_.) + +Pass the flat right hand in short curves under the left, which is held +a short distance forward. (_Wied_.) I have described the same sign. It +is not necessary to pass the hand more than once. By saying curves, +he seems to imply many passes. If the hand is passed more than once it +means repetition of the act. (_Matthews; McChesney_.) The conception +is of the stooping to pass through the low entrance, which is often +covered by a flap of skin, sometimes stretched on a frame, and which +must be shoved aside, and the subsequent rising when the entrance has +been accomplished. A distinction is reported by a correspondent +as follows: "If the intention is to speak of a person entering the +gesturer's own lodge, the right hand is passed under the left and +toward the body, near which the left hand is held; if of a person +entering the lodge of another, the left hand is held further from the +body and the right is passed under it and outward. In both cases both +hands are slightly curved and compressed." As no such distinction is +reported by others it may be an individual invention or peculiarity. + +A gliding movement of the extended hand, fingers joined, backs up, +downward, then ascending, indicative of the stooping and resumption of +the upright position in entering the same. (_Arapaho_ I.) + +(1) Sign for LODGE, the left hand being still in position used in +making sign for LODGE; (2) forefinger and thumb of right hand brought +to a point and thrust through the outline of an imaginary lodge +represented by the left hand. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +First make the sign for LODGE, then place the left hand, horizontal +and slightly arched, before the body, and pass the right hand with +extended index underneath the left--forward and slightly upward beyond +it. (_Absaroka_ I; _Dakota_ V; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I; _Wyandot_ I.) + +Left hand (W), ends of fingers toward the right, stationary in front +of the left breast; pass the right hand directly and quickly out from +the breast under the stationary left hand, ending with the extended +fingers of the right hand pointing outward and slightly downward, +joined, palm downward flat, horizontal (W). (_Dakota_ I.) "Gone under; +covered." + +Hold the open left hand a foot or eighteen inches in front of the +breast, palm downward or backward, fingers pointing toward the right, +and pass the right hand, palm upward, fingers bent sidewise and +pointing backward, from before backward underneath it, through a +curve until near the mouth. Some at the same time move the left hand a +little forward. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +The left hand, palm downward, finger-tips forward, either quite +extended or with the fingers slightly bent, is held before the +body. Then the right hand nearly or quite extended, palm downward, +finger-tips near the left thumb, and pointing toward it, is passed +transversely under the left hand and one to four inches below it. The +fingers of the right hand point slightly upward when the motion is +completed. This sign usually, but not invariably, refers to entering a +house. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +Place the slightly curved left hand, palm down, before the breast, +pointing to the right, then pass the flat right hand, palm down, in +a short curve forward, under and upward beyond the left. (_Ute_ I.) +"Evidently from the manner in which a person is obliged to stoop in +entering an ordinary Indian lodge." + +HORSE. + +The right hand with the edge downward, the fingers joined, the thumb +recumbent, extended forward. (_Dunbar_.) + +Place the index and middle finger of the right hand astraddle the +index finger of the left. [In the original the expression "third" +finger is used, but it is ascertained in another connection that the +author counts the thumb as the first finger and always means what is +generally styled middle finger when he says third. The alteration is +made to prevent confusion.] (_Wied_.) I have described this sign in +words to the same effect. (_Matthews_.) The right arm is raised, and +the hand, opened edgewise, with fingers parallel and approximated, is +drawn from left to right before the body at the supposed height of the +animal. There is no conceivable identity in the execution of this sign +and _Wied's_, but his sign for _horse_ is nearly identical with the +sign for _ride a horse_ among the Otos. (_Boteler_.) This sign is +still used by the Cheyennes. (_Dodge_.) + +A hand passed across the forehead. (_Macgowan_.) + +Left-hand thumb and forefinger straightened out, held to the level of +and in front of the breast; right-hand forefinger separated from the +middle finger and thrown across the left hand to imitate the act of +bestriding. They appear to have no other conception of a horse, and +have thus indicated that they have known it only as an animal to be +ridden. (_Creel_; _Cheyenne_ II.) + +Draw the right hand from left to right across the body about the +heart, the fingers all closed except the index. This is abbreviated +by making a circular sweep of the right open hand from about the left +elbow to the front of the body, probably indicating the mane. A Pani +sign. (_Cheyenne_ IV.) + +Place the first two fingers of the right hand, thumb extended (N 1), +downward, astraddle the first two joined and straight fingers of the +left hand (T 1), sidewise to the right. Many Sioux Indians use only +the forefinger straightened. (_Dakota_ I.) "Horse mounted." + +The first and second fingers extended and separated, remaining fingers +and thumb closed; left forefinger extended, horizontal, remaining +fingers and thumb closed; place the right-hand fingers astride of the +forefinger of the left, and both hands jerked together, up and down, +to represent the motion of a horse. (_Dakota_ III.) + +The two hands being clinched and near together, palms downward, thumbs +against the forefingers, throw them, each alternately, forward and +backward about a foot, through an ellipsis two or three times, from +about six inches in front of the chest, to imitate the galloping of a +horse, or the hands may be held forward and not moved. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 260.] + +Place the extended and separated index and second fingers of the +right hand astraddle of the extended forefinger of the left. Fig. 260. +Sometimes all the fingers of the left hand are extended in making this +sign, as in Fig. 261, though this may be the result of carelessness. +(_Dakota_ VI, VII, VIII; _Hidatsa_ I; _Ponka_ II; _Arikara_ I; _Pani_ +I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 261.] + +The left hand is before the chest, back upward in the position of an +index-hand pointing forward; then the first and second fingers of the +right hand only being extended, separated and pointing downward, are +set one on each side of the left forefinger, the interdigital space +resting on the forefinger. The palm faces downward and backward. This +represents a rider astride of a horse. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +Close hands, except forefingers, which are curved downward; move them +forward in rotation, imitating the fore feet of the horse, and make +puffing sound of "Uh, uh"! (_Omaha_ I.) "This sign represents the +horse racing off to a safe distance, and puffing as he tosses his +head." + +The arm is flexed and the hand extended is brought on a level with +the mouth. The hand then assumes the position (W 1), modified by being +held edges up and down, palm toward the chest, instead of flat. The +arm and hand being held thus about the usual height of a horse are +made to pass in an undulating manner across the face or body about one +foot distant from contact. The latter movements are to resemble the +animal's gait. (_Oto_ I.) "Height of animal and movement of same." + +The index and second fingers of the right hand are placed astraddle +the extended forefinger of the left. (_Wyandot_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 262.] + +Place the flat right hand, thumb down, edgewise before the right side +of the shoulder, pointing toward the right. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ +III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) Pig. 262. + +[Illustration: Fig. 263.] + +Another: Hold the right hand flat, extended, with fingers joined, the +thumb extended upward, then pass the hand at arm's length before the +face from left to right. This is said by the authorities cited +below to be also the Caddo sign, and that the other tribes mentioned +originally obtained it from that tribe. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ I, +III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) Fig. 263. + +Another: Place the extended and separated index and second fingers +astraddle the extended and horizontal forefinger of the left hand. +This sign is only used when communicating with uninstructed white men, +or with other Indians whose sign for horse is specifically distinct. +(_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.). + +[Illustration: Fig. 264.] + +Place the extended index and second fingers of the right hand across +the extended first two fingers of the left. Fig. 264. Size of the +animal is indicated by passing the right hand, palm down, with fingers +loosely separated, forward from the right side, at any height as the +case may necessitate, after which the sign for HORSE may be made. +(_Pima and Papago_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 265.] + +Place the right hand, palm down, before the right side of the chest; +place the tips of the second and third fingers against the ball of the +thumb, allowing the index and little fingers to project to represent +the ears. Fig. 265. Frequently the middle fingers extend equally with +and against the thumb, forming the head of the animal, the ears always +being represented by the two outer fingers, viz, the index and little +finger. Fig. 266. (_Ute_ I.) A similar sign is reported by Colonel +Dodge as used by the Utes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 266.] + +Elevate the right hand, extended, with fingers joined, outer edge +toward the ground, in front of the body or right shoulder, and +pointing forward, resting the curved thumb against the palmar side +of the index. This sign appears also to signify _animal_ generically, +being frequently employed as a preliminary sign when denoting other +species. (_Apache_ I.) + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Imitate the motion of the elbows of a man on horseback. (_Ballard_.) + +Act in the manner of a driver, holding the lines in his hands and +shouting to the horse. (_Cross_.) + +Move the hands several times as if to hold the reins. (_Larson_.) + +_Deaf-mute signs_: + +The French deaf-mutes add to the straddling of the index the motion of +a trot. American deaf-mutes indicate the ears by placing two fingers +of each hand on each side of the head and moving them backward and +forward. This is sometimes followed by straddling the left hand by the +fore and middle fingers of the right. + +----, A man on a. + +Same sign as for HORSE, with the addition of erecting the thumb while +making the gesture. (_Dodge_.) + +----, Bay. + +Make the sign for HORSE, and then rub the lower part of the cheek back +and forth. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +----, Black. + +Make the sign for HORSE, and then, point to a black object or rub +the back of the left hand with the palmar side of the fingers of the +right. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +----, Bronco. An untamed horse. + +Make the sign TO RIDE by placing the extended and separated index and +second fingers of the right hand astraddle the extended forefinger +of the left hand, then with both hands retained in their relative +positions move them forward in high arches to show the bucking of the +animal. (_Ute_ I.) + +----, Grazing of a. + +Make the sign for HORSE, then lower the hand and pass it from side to +side as if dipping it upon the surface. (_Ute_ I.) + +----, Packing a. + +Hold the left hand, pointing forward, palm inward, a foot in front +of the chest and lay the opened right hand, pointing forward, first +obliquely along the right side of the upper edge of the left hand, +then on top, and then obliquely along the left side. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +----, Racing, Fast horse. + +The right arm is elevated and bent at right angle before the face; +the hand, in position (S 1) modified by being horizontal, palm to the +face, is drawn across edgewise in front of the face. The hand is +then closed and in position (B) approaches the mouth from which it is +opened and closed successively forward several times, finally it +is suddenly thrust out in position (W 1) back concave. (_Oto and +Missouri_ I.) "Is expressed in the (_Oto_ I) sign for HORSE, then the +motion for quick running." + +---- Racing. + +Extend the two forefingers and after placing them parallel near +together in front of the chest, backs upward, push them rapidly +forward about a foot. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Place both hands, with the forefingers only extended and pointing +forward side by side with the palms down, before the body; then push +them alternately backward and forward, in imitation of the movement of +horses who are running "neck and neck." (_Ute_ I; _Apache_ I, II.) + +----, Saddling a. + +Hold the left hand as in the sign for HORSE, _Packing a_, and lay the +semiflexed right hand across its upper edge two or three times, the +ends of the right fingers toward the left. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 267.] + +Place the extended and separated fingers rapidly with a slapping sound +astraddle the extended fore and second fingers of the left hand. The +sound is produced by the palm of the right hand which comes in contact +with the upper surface of the left. (_Ute_ I.) Pig. 267. + +----, Spotted; pied. + +Make the sign for HORSE, then the sign for SPOTTED, see page 345. +(_Dakota_ IV.) + +KILL, KILLING. + +The hands are held with the edge upward, and the right hand strikes +the other transversely, as in the act of chopping. This sign seems to +be more particularly applicable to convey the idea of death produced +by a blow of the tomahawk or war-club. (_Long_.) + +Clinch the hand and strike from above downward. (_Wied_.) I do not +remember this. I have given you the sign for killing with a stroke. +(_Matthews_.) There is an evident similarity in conception and +execution between the (_Oto and Missouri_ I) sign and _Wied's_. +(_Boteler_.) I have frequently seen this sign made by the +Arikara, Gros Ventre, and Mandan Indians at Fort Berthold Agency. +(_McChesney_.) This motion, which maybe more clearly expressed as the +downward thrust of a knife held in the clinched hand, is still used +by many tribes for the general idea of "kill," and illustrates the +antiquity of the knife as a weapon. _Wied_ does not say whether +the clinched hand is thrust downward with the edge or the knuckles +forward. The latter is now the almost universal usage among the same +tribes from which he is supposed to have taken his list of signs, and +indicates the thrust of a knife more decisively than if the fist were +moved with the edge in advance. The actual employment of arrow, gun, +or club in taking life, is, however, often specified by appropriate +gesture. + +Smite the sinister palm earthward with the dexter fist sharply, in +sign of "going down"; or strike out with the dexter fist toward the +ground, meaning to "shut down"; or pass the dexter under the left +forefinger, meaning to "go under." (_Burton_.) + +Right hand cast down. (_Macgowan_.) + +Hold the right fist, palm down, knuckles forward, and make a thrust +forward and downward. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Dakota_ VI, VII, +VIII; _Hidatsa_ I; _Ponka_ II; _Arikara_ I; _Pani_ I.) Fig. 268. + +[Illustration: Fig. 268.] + +Right hand clinched, thumb lying along the finger tips, elevated to +near the shoulder, strike downward and out vaguely in the direction +of the object to be killed. The abstract sign for _kill_ is simply to +clinch the right hand in the manner described and strike it down and +out from the right side. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Close the right hand, extending the forefinger alone; point toward +the breast, then throw from you forward, bringing the hand toward the +ground. (_Ojibwa_ V; _Omaha_ I.) + +Both hands clinched, with the thumbs resting against the middle joints +of the forefingers, hold the left transversely in front of and as high +as the breast, then push the right, palm down, quickly over and down +in front of the left. (_Absaroka_ I; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) "To +force under--literally." + +With the dexter fist carried to the front of the body at the right +side, strike downward and outward several times, with back of hand +upward, thumb toward the left, several times. (_Dakota_ I.) "Strike +down." + +With the first and second joints of the fingers of the right hand +bent, end of thumb against the middle of the index, palm downward, +move the hand energetically forward and downward from a foot in +front of the right breast. Striking with a stone--man's first weapon. +(_Dakota_, IV.) + +The left hand, thumb up, back forward, not very rigidly extended, is +held before the chest and struck in the palm with the outer edge of +the right hand. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) "To kill with a blow; to +deal the death blow." Fig. 269. + +Right hand, fingers open but slightly curved, palm to the left; move +downward, describing a curve. (_Omaha_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 269.] + +Another: Similar to the last, but the index finger is extended, +pointing in front of you, the other fingers but half open. (_Omaha_ +I.) + +Place the flat right hand, palm down, at arm's length to the right, +bring it quickly, horizontally, to the side of the head, then make +the sign for DEAD. (_Ojibwa_ V; _Wyandot_ I.) "To strike with a club, +dead." + +Both hands, in positions (AA), with arms semiflexed toward the body, +make the forward rotary sign with the clinched fists as in fighting; +the right hand is then raised from the left outward, as clutching +a knife with the blade pointing downward and inward toward the left +fist; the left fist, being held _in situ_, is struck now by the right, +edgewise as above described, and both suddenly fall together. (_Oto +and Missouri_ I.) "To strike down in battle with a knife. Indians +seldom disagree or kill another in times of tribal peace." + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Strike a blow in the air with the clinched fist, and then incline the +head to one side, and lower the open hand, palm upward. (_Ballard_.) + +Strike the other hand with the fist, or point a gun, and, having shot, +suddenly point to your breast with the finger, and hold your head +sidewise on the hand. (_Cross_.) + +Use the closed hand as if to strike, and then move back the head with +the eyes shut and the mouth opened. (_Hasenstab_.) + +Put the head down over the breast, and then move down the stretched +hand along the neck. (_Larson_.) + +_Turkish sign_: + +Draw finger across the throat like cutting with a knife. (_Barnum_.) + +---- In battle, To. + +Make the sign for BATTLE by placing both hands at the height of the +breast, palms facing, the left forward from the left shoulder, the +right outward and forward from the right, fingers pointing up and +spread, move them alternately toward and from one another; then strike +the back of the fingers of the right hand into the slightly curved +palm of the left, immediately afterward throwing the right outward and +downward toward the right. (_Ute_ I.) "Killed and falling over." + +---- You; I will kill you. + +Direct the right hand toward the offender and spring the finger from +the thumb, as in the act of sprinkling water. (_Long_.) The conception +is perhaps "causing blood to flow," or, perhaps, "sputtering away the +life," though there is a strong similarity to the motion used for the +_discharge of a gun or arrow_. + +Remarks and illustrations connected with the signs for _kill_ appear +on pages 377 and 378, _supra_. + +----, to, with a knife. + +Clinch the right hand and strike forcibly toward the ground before +the breast from the height of the face. (_Ute_ I.) "Appears to have +originated when flint knives were still used." + +NO, NOT. (COMPARE NOTHING.) + +The hand held up before the face, with the palm outward and vibrated +to and fro. (_Dunbar_.) + +The right hand waved outward to the right with the thumb upward. +(_Long_; _Creel_.) + +Wave the right hand quickly by and in front of the face toward the +right. (_Wied_.) Refusing to accept the idea or statement presented. + +Move the hand from right to left, as if motioning away. This sign also +means "I'll have nothing to do with you." (_Burton_.) + +A deprecatory wave of the right hand from front to right, fingers +extended and joined. (_Arapaho_ I; _Cheyenne_ V.) + +Right-hand fingers extended together, side of hand in front of and +facing the face, in front of the mouth and waved suddenly to the +right. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Place the right hand extended before the body, fingers pointing +upward, palm to the front, then throw the hand outward to the right, +and slightly downward. (_Absaroka_ I; _Hidatsa_ I; _Arikara_ I.) See +Fig. 65, page 290. + +The right hand, horizontal, palm toward the left, is pushed sidewise +outward and toward the right from in front of the left breast. _No, +none, I have none_, etc., are all expressed by this sign. Often these +Indians for _no_ will simply shake the head to the right and left. +This sign, although it may have originally been introduced from the +white people's habit of shaking the head to express "no," has been in +use among them for as long as the oldest people can remember, yet they +do not use the variant to express "yes." (_Dakota_ I.) "Dismissing the +idea, etc." + +Place the opened relaxed right hand, pointing toward the left, back +forward, in front of the nose or as low as the breast, and throw it +forward and outward about eighteen inches. Some at the same time turn +the palm upward. Or make the sign at the height of the breast with +both hands. Represents the shaking of the head. (_Dakota_ IV.) The +shaking of the head in negation is not so universal or "natural" as +is popularly supposed, for the ancient Greeks, followed by the modern +Turks and rustic Italians, threw the head back, instead of shaking it, +for "no." Rabelais makes Pantagruel (Book 3) show by many quotations +from the ancients how the shaking of the head was a frequent if +not universal concomitant of oracular utterance--not connected with +negation. + +Hold the flat hand edgewise, pointing upward before the right side of +the chest, then throw it outward and downward to the right. (_Dakota_ +VI, VII.) Fig. 270. + +[Illustration: Fig. 270.] + +The hand, extended or slightly curved, is held in front of the body +a little to the right of the median line; it is then carried with a +rapid sweep a foot or more farther to the right. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ +I.) + +Place the hand as in _yes_, as follows: The hand open, palm downward, +at the level of the breast, is moved forward with a quick downward +motion from the wrist, imitating a bow of the head; then move it from +side to side. (_Iroquois_ I.) "A shake of the head." + +Throw the flat right hand forward and outward to the right, palm to +the front. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +Quick motion of open hand from the mouth forward, palm toward the +mouth. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +Place hand in front of body, fingers relaxed, palm toward body (Y 1), +then with easy motion move to a point, say, a foot from the body, a +little to right, fingers same, but palm upward. (_Sahaptin_ I.) "We +don't agree." To express _All gone_, use a similar motion with both +hands. "Empty." + +The hand waved outward with the thumb upward in a semi-curve. +(_Comanche_ I; _Wichita_ I.) + +Elevate the extended index and wave it quickly from side to side +before the face. This is sometimes accompanied by shaking the head. +(_Pai-Ute_ I.) Fig. 271. + +[Illustration: Fig. 271.] + +Extend the index, holding it vertically before the face, remaining +fingers and thumb closed; pass the finger quickly from side to side a +foot or so before the face. (_Apache_ I.) This sign, as also that +of (_Pai-Ute_ I), is substantially the same as that with the same +significance reported from Naples by De Jorio. + +Another: The right hand, naturally relaxed, is thrown outward and +forward toward the right. (_Apache_ I.) + +Wave extended index before the face from side to side. (_Apache_ III.) + +Another: Wave the index briskly before the right shoulder. This +appears to be more common than the preceding. (_Apache_ III.) + +Right hand extended at the height of the eye, palm outward, then moved +outward a little toward the right. (_Kutchin_ I.) + +Extend the palm of the right hand horizontally a foot from the waist, +palm downward, then suddenly throw it half over from the body, as if +tossing a chip from the back of the hand. (_Wichita_ I.) + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Shake the head. (_Ballard._) + +Move both hands from each other, and, at the same time, shake the +head. (_Hasenstab._) + +_Deaf-mute signs_: + +French deaf-mutes wave the hand to the right and downward, with +the first and second fingers joined and extended, the other fingers +closed. This position of the fingers is that for the letter N in the +finger alphabet, the initial for the word _non_. American deaf-mutes +for emphatic negative wave the right hand before the face. + +_Turkish sign_: + +Throwing head back or elevating the chin and partly shutting the eyes. +This also means, "Be silent." (_Barnum._) + +_Japanese sign_: + +Move the right hand rapidly back and forth before the face. +Communicated in a letter from Prof. E.S. MORSE, late of the University +of Tokio, Japan. The same correspondent mentions that the Admiralty +Islanders pass the forefinger across the face, striking the nose in +passing, for negation. If the _no_ is a doubtful one they _rub_ the +nose in passing, a gesture common elsewhere. + +For further illustrations and comparisons see pp. 290, 298, 299, 304, +355, and 356, _supra_. + +NONE, NOTHING; I HAVE NONE. + +Motion of rubbing out. (_Macgowan_.) + +_Little_ or _nothing_ is signified by passing one hand over the other. +(_Creel_; _Ojibwa_ I.) + +May be signified by smartly brushing the right hand across the left +from the wrist toward the fingers, both hands extended, palms toward +each other and fingers joined. (_Arapaho_ I.) + +Is included in _gone, destroyed. (Dakota_ I.) + +Place the open left hand about a foot in front of the navel, pointing +obliquely forward toward the right, palm obliquely upward and +backward, and sweep the palm of the open right hand over it and about +a foot forward and to the right through a curve. All bare. (_Dakota_ +IV.) + +Another: Pass the ulnar side of the right index along the left index +several times from tip to base, while pronating and supinating the +latter. Some roll the right index over on its back as they move it +along the left. The hands are to be in front of the navel, backs +forward and outward, the left index straight and pointing forward +toward the right, the right index straight and pointing forward and +toward the left; the other fingers loosely closed. Represents a bush +bare of limbs. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Another: With the light hand pointing obliquely forward to the left, +the left forward to the right, palms upward, move them alternately +several times up and down, each time striking the ends of the fingers. +Or, the left hand being in the above position, rub the right palm in a +circle on the left two or three times, and then move it forward and to +the right. Rubbed out; that is all; it is all gone. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Pass the palm of the flat right hand over the left from the wrist +toward and off of the tips of the fingers. (_Dakota_ VI, VII, VIII; +_Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I.) Fig. 272. + +[Illustration: Fig. 272.] + +Brush the palm of the left hand from wrist to finger tips with the +palm of the right. (_Wyandot_ I.) + +Another: Throw both hands outward toward their respective sides from +the breast. (_Wyandot_ I.) + +Pass the flat right palm over the palm of the left hand from the wrist +forward over the fingers. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) "Wiped out." + +Hold the left hand open, with the palm upward, at the height of the +elbow and before the body; pass the right quickly over the left, palms +touching, from the wrist toward the tips of the left, as if brushing +off dust. (_Apache_ I.) + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Place the hands near each other, palms downward, and move them +over and apart, bringing the palms upward in opposite directions. +(_Ballard_.) + +Make a motion as in picking up something between the thumb and finger, +carry it to the lips, blow it away, and show the open hand. (_Wing_.) + +_Australian sign_: + +_Pannie_ (none or nothing). For instance, a native says _Bomako +ingina_ (give a tomahawk). I reply by shaking the hand, thumb, and all +fingers, separated and loosely extended, palm down. (_Smyth_, _loc. +cit._) Fig. 273. + +[Illustration: Fig. 273.] + +_Turkish sign_: + +Blowing across open palm as though blowing off feathers; also means +"Nothing, nothing left." (_Barnum_.) + +----, I have none. + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Expressed by the signs for none, after pointing to one's self. +(_Ballard_.) + +Stretch the tongue and move it to and fro like a pendulum, then shake +the head as if to say "no." (_Ziegler_.) + +---- Left. Exhausted for the present. + +Hold both hands naturally relaxed nearly at arm's length before the +body, palms toward the face, move them alternately to and fro a few +inches, allowing the fingers to strike those of the opposite hand each +time as far as the second joint. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ +II; _Wichita_ II.) Cleaned out. + +QUANTITY, LARGE; MANY; MUCH. + +The flat of the right hand patting the back of the left hand, which is +repeated in proportion to the greater or lesser quantity. (_Dunbar_.) +Simple repetition. + +The hands and arms are passed in a curvilinear direction outward and +downward, as if showing the form of a large globe; then the hands are +closed and elevated, as if something was grasped in each hand and held +up about as high as the face. (_Long_; _Creel_.) + +Clutch at the air several times with both hands. The motion greatly +resembles those of danseuses playing the castanets. (_Ojibwa_ I.) + +In the preceding signs the authorities have not distinguished between +the ideas of "many" and "much." In the following there appears by the +expressions of the authorities to be some distinction intended between +a number of objects and a quantity in volume. + +---- MANY. + +A simultaneous movement of both hands, as if gathering or heaping up. +(_Arapaho_ I.) Literally "a heap." + +Both hands, with spread and slightly curved fingers, are held pendent +about two feet apart before the thighs; then draw them toward one +another, horizontally, drawing them upward as they come together. +(_Absaroka_ I; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I; _Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; +_Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) "An accumulation of objects." + +Hands about eighteen inches from the ground in front and about the +same distance apart, held scoop-fashion, palms looting toward each +other, fingers separated; then, with a diving motion, as if scooping +up corn from the ground, bring the hands nearly together, with fingers +nearly closed, as though holding the corn, and carry upward to +the height of the breast, where the hands are turned over, fingers +pointing downward, separated, as though the contents were allowed to +drop to the ground. (_Dakota_ I, II.) + +Open the fingers of both hands, and hold the two hands before the +breast, with the fingers upward and a little apart, and the palms +turned toward each other, as if grasping a number of things. +(_Iroquois_ I.) + +Place the hands on either side of and as high as the head, then open +and close the fingers rapidly four or five times. (_Wyandot_ I.) +"Counting 'tens' an indefinite number of times." + +Clasp the hands effusively before the breast. (_Apache_ III.) + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_; + +Put the fingers of the two hands together, tip to tip, and rub them +with a rapid motion. (_Ballard_.) + +Make a rapid movement of the fingers and thumbs of both hands upward +and downward, and at the same time cause both lips to touch each other +in rapid succession, and both eyes to be half opened. (_Hasenstab_.) + +Move the fingers of both hands forward and backward. (_Ziegler_.) Add +to _Ziegler's_ sign: slightly opening and closing the hands. (_Wing_.) + +---- Horses. + +Raise the right arm above the head, palm forward, and thrust forward +forcibly on a line with the shoulder. (_Omaha_ I.) + +---- Persons, etc. + +Hands and fingers interlaced. (_Macgowan_.) + +Take up a bunch of grass or a clod of earth; place it in the hand of +the person addressed, who looks down upon it. (_Omaha_ I.) "Represents +as many or more than the particles contained in the mass." + +---- MUCH. + +Move both hands toward one another and slightly upward. (_Wied_.) I +have seen this sign, but I think it is used only for articles that may +be piled on the ground or formed into a heap. The sign most in use for +the general idea of _much_ or _many_ I have given. (_Matthews_.) + +Bring the hands up in front of the body with the fingers carefully +kept distinct. (_Cheyenne_ I.) + +Both hands closed, brought up in a curved motion toward each other to +the level of the neck or chin, (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Both hands and arms are partly extended; each hand is then made to +describe, simultaneously with the other, from the head downward, the +arc of a circle curving outward. This is used for _large_ in some +senses. (_Ojibwa_ V; _Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +Both hands flat and extended, placed before the breast, finger tips +touching, palms down; then separate them by passing outward and +downward as if smoothing the outer surface of a globe. (_Absaroka_ +I; _Shoshoni and Banack_ I; _Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) "A heap." + +_Much_ is included in _many_ or _big_, as the case may require. +(_Dakota_ I.) + +The hands, with fingers widely separated, slightly bent, pointing +forward, and backs outward, are to be rapidly approximated through +downward curves, from positions twelve to thirty-six inches apart, at +the height of the navel, and quickly closed. Or the hands may be moved +until the right is above the left. So much that it has to be gathered +with both hands. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Hands open, palms turned in, held about three feet apart and about two +feet from the ground. Raise them about a foot, then bring in an upward +curve toward each other. As they pass each other, palms down, the +right hand is about three inches above the left. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Place both hands flat and extended, thumbs touching, palms downward, +in front of and as high as the face; then move them outward and +downward a short distance toward their respective sides, thus +describing the upper half of a circle. (_Wyandot_ I.) "A heap." + +Both hands clinched, placed as high as and in front of the hips, palms +facing opposite sides and about a foot apart, then bring them upward +and inward, describing an arc, until the thumbs touch. (_Apache_ I.) +Fig. 274. + +[Illustration: Fig. 274.] + +Sweep out both hands as if inclosing a large object; wave the hands +forward and somewhat upward. (_Apache_ III.) "Suggesting immensity." + +_Deaf-mute sign_: + +The French deaf-mutes place the two hands, with fingers united and +extended in a slight curve, nearly together, left above right, in +front of the body, and then raise the left in a direct line above the +right, thus suggesting the idea of a large and slightly-rounded object +being held between the two palms. + +---- And heavy. + +Hands open, palms turned in, held about three feet apart, and about +two feet from the ground, raise them about a foot; close the fists, +backs of hands down, as if lifting something heavy; then move a short +distance up and down several times. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Remarks connected with the signs for _quantity_ appear on pages 291, +359, and 382, _supra_. + +QUESTION; INQUIRY; INTERROGATION. + +The palm of the hand upward and carried circularly outward, and +depressed. (_Dunbar_.) + +The hand held up with the thumb near the face, and the palm directed +toward the person of whom the inquiry is made; then rotated upon the +wrist two or three times edgewise, to denote uncertainty. (_Long; +Comanche_ I; _Wichita_ I.) The motion might be mistaken for the +derisive, vulgar gesture called "taking a sight," "_donner un pied +de nez_," descending to our small boys from antiquity. The separate +motion of the fingers in the vulgar gesture as used in our eastern +cities is, however, more nearly correlated with some of the Indian +signs for _fool_, one of which is the same as that for _Kaiowa_, see +TRIBAL SIGNS. It may be noted that the Latin "_sagax_," from which is +derived "sagacity," was chiefly used to denote the keen scent of dogs, +so there is a relation established between the nasal organ and wisdom +or its absence, and that "_suspendere naso_" was a classic phrase for +hoaxing. The Italian expressions "_restare con un palmo di naso_," +"_con tanto di naso_," etc., mentioned by the canon De Jorio, refer +to the same vulgar gesture in which the face is supposed to be thrust +forward sillily. Further remarks connected with this sign appear on +pp. 304, 305, _supra_. + +Extend the open hand perpendicularly with the palm outward, and move +it from side to side several times. (_Wied_.) This sign is still used. +For "outward," however, I would substitute "forward." The hand is +usually, but not always, held before the face. (_Matthews_.) This is +not the sign for _question_, but is used to attract attention before +commencing a conversation or any other time during the talk, when +found necessary. (_McChesney_.) With due deference to Dr. McChesney, +this is the sign for _question_, as used by many tribes, and +especially Dakotas. The Prince of Wied probably intended to convey the +motion of _forward, to the front_, when he said _outward_. In making +the sign for _attention_ the hand is held more nearly horizontal, +and is directed toward the individual whose attention is desired. +(_Hoffman_.) + +Right hand in front of right side of body, forearm horizontal, palm +of hand to the left, fingers extended, joined and horizontal, thumb +extending upward naturally, turn hand to the left about 60°, then +resume first position. Continue this motion for about two to four +seconds, depending on earnestness of inquiry. (_Creel_.) + +Right hand, fingers pointing upward, palm outward, elevated to the +level of the shoulder, extended toward the person addressed, and +slightly shaken from side to side. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Hold the elbow of the right arm against the side, extending the right +hand, palm inward, with all the fingers straight joined, as far as +may be, while the elbow remains fixed against the side; then turn the +extended hand to the right and left, repeating this movement several +times, being performed by the muscles of the arm. (_Sac, Fox, and +Kickapoo_ I.) + +Place the flat and extended right hand, palm forward, about twelve +inches in front of and as high as the shoulder, then shake the hand +from side to side as it is moved upward and forward. (_Apache_ I.) +See Fig. 304, in TENDOY-HUERITO DIALOGUE, p. 486. This may be compared +with the ancient Greek sign, Fig. 67, and with the modern Neapolitan +sign, Fig. 70, both of which are discussed on p. 291, _supra_. + +_Deaf-mute natural sign_: + +A quick motion of the lips with an inquiring look. (_Ballard_.) + +_Deaf-mute sign_: + +The French deaf-mutes for _inquiry_, "_qu'est-ce que c'est_?" bring +the hands to the lower part of the chest, with open palms about a foot +separate and diverging outward. + +_Australian sign_: + +One is a sort of note of interrogation. For instance, if I were +to meet a native and make the sign: Hand flat, fingers and thumb +extended, the two middle fingers touching, the two outer slightly +separated from the middle by turning the hand palm upward as I met +him, it would mean: "Where are you going?" In other words I should say +"_Minna_?" (what name?). (_Smyth_.) Fig. 275. + +[Illustration: Fig. 275.] + +Some comparisons and illustrations connected with the signs for +_question_ appear on pages 291, 297, and 303, _supra_, and under +PHRASES, _infra_. Quintilian remarks upon this subject as follows: "In +questioning, we do not compose our gesture after any single manner; +the position of the hand, for the most part is to be changed, however +disposed before." + +SOLDIER. + +----, American. + +The upright nearly closed hands, thumbs against the middle of the +forefingers, being in front of the body, with their thumbs near +together, palms forward, separate them about two feet horizontally on +the same line. All in a line in front. (_Cheyenne_ III; _Dakota_ IV.) + +Pass each hand down the outer seam of the pants. (_Sac, Fox, and +Kickapoo_ I.) "Stripes." + +Sign for WHITE MAN as follows: The extended index (M turned inward) +is drawn from the left side of the head around in front to the right +side, about on a line with the brim of the hat, with the back of the +hand outward; and then for FORT, viz, on level of the breasts in +front of body, both hands with fingers turned inward, straight, backs +joined, backs of hands outward, horizontal, turn outward the hands +until the fingers are free, curve them, and bring the wrists together +so as to describe a circle with a space left between the ends of the +curved fingers. (_Dakota_ I.) "From his fortified place of abode." + +Another: Both hands in front of body, fists, backs outward, hands in +contact, draw them apart on a straight line right to right, left to +left about two feet, then draw the index, other fingers closed, across +the forehead above the eyebrows. This is the sign preferred by the +Sioux. (_Dakota_ I.) + +Extend the fingers of the right hand; place the thumb on the same +plane close beside them, and then bring the thumb side of the hand +horizontally against the middle of the forehead, palm downward and +little finger to the front. (_Dakota_ II; _Ute_ I.) "Visor of forage +cap." + +First make the sign for SOLDIER substantially the same as (_Dakota_ +VI) below, then that for WHITE MAN, viz.: Draw the opened right hand +horizontally from left to right across the forehead a little above the +eyebrows, the back of the hand to be upward and the fingers pointing +toward the left; or, close all the fingers except the index and +draw it across the forehead in the same manner. (_Dakota_ IV.) For +illustrations of other signs for white man see Figs 315 and 329, +_infra_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 276.] + +Place the radial sides of the clinched hands together before the +chest, then draw them horizontally apart. (_Dakota_ VI; _Arikara_ I.) +"All in a line." Fig. 276. + +Put thumbs to temples, and forefingers forward, meeting in front, +other fingers closed. (_Apache_ III.) "Cap-visor." + +----, Arikara. + +Make the sign for ARIKARA (see TRIBAL SIGNS) and that for BRAVE. +(_Arikara_ I.) + +----, Dakota. + +Make the sign for DAKOTA (see TRIBAL SIGNS) and that for SOLDIER. +(_Dakota_ VI.) + +----, Indian. + +Both fists before the body, palms down, thumbs touching, then +draw them horizontally apart to the right and left. (_Arapaho_ II; +_Cheyenne_ V; _Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I.) This is the same sign illustrated +in Fig. 276, above, as given by tribes there cited for _white_ or +_American_ soldier. The tribes now cited use it for _a soldier_ of the +same tribe as the gesturer, or perhaps for _soldier_ generically, as +they subjoin a tribal sign or the sign for _white man_, when desiring +to refer to any other than their own tribe. + +TRADE OR BARTER; EXCHANGE. + +---- TRADE. + +First make the sign of EXCHANGE (see below), then pat the left arm +with the right finger, with a rapid motion from the hand passing it +toward the shoulder. (_Long_.) + +Strike the extended index finger of the right hand several times +upon that of the left. (_Wied_.) I have described the same sign in +different terms and at greater length. It is only necessary, however, +to place the fingers in contact once. The person whom the prince saw +making this sign may have meant to indicate something more than the +simple idea of trade, i.e., trade often or habitually. The idea of +frequency is often conveyed by the repetition of a sign (as in some +Indian languages by repetition of the root). Or the sign-maker may +have repeated the sign to demonstrate it more clearly. (_Matthews_.) +Though some difference exists in the motions executed in _Wied's_ sign +and that of (_Oto and Missouri_ I), there is sufficient similarity +to justify a probable identity of conception and to make them easily +understood. (_Boteler_.) In the author's mind _exchange_ was probably +intended for one transaction, in which each of two articles took the +place before occupied by the other, and _trade_ was intended for a +more general and systematic barter, indicated by the repetition of +strokes. Such distinction would not perhaps have occurred to most +observers, but as the older authorities, such as Long and Wied, give +distinct signs under the separate titles of _trade_ and _exchange_ +they must be credited with having some reason for so doing. A +pictograph connected with this sign is shown on page 381, _supra_. + +Cross the forefingers of both hands before the breast. (_Burton_.) +"Diamond cut diamond." This conception of one smart trader cutting +into the profits of another is a mistake arising from the rough +resemblance of the sign to that for _cutting_. Captain Burton is +right, however, in reporting that this sign for _trade_ is also used +for _white man, American_, and that the same Indians using it orally +call white men "shwop," from the English or American word "swap" or +"swop." This is a legacy from the early traders, the first white men +met by the Western tribes, and the expression extends even to the +Sahaptins on the Yakama River, where it appears incorporated in their +language as _swiapoin_. It must have penetrated to them through the +Shoshoni. + +Cross the index fingers. (_Macgowan_.) + +Cross the forefingers at right angles. (_Arapaho_ I.) + +Both hands, palms facing each other, forefingers extended, crossed +right above left before the breast. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +The left hand, with forefinger extended, pointing toward the right +(rest of fingers closed), horizontal, back outward, otherwise as (M), +is held in front of left breast about a foot; and the right hand, with +forefinger extended (J), in front of and near the right breast, is +carried outward and struck over the top of the stationary left (+) +crosswise, where it remains for a moment. (_Dakota_ I.) + +Hold the extended left index about a foot in front of the breast, +pointing obliquely forward toward the right, and lay the extended +right index at right angles across the left, first raising the right +about a foot above the left, palms of both inward, other fingers half +closed. This is also an Arapaho sign as well as Dakota. Yours is there +and mine is there; take either. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 277.] + +Place the first two fingers of the right hand across those of the +left, both being slightly spread. The hands are sometimes used, but +are placed edgewise. (_Dakota_ V.) Fig. 277. + +Another: The index of the right hand is laid across the forefinger of +the left when the transaction includes but two persons trading single +article for article. (_Dakota_ V.) + +Strike the back of the extended index at a right angle against the +radial side of the extended forefinger of the left hand. (_Dakota_ VI, +VII.) Fig. 278. + +[Illustration: Fig. 278.] + +The forefingers are extended, held obliquely upward, and crossed at +right angles to one another, usually in front of the chest. (_Mandan +and Hidatsa_ I.) + +Bring each hand as high as the breast, forefinger pointing up, the +other fingers closed, then move quickly the right hand to the left, +the left to the right, the forefingers making an acute angle as they +cross. (_Omaha_ I; _Ponka_ I.) + +The palm point of the right index extended touches the chest; it is +then turned toward the second individual interested, then touches the +object. The arms are now drawn toward the body, semiflexed, with the +hands, in type-positions (W W), crossed, the right superposed to the +left. The individual then casts an interrogating glance at the second +person. (_Oto and Missouri_ I.) "To cross something from one to +another." + +Close the hands, except the index fingers and the thumbs; with them +open, move the hands several times past one another at the height of +the breast; the index fingers pointing upward and the thumbs outward. +(_Iroquois_ I.) "The movement indicates 'exchanging.'" + +Hold the left hand horizontally before the body, with the forefinger +only extended and pointing to the right, palm downward; then, with the +right hand closed, index only extended, palm to the right, place the +index at right angles on the forefinger of the left, touching at the +second joints. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ +II.) + +Pass the hands in front of the body, all the fingers closed except the +forefingers. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +Close the fingers of both hands (K); bring them opposite each +shoulder; then bring the hands across each other's pathway, without +permitting them to touch. At the close of the sign the left hand will +be near and pointing at the right shoulder; right hand will be near +and pointing at the left shoulder. (_Comanche_ I.) + +Close both hands, leaving the forefingers only extended; place the +right before and several inches above the left, then pass the right +hand toward the left elbow and the left hand toward the right elbow, +each hand following the course made by a flourishing cut with a short +sword. This sign, according to the informant, is also employed by the +Banak and Umatilla Indians. (_Comanche_ II; _Pai-Ute_ I.) + +The forefingers of both hands only extended, pass the left from left +to right, and the right at the same time crossing its course from +the tip toward the wrist of the left, stopping when the wrists cross. +(_Ute_ I.) "Exchange of articles." + +Right hand carried across chest, hand extended, palm upward, fingers +and thumb closed as if holding something; left hand, in same position, +carried across the right, palm downward. (_Kutchin_ I.) + +Hands pronated and forefingers crossed. (_Zuñi_ I.) + +_Deaf-mute natural sign_: + +Close the hand slightly, as if taking something, and move it forward +and open the hand as if to drop or give away the thing, and again +close and withdraw the hand as if to take something else. (_Bollard_.) + +American instructed deaf-mutes use substantially the sign described by +(_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I). + +---- To buy. + +[Illustration: Fig. 279.] + +Hold the left hand about twelve inches before the breast, the thumb +resting on the closed third and fourth fingers; the fore and second +fingers separated and extended, palm toward the breast; then pass the +extended index into the crotch formed by the separated fingers of the +left hand. This is an invented sign, and was given to illustrate the +difference between buying and trading. (_Ute_ I.) Fig. 279. + +_Deaf-mute natural sign_: + +Make a circle on the palm of the left hand with the forefinger of the +right hand, to denote _coin_, and close the thumb and finger as if to +take the money, and put the hand forward to signify giving it to some +one, and move the hand a little apart from the place where it left the +money, and then close and withdraw the hand, as if to take the thing +purchased. (_Ballard_.) + +_Italian sign_: + +To indicate paying, in the language of the fingers, one makes as +though he put something, piece after piece, from one hand into the +other--a gesture, however, far less expressive than that when a man +lacks money, and yet cannot make up a face to beg it; or simply +to indicate want of money, which is to rub together the thumb and +forefinger, at the same time stretching out the hand. (_Butler_.) An +illustration from De Jorio of the Neapolitan sign for _money_ is given +on page 297, _supra_. + +---- EXCHANGE. + +The two forefingers are extended perpendicularly, and the hands are +then passed by each other transversely in front of the breast so as +nearly to exchange positions. (_Long_.) + +Pass both hands, with extended forefingers, across each other before +the breast. (_Wied_.) See remarks on this author's sign for TRADE, +_supra_. + +Hands brought up to front of breast, forefingers extended and other +fingers slightly closed; hands suddenly drawn toward and past each +other until forearms are crossed in front of breast. (_Cheyenne_ II.) +"Exchange; right hand exchanging position with the left." + +Left hand, with forefinger extended, others closed (M, except back of +hand outward), is brought, arm extended, in front of the left breast, +and the extended forefinger of the right hand, obliquely upward, +others closed, is placed crosswise over the left and maintained in +that position for a moment, when the fingers of the right hand are +relaxed (as in Y), brought near the breast with hand horizontal, palm +inward, and then carried out again in front of right breast twenty +inches, with palm looking toward the left, fingers pointing forward, +hand horizontal, and then the left hand performs the same movements on +the left side of the body, (_Dakota_ I.) "You give me, I give you." + +The hands, backs forward, are held as index hands, pointing upward, +the elbows being fully bent; each hand is then, simultaneously with +the other, moved to the opposite shoulder, so that the forearms cross +one another almost at right angles. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +YES; AFFIRMATION; IT IS SO. (COMPARE GOOD.) + +The motion is somewhat like _truth_, viz: The forefinger in the +attitude of pointing, from the mouth forward in a line curving a +little upward, the other fingers being carefully closed; but +the finger is held rather more upright, and is passed nearly +straightforward from opposite the breast, and when at the end of its +course it seems gently to strike something, though with rather a slow +and not suddenly accelerated motion. (_Long_.) + +Wave the hand straight forward from the face. (_Burton_.) This may +be compared with the forward nod common over most of the world for +assent, but that gesture is not universal, as the New Zealanders +elevate the head and chin, and the Turks are reported by several +travelers to shake the head somewhat like our negative. Rev. H.N. +Barnum denies that report, giving below the gesture observed by him. +He, however, describes the Turkish gesture sign for _truth_ to +be "gently bowing with head inclined to the right." This sidewise +inclination may be what has been called the shake of the head in +affirmation. + +Another: Wave the hand from the mouth, extending the thumb from the +index and closing the other three fingers. (_Burton_.) + +Gesticulate vertically downward and in front of the body with the +extended forefinger (right hand usually), the remaining fingers and +thumb closed, their nails down. (_Creel_; _Arapaho_ I.) + +Right hand elevated to the level and in front of the shoulder, two +first fingers somewhat extended, thumb resting against the middle +finger; sudden motion in a curve forward and downward. (_Cheyenne_ +II.) It has been suggested that the correspondence between this +gesture and the one given by the same gesturer for sitting (made by +holding the right hand to one side, fingers and thumb drooping, and +striking downward to the ground or object to be sat upon) seemingly +indicates that the origin of the former is in connection with the idea +of "resting," or "settling a question." It is however at least equally +probable that the forward and downward curve is an abbreviation of the +sign for _truth, true_, a typical description of which follows given +by (_Dakota_ I). The sign for _true_ can often be interchanged with +that for _yes_, in the same manner as the several words. + +The index of the horizontal hand (M), other fingers closed, is carried +straight outward from the mouth. This is also the sign for _truth_. +(_Dakota_ I.) "But one tongue." + +Extend the right index, the thumb against it, nearly close the other +fingers, and holding it about a foot in front of the right breast, +bend the hand from the wrist downward until the end of the index has +passed about six inches through an arc. Some at the same time move the +hand forward a little. (_Dakota_ IV.) "A nod; the hand representing +the head and the index the nose." + +Hold the naturally closed hand before the right side of the breast, +or shoulder, leaving the index and thumb extended, then throw the +hand downward, bring the index against the inner side of the thumb. +(_Dakota_ VI, VII, VIII.) Fig. 280. Compare also Fig. 61, p. 286, +_supra_, Quintilian's sign for approbation. + +[Illustration: Fig. 280.] + +The right hand, with the forefinger only extended and pointing +forward, is held before and near the chest. It is then moved forward +one or two feet, usually with a slight curve downward. (_Mandan and +Hidatsa_ I.) + +Bend the right arm, pointing toward the chest with the index finger; +unbend, throwing the hand up and forward. (_Omaha_ I.) + +Another: Close the three fingers, close the thumb over them, extend +forefinger, and then shake forward and down. This is more emphatic +than the preceding, and signifies, _Yes, I know_. (_Omaha_ I.) + +The right arm is raised to head with the index finger in type-position +(I1), modified by being more opened. From aside the head the hands +sweep in a curve to the right ear as of something entering or hearing +something; the finger is then more open and carried direct to the +ground as something emphatic or direct. (_Oto and Missouri_ I.) "'I +hear,' emphatically symbolized." It is doubted if this sign is +more than an expression of understanding which may or may not +imply positive assent. It would not probably be used as a direct +affirmative, for instance, in response to a question. + +The hand open, palm downward, at the level of the breast, is moved +forward with a quick downward motion from the wrist, imitating a bow +of the head. (_Iroquois_ I.) + +Throw the closed right hand, with the index extended and bent, as high +as the face, and let it drop again naturally; but as the hand reaches +its greatest elevation the index is fully extended and suddenly drawn +into the palm, the gesture resembling a beckoning from above toward +the ground. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +Quick motion of the right hand forward from the mouth; first position +about six inches from the mouth and final as far again away. In first +position the index finger is extended, the others closed; in final, +the index loosely closed, thrown in that position as the hand is +moved forward, as though hooking something with it; palm of hand out. +(_Sahaptin_ I.) + +Another: Move right hand to a position in front of the body, letting +arm hang loosely at the side, the thumb standing alone, all fingers +hooked except forefinger, which is partially extended (E 1, palm +upward). The sign consists in moving the forefinger from its partially +extended position to one similar to the others, as though making a sly +motion for some one to come to you. This is done once each tune the +assent is made. More emphatic than the preceding. (_Sahaptin_ I.) "We +are together, think alike." + +_Deaf-mute natural sign_: + +Indicate by nodding the head. (_Ballard_.) + +_Deaf-mute sign_: + +The French mutes unite the extremities of the index and thumb so as to +form a circle and move the hand downward with back vertical and turned +outward. It has been suggested in explanation that the circle formed +and exhibited is merely the letter O, the initial of the word _oui_. + +_Fiji sign_: + +Assent is expressed, not by a downward nod as with ourselves, but by +an upward nod; the head is jerked backward. Assent is also expressed +by uplifting the eyebrows. (_Fison_.) + +_Turkish sign_: + +One or two nods of the head forward. (_Barnum_.) + +Other remarks and illustrations upon the signs for _yes_ are given on +page 286, _supra_. + + + + +TRIBAL SIGNS. + + +ABSAROKA OR CROW. + +The hands held out each side, and striking the air in the manner of +flying. (_Long_.) + +Imitate the flapping of the bird's wings with the two hands, palms +downward, brought close to the shoulder. (_Burton_.) + +Imitate the flapping of a bird's wings with the two hands, palms to +the front and brought close to the shoulder. (_Creel_.) + +Place the flat hand as high as and in front or to the side of the +right shoulder, move it up and down, the motion occurring at the +wrist. For more thorough representation both hands are sometimes +employed. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Dakota_ V, VI, VIII; _Ponka_ +II; _Kaiowa_ I; _Pani_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) +"Bird's wing." + +Both hands extended, with fingers joined (W), held near the shoulders, +and flapped to represent the wings of a crow. (_Dakota_ II, III.) + +At the height of the shoulders and a foot outward from them, move +the upright hands forward and backward twice or three times from the +wrist, palms forward, fingers and thumbs extended and separated a +little; then place the back or the palm of the upright opened right +hand against the upper part of the forehead; or half close the +fingers, placing the end of the thumb against the ends of the fore +and middle fingers, and then place the back of the hand against the +forehead. This sign is also made by the Arapahos. (_Dakota_ IV.) "To +imitate the flying of a bird, and also indicate the manner in which +the Absaroka wear their hair." + +[Illustration: Fig. 281.] + +Make with the arms the motion of flapping wings. (_Kutine_ I.) + +The flat right hand, palm outward to the front and right, is held in +front of the right shoulder, and quickly waved back and forth a few +times. When made for the information of one ignorant of the common +sign, both hands are used, and the hands are moved outward from +the body, though still near the shoulder. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) +"Wings, i.e., of a crow." Fig. 281. + +APACHE. + +[Illustration: Fig. 282.] + +Make either of the signs for POOR, IN PROPERTY, by rubbing the index +back and forth over the extended left forefinger; or, by passing the +extended index alternately along the upper and lower sides of the +extended left forefinger from tip to base. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ +III; _Apache_ II; Wichita II.) Fig. 282. "It is said that when the +first Apache came to the region they now occupy he was asked who or +what he was, and not understanding the language he merely made the +sign for _poor_, which expressed his condition." + +[Illustration: Fig. 283.] + +Rub the back of the extended left forefinger from end to end with the +extended index. (_Comanche_ II; _Ute_ I.) "Poor, poverty-stricken." + +----, Coyotero. + +Place the back of the right hand near the end of the foot, the fingers +curved upward, to represent the turned-up toes of the moccasins. +(_Pima and Papago_ I; _Apache_ I.) Fig. 283. + +----, Mescalero. + +Same sign as for LIPAN _q.v._ (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ +II; _Wichita_ II.) + +----, Warm Spring. + +Hand curved (Y, more flexed) and laid on its back on top of the foot +(_moccasins much curved up at toe_); then draw hands up legs to near +knee, and cut off with edges of hands (_boot tops_). (_Apache_ III.) +"Those who wear booted moccasins with turn-up toes." + +ARAPAHO. + +The fingers of one hand touch the breast in different parts, to +indicate the tattooing of that part in points. (_Long_.) + +Seize the nose with the thumb and forefinger. (Randolph B. Marcy, +captain United States Army, in _The Prairie Traveler_. _New York_, +1859, p. 215.) + +Rub the right side of the nose with the forefinger: some call this +tribe the "Smellers," and make their sign consist of seizing the nose +with the thumb and forefinger. (_Burton_.) + +Finger to side of nose. (_Macgowan_.) + +Touch the left breast, thus implying what they call themselves, viz: +the "Good Hearts." (_Arapaho_ I.) + +Rub the side of the extended index against the right side of the nose. +(_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) + +Hold the left hand, palm down, and fingers extended; then with the +right hand, fingers extended, palm inward and thumb up, make a sudden +stroke from left to right across the back of the fingers of the left +hand, as if cutting them off. (_Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I.) This is +believed to be an error of the authority, and should apply to the +CHEYENNE tribal sign. + +Join the ends of the fingers (the thumb included) of the right hand, +and, pointing toward the heart near the chest, throw the hand forward +and to the right once, twice, or many times, through an arc of about +six inches. (_Dakota_ IV.) "Some say they use this sign because these +Indians tattoo their breasts." + +Collect the fingers and thumb of the right hand to a point, and tap +the tips upon the left breast briskly. (_Comanche_ II; _Ute_ I.) +"Goodhearted." It was stated by members of the various tribes at +Washington, in 1880, that this sign is used to designate the Northern +Arapahos, while that in which the index rubs against or passes upward +alongside of the nose refers to the Southern Arapahos. + +Another: Close the right hand, leaving the index only extended; then +rub it up and down, held vertically, against the side of the nose +where it joins the cheek. (_Comanche_ II; _Ute_ I.) + +The fingers and thumb of the right hand, are brought to a point, and +tapped upon the right side of the breast. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) + +ARIKARA. (CORRUPTLY ABBREVIATED REE.) + +Imitate the manner of shelling corn, holding the left hand stationary, +the shelling being done with the right. (_Creel_.) Fig. 284. + +With the right hand closed, curve the thumb and index, join their tips +so as to form a circle, and place to the lobe of the ear. (_Absaroka_ +I; _Hidatsa_ I.) "Big ear-rings." Fig. 285. + +Both hands, fists, (B, except thumbs) in front of body, backs looking +toward the sides of the body, thumbs obliquely upward, left hand +stationary, the backs of the fingers of the two hands touching, carry +the right thumb forward and backward at the inner side of the left +thumb and without moving the hand from the left, in imitation of the +act of shelling corn. (_Dakota_ I, VII, VIII.) + +Collect the fingers and thumb of the right hand nearly to a point, +and make a tattooing or dotting motion toward the upper portion of +the cheek. This is the old sign, and was used by them previous to the +adoption of the more modern one representing "corn-eaters." (_Arikara_ +I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 284.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 285.] + +Place the back of the closed right hand transversely before the mouth, +and rotate it forward and backward several times. This gesture may be +accompanied, as it sometimes is, by a motion of the jaws as if eating, +to illustrate more fully the meaning of the rotation of the fist. +(_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Wichita_ II; _Apache_ I.) "Corn-eater; +eating corn from the ear." + +Signified by the same motions with the thumbs and forefingers that are +used in shelling corn. The dwarf Ree (Arikara) corn is their peculiar +possession, which their tradition says was given to them by a superior +being, who led them to the Missouri River and instructed them how to +plant it. (Rev. C.L. Hall, in _The Missionary Herald_, April, 1880.) +"They are the corn-shellers." Have seen this sign used by the Arikaras +as a tribal designation. (_Dakota_ II.) + +ASSINABOIN. + +Hands in front of abdomen, horizontal, backs outward, ends of fingers +pointing toward one another, separated and arched (H), then, moved up +and down and from side to side as though covering a corpulent body. +This sign is also used to indicate the Gros Ventres of the Prairie or +Atsina. (_Dakota_ I.) + +Make the sign of _cutting the throat_. (_Kutine_ I.) As the +Assinaboins belong to the Dakotan stock, the sign generally given for +the Sioux may be used for them also. + +With the right hand flattened, form a curve by passing it from the top +of the chest to the pubis, the fingers pointing to the left, and the +back forward. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) "Big bellies." + +ATSINA, LOWER GROS VENTRE. + +Both hands closed, the tips of the fingers pointing toward the wrist +and resting upon the base of the joint, the thumbs lying upon, and +extending over the middle joint of the forefingers; hold the left +before the chest, pointing forward, palm up, placing the right, with +palm down, just back of the left, and move as if picking small +objects from the left with the tip of the right thumb. (_Absaroka_ I; +_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) "Corn-shellers." + +Bring the extended and separated fingers and thumb loosely to a point, +flexed at the metacarpal joints; point them toward the left clavicle, +and imitate a dotting motion as if tattooing the skin. (_Kaiowa_ +I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) "They used to tattoo +themselves, and live in the country south of the Dakotas." + +See also the sign of (_Dakota_ I) under ASSINABOIN. + +BANAK. + +Make a whistling sound "phew" (beginning at a high note and ending +about an octave lower); then draw the extended index across the throat +from the left to the right and out to nearly at arm's length. They +used to cut the throats of their prisoners. (_Pai-Ute_ I.) + +Major Haworth states that the _Banaks_ make the following sign for +themselves: Brush the flat right hand backward over the forehead as if +forcing back the hair. This represents the manner of wearing the tuft +of hair backward from the forehead. According to this informant, the +Shoshoni use the same sign for BANAK as for themselves. + +BLACKFEET. (THIS TITLE REFERS TO THE ALGONKIAN BLACKFEET, PROPERLY +CALLED SATSIKA. FOR THE DAKOTA BLACKFEET, OR SIHASAPA, SEE UNDER HEAD +OF DAKOTA.) + +The finger and thumb encircle the ankle. (_Long_.) + +Pass the right hand, bent spoon-fashion, from the heel to the little +toe of the right foot. (_Burton_.) + +The palmar surfaces of the extended fore and second fingers of the +right hand (others closed) are rubbed along the leg just above the +ankle. This would not seem to be clear, but these Indians do not make +any sign indicating _black_ in connection with the above. The sign +does not, however, interfere with any other sign as made by the Sioux. +(_Creel_; _Dakota_ I.) "Black feet." + +Pass the flat hand over the outer edge of the right foot from the heel +to beyond the toe, as if brushing off dust. (_Dakota_ V, VII, VIII.) +Fig. 286. + +[Illustration: Fig. 286.] + +Touch the right foot with the right hand. (_Kutine_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 287.] + +Close the right hand, thumb resting over the second joint of the +forefinger, palm toward the face, and rotate over the cheek, though +an inch or two from it. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) "From manner of +painting the cheeks." Fig. 287. + +CADDO. + +Pass the horizontally extended index from right to left under the +nose. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ I, II, III; +_Apache_ II; _Wichita_ I, II.) "'Pierced noses,' from former custom +of perforating the septum for the reception of rings." Fig. 288. This +sign is also used for the Sahaptin. For some remarks see page 345. + +[Illustration: Fig. 288.] + +CALISPEL. SEE PEND D'OREILLE. + +CHEYENNE. + +Draw the hand across the arm, to imitate cutting it with a knife. +(_Marcy_ in _Prairie Traveller_, _loc. cit._, p. 215.) + +Draw the lower edge of the right hand across the left arm as if +gashing it with a knife. (_Burton_.) + +With the index-finger of the right hand proceed as if cutting the left +arm in different places with a sawing motion from the wrist upward, to +represent the cuts or burns on the arms of that nation. (_Long_.) + +Bridge palm of left hand with index-finger of right. (_Macgowan_.) + +Draw the extended right hand, fingers joined, across the left wrist as +if cutting it. (_Arapaho_ I.) + +Pass the ulnar side of the extended index repeatedly across the +extended finger and back of the left hand. Frequently, however, the +index is drawn across the wrist or forearm. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ +V; _Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I.) Fig. 289. See p. 345 for remarks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 289.] + +The extended index, palm upward, is drawn across the forefinger of the +left hand (palm inward), several times, left hand stationary, right +hand is drawn toward the body until the index is drawn clear off; then +repeat. Some Cheyennes believe this to have reference to the former +custom of cutting the arm as offerings to spirits, while others think +it refers to a more ancient custom of cutting off the enemy's fingers +for necklaces. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Place the extended index at the right side of the nose, where it joins +the face, the tip reaching as high, as the forehead, and close to the +inner corner of the eye. This position makes the thumb of the right +hand rest upon the chin, while the index is perpendicular. (_Sac, Fox, +and Kickapoo_ I.) It is considered that this sign, though given to the +collaborator as expressed, was an error. It applies to the Southern +Arapahos. Lieutenant Creel states the last remark to be correct, the +gesture having reference to the Southern bands. + +As though sawing through the left forearm at its middle with the edge +of the right held back outward, thumb upward. Sign made at the +left side of the body. (_Dakota_ I.) "Same sign as for a _saw_. The +Cheyenne Indians are known to the Sioux by the name of 'The Saws.'" + +Right-hand fingers and thumb extended and joined (as in S), outer edge +downward, and drawn sharply across the other fingers and forearm as if +cutting with a knife. (_Dakota_, III.) + +Draw the extended right index or the ulnar (inner) edge of the open +right hand several times across the base of the extended left index, +or across the left forearm at different heights from left to right. +This sign is also made by the Arapahos. (_Dakota_ IV.) "Because their +arms are marked with scars from cuts which they make as offerings to +spirits." + +Draw the extended index several times across the extended forefinger +from the tip toward the palm, the latter pointing forward and slightly +toward the right. From the custom of striping arms transversely +with colors. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ II, III; _Apache_ II; _Ute_ I; +_Wichita_ II.) + +Another: Make the sign for DOG, viz: Close the right hand, leaving +the index and second fingers only extended and joined, hold it forward +from and lower than the hip and draw it backward, the course following +the outline of a dog's form from head to tail; then add the sign TO +EAT, as follows: Collect the thumb, index, and second fingers to a +point, hold them above and in front of the mouth and make a repeated +dotting motion toward the mouth. This sign is generally used, but +the other and more common one is also employed, especially so with +individuals not fully conversant with the sign language as employed by +the Comanches, &c. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ +II.) "Dog-eaters." + +Draw the extended index across the back of the left hand and arm as if +cutting it. The index does not touch the arm as in signs given for the +same tribe by other Indians, but is held at least four or five inches +from it. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) + +CHIPEWAY. SEE OJIBWA. + +COMANCHE. + +Imitate, by the waving of the hand or forefinger, the forward crawling +motion of a snake. (_Burton_, also _Blackmore_ in introduction to +Dodge's _Plains of the Great West_. _New York_, 1877, p. xxv.) The +same sign is used for the Shoshoni, more commonly called "Snake", +Indians, who as well as the Comanches belong to the Shoshonian +linguistic family. "The silent stealth of the tribe." (_Dodge; Marcy_ +in _Thirty Years of Army Life on the Border_. _New York_, 1866, +p. 33.) Rev. A.J. Holt remarks, however, that among the Comanches +themselves the conception of this sign is the trailing of a rope, or +lariat. This refers probably to their well-known horsemanship. + +Motion of a snake. (_Macgowan_.) + +Hold the elbow of the right arm near the right side, but not touching +it; extend the forearm and hand, palm inward, fingers joined on a +level with the elbow, then with a shoulder movement draw the forearm +and hand back until the points of the fingers are behind the body; at +the same time that the hand is thus being moved back, turn it right +and left several times. (_Creel_; _Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I.) "Snake +in the grass. A snake drawing itself back in the grass instead of +crossing the road in front of you." + +Another: The sign by and for the Comanches themselves is made by +holding both hands and arms upward from the elbow, both palms inward, +and passing both hands with their backs upward along the lower end of +the hair to indicate _long hair_, as they never cut it. (_Sac, Fox, +and Kickapoo_ I.) + +Right hand horizontal, flat, palm downward (W), advanced to the front +by a motion to represent the crawling of a snake. (_Dakota_ III.) + +Extend the closed right hand to the front and left; extend the index, +palm down, and rotate from side to side while drawing it back to +the right hip. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Dakota_ VI, VII, VIII; +_Ponka_ II; _Kaiowa_ I; _Pani_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) This motion is just the reverse of the sign for +_Shoshoni_, see Fig. 297 _infra_. + +Make the reverse gesture for _Shoshoni_, i.e., begin away from +the body, drawing the hand back to the side of the right hip while +rotating it. (_Comanche_ II.) + +CREE, KNISTENO, KRISTENEAUX. + +Sign for WAGON and then the sign for MAN. (_Dakota_ I.) "This +indicates the Red River half-breeds, with their carts, as these people +are so known from their habit of traveling with carts." + +Place the first and second fingers of the right hand in front of the +mouth. (_Kutine_ I.) + +CROW. SEE ABSAROKA. + +DAKOTA, OR SIOUX. + +The edge of the hand passed across the throat, as in the act of +cutting that part. (_Long_; _Marcy_ in _Army Life_, p. 33.) + +Draw the lower edge of the hand across the throat. (_Burton_.) + +Draw the extended right hand across the throat. (_Arapaho_ I.) "The +cut-throats." + +Pass the flat right hand, with palm down, from left to right across +the throat. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Dakota_ VI, VIII; _Ponka_ +II; _Pani_ I.) + +Draw the forefinger of the left hand from right to left across the +throat. (_Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I.) "A cut-throat." + +Forefinger and thumb of right hand extended (others closed) is drawn +from left to right across the throat as though cutting it. The Dakotas +have been named the "cut-throats" by some of the surrounding tribes. +(_Dakota_ I.) "Cut-throats." + +Right hand horizontal, flat, palm downward (as in W), and drawn across +the throat as if cutting with a knife. (_Dakota_ II, III.) + +Draw the open right hand, or the right index, from left to right +horizontally across the throat, back of hand upward, fingers pointing +toward the left. This sign is also made by the Arapahos. (_Dakota_ +IV.) "It is said that after a battle the Utes took many Sioux +prisoners and cut their throats; hence the sign "cut-throats." + +Draw the extended right hand, palm downward, across the throat from +left to right. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ II, III; _Shoshoni and Banak_ +I; _Ute_ I; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) "Cut-throats." Fig 290. + +[Illustration: Fig. 290.] + +----, Blackfoot (Sihasapa). + +Pass the flat right hand along the outer edge of the foot from the +heel to beyond the toes. (_Dakota_ VIII; _Hidatsa_ I; _Ponka_ II; +_Arikara_ I; _Pani_ I.) Same as Fig. 286, above. + +Pass the right hand quickly over the right foot from the great toe +outward, turn the heel as if brushing something therefrom. (_Dakota_ +V.) + +Pass the widely separated thumb and index of the right hand over the +lower leg, from just below the knee nearly down to the heel. (_Kaiowa_ +I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +----, Brulé. + +Rub the upper and outer part of the right thigh in a small circle with +the open right hand, fingers pointing downward. This sign is also made +by the Arapahos. (_Dakota_ IV.) "These Indians were once caught in a +prairie fire, many burned to death, and others badly burned about +the thighs; hence the name Si-caⁿ-gu 'burnt thigh' and the sign. +According to the Brulé chronology, this fire occurred in 1763, which +they call 'The-People-were-burned-winter.'" + +Pass the flat right hand quickly over the thigh from near the buttock +forward, as if brushing dust from that part. (_Dakota_ V, VI, VII, +VIII.) + +Brush the palm of the right hand over the right thigh, from near the +buttock toward the front of the middle third of the thigh. (_Kaiowa_ +I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +----, Ogalala. + +Fingers and thumb separated, straight (as in R), and dotted about over +the face to represent the marks made by the small-pox. (_Arapaho_ II; +_Cheyenne_ V; _Dakota_ III, VI, VII, VIII.) "This band suffered from +the disease many years ago." + +With the thumb over the ends of the fingers, hold the right hand +upright, its back forward, about six inches in front of the face, or +on one side of the nose near the face, and suddenly extend and spread +all the fingers, thumb included. (_Dakota_ IV.) "The word _Ogalala_ +means scattering or throwing at, and the name was given them, it is +said, after a row in which they threw ashes into one another's faces." + +FLATHEAD, OR SELISH. + +One hand placed on the top of the head, and the other on the back of +the head. (_Long_.) + +Place the right hand to the top of the head. (_Kutine_ I.) + +Pat the right side of the head above and back of the ear with the +flat right hand. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) From the elongation of the +occiput. Fig. 291. + +[Illustration: Fig. 291.] + +FOX, OR OUTAGAMI. + +Same sign as for SAC. (_Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I.) + +GROS VENTRE. SEE HIDATSA. + +HIDATSA, GROS VENTRE, OR MINITARI. + +Both hands flat and extended, palms toward the body, with the tips +of the fingers pointing toward one another; pass from the top of the +chest downward, outward, and inward toward the groin. (_Absaroka_ I; +_Dakota_ V, VI, VII, VIII; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) "Big belly." + +Left and right hands in front of breast, left placed in position +first, separated about four or five inches, left hand outside of the +right, horizontal, backs outward, fingers extended and pointing left +and right; strike the back of the right against the palm of the left +several times, and then make the sign for GO, GOING, as follows: Both +hands (A 1) brought to the median line of body on a level with the +breast, some distance apart, then describe a series of half circles or +forward arch-like movements with both hands. (_Dakota_ I.) "The Gros +Ventre Indians, Minitaris (the Hidatsa Indians of _Matthews_), are +known to the Sioux as the Indians who went to the mountains to kill +their enemies; hence the sign." + +Express with the hand the sign of a big belly. (_Dakota_ III.) + +Pass the flat right hand, back forward, from the top of the breast, +downward, outward, and inward to the pubis. (_Dakota_ VI; _Hidatsa_ I; +_Arikara_ I.) "Big belly." + +INDIAN (GENERICALLY). + +Hand in type-position K, inverted, back forward, is raised above the +head with forefinger directed perpendicularly to the crown. Describe +with it a short gentle curve upward and backward in such a manner +that the finger will point upward and backward, back outward, at the +termination of the motion. (_Ojibwa_ V.) "Indicates a feather planted +upon the head--the characteristic adornment of the Indian." + +Make the sign for WHITE MAN, viz: Draw the open right hand +horizontally from left to right across the forehead a little above the +eyebrows, the back of the hand to be upward and the fingers pointing +toward the left, or close all the fingers except the index, and draw +it across the forehead in the same manner; then make the sign for NO; +then move the upright index about a foot from side to side, in front +of right shoulder, at the same time rotating the hand a little. +(_Dakota_ IV.) + +Rub the back of the extended left hand with the palmar surfaces of the +extended fingers of the right. (_Comanche_ II.) "People of the same +kind; dark-skinned." + +Rub the back of the left hand with the index of the right. (_Pai-Ute_ +I; _Wichita_ I.) + +KAIOWA. + +Make the signs of the PRAIRIE and of DRINKING WATER. (_Burton_; +_Blackmore_ in Dodge's _Plains of the Great West_. _New York_, 1877, +p. xxiv.) + +Cheyennes make the same sign as (_Comanche_ II), and think it was +intended to convey the idea of cropping the hair. The men wear one +side of the hair of the head full length and done up as among the +Cheyennes, the other side being kept cropped off about even with the +neck and hanging loose. (_Cheyenne_ II.) + +Right-hand fingers and thumb, extended and joined (as in W), placed in +front of right shoulder, and revolving loosely at the wrist. (_Dakota_ +III.) + +Place the flat hand with extended and separated fingers before the +face, pointing forward and upward, the wrist near the chin; pass +it upward and forward several times. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; +_Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 292.] + +Place the right hand a short distance above the right side of the +head, fingers and thumb separated and extended; shake it rapidly +from side to side, giving it a slight rotary motion in doing so. +(_Comanche_ II.) "Rattle-brained." Fig. 292. See p. 345 for remarks +upon this sign. + +Same sign as (_Comanche_ II), with the exception that both hands are +generally used instead of the right one only. (_Ute_ I.) + +Make a rotary motion of the right hand, palm extended upward and +outward by the side of the head. (_Wichita_ I.) "Crazy heads." + +KICKAPOO. + +With the thumb and finger go through the motion of clipping the hair +over the ear; then with the hand make a sign that the borders of the +leggings are wide. (_Sac, Fox, and, Kickapoo_ I.) + +KNISTENO OR KRISTENEAUX. SEE CREE. + +KUTINE. + +Place the index or second finger of the right hand on each side of the +left index finger to imitate riding a horse. (_Kutine_ I.) + +Hold the left fist, palm upward, at arm's length before the body, +the right as if grasping the bowstring and drawn back. (_Shoshoni +and Banak_ I.) "From their peculiar manner of holding the long bow +horizontally in shooting." Fig. 293. + +[Illustration: Fig. 293.] + +LIPAN. + +With the index and second fingers only extended and separated, hold +the hand at arm's length to the front of the left side; draw it back +in distinct jerks; each time the hand rests draw the fingers back +against the inside of the thumb, and when the hand is again started +on the next movement backward snap the fingers to full length. This +is repeated five or six times during the one movement of the hand. The +country which the Lipans at one time occupied contained large ponds or +lakes, and along the shores of these the reptile was found which gave +them this characteristic appellation. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; +_Apache_ III; _Wichita_ II.) "Frogs." Fig. 294. + +[Illustration: Fig. 294.] + +MANDAN. + +The first and second fingers of the right hand extended, separated, +backs outward, other fingers and thumb closed, are drawn from the left +shoulder obliquely downward in front of the body to the right hip. +(_Dakota_ I.) "The Mandan Indians are known to the Sioux as 'The +people who wear a scarlet sash, with a train,' in the manner above +described." + +MINITARI. SEE HIDATSA. + +NEZ PERCÉS. SEE SAHAPTIN. + +OJIBWA, OR CHIPPEWA. + +Right hand horizontal, back outward, fingers separated, arched, tips +pointing inward, is moved from right to left breast and generally over +the front of the body with a trembling motion and at the same time +a slight outward or forward movement of the hand as though drawing +something out of the body, and then make the sign for MAN, viz: The +right-hand is held in front of the right breast with the forefinger +extended, straight upright (J), with the back of the hand outward; +move the hand upward and downward with finger extended. (_Dakota_ I.) +"Perhaps the first Chippewa Indian seen by a Sioux had an eruption on +his body, and from that his people were given the name of the 'People +with a breaking out,' by which name the Chippewas have ever been known +by the Sioux." + +OSAGE, OR WASAJI. + +Pull at the eyebrows over the left eye with the thumb and forefinger +of the left hand. This sign is also used by the Osages themselves. +(_Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I.) + +Hold the flat right hand, back forward, with the edge pointing +backward, against the side of the head, then make repeated cuts, and +the hand is moved backward toward the occiput. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ +III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) "Former custom of shaving the hair +from the sides of the head, leaving but an occipito-frontal ridge." + +Pass the flat and extended right hand backward over the right side of +the head, moving the index against the second finger in imitation +of cutting with a pair of scissors. (_Comanche_ II.) "Represents the +manner of removing the hair from the sides of the head, leaving a +ridge only from the forehead to the occiput." + +OUTAGAMI. SEE FOX. + +PANI (PAWNEE). + +Imitate a wolf's ears with the two forefingers of the right hand +extended together, upright, on the left side of the head. (_Burton._) + +Place a hand on each side of the forehead, with two fingers pointing +to the front to represent the narrow, sharp ears of the wolf. (_Marcy_ +in _Prairie Traveler_, p. 215.) + +Extend the index and second fingers of the right hand upward from the +right side of the head. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V; _Dakota_ VII, +VIII; _Ponka_ II; _Pani_ I; _Comanche_ II.) + +Right hand, as (N), is passed from the back part of the right side +of the head, forward seven or eight inches. (_Dakota_ I.) "The Pani +Indians are known as the _Shaved-heads_, i.e., leaving only the scalp +locks on the head." + +First and second fingers of right hand, straight upward and separated, +remaining fingers and thumb closed (as in N), like the ears of a small +wolf. (_Dakota_ III.) + +Place the closed right hand to the side of the temple, palm forward +leaving the index and second fingers extended and slightly separated, +pointing upward. This is ordinarily used, though, to be more explicit, +both hands may be used. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Ute_ I; _Apache_ +II; _Wichita_ II.) For illustration see Fig. 336, facing page 531. + +PEND D'OREILLE, OR CALISPEL. + +Make the motion of paddling a canoe. (_Kutine_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 295.] + +Both fists are held as if grasping a paddle vertically downward and +working a canoe. Two strokes are made on each side of the body from +the side backward. (_Shoshoni_ and _Banak_ I.) Fig. 295. + +PUEBLO. + +Place the clinched hand back of the occiput as if grasping the queue, +then place both fists in front of the right shoulder, rotating +them slightly to represent a loose mass of an imaginary substance. +Represents the large mass of hair tied back of the head. (_Arapaho_ +II; _Cheyenne_ V.) + +REE. SEE ARIKARA. + +SAC, OR SAUKI. + +Pass the extended palm of the right hand over the right side of the +head from front to back, and the palm of the left hand in the same +manner over the left side of the head. (_Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I.) +"Shaved-headed Indians." + +SAHAPTIN, OR NEZ PERCÉS. + +The right index, back outward, passed from right to left under the +nose. Piercing the nose to receive the ring. (_Creel_; _Dakota_ I.) + +Place the thumb and forefinger to the nostrils. (_Kutine_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 296.] + +Close the right hand, leaving the index straight but flexed at right +angles with the palm; pass it horizontally to the left by and under +the nose. (_Comanche_ II.) "Pierced nose." Fig. 296. This sign is +made by the Nez Percés for themselves, according to Major Haworth. +Information was received from Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians, who +visited Washington in 1880, that this sign is also used to designate +the _Caddos_, who practiced the same custom of perforating the +nasal septum. The same informants also state that the _Shawnees_ are +sometimes indicated by the same sign. + +Pass the extended index, pointing toward the left, remaining fingers +and thumb closed, in front of and across the upper lip, just below +the nose. The second finger is also sometimes extended. (_Shoshoni and +Banak_ I.) "From the custom of piercing the noses for the reception of +ornaments." + +See p. 345 for remarks upon the signs for _Sahaptin_. + +SATSIKA. SEE BLACKFEET. + +SELISH. SEE FLATHEAD. + +SHEEPEATER. SEE UNDER SHOSHONI. + +SHAWNEE. SEE REMARKS UNDER SAHAPTIN. + +SHOSHONI, OR SNAKE. + +The forefinger is extended horizontally and passed along forward in a +serpentine line. (_Long_.) + +Right hand closed, palm down, placed in front of the right hip; extend +the index and push it diagonally toward the left front, rotating it +quickly from side to side in doing so. (_Absaroka_ I; _Shoshoni and +Banak_ I.) "Snake." Fig. 297. + +[Illustration: Fig. 297.] + +Right hand, horizontal, flat, palm downward (W), advanced to the front +by a motion to represent the crawling of a snake. (_Dakota_ III.) + +With the right index pointing forward, the hand is to be moved forward +about a foot in a sinuous manner, to imitate the crawling of a snake. +Also made by the Arapahos. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +Place the closed right hand, palm down, in front of the right hip; +extend the index, and move it forward and toward the left, rotating +the hand and finger from side to side in doing so. (_Kaiowa_ I; +_Comanche_ II, III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +Make the motion of a serpent with the right finger. (_Kutine_ I.) + +Close the right hand, leaving the index only extended and pointing +forward, palm to the left, then move it forward and to the left. +(_Pai-Ute_ I.) The rotary motion of the hand does not occur in this +description, which in this respect differs from the other authorities. + +----, Sheepeater. Tukuarikai. + +Both hands, half closed, pass from the top of the ears backward, +downward, and forward, in a curve, to represent a ram's horns; then, +with the index only extended and curved, place the hand above and in +front of the mouth, back toward the face, and pass it downward and +backward several times. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) "Sheep," and "to +eat." + +SIHASAPA. SEE UNDER DAKOTA. + +SIOUX. SEE DAKOTA. + +TENNANAH. + +Right hand hollowed, lifted to mouth, and describing waving line +gradually descending from right to left; left hand describing +mountainous outline, one peak rising above the other. (_Kutchin_ I.)" +Mountain-river-men." + +UTE. + +"They who live on mountains" have a complicated sign which denotes +"living in mountains," and is composed of the signs SIT and MOUNTAIN. +(_Burton_.) + +Rub the back of the extended flat left hand with the extended fingers +of the right, then touch some black object. Represents black skin. +Although the same sign is generally used to signify _negro_, an +addition is sometimes made as follows: place the index and second +fingers to the hair on the right side of the head, and rub them +against each other to signify _curly hair_. This addition is only made +when the connection would cause a confusion between the "black skin" +Indian (_Ute_) and negro. (_Arapaho_ II; _Cheyenne_ V.) + +Left hand horizontal, flat, palm downward, and with the fingers of the +right hand brush the other toward the wrist. (_Dakota_ III.) + +Place the flat and extended left hand at the height of the elbow +before the body, pointing to the front and right, palm toward the +ground; then pass the palmar surface of the flat and extended fingers +of the right hand over the back of the left from near the wrist toward +the tips of the fingers. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; +_Wichita_ II.) "Those who use sinew for sewing, and for strengthening +the bow." + +Indicate the color _black_, then separate the thumbs and forefingers +of both hands as far as possible, leaving the remaining fingers +closed, and pass upward over the lower part of the legs. (_Shoshoni_ +and _Banak_ I.) "Black or dark leggings." + +WASAJI. SEE OSAGE. + +WICHITA. + +Indicate a circle over the upper portion of the right cheek, with +the index or several fingers of the right hand. The statement of the +Indian authorities for the above is that years ago the Wichita women +painted spiral lines on the breasts, starting at the nipple and +extending several inches from it; but after an increase in modesty +or a change in the upper garment, by which the breast ceased to be +exposed, the cheek has been adopted as the locality for the sign. +(_Creel_; _Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) + +Extend the fingers and thumb of the right hand, semi-closed, and bring +the hand toward the face nearly touching it, repeating this several +times as if going through the motion of tattooing. The Comanches call +the Wichitas "Painted Faces"; Caddos call them "Tattooed Faces," both +tribes using the same sign. (_Comanche_ I.) + +WYANDOT. + +Pass the flat right hand from the top of the forehead backward over +the head and downward and backward as far as the length of the arm. +(_Wyandot_ I.) "From the manner of wearing the hair." + + +PROPER NAMES. + +WASHINGTON, CITY OF. + +The sign for _go_ by closing the hand (as in type position B 1) +and bending the arm; the hand is then brought horizontally to the +epigastrium, after which both the hand and arm are suddenly extended; +the sign for _house_ or _lodge_; the sign for _cars_, consisting of +the sign for _go_ and _wagon_, e.g., both arms are flexed at a right +angle before the chest; the hands then assume type position (L) +modified by the index being hooked and the middle finger partly opened +and hooked similarly; the hands are held horizontally and rotated +forward side by side to imitate two wheels, palms upward; and the sign +for _council_ as follows: The right arm is raised, flexed at elbow, +and the hand brought to the mouth (in type position G 1, modified by +being inverted), palm up, and the index being more open. The hand then +passes from the mouth in jerks, opening and closing successively; then +the right hand (in position S 1), horizontal, marks off divisions on +the left arm extended. The sign for _father_ is briefly executed by +passing the open hand down and from the loins, then bringing it erect +before the body; then the sign for _cars_, making with the mouth +the noise of an engine. The hands then raised before the eyes and +approximated at points, as in the sign for _lodge_; then diverge to +indicate _extensive_; this being followed by the sign for _council_. +(_Oto and Missouri_ I.) "The home of our father, where we go on the +puffing wagon to council." + +MISSOURI RIVER. + +Make the sign for _water_ by placing the right hand upright six or +eight inches in front of the mouth, back outward, index and thumb +crooked, and their ends about an inch apart, the other fingers nearly +closed; then move it toward the mouth, and then downward nearly to the +top of the breast-bone, at the same time turning the hand over toward +the mouth until the little finger is uppermost; and the sign for +_large_ as follows: The opened right hands, palms facing, fingers +relaxed and slightly separated, being at the height of the breast and +about two feet apart, separate them nearly to arm's length; and then +rapidly rotate the right hand from right to left several times, its +back upward, fingers spread and pointing forward to show that it is +stirred up or muddy. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 298.] + +EAGLE BULL, A DAKOTA CHIEF. + +[Illustration: Fig. 299.] + +Place the clinched fists to either side of the head with the +forefingers extended and curved, as in Fig. 298; then extend the left +hand, flat, palm down, before the left side, fingers pointing forward; +the outer edge of the flat and extended right hand is then laid +transversely across the back of the left hand, and slid forward +over the fingers as in Fig. 299. (_Dakota_ VI; _Ankara_ I.) "Bull +and eagle--'_Haliaëtus leucocephalus, (Linn.) Sav._'" In the +picture-writing of the Moquis, Fig. 300 represents the eagle's tail as +showing the difference of color which is indicated in the latter part +of the above gesture. + +[Illustration: Fig. 300.] + +RUSHING BEAR, AN ARIKARA CHIEF. + +Place the right fist in front of the right side of the breast, palm +down; extend and curve the thumb and little finger so that their tips +point toward one another before the knuckles of the remaining closed +fingers, then reach forward a short distance and pull toward the body +several times ratter quickly; suddenly push the fist, in this form, +forward to arm's length twice. (_Dakota_ VI; _Arikara_ I.) "Bear, and +rushing." + +SPOTTED TAIL, A DAKOTA CHIEF. + +With the index only of the right hand extended, indicate a line of +curve from the sacrum (or from the right buttock) downward, backward, +and outward toward the right; then extend the left forefinger, +pointing forward from the left side, and with the extended index draw +imaginary lines transversely across the left forefinger. (_Absaroka_ +I; _Shoshoni_ I; _Dakota_ VI, VII; _Arikara_ I.) "Tail, and spotted." + +STUMBLING BEAR, A KAIOWA CHIEF. + +Place the right fist in front of the right side of the breast, palm +down; extend and curve the thumb and little finger so that their tips +point toward one another before the knuckles of the remaining closed +fingers; then place the left flat hand edgewise before the breast, +pointing to the right; hold the right hand flat pointing down nearer +the body; move it forward toward the left, so that the right-hand +fingers strike the left palm and fall downward beyond the left. +(_Kaiowa_ I.) "Bear, and stumble or stumbling." + +SWIFT RUNNER, A DAKOTA WARRIOR. + +Place the right hand in front of the right side, palm down; close all +the fingers excepting the index, which is slightly curved, pointing +forward; then push the hand forward to arm's length twice, very +quickly. (_Dakota_ VI; _Arikara_ I.) "Man running rapidly or swiftly." + +WILD HORSE, A COMANCHE CHIEF. + +Place the extended and separated index and second fingers of the right +hand astraddle the extended forefinger of the left hand. With the +right hand loosely extended, held as high as and nearly at arm's +length before the shoulder, make several cuts downward and toward the +left. (_Comanche_ III.) "Horse, and prairie or wild." + + +PHRASES. + +PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES; SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. + +Close the right hand, leaving the thumb and index fully extended and +separated; place the index over the forehead so that the thumb points +to the right, palm toward the face; then draw the index across the +forehead toward the right; then elevate the extended index, pointing +upward before the shoulder or neck; pass it upward as high as the top +of the head; make a short turn toward the front and pass it pointing +downward toward the ground, to a point farther to the front and a +little lower than at the beginning. (_Absaroka_ I; _Dakota_ VI, VII; +_Shoshoni and Banak_ I; _Ute_ I; _Apache_ I.) "White man and chief." + +Make the sign for _white man_ (American), by passing the palmar +surface of the extended index and thumb of the right hand across the +forehead from left to right, then that for _chief_, and conclude by +making that for _parent_ by collecting the fingers and thumb of the +right hand nearly to a point and drawing them forward from the left +breast. (_Kaiowa_ I; _Comanche_ III; _Apache_ II; _Wichita_ II.) +"White man; chief; father." + +SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. + +Draw the palmar side of the index across the forehead from left to +right, resting the thumb upon the right temple, then make the sign for +_chief_--the white chief, "Secretary;" then make the sign for _great +lodge, council house_, by making the sign for _lodge_, then placing +both hands somewhat bent, palms facing, about ten inches apart, and +passing them upward from the waist as high as the face. (_Arikara_ I.) + +WHERE IS YOUR MOTHER? + +After placing the index into the mouth--_mother_, point the index at +the individual addressed--_your_, then separate and extend the index +and second fingers of the right hand; hold them, pointing forward, +about twelve or fifteen inches before the face, and move them from +side to side, eyes following the same direction--_I see_, then throw +the flat right hand in a short curve outward to the right until the +back points toward the ground--_not_, and look inquiringly at the +individual addressed. (_Ute_ I.) "Mother your I see not; where is +she?" + +ARE YOU BRAVE? + +Point to the person and make sign for _brave_, at same time looking +with an inquiring expression. (_Absaroka_ I; _Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) + +BISON, I HAVE SHOT A. + +Move the open left hand, palm to the front, toward the left and away +from the body slowly (motion of the buffalo when chased). Move right +hand on wrist as axis, rapidly (man on pony chasing buffalo); then +extend left hand to the left, draw right arm as if drawing a bow, snap +the forefinger and middle finger of left hand, and thrust the right +forefinger over the left hand. (_Omaha_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 301.] + +GIVE ME SOMETHING TO EAT. + +Bring the thumb, index and second fingers to a point as if grasping a +small object, the remaining fingers naturally extended, then place the +hand just above the mouth and a few inches in front of it, and make +repeated thrusts quickly toward the mouth several times; then place +the naturally extended right hand nearly at arm's length before the +body, palm up, fingers pointing toward the front and left, and make +a short circular motion with the hand, as in Fig. 301, bringing the +outer edge toward the body as far as the wrist will permit, throwing +the hand forward again at a higher elevation. The motion being at the +wrist only. (_Absaroka_ I; _Dakota_ VII, VIII; _Comanche_ III.) + +I WILL SEE YOU HERE AFTER NEXT YEAR. + +Raise the right hand above the head (J 2), palm to the front, all the +fingers closed except the index, hand slanting a little to backward, +then move forward and downward toward the person addressed, describing +a curve. (_Omaha_ I.) + +YOU GAVE US MANY CLOTHES, BUT WE DON'T WANT THEM. + +Lean forward, and, holding the hands concavo-convex, draw them up over +the limbs severally, then cross on the chest as wrapping a blanket. +The arms are then extended before the body, with the hands in +type-position (W), to a height indicating a large pile. The right hand +then sweeps outward, showing a negative state of mind. The index +of right hand finally touches the chest of the second party and +approaches the body, in position (I), horizontal. (_Oto and Missouri_ +I.) "Something to put on that I don't want from you." + +QUESTION. SEE ALSO THIS TITLE IN EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY. + +Hold the extended and flattened right hand, palm forward, at the +height of the shoulder or face, and about fifteen inches from it, +shaking the hand from side to side (at the wrist) as the arm is +slightly raised, resembling the outline of an interrogation mark (_?_) +made from below upward. (_Absaroka_ I; _Dakota_ V, VI, VII; _Hidatsa_ +I; _Kaiowa_ I; _Arikara_ I; _Comanche_ II, III; _Pai-Ute_ I; _Shoshoni +and Banak_ I; _Ute_ I; _Apache_ I, II; _Wichita_ II.) + +---- What? What is it? + +First attract the person's notice by the sign for _attention_, viz: +The right hand (T) carried directly out in front of the body, with arm +fully extended and there moved sidewise with rapid motions; and then +the right hand, fingers extended, pointing forward or outward, fingers +joined, horizontal, is carried outward, obliquely in front of the +right breast, and there turned partially over and under several times. +(_Dakota_ I.) + +---- What are you doing? What do you want? + +Throw the right hand about a foot from right to left several times, +describing an arc with its convexity upward, palm inward, fingers +slightly bent and separated, and pointing forward. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +---- When? + +With its index extended and pointing forward, back upward, rotate the +right hand several times to the right and left, describing an arc with +the index. (_Dakota_ IV.) + +---- What are you? i.e., What tribe do you belong to? + +Shake the upright open right hand four to eight inches from side to +side a few times, from twelve to eighteen inches in front of the chin, +the palm forward, fingers relaxed and a little separated. (_Dakota_ +IV.) + +It must be remarked that in the three preceding signs there is no +essential difference, either between themselves or between them and +the general sign for QUESTION above given, which can be applied to +the several special questions above mentioned. A similar remark may +be made regarding several signs given below, which are printed in +deference to collaborators. + +Pass the right hand from left to right across the face. (_Kutine_ I.) + +---- What do you want? + +The arm is drawn to front of chest and the hand in position (N 1), +modified by palms being downward and hand horizontal. From the +chest center the hand is then passed spirally forward toward the one +addressed; the hand's palm begins the spiral motion with a downward +and ends in an upward aspect. (_Oto_ I.) "To unwind or open." + +---- Whence come you? + +First the sign for _you_, viz: The hand open, held upward obliquely, +and pointing forward; then the hand, extended open and drawn to the +breast, and lastly the sign for _bringing_, as follows: The hand half +shut, with the thumb pressing against the forefinger, being first +moderately extended either to the right or left, is brought with a +moderate jerk to the opposite side, as if something was pulled along +by the hand. (_Dunbar_.) + +---- Who are you? or what is your name? + +The right or left hand approximates close to center of the body; the +arm is flexed and hand in position (D), or a little more closed. From +inception of sign near center of body the hand slowly describes the +arc of a quadrant, and fingers unfold as the hand recedes. We think +the proper intention is for the inception of sign to be located at the +heart, but it is seldom truly, anatomically thus located. (_Oto_ I.) +"To unfold one's self or make known." + +---- Are you through? + +With arms hanging at the side and forearms horizontal, place the fists +near each other in front of body: then with a quick motion separate +them as though breaking something asunder. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +---- Do you know? + +Shake the right hand in front of the face, a little to the right, the +whole arm elevated so as to throw the hand even with the face, and +the forearm standing almost perpendicular. Principal motion with hand, +slight motion of forearm, palm out. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +---- How far is it? + +Sign for DO YOU KNOW? followed with a precise movement throwing right +hand (palm toward face) to a position as far from body as convenient, +signifying _far_; then with the same quick, precise motion, bring the +hand to a position near the face--_near_. (_Sahaptin_ I.) + +---- How will you go--horseback or in wagon? + +First make the sign for DO YOU KNOW? then throw right hand +forward--_go_ or _going_; then throw fore and middle fingers of right +astride the forefinger of the left hand, signifying, _will you ride?_; +then swing the forefingers of each hand around each other, sign of +_wheel running_, signifying, _or will you go in wagon_? (_Sahaptin_ +I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 302.] + +---- How many? + +After making the sign for _question_, touch the tips of as many of the +extended and separated fingers of the left hand held in front of +the body upright, with back outward, with the right index as may be +necessary. (_Dakota_ I.) "Count them off to me--how many?" + +Place the left hand carelessly before the breast, fingers extended and +slightly separated, back to the front, then count off a few with the +extended index, by laying down the fingers of the left, beginning at +the little finger, as in Fig. 302. In asking the question, the sign +for _question_ must precede the sign for _many_, the latter being also +accompanied by a look of interrogation. (_Shoshoni and Banak_ I.) + +---- Has he? + +_Deaf-mute natural sign_: + +Move to and fro the finger several times toward the person spoken of +(_Larson_.) + +---- Have you? + +_Deaf-mute natural sign_: + +Move the finger to and fro several times toward the person to whom the +one is speaking. (_Larson_.) + +---- Are you? + +_Deaf-mute natural signs_: + +Point to the person spoken to and slightly nod the head, with an +inquiring look. (_Ballard_.) + +Point with the forefinger, as if to point toward the second person, at +the same time nod the head as if to say "yes." (_Ziegler_.) + +The following was obtained at Washington during the winter of 1880-'81 +from Ta-taⁿ-ka Wa-kaⁿ (Medicine Bull), a Brulé Dakota chief; by Dr. +W.J. HOFFMAN. + +I AM GOING HOME IN TWO DAYS. + +(1) Place the flat hands in front of and as high as the elbows, palms +down, pass each hand across to the opposite side of the body, the +right above the left crossing near the wrist at the termination of the +gesture (_night_), repeat in quick succession--_nights_, (2) elevate +the extended index and second finger of the right hand, backs to the +front--_two_, (3) place the tips of the extended and joined fingers of +the right hand against the breast--_I_, (4) after touching the breast +as in the preceding, pass the extended index from the breast, pointing +downward, forward nearly to arm's length, and terminating by holding +the hand but continuing the motion of the index until it points +forward and upward--_am going to_, (5) throw the clinched right fist +about six inches toward the earth at arm's length after the completion +of the preceding gesture--_my home_. + +ANALYSIS. + + Haⁿ-he'-pi | noⁿ'-pa | mi'-ye | ti-ya'-ta | wa-gle'-kta. + (1) | (2) | (3) | (5) | (4) + nights | two | I | my home | am going to. + +It will be noticed that the gesture No. 4, "am going to," was made +before the gesture No. 5, "my home," although the Dakota words +pronounced were in the reverse order, showing a difference in the +syntax of the gestures and of the oral speech in this instance. The +other gestures, 1, 2, and 3, had been made deliberately, the Dakota +word translating each being in obvious connection with the several +gestures, but the two final words were pronounced rapidly together as +if they could not in the mind of the gesturer be applied separately to +the reversed order of the signs for them. + + * * * * * + +The same authority obtained the above sentence in Ponka and Pani, +together with the following signs for it, from individuals of those +tribes. Those signs agreed between each other, but differed from the +Dakota, as will be observed, in the signs _to my house_, as signifying +_to my home_. + +(1) Touch the breast with the tips of the extended fingers--_I_. This +precedes the signs for Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, which correspond to Nos. +1, 2, 3, and 4 of the Dakota; then follows: (6) place the tips of the +extended fingers of the flat hands together, leaving the wrists about +six inches apart--_lodge_, (7) and conclude by placing the clinched +fists nearly at arm's length before the body, the right several inches +above the left, then throw them toward the ground--about six or eight +inches--the fists retaining their relative positions--_my, mine_. + + +ANALYSIS. + +The following is the Ponka sentence as given by the gesturer in +connection with the several gestures as made: + +---- |Naⁿ'-ba|jaⁿ ʞi|a-g¢e'|ta miñ'-ke| ʇi|wi'-wi-a tĕ'-ʇa. + (1) | (3) | (2) | (4) | (5) |(6)| (7) + +The following is the full sentence as spoken by Ponkas without regard +to gesture, and its literal translation: + +Naⁿ'-ba| jaⁿ | ʞĭ | a-g¢e' | ta'|miñ'-ke| ʇi |wi'-wi-ʇa| tè'-ʇa. |-- + Two |night,| if, | I go |will| I who |lodge | my own | the, |to. + |sleep | when |homeward| | | | | one, | + standing | + object, | + +The Pani gestures were given with the accompanying words, viz: + + | Pit' ku-rĕt' | ka'-ha | wi | ta-tukh'-ta | a-ka'-ru | ru-rĕt'-i-ru. +(1)| (3) | (2) | (4)| (5) | (6) | (7) + I | (In) two | nights | I | am going | house | to my. + +The orthography in the above sentences, as in others where the +original text is given (excepting the Dakota and Ojibwa), is that +adopted by Maj. J.W. POWELL in the second edition of the _Introduction +to the Study of Indian Languages_. _Washington_, 1880. The characters +more particularly requiring explanation are the following, viz: + +_¢_, as _th_ in _then_, _though_. + +_ñ_, as _ng_ in _sing_, _singer_; Sp. _luengo_. + +_ʞ_, an intermediate sound between _k_ and _g_ in _gig_. + +_kh_, as the German _ch_, in _nacht_. + +_ʇ_, an intermediate sound between _t_ and _d_. + +Nasalized vowels are written with a superior _n_, thus: _aⁿ_, _eⁿ_. + +The following phrases were obtained by the same authority from +Antonito, son of Antonio Azul, chief of the Pimas in Arizona. + +I AM HUNGRY, GIVE ME SOMETHING TO EAT. + +(1) Touch the breast with the tips of the extended fingers of the +right hand--_I_, (2) place the outer edge of the flat and extended +right hand against the pit of the stomach, palm upward, then make a +sawing motion from side to side with the hand--_hunger_, (3) place the +right hand before the face, back upward, and fingers pointing toward +the mouth, then thrust the fingers rapidly to and from the mouth +several times-_eat_. + +ANALYSIS. + + Aⁿ-an'-t | pi'-hu-ki'um | ---- + (1) | (2) | (3) + I (have) | hunger | eat. + +The last sign is so intimately connected with that for hunger, that no +translation can be made. + +GIVE ME A DRINK OF WATER. + +(1) Place the tips of the index and thumb together, the remaining +fingers curved, forming a cup, then pass it from a point about six +inches before the chin, in a curve upward, backward and downward past +the mouth--_water_, (2) then place the flat right hand at the height +of the elbow in front of or slightly to the right of the body, palm +up, and in passing it slowly from left to right, give the hand a +lateral motion at the wrist--_give me_. + +ANALYSIS. + + Shu'-wu-to | do'-i'. + (1) | (2) + water | give me. + +The following was also obtained by Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN from Ta-taⁿ-ka +Wa-kaⁿ, before referred to, at the time of his visit to Washington. + +[Illustration: Fig. 303.] + +I AM GOING HOME. + +(1) Touch the breast with the extended index--_I_, (2) then pass it in +a downward curve, outward and upward toward the right nearly to arm's +length, as high as the shoulder--_am going (to)_, (3) and when at that +point suddenly clinch the hand and throw it edgewise a short distance +toward the ground--_my country, my home_. + +ANALYSIS. + + Ma-ko'-ce mi-ta'-wa kin e-kta' wa-gle' kta. + (3) (2) (1) + Country || my own || the || to || I go home || will. + + + + + +DIALOGUES. + + +_TENDOY-HUERITO DIALOGUE._ + +The following conversation took place at Washington in April, 1880, +between TENDOY, chief of the Shoshoni and Banak Indians of Idaho, and +HUERITO, one of the Apache chiefs from New Mexico, in the presence of +Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN. Neither of these Indians spoke any language known +to the other, or had ever met or heard of one another before that +occasion: + +[Illustration: Fig. 304.] + +_Huerito_.--WHO ARE YOU? + +Place the flat and extended right hand, palm forward, about twelve +inches in front of and as high as the shoulder, then shake the hand +from side to side as it is moved forward and upward--_question, who +are you?_ Fig. 304. + +[Illustration: Fig. 305.] + +_Tendoy_.--SHOSHONI CHIEF. + +Place the closed right hand near the right hip leaving the index only +extended, palm down; then pass the hand toward the front and left, +rotating it from side to side--_Shoshoni_, Fig. 305; then place the +closed hand, with the index extended and pointing upward, near the +right cheek, pass it upward as high as the head, then turn it forward +and downward toward the ground, terminating with the movement a little +below the initial point--_chief_. Fig. 306. + +_Huerito_.--HOW OLD ARE YOU? + +Clinch both hands and cross the forearms before the breast with a +trembling motion--_cold--winter, year_, Fig. 307; then elevate the +left hand as high as the neck and about twelve or fifteen inches +before it, palm toward the face, with fingers extended and pointing +upward; then, with the index, turn down one finger after another +slowly, beginning at the little finger, until three or four are folded +against the palm, and look inquiringly at the person addressed--_how +many_? See Fig. 302. + +[Illustration: Fig. 306.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 307.] + +_Tendoy_.--FIFTY-SIX. + +Close and extend the fingers and thumbs of both hands, with the palms +forward, five times--_fifty_; then extend the fingers and thumb of the +left hand, close the right, and place the extended thumb alongside of +and near the left thumb--_six_. Fig. 308 + +[Illustration: Fig. 308.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 309.] + +_Huerito_.--VERY WELL. ARE THERE ANY BUFFALO IN YOUR COUNTRY? + +Place the flat right hand, pointing to the left, with the palm down, +against the breast-bone; then move it forward and slightly to the +right and in an upward curve; make the gesture rather slow and nearly +to arm's length (otherwise, i.e., if made hastily and but a short +distance, it would only mean _good_)--_very good_, Fig. 309; place +both closed hands to their respective sides of the head, palms toward +the hair, leaving the forefingers curved--_buffalo_, see Fig. 298, +p. 477; then reach out the fist to arm's length toward the west, +and throw it forcibly toward the ground for a distance of about six +inches, edge downward--_country, away to the west_; then point +the curved index rather quickly and carelessly toward the person +addressed--_your_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 310.] + +_Tendoy_.--YES; MANY BLACK BUFFALO. + +Pass the closed right hand, with the index partly flexed, to a +position about eight inches before the right collar-bone, and, as the +hand reaches that elevation, quickly close the index--_yes_; then make +the same sign as in the preceding question for _buffalo_; touch the +hair on the right side of the head with the palms of the extended +fingers of the right hand--_black_; spread the curved fingers and +thumbs of both hands, place them before either thigh, pointing +downward; then draw them toward one another and upward as high as the +stomach, so that the fingers will point toward one another, or may be +interlaced--_many_. Fig. 310. + +[Illustration: Fig. 311.] + +_Tendoy_.--DID YOU HEAR ANYTHING FROM THE SECRETARY? IF SO, TELL ME. + +Close the right hand, leaving the index and thumb widely separated, +pass it by the ear from the back of the ear downward and toward the +chin, palm toward the head--_hear_, see Fig. 316, p. 492; point to the +individual addressed--_you_; close the hand again, leaving the index +and thumb separated as in the sign for _hear_ and placing the palmar +surface of the finger horizontally across the forehead, pointing to +the left, allow the thumb to rest against the right temple; then draw +the index across the forehead from left to right, leaving the thumb +touching the head--_white man_; then place the closed hand, with +elevated index, before the right side of the neck or in front of +the top of the shoulder; pass the index, pointing upward, as high +as the top of the head; turn it forward and downward as far as the +breast--_chief_; pass the extended index, pointing up ward and +forward, forward from the mouth twice--_talk_; then open and flatten +the hand, palm up, outer edge toward the face, place it about fifteen +inches in front of the chin, and draw it horizontally inward until the +hand nearly touches the neck--_tell me_. + +_Huerito_.--HE TOLD ME THAT IN FOUR DAYS I WOULD GO TO MY COUNTRY. + +Close the right hand, leaving the index curved; place it about six +inches from the ear and move it in toward the external meatus--_told +me, hear, I heard_, Fig. 311; with the right hand still closed, form a +circle with the index and thumb by allowing their tips to touch; pass +the hand from east to west at arm's length--_day_; place the left hand +before the breast, the fingers extended, and the thumb resting against +the palm, back forward, and, with the index, turn down one finger +after another, beginning at the little finger--_four_; touch the +breast with the tips of the finger and thumb of the left hand +collected to a point--_I_; drop the hand a short distance and move it +forward to arm's length and slightly upward until it points above +the horizon--_go to_*; then as the arm is extended, throw the fist +edgewise toward the ground--_my country_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 312.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 313.] + +_Tendoy_.--IN TWO DAYS I GO TO MY COUNTRY JUST AS YOU GO TO YOURS. I +GO TO MINE WHERE THERE IS A GREAT DEAL OF SNOW, AND WE SHALL SEE EACH +OTHER NO MORE. + +Place the flat hands horizontally, about two feet apart, move them +quickly in an upward curve toward one another until the right lies +across the left--_night_, Fig. 312, repeat this sign--_two nights_ +(literally _two sleeps hence_); point toward the individual addressed +with the right hand--_you_; and in a continuous movement pass the hand +to the right, i.e., toward the south, nearly to arm's length--_go_; +then throw the fist edgewise toward the ground at that distance--_your +country_; then touch the breast with the tips of the fingers of the +left hand--_I_; move the hand off slowly toward the left, i.e., toward +the north to arm's length--_go to_*; and throw the clinched hand +toward the ground--_my country_; then hold both hands toward the left +as high as the head, palms down, with fingers and thumbs pendent and +separated; move them toward the ground two or three times--_rain_, +Fig. 313; then place the flat hands horizontally to the left of the +body about two feet from the ground--_deep_; (literally, _deep rain_) +_snow_--and raise them until about three feet from the ground--_very +deep_--_much_; place the hands before the body about twelve inches +apart, palms down, with forefingers only extended and pointing toward +one another; push them toward and from one another several times--_see +each other_, Fig. 314; then hold the flat right hand in front of the +breast, pointing forward, palm to the left, and throw it over on its +back toward the right--_not, no more_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 314.] + +EXPLANATORY NOTE.--Where the asterisks appear in the above dialogue +the preposition _to_ is included in the gesture. After touching the +breast for _I_, the slow movement forward signifies _going to_, and +_country_ is signified by locating it at arm's length toward the west, +to the left of the gesturer, as the stopping-place, also _possession_ +by the clinched fist being directed toward the ground. It is the +same as for _my_ or _mine_, though made before the body in the +latter signs. The direction of Tendoy's hands, first to the south and +afterwards to the north, was understood not as pointing to the exact +locality of the two parts of the country, but to the difference in +their respective climates. + + +_OMAHA COLLOQUY._ + +The following is contributed by Rev. J. OWEN DORSEY: + +_Question_. FROM WHAT QUARTER IS THE WIND? + +Raise the curved right hand, palm in, in front of the left shoulder. +Draw in toward the body a little, then from the body several times in +different directions. + +_Answer_. FROM THAT QUARTER. + +Hand as above; draw in towards the body _once_, and _farther_ with +_emphasis_, according to the direction of the wind. + + + +_BRULÉ DAKOTA COLLOQUY._ + +The following signs, forming a question and answer, were obtained by +Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN, from Ta-taⁿ-ka Wa-kaⁿ (Medicine Bull), a Brulé +Dakota chief who visited Washington during the winter of 1880-'81: + +_Question_. WE WENT TO THE DEPARTMENT [OF THE INTERIOR], SHOOK HANDS +WITH THE SECRETARY AND HAD A CONVERSATION WITH HIM, DID YOU HEAR OF +IT? + +[Illustration: Fig. 315.] + +(1) Extend and separate the thumb and index, leaving the remaining +fingers closed, place the ball of the thumb against the temple above +the outer corner of the eye, and the index across the forehead, the +tip resting on the left temple, then draw the index across to the +right until its tip touches the thumb--_white man_, Fig. 315; (2) +Elevate the extended index before the shoulder, palm forward, pass it +upward, as high as the head, and forming a short curve to the front, +then downward again slightly to the front to before the breast and +about fifteen inches from it--_chief_; (3) Fingers of both hands +extended and separated; then interlace them so that the tips of the +fingers of one hand protrude beyond the backs of those of the opposing +one; hold the hands in front of the breast, pointing upward, leaving +the wrists about six inches apart--_lodge_; (4) Place the left hand +a short distance before the breast, palm down and slightly arched, +fingers directed toward the right and front, then pass the flat and +extended right hand forward, under and beyond the left, forming +a downward curve, the right hand being as high as the left at the +commencement and termination of the gesture--_enter, entered_; +(5) Clasp the hands before the body, left uppermost--_shook hands, +friendly_; (6) Place the flat right hand before the chin, palm up +with fingers directed to the left, then pass the hand forward several +times--_talk, talked to him_; (7) Reverse this motion, beginning +away from the body, drawing the hand edgewise toward the chin several +times--_talked to me_; (8) Separate the extended thumb and index as +far as possible, leaving the remaining fingers closed, place the hand +about six inches opposite the right ear, palm toward the head, then +pass it in a curve forward and downward, terminating at the height of +the elbow--_hear, heard_; (9) then in a continuous movement direct the +extended index at the individual addressed, the face expressing a look +of inquiry--_you_. + +ANALYSIS. + + Wa-śi'-cuⁿ | i-taⁿ-caⁿ | ti-el' | ti'-ma-hel | unk-i'-pi + (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) + White man | chief |lodge in|lodge within |we were at that place + + |na | na'-pe-uⁿ-za-pi | na | ki-ci | wo-un-gla-ka-pi | kiⁿ + | (5) | (6,7) | + |and | hand we hold it,| and | to each other | we talk | the + take hold of thing + + | na-ya-ḣoⁿ-hu-o + (8,9) + | you hear it? + +It will be observed that the interrogation point is placed under +the last syllable, hu-o, the latter implying a question, though the +gesture was not made to accompany it, the gestures for _hear_ and +_you_, with a look of inquiry, being deemed sufficient to express the +desire on the part of the speaker. + +[Illustration: Fig. 316.] + +_Answer_. YES, I HEARD OF IT, BUT DID NOT SEE IT. + +(1) Hold the naturally closed hand before the right side of the breast +or shoulder, leaving the index and thumb loosely extended, then, as +the hand is thrown downward and forward, bring the index against the +inner side of the thumb--_yes_. (2) Repeat gesture No. 8--_heard_, +Fig. 316; (3) pass the extended index forward from the right +eye--_saw_; (4) then in a continuous motion extend all the fingers so +as to place the flat hand edgewise, and pointing forward about twelve +inches before the right side of the breast, and throw it outward and +slightly downward--_no, not_. + + +ANALYSIS. + + Ha-u | na-wa'-ḣoⁿ | tka | waⁿ-mla'-ke | śni + (1) | (2) | | (3) | (4) + Yes, | I heard | (but) | I saw it. | not. + + + +_DIALOGUE BETWEEN ALASKAN INDIANS._ + +The following introductory notes are furnished by MR. IVAN PETROFF, +who contributes the Dialogue: + +It has been repeatedly stated that among the natives of Alaska no +trace of gesture or sign language can be found. The universal spread +of the Russian language in former times as a medium of trade and +general intercourse has certainly prevented observations of this +primitive linguistic feature in all the vast regions visited by the +Russians. On the other hand, the homogeneous elements of the Innuit +tongue, spoken along the whole seacoast from the Arctic to the Alaskan +Peninsula, and the Island of Kadiak, has, to a great extent, abolished +all causes for the employment of sign language between tribes in their +mutual intercourse. Basing their opinions upon what they saw while +touching upon the coast here and there, even the acknowledged +authorities on Alaskan matters have declared that sign language did +not and could not exist in all that country. Without entering into +any lengthened dispute upon this question, I venture to present in the +subjoined pages a succinct account of at least one instance where I +saw natives of different tribes converse with each other only by means +of signs and gestures within the boundaries of Alaska. + +In the month of September, 1866, there arrived on the Lower Kinnik +River, a stream emptying its waters into Cook's Inlet, two Indians +from a distant region, who did not speak the Kenaitze language. The +people of the settlement at which the strangers made their first +appearance were equally at a loss to understand the visitors. At last +a chief of great age, bearing the name of Chatidoolts (mentioned by +Vancouver as a youth), was found to be able to interpret some of the +signs made by the strangers, and after a little practice he entered +into a continued conversation with them in rather a roundabout way, +being himself blind. He informed me that it was the second or third +time within his recollection that strangers like those then present +had come to Kinnik from the northeast, but that in his youth he had +frequently "talked with his hands" to their visitors from the west and +east. He also told me that he had acquired this art from his father, +who, as the old man expressed himself, had "seen every country, and +spoken to all the tribes of the earth." The conversation was carried +on with the help of the old man's sons, who described to their blind +parent the gestures of the strangers, and were instructed in turn by +him with what gestures to reply. + +This being an entirely new experience to me I at once proceeded to +carefully make notes of the desultory talk, extending over several +days. My object, primarily, was to make use of the signs for purposes +of trade in the future. + +The notes thus obtained contain a narrative of the two strangers, +interpreted to me at the time by Chatidoolts. I shall present each +sign or sentence as I noted it at the time, with only casual reference +to that incomplete and frequently erroneous interpretation. + +The two Indians wore the pointed hunting shirt of tanned moose-skin, +ornamented with beads and fringes which is still common to the Kutchin +tribes. They were not tattooed, but ears and noses were encumbered +with pendants of dentalium and a small red glass bead. Their feet were +clothed in moccasins. One of them had a rifle of English manufacture, +and his companion carried two huge knives, one of them of copper +evidently of native manufacture. + +(1) _Kenaitze_.--Left hand raised to height of eye, palm outward, +moved several times from right to left rapidly; fingers extended and +closed; pointing to strangers with left hand. Right hand describes a +curve from north to east--_Which of the northeastern tribes is yours?_ + +(2) _Tennanah_.--Right hand, hollowed, lifted to mouth, then extended +and describing waving line gradually descending from right to left. +Left hand describing mountainous outline, apparently one peak rising +above the other, said by Chatidoolts to mean--_Tenan-tnu-kohtana, +Mountain-river-men_. + +(3) _K_.--Left hand raised to height of eye, palm outward, moved from +right to left, fingers extended. Left index describes curve from east +to west. Outline of mountain and river as in preceding sign.--_How +many days from Mountain-river?_ + +(4) _T_.--Right hand raised toward sky, index and thumb forming first +crescent and then ring. This repeated three times--_moon, new and full +three times_. + +(5) Right hand raised, palm to front, index raised and lowered at +regular intervals--_walked_. Both hands imitating paddling of canoe, +alternately right and left--_traveled three months on foot and by +canoe_. + +(6) Both arms crossed over breast, simulating shivering--_cold, +winter_. + +(7) Right index pointing toward speaker--_I_. Left hand pointing to +the west--_traveled westward_. + +(8) Right hand lifted cup-shaped to mouth--_water_. Right hand +describing waving line from right to left gradually descending, +pointing to the west--_river running westward_. + +(9) Right hand gradually pushed forward, palm upward, from height +of breast. Left hand shading eyes; looking at great distance--_very +wide_. + +(10) Left and right hands put together in shape of sloping +shelter--_lodge, camp_. See Fig. 259, on p. 431. + +(11) Both hands lifted, height of eye, palm inward, fingers +spread--_many times_. + +(12) Both hands closed, palm outward, height of hips--_surprised_. + +(13) Index pointing from eye forward--_see_. + +(14) Right hand held up, height of shoulder, three fingers extended, +left hand pointing to me--_three white men_. + +(15) _K_.--Right hand pointing to me, left hand held up, three fingers +extended--_three white men_. + +(16) Making Russian sign of cross--_Russians. Were the three white men +Russians?_ + +(17) _T_.--Left hand raised, palm inward, two fingers extended, sign +of cross with right--_two Russians_. + +(18) Right hand extended, height of eye, palm outward, moved outward a +little to right--_no_. + +(19) One finger of left hand raised--_one_. + +(20) Sign of cross with right--_Russian_. + +(21) Right hand height of eye, fingers closed and extended, palm +outward a little to right--_no_. + +(22) Right hand carried across chest, hand extended, palm upward, +fingers and thumb closed as if holding something. Left hand in same +position carried across the right, palm downward--_trade_. + +(23) Left hand upholding one finger, right pointing to me--_one white +man_. + +(24) Right hand held horizontally, palm downward, about four feet from +ground--_small_. + +(25) Forming rings before eyes with index and thumb--_eye-glasses_. + +(26) Right hand clinched, palm upward, in front of chest, thumb +pointing inward--_gave one_. + +(27) Forming cup with right hand, simulating drinking--_drink_. + +(28) Right hand grasping chest repeatedly, fingers curved and +spread--_strong_. + +(29) Both hands pressed to temple and head moved from side to +side--_drunk, headache_. + +(30) Both index fingers placed together, extended, pointing +forward--_together_. + +(31) Fingers interlaced repeatedly--_build_. + +(32) Left hand extended, fingers closed, pointing outward +(vertically), right hand extended, fingers closed, placed slopingly +against left--_camp_. + +(33) Both wrists placed against temples, hands curved upward and +outward, fingers spread--_horns_. + +(34) Both hands horizontally lifted to height of shoulder, right arm +extended gradually full length to the right, hand drooping a little at +the end--_long back, moose_. + +(35) Both hands upright, palm outward, fingers extended and spread, +placing one before the other alternately--_trees, forest, dense +forest_. + +(36) Sign of cross--_Russian_. + +(37) Motions of shooting a gun--_shot_. + +(38) Sign for _moose_ (Nos. 33, 34), showing two fingers of left +hand--_two_. + +(39) Sign for _camp_ as before (No. 10) _camp_. + +(40) Right hand describing curve from east to west, twice--_two days_. + +(41) Left hand lifted height of mouth, back outward, fingers closed as +if holding something; right hand simulating motion of tearing off and +placing in mouth--_eating moose meat_. + +(42) Right hand placed horizontally against heart, fingers closed, +moved forward a little and raised a little several times--_glad at +heart_. + +(43) Fingers of left hand and index of right hand extended and placed +together horizontally, pointing forward, height of chest. Hands +separated, right pointing eastward and left westward--_three men and +speaker parted, going west and east_. + +(44) Pressing both arms against chest and shivering--_very cold_. + +(45) Drawing index of each hand around corresponding legs below the +knee--_deep snow_. + +(46) Drawing imaginary line with index of right hand across each foot, +just behind the toes--_snow shoes_. + +(47) Head lowered to right side into palm of hand three times--_slept +three times_. + +(48) Sign for _camp_, as before (No. 10)--_camp_. + +(49) Pointing to speaker--_I_. + +(50) Fingers of right hand extended and joined and pointed forward +from mouth, left hand lowered horizontally to a foot from the +ground--_fox_. + +(51) Left hand raised height of eye, back to the left, fingers closed, +with exception of middle finger held upright; then middle finger +suddenly closed--_trap_. + +(52) Both hands lifted height of eye, palm inward, fingers +spread--_many_. + +(53) Right hand pointing to speaker--_I_. + +(54) Sign for _trap_ (No. 51), as above--_trap_. + +(55) Right hand lowered to within a few inches of the ground and moved +from left to right about two feet. Motions of both hands descriptive +of playful jumping of marten around a tree or stump--_marten_. + +(56) Holding up the fingers of both hands three times until +aggregating thirty--_thirty_. + +(57) Left forearm held up vertically, palm to front, fingers +spread--_tree_. + +(58) Motion of chopping with hatchet--_cut_. + +(59) Driving invisible wedge around small circle--_peeling birch +bark_. + +(60) Right hand, fingers extended and joined, moved slowly from left +to right horizontally while blowing upon it with mouth--_pitching +seams of canoe_. + +(61) Motions of using paddle very vigorously--_paddle up stream_. + +(62) Lifting both arms above head on respective sides, hands closed as +if grasping something and lifting the body--_poling canoe_. + +(63) Sign for _moon_ (No. 4), (crescent and ring) once--_one month_. + +(64) Right hand vertically, height of chest, palm to left, fingers +extended, closed. Left hand horizontally, palm downward, pushed +against right--_stopped_. + +(65) Right hand, index extended, drawing outline of mountains, one +above other--_high mountains_. + +(66) Left hand lifted to left shoulder, back to front, fingers bent +and closed. Right hand, fingers bent and closed, placed over left and +then slowly drawn across chest to right shoulder. Motion with both +hands as if adjusting pack--_pack, knapsack_. + +(67) Sign for _water_ as before (No. 8). Both hands brought forward, +palms down, arms passed outward horizontally to respective sides, +palms down--_lake_. Both hands describing circular line backward until +touching collar bone--_big and deep_. + +(68) Left hand raised slightly about height of nipple, three fingers +closed; index and thumb holding tip of index of right hand. Both hands +moved across chest from left to right--_beaver_.[1] + +(69) Previous sign for _many_ (No. 52) repeated several times--_very +plentiful_. + +(70) Both hands held up with fingers spread, palm forward, twice and +left hand once--height of eye--_twenty-five_. + +(71) Pointing to himself--_I_. + +(72) Sign for _trap_ as before (No. 51)--_trapped_. + +(73) Sign for temporary _shelter_ (No. 10)--_camped_. + +(74) Sign for new and full moon (No. 4), once--_one month_. + +(75) Right hand passed slowly over the hair and chin. Left hand +touching a pendant of white beads--_old man_. + +(76) Index of right hand held up--_one_. + +(77) Both hands partially closed and placed against breast, back of +hands to front, a few inches apart--_women_. + +(78) Index and middle finger of right hand held up, palm forward; eyes +directed as if counting--_two_. + +(79) Sign for _trap_ as before (No. 51)--_trapping_. + +(80) Left forearm vertically in front of chest, palm of hand to front, +fingers spread, elbow resting upon the back of the right hand--_tree_. + +(81) Arms and hands spanning imaginary tree of some size--_big_. + +(82) Sign for _tree_ as before (No. 57), left forearm suddenly brought +down across extended right hand--_fell_. + +(83) Right hand laid on top of head, then passed over the hair and +chin, left hand touching white beads--_on the head of the old man_. + +(84) Sign for _old man_ as before (No. 75)--_old man_. + +(85) Closing both eyes with fore and middle finger of right hand; +both hands placed side by side, horizontally, palms downward, fingers +extended and united, hands separated by slow horizontal movement to +right and left--_dead_. + +(86) Sign for women as before (No. 77)--women. + +(87) Fingers of both hands interlaced at right angles several +times--_built_. + +(88) Sign for _lodge_ as before (No. 10)--_lodge_.[2] + +(89) Right index describing circle around the head, height of eye +(cutting hair). Right hand passed over forehead and face. Left index +pointing to black scabbard (blacking faces)--_mourning_. + +(90) Index and middle finger of right hand passed from eyes downward +across cheeks--_weeping_. + +(91) Pointing to himself--_I_. + +(92) Make the signs for _shoot_ (Nos. 33, 34), and _moose_ (No. +37)--_shot a moose_. + +(93) Left hand extended horizontally, palm upward, right hand placed +across left vertically, about the middle--_divided in two_. + +(94) Right hand closed, palm downward, moved forward from right breast +the length of the arm and then opened--_I gave_. + +(95) Sign for _women_, (No. 77)--_to women_. + +(96) Right hand, palm down, pointing to left, placed horizontally +before heart and slightly raised several times--_good and glad_. + +(97) Pointing to his companion--_he_. + +(98) Motion of _paddling--in canoe_. + +(99) Right arm and hand extended in N.E. direction, gradually curved +back until index touches speaker--_came to me from the northeast_. + +(100) Sign for _together_ as above (No. 30)--_together_. + +(101) Motion of _paddling--paddled_. + +(102) Pointing to ground--_to this place_. + +(103) _K_. Motion of drinking water out of hand--_water_. + +(104) Describing circle with right index on palm of left hand extended +horizontally--_lake_. + +(105) Left hand raised to height of eye, palm to front, +fingers leaning slightly backward. Fingers of left hand closed +alternately--_how many?_ + +(106) _T_. Holding up right hand back to front, showing four fingers, +eyes looking at them as if counting--_four_. + +(107) Sign for packing with wooden breast-brace as above; three +fingers of right hand shown as above--_three portages_. + +(108) _K_. Right hand pointing to gun of stranger--_gun_. Left hand +raised height of eye, palm to front, and moved rapidly several times +to right and left--_interrogation_. + +(109) Sign for _trade_ as before (No. 22)--_trade_; i.e., _where did +you buy the gun?_ + +(110) _T_. Sign for _Mountain-river_ as above (No. 2). Pointing +eastward--_from the eastward_. + +(111) Pointing to sun and then raising both hands, backs to front, +fingers spread--_ten days_. + +(112) Pointing to me--_white man_. + +(113) Left hand held up vertically, palm outward, fingers joined. +Right index placed horizontally across fingers of left hand in front, +about the middle joint--_pallisaded_. + +(114) Describing square with right index on flat palm of left +hand--_building_. + +(115) Pointing to his gun, powder-horn, blanket, and beads--_trading +goods_. + +(116) Both hands horizontal, brought forward and upward from chest and +then downward--_plenty_. + +In giving this narrative I have observed the original sequence, but +there were frequent interruptions, caused by consultation between +Chatidoolts and his sons, and before the strangers departed again they +had obtained a knowledge of some words of the Kenaitze language. + +[Footnote 1: Chatidoolts explained this to his sons as well as to me, +saying that the mountain men had a peculiar mode of catching beavers +with long sticks.] + +[Footnote 2: They never occupy a house in which one of the other +Indians died.] + + + +_OJIBWA DIALOGUE._ + +[COMMUNICATED BY THE VERY REV. EDWARD JACKER.] + +The following short dialogue forms part of the scanty tradition the +civilized Ojibwas possess regarding their ancestors' sign language: + +Two Indians of different tongue meet on a journey. First Indian points +to second Indian with the outstretched forefinger of the right hand, +bringing it within a few inches of his breast; next he extends both +forearms horizontally, clinches all but the forefingers, and bends +the hands inward; then he brings them slowly and in a straight line +together, until the tips of the outstretched forefingers meet. This +gesture is accompanied with a look of inquiry--_You met somebody?_ + +Second Indian, facing the south, points to the east, and with the +outstretched hand forms a half-circle from east to west (corresponding +to the daily course of the sun); then he raises the arm and +points to a certain height above the southern horizon. Then the sign +for _meeting_ (as above) may be made, or omitted. After this he +bends the right hand downward, and repeatedly moves the outstretched +forefinger and middle finger in opposite directions (in imitation of +the motion of the legs in the act of walking). Finally he raises +the right hand and stretches up the forefinger (or several fingers). +_To-day, when the sun stood at such a height, I met one (or several) +persons traveling on foot_. If the travelers met were on horseback +he makes the sign for _horse_ as described by (_Dakota_ III), see +EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY, or the identical one for _going_ given by +(_Ojibwa_ I), which is as follows: To describe a journey on horseback +the first two fingers of the right hand are placed astride of the +forefinger of the left hand, and both represent the galloping movement +of a horse. If it is a foot journey, wave the two fingers several +times through the air. + + +NARRATIVES. + +The following, which is presented as a good descriptive model, was +obtained by Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN, of the Bureau of Ethnology, from +Natci, a Pai-Ute chief connected with the delegation of that tribe to +Washington in January, 1880, and refers to an expedition made by him +by direction of his father, Winnimukka, Head Chief of the Pai-Utes, to +the northern camp of his tribe, partly for the purpose of preventing +the hostile outbreak of the Banaks which occurred in 1878, and more +particularly to prevent those Pai-Utes from being drawn into any +difficulty with the United States by being leagued with the Banaks. + +_NÁTCI'S NARRATIVE._ + +(1) Close the right hand, leaving the index extended, pointed westward +at arm's length a little above the horizon, head thrown back with the +eyes partly closed and following the direction--_Away to the west_, +(2) indicate a large circle on the ground with the forefinger of the +right hand pointing downward--_place_ (locative), (3) the tips of +the spread fingers of both hands placed against one another, pointing +upward before the body, leaving a space of four or five inches between +the wrists--_house_ (brush tent or wik'-i-up), see Fig. 257, p. 431, +(4) with the right hand closed, index extended or slightly bent, tap +the breast several times--_mine_. (5) Draw an imaginary line, with the +right index toward the ground, from some distance in front of the body +to a position nearer to it--_from there I came_, (6) indicate a spot +on the ground by quickly raising and depressing the right hand with +the index pointing downward--_to a stopping place_, (7) grasp the +forelock with the right hand, palm to the forehead, and raise it about +six inches, still holding the hair upward--_the chief of the tribe_ +(Winnimukka), see Fig. 245, p. 418, (8) touch the breast with the +index--_me_, (9) the right hand held forward from the hip at the level +of the elbow, closed, palm downward, with the middle finger extended +and quickly moved up and down a short distance--_telegraphed_, (10) +head inclined toward the right, at the same time making movement +toward and from the ear with the extended index pointing toward it--_I +heard_, i.e., understood. + +(11) An imaginary line indicated with the extended and inverted index +from a short distance before the body to a place on the right--_I +went_, (12) repeat gesture No. 6--_a stopping place_, (13) inclining +the head, with eyes closed, toward the right, bring the extended right +hand, palm up, to within six inches of the right ear--_where I slept_. +(14) Place the spread and extended index and thumb of the right hand, +palm downward, across the right side of the forehead--_white man_ +(American), (15) elevating both hands before the breast, palms +forward, thumbs touching, the little finger of the right hand +closed--_nine_, (16) touch the breast with the right forefinger +suddenly--_and myself_, (17) lowering the hand, and pointing downward +and forward with the index still extended (the remaining fingers +and thumb being loosely closed) indicate an imaginary line along the +ground toward the extreme right--_went_, (18) extend the forefinger of +the closed left hand, and place the separated fore and second fingers +of the right astraddle the forefinger of the left, and make a series +of arched or curved movements toward the right--_rode horseback_, +(19) keeping the hands in their relative position, place them a short +distance below the right ear, the head being inclined toward that +side--_sleep_, (20) repeat the signs for _riding_ (No. 18) and +_sleeping_ (No. 19) three times--_four days and nights_, (21) make +sign No. 18, and stopping suddenly point toward the east with the +extended index-finger of the right (others being closed) and follow +the course of the sun until it reaches the zenith--_arrived at noon of +the fifth day_. + +(22) Indicate a circle as in No. 2--_a camp_, (23) the hands then +placed together as in No. 3, and in this position, both moved in +short irregular upward and downward jerks from side to side--_many +wik'-i-ups_, (24) then indicate the chief of the tribe as in No. +7--meaning that _it was one of the camps of the chief of the tribe_. +(25) Make a peculiar whistling sound of "phew" and draw the extended +index of the right hand across the throat from left to right--_Banak_, +(26) draw an imaginary line with the same extended index, pointing +toward the ground, from the right to the body--_came from the north_, +(27) again make gesture No. 2--_camp_, (28) and follow it twice +by sign given as No. 18 (forward from the body, but a short +distance)--_two rode_. (29) Rub the back of the right hand with the +extended index of the left--_Indian_, i.e., the narrator's own tribe, +Pai-Ute, (30) elevate both hands side by side before the breast, palms +forward, thumbs touching, then, after a short pause, close all +the fingers and thumbs except the two outer fingers of the right +hand--_twelve_, (31) again place the hands side by side with fingers +all spread or separated, and move them in a horizontal curve toward +the right--_went out of camp_, (32) and make the sign given as No. +25--_Banak_, (33) that of No. 2--_camp_, (34) then join the hands as +in No. 31, from the right toward the front--_Pai-Utes returned_, (35) +close the right hand, leaving the index only extended, move it forward +and downward from the mouth three or four times, pointing forward, +each time ending the movement at a different point--_I talked to +them_, (36) both hands pointing upward, fingers and thumbs separated, +palms facing and about four inches apart, held in front of the body +as far as possible in that position--_the men in council_, (37) point +toward the east with the index apparently curving downward over the +horizon, then gradually elevate it to an altitude of 45°--_talked +all night and until nine o'clock next morning_, (38) bring the closed +hands, with forefingers extended, upward and forward from their +respective sides, and place them side by side, palms forward, in +front--_my brother_, Fig. 317, (39) (see also pp. 385, 386) followed +by the gesture, No. 18, directed toward the left and front--_rode_, +(40) by No. 7--_the head chief_, (41) and No. 2--_camp_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 317.] + +(42) Continue by placing the hands, slightly curved, palm to palm, +holding them about six inches below the right ear, the head being +inclined considerably in that direction--_one sleep (night)_, (43) +make sign No. 14--_white man_, (44) raise the left hand to the level +of the elbow forward from the left hip, fingers pointing upward, thumb +and forefinger closed--_three_, (45) and in this position draw them +toward the body and slightly to the right--_came_, (46) then make +gesture So. 42--_sleep_; (47) point with the right index to the +eastern horizon--_in the morning_, (48) make sign No. 14--_white man_, +(49) hold the left hand nearly at arm's length before the body, +back up, thumb and forefinger closed, the remaining fingers pointing +downward--_three_, (50) with the right index finger make gesture No. +35, the movement being directed towards the left hand--_talked to +them_, (51) motion along the ground with the left hand, from the body +toward the left and front, retaining the position of the fingers just +stated (in No. 49)--_they went_, (52) tap toward the ground, as in +gesture No. 6, with the left hand nearly at arm's length--_to their +camp_. + +(53) Make gesture No. 18 toward the front--_I rode_, (54) extend the +right hand to the left and front, and tap towards the earth several +times as in sign No. 6, having the fingers and thumb collected to +a point--_camp of the white men_. (55) Close both hands, with the +forefingers of each partly extended and crooked, and place one on +either side of the forehead, palms forward--_cattle_ (a steer), (56) +hold the left hand loosely extended, back forward, about twenty inches +before the breast, and strike the back of the partly extended right +hand into the left--_shot_, (57) make a short upward curved movement +with both hands, their position unchanged, over and downward toward +the right--_fell over, killed_, (58) then hold the left hand a short +distance before the body at the height of the elbow, palm downward, +fingers closed, with the thumb lying over the second joint of the +forefinger, extend the flattened right hand, edge down, before the +body, just by the knuckles of the left, and draw the hand towards the +body, repeating the movement--_skinned_, (59) make the sign given in +No. 25--_Banak_, (60) place both hands with spread fingers upward and +palms forward, thumb to thumb, before the right shoulder, moving them +with a tremulous motion toward the left and front--_came in_, (61) +make three short movements toward the ground in front, with the left +hand, fingers loosely curved, and pointing downward--_camp of the +three white men_, (62) then with the right hand open and flattened, +edge down, cut towards the body as well as to the right and left--_cut +up the meat_, (63) and make the pantomimic gesture of _handing it +around to the visitors_. + +(64) Make sign No. 35, the movement being directed to the left hand, +as held in No. 49--_told the white men_, (65) grasping the hair on the +right side of the head with the left hand, and drawing the extended +right hand with the edge towards and across the side of the head from +behind forward--_to scalp_; (66) close the right hand, leaving the +index partly extended, and wave it several times quickly from side to +side a short distance before the face, slightly shaking the head at +the same time--_no_, Fig. 318, (67) make gesture No. 4--_me_, (68) +repeat No. 65--_scalp_, (69) and raising the forelock high with the +left hand, straighten the whole frame with a triumphant air--_make +me a great chief_. (70) Close the right hand with the index fully +extended, place the tip to the mouth and direct it firmly forward +and downward toward the ground--_stop_, (71) then placing the hands, +pointing upward, side by side, thumbs touching, and all the fingers +separated, move them from near the breast outward toward the right, +palms facing that direction at termination of movement--_the Banaks +went to one side_, (72) with the right hand closed, index curved, palm +downward, point toward the western horizon, and at arm's length dip +the finger downward--_after sunset_, (73) make the gesture given as +No. 14--_white men_, (74) pointing to the heart as in No. 4--_and I_, +(75) conclude by making gesture No. 18 from near body toward the left, +four times, at the end of each movement the hands remaining in the +same position, thrown slightly upward--_we four escaped on horseback_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 318.] + +The above was paraphrased orally by the narrator as follows: "Hearing +of the trouble in the north, I started eastward from my camp in +Western Nevada, when, upon arriving at Winnemucca Station, I received +telegraphic orders from the head chief to go north to induce our bands +in that region to escape the approaching difficulties with the Banaks. +I started for Camp McDermit, where I remained one night. Leaving next +morning in company with nine others, we rode on for four days and a +half. Soon after our arrival at the Pai-Ute camp, two Banaks came in, +when I sent twelve Pai-Utes to their camp to ask them all to come in +to hold council. These messengers soon returned, when I collected all +the Pai-Utes ands talked to them all night regarding the dangers of +an alliance with the Banaks and of their continuance in that locality. +Next morning I sent my brother to the chief, Winnimukka, with a report +of proceedings. + +"On the following day three white men rode into camp, who had come up +to aid in persuading the Pai-Utes to move away from the border. Next +morning I consulted with them respecting future operations, after +which they went away a short distance to their camp. I then followed +them, where I shot and killed a steer, and while skinning it the +Banaks came in, when the meat was distributed. The Banaks being +disposed to become violent at any moment, the white men became +alarmed, when I told them that rather than allow them to be scalped I +would be scalped myself in defending them, for which action I would +be considered as great a chief as Winnemukka by my people. When I told +the Banaks to cease threatening the white men they all moved to one +side a short distance to hold a war council, and after the sun went +down the white men and I mounted our horses and fled toward the south, +whence we came." + +Some of the above signs seem to require explanation. Natci was facing +the west during the whole of this narration, and by the right he +signified the north; this will explain the significance of his gesture +to the right in Nos. 11 and 17, and to the left in No. 75. + +No. 2 (repeated in Nos. 22,27,33, and 41) designates an Indian brush +lodge, and although Natci has not occupied one for some years, the +gesture illustrates the original conception in the round form of the +foundation of poles, branches, and brush, the interlacing of which in +the construction of the _wik'-i-up_ has survived in gestures Nos. 3 +and 23 (the latter referring to more than one, i.e., an encampment). + +The sign for Banak, No. 25 (also 32 and 59), has its origin from the +tradition among the Pai-Utes that the Banaks were in the habit of +cutting the throats of their victims. This sign is made with the index +instead of the similar gesture with the flat hand, which among several +tribes denotes the Sioux, but the Pai-Utes examined had no specific +sign for that body of Indians, not having been in sufficient contact +with them. + +"A stopping place," referred to in Nos. 6, 12, 52, and 54, +represents the temporary station, or camp of white men, and is +contradistinguished from a village, or perhaps from any permanent +encampment of a number of persons, by merely dotting toward the ground +instead of indicating a circle. + +It will also be seen that in several instances, after indicating the +nationality, the fingers previously used in representing the number +were repeated without its previously accompanying specific gesture, +as in No. 61, where the three fingers of the left hand represented the +men (white), and the three movements toward the ground signified the +camp or tents of the three (white) men. + +This also occurs in the gesture (Nos. 59, 60, and 71) employed for +the Banaks, which, having been once specified, is used subsequently +without its specific preceding sign for the tribe represented. + +The rapid connection of the signs Nos. 57 and 58 and of Nos. 74 and +75 indicates the conjunction, so that they are severally readily +understood as "shot _and_ killed," and "the white men _and_ I." The +same remark applies to Nos. 15 and 16, "the nine _and_ I." + + +_PATRICIO'S NARRATIVE._ + +This narrative was obtained in July, 1880, by Dr. FRANCIS H. ATKINS, +acting assistant surgeon, United States Army, at South Fork, New +Mexico, from TI-PE-BES-TLEL (Sheepskin-leggings), habitually called +Patricio, an intelligent young Mescalero Apache. It gives an account +of what is locally termed the "April Round-up," which was the +disarming and imprisoning by a cavalry command of the United States +Army, of the small Apache subtribe to which the narrator belonged. + +(1) Left hand on edge, curved, palm, forward, extended backward length +of arm toward the West (_far westward_). + +(2) Arm same, turned hand, tips down, and moved it from north to south +(_river_). + +(3) Dipped same hand several times above and beyond last line +(_beyond_). + +(4) Hand curved (Y, more flexed) and laid on its back on top of his +foot (_moccasins much curved up at toe_); then drew hands up legs +to near knee, and cut off with edges of hands (_boot tops_), (_Warm +Spring Apaches_, who wear booted moccasins with turn-up toes.) + +(5) Hands held before him, tips near together, fingers gathered (U); +then alternately opened and gathered fingers of both hands (P to U, +U to P), and thrusting them toward each other a few times (_shot or +killed many_). + +(6) Held hands six inches from side of head, thumbs and forefingers +widely separated (_Mexican_, i.e., wears a broad hat). + +(7) Held right hand on edge, palm toward him, threw it on its back +forward and downward sharply toward earth (T on edge to X), (_dead, so +many dead_). + +(8) Put thumbs to temples and indexes forward, meeting in front, other +fingers closed (_soldiers_, i.e., cap-visor). + +(9) Repeated No. 5 and No. 7 (_were also shot dead_). + +(10) Placed first and second fingers of right hand, others closed, +astride of left index, held horizontally (_horses_). + +(11) Held hands on edge and forward (T on edge forward), pushed them +forward, waving vertically (_marching_, i.e., _ran off with soldiers' +horses or others_). N.B.--Using both hands indicates double ranks of +troops marching also. + +(12) Struck right fist across in front of chin from right to left +sharply (_bad_). + +(13) Repeated No. 4 (_Warm Spring Apache_). + +(14) Moved fist, thumb to head, from center of forehead to right +temple and a little backward (_fool_). + +(15) Repeated No. 8 and No. 11 (_soldiers riding in double column_). + +(16) Thrust right hand down over and beyond left, both palms down (W) +(_came here_). + +(17) Repeated No. 8 (_soldier_). + +(18) Touched hair (_hair_). + +(19) Touched tent (_quite white_). + +(20) Touched top of shoulder (_commissioned officer_, i.e., +shoulder-straps). + +(21) Thrust both hands up high (_high rank_). + +(22) Right forefinger to forehead; waved it about in front of face and +rolled head about (primarily _fool_, but qualified in this case by the +interpreter as _no sabe much_). + +(23) Drew hands up his thighs and body and pointed to himself +(_Mescalero Indian_). + +(24) Approximated hands before him, palms down, with thumbs and +indexes widely separated, as if inclosing a circle (_captured_, i.e., +_corralled, surrounded_). + +(25) Placed tips of hands together, wrists apart, held them erect (T, +both hands inclined), (_house_; in this case _the agency_). + +(26) Threw both hands, palms back, forward and downward, moving from +knuckles (metacarpo-phalangeal joint) only, several times (_issuing +rations_). + +(27) Thrust two fingers (N) toward mouth and downward (_food_). + +(28) Repeated No. 25 (_house_); outlined a hemispherical object +(wik-i-up); repeated these several times, bringing the hands with +emphasis several times down toward the earth (_village permanently +here_). + +(29) Repeated No. 25 several times and pointed to a neighboring +hillside (_village over there_). + +(30) Repeated Nos. 17 to 21, inclusive (_General X_). + +(31) Thrust two fingers forward from his eyes (primarily _I see_; also +_I saw_, or _there were_). + +(32) Repeated No. 11 (_toward said hillside_), (_troops went over +there with General X_). + +(33) Repeated No. 4, adding, swept indexes around head and touched red +paper on a tobacco wrapper (_San Carlos Apaches_, scouts especially +distinguished by wearing a red fillet about the head); also added, +drew indexes across each cheek from nose outward (_were much +painted_). + +(34) Repeated No. 24 and No. 23 (_to capture the Mescalero Indians_). + +(35) Repeated No. 31 (_there were_). + +(36) Repeated No. 33 (_San Carlos scouts_). + +(37) Repeated No. 8 (_and soldiers_). + +(38) Clasped his hands effusively before his breast (_so many!_ i.e., +_a great many_). + +(39) Repeated No. 31 (_I saw_). + +(40) Repeated No. 23 (_my people_). + +(41) Brought fists together under chin, and hugged his arms close to +his breast, with a shrinking motion of body (_afraid_). + +(42) Struck off half of left index with right index (_half_, or _a +portion_). + +(43) Waved off laterally and upward with both hands briskly (_fled_). + +(44) Projected circled right thumb and index to eastern horizon, +thence to zenith (_next morning_, i.e., sunrise to noon). + +(45) Repeated No. 23 (_the Mescaleros_). + +(46) Held hands in position of aiming a gun--left oblique--(_shoot_). + +(47) Waved right index briskly before right shoulder (_no, did not; +negation_). + +(48) Swept his hand from behind forward, palm up (Y) (_the others +came_). + +(49) Repeated No. 5 (_and shot_). + +(50) Repeated No. 23 (_the Mescaleros_). + +(51) Repeated No. 7 (_many dead_). + +(52) Repeated No. 8 (_soldiers_). + +(53) Repeated No. 10 (_horse, mounted_). + +(54) Hand forward, palm down (W) moved forward and up and down +(_walking_, i.e., _infantry_). + +(55) Beckoned with right hand, two fingers curved (N horizontal and +curved) (_came_). + +(56) Repeated No. 11 (_marching_). + +(57) Repeated No. 28 (_to this camp, or village_). + +(58) Repeated No. 23 (_with Mescaleros_). + +(59) Repeated No. 24 (_as prisoners, surrounded_). + +(60) Repeated No. 33 (_San Carlos scouts_). + +(61) Placed hands, spread out (R inverted), tips down, about waist +(_many cartridges_). + +(62) Repeated No. 46 (_and guns_). + +(63) Repeated No. 5 (_shot many_). + +(64) Repeated No. 4 (_Warm Spring Apaches_). + +(65) Repeated No. 23 (_and Mescaleros_). + +(66) Moved fist--thumb to head--across his forehead from right to +left, and cast it toward earth over left shoulder (_brave_, i.e., _the +San Carlos scouts are brave_). + +CONTINUOUS TRANSLATION OF THE ABOVE. + +Far westward beyond the Rio Grande are the Warm Spring Apaches, who +killed many Mexicans and soldiers and stole their horses. They (the +Warm Spring Apaches) are bad and fools. + +Some cavalry came here under an aged officer of high rank, but of +inferior intelligence, to capture the Mescalero Indians. + +The Mescaleros wished to have their village permanently here by the +agency, and to receive their rations, i.e., were peacefully inclined. + +Our village was over there. I saw the general come with troops and San +Carlos scouts to surround (or capture) the Mescalero Indians. There +were a great many San Carlos scouts and soldiers. + +I saw that my people were afraid, and half of them fled. + +Next morning the Mescaleros did not shoot (were not hostile). The +others came and killed many Mescaleros. The cavalry and infantry +brought us (the Mescaleros) to this camp as prisoners. + +The San Carlos scouts were well supplied with ammunition and guns, and +shot many Warm Spring Indians and Mescaleros. + +The San Carlos scouts are brave men. + + +_NA-WA-GI-JIG'S STORY._ + +The following is contributed by Mr. FRANCIS JACKER: + +This narrative was related to me by _John Na-wa-gi-jig_ (literally +"noon-day sky"), an aged Ojibwa, with whom I have been intimately +connected for a long period of years. He delivered his story, +referring to one of the many incidents in his perilous life, orally, +but with pantomimes so graphic and vivid that it may be presented +truly as a specimen of gesture language. Indeed, to any one familiar +with Indian mimicry, the story might have been intelligible without +the expedient of verbal language, while the oral exposition, +incoherent as it was, could hardly be styled anything better than the +subordinate part of the delivery. I have endeavored to reproduce +these gestures in their original connections from memory, omitting the +verbal accompaniment as far as practicable. In order to facilitate a +clear understanding it is stated that the gesturer was in a sitting +posture before a camp fire by the lake shore, and facing the locality +where the event referred to had actually occurred, viz, a portion of +Keweenaw Bay, Lake Superior, in the neighborhood of Portage Entry, +as seen by the annexed diagram, Fig. 319. The time of the relation +(latter part of April) also coincided with the _actual_ time. In +speaking of "arm," "hand," "finger," &c., the "right" is understood if +not otherwise specified. "Finger" stands for "forefinger." + +(1) With the exclamation "_me-wi-ja_" (a long time ago), uttered in +a slow and peculiarly emphatic manner, he elevated the arm above and +toward the right at the head, accompanying the motion with an upward +wave of the hand and held it thus suspended a moment--_a long time +ago_. (This gesture resembles sign for _time, a long_, of which it +seems to be an abbreviation, and it is not sufficiently clear without +the accompanying exclamation.) Withdrawing it slowly, he placed the +hand back upon his knee. + +(2) He then brought up the left hand toward the temple and tapped his +hair, which was gray, with the finger--_hair gray_. + +(3) From thence he carried it down upon the thigh, placing the +extended finger perpendicularly upon a fold of his trousers, which +the thumb and finger of the right held grasped in such a manner as to +advantageously present the smooth black surface of the cloth--_of that +color_, i.e., _black_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 319--Scene of Na-wa-gi-jig's story.] + +(4) Next, with a powerful strain of the muscles, he slowly stretched +out the right arm and fist and grasping the arm about the elbow with +the left, he raised the forearm perpendicularly upward, then brought +it down with force, tightening the grasp in doing so (fingers pressing +upon knuckle, thumb against pit of elbow)--_strength_. + +(5) Pointing first at me--_you_. + +(6) He next held out the hand horizontally and flat, palm downward, +about four feet above the ground, correcting the measure a moment +afterward by elevating hand a few inches higher, and estimated the +height thus indicated with a telling look, leaning the head toward the +side--_about that height_, i.e., _a youth of about that size_. + +(7) He then rapidly extended the arm about two-thirds of its length +forward and toward the right, terminating the motion with a jerk of +the hand upward, palm turned outward, and accompanied the motion with +a nod of the head, the hand in its downfall closing and dropping upon +knee--_very well_. + +(8) Musing a few moments, he next slowly extended the arm and pointed +with the fingers toward and along the surface of the frozen bay--_out +there_. + +(9) In an easterly direction--_eastward_. + +(10) Thence turning the arm to the right he nodded the finger toward +a projection of land southward at a distance of about two +miles--following in each case the direction of the finger with the +eyes--and immediately after placed the hand again eastward, indicating +the spot with the same emphatic nod of the finger as though carrying +the visible distance to a spot upon the expanse of the bay, which, +bearing no object, could not be marked otherwise--_two miles out +there_. + +(11) Carrying the finger toward the body, he touched his breast--_I +myself_. + +(12) Thence erected the hand, turning its palm forward, forefinger +perpendicularly extended, others slightly closed, and nodded +it downward in an explanatory manner, all in an uninterrupted +movement--_one_, meaning in connection with the preceding gesture--_I +for one_. + +(13) Again, with an emphatic movement, he turned the hand upward, +slightly erecting the index, thumb pointing forward, remaining +fingers partially and naturally opened and more or less +separated--_furthermore_. + +(14) Then quickly and after a moment's stop brought down the hand to +a horizontal position, first and second fingers joining and fully +extending during the movement, and pointing forward--_another_, i.e., +_joined by another_. Repeating this motion, he at the same time called +out the name _Ga-bi-wa-bi-ko-ke_. + +(15) Following the exclamation with a repetition of No. 2--_gray +hair_--repeatedly touching the hair, meaning in this case--_an old +man_. + +(16) Pointed with the finger toward the right, directing it obliquely +toward the ground--_at a short distance toward my right_. + +(17) Repeated No. 13--_furthermore_. + +(18) Repeated No. 14, adding the third finger to joined fore and +middle fingers, thumb resting upon tip of fourth--_another_, i.e., +_joined by a third_, and pronounced the words "_o-gwis-san Sa-ba-dis_" +(this is a corruption of the French "Jean Baptiste," a favorite name +among Christianized Indians)--_John Baptist, his son_, while repeating +the movement. + +(19) Held up the three separated fingers perpendicularly in front of +the face, pushing the hand forward a little--_three in all_. + +(20) Presently lowered the hand, fingers relaxing, and carried it +a short distance toward the left, thence back to the right, fingers +pointing obliquely toward the ground in each case--_placed to the +right and left of me at a short distance_. + +(21) He then brought the hand--back toward the right, index +horizontally extended, remaining fingers closed, thumb placed against +second finger--in front of abdomen, and moved it slowly up and down +two or three times, giving it a slight jerk at the upward motion, and +raising the arm partially in doing so. At the same time he inclined +the body forward a little, eyes looking down--_fishing_. This refers +to fishing on the ice, and, as may be inferred from it, to the use of +hook and line. A short stick to which the line is attached serves as a +rod and is moved up and down in the manner described. + +(22) After a short pause he elevated the hand, directing the index +toward that point of the meridian which the sun passes at about +the tenth hour of the day, and following the direction with, the +eye--_about ten o'clock_. + +(23) Turning his face toward the southwest and holding up the flat and +extended hand some distance in front of it, back outward, he waved +it briskly and several times toward the face--_fresh breeze from the +southwest_. + +(24) Repeated No. 21 (_fishing_), playing the imaginary fish-line +up and down regularly for a while, till all at once he changed the +movement by raising the hand in an oblique course, which movement he +repeated several times, each time increasing the divergence and the +length of the motion--_the fish-hook don't sink perpendicularly any +longer_, i.e., _it is moving_. + +(25) Quickly erecting his body he looked around him with +surprise--_looking with surprise_. + +(26) Shading his eyes with the hand, gazed intensively toward the +south--_fixedly gazing toward the south_. + +(27) Threw up his arm almost perpendicularly the next moment--_greatly +astonished_. + +(28) Extended and slowly moved the arm from southeast to northwest +as far as he could reach, at the same time exclaiming "_mig-wam_" +"ice"--_the ice from shore to shore_. + +(29) Approximated the flat and horizontally extended hands, backs +upward, with their inner edges touching, whereupon, suddenly turning +the edges downward, he withdrew them laterally, backs nearly opposed +to each other--_parting_. + +(30) Pushed the left hand, palm outward, fingers joined, edges up and +down, forward and toward its side with a full sweep of the arm, +head following the movement--_pushed in that direction_, i.e., +_northeastward_. + +(31) Repeated No. 23, but waved the hand only once and with a quick +and more powerful movement toward the face--_by the force of the +wind_. + +(32) Rotated hands in front of body, rolling them tips over tips very +rapidly, fingers with thumbs nearly collected to a point--_winding up +the hook-line in a hurry_. + +(33) Quickly passed the hand toward the left breast of his +coat--_putting it in pocket_. + +(34) And bending the body forward made motion as if picking up +something--_picking up_. + +(35) Raised the hand closed to fist, arm elevated so as to form a +right angle with elbow, and made a short stroke downward and toward +the left--_hatchet_. + +(36) Thence moved the hand to side of breast and pushed it down the +waist--_putting it into belt_. + +(37) Placed the closed hands to each side of the waist (thumbs upward +with tips facing each other) and approximated them rapidly and with a +jerk in front of navel--_tightening the belt_. + +(38) With both hands lowered to the ground, he described an elongated +oval around his foot by placing tips of forefingers together in front +of the toes and passing them around each side, meeting the fingers +behind the heel and running them jointly backward a few inches to +indicate a tail--_snow-shoe_. + +(39) Raised up the heel, resting the foot on the toes and turning it a +little toward the right, brought it back in a downward movement with a +jerk--_putting it on_. + +(40) Waved the left hand emphatically forward, palm backward, fingers +joined and pointing downward, extending them forward at termination of +motion, at the same time pushing forward the head--_starting_. + +(41) Directed the finger of the same hand toward the +light-house--_toward that point_. + +(42) Pointed with extended first two fingers of the same hand, +thumb with remaining fingers partially extended to right and to +left--_companions_. + +(43) Repeated No. 40 (_starting_) less emphatically. + +(44) Made several very quick jumping movements forward with the +extended left fingers, joined, back upward--_going very fast_. + +(45) Repeated No. 23 (_wind_), increasing the force of the movement +and terminating the sign with the second repetition (wave)--_wind +increasing_. + +(46) Raised up the hand in front of head and then arrested it a +moment, palm outward, fingers extended, upward and forward--_halt_. + +(47) Partially turning the body toward the north he lowered the +extended hand, back forward, fingers joined and pointing downward +toward the left of his feet and moved it closely in front of them, and +with a cutting motion, toward the right, following the movement with +the eye--_cut off right before feet_, i.e., _standing on the very +edge_. + +(48) Still facing the north, he carried the hand, back upward, fingers +joined and extended, from left side of body outward and toward the +right horizontally, indicating the rippled surface of turbulent +water by an appropriate motion, and extending the arm to full length, +fingers pointing northeastward (toward the right) at termination of +motion, and accompanied the movement with a corresponding turn of the +head, eyes gazing far into distance--_water all along the shore_. + +(49) Pushed the extended finger, back upward, forward (i.e., +northward) in a slightly arched movement--_across_. + +(50) Directing it toward an object (tree) at a distance of about +one hundred yards the next moment--_a distance of about one hundred +yards_. + +(51) Repeated No. 49 (_across_) without interrupting the motion--_that +distance placed across_. + +(52) Motions as follows: Hands naturally relaxed, edges up and down, +backs outward, are with a quick movement and simultaneously carried +from the epigastrium forward and toward their sides, arms being +extended from elbows only. The hands change their position during the +movement and are ultimately placed palms upward, thumbs and fingers +extended and widely separated, pointing forward. This is the general +sign for _doubt_. He also turned the face from one side to the other +as though interrogating his companions--_what are we to do_? + +(53) Repeated No. 35 (_hatchet_). + +(54) Raised up the finger perpendicularly, other fingers closed, thumb +resting against second, and emphatically inclined it forward--_only +one_. + +(55) Elevated the arm from the elbow toward the head, hand naturally +relaxed, back obliquely upward, inclining the face sideward with a +look of consternation, simultaneously, and again mechanically lowered +it, dropping palm of hand heavily upon the knee--"_bad fix_." + +(56) Placed the hand to his hip and raised it up, closed to fist, by +a rapid and very energetic movement, ejaculating _haw!--quick to the +work_ (referring to the ax or hatchet). + +(57) Turning the body downward, he passed the hand, with forefinger +directed toward the ground, forward, sideward, and backward, in three +movements, each time turning at a right angle--_measuring off a square +piece on the ground_, i.e., _on the ice_. + +(58) Looked and pointed toward an object some twenty feet off, then +opposed palms of hands horizontally, and at a short distance from +each other, connecting both movements in such a manner as to clearly +illustrate their meaning--_about twenty feet wide_. + +(59) Moved the hand--fist, thumb upward--several times quickly up +and down a few inches, the arm progressing forward at every +stroke--_cutting it off_. + +(60) Repeated No. 55 (_bad fix_), meaning in this case--_bad job_. + +(61) Opposed the palms of both hands, vertically, at a distance of +eight inches, holding them thus steady a moment and estimating the +thus indicated measure with the eyes--_eight inches thick_. + +(62) Then struck the palm of left with the back of arched right +forcibly--_solid ice_. + +(63) Laid the joined and extended first two fingers, palm up, across +side of leg, a foot above heel, accompanying the movement with the +eye--_one foot deep_. + +(64) Pushed downward perpendicularly and from same point the flat, +extended hand--_sinking_, or _giving in_--and turning the hand upward +at wrist, back downward, he flirted up the fingers several times +quickly--_water--slush and water_. + +(65) Passed one hand over the other as in the act of pulling off +mittens--_mittens_. + +(66) Made the motion of wringing out a wet piece of cloth--_wringing +wet_. + +(67) Grasped a fold of his trowsers (below the knee) and wrung +it--_trowsers also wet_. + +(68) Placed palms of both hands upon legs, near to the ankles, and +dragged them up to the knees--_up to the knees_. + +(69) Shivered--_feeling cold_. + +(70) Pointed with thumb backward and toward the right (designating his +companion) and repeated No. 2 (_hair gray_)--_my old companion_, i.e., +_Ga-bi-wa-bi-ko-ke_. + +(71) Repeated No. 69 (_feeling cold_) more emphatically--_more so_, +i.e., _suffering worse from the cold._ + +(72) Repeated No. 59 (_cutting the ice_). + +(73) Made sign for _tired--getting tired_, as follows: The left arm +is partly extended forward, and is gently struck near the bend of the +elbow, usually above it, with the palm of the right hand, at the same +time the head is usually inclined to the left side, then in similar +manner the right arm is extended and struck by the left hand, and the +head in turn inclined to the right. + +(74) Repeated No. 35--(_hatchet_). + +(75) Turned the slightly closed left (thumb obliquely upward) over +to its side, partially opening it in so doing, fingers pointing to +left--_passing it over to his companion at the left_, i.e., _Sabadis_. + +(76) Flung forefingers of both hands, backs forward, thumbs upward, +remaining fingers partially closed, toward their respective sides +alternately--_by turns_. + +(77) Repeated No. 59 (_cutting the ice_). + +(78) Elevated the hand above head, thumb and first two fingers +extended and directed toward the western meridian, and shook it +emphatically and with a tremulous motion up and down while thus +suspended--_at a late hour_. + +(79) Followed with the sign for _done, finished_, as follows: Left +hand, with forearm horizontally extended toward the right, is held +naturally relaxed, back outward, a few inches in front of body and at +a right angle with opposite hand, which is placed on a higher level, +slightly arched, edge downward, fingers joined and extended forward. +Pass the right quickly and with a cutting motion downward and toward +its side, at the same time withdraw the left a few inches toward the +opposite direction--_finished our work_. + +(80) Quickly threw up his arm, ejaculating "haw!"--_let us start_. + +(81) Passed both hands approximated in front of body, naturally +relaxed, backs outward, forward and toward their respective sides, +extending and widely separating the fingers during the movement, and +again approximating them with quickly accelerated speed and arresting +them, closed to fists, in front of body and with a jerk upward--_with +united efforts_. + +(82) Placing the fists, thumbs upward, pointing forward and placed +upon side of forefingers, with their wrists against the breast, +he pushed them forward and downward a few inches, head slightly +participating in the movement--_pushing off_. + +(83) Repeated No. 38 (_snow-shoe)--with snow-shoes_. + +(84) Immediately reassumed the position of "pushing off" as in No. +82, slowly passing forward the fists further and further--_pushing and +gradually moving off_. + +(85) Quickly passed and turned the closed left forward, upward, and +backward, opening and again closing the fingers in so doing, +and executing at almost the same instant a similar, but smaller, +revolution with the right--_turning over the snow-shoe, tail up_. + +(86) With both hands closed to fists, left obliquely over the +right and on the right side of the body, made motion as if +paddling--_paddling_. + +(87) Moved and pointed finger of left towards its side, i.e., +northward--_toward the shore_. + +(88) Moved both hands, flat and extended, backs upward, toward the +left side, by an even and very slow movement--_moving along very +slowly toward that direction_. + +(89) Repeated No. 23--_southwest wind_. + +(90) Repeated No. 30--_pushing northeastward_. + +(91) Turned the thumb of left over to the left--_Sabadis_. + +(92) Repeated No. 32 (_winding up_), reversing the motion--_winding +off the hook-line_. + +(93) Approximated both hands with their tips horizontally in front of +body, first two fingers with thumb collected to a point, and moving +the fingers as in the act of twisting a cord, gradually receded the +hands--_twisting_. + +(94) Thrust forward three fingers of the right--_three_, i.e., +_hook-lines_. + +(95) Repeated No. 93, then rubbed palm of flat and extended +right forward over the thigh repeatedly and with a slight +pressure--_twisting them tightly_. + +(96) Approximated both hands closed to fists, thumbs upward, in front +of body and pulled them asunder repeatedly by short, quick, and sudden +jerks--_proving strength of line_. + +(97) Hooked the forefinger, hand turned downward at wrist, remaining +fingers closed, thumb resting upon first--_fish-hook_. + +(98) Raised and curved three fingers and thrust them forward a little +separated, back to the front--_three_, i.e., _hooks_. + +(99) Collecting fore and middle fingers of each hand to a point with +thumb, he opposed tips of both hands, vertically describing with the +upper hand several short circular movements around the tip of the +lower--_tying together_. + +(100) Hooked the separated fore and middle fingers of the right, +pointing upward, back forward, and placed the hooked finger of the +left, palm forward, in front and partially between the fork of the +first--_in the shape of an anchor_. + +(101) Thrust both hands, backs upward, fingers extended and separated, +forward (i.e., northward), vigorously, left being foremost--_throwing +toward the shore_. + +(102) Thence elevating the right toward the head, he thrust it +downward in an oblique direction, fore and middle fingers extended and +joined with the thumb--_sinking_. + +(103) Placing hands in the position attained last in No. 100 +(_throwing out toward shore_), he closed the fingers, drawing +the hands back toward the body and leaning backward +simultaneously--_hauling in_. + +(104) Elevated the naturally closed hand to side of head, fingers +opening and separating during the movement--at the same time and with +a slight jerk of the shoulders inclining the head sideward--and again +closed and slowly dropped it upon knee--_in vain_. + +(105) Dropped the finger perpendicularly downward, following the +movement with the eye--_bottom_. + +(106) Passed the flat hand, palm down, from side to side in a smooth +and horizontal movement--_smooth_. + +(107) Made the sign for _stone, rock_, as follows: With the back of +the arched right hand (H) strike repeatedly in the palm of the left, +held horizontal, back outward, at the height of the breast and about +a foot in front, the ends of the fingers pointing in opposite +directions. + +(108) Repeated No. 100--_anchor_. + +(109) Dragged the curved fore and middle fingers over the back of the +extended left--_dragging_. + +(110) Waved the left--bent at the wrist, back outward--forward and +upward from body, extending the arm to full length, at the same time +inclining and pushing forward the head, and repeated the gesture more +emphatically--_trying again and again_. + +(111) Waved both hands--backs outward, fingers slightly joined, tips +facing each other and closely approximated in front of breast--forward +and toward their respective sides a short distance, turning the palms +upward during the movement, thumb and fingers being extended and +widely separated toward the last. At the same time he inclined the +head to one side, face expressing disappointment--_all in vain_. + +(112) Repeated No. 80--_Let us start anew_! + +(113) Repeated No. 86--_paddling_. + +(114) Repeated the preceding gesture, executing the movement only once +very emphatically--_vigorously_. + +(115) Waved the finger toward the place of the setting sun, following +the direction with the eye--_day is near its close_. + +(116) Repeated No. 69, more emphatically--_feeling very cold_. + +(117) Repeated No. 70--_Ga-bi-wa bi-ko-ke_. + +(118) Made sign for _without_, dropping the hands powerless at the +sides, with a corresponding movement of head--_exhausted_. + +(119) Pointed with finger toward the light-house and drawing back +the finger a little, pushed it forward in the same direction, +fully extending the arm--_that distance_, i.e., _one mile beyond +light-house_. + +(120) Elevated both hands to height of shoulder, fingers extended +toward the right, backs upward, moving them horizontally forward--left +foremost--with an impetuous motion toward the last--_drifted out_. + +(121) Repeated No. 86, executing the movement a series of times +without interruption and very energetically--_paddling steadily and +vigorously_. + +(122) Pointed with the left forefinger to his breast--_I myself_. + +(123) Waved the thumb of the same hand over to left side without +interrupting motion of hand--_and Sabadis_. + +(124) Moved the extended left--back upward, fingers slightly +joined--toward left side, and downward a few inches--_shore_. + +(125) Elevated it to level of eyes, fingers joined and extended, palm +toward the right, approaching it toward the face by a slow interrupted +movement--_drawing nearer and nearer_. + +(126) Drawing a deep breath--_relieved_. + +(127) Repeated No. 86 very emphatically--_paddling with increased +courage and vigor_. + +(128) Gazed and pointed northeastward, shading the eyes with the +hand, at the same time pushing the left--bent downward at wrist, +palm backward--forward in that direction, arm fully extended, fingers +separated and pointing ahead at termination of motion--_out there at a +great distance_. + +(129) Made a lateral movement with the hand flat and extended over the +field of ice in front of him--_the ice-field_. + +(130) Described a series of waves with the flat and extended left, +back upward, horizontally outward--_sea getting turbulent_. + +(131) Joyously flourished the hand above head, while pronouncing the +word _ke-ya-bi_--_only yet_. + +(132) Pointed the finger toward the upturned root of a tree a few +yards off, thence carrying it forward directed it toward the shore in +front--_a few yards from shore_. + +(133) Pointing toward the sun first, he placed palms of both hands +in opposition vertically, a space of only an inch or two intervening, +with a glance sideways at the height thus indicated--_the sun just +setting_. + +(134) Made three vigorous strokes with the imaginary paddle--_three +more paddle-strokes_. + +(135) Moved both hands (flat and extended, backs upward) evenly and +horizontally toward the left, terminating the movement by turning +hands almost perpendicularly upward at wrist, thus arresting them +suddenly--_the ice-raft runs up against the shore_. + +(136) Lastly threw up the hand perpendicularly above head, and +bringing it down, placed the palm gently over the heart with an air of +solemnity--_we are saved_. + +_Free translation of the story_. + +Many years ago--my hair, then black and smooth, has since turned gray; +I was then in the prime of life; you, I suppose, were a young lad at +that time--the following incident occurred to me: + +Yonder on the ice, two miles eastward, I was one day fishing in +company with two others, the old Gabiwabikoke and his son John +Baptist. It was about ten o'clock in the morning--a fresh breeze from +the southwest had previously been getting up--when the hook-line which +I was playing up and down began to take an oblique course as though +it were moved by a current. Surprised, I looked up and around me. When +glancing toward the south I saw a dark streak stretching from shore to +shore across the bay; the ice had parted and the wind was carrying it +out toward the open lake. In an instant I had wound up my hook-line, +picked up my hatchet and snow-shoes, which I put on my feet, and +hurried--the others following my example--toward the nearest point of +land, yonder where the light-house stands. The wind was increasing and +we traveled as fast as we could. There we arrived at the very edge of +the ice, a streak of water about one hundred yards in width extending +northward along the shore as far as we could see. What to begin +with, nothing but a single hatchet? We were in a bad situation. Well, +something had to be done. I measured off a square piece on the ice and +began cutting it off with the hatchet, a hard and tedious labor. The +ice was only eight inches thick, but slush and water covered it to the +depth of a foot. I soon had my mittens and trowsers wringing wet and +began to feel cold and tired. The old Gabiwabikoke was in a worse +state than I. His son next took the hatchet and we all worked by +turns. It was about two o'clock in the afternoon when we finished +our work. With the help of our snow-shoes (stemming their tail-ends +against the edge of the solid ice), we succeeded in pushing off our +raft. Turning our snow-shoes the other way (using their tails as +handles), we commenced paddling with them toward the shore. It was a +very slow progress, as the wind drifted us outward continually. John +Baptist managed to twist our three hook-lines into a strong cord, and +tying the hooks together in the shape of an anchor, he threw it out +toward the shore. Hauling in the line the hooks dragged over the +smooth rock bottom and would not catch. Repeated trials were of +no avail. We all resumed our former attempt and paddled away with +increased energy. The day was drawing near its close, and we began to +feel the cold more bitterly. Gabiwabikoke was suffering badly from its +effects and was entirely played out. We had already drifted more than +a mile beyond the light-house point. John Baptist and I continued +paddling steadily and vigorously, and felt relieved and encouraged +when we saw the shore draw near and nearer. The ice-field, by this +time, was miles away to the northeast, and a sea was getting up. At +last, just when the sun was setting, only a few yards separated us +from the shore; three more paddle-strokes and our raft ran up against +the beach. We were safe. + +_The oral part of the story in the language of the narrator, with a +literal translation into English._ + + (1) _Meⁿ'wija_ + a long time ago + + (2) _aw ninisis'san_ + this my hair + + (3) _me'gwa giijina'gwak tibi'shko aw_ + while it looked like that + + (4) _me'gwa gimashkaw'isian_ + while I possessed strength + + (5) _kin dash_ + you and (i.e., and you) + + (6) _ga'nabatch kikwiwi'seⁿsiwina'ban_ + perhaps (probably) were a boy + + (7) _mi'iw_ + very well + + (8)-(10) _iwe'di_ + there + + (11)(12) _nin be'jig_ + I one + + (13) _mi'nawa_ + again (furthermore) + + (14) _Gabiwa'bikoke_ + "The Miner" + + (15) _akiweⁿ'si_ + old man + + (16) Expressed by gesture only. + + (17) The same as No. 13. + + (18) _ogwis'san ga'ie, Sabadis_ + his son too, John Baptist. + + (19) _mi minik'_ + so many + + (20)(21) Gestures only. + + (22) _mi wa'pi_ + thus far, i.e., at that time. + + (23) _we'ai gion'din_ + then the wind blew from + + (24) _me'gwa nin wewe'banabina'ban_ + while I was (in the act of) fishing with the hook + _nin'goting gonin'gotchi_ + at one time somewhere (out of its course) + _oda'bigamo nimigis'skane'ab_ + was drawn my hook line + + (25) _a'nin ejiwe'bak_? + how it happens? + + (26) Gesture only. + + (27) _taai'!_ + ho! + + (28) _mi'gwam_ + the ice + + (29) _ma'dja_ + goes + + (30)(31) Gestures only. + + (32) _we'wib_ + quickly + + (33)(34) Gestures only. + + (35) _wagak'wadŏⁿs_ + hatchet + + (36) (37) Gestures only. + + (38) (39) _nin bita'gime_ + I put on snowshoes + + (40) _win madja'min_ + we go (start) + + (41) Gestures only. + + (42) (43) _mamaw'e_ + together + + (44) Gesture only. + + (45) _esh'kam ki'tchi no'din_ + more big wind + + (46) Gesture only. + + (47) _mi ja'igwa gima'djishkad_ (i.e., _mi'gwam_) + already has moved off (i.e., the ice) + + (48) (49) Gestures only. + + (50) _mi'wapi_ + thus far, i.e., at such a distance + + (51) Gesture only. + + (52) _a'nin dash gediji'tehigeiang?_ + how (i.e., what) shall we do? + + (53) (54) _mi e'ta be'jigwang wagak'wadŏⁿs_ + only one hatchet + + (55) _ge'get gisan'agissimin_ + indeed we are badly off. + + (56) _haw! bak'wewada mi'gwam!_ + well! (hallo!) let us cut the ice! + + (57) (58) (59) Gestures only. + + (60) _sa'nagad_ + it is bad (hard) + + (61) _mi epi'tading_ + so it is thick (so thick is it) + + (62) Gesture only. + + (63) _mi dash mi'nawa minik'_ + that again much (that much again) + + (64) _nibi' gon ga'ie_ + water snow too (water and snow) + + (65) _nimidjik a'wanag_ + my mittens + + (66) _a'pitchi_ + very much + + (67) _nindas'san gaie_ + my trowsers two + + (68) Gestures only. + + (69) _nin gi'katch ja'igwa_ + I feel cold already + + (70) _aw sa kiweⁿ'si_ + the old man + + (71) _nawatch' win'_ + more yet he + + (72) Gesture only. + + (73) _nind aie'kos ja'igwa_ + I am tired already + + (74) Gesture only. + + (75) _Sa'badis_ + John Baptist + + (76) _memesh'kwat kaki'na_ + by turns all + + (77) Gesture only. + + (78) _wi'ka ga'ishkwanawo'kweg_ + late in the afternoon + + (79) _mi gibakwewangid_ + now it is cut loose + + (80) _haw!_ + well! (ho!) + + (81) _mama'we_ + together + + (82) Gesture only. + + (83) _a'gimag_ + snowshoes + + (84) _ma'djishka_ + it is moving + + (85)-(87) Gestures only. + + (88) _aga'wa ma'djishkca_ + scarcely it moves (very little) + + (89) _no'din_ + wind + + (90) Gesture only. + + (91) _Sa'badis_ + John Baptist + + (92) _migiss'kaneyab_ + hook-line + + (93) (94) _oginisswa'biginan_ + he twisted three cords together + + (95)-(98) Gestures only. + + (99) _oginisso'bidonan (i.e., migaskanan)_ + he tied together three (i.e., hooks) + + (100) Gesture only. + + (101) _ogiaba'gidonan dash_ + he threw it out + + (102) Gesture only. + + (103) _owikobi'donan_ + he wants to draw it in + + (104) _kawes'sa_ + in vain ("no go") + + (105)-(108) Gestures only. + + (109) _ka'win sagakwidis'sinon_ + (not) it don't catch on the rock-bottom + + (110) _mi'nawa--mo'jag_ + again--often (repeatedly) + + (111) The same as No. 104. + + (112) The same as No. 80. + + (113) Gesture only. + + (114) _e'nigok_ + vigorously + + (115) _ja'igwa ona'kwishi_ + already evening + + (116) _esh'kam kis'sina_ + more cold (getting colder) + + (117) The same as No. 70. + + (118) _mi ja'igwa gianiji'tang_ + already he has given up + + (119) _was'sa ja'igwa_ + far already + + (120) _niwebas'himin_ + we have drifted out + + (121) Gesture only. + + (122) (123) _mi'sa e'ta mij'iang_ + (now) only we are two + + (124) Gesture only. + + (125) _ja'igwa tehi'gibig_ + already near to shore + + (126) _mi ja'igwa anibonen'damang_ + now we catch new spirits + + (127) _esh'kam nigijijaw'isimin_ + more we are strong (i.e., our strength and courage + increases) + + (128) (129) _e-eh! was'sa ja'igwa'_ + oh! far already + _mi'gwam!_ + the ice! + + (130) _ja'igwa_ + already + + (131) _ke'abi_ + yet + + (132) _go'mapi_ + so far perhaps + + (133) _ge'ga bangi'shimo_ + nearly sundown + + (134) Gesture only. + + (135) _mi gibima'jagang_ + we have landed + + (136) _mi gibima'disiang_ + we have saved our lives. + + + + +DISCOURSES. + + +_ADDRESS OF KIN CHĒ-ĔSS._ + + +[Illustration: Fig. 320.] + +The following is the farewell address of KIN CHĒ-ĔSS +(Spectacles), medicine-man of the Wichitas, to Rev. A.J. HOLT, +missionary, on his departure from the Wichita Agency, in the words of +the latter: + +[Illustration: Fig. 321.] + +He placed one hand on my breast, the other on his own, then clasped +his two hands together after the manner of our congratulations--_We +are friends_, Fig. 320. He placed one hand on me, the other on +himself, then placed the first two fingers of his right hand between +his lips--_We are brothers_. He placed his right hand over my heart, +his left hand over his own heart, then linked the first fingers of his +right and left hands--_Our hearts are linked together_. See Fig. +232, p. 386. He laid his right hand on me lightly, then put it to his +mouth, with the knuckles lightly against his lips, and made the motion +of flipping water from the right-hand forefinger, each flip casting +the hand and arm from the mouth a foot or so, then bringing it back +in the same position. (This repeated three or more times, signifying +_talk_ or _talking_.) Fig. 321. He then made a motion with his right +hand as if he were fanning his right ear; this repeated. He then +extended his right hand with his index finger pointing upward, his +eyes also being turned upward--_You told me of the Great Father_. +Pointing to himself, he hugged both hands to his bosom, as if he were +affectionately clasping something he loved, and then pointed upward in +the way before described--_I love him_ (the Great Father). Laying his +right hand on me, he clasped his hands to his bosom as before--_I love +you_. Placing his right hand on my shoulder, he threw it over his own +right shoulder as if he were casting behind him a little chip, only +when his hand was over his shoulder his index finger was pointing +behind him--_You go away_. Pointing to his breast, he clinched the +same hand as if it held a stick, and made a motion as if he were +trying to strike something on the ground with the bottom of the stick +held in an upright position--_I stay, or I stay right here_, Fig. 322. + +[Illustration: Fig. 322.] + +Placing his right hand on me, he placed both his hands on his breast +and breathed deeply two or three times, then using the index finger +and thumb of each hand as if he were holding a small pin, he placed +the two hands in this position as if he were holding a thread in each +hand and between the thumb and forefinger of each hand close together, +and then let his hands recede from each other, still holding his +fingers in the same position, as if he were letting a thread slip +between them until his hands were two feet apart--_You live long +time_, Fig. 323. Laying his right hand on his breast, then extending +his forefinger of the same hand, holding it from him at half-arm's +length, the finger pointing nearly upward, then moving his hand, with +the finger thus extended, from side to side about as rapidly as a man +steps in walking, each time letting his hand get farther from him +for three or four times, then suddenly placing his left hand in a +horizontal position with the fingers extended and together so that +the palm was sidewise, he used the right-hand palm, extended, fingers +together, as a hatchet, and brought it down smartly, just missing the +ends of the fingers of the left hand, Fig. 324. Then placing his left +hand, with the thumb and forefinger closed, to his heart, he brought +his right hand, fingers in the same position, to his left; then, as if +he were holding something between his thumb and forefinger, he moved +his right hand away as if he were slowly casting a hair from him, +his left hand remaining at his breast, and his eyes following his +right--_I go about a little while longer, but will be cut off shortly +and my spirit will go away_ (or will die). Placing the thumbs and +forefingers again in such a position as if he held a small thread +between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, and the hands touching +each other, he drew his hands slowly from each other, as if he were +stretching a piece of gum-elastic; then laying his right hand on me, +he extended the left hand in a horizontal position, fingers extended +and closed, and brought down his right hand with fingers extended and +together, so as to just miss the tips of the fingers of his left hand; +then placing his left forefinger and thumb against his heart, he acted +as if he took a hair from the forefinger and thumb of his left hand +with the forefinger and thumb of the right, and slowly cast it from +him, only letting his left hand remain at his breast, and let the +index finger of the right hand point outward toward the distant +horizon--_After a long time you die_. When placing his left hand upon +himself and his right hand upon me, he extended them upward over +his head and clasped them there--_We then meet in heaven_. Pointing +upward, then to himself, then to me, he closed the third and little +finger of his right hand, laying his thumb over them, then extending +his first and second fingers about as far apart as the eyes, he +brought his hand to his eyes, fingers pointing outward, and shot his +hand outward--_I see you up there_. Pointing to me, then giving the +last above-described sign of _look_, then pointing to himself, he +made the sign as if stretching out a piece of gum-elastic between +the fingers of his left and right hands, and then made the sign of +_cut-off_ before described, and then extended the palm of the right +hand horizontally a foot from his waist, inside downward, then +suddenly threw it half over and from him, as if you were to toss a +chip from the back of the hand (this is the negative sign everywhere +used among these Indians)--_I would see him a long time, which should +never be cut off_, i.e., _always._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 323.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 324.] + +Pointing upward, then rubbing the back of his left hand lightly with +the forefinger of his right, he again gave the negative sign.--_No +Indian there_ (in heaven). Pointing upward, then rubbing his +forefinger over the back of my hand, he again made the negative +sign--_No white man there_. He made the same sign again, only he felt +his hair with the forefinger and thumb of his right hand, rolling the +hair several times between the fingers--_No black man in heaven_. Then +rubbing the back of his hand and making the negative sign, rubbing the +back of my hand and making the negative sign, feeling of one of his +hairs with the thumb and forefinger of his right hand, and making the +negative sign, then using both hands as if he were reaching around a +hogshead, he brought the forefinger of his right hand to the front +in an upright position after their manner of counting, and said +thereby--_No Indian, no white man, no black man, all one_. Making the +"hogshead" sign, and that for _look_, he placed the forefinger of +each hand side by side pointing upward--_All look the same_, or alike. +Running his hands over his wild Indian costume and over my clothes, he +made the "hogshead" sign, and that for _same_, and said thereby--_All +dress alike there_. Then making the "hogshead" sign, and that for +_love_, (hugging his hands), he extended both hands outward, palms +turned downward, and made a sign exactly similar to the way ladies +smooth a bed in making it; this is the sign for _happy--All will be +happy alike there_. He then made the sign for _talk_ and for _Father_, +pointing to himself and to me--_You pray for me_. He then made the +sign for _go away_, pointing to me, he threw right hand over his +right shoulder so his index finger pointed behind him--_You go +away_. Calling his name he made the sign for _look_ and the sign of +_negation_ after pointing to me--_Kin Chē-ĕss see you no more_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 325.] + +Fig. 322, an illustration in the preceding address, also represents a +common gesture for _sit down_, if made to the right of the hip, toward +the locality to be occupied by the individual invited. The latter +closely corresponds to an Australian gesture described by Smyth (_The +Aborigines of Victoria, London_, 1878, Vol. II, p. 308, Fig. 260), +as follows: "_Minnie-minnie_ (wait a little). It is shaken downwards +rapidly two or three times. Done more slowly towards the ground, it +means 'Sitdown.'" This is reproduced in Fig. 325. + + +_TSO-DI-A'-KO'S REPORT._ + +The following statement was made to Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN by TSO-DI-A'-KO +(Shaved-head Boy), chief of the Wichitas in Indian Territory, while on +a visit to Washington, D.C., in June 1880. + +The Indian being asked whether there was any timber in his part of the +Territory, replied in signs as follows: + +[Illustration: Fig. 326.] + +(1) Move the right hand, fingers loosely extended, separated and +pointing upward, back to the front, upward from the height of the +waist to the front of the face--_tree_ (for illustration see Fig. 112, +p. 343); repeat this two or three times--_trees_; (2) then hold the +hand, fingers extended and joined, pointing upward, with the back to +the front, and push it forward toward different points on a level with +the face-_standing at various places_; (3) both hands, with spread +and slightly curved fingers, are held about two feet apart, before the +thighs, palms facing, then draw them toward one another horizontally +and gradually upward until the wrists cross, as if grasping a bunch of +grass and pulling it up--_many_; (4) point to the southwest with the +index, elevating it a little above the horizon--_country_; (5) then +throw the fist edgewise toward the surface, in that direction--_my, +mine_; (6) place both hands, extended, flat, edgewise before the body, +the left below the right, and both edges pointing toward the ground a +short distance to the left of the body, then make repeated cuts toward +that direction from different points, the termination of each cut +ending at nearly the same point--_cut down_, Fig. 326; (7) hold the +left hand with the fingers and thumb collected to a point, directed +horizontally forward, and make several cutting motions with the edge +of the flat right hand transversely by the tips of the left, and upon +the wrist--_cut off the ends_; (8) then cut upon the left hand, still +held in the same position, with the right, the cuts being parallel to +the longitudinal axis of the palm--_split_; (9) both hands closed +in front of the body, about four inches apart, with forefingers and +thumbs approximating half circles, palms toward the ground, move +them forward so that the back of the hand comes forward and the half +circles imitate the movement of wheels--_wagon_, Fig. 327; (10) hold +the left flat hand before the body, pointing horizontally forward, +with the palm down, then bring the right flat hand from the right side +and slap the palm upon the back of the left several times--_load_, +upon, Fig. 328; (11) partly close the right hand as if grasping a +thick rod, palm toward the ground, and push it straight forward nearly +to arm's length--_take_; (12) hold both hands with fingers naturally +extended and slightly separated nearly at arm's length before the +body, palms down, the right lying upon the left, then pass the upper +forward and downward from the left quickly, so that the wrist of the +right is raised and the fingers point earthward--_throw off_; (13) +cut the left palm repeatedly with the outer edge of the extended right +hand--_build_; (14) hold both hands edgewise before the body, palms +facing, spread the fingers and place those of one hand into the spaces +between those of the left, so that the tips of one protrude beyond the +backs of the fingers of the other--_log house_, see Fig. 253, p. 428; +(15) then place the flat right hand, palm down and fingers pointing to +the left, against the breast and move it forward, and slightly upward +and to the right--_good_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 327.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 328.] + +ANALYSIS OF THE FOREGOING. + +[There is] much | timber | [in] | my | country | [of which I] cut down [some],| + (3) (1,2) (5) (4) (6) + + trimmed, | split, | loaded it upon | a wagon [and] | took it away, | + (7) (8) (10) (9) (11) + + [where I] threw [it] off | [and] built | [a] good | house |. + (12) (13) (15) (14) + +NOTES.--As will be seen, the word _timber_ is composed of signs No. +1 and 2, signifying trees standing. Sign No. 3, for _many_, in this +instance, as in similar other examples, becomes _much_. The word "in," +in connection with _country_ and _my_, is expressed by the gesture +of pointing (passing the hand less quickly than in ordinary sign +language) before making sign No. 5. That sign commonly given for +_possession_, would, without the prefix of indication, imply _my +country_, and with that prefix signifies _in my country_. Sign No. +7, _trimmed_, is indicated by chopping off the ends, and facial +expression denoting _satisfaction_. In sign Nos. 11 and 12 the +gestures were continuous, but at the termination of the latter the +narrator straightened himself somewhat, denoting that he had overcome +the greater part of the labor. Sign No. 14 denotes _log-house_, from +the manner of interlacing the finger-ends, thus representing the +corner of a log-house, and the arrangement of the ends of the same. +_Indian lodge_ would be indicated by another sign, although the latter +is often used as an abbreviation for the former, when the subject of +conversation is known to all present. + + +_LEAN WOLF'S COMPLAINT_ + +The following remarks were obtained by Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN from +TCE-CAQ-A-DAQ-A-QIC (Lean Wolf), chief of the Hidatsa Indians of +Dakota Territory, who visited Washington in 1880: + +FOUR YEARS AGO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE AGREED TO BE FRIENDS WITH US, BUT +THEY LIED. THAT IS ALL. + +(1) Place the closed hand, with the thumb resting over the middle of +the index, on the left side of the forehead, palmar side down, then +draw the thumb across the forehead to the right, a short distance +beyond the head--_white man_, American, Fig. 329. + +[Illustration: Fig. 329.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 330.] + +(2) Place the naturally extended hand, fingers and thumb slightly +separated and pointing to the left, about fifteen inches before the +right side of the body, bringing it to within a short distance--_with +us_, Fig. 330. + +(3) Extend the flat right hand to the front and right as if about to +grasp the hand of another individual--_friend, friends_, Fig. 331. +For remarks connected with this sign see pp. 384-386. + +[Illustration: Fig. 331.] + +(4) Place the flat right hand, with fingers only extended, back to +the front, about eighteen inches before the right shoulder--_four_ +[years], Fig. 332. + +[Illustration: Fig. 332.] + +(5) Close the right hand, leaving the index and second fingers +extended and slightly separated, place it, back forward, about eight +inches before the right side of the body, and pass it quickly to the +left in a slightly downward curve--_lie_, Fig. 333. + +[Illustration: Fig. 333.] + +(6) Place the clinched fists together before the breast, palms down, +then separate them in a curve outward and downward to their respective +sides--_done, finished, "that is all"_, Fig. 334. + +[Illustration: Fig. 334.] + + + + +SIGNALS. + + +The collaborators in the work above explained have not generally +responded to the request to communicate material under this head. It +is, however, hoped that by now printing some extracts from published +works and the few contributions recently procured, the attention of +observers will be directed to the prosecution of research in this +direction. + +The term "signal" is here used in distinction from the signs noted +in the DICTIONARY, extracts from which are given above, as being some +action or manifestation intended to be seen at a distance, and not +allowing of the minuteness or detail possible in close converse. +Signals may be executed, first, exclusively by bodily action; second, +by action of the person in connection with objects, such as a blanket, +or a lance, or the direction imparted to a horse; third, by various +devices, such as smoke, fire or dust, when the person of the signalist +is not visible. When not simply intended to attract attention they are +generally conventional, and while their study has not the same kind +of importance as that of gesture signs, it possesses some peculiar +interest. + + + + +SIGNALS EXECUTED BY BODILY ACTION. + + +Some of these are identical, or nearly so, with the gesture signs used +by the same people. + +ALARM. SEE NOTES ON CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHO SIGNALS, _INFRA_. + +ANGER. + +Close the hand, place it against the forehead, and turn it back and +forth while in that position. (Col. R.B. Marcy, U.S.A., _Thirty Years +of Army Life on the Border_, _New York_, 1866, p. 34.) + +COME HERE. + +The right hand is to be advanced about eighteen inches at the height +of the navel, horizontal, relaxed, palm downward, thumb in the palm; +then draw it near the side and at the same time drop the hand to bring +the palm backward. The farther away the person called is, the higher +the hand is raised. If very far off, the hand is raised high up over +the head and then swung forward, downward, and backward to the side. +(_Dakota_ I, IV.) + +DANGER. + +_There is something dangerous in that place._--Right-hand index-finger +and thumb forming a curve, the other fingers closed; move the right +hand forward, pointing in the direction of the dangerous place or +animal. (_Omaha_ I.) + +DEFIANCE. + +Right-hand index and middle fingers open; motion to ward the enemy +signifies "I do not fear you." Reverse the motion, bringing the hand +toward the subject, means "Do your worst to me." (_Omaha_ I.) + +DIRECTION. + +_Pass around that object or place near you_--she-í-he ti-dhá-ga.--When +a man is at a distance, I say to him "Go around that way." Describe +a curve by raising the hand above the head, forefinger open, move to +right or left according to direction intended and hand that is used, +i.e., move to the left, use right hand; move to the right, use left +hand. (_Omaha_ I; _Ponka_ I.) + +HALT! + +---- To inquire disposition. + +Raise the right hand with the palm in front and gradually push it +forward and back several times; if they are not hostile it will at +once be obeyed. (Randolph B. Marcy, _The Prairie Traveler_. _New +York_, 1859, p. 214.) + +---- Stand there! He is coming to you. + +Right hand extended, flat, edgewise, moved downward several times. +(_Omaha_ I.) + +---- Stand there! He is going toward you. + +Hold the open right hand, palm to the left, with the tips of the +fingers toward the person signaled to; thrust the hand forward in +either an upward or downward curve. (_Omaha_ I; _Ponka_ I.) + +---- Lie down flat where you are--she-dhu bis-pé zhaⁿ'-ga. + +Extend the right arm in the direction of the person signaled to, +having the palm down; move downward by degrees to about the knees. +(_Omaha_ I; _Ponka_ I.) + +PEACE; FRIENDSHIP. + +Hold up palm of hand.--Observed as made by an Indian of the Kansas +tribe in 1833. (John T. Irving, _Indian Sketches_. _Philadelphia_, +1835, vol. ii, p. 253.) + +Elevate the extended hands at arm's length above and on either side of +the head. Observed by Dr. W.J. Hoffman, as made in Northern Arizona +in 1871 by the Apaches, Mojaves, Hualpais, and Seviches. "No +arms"--corresponding with "hands up" of road-agents. Fig. 335. + +[Illustration: Fig. 335.--A signal of peace.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 336.--Signal, "Who are you?" Answer, "Pani."] + +The right hand held aloft, empty. (General G.A. Custer, _My Life on +the Plains_, _New York_, 1874, p. 238.) This may be collated with the +lines in Walt Whitman's _Salut au Monde_-- + + Toward all + I raise high the perpendicular hand,--I make the signal. + +The Natchez in 1682 made signals of friendship to La Salle's party +by the joining of the two hands of the signalist, much embarrassing +Tonty, La Salle's lieutenant, in command of the advance in the descent +of the Mississippi, who could not return the signal, having but +one hand. His men responded in his stead. (Margry, _Decouvertes et +Établissments des Français dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Amérique +Septentrionale, &c._) + +QUESTION. + +---- I do not know you. Who are you? + +After halting a party coming: Right hand raised, palm in front +and slowly moved to the right and left. [Answered by tribal sign.] +(Marcy's _Prairie Traveler_, _loc. cit._, 214.) Fig. 336. In this +illustration the answer is made by giving the tribal sign for Pani. + +---- To inquire if coming party is peaceful. + +Raise both hands, grasped in the manner of shaking hands, or by +locking the two forefingers firmly while the hands are held up. If +friendly they will respond with the same signal. (Marcy's _Prairie +Traveler_, _loc. cit._, 214.) + +SUBMISSION. + +The United States steamer Saranac in 1874, cruising in Alaskan waters, +dropped anchor in July, 1874, in Freshwater Harbor, back of Sitka, +in latitude 59° north. An armed party landed at a T'linkit village, +deserted by all the inhabitants except one old man and two women, the +latter seated at the feet of the former. The man was in great fear, +turned his back and held up his hands as a sign of utter helplessness. +(Extract from notes kindly furnished by Lieutenant-Commander WM. +BAINBRIDGE HOFF, U.S.N., who was senior aid to Rear-Admiral Pennock, +on the cruise mentioned.) + +SURRENDER. + +The palm of the hand is held toward the person [to whom the surrender +is made]. (_Long_.) + +Hold the palm of the hand toward the person as high above the head as +the arm can be raised. (_Dakota_ I.) + + + + +SIGNALS IN WHICH OBJECTS ARE USED IN CONNECTION WITH PERSONAL ACTION. + + +BUFFALO DISCOVERED. SEE ALSO NOTES ON CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHO SIGNALS. + +When the Ponkas or Omahas discover buffalo the watcher stands erect on +the hill, with his face toward the camp, holding his blanket with an +end in each hand, his arms being stretched out (right and left) on a +line with, shoulders. (_Dakota_ VIII; _Omaha_ I; _Ponka_ I.) See Fig. +337. + +Same as (_Omaha_ I), and (_Ponka_ I); with the addition that after the +blanket is held out at arm's length the arms are crossed in front of +the body. (_Dakota_ I.) + +CAMP! + +When it is intended to encamp, a blanket is elevated upon a pole so +as to be visible to all the individuals of a moving party. (_Dakota_ +VIII.) + +COME! TO BECKON TO A PERSON. + +Hold out the lower edge of the robe or blanket, then wave it in to +the legs. This is made when there is a desire to avoid general +observation. (_Matthews_.) + +COME BACK! + +Gather or grasp the left side of the unbuttoned coat (or blanket) with +the right hand, and, either standing or sitting in position so that +the signal can be seen, wave it to the left and right as often as may +be necessary for the sign to be recognized. When made standing the +person should not move his body. (_Dakota_ I.) + +DANGER. SEE ALSO NOTES ON CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHO SIGNALS. + +---- Horseman at a distance, galloping, passing and repassing, and +crossing each other--_enemy comes_. But for notice of herd of buffalo, +they gallop back and forward abreast--do not cross each other. (H.M. +Brackenridge's _Views of Louisiana_. _Pittsburgh_, 1814, p. 250.) + +---- Riding rapidly round in a circle, "Danger! Get together as +quickly as possible." (Richard Irving Dodge, lieutenant-colonel United +States Army, _The Plains of the Great West_. _New York_, 1877, p. +368.) + +---- Point the right index in the direction of the danger, and then +throw the arm over the front of the body diagonally, so that the +hand rests near the left shoulder, back outward. If the person to be +notified of the danger should be in the rear precede the above signal +with that for "_Attention_." This signal can also be made with a +blanket, properly grasped so as to form a long narrow roll. Perhaps +this signal would more properly belong under "_Caution_," as it would +be used to denote the presence of a dangerous beast or snake, and not +that of a human enemy. (_Dakota_ I.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 337.--Signal for "buffalo discovered."] + +[Illustration: Fig. 338.--Signal of discovery or alarm.] + + +---- Passing and repassing one another, either on foot or mounted, +is used as a war-signal; which is expressed in the +Hidatsa--makimakă'da--halidié. (_Mandan and Hidatsa_ I.) + +DIRECTION. + +---- Pass around that place. + +Point the folded blanket in the direction of the object or place to be +avoided, then draw it near the body, and wave it rapidly several times +in front of the body only, and then throwing it out toward the side +on which you wish the person to approach you, and repeat a sufficient +number of times for the signal to be understood. (_Dakota_ I.) + +DISCOVERY. + +The discovery of enemies, game, or anything else, is announced by +riding rapidly to and fro, or in a circle. The idea that there is +a difference in the signification of these two directions of riding +appears, according to many of the Dakota Indians of the Missouri +Valley, to be erroneous. Parties away from their regular encampment +are generally in search of some special object, such as game, or +of another party, either friendly or hostile, which is, generally +understood, and when that object is found, the announcement is made +to their companions in either of the above ways. The reason that a +horseman may ride from side to side is, that the party to whom he +desires to communicate may be at a particular locality, and his +movement--at right angles to the direction to the party--would be +perfectly clear. Should the party be separated into smaller bands, or +have flankers or scouts at various points, the only way in which the +rider's signal could be recognized as a motion from side to side, by +all the persons to whom the signal was directed, would be for him to +ride in a circle, which he naturally does. (_Dakota_ VI, VII, VIII.) +Fig. 338. + +The latter was noticed by Dr. Hoffman in 1873, on the Yellowstone +River, while attached to the Stanley Expedition. The Indians had again +concentrated after their first repulse by General Custer, and taken +possession of the woods and bluffs on the opposite side of the river. +As the column came up, one Indian was seen upon a high bluff to ride +rapidly round in a circle, occasionally firing off his revolver. The +signal announced the discovery of the advancing force, which had been +expected, and he could be distinctly seen from the surrounding region. +As many of the enemy were still scattered over the neighborhood, +some of them would not have been able to recognize this signal had +he ridden to and from an observer, but the circle produced a lateral +movement visible from any point. + +---- Of enemies, or other game than Buffalo. See also NOTES ON +CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHO SIGNALS. + +The discovery of enemies is indicated by riding rapidly around in a +circle, so that the signal could be seen by their friends, but out of +sight of the discovered enemy. (_Dakota_ I.) + +When enemies are discovered, or other game than buffalo, the sentinel +waves his blanket over his head up and down, holding an end in each +hand. (_Omaha_ I; _Ponka_ I.) + +---- Of game, wood, water, &c. + +This is communicated by riding rapidly forward and backward on the top +of the highest hill. The same would be communicated with a blanket +by waving it right and left, and then directly toward the game or +whatever the party might be searching for, indicating that it is not +to the right or to the left, but directly in front. (_Dakota_ I.) + +DRILL, MILITARY. + +"It is done by signals, devised after a system of the Indian's own +invention, and communicated in various ways. + +"Wonderful as the statement may appear, the signaling on a bright +day, when the sun is in the proper direction, is done with a piece of +looking-glass held in the hollow of the hand. The reflection of the +sun's rays thrown on the ranks communicates in some mysterious way the +wishes of the chief. Once standing on a little knoll overlooking the +valley of the South Platte, I witnessed almost at my feet a drill of +about one hundred warriors by a Sioux chief, who sat on his horse on a +knoll opposite me, and about two hundred yards from his command in the +plain below. For more than half an hour he commanded a drill, which +for variety and promptness of action could not be equaled by any +civilized cavalry of the world. All I could see was an occasional +movement of the right arm. He himself afterwards told me that he used +a looking-glass." (Dodge's _Plains of the Great West_, _loc. cit._, +pp. 307, 308.) + +FRIENDSHIP. + +If two Indians [of the plains] are approaching one another on +horseback, and they may, for instance, be one mile apart, or as far as +they can see each other. At that safe distance one wants to indicate +to the other that he wishes to be friendly. He does this by turning +his horse around and traveling about fifty paces back and forth, +repeating this two or three times; this shows to the other Indian that +he is not for hostility, but for friendly relations. If the second +Indian accepts this proffered overture of friendship, he indicates +the same by locking the fingers of both hands as far as to the first +joints, and in that position raises his hands and lets them rest on +his forehead with the palms either in or out, indifferently, as if he +were trying to shield his eyes from the excessive light of the sun. +This implies, "I, too, am for peace," or "I accept your overture." +(_Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo_ I.) It is interesting in this connection +to note the reception of Father Marquette by an Illinois chief who +is reported to have raised his hands to his eyes as if to shield them +from overpowering splendor. That action was supposed to be made in a +combination of humility and admiration, and a pretended inability to +gaze on the face of the illustrious guest has been taken to be the +conception of the gesture, which in fact was probably only the holding +the interlocked hands in the most demonstrative posture. An oriental +gesture in which the flat hand is actually interposed as a shield +to the eyes before a superior is probably made with the poetical +conception erroneously attributed to the Indian. + +The display of green branches to signalize friendly or pacific +intentions does not appear to have been noticed among the North +American Indians by trustworthy observers. Captain Cook makes frequent +mention of it as the ceremonial greeting among islands he visited. See +his _Voyage toward the South Pole. London_, 1784, Vol. II, pp. 30 and +35. Green branches were also waved, in signal of _friendship_ by the +natives of the island of New Britain to the members of the expedition +in charge of Mr. Wilfred Powell in 1878. _Proceedings of the Royal +Geological Society_, February, 1881, p. 89. + +HALT! + +---- Stand there! he is coming this way. + +Grasp the end of the blanket or robe; wave it downward several times. +(_Omaha_ I.) + +---- To inquire disposition. + +Wave the folded blanket to the right and left in front of the body, +then point toward the person or persons approaching, and carry it from +a horizontal position in front of the body rapidly downward and upward +several times. (_Dakota_ I.) + +MANY. + +Wave the blanket directly in front of the body upward and downward +several times. Many of _anything_. (_Dakota_ I.) + +PEACE, COUPLED WITH INVITATION. + +Motion of spreading a real or imaginary robe or skin on the ground. +Noticed by Lewis and Clark on their first meeting with the Shoshoni +in 1805. (_Lewis and Clark's Travels_, &c., London, 1817, vol. ii, p. +74.) This signal is more particularly described as follows: Grasp the +blanket by the two corners with the hands, throw it above the head, +allowing it to unfold as it falls to the ground as if in the act of +spreading it. + +QUESTION. + +The ordinary manner of opening communication with parties known or +supposed to be hostile is to ride toward them in zigzag manner, or to +ride in a circle. (Custer's _My Life on the Plains_, _loc. cit._, p. +58.) + +This author mentions (p. 202) a systematic manner of waving a blanket, +by which the son of Satana, the Kaiowa chief, conveyed information to +him, and a similar performance by Yellow Bear, a chief of the Arapahos +(p. 219), neither of which he explains in detail. + +---- I do not know you. Who are you? + +Point the folded blanket at arm's length toward the person, and then +wave it toward the right and left in front of the face. You--I don't +know. Take an end of the blanket in each hand, and extend the arms to +full capacity at the sides of the body, letting the other ends hang +down in front of the body to the ground, means, Where do you come +from? or who are you? (_Dakota_ I.) + +SAFETY. ALL QUIET. SEE NOTES ON CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHO SIGNALS. + +SURRENDER. + +Hold the folded blanket or a piece of cloth high above the head. "This +really means 'I want to die right now.'" (_Dakota_ I.) + +SURROUNDED, WE ARE. + +Take an end of the blanket in each hand, extend the arms at the sides +of the body, allowing the blanket to hang down in front of the body, +and then wave it in a circular manner. (_Dakota_ I.) + + + + +SIGNALS MADE WHEN THE PERSON OF THE SIGNALIST IS NOT VISIBLE. + +Those noted consist of SMOKE, FIRE, or DUST signals. + + + +_SMOKE SIGNALS GENERALLY._ + +They [the Indians] had abandoned the coast, along which bale-fires +were left burning and sending up their columns of smoke to advise +the distant bands of the arrival of their old enemy. (Schoolcraft's +_History_, &c., vol. iii, p. 35, giving a condensed account of De +Soto's expedition.) + +"Their systems of telegraphs are very peculiar, and though they might +seem impracticable at first, yet so thoroughly are they understood by +the savages that it is availed of frequently to immense advantage. The +most remarkable is by raising smokes, by which many important facts +are communicated to a considerable distance and made intelligible +by the manner, size, number, or repetition of the smokes, which +are commonly raised by firing spots of dry grass." (Josiah Gregg's +_Commerce of the Prairies_. _New York_, 1844, vol. ii, p. 286.) + +The highest elevations of land are selected as stations from which +signals with smoke are made. These can be seen at a distance of from +twenty to fifty miles. By varying the number of columns of smoke +different meanings are conveyed. The most simple as well as the most +varied mode, and resembling the telegraphic alphabet, is arranged by +building a small fire, which is not allowed to blaze; then by placing +an armful of partially green grass or weeds over the fire, as if to +smother it, a dense white smoke is created, which ordinarily will +ascend in a continuous vertical column for hundreds of feet. Having +established a current of smoke, the Indian simply takes his blanket +and by spreading it over the small pile of weeds or grass from which +the smoke takes its source, and properly controlling the edges and +corners of the blanket, he confines the smoke, and is in this way able +to retain it for several moments. By rapidly displacing the blanket, +the operator is enabled to cause a dense volume of smoke to rise, the +length or shortness of which, as well as the number and frequency of +the columns, he can regulate perfectly, simply by a proper use of the +blanket. (Custer's _My life on the Plains_, _loc. cit._, p. 187.) + +They gathered an armful of dried grass and weeds, which were placed +and carried upon the highest point of the peak, where, everything +being in readiness, the match was applied close to the ground; but +the blaze was no sooner well lighted and about to envelop the entire +amount of grass collected than it was smothered with the unlighted +portion. A slender column of gray smoke then began to ascend in a +perpendicular column. This was not enough, as it might be taken for +the smoke rising from a simple camp-fire. The smoldering grass was +then covered with a blanket, the corners of which were held so closely +to the ground as to almost completely confine and cut off the column +of smoke. Waiting a few moments, until the smoke was beginning to +escape from beneath, the blanket was suddenly thrown aside, when a +beautiful balloon-shaped column puffed up ward like the white cloud of +smoke which attends the discharge of a field-piece. Again casting the +blanket on the pile of grass, the column was interrupted as before, +and again in due time released, so that a succession of elongated, +egg-shaped puffs of smoke kept ascending toward the sky in the most +regular manner. This bead-like column of smoke, considering the height +from which it began to ascend, was visible from points on the level +plain fifty miles distant. (Ib., p. 217.) + + * * * * * + +The following extracts are made from Fremont's _First and Second +Expeditions_, 1842-3-4, Ex. Doc., 28th Cong. 2d Session, Senate, +Washington, 1845: + +"Columns of smoke rose over the country at scattered +intervals--signals by which the Indians here, as elsewhere, +communicate to each other that enemies are in the country," p. 220. +This was January 18, 1844, in the vicinity of Pyramid Lake, and +perhaps the signalists were Pai-Utes. + +"While we were speaking, a smoke rose suddenly from the cottonwood +grove below, which plainly told us what had befallen him [Tabeau]; +it was raised to inform the surrounding Indians that a blow had been +struck, and to tell them to be on their guard," p. 268, 269. This +was on May 5, 1844, near the Rio Virgen, Utah, and was narrated of +"Diggers," probably Chemehuevas. + +ARRIVAL OF A PARTY AT AN APPOINTED PLACE, WHEN ALL IS SAFE. + +This is made by sending upward one column of smoke from, a fire +partially smothered by green grass. This is only used by previous +agreement, and if seen by friends of the party, the signal is answered +in the same manner. But should either party discover the presence of +enemies, no signal would be made, but the fact would be communicated +by a runner. (_Dakota_ I.) + +SUCCESS OF A WAR PARTY. + +Whenever a war party, consisting of either Pima, Papago, or Maricopa +Indians, returned from an expedition into the Apache country, their +success was announced from the first and most distant elevation +visible from their settlements. The number of scalps secured was +shown by a corresponding number of columns of smoke, arranged in a +horizontal line, side by side, so as to be distinguishable by the +observers. When the returning party was unsuccessful, no such signals +were made. (_Pima and Papago_ I.) Fig. 339. A similar custom appears +to have existed among the Ponkas, although the custom has apparently +been discontinued by them, as shown in the following proper name: +Cú-de gá-xe, Smoke maker: He who made a smoke by burning grass +returning from war. + + + +_SMOKE SIGNALS OF THE APACHES._ + +The following information was obtained by Dr. W.J. HOFFMAN from the +Apache chiefs named on page 407, under the title of TINNEAN, (_Apache_ +I): + +The materials used in making smoke of sufficient density and color +consist of pine or cedar boughs, leaves and grass, which can nearly +always be obtained in the regions occupied by the Apaches of Northern +New Mexico. These Indians state that they employ but three kinds of +signals, each of which consists of columns of smoke, numbering from +one to three or more. + +ALARM. + +This signal is made by causing three or more columns of smoke to +ascend, and signifies danger or the approach of an enemy, and also +requires the concentration of those who see them. These signals are +communicated from one camp to another, and the most distant bands are +guided by their location. The greater the haste desired the greater +the number of columns of smoke. These are often so hastily made that +they may resemble puffs of smoke, and are caused by throwing heaps of +grass and leaves upon the embers again and again. + +[Illustration: Fig. 339.--Signal of successful war-party.] + +ATTENTION. + +This signal is generally made by producing one continuous column, and +signifies attention for several purposes, viz, when a band had become +tired of one locality, or the grass may have been consumed by the +ponies, or some other cause necessitated removal, or should an enemy +be reported, which would require farther watching before a decision as +to future action would be made. The intention or knowledge of anything +unusual would be communicated to neighboring bands by causing one +column of smoke to ascend. + +ESTABLISHMENT OF A CAMP; QUIET; SAFETY. + +When a removal of camp has been made, after the signal for ATTENTION +has been given, and the party have selected a place where they propose +to remain until there may be a necessity or desire for their removal, +two columns of smoke are made, to inform their friends that they +propose to remain at that place. Two columns are also made at other +times during a long continued residence, to inform the neighboring +bands that a camp still exists, and that all is favorable and quiet. + + + +_FOREIGN SMOKE SIGNALS._ + +The following examples of smoke signals in foreign lands are added for +comparison. + +Miss Haigh, speaking of the Guanches of the Canary Islands at the time +of the Spanish conquest, says: "When an enemy approached, they alarmed +the country by raising a thick smoke or by whistling, which was +repeated from one to another. This latter method is still in use among +the people of Teneriffe, and may be heard at an almost incredible +distance." (_Trans. Eth. Soc. Lond. vii_, 1869, sec. ser., pp. 109, +110.) + +"The natives have an easy method of telegraphing news to their distant +friends. When Sir Thomas Mitchell was traveling through Eastern +Australia he often saw columns of smoke ascending through the trees +in the forests, and he soon learned that the natives used the smoke +of fires for the purpose of making known his movements to their +friends. Near Mount Frazer he observed a dense column of smoke, and +subsequently other smokes arose, extending in a telegraphic line far +to the south, along the base of the mountains, and thus communicating +to the natives who might be upon his route homeward the tidings of his +return. + +"When Sir Thomas reached Portland Bay he noticed that when a whale +appeared in the bay the natives were accustomed to send up a column of +smoke, thus giving timely intimation to all the whalers. If the whale +should be pursued by one boat's crew only it might be taken; but if +pursued by several, it would probably be run ashore and become food +for the blacks." (Smyth, _loc. cit._, vol. 1, pp. 152, 153, quoting +Maj. T.L. Mitchell's _Eastern Australia_, vol. ii, p. 241.) + +Jardine, writing of the natives of Cape York, says that a +"communication between the islanders and the natives of the mainland +is frequent; and the rapid manner in which news is carried from tribe +to tribe, to great distances, is astonishing. I was informed of the +approach of Her Majesty's Steamer Salamander, on her last visit, two +days before her arrival here. Intelligence is conveyed by means of +fires made to throw up smoke in different forms, and by messengers who +perform long and rapid journeys." (Smyth, _loc. cit._, vol. 1, p. 153, +quoting from _Overland Expedition_, p. 85.) + +Messengers in all parts of Australia appear to have used this mode of +signaling. In Victoria, when traveling through the forests, they were +accustomed to raise smoke by filling the hollow of a tree with green +boughs and setting fire to the trunk at its base; and in this way, +as they always selected an elevated position for the fire when they +could, their movements were made known. + +When engaged in hunting, when traveling on secret expeditions, when +approaching an encampment, when threatened with danger, or when foes +menaced their friends, the natives made signals by raising a smoke. +And their fires were lighted in such a way as to give forth signals +that would be understood by people of their own tribe and by friendly +tribes. They exhibited great ability in managing their system of +telegraphy; and in former times it was not seldom used to the injury +of the white settlers, who at first had no idea that the thin column +of smoke rising through the foliage of the adjacent bush, and raised +perhaps by some feeble old woman, was an intimation to the warriors +to advance and attack the Europeans. (R. Brough Smyth, F.L.S., F.G.S., +_The Aborigines of Victoria_. _Melbourne_, 1878, vol. i, pp. 152, +153.) + + + +_FIRE ARROWS._ + +"Travelers on the prairie have often seen the Indians throwing up +signal lights at night, and have wondered how it was done.... They +take off the head of the arrow and dip the shaft in gunpowder, mixed +with glue.... The gunpowder adheres to the wood, and coats it three or +four inches from its end to the depth of one-fourth of an inch. Chewed +bark mixed with dry gunpowder is then fastened to the stick, and the +arrow is ready for use. When it is to be fired, a warrior places it on +his bowstring and draws his bow ready to let it fly; the point of the +arrow is then lowered, another warrior lights the dry bark, and it is +shot high in the air. When it has gone up a little distance, it bursts +out into a flame, and burns brightly until it falls to the ground. +Various meanings are attached to these fire-arrow signals. Thus, one +arrow meant, among the Santees, 'The enemy are about'; two arrows +from the same point, 'Danger'; three, 'Great danger'; many, 'They +are too strong, or we are falling back'; two arrows sent up at the +same moment, 'We will attack'; three, 'Soon'; four, 'Now'; if shot +diagonally, 'In that direction.' These signals are constantly changed, +and are always agreed upon when the party goes out or before it +separates. The Indians send their signals very intelligently, and +seldom make mistakes in telegraphing each other by these silent +monitors. The amount of information they can communicate by fires and +burning arrows is perfectly wonderful. Every war party carries with it +bundles of signal arrows." (_Belden, The White Chief; or Twelve Years +among the Wild Indians of the Plains_. _Cincinnati and New York_, +1871, pp. 106, 107.) + +With regard to the above, it is possible that white influence has been +felt in the mode of signaling as well as in the use of gunpowder, +but it would be interesting to learn if any Indians adopted a similar +expedient before gunpowder was known to them. They frequently used +arrows, to which flaming material was attached, to set fire to the +wooden houses of the early colonists. The Caribs were acquainted with +this same mode of destruction as appears by the following quotation: + +"Their arrows were commonly poisoned, except when they made their +military excursions by night; on these occasions they converted +them into instruments of still greater mischief; for, by arming the +points with pledgets of cotton dipped in oil, and set on fire, they +fired whole villages of their enemies at a distance." (_Alcedo. The +Geograph. and Hist. Dict. of America and the West Indies_. Thompson's +trans. _London_, 1812, Vol. I, p. 314.) + + + +_DUST SIGNALS._ + +When an enemy, game, or anything else which was the special object +of search is discovered, handfulls of dust are thrown into the air +to announce that discovery. This signal has the same general +signification as when riding to and fro, or, round in a circle on an +elevated portion of ground, or a bluff. (_Dakota_ VII, VII.) + +When any game or any enemy is discovered, and should the sentinel be +without a blanket, he throws a handful of dust up into the air. When +the Brulés attacked the Ponkas, in 1872, they stood on the bluff and +threw up dust. (_Omaha_ I; _Ponka_ I.) + +There appears to be among the Bushmen a custom of throwing up sand or +earth into the air when at a distance from home and in need of help of +some kind from those who were there. (_Miss L.C. Lloyd, MS. Letter_, +dated July 10, 1880, from Charlton House, Mowbray, near Cape Town, +Africa.) + + + +_NOTES ON CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHO SIGNALS._ + +The following information was obtained from WA-Uⁿ'(_Bobtail_), +MO-HI'-NUK'-MA-HA'-IT (_Big horse_), Cheyennes, and O-QO-HIS'-SA (_The +Mare_, better known as "Little Raven"), and NA'-WATC (_Left Hand_), +Arapahos, chiefs and members of a delegation who visited Washington, +D.C., in September, 1880, in the interest of their tribes dwelling in +Indian Territory: + +A party of Indians going on the war-path leave camp, announcing their +project to the remaining individuals and informing neighboring friends +by sending runners. A party is not systematically organized until +several days away from its headquarters, unless circumstances should +require immediate action. The pipe-bearers are appointed, who precede +the party while on the march, carrying the pipes, and no one is +allowed to cross ahead of these individuals, or to join the party +by riding up before the head of the column, as it would endanger the +success of the expedition. All new arrivals fall in from either side +or the rear. Upon coming in sight of any elevations of land likely to +afford a good view of the surrounding country the warriors come to +a halt and secrete themselves as much as possible. The scouts who +have already been selected, advance just before daybreak to within a +moderate distance of the elevation to ascertain if any of the enemy +has preceded them. This is only discovered by carefully watching the +summit to see if any objects are in motion; if not, the flight of +birds is observed, and if any should alight upon the hill or butte +it would indicate the absence of anything that might ordinarily scare +them away. Should a large bird, as a raven, crow, or eagle, fly toward +the hill-top and make a sudden swerve to either side and disappear, it +would indicate the presence of something sufficient to require further +examination. When it is learned that there is reason to suspect an +enemy the scout, who has all the time been closely watched by the +party in the rear, makes a signal for them to lie still, signifying +_danger or caution._ It is made by grasping the blanket with the right +hand and waving it earthward from a position in front of and as high +as the shoulder. This is nearly the same as civilized Americans use +the hand for a similar purpose in battle or hunting to direct "lie +quiet"! + +Should the hill, however, be clear of any one, the Indian will ascend +slowly, and under cover as much as possible, and gain a view of the +country. If there is no one to be seen, the blanket is grasped and +waved horizontally from right to left and back again repeatedly, +showing a clear surface. If the enemy is discovered, the scout will +give the _alarm_ by running down the hill, upon a side visible to the +watchers, in a zigzag manner, which communicates the state of affairs. + +Should any expedition or advance be attempted at night, the same +signals as are made with the blanket are made with a firebrand, which +is constructed of a bunch of grass tied to a short pole. + +When a war party encamps for a night or a day or more, a piece of wood +is stuck into the ground, pointing in the direction pursued, with a +number of cuts, notches, or marks corresponding to the number of days +which the party spent after leaving the last camp until leaving the +present camp, serving to show to the recruits to the main party the +course to be followed, and the distance. + +A hunting party in advancing takes the same precautions as a war +party, so as not to be surprised by an enemy. If a scout ascends a +prominent elevation and discovers no game, the blanket is grasped and +waved horizontally from side to side at the height of the shoulders or +head; and if game is discovered the Indian rides back and forth (from +left to right) a short distance so that the distant observers can view +the maneuver. If a large herd of buffalo is found, the extent traveled +over in going to and fro increases in proportion to the size of the +herd. A quicker gait is traveled when the herd is very large or haste +on the part of the hunters is desired. + +It is stated that these Indians also use mirrors to signal from one +elevation to another, but the system could not be learned, as they say +they have no longer use for it, having ceased warfare(?). + + + + +SCHEME OF ILLUSTRATION. + + +In the following pages the scheme of graphic illustration, intended +both to save labor and secure accuracy, which was presented in the +_Introduction to the Study of Sign Language_, is reproduced with some +improvements. It is given for the use of observers who may not see +that publication, the material parts of which being included in +the present paper it is not necessary that the former should now be +furnished. The TYPES OF HAND POSITIONS were prepared for reference +by the corresponding letters of the alphabet to avoid tedious +description, should any of them exactly correspond, or by alteration, +as suggested in the note following them. These, as well as the +OUTLINES OF ARM POSITIONS, giving front and side outline's with arms +pendant, were distributed in separate sheets to observers for their +convenience in recording, and this will still be cheerfully done +when request is made to the present writer. When the sheets are not +accessible the TYPES can be used for graphic changes by tracing the +one selected, or by a few words indicating the change, as shown in the +EXAMPLES. The OUTLINES OF ARM POSITIONS can also be readily traced for +the same use as if the sheets had been provided. It is hoped that this +scheme, promoting uniformity in description and illustration, will be +adopted by all observers who cannot be specially addressed. + +Collaborators in the gestures of foreign uncivilized peoples will +confer a favor by sending at least one photograph or sketch in native +costume of a typical individual of the tribe, the gestures of which +are reported upon, in order that it may be reproduced in the complete +work. Such photograph or sketch need not be made in the execution of +any particular gesture, which can be done by artists engaged on the +work, but would be still more acceptable if it could be so made. + + + + +OUTLINES FOR ARM POSITIONS IN SIGN LANGUAGE. + + +The gestures, to be indicated by corrected positions of arms and +by dotted lines showing the motion from the initial to the final +positions (which, are severally marked by an arrow-head and a +cross--see EXAMPLES), will always be shown as they appear to an +observer facing the gesturer, the front outline, Fig. 340, or +side, Fig. 341, or both, being used as most convenient. The special +positions of hands and fingers will be designated by reference to +the TYPES OF HAND POSITIONS. For brevity in the written description, +"hand" may be used for "right hand," when that one alone is employed +in any particular gesture. When more convenient to use the profile +figure in which the right arm is exhibited for a gesture actually +made by the left hand and arm it can be done, the fact, however, being +noted. + +[Illustration: Fig. 340.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 341.] + +In cases where the conception or origin of any sign is ascertained or +suggested it should be annexed to the description, and when obtained +from the gesturer will be so stated affirmatively, otherwise it +will be considered to be presented by the observer. The graphic +illustration of associated facial expression or bodily posture +which may accentuate or qualify a gesture is necessarily left to the +ingenuity of the contributor. + + +_ORDER OF ARRANGEMENT_. + +The following order of arrangement for written descriptions is +suggested. The use of a separate sheet or part sheet of paper for each +sign described and illustrated would be convenient in the collation. +It should always be affirmatively stated whether the "conception or +origin" of the sign was procured from the sign-maker, or is suggested +or inferred by the observer. + + _Word or idea expressed by Sign_: __________________ + + + DESCRIPTION: + + ____________________________________________________ + + ____________________________________________________ + + ____________________________________________________ + + + CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN: + + ____________________________________________________ + + + _Tribe_: ________________________________ + + _Locality_:______________________________ + + + _Date_: _____________________ 188_. + + __________________________ + _Observer_. + + + + +TYPES OF HAND POSITIONS IN SIGN LANGUAGE. + + +[Illustration: A--Fist, palm outward, horizontal.] + +[Illustration: B--Fist, back outward, oblique upward.] + +[Illustration: C--Clinched, with thumb extended against forefinger, +upright, edge outward.] + +[Illustration: D--Clinched, ball of thumb against middle of +forefinger, oblique, upward, palm down.] + +[Illustration: E--Hooked, thumb against end of forefinger, upright, +edge outward.] + +[Illustration: F--Hooked, thumb against side of forefinger, oblique, +palm outward.] + +[Illustration: G--Fingers resting against ball of thumb, back upward.] + +[Illustration: H--Arched, thumb horizontal against end of forefinger, +back upward.] + +[Illustration: I--Closed, except forefinger crooked against end of +thumb, upright, palm outward.] + +[Illustration: J--Forefinger straight, upright, others closed, edge +outward.] + +[Illustration: K--Forefinger obliquely extended upward, others closed, +edge outward.] + +[Illustration: L--Thumb vertical, forefinger horizontal, others +closed, edge outward.] + +FIG. 342a. + +[Illustration: M--Forefinger horizontal, fingers and thumb closed, +palm outward.] + +[Illustration: N--First and second fingers straight upward and +separated, remaining fingers and thumb closed, palm outward.] + +[Illustration: O--Thumb, first and second fingers separated, straight +upward, remaining fingers curved edge outward.] + +[Illustration: P--Fingers and thumb partially curved upward and +separated, knuckles outward.] + +[Illustration: Q--Fingers and thumb, separated, slightly curved, +downward.] + +[Illustration: R--Fingers and thumb extended straight, separated, +upward.] + +[Illustration: S--Hand and fingers upright, joined, back outward.] + +[Illustration: T--Hand and fingers upright, joined, palm outward.] + +[Illustration: U--Fingers collected to a point, thumb resting in +middle.] + +[Illustration: V--Arched, joined, thumb resting near end of +forefinger, downward.] + +[Illustration: W--Hand horizontal, flat, palm downward.] + +[Illustration: X--Hand horizontal, flat, palm upward.] + +[Illustration: Y--Naturally relaxed, normal; used when hand simply +follows arm with no intentional disposition.] + +FIG. 342b. + + +NOTE CONCERNING THE FOREGOING TYPES. + +The positions are given as they appear to an observer facing the +gesturer, and are designed to show the relations of the fingers to the +hand rather than the positions of the hand relative to the body, +which must be shown by the outlines (see OUTLINES OF ARM POSITIONS) +or description. The right and left hands are figured above without +discrimination, but in description or reference the right hand will +be understood when the left is not specified. The hands as figured +can also with proper intimation be applied with changes either +upward, downward, or inclined to either side, so long as the relative +positions of the fingers are retained, and when in that respect no one +of the types exactly corresponds with a sign observed, modifications +may be made by pen or pencil on that one of the types, or a tracing of +it, found most convenient, as indicated in the EXAMPLES, and referred +to by the letter of the alphabet under the type changed, with the +addition of a numeral--e.g., A 1, and if that type, i.e., A, were +changed a second time by the observer (which change would necessarily +be drawn on another sheet of types or another tracing of a type +selected when there are no sheets provided), it should be referred to +as A 2. + + + + +EXAMPLES. + + +_Word or idea expressed by sign: To cut, with an ax._ + +DESCRIPTION. + +[Illustration: Fig. 343.] + +With the right hand flattened (X changed to right instead of left), +palm upward, move it downward to the left side repeatedly from +different elevations, ending each stroke at the same point. Fig. 343. + +CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN. + +From the act of felling a tree. + + +_Word or idea expressed by sign: A lie._ + +DESCRIPTION. + +Touch the left breast over the heart, and pass the hand forward from +the mouth, the two first fingers only being extended and slightly +separated (L, 1--with thumb resting on third finger, Fig. 344a). +Fig. 344. + +CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN. + +Double-tongued. + +[Illustration: L1, Fig. 344a.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 344.] + +_Word or idea expressed by sign: To ride._ + +[Illustration: N1 Fig. 345a.] + +DESCRIPTION. + +[Illustration: Fig. 345.] + +Place the first two fingers of the right hand, thumb extended (N 1, +Fig. 345a) downward, astraddle the first two joined and straight +fingers of the left (T 1, Fig. 345b), sidewise, to the right, then +make several short, arched movements forward with hands so joined. +Fig. 345. + +CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN. + +The horse mounted and in motion. + +[Illustration: T1 Fig. 345b.] + +_Word or idea expressed by signs: I am going home._ + +DESCRIPTION. + +[Illustration: Fig. 346.] + +(1) Touch the middle of the breast with the extended index (K), then +(2) pass it slowly downward and outward to the right, and when the +hand is at arm's length, at the height of the shoulder, (3) clinch it +(A) suddenly and throw it edgewise toward the ground. Fig. 346. + +CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN. + +(1) I, personality; (2) motion and direction; (3) locality of my +possessions--home. + + +EXPLANATION OF MARKS. + +The following indicative marks are used in the above examples: + +...........Dotted lines indicate movements to place the hand and arm +in position to commence the sign and not forming part of it. + +-----------Short dashes indicate the course of hand employed in the +sign, when made rapidly. + +-- -- -- --Longer dashes indicate a less rapid movement. + +---- ---- Broken lines represent slow movement. + +> Indicates commencement of movement in representing sign, or part of +sign. + +X Represents the termination of movements. + +[Symbol: Circle about a dot] Indicates the point in the gesture line +at which the hand position is changed. + + + + + + +INDEX. + + Abbreviations in signs, 338 + Abnaki, Intelligence communicated by, 369 + Absaroka, Tribal signs for, 458 + Abstract ideas expressed in signs, 348 + Actors, modern, Use of gestures by, 308 + Addison, Gestures of orators, 294 + Æschylus, Theatrical gestures, 286 + Affirmation, Sign for, 286, 454 + Alarm, Signs for, 529, 538 + Alaskan Indians, Dialogue between, 492 + Alaskans, Sign language of the, 313 + Alive, Sign for, 421 + All together, Sign for, 523 + Anger, Sign for, 301 + , Signal for, 529 + Antelope, Signs for, 410 + Antiquity of gesture speech, 285 + Apache pictographs connected with signs, 372 + , Tribal signs for, 459 + Apaches, Smoke signals of the, 538 + Aphasia, Gestures in, 276 + Applause, Signs for, 300 + Application, Practical, of sign language, 346 + Approbation, Sign for, 286 + Arapaho, Tribal signs for, 460 + Arbitrary signs, 340 + Archæologic research connected with sign language, 368 + Argyle, Duke of, Gestures of Fuegans, 293 + Arikara, Tribal signs for, 461 + Arm positions, Outlines of, in sign language, 545 + Arrangement in descriptions of signs, 546 + Art, Modern Italian, exhibiting gestures, 292 + Articulate speech, preceded by gesture, 274, 284 + Artificial articulation, 275, 307 + Asking, Signs for, 291, 297 + Assinaboin, Tribal signs for, 461 + Astute, Sign for, 305 + Athenæus, Account of Telestes, 286 + , Classification of gestures, 285 + Atsina, Tribal signs for, 462 + Attention, Signal for, 539 + Austin, Rev. Gilbert, Chironomia, 289 + Australians, Gestures of, 306 + Authorities in sign language, List of, 401 + Ax, Sign for, 380 + Bad, Signs for, 411 + Banak, Tribal signs for, 462 + Battle, Sign for, 419 + Bear, Signs for, 412 + Bede, The venerable, Treatise on gestures, 287 + Bell, Prof. A. Graham, Vocal articulation of dogs, 275 + Blackfeet, Tribal signs for, 462 + Blind, Gestures of the, 278 + Born, Signs for, 356 + Bossu, M., Signs of the Atakapa, 324 + Brave, Signs for, 352, 364, 414 + Brother, Sign for, 521 + Brule Dakota colloquy in signs, 491 + Buffalo, Sign for, 488 + Signals for, discovered, 532 + Bushmann, J.C.E., Signs of Accocessaws, 324 + Butler, Prof. James D., Italian signs, 408 + Burton, Capt. R.F., Arapaho language, 314 + Cabéça de Vaca, Signs of Timucuas, 324 + Caddo, Tribal sign for, 464 + Camp, Signals for, 532, 539 + Capture, Sign for, 506 + Chesterfield, Lord, Gestures of orators, 311 + Cheyenne, Tribal signs for, 464 + Chief, Signs for, 353, 416 + Child, Signs for, 304, 356 + Children, Gestures of young, 276 + Chinese characters connected with signs, 356, 357 + , Expedient of the, in place of signs, 306 + Chinook jargon, 313 + Chironomia, by Rev. Gilbert Austin, 289 + Cistercian monks, Gestures of the, 288, 364 + Clarke, Mr. Ben., Local source of sign language, 317 + Classic pantomimes, 286 + Cold, Signs for, 345, 486 + Collaborators in sign language, List of, 401 + Collecting signs, Suggestions for, 394 + Comanche, Tribal signs for, 466 + Come here, Signals for, 529, 532 + Comédie Française, Gestures of the, 309 + Comparison, Degrees of, in sign language, 363 + Conjunctions in sign language, 367 + Conventionality of signs, 333, 336, 340 + Corbusier, Dr. William H., local source of sign language, 317 + , Sign for strong, 304 + Corporeal gestures generally, 270, 273 + Correspondents, Foreign, on sign language, 407 + Crafty, Sign for, 303 + Cree, Tribal signs for, 466 + Cresollius, Precedence of gestures, 282 + Value of gestures, 280 + Cut with an ax, Sign for, 550 + Dakota calendar, 373, 377, 382, 384 + , Tribal signs for, 467 + Dalgarno, George, Gestures real writing, 355 + , Works of, 284, 287 + Danger, Signals for, 529, 532 + Darwin, Charles, Analysis of emotional gestures, 270 + , Gestures of Fuegans, 293 + Day, Signs for, 371 + Deaf and dumb, American annals of the, 293 + Deaf-Mute College, National, Test of signs at the, 321 + Deaf-mutes, Methodical signs of, 362 + , Milan Convention on instruction of, 307 + , Signs of instructed, 362, 397 + , Signs of uninstructed, 277 + , Sounds uttered by uninstructed, 277 + Death, Signs for, 353, 420, 497 + Deceit, Signs for, 303 + Defiance, Signals for, 530 + Denial of the existence of sign language, Mistaken, 326 + Derision, Sign for, 301 + Dialects, Numerous, connected with gesture language, 294, 306 + Dialogues in sign language, 486 + Dictionary of sign language, Extracts from, 409 + Disappearing Mist, Account of, 327 + Discontinuance of sign language, Circumstances connected with the, + 312 + Discourses in signs, 521 + Discovery, Signals for, 533 + Diversities in signs, Classes of, 341 + Divisions of sign language, 270 + Dodge, Col. Richard I., Abbreviations of signs, 339 + , Identity of sign language, 316, 335 + Dog, Signs for, 321, 387 + Done, finished, Sign for, 513, 522, 528 + Dorsey, Rev. J. Owen, Mistaken denial of signs, 326 + Doubt, Sign for, 512 + Drink, Sign for, 301, 344, 357 + Dumas, Alexandra, Sicilian signs, 295 + Dupe, Sign for, 305 + Dust signals, 541 + Eat, Sign for, 301, 480 + Egyptian characters connected with signs, 304, 355, 357, 358, 359, + 370, 379, 380 + Emblems distinguished from signs, 389 + Ethnologic facts connected with signs, 384 + Etymology of words from gestures, 352 + Evening, Signs for, 353 + Evolution, distinguished from invention of sign language, 319, 388 + Exchange, Signs for, 454 + Facial expression generally, 270, 273 + play, giving detailed information, 271 + Fatigue, Sign for, 305 + Fay, Prof. E.A., contributions on signs, 309, 408 + Fear, Sign for, 506 + Female, Signs for, 300, 357 + Ferdinand, King of Naples, speech in signs, 294 + Fingers, Details of position of, in sign language, 392 + , Special significance in disposition of, by Italians, 285 + Fire arrows, Signals by, 540 + , Signs for, 344, 380 + Flathead, Tribal signs for, 468 + Fool, Signs for, 297, 303, 345, 505, 506 + Foreign correspondents on sign language, 407 + Fox, Tribal sign for, 468 + Frémont, General J.C., Signs of Pai-Utes and Shoshonis, 324 + Friend, friendship, Signs for, 384, 491, 527 + Gallaudet, President T.H., Facial expression, 271 + , President E.M., Test of Utes in signs, 321, 323 + Gender in sign language, 366 + Gestures as an occasional resource, 279 + as survival of a sign language, 330 + , blind, of the, 278 + , Etymology of words from, 352 + in mental disorder, 276 + , Involuntary response to, 280 + , fluent talkers, of, 279 + Language not proportionate to development of, 293, 314 + low tribes of men, of, 279 + lower animals, of, 275 + modern actors, used by, 308 + modern orators, used by, 311 + young children, of, 276 + Gilbert, G.K., Pueblo etchings, 371, 372, 373 + Glad, Sign for, 495 + Good, Signs for, 424 + Grammar, Sign language with reference to, 359 + Grass, Sign for, 343 + Greek vases, Figures on, explained by modern Italian gestures, + 289, 290 + Grow, Sign for, 343 + Habitation, Signs for, 427 + Haerne, Mgr. D. de, Works on sign language, 292 + Hale, Horatio, Mohawk signs, 327 + Halt! Signals for, 530, 535 + Hand positions, Types of, 547 + Hand-shaking, connected with signs, 385 + Harpokrates, Erroneous character for, 304 + Hear, Signs for, 376 + Hénto (Gray Eyes), Wyandot signs, 327 + Heredity, Cases of, in speech, 276, 277 + Hesitation, Signs for, 291 + Hidatsa, Tribal signs for, 469 + History of sign language, 285 + Hoffman, Dr. W.J. Collaboration of, in sign language, 399 + Holmes, W.H., Artistic aid of, 400 + Home, Signs for, 483, 485 + Homomorphy of signs with diverse meanings, 342 + Horn sign, Italian, 298, 299 + Horse, Signs for, 433 + House, Signs for, 427 + Humboldt, Signs of South Americans, 307 + Hunger, Signs for, 304, 485 + Illustration, Scheme of, in sign language, 544 + Illustrations, Examples of, for collaboration on sign language, 550 + Indian, generically, Signs for, 469 + languages, Discussion of, 516 + Indians, Condition of the, favorable to sign language, 311 + , Theories respecting the signs of, 313 + Innuits, Sign language of, 307 + Inquiry, Signs for, 291, 297, 303, 447, 480, 486, 494 + , Signals for, 531, 536 + Insult, Sign of, 304 + Interjectional cries, 283 + Interrogation, Mark of, in sign language, 367 + Invention of new signs in sign language, 387 + Involuntary response to gestures, 280 + Isolation, Loss of speech by, 278 + Italians, Modern, Signs of, 285, 305 + Jacker, Very Rev. Edward, Disuse of signs, 325 + Jorio, The canon Andrea de, Works on sign language, 289 + Joy, Signs for, 300 + Justice, Sign for, 302 + Kaiowa, Tribal signs for, 470 + Keep, Rev. J. R., Syntax of Sign language, 360 + Kickapoo, Tribal signs for, 470 + Kill, Signs for, 377, 437 + Kin Chē-ĕss, Address of, 521 + Knife, Sign for, 386 + Kutine, Tribal signs for, 470 + Language, Primitive, theories upon, 282 + Lately, Signs for, 366 + Lean Wolf's Complaint, in signs, 526 + Leibnitz, Signs connected with philology, 349 + syntax, 360 + Leonardo da Vinci, 292 + Lie, falsehood, Signs for, 345, 393, 550 + Lightning, Signs for, 373 + Lipan, Tribal sign for, 471 + Loss of speech by isolation, 278 + Love, Signs for, 345, 521 + Low tribes of men, Gestures of, 279 + Lower animals, Gestures of, 275 + Lucian, de saltatione, 287 + Man, Sign for, 416 + Mandan, Tribal sign for, 471 + Mano in fica, Neapolitan sign, 300 + Many, Signs for, 445, 496, 524, 535 + Marriage, Signs for, 290 + Maya characters connected with signs, 356, 376 + Medicine, Signs for, 386 + Medicine-man, Signs for, 380 + Mental disorder, Gestures in, 276 + Methodical signs of deaf-mutes, 362 + Mexican characters connected with signs, 357, 375, 377, 380, 382 + Michaëlius, Algonkin signs, 324 + Milan convention on instruction of deafmutes, 307 + Missouri River, Sign for, 477 + Modern use of sign language, 293 + Money, Sign for, 297 + Moose, Sign for, 495 + Moqui pictographs connected with signs, 371, 373 + Morgan, Lewis H., Atsina signs, 312 + Morse, E.S., Japanese signs, 442 + Mother, Sign for, 479 + Motions relative to parts of body in sign language, 393 + Much, Signs for, 446 + Müller, Max, Theories relating to language, 277, 281, 283 + Narratives in sign language, 500 + Natci's narrative in signs, 500 + National Deaf-Mute College, 321, 408 + Natural pantomime, 280 + signs, 307, 340 + Na-wa-gi-jig's story in signs, 508 + Neapolitan gestures and signs, 289, 296-305 + Negation of affirmative in sign language, 391 + , Signs for, 290, 299, 300, 304, 355, 440, 494 + Night, Signs for, 358 + Nothing, none, Signs for, 322, 355, 356, 443 + Now, Signs for, 366 + Occasional resource, Gestures as an, 279 + Ojibwa dialogue in signs, 499 + pictographs connected with signs, 371, 372, 376, 380, 381 + , Tribal sign for, 472 + Old man, Sign for, 338 + Omaha colloquy in signs, 490 + Onomatopeia, 283 + Opposite, Signs for, 353 + Opposition in sign language, 364 + Oral language defined, 273 + , primitive, 274 + Orators, modern, Gestures used by, 311 + Origin of sign language, 273 + Osage, Tribal signs for, 472 + Ouray, head chief of Utes, 315, 328 + Pani, Tribal signs for, 472 + Pantomime, Natural, 280 + Pantomimes, Classic, 286 + Partisan, Signs for, 384, 418 + Patricio's narrative in signs, 505 + Peace, Signals for, 530, 534, 535 + , Signs for, 438 + Pend d'Oreille, Tribal sign for, 473 + Period, Mark of, in sign language, 368 + Permanence of signs, 329 + Peruvian characters connected with signs, 371 + Philology, Relation of sign language to, 349 + Phrases in sign language, 479 + Pictographs connected with sign language, 368 + Porter, Prof. Samuel, Thought without language, 277 + Possession, Sign for, 484, 524 + Powell, J.W., Indian orthography, 484 + , Inflexions in Indian languages, 351 + , Linguistic classification, 403 + Prepositions in sign language, 367 + Pretty, Signs for, 300 + Primitive language, Theories upon, 282 + oral language, 274 + Prisoner, Sign for, 345 + Proper names in sign language, 364, 476 + Pueblo pictographs connected with signs, 373 + , Tribal sign for, 473 + Punctuation in sign language, 367 + Quantity, Signs for, 291, 359, 445 + Question, Signs for, 291, 297, 303, 447, 480, 486, 494 + , Signals for, 531, 536 + Quintilian, Antiquity of gesture language, 285 + , Powers of gesture, 280 + , Questioning by gesture, 449 + , Rules for gesture, 285 + Rabbit, Sign for, 321 + Rabelais, Forced and mistaken signs, 338 + , Head shaking, 441 + , Primitive language, 282 + , Sign for marriage, 290 + , Signs addressed to women, 310 + , Universal language, 287 + Raffaelle, Attention to gestures, 292 + Railroad cars, Sign for, 322 + Rain myth, Signs for, 344, 357, 372 + Rapport necessary in gestures, 310 + Rejection, Signs for, 298, 299 + Researches in sign language, how made, 395 + Results sought in study of sign language, 346 + Ride, Sign for, 551 + Ruxton, 324 + Sac, or Sanki, Tribal sign for, 473 + Safety, Signals for, 536 + Sahaptin, Tribal sign, for, 473 + Same, similar, Sign for, 385 + Sayce, Prof. A.H., Origin of language in gestures, 283, 284 + Scocciare, Italian sign for, 298 + Seraglio, mutes of the, Gestures of the, 307 + Shawnee, Tribal sign for, 474 + Sheepeater, Tribal signs for, 474 + Shoshone, Tribal signs for, 474 + Sibscota, Mutes of Seraglio, 307 + Sicard, Abbé, Deaf mute signs, 277, 288, 362 + Sicily, Gesture language in, 295 + Sign language, Abstract ideas expressed in, 348 + , Alaskans, of the, 513 + , Antiquity of, 285 + , Apache pictographs connected with, 372 + , Archæologic research connected with, 368 + , Arrangement in description of signs in, 546 + , Australian, 306 + , Authorities in, list of, 401 + , Chinese characters connected with, 356, 357 + , Cistercian monks, of, 283, 364 + , collaborators in, List of, 401 + , comparison, Degrees of, in, 363 + , Conjunctions in, 367 + , Convention, not requiring, 334 + , Corporeal gestures in, 270, 273 + , correspondents, Foreign, on, 407 + , deaf-mutes, of uninstructed, 277 + , dialects, numerous, connected with, 294 + , Dialogues in, 486 + , Dictionary of, Extracts from, 409 + , Discontinuance of, 312 + , Discourses in, 521 + , Egyptian characters connected with, 304, 355, 357-359, 370, + 379, 380 + , Emotional gestures in, 270 + , Ethnologic facts connected with, 384 + evolved rather than invented, 319 + , Facial expression in, 270, 273 + , fingers, Details of position of, in, 392, 547 + , Gender in, 366 + , Grammar connected with, 359 + , hand positions, Types of, in, 547 + , History of, 285 + , illustration, Scheme of, in, 544 + , Indian and deaf-mute, compared, 320 + and foreign, compared, 319 + Special and peculiar is the, 319 + Indians, North American, Once universal among, 324-326 + Conditions favorable to, 311 + Innuits, of the, 307 + , interrogation, Mark of, in, 367 + , Invention of new signs in, 387 + , Italians, modern, of, 285, 305 + , languages, Indian, compared with, 351 + , Maya characters connected with, 356, 376 + , Mexican characters connected with, 357, 375, 377, 380, 382 + , Mistaken denial of existence of, 326 + , Modern use of, 293 + , Modern use of, by other than North American Indians, 320 + , Motions relative to parts of body in, 393, 545 + , Narratives in, 500 + , Negation or affirmative in, 391 + , Ojibwa pictographs connected with, 371, 372, 380, 381 + , Opposition in, 364 + , Oral language not proportioned to development of, 293, 314 + , Origin of, 273 + , Origin of, from a particular tribe, 316 + , Outlines of arm positions in, 545 + , period, Mark of, in, 368 + , Peruvian characters connected with, 371 + , Phrases in, 479 + , Pictographs connected with, 368 + , Practical application of, 346 + , preceded articulate speech, 274, 284 + , Prepositions in, 367 + , Prevalence of Indian system of, 323 + , Proper names in, 364, 476 + , Pueblo pictographs connected with, 373 + , Punctuation, in, 367 + , Philology, relation of, to, 349 + , Researches, Mode in which made on, 395 + , Resemblance to Indian languages, 351 + , Results sought in the study of, 346 + Seraglio, of the mutes of the, 307 + , Sicilian, 295 + , Sociologic conditions connected with, 293, 304 + , South American, 307 + , Survival of, 306 + , Syntax connected with, 359 + , Tense in, 366 + , Time in, 366 + , Tribal signs in, 458 + , writing, Origin of, connected with, 354 + Signals, Apache, 534 + , bodily action, Executed by, 529 + , Cheyenne and Arapaho, 542 + , Dust, 541 + , Fire arrows used in, 540 + , Foreign, 549 + , Smoke, 536 + when person signaling is not seen, 536 + with objects in connection with personal action, 532 + Signs, Abbreviation in, 338 + , Arbitrary, 340 + , Conventional, 333, 336, 340 + deaf-mutes, of uninstructed, 277 + , diversities in, Classes of, 341 + , Forced, 336 + , Homomorphy of, with diverse meanings, 342 + , Mistaken, 336 + , Natural, 307, 340 + , Oral language, not proportioned to development of, 293, 314 + , Permanence of, 329 + , Power of, compared with speech, 347, 349 + , Surviving in gesture, 330 + , Symmorphs in, 343 + , Synonyms in, 341 + , Systematic use of, distinguished from uniformity of, 330 + , Theories of Indians, respecting the, 313 + Silence, Sign for, 304 + Small, Sign for, 302 + Smoke, Sign for, 343, 380 + signals, 536 + , Foreign, 539 + Smyth, E. Brough, Australian, signs, 306, 408 + Sociologic conditions connected with use of gestures, 293 + Soldier, Signs for, 344, 449, 505 + South Americans, Signs of, 307 + Speak, speech, Signs for, 345, 373 + Squirrel, Sign for, 321 + Steamboat, Sign for, 388 + Stone, Signs for, 386, 515 + Stupidity, Signs for, 303 + Submission, Signals for, 531 + Suggestions for collecting signs, 394 + Sun, Signs for, 344, 370 + Sunrise, Sign for, 371 + Surrender, Signals for, 531, 536 + Surrounded, Signal for, 536 + Suspicion, Sign for, 306 + Swedenborg, Primitive language, 288 + Symbols, distinguished from signs, 388 + Symmorphs in signs, 343 + Synonyms in signs, 341 + Syntax, Sign language with reference to, 359 + Talkers, fluent, Gestures of, 279 + Tendoy-Huerito dialogue in signs, 486 + Tennanah, Tribal sign for, 475 + Tense in sign language, 336 + Theft, Signs for, 292, 345 + Time, in sign language, 386 + , long, Sign for, 522 + , Signs for, 350, 508 + To-day, Signs for, 386 + Trade, Signs for, 381, 450, 495 + Tree, Signs for, 343, 496, 524 + Tribal signs, 458 + Trumbull, Dr. J. Hammond, Composition of Indian words, 351 + Tso-di-á-ko's Report, in signs, 524 + Tylor, Dr. E.B., Sign language, 293, 320, 323 + Uniformity of signs distinguished from their systematic use, 330 + Ute, Tribal signs for, 475 + Village, Signs for, 386 + Vinci, Leonardo da, use of gestures, 292 + Wagon, Sign for, 322 + Want, Sign for, 344 + Warning, Sign for, 301, 302 + Washington, City of, Sign for, 470 + Water, Signs for, 357, 494 + White man, Signs for, 450, 469, 491, 000, 526 + Whitney, Prof. W.D., Primitive speech, 283 + Wichita, Tribal signs for, 476 + Wilkins, Bishop, Philosophic language, 288 + Williams, Mr. B.O., 326 + Wiseman, Cardinal, Gesture of blind man, 278 + , Italian signs, 408 + Woman, Sign for, 497 + Worthlessness, Sign for, 301 + Writing, origin of, Gestures connected with the, 354 + Wyandot, Tribal sign for, 476 + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sign Language Among North American +Indians Compared With That Among O, by Garrick Mallery + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGN LANGUAGE *** + +***** This file should be named 17451-0.txt or 17451-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/4/5/17451/ + +Produced by William Flis, and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at +http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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