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+  <title>Sign Language among North American Indians, by Garrick Mallery.</title>
+
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+  <!--
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sign Language Among North American Indians
+Compared With That Among Other Peoples And Deaf-Mutes, by Garrick Mallery
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sign Language Among North American Indians Compared With That Among Other Peoples And Deaf-Mutes
+       First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-1880,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 263-552
+
+Author: Garrick Mallery
+
+Release Date: January 3, 2006 [EBook #17451]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SIGN LANGUAGE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by William Flis, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by the
+Biblioth�que nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+
+<p><span class="sc">Transcriber's Note</span>: The verses in the section on <span class="sc">Gestures of Actors</span>
+on p. <a href="#page309">309</a>
+are loosely quoted from "The Rosciad" by
+Charles Churchill, which more accurately reads:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>"... When to enforce some very tender part,</p>
+<p>The right hand slips by instinct on the heart,</p>
+<p>His soul, of every other thought bereft,</p>
+<p>Is anxious only where to place the left;..."</p>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>[pg 263]</span>
+<h2>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION&mdash;BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</h2>
+
+<h3>J.W. POWELL, DIRECTOR.</h3>
+
+<h1>SIGN LANGUAGE</h1>
+
+<h1>AMONG</h1>
+
+<h1>NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS</h1>
+
+<h2>COMPARED WITH THAT AMONG OTHER PEOPLES AND DEAF-MUTES.</h2>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>GARRICK MALLERY.</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a></span>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>[pg 265]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p><b>Fig.</b> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<b>Page</b></p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>61. Affirmation, approving. Old Roman <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p>62. Approbation. Neapolitan <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p>63. Affirmation, approbation. N.A. Indian <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p>64. Group. Old Greek. Facing <a href="#page289">289</a></p>
+<p>65. Negation. Dakota <a href="#page290">290</a></p>
+<p>66. Love. Modern Neapolitan <a href="#page290">290</a></p>
+<p>67. Group. Old Greek. Facing <a href="#page290">290</a></p>
+<p>68. Hesitation. Neapolitan <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+<p>69. Wait. N.A. Indian <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+<p>70. Question, asking. Neapolitan <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+<p>71. Tell me. N.A. Indian <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+<p>72. Interrogation. Australian <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+<p>73. Pulcinella <a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+<p>74. Thief. Neapolitan <a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+<p>75. Steal. N.A. Indian <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+<p>76. Public writer. Neapolitan group. Facing <a href="#page296">296</a></p>
+<p>77. Money. Neapolitan <a href="#page297">297</a></p>
+<p>78. "Hot Corn." Neapolitan Group. Facing <a href="#page297">297</a></p>
+<p>79. "Horn" sign. Neapolitan <a href="#page298">298</a></p>
+<p>80. Reproach. Old Roman <a href="#page298">298</a></p>
+<p>81. Marriage contract. Neapolitan group. Facing <a href="#page298">298</a></p>
+<p>82. Negation. Pai-Ute sign <a href="#page299">299</a></p>
+<p>83. Coming home of bride. Neapolitan group. Facing <a href="#page299">299</a></p>
+<p>84. Pretty. Neapolitan <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>85. "Mano in fica." Neapolitan <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>86. Snapping the fingers. Neapolitan <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>87. Joy, acclamation <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>88. Invitation to drink wine  <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>89. Woman's quarrel. Neapolitan Group. Facing <a href="#page301">301</a></p>
+<p>90. Chestnut vender. Facing <a href="#page301">301</a></p>
+<p>91. Warning. Neapolitan <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>92. Justice. Neapolitan <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>93. Little. Neapolitan <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>94. Little. N.A. Indian <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>95. Little. N.A. Indian <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>96. Demonstration. Neapolitan <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>97. "Fool." Neapolitan <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>98. "Fool." <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>99. "Fool." <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>100. Inquiry. Neapolitan <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>101. Crafty, deceitful. Neapolitan <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>102. Insult. Neapolitan <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>103. Insult. Neapolitan <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>104. Silence. Neapolitan <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>105. Child. Egyptian hieroglyph <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>106. Negation. Neapolitan <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>107. Hunger. Neapolitan <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>108. Mockery. Neapolitan <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>109. Fatigue. Neapolitan <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>110. Deceit. Neapolitan <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>111. Astuteness, readiness. Neapolitan <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>112. Tree. Dakota, Hidatsa <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+<p>113. To grow. N.A. Indian <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+<p>114. Rain. Shoshoni, Apache <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+<p>115. Sun. N.A. Indian <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+<p>116. Sun. Cheyenne <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+<p>117. Soldier. Arikara <a href="#page345">345</a></p>
+<p>118. No, negation. Egyptian <a href="#page355">355</a></p>
+<p>119. Negation. Maya <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>120. Nothing. Chinese <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>121. Child. Egyptian figurative <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>122. Child. Egyptian linear <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>123. Child. Egyptian hieratic <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>124. Son. Ancient Chinese <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>125. Son. Modern Chinese <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>126. Birth. Chinese character <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>127. Birth. Dakota <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>128. Birth, generic. N.A. Indians <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>[pg 266]</span>
+<p>129. Man. Mexican <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>130. Man. Chinese character <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>131. Woman. Chinese character <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>132. Woman. Ute <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>133. Female, generic. Cheyenne <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>134. To give water. Chinese character <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>135. Water, to drink. N.A. Indian <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>136. Drink. Mexican <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>137. Water. Mexican <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>138. Water, giving. Egypt <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>139. Water. Egyptian <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>140. Water, abbreviated <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>141. Water. Chinese character <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>142. To weep. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>143. Force, vigor. Egyptian <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>144. Night. Egyptian <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>145. Calling upon. Egyptian figurative <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p>146. Calling upon. Egyptian linear <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p>147. To collect, to unite. Egyptian <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p>148. Locomotion. Egyptian figurative <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p>149. Locomotion. Egyptian linear <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p>150. Shu<sup>n</sup>'-ka Lu'-ta. Dakota <a href="#page365">365</a></p>
+<p>151. "I am going to the east." Abnaki <a href="#page369">369</a></p>
+<p>152. "Am not gone far." Abnaki <a href="#page369">369</a></p>
+<p>153. "Gone far." Abnaki <a href="#page370">370</a></p>
+<p>154. "Gone five days' journey." Abnaki <a href="#page370">370</a></p>
+<p>155. Sun. N.A. Indian <a href="#page370">370</a></p>
+<p>156. Sun. Egyptian <a href="#page370">370</a></p>
+<p>157. Sun. Egyptian <a href="#page370">370</a></p>
+<p>158. Sun with rays. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>159. Sun with rays. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>160. Sun with rays. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>161. Sun with rays. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>162. Sun with rays. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>163. Sun with rays. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>164. Star. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>165. Star. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>166. Star. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>167. Star. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>168. Star. Peruvian pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>169. Star. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>170. Sunrise. Moqui <i>do.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>171. Sunrise. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>172. Sunrise. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>173. Moon, month. Californian pictograph <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>174. Pictograph, including sun. Coyotero Apache <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>175. Moon. N.A. Indian <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>176. Moon. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>177. Moon. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>178. Sky. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>179. Sky. Egyptian character <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>180. Clouds. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>181. Clouds. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>182. Clouds. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>183. Cloud. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>184. Rain. New Mexican pictograph <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>185. Rain. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>186. Lightning. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>187. Lightning. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>188. Lightning, harmless. Pictograph at Jemez, N.M. <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>189. Lightning, fatal. <i>Do.</i> <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>190. Voice. "The-Elk-that-hollows-walking" <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>191. Voice. Antelope. Cheyenne drawing <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>192. Voice, talking. Cheyenne drawing <a href="#page374">374</a></p>
+<p>193. Killing the buffalo. Cheyenne drawing <a href="#page375">375</a></p>
+<p>194. Talking. Mexican pictograph <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p>195. Talking, singing. Maya character <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p>196. Hearing ears. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p>197. "I hear, but your words are from a bad heart." Ojibwa <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p>198. Hearing serpent. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p>199. Royal edict. Maya <a href="#page377">377</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>[pg 267]</span>
+<p>200. To kill. Dakota <a href="#page377">377</a></p>
+<p>201. "Killed Arm." Dakota <a href="#page377">377</a></p>
+<p>202. Pictograph, including "kill." Wyoming Ter. <a href="#page378">378</a></p>
+<p>203. Pictograph, including "kill." Wyoming Ter. <a href="#page378">378</a></p>
+<p>204. Pictograph, including "kill." Wyoming Ter. <a href="#page379">379</a></p>
+<p>205. Veneration. Egyptian character <a href="#page379">379</a></p>
+<p>206. Mercy. Supplication, favor. Egyptian <a href="#page379">379</a></p>
+<p>207. Supplication. Mexican pictograph <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p>208. Smoke. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p>209. Fire. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p>210. "Making medicine." Conjuration. Dakota <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p>211. Meda. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p>212. The God Knuphis. Egyptian <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p>213. The God Knuphis. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p>214. Power. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p>215. Meda's Power. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p>216. Trade pictograph <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+<p>217. Offering. Mexican pictograph <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+<p>218. Stampede of horses. Dakota <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+<p>219. Chapultepec. Mexican pictograph <a href="#page383">383</a></p>
+<p>220. Soil. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page383">383</a></p>
+<p>221. Cultivated soil. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page383">383</a></p>
+<p>222. Road, path. <i>Ib.</i> <a href="#page383">383</a></p>
+<p>223. Cross-roads and gesture sign. Mexican pictograph <a href="#page383">383</a></p>
+<p>224. Small-pox or measles. Dakota <a href="#page383">383</a></p>
+<p>225. "No thoroughfare." Pictograph <a href="#page383">383</a></p>
+<p>226. Raising of war party. Dakota <a href="#page384">384</a></p>
+<p>227. "Led four war parties." Dakota drawing <a href="#page384">384</a></p>
+<p>228. Sociality. Friendship. Ojibwa pictograph <a href="#page384">384</a></p>
+<p>229. Peace. Friendship. Dakota <a href="#page384">384</a></p>
+<p>230. Peace. Friendship with whites. Dakota <a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+<p>231. Friendship. Australian <a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+<p>232. Friend. Brul&#233; Dakota <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+<p>233. Lie, falsehood. Arikara <a href="#page393">393</a></p>
+<p>234. Antelope. Dakota <a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+<p>235. Running Antelope. Personal totem <a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+<p>236. Bad. Dakota <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+<p>237. Bear. Cheyenne <a href="#page412">412</a></p>
+<p>238. Bear. Kaiowa, etc. <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+<p>239. Bear. Ute <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+<p>240. Bear. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page413">413</a></p>
+<p>241. Brave. N.A. Indian <a href="#page414">414</a></p>
+<p>242. Brave. Kaiowa, etc. <a href="#page415">415</a></p>
+<p>243. Brave. Kaiowa, etc. <a href="#page415">415</a></p>
+<p>244. Chief. Head of tribe. Absaroka <a href="#page418">418</a></p>
+<p>245. Chief. Head of tribe. Pai-Ute <a href="#page418">418</a></p>
+<p>246. Chief of a band. Absaroka and Arikara <a href="#page419">419</a></p>
+<p>247. Chief of a band. Pai-Ute <a href="#page419">419</a></p>
+<p>248. Warrior. Absaroka, etc. <a href="#page420">420</a></p>
+<p>249. Ojibwa gravestone, including "dead" <a href="#page422">422</a></p>
+<p>250. Dead. Shoshoni and Banak <a href="#page422">422</a></p>
+<p>251. Dying. Kaiowa, etc. <a href="#page424">424</a></p>
+<p>252. Nearly dying. Kaiowa <a href="#page424">424</a></p>
+<p>253. Log house. Hidatsa <a href="#page428">428</a></p>
+<p>254. Lodge. Dakota <a href="#page430">430</a></p>
+<p>255. Lodge. Kaiowa, etc. <a href="#page431">431</a></p>
+<p>256. Lodge. Sahaptin <a href="#page431">431</a></p>
+<p>257. Lodge. Pai-Ute <a href="#page431">431</a></p>
+<p>258. Lodge. Pai-Ute <a href="#page431">431</a></p>
+<p>259. Lodge. Kutchin <a href="#page431">431</a></p>
+<p>260. Horse. N.A. Indian <a href="#page434">434</a></p>
+<p>261. Horse. Dakota <a href="#page434">434</a></p>
+<p>262. Horse. Kaiowa, etc. <a href="#page435">435</a></p>
+<p>263. Horse. Caddo <a href="#page435">435</a></p>
+<p>264. Horse. Pima and Papago <a href="#page435">435</a></p>
+<p>265. Horse. Ute <a href="#page435">435</a></p>
+<p>266. Horse. Ute <a href="#page435">435</a></p>
+<p>267. Saddling a horse. Ute <a href="#page437">437</a></p>
+<p>268. Kill. N.A. Indian <a href="#page438">438</a></p>
+<p>269. Kill. Mandan and Hidatsa <a href="#page439">439</a></p>
+<p>270. Negation. No. Dakota <a href="#page441">441</a></p>
+<p>271. Negation. No. Pai-Ute <a href="#page442">442</a></p>
+<p>272. None. Dakota <a href="#page443">443</a></p>
+<p>273. None. Australian <a href="#page444">444</a></p>
+<p>274. Much, quantity. Apache <a href="#page447">447</a></p>
+<p>275. Question. Australian <a href="#page449">449</a></p>
+<p>276. Soldier. Dakota and Arikara <a href="#page450">450</a></p>
+<p>277. Trade. Dakota <a href="#page452">452</a></p>
+<p>278. Trade. Dakota <a href="#page452">452</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>[pg 268]</span>
+<p>279. Buy. Ute <a href="#page453">453</a></p>
+<p>280. Yes, affirmation. Dakota <a href="#page456">456</a></p>
+<p>281. Absaroka tribal sign. Shoshoni <a href="#page458">458</a></p>
+<p>282. Apache tribal sign. Kaiowa, etc. <a href="#page459">459</a></p>
+<p>283. Apache tribal sign. Pima and Papago <a href="#page459">459</a></p>
+<p>284. Arikara tribal sign. Arapaho and Dakota <a href="#page461">461</a></p>
+<p>285. Arikara tribal sign. Absaroka <a href="#page461">461</a></p>
+<p>286. Blackfoot tribal sign. Dakota <a href="#page463">463</a></p>
+<p>287. Blackfoot tribal sign. Shoshoni <a href="#page464">464</a></p>
+<p>288. Caddo tribal sign. Arapaho and Kaiowa <a href="#page464">464</a></p>
+<p>289. Cheyenne tribal sign. Arapaho and Cheyenne <a href="#page464">464</a></p>
+<p>290. Dakota tribal sign. Dakota <a href="#page467">467</a></p>
+<p>291. Flathead tribal sign. Shoshoni <a href="#page468">468</a></p>
+<p>292. Kaiowa tribal sign. Comanche <a href="#page470">470</a></p>
+<p>293. Kutine tribal sign. Shoshoni <a href="#page471">471</a></p>
+<p>294. Lipan tribal sign. Apache <a href="#page471">471</a></p>
+<p>295. Pend d'Oreille tribal sign. Shoshoni <a href="#page473">473</a></p>
+<p>296. Sahaptin or Nez Perc&#233; tribal sign. Comanche <a href="#page473">473</a></p>
+<p>297. Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni <a href="#page474">474</a></p>
+<p>298. Buffalo. Dakota <a href="#page477">477</a></p>
+<p>299. Eagle Tail. Arikara <a href="#page477">477</a></p>
+<p>300. Eagle Tail. Moqui pictograph <a href="#page477">477</a></p>
+<p>301. Give me. Absaroka <a href="#page480">480</a></p>
+<p>302. Counting. How many? Shoshoni and Banak <a href="#page482">482</a></p>
+<p>303. I am going home. Dakota <a href="#page485">485</a></p>
+<p>304. Question. Apache <a href="#page486">486</a></p>
+<p>305. Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni <a href="#page486">486</a></p>
+<p>306. Chief. Shoshoni <a href="#page487">487</a></p>
+<p>307. Cold, winter, year. Apache <a href="#page487">487</a></p>
+<p>308. "Six." Shoshoni <a href="#page487">487</a></p>
+<p>309. Good, very well. Apache <a href="#page487">487</a></p>
+<p>310. Many. Shoshoni <a href="#page488">488</a></p>
+<p>311. Hear, heard. Apache <a href="#page488">488</a></p>
+<p>312. Night. Shoshoni <a href="#page489">489</a></p>
+<p>313. Rain. Shoshoni <a href="#page489">489</a></p>
+<p>314. See each other. Shoshoni <a href="#page490">490</a></p>
+<p>315. White man, American. Dakota <a href="#page491">491</a></p>
+<p>316. Hear, heard. Dakota <a href="#page492">492</a></p>
+<p>317. Brother. Pai-Ute <a href="#page502">502</a></p>
+<p>318. No, negation. Pai-Ute <a href="#page503">503</a></p>
+<p>319. Scene of Na-wa-gi-jig's story. Facing <a href="#page508">508</a></p>
+<p>320. We are friends. Wichita <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p>321. Talk, talking. Wichita <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p>322. I stay, or I stay right here. Wichita <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p>323. A long time. Wichita <a href="#page522">522</a></p>
+<p>324. Done, finished. Do. <a href="#page522">522</a></p>
+<p>325. Sit down. Australian <a href="#page523">523</a></p>
+<p>326. Cut down. Wichita <a href="#page524">524</a></p>
+<p>327. Wagon. Wichita <a href="#page525">525</a></p>
+<p>328. Load upon. Wichita <a href="#page525">525</a></p>
+<p>329. White man; American. Hidatsa <a href="#page526">526</a></p>
+<p>330. With us. Hidatsa <a href="#page526">526</a></p>
+<p>331. Friend. Hidatsa <a href="#page527">527</a></p>
+<p>332. Four. Hidatsa <a href="#page527">527</a></p>
+<p>333. Lie, falsehood. Hidatsa <a href="#page528">528</a></p>
+<p>334. Done, finished. Hidatsa <a href="#page528">528</a></p>
+<p>335. Peace, friendship. Hualpais. Facing <a href="#page530">530</a></p>
+<p>336. Question, ans'd by tribal sign for Pani. Facing <a href="#page531">531</a></p>
+<p>337. Buffalo discovered. Dakota. Facing <a href="#page532">532</a></p>
+<p>338. Discovery. Dakota. Facing <a href="#page533">533</a></p>
+<p>339. Success of war party. Pima. Facing <a href="#page538">538</a></p>
+<p>340. Outline for arm positions, full face <a href="#page545">545</a></p>
+<p>341. Outline for arm positions, profile <a href="#page545">545</a></p>
+<p>342<i>a</i>. Types of hand positions, A to L <a href="#page547">547</a></p>
+<p>342<i>b</i>. Types of hand positions, M to Y <a href="#page548">548</a></p>
+<p>343. Example. To cut with an ax <a href="#page550">550</a></p>
+<p>344. Example. A lie <a href="#page550">550</a></p>
+<p>345. Example. To ride <a href="#page551">551</a></p>
+<p>346. Example. I am going home <a href="#page551">551</a></p>
+  </div>  </div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>[pg 269]</span>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+<h2>SIGN LANGUAGE</h2>
+
+<h4>AMONG</h4>
+
+<h1>NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS</h1>
+
+<h3>COMPARED WITH THAT AMONG OTHER PEOPLES AND DEAF-MUTES.</h3>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<h3>BY GARRICK MALLERY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTORY.</h2>
+
+<p>During the past two years the present writer has devoted the intervals
+between official duties to collecting and collating materials for the
+study of sign language. As the few publications on the general subject,
+possessing more than historic interest, are meager in details and vague
+in expression, original investigation has been necessary. The high
+development of communication by gesture among the tribes of North
+America, and its continued extensive use by many of them, naturally
+directed the first researches to that continent, with the result that a
+large body of facts procured from collaborators and by personal examination
+has now been gathered and classified. A correspondence has also been
+established with many persons in other parts of the world whose character
+and situation rendered it probable that they would contribute valuable
+information. The success of that correspondence has been as great as
+could have been expected, considering that most of the persons addressed
+were at distant points sometimes not easily accessible by mail. As the
+collection of facts is still successfully proceeding, not only with
+reference to foreign peoples and to deaf-mutes everywhere, but also among
+some American tribes not yet thoroughly examined in this respect, no
+exposition of the subject pretending to be complete can yet be made.
+In complying, therefore, with the request to prepare the present paper,
+it is necessary to explain to correspondents and collaborators whom it
+may reach, that this is not the comprehensive publication by the Bureau
+of Ethnology for which their assistance has been solicited. With this
+explanation some of those who have already forwarded contributions
+will not be surprised at their omission, and others will not desist from
+the work in which they are still kindly engaged, under the impression
+that its results will not be received in time to meet with welcome and
+credit. On the contrary, the urgent appeal for aid before addressed to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>[pg 270]</span>
+officers of the Army and Navy of this and other nations, to missionaries,
+travelers, teachers of deaf-mutes, and philologists generally, is now with
+equal urgency repeated. It is, indeed, hoped that the continued
+presentation
+of the subject to persons either having opportunity for observation
+or the power to favor with suggestions may, by awakening some
+additional interest in it, secure new collaboration from localities still
+unrepresented.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily understood by other readers that, as the limits
+assigned to this paper permit the insertion of but a small part of the
+material already collected and of the notes of study made upon that
+accumulation,
+it can only show the general scope of the work undertaken,
+and not its accomplishment. Such extracts from the collection have
+been selected as were regarded as most illustrative, and they are preceded
+by a discussion perhaps sufficient to be suggestive, though by no
+means exhaustive, and designed to be for popular, rather than for
+scientific
+use. In short, the direction to submit a progress-report and not a
+monograph has been complied with.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>DIVISIONS OF GESTURE SPEECH.</h2>
+
+<p>These are corporeal motion and facial expression. An attempt has
+been made by some writers to discuss these general divisions separately,
+and its success would be practically convenient if it were always
+understood that their connection is so intimate that they can never be
+altogether severed. A play of feature, whether instinctive or voluntary,
+accentuates and qualifies all motions intended to serve as signs, and
+strong instinctive facial expression is generally accompanied by action
+of the body or some of its members. But, so far as a distinction can
+be made, expressions of the features are the result of emotional, and
+corporeal gestures, of intellectual action. The former in general and
+the small number of the latter that are distinctively emotional are
+nearly identical among men from physiological causes which do not affect
+with the same similarity the processes of thought. The large number
+of corporeal gestures expressing intellectual operations require and admit
+of more variety and conventionality. Thus the features and the
+body among all mankind act almost uniformly in exhibiting fear, grief,
+surprise, and shame, but all objective conceptions are varied and variously
+portrayed. Even such simple indications as those for "no" and
+"yes" appear in several differing motions. While, therefore, the terms
+sign language and gesture speech necessarily include and suppose facial
+expression when emotions are in question, they refer more particularly
+to corporeal motions and attitudes. For this reason much of the valuable
+contribution of <span class="sc">Darwin</span> in his <i>Expression of the Emotions in Man
+and Animals</i> is not directly applicable to sign language. His analysis
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>[pg 271]</span>
+of emotional gestures into those explained on the principles of serviceable
+associated habits, of antithesis, and of the constitution of the nervous
+system, should, nevertheless, always be remembered. Even if it
+does not strictly embrace the class of gestures which form the subject
+of this paper, and which often have an immediate pantomimic origin, the
+earliest gestures were doubtless instinctive and generally emotional,
+preceding
+pictorial, metaphoric, and, still subsequent, conventional gestures
+even, as, according to <span class="sc">Darwin</span>'s cogent reasoning, they preceded articulate
+speech.</p>
+
+<p>While the distinction above made between the realm of facial play
+and that of motions of the body, especially those of the arms and hands,
+is sufficiently correct for use in discussion, it must be admitted that the
+features do express intellect as well as emotion. The well-known saying
+of Charles Lamb that "jokes came in with the candles" is in point, but
+the most remarkable example of conveying detailed information without
+the use of sounds, hands, or arms, is given by the late President T.H.
+Gallaudet, the distinguished instructor of deaf-mutes, which, to be
+intelligible, requires to be quoted at length:</p>
+
+<p>"One day, our distinguished and lamented historical painter, Col.
+John Trumbull, was in my school-room during the hours of instruction,
+and, on my alluding to the tact which the pupil referred to had of reading
+my face, he expressed a wish to see it tried. I requested him to select
+any event in Greek, Roman, English, or American history of a scenic
+character, which would make a striking picture on canvas, and said I
+would endeavor to communicate it to the lad. 'Tell him,' said he, 'that
+Brutus (Lucius Junius) condemned his two sons to death for resisting his
+authority and violating his orders.'</p>
+
+<p>"I folded my arms in front of me, and kept them in that position, to
+preclude the possibility of making any signs or gestures, or of spelling
+any words on my fingers, and proceeded, as best I could, by the expression
+of my countenance, and a few motions of my head and attitudes of
+the body, to convey the picture in my own mind to the mind of my pupil.</p>
+
+<p>"It ought to be stated that he was already acquainted with the fact,
+being familiar with the leading events in Roman history. But when I
+began, he knew not from what portion of history, sacred or profane,
+ancient or modern, the fact was selected. From this wide range, my
+delineation on the one hand and his ingenuity on the other had to
+bring it within the division of Roman history, and, still more minutely,
+to the particular individual and transaction designated by Colonel
+Trumbull.
+In carrying on the process, I made no use whatever of any arbitrary,
+conventional look, motion, or attitude, before settled between us,
+by which to let him understand what I wished to communicate, with the
+exception of a single one, if, indeed, it ought to be considered such.</p>
+
+<p>"The usual sign, at that time, among the teachers and pupils, for a
+Roman, was portraying an aquiline nose by placing the forefinger,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>[pg 272]</span>
+crooked, in front of the nose. As I was prevented from using my finger
+in this way, and having considerable command over the muscles of my
+face, I endeavored to give my nose as much of the aquiline form as
+possible, and succeeded well enough for my purpose....</p>
+
+<p>"The outlines of the process were the following:</p>
+
+<p>"A stretching and stretching gaze eastward, with an undulating
+motion of the head, as if looking across and beyond the Atlantic Ocean,
+to denote that the event happened, not on the western, but eastern
+continent. This was making a little progress, as it took the subject out
+of the range of American history.</p>
+
+<p>"A turning of the eyes upward and backward, with frequently-repeated
+motions of the head backward, as if looking a great way back in past
+time, to denote that the event was one of ancient date.</p>
+
+<p>"The aquiline shape of the nose, already referred to, indicating that
+a Roman was the person concerned. It was, of course, an old Roman.</p>
+
+<p>"Portraying, as well as I could, by my countenance, attitude, and
+manner an individual high in authority, and commanding others, as if he
+expected to be obeyed.</p>
+
+<p>"Looking and acting as if I were giving out a specific order to many
+persons, and threatening punishment on those who should resist my
+authority, even the punishment of death.</p>
+
+<p>"Here was a pause in the progress of events, which I denoted by
+sleeping as it were during the night and awakening in the morning,
+and doing this several times, to signify that several days had elapsed.</p>
+
+<p>"Looking with deep interest and surprise, as if at a single person
+brought and standing before me, with an expression of countenance
+indicating
+that he had violated the order which I had given, and that I
+knew it. Then looking in the same way at another person near him as
+also guilty. Two offending persons were thus denoted.</p>
+
+<p>"Exhibiting serious deliberation, then hesitation, accompanied with
+strong conflicting emotions, producing perturbation, as if I knew not how
+to feel or what to do.</p>
+
+<p>"Looking first at one of the persons before me, and then at the other,
+and then at both together, <i>as a father would look</i>, indicating his
+distressful parental feelings under such afflicting circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>"Composing my feelings, showing that a change was coming over
+me, and exhibiting towards the imaginary persons before me the decided
+look of the inflexible commander, who was determined and ready to
+order them away to execution. Looking and acting as if the tender and
+forgiving feelings of <i>the father</i> had again got the ascendency, and
+as if I was about to relent and pardon them.</p>
+
+<p>"These alternating states of mind I portrayed several times, to make
+my representations the more graphic and impressive.</p>
+
+<p>"At length the father yields, and the stern principle of justice, as
+expressed in my countenance and manners, prevails. My look and action
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>[pg 273]</span>
+denote the passing of the sentence of death on the offenders, and the
+ordering them away to execution.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>"He quickly turned round to his slate and wrote a correct and complete
+account of this story of Brutus and his two sons."</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>While it appears that the expressions of the features are not confined
+to the emotions or to distinguishing synonyms, it must be remembered that
+the meaning of the same motion of hands, arms, and fingers is often
+modified, individualized, or accentuated by associated facial changes
+and postures of the body not essential to the sign, which emotional
+changes and postures are at once the most difficult to describe and the
+most interesting when intelligently reported, not only because they infuse
+life into the skeleton sign, but because they may belong to the class
+of innate expressions.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THE ORIGIN OF SIGN LANGUAGE.</h2>
+
+<p>In observing the maxim that nothing can be thoroughly understood unless
+its beginning is known, it becomes necessary to examine into the origin
+of sign language through its connection with that of oral speech. In
+this examination it is essential to be free from the vague popular
+impression
+that some oral language, of the general character of that now
+used among mankind, is "natural" to mankind. It will be admitted on
+reflection that all oral languages were at some past time far less
+serviceable
+to those using them than they are now, and as each particular language
+has been thoroughly studied it has become evident that it grew
+out of some other and less advanced form. In the investigation of these
+old forms it has been so difficult to ascertain how any of them first
+became a useful instrument of inter-communication that many conflicting
+theories on this subject have been advocated.</p>
+
+<p>Oral language consists of variations and mutations of vocal sounds
+produced as signs of thought and emotion. But it is not enough that
+those signs should be available as the vehicle of the producer's own
+thoughts. They must be also efficient for the communication of such
+thoughts to others. It has been, until of late years, generally held that
+thought was not possible without oral language, and that, as man was
+supposed to have possessed from the first the power of thought, he also
+from the first possessed and used oral language substantially as at
+present. That the latter, as a special faculty, formed the main distinction
+between man and the brutes has been and still is the prevailing
+doctrine. In a lecture delivered before the British Association in 1878 it
+was declared that "animal intelligence is unable to elaborate that class of
+abstract ideas, the formation of which depends upon the faculty of
+speech." If instead of "speech" the word "utterance" had been used,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>[pg 274]</span>
+as including all possible modes of intelligent communication, the statement
+might pass without criticism. But it may be doubted if there is
+any more necessary connection between abstract ideas and sounds, the
+mere signs of thought, that strike the ear, than there is between the same
+ideas and signs addressed only to the eye.</p>
+
+<p>The point most debated for centuries has been, not whether there was
+any primitive oral language, but what that language was. Some literalists
+have indeed argued from the Mosaic narrative that because the
+Creator, by one supernatural act, with the express purpose to form separate
+peoples, had divided all tongues into their present varieties, and
+could, by another similar exercise of power, obliterate all but one which
+should be universal, the fact that he had not exercised that power showed
+it not to be his will that any man to whom a particular speech had been
+given should hold intercourse with another miraculously set apart from
+him by a different speech. By this reasoning, if the study of a foreign
+tongue was not impious, it was at least clear that the primitive language
+had been taken away as a disciplinary punishment, as the Paradisiac Eden
+had been earlier lost, and that, therefore, the search for it was as
+fruitless as to attempt the passage of the flaming sword. More liberal Christians
+have been disposed to regard the Babel story as allegorical, if not
+mythical, and have considered it to represent the disintegration of tongues
+out of one which was primitive. In accordance with the advance of
+linguistic science they have successively shifted back the postulated
+primitive tongue from Hebrew to Sanscrit, then to Aryan, and now seek
+to evoke from the vasty deeps of antiquity the ghosts of other rival
+claimants for precedence in dissolution. As, however, the languages of
+man are now recognized as extremely numerous, and as the very sounds
+of which these several languages are composed are so different that the
+speakers of some are unable to distinguish with the ear certain sounds in
+others, still less able to reproduce them, the search for one common parent
+language is more difficult than was supposed by medi&#230;val ignorance.</p>
+
+<p>The discussion is now, however, varied by the suggested possibility
+that man at some time may have existed without any oral language.
+It is conceded by some writers that mental images or representations
+can be formed without any connection with sound, and may at least
+serve for thought, though not for expression. It is certain that concepts,
+however formed, can be expressed by other means than sound.
+One mode of this expression is by gesture, and there is less reason to
+believe
+that gestures commenced as the interpretation of, or substitute for words
+than that the latter originated in, and served to translate gestures. Many
+arguments have been advanced to prove that gesture language preceded
+articulate speech and formed the earliest attempt at communication,
+resulting from the interacting subjective and objective conditions to which
+primitive man was exposed. Some of the facts on which deductions have
+been based, made in accordance with well-established modes of scientific
+research from study of the lower animals, children, idiots, the lower types
+of mankind, and deaf-mutes, will be briefly mentioned.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>[pg 275]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>GESTURES OF THE LOWER ANIMALS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Emotional expression in the features of man is to be considered in
+reference to the fact that the special senses either have their seat in, or
+are in close relation to the face, and that so large a number of nerves
+pass to it from the brain. The same is true of the lower animals, so that
+it would be inferred, as is the case, that the faces of those animals are
+also expressive of emotion. There is also noticed among them an exhibition
+of emotion by corporeal action. This is the class of gestures common
+to them with the earliest made by man, as above mentioned, and it
+is reasonable to suppose that those were made by man at the time when,
+if ever, he was, like the animals, destitute of articulate speech. The
+articulate cries uttered by some animals, especially some birds, are
+interesting
+as connected with the principle of imitation to which languages in
+part owe their origin, but in the cases of forced imitation, the mere
+acquisition
+of a vocal trick, they only serve to illustrate that power of imitation,
+and are without significance. Sterne's starling, after his cage had
+been opened, would have continued to complain that he could not get out.
+If the bird had uttered an instinctive cry of distress when in confinement
+and a note of joy on release, there would have been a nearer approach
+to language than if it had clearly pronounced many sentences. Such
+notes and cries of animals, many of which are connected with reproduction
+and nutrition, are well worth more consideration than can now be
+given, but regarding them generally it is to be questioned if they are so
+expressive as the gestures of the same animals. It is contended that
+the bark of a dog is distinguishable into fear, defiance, invitation, and
+a note of warning, but it also appears that those notes have been known
+only since the animal has been domesticated. The gestures of the dog
+are far more readily distinguished than his bark, as in his preparing
+for attack, or caressing his master, resenting an injury, begging for food,
+or simply soliciting attention. The chief modern use of his tail appears
+to be to express his ideas and sensations. But some recent experiments
+of Prof. <span class="sc">A. Graham Bell</span>, no less eminent from his work in artificial
+speech than in telephones, shows that animals are more physically capable
+of pronouncing articulate sounds than has been supposed. He informed
+the writer that he recently succeeded by manipulation in causing
+an English terrier to form a number of the sounds of our letters, and
+particularly brought out from it the words "How are you, Grandmamma?"
+with distinctness. This tends to prove that only absence of
+brain power has kept animals from acquiring true speech. The remarkable
+vocal instrument of the parrot could be used in significance as well
+as in imitation, if its brain had been developed beyond the point of
+expression by gesture, in which latter the bird is expert.</p>
+
+<p>The gestures of monkeys, whose hands and arms can be used, are nearly
+akin to ours. Insects communicate with each other almost entirely by
+means of the antenn&#230;. Animals in general which, though not deaf, can
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>[pg 276]</span>
+not be taught by sound, frequently have been by signs, and probably
+all of them understand man's gestures better than his speech. They
+exhibit signs to one another with obvious intention, and they also have
+often invented them as a means of obtaining their wants from man.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>GESTURES OF YOUNG CHILDREN.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The wishes and emotions of very young children are conveyed in a
+small number of sounds, but in a great variety of gestures and facial
+expressions. A child's gestures are intelligent long in advance of speech;
+although very early and persistent attempts are made to give it instruction
+in the latter but none in the former, from the time when it begins
+<i>risu cognoscere matrem</i>. It learns words only as they are taught, and
+learns them through the medium of signs which are not expressly taught.
+Long after familiarity with speech, it consults the gestures and facial
+expressions of its parents and nurses as if seeking thus to translate or
+explain their words. These facts are important in reference to the
+biologic law that the order of development of the individual is the same
+as that of the species.</p>
+
+<p>Among the instances of gestures common to children throughout the
+world is that of protruding the lips, or pouting, when somewhat angry
+or sulky. The same gesture is now made by the anthropoid apes and is
+found strongly marked in the savage tribes of man. It is noticed by
+evolutionists that animals retain during early youth, and subsequently
+lose, characters once possessed by their progenitors when adult, and still
+retained by distinct species nearly related to them.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is not, however, to be ignored that children invent words as
+well as signs with as natural an origin for the one as for the other. An
+interesting case was furnished to the writer by Prof. <span class="sc">Bell</span> of an infant
+boy who used a combination of sounds given as "nyum-nyum," an evident
+onomatope of gustation, to mean "good," and not only in reference to
+articles of food relished but as applied to persons of whom the child was
+fond, rather in the abstract idea of "niceness" in general. It is a
+singular
+coincidence that a bright young girl, a friend of the writer, in a letter
+describing a juvenile feast, invented the same expression, with nearly the
+same spelling, as characteristic of her sensations regarding the delicacies
+provided. The Papuans met by Dr. Comrie also called "eating" <i>nam-nam</i>.
+But the evidence of all such cases of the voluntary use of articulate
+speech by young children is qualified by the fact that it has been
+inherited from very many generations, if not quite so long as the faculty
+of gesture.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>GESTURES IN MENTAL DISORDER.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The insane understand and obey gestures when they have no knowledge
+whatever of words. It is also found that semi-idiotic children who
+cannot be taught more than the merest rudiments of speech, can receive
+a considerable amount of information through signs, and can express
+themselves by them. Sufferers from aphasia continue to use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>[pg 277]</span>
+appropriate gestures after their words have become uncontrollable. It is
+further noticeable in them that mere ejaculations, or sounds which are only
+the result of a state of feeling, instead of a desire to express thought,
+are generally articulated with accuracy. Patients who have been in
+the habit of swearing preserve their fluency in that division of their
+vocabulary.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>UNINSTRUCTED DEAF-MUTES.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The signs made by congenital and uninstructed deaf-mutes to be now
+considered are either strictly natural signs, invented by themselves, or
+those of a colloquial character used by such mutes where associated.
+The accidental or merely suggestive signs peculiar to families, one member
+of which happens to be a mute, are too much affected by the other
+members of the family to be of certain value. Those, again, which are
+taught in institutions have become conventional and designedly adapted
+to translation into oral speech, although founded by the abb&#233; de l'&#201;p&#233;e,
+followed by the abb&#233; Sicard, in the natural signs first above mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>A great change has doubtless occurred in the estimation of congenital
+deaf-mutes since the Justinian Code, which consigned them forever
+to legal infancy, as incapable of intelligence, and classed them with the
+insane. Yet most modern writers, for instance Archbishop Whately and
+Max M&#252;ller, have declared that deaf-mutes could not think until after
+having been instructed. It cannot be denied that the deaf-mute thinks
+after his instruction either in the ordinary gesture signs or in the finger
+alphabet, or more lately in artificial speech. By this instruction he has
+become master of a highly-developed language, such as English or
+French, which he can read, write, and actually talk, but that foreign
+language he has obtained through the medium of signs. This is a conclusive
+proof that signs constitute a real language and one which admits
+of thought, for no one can learn a foreign language unless he had
+some language of his own, whether by descent or acquisition, by which
+it could be translated, and such translation into the new language could
+not even be commenced unless the mind had been already in action and
+intelligently using the original language for that purpose. In fact the
+use by deaf-mutes of signs originating in themselves exhibits a creative
+action of mind and innate faculty of expression beyond that of ordinary
+speakers who acquired language without conscious effort. The thanks
+of students, both of philology and psychology, are due to Prof. <span class="sc">Samuel
+Porter</span>, of the National Deaf Mute College, for his response to the
+question, "Is thought possible without language?" published in the
+<i>Princeton Review</i> for January, 1880.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the sounds uttered by deaf-mutes, the same explanation
+of heredity may be made as above, regarding the words invented
+by young children. Congenital deaf-mutes at first make the same
+sounds as hearing children of the same age, and, often being susceptible
+to vibrations of the air, are not suspected of being deaf. When that
+affliction is ascertained to exist, all oral utterances from the deaf-mute
+are habitually repressed by the parents.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>[pg 278]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>GESTURES OF THE BLIND.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The facial expressions and gestures of the congenitally blind are
+worthy of attention. The most interesting and conclusive examples
+come from the case of Laura Bridgman, who, being also deaf, could not
+possibly have derived them by imitation. When a letter from a beloved
+friend was communicated to her by gesture-language, she laughed and
+clapped her hands. A roguish expression was given to her face, concomitant
+with the emotion, by her holding the lower lip by the teeth.
+She blushed, shrugged her shoulders, turned in her elbows, and raised
+her eye-brows under the same circumstances as other people. In amazement,
+she rounded and protruded the lips, opened them, and breathed
+strongly. It is remarkable that she constantly accompanied her "yes"
+with the common affirmative nod, and her "no" with our negative shake
+of the head, as these gestures are by no means universal and do not
+seem clearly connected with emotion. This, possibly, may be explained
+by the fact that her ancestors for many generations had used
+these gestures. A similar curious instance is mentioned by Cardinal
+Wiseman (<i>Essays</i>, III, 547, <i>London</i>, 1853) of an Italian blind
+man, the
+appearance of whose eyes indicated that he had never enjoyed sight,
+and who yet made the same elaborate gestures made by the people with
+whom he lived, but which had been used by them immemorially, as
+correctly as if he had learned them by observation.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>LOSS OF SPEECH BY ISOLATION.</i></h3>
+
+<p>When human beings have been long in solitary confinement, been
+abandoned, or otherwise have become isolated from their fellows, they
+have lost speech either partially or entirely, and required to have it
+renewed
+through gestures. There are also several recorded cases of children,
+born with all their faculties, who, after having been lost or abandoned,
+have been afterwards found to have grown up possessed of acute hearing,
+but without anything like human speech. One of these was
+Peter, "the Wild Boy," who was found in the woods of Hanover in
+1726, and taken to England, where vain attempts were made to teach
+him language, though he lived to the age of seventy. Another was a
+boy of twelve, found in the forest of Aveyron, in France, about the
+beginning
+of this century, who was destitute of speech, and all efforts to
+teach him failed. Some of these cases are to be considered in connection
+with the general law of evolution, that in degeneration the last and
+highest acquirements are lost first. When in these the effort at acquiring
+or re-acquiring speech has been successful, it has been through gestures,
+in the same manner as missionaries, explorers, and shipwrecked
+mariners have become acquainted with tongues before unknown to themselves
+and sometimes to civilization. All persons in such circumstances
+are obliged to proceed by pointing to objects and making gesticulations,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>[pg 279]</span>
+at the same time observing what articulate sounds were associated with
+those motions by the persons addressed, and thus vocabularies and lists of
+phrases were formed.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>LOW TRIBES OF MAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Apart from the establishment of a systematic language of signs under
+special circumstances which have occasioned its development, the gestures
+of the lower tribes of men may be generally classed under the emotional or
+instinctive division, which can be correlated with those of the lower
+animals. This may be illustrated by the modes adopted to show friendship
+in salutation, taking the place of our shaking hands. Some Pacific
+Islanders used to show their joy at meeting friends by sniffing at them,
+after the style of well-disposed dogs. The Fuegians pat and slap each
+other, and some Polynesians stroke their own faces with the hand or foot of
+the friend. The practice of rubbing or pressing noses is very common. It
+has been noticed in the Lapland Alps, often in Africa, and in Australia the
+tips of the noses are pressed a long time, accompanied
+with grunts of satisfaction. Patting and stroking different parts of the
+body are still more frequent, and prevailed among the North American
+Indians, though with the latter the most common expression was hugging. In
+general, the civilities exchanged are similar to those of many animals.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>GESTURES AS AN OCCASIONAL RESOURCE.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Persons of limited vocabulary, whether foreigners to the tongue employed or
+native, but not accomplished in its use, even in the midst of a
+civilization where gestures are deprecated, when at fault for words resort
+instinctively to physical motions that are not wild nor meaningless, but
+picturesque and significant, though perhaps made by the gesturer for the
+first time. An
+uneducated laborer, if good-natured enough to be really desirous of
+responding to a request for information, when he has exhausted his scanty
+stock of words will eke them out by original gestures. While fully
+admitting the advice to Coriolanus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>Action is eloquence, and the eyes of the ignorant</p>
+<p>More learned than the ears&mdash;</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>it may be paraphrased to read that the hands of the ignorant are more
+learned than their tongues. A stammerer, too, works his arms and features
+as if determined to get his thoughts out, in a manner not only suggestive
+of the physical struggle, but of the use of gestures as a hereditary
+expedient.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>GESTURES OF FLUENT TALKERS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The same is true of the most fluent talkers on occasions when the exact
+vocal formula desired does not at once suggest itself, or is unsatisfactory
+without assistance from the physical machinery not embraced in the oral
+apparatus. The command of a copious vocabulary common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>[pg 280]</span>
+to both speaker and hearer undoubtedly tends to a phlegmatic delivery
+and disdain of subsidiary aid. An excited speaker will, however, generally
+make a free use of his hands without regard to any effect of that use
+upon auditors. Even among the gesture-hating English, when they are
+aroused from torpidity of manner, the hands are involuntarily clapped
+in approbation, rubbed with delight, wrung in distress, raised in
+astonishment,
+and waved in triumph. The fingers are snapped for contempt,
+the forefinger is vibrated to reprove or threaten, and the fist shaken in
+defiance. The brow is contracted with displeasure, and the eyes winked
+to show connivance. The shoulders are shrugged to express disbelief
+or repugnance, the eyebrows elevated with surprise, the lips bitten in
+vexation and thrust out in sullenness or displeasure, while a higher degree
+of anger is shown by a stamp of the foot. Quintilian, regarding
+the subject, however, not as involuntary exhibition of feeling and
+intellect,
+but for illustration and enforcement, becomes eloquent on the variety
+of motions of which the hands alone are capable, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The action of the other parts of the body assists the speaker, but
+the hands (I could almost say) speak themselves. By them do we not
+demand, promise, call, dismiss, threaten, supplicate, express abhorrence
+and terror, question and deny? Do we not by them express joy and
+sorrow, doubt, confession, repentance, measure, quantity, number, and
+time? Do they not also encourage, supplicate, restrain, convict, admire,
+respect? and in pointing out places and persons do they not discharge
+the office of adverbs and of pronouns?"</p>
+
+<p>Voss adopts almost the words of Quintilian, "<i>Manus non modo loquentem
+adjuvant, sed ips&#230; pene loqui videntur</i>," while Cresollius calls the
+hand "the minister of reason and wisdom ... without it there is
+no eloquence."</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>INVOLUNTARY RESPONSE TO GESTURES.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Further evidence of the unconscious survival of gesture language is
+afforded by the ready and involuntary response made in signs to signs
+when a man with the speech and habits of civilization is brought into
+close contact with Indians or deaf-mutes. Without having ever before
+seen or made one of their signs, he will soon not only catch the meaning
+of theirs, but produce his own, which they will likewise comprehend,
+the power seemingly remaining latent in him until called forth by
+necessity.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>NATURAL PANTOMIME.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the earliest part of man's history the subjects of his discourse must
+have been almost wholly sensuous, and therefore readily expressed in
+pantomime.
+Not only was pantomime sufficient for all the actual needs of
+his existence, but it is not easy to imagine how he could have used
+language
+such as is now known to us. If the best English dictionary and
+grammar had been miraculously furnished to him, together with the art
+of reading with proper pronunciation, the gift would have been valueless,
+because the ideas expressed by the words had not yet been formed.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>[pg 281]</span>
+
+<p>That the early concepts were of a direct and material character is
+shown by what has been ascertained of the roots of language, and there
+does not appear to be much difficulty in expressing by other than vocal
+instrumentality all that could have been expressed by those roots.
+Even now, with our vastly increased belongings of external life,
+avocations,
+and habits, nearly all that is absolutely necessary for our physical
+needs can be expressed in pantomime. Far beyond the mere signs for
+eating, drinking, sleeping, and the like, any one will understand a
+skillful
+representation in signs of a tailor, shoemaker, blacksmith, weaver,
+sailor, farmer, or doctor. So of washing, dressing, shaving, walking,
+driving, writing, reading, churning, milking, boiling, roasting or frying,
+making bread or preparing coffee, shooting, fishing, rowing, sailing,
+sawing, planing, boring, and, in short, an endless list.</p>
+
+<p>Max M&#252;ller properly calls touch, scent, and taste the palaioteric, and
+sight and hearing the neoteric senses, the latter of which often require
+to be verified by the former. Touch is the lowest in specialization and
+development, and is considered to be the oldest of the senses, the others
+indeed being held by some writers to be only its modifications. Scent, of
+essential importance to many animals, has with man almost ceased to be
+of any, except in connection with taste, which he has developed to a high
+degree. Whether or not sight preceded hearing in order of development,
+it is difficult, in conjecturing the first attempts of man or his
+hypothetical
+ancestor at the expression either of percepts or concepts, to connect
+vocal sounds with any large number of objects, but it is readily
+conceivable
+that the characteristics of their forms and movements should have
+been suggested to the eye&mdash;fully exercised before the tongue&mdash;so soon
+as the arms and fingers became free for the requisite simulation or
+portrayal.
+There is little distinction between pantomime and a developed
+sign language, in which thought is transmitted rapidly and certainly
+from hand to eye as it is in oral speech from lips to ear; the former is,
+however, the parent of the latter, which is more abbreviated and less
+obvious. Pantomime acts movements, reproduces forms and positions,
+presents pictures, and manifests emotions with greater realization than
+any other mode of utterance. It may readily be supposed that a troglodyte
+man would desire to communicate the finding of a cave in the
+vicinity of a pure pool, circled with soft grass, and shaded by trees
+bearing
+edible fruit. No sound of nature is connected with any of those
+objects, but the position and size of the cave, its distance and direction,
+the water, its quality, and amount, the verdant circling carpet, and the
+kind and height of the trees could have been made known by pantomime
+in the days of the mammoth, if articulate speech had not then been
+established,
+as Indians or deaf-mutes now communicate similar information
+by the same agency.</p>
+
+<p>The proof of this fact, as regards deaf-mutes, will hardly be demanded,
+as their expressive pantomime has been so often witnessed. That of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>[pg 282]</span>
+the North American Indians, as distinct from the signs which are generally
+its abbreviations, has been frequently described in general terms,
+but it may be interesting to present two instances from remote localities.</p>
+
+<p>A Maricopa Indian, in the present limits of Arizona, was offered an
+advantageous trade for his horse, whereupon he stretched himself on
+his horse's neck, caressed it tenderly, at the same time shutting his
+eyes, meaning thereby that no offer could tempt him to part with his
+charger.</p>
+
+<p>An A-tco-m&#226;-wi or Pit River Indian, in Northeastern California, to
+explain the cause of his cheeks and forehead being covered with tar,
+represented
+a man falling, and, despite his efforts to save him, trembling,
+growing pale (pointing from his face to that of a white man), and sinking
+to sleep, his spirit winging its way to the skies, which he indicated by
+imitating with his hands the flight of a bird upwards, his body sleeping
+still upon the river bank, to which he pointed. The tar upon his face
+was thus shown to be his dress of mourning for a friend who had fallen
+and died.</p>
+
+<p>Several descriptions of pure pantomime, intermixed with the more
+conventionalized signs, will be found in the present paper. In especial,
+reference is made to the Address of Kin Ch&#275;-&#277;ss, N&#225;tci's
+Narrative, the Dialogue between Alaskan Indians, and Na-wa-gi-jig's Story.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>SOME THEORIES UPON PRIMITIVE LANGUAGE.</h2>
+
+<p>Cresollius, writing in 1620, was strongly in favor of giving precedence
+to gesture. He says, "Man, full of wisdom and divinity, could have
+appeared nothing superior to a naked trunk or block had he not been
+adorned with the hand as the interpreter and messenger of his thoughts."
+He quotes with approval the brother of St. Basil in declaring that had
+men been formed without hands they would never have been endowed
+with an articulate voice, and concludes: "Since, then, nature has furnished
+us with two instruments for the purpose of bringing into light
+and expressing the silent affections of the mind, language and the hand,
+it has been the opinion of learned and intelligent men that the former
+would be maimed and nearly useless without the latter; whereas the
+hand, without the aid of language, has produced many and wonderful effects."</p>
+
+<p>Rabelais, who incorporated into his satirical work much true learning
+and philosophy, makes his hero announce the following opinion:</p>
+
+<p>"Nothing less, quoth Pantagruel [Book iii, ch. xix], do I believe
+than that it is a mere abusing of our understandings to give credit to
+the words of those who say that there is any such thing as a natural
+language. All speeches have had their primary origin from the arbitrary
+institutions, accords, and agreements of nations in their respective
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>[pg 283]</span>
+condescendments to what should be noted and betokened by them. An articulate
+voice, according to the dialecticians, hath naturally no signification
+at all; for that the sense and meaning thereof did totally depend
+upon the good will and pleasure of the first deviser and imposer of it."</p>
+
+<p>Max M&#252;ller, following Professor Heyse, of Berlin, published an ingenious
+theory of primitive speech, to the effect that man had a creative
+faculty giving to each conception, as it thrilled through his brain for the
+first time, a special phonetic expression, which faculty became extinct
+when its necessity ceased. This theory, which makes each radical of
+language to be a phonetic type rung out from the organism of the first
+man or men when struck by an idea, has been happily named the "ding-dong"
+theory. It has been abandoned mainly through the destructive
+criticisms of Prof. <span class="sc">W.D. Whitney</span>, of Yale College. One lucid explanation
+by the latter should be specially noted: "A word is a combination
+of sounds which by a series of historical reasons has come to be accepted
+and understood in a certain community as the sign of a certain
+idea. As long as they so accept and understand it, it has existence;
+when everyone ceases to use and understand it, it ceases to exist."</p>
+
+<p>Several authors, among them Kaltschmidt, contend that there was but
+one primitive language, which was purely onomatop&oelig;ic, that is, imitative
+of natural sounds. This has been stigmatized as the "bow-wow"
+theory, but its advocates might derive an argument from the epithet
+itself, as not only our children, but the natives of Papua, call the dog a
+"bow-wow." They have, however, gone too far in attempting to trace
+back words in their shape as now existing to any natural sounds instead
+of confining that work to the roots from which the words have sprung.</p>
+
+<p>Another attempt has been made, represented by Professor Noir&#233;,
+to account for language by means of interjectional cries. This Max
+M&#252;ller revengefully styled the "pooh-pooh" theory. In it is included
+the rhythmical sounds which a body of men make seemingly by a common
+impulse when engaged in a common work, such as the cries of
+sailors when hauling on a rope or pulling an oar, or the yell of savages
+in an attack. It also derives an argument from the impulse of life by
+which the child shouts and the bird sings. There are, however, very few
+either words or roots of words which can be proved to have that derivation.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="sc">Sayce</span>, in his late work, <i>Introduction to the Science of
+Language, London</i>, 1880, gives the origin of language in gestures, in
+onomatop&oelig;ia, and to a limited extent in interjectional cries. He concludes
+it to be the ordinary theory of modern comparative philologists that all
+languages are traced back to a certain number of abstract roots, each of
+which was a sort of sentence in embryo, and while he does not admit
+this as usually presented, he believes that there was a time in the history
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>[pg 284]</span>
+of speech, when the articulate or semi-articulate sounds uttered by
+primitive men were made the significant representations of thought by the
+gestures with which they were accompanied. This statement is specially
+gratifying to the present writer as he had advanced much the same
+views in his first publication on the subject in the following paragraph,
+now reproduced with greater confidence:</p>
+
+<p>"From their own failures and discordancies, linguistic scholars have
+recently decided that both the 'bow-wow' and the 'ding-dong' theories
+are unsatisfactory; that the search for imitative, onomatop&oelig;ic, and
+directly expressive sounds to explain the origin of human speech has been
+too exclusive, and that many primordial roots of language have been
+founded in the involuntary sounds accompanying certain actions. As,
+however, the action was the essential, and the consequent or concomitant
+sound the accident, it would be expected that a representation or
+feigned reproduction of the action would have been used to express
+the idea before the sound associated with that action could have been
+separated from it. The visual onomatop&oelig;ia of gestures, which even
+yet have been subjected to but slight artificial corruption, would
+therefore serve as a key to the audible. It is also contended that in the
+pristine days, when the sounds of the only words yet formed had close
+connection with objects and the ideas directly derived from them, signs
+were as much more copious for communication than speech, as the sight
+embraces more and more distinct characteristics of objects than does the
+sense of hearing."</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>CONCLUSIONS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The preponderance of authority is in favor of the view that man, when
+in the possession of all his faculties, did not choose between voice and
+gesture, both being originally instinctive, as they both are now, and
+never, with those faculties, was in a state where the one was used to the
+absolute exclusion of the other. The long neglected work of Dalgarno,
+published in 1661, is now admitted to show wisdom when he says: "<i>non
+minus naturale fit homini communicare in</i> Figuris <i>quam</i> Sonis:
+<i>quorum
+utrumque dico homini</i> naturale." With the voice man at first imitated
+the few sounds of nature, while with gesture he exhibited actions, motions,
+positions, forms, dimensions, directions, and distances, and their
+derivatives. It would appear from this unequal division of capacity
+that oral speech remained rudimentary long after gesture had become
+an art. With the concession of all purely imitative sounds and of the
+spontaneous action of the vocal organs under excitement, it is still true
+that the connection between ideas and words generally depended upon
+a compact between the speaker and hearer which presupposes the existence
+of a prior mode of communication. That was probably by gesture,
+which, in the apposite phrase of Professor <span class="sc">Sayce</span>, "like the rope-bridges
+of the Himalayas or the Andes, formed the first rude means of
+communication between man and man." At the very least it may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>[pg 285]</span>
+gladly accepted provisionally as a clue leading out of the labyrinth of
+philologic confusion.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of the present paper there is, however, no need of an
+absolute decision upon the priority between communication of ideas by
+bodily motion and by vocal articulation. It is enough to admit that the
+connection between them was so early and intimate that gestures, in
+the wide sense indicated of presenting ideas under physical forms,
+had a direct formative effect upon many words; that they exhibit the
+earliest condition of the human mind; are traced from the remotest
+antiquity among all peoples possessing records; are generally prevalent
+in the savage stage of social evolution; survive agreeably in the scenic
+pantomime, and still adhere to the ordinary speech of civilized man by
+motions of the face, hands, head, and body, often involuntary, often
+purposely in illustration or for emphasis.</p>
+
+<p>It may be unnecessary to explain that none of the signs to be described,
+even those of present world-wide prevalence, are presented as
+precisely those of primitive man. Signs as well as words, animals,
+and plants have had their growth, development, and change, their births
+and deaths, and their struggle for existence with survival of the fittest.
+It is, however, thought probable from reasons hereinafter mentioned that
+their radicals can be ascertained with more precision than those of
+words.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>HISTORY OF GESTURE LANGUAGE.</h2>
+
+<p>There is ample evidence of record, besides that derived from other
+sources, that the systematic use of gesture speech was of great antiquity.
+Livy so declares, and Quintilian specifies that the "<i>lex gestus ... ab
+illis temporibus heroicis orta est</i>." Plato classed its practice
+among
+civil virtues, and Chrysippus gave it place among the proper education
+of freemen. Athen&#230;us tells that gestures were even reduced to distinct
+classification with appropriate terminology. The class suited to comedy
+was called Cordax, that to tragedy Eumelia, and that for satire Sicinnis,
+from the inventor Sicinnus. Bathyllus from these formed a fourth
+class, adapted to pantomime. This system appears to have been particularly
+applicable to theatrical performances. Quintilian, later, gave
+most elaborate rules for gestures in oratory, which are specially
+noticeable
+from the importance attached to the manner of disposing the
+fingers. He attributed to each particular disposition a significance or
+suitableness which are not now obvious. Some of them are retained by
+modern orators, but without the same, or indeed any, intentional meaning,
+and others are wholly disused.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig61.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig61.png" alt="Affirmation, approving. Old Roman" /></a>Fig. 61.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig62.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig62.png" alt="Approbation. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 62.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig63.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig63.png" alt="Affirmation, approbation. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 63.</div>
+
+<p>The value of these digital arrangements is, however, shown by their
+use among the modern Italians, to whom they have directly descended.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>[pg 286]</span>
+From many illustrations of this fact the following is selected. Fig. 61
+is copied from Austin's <i>Chironomia</i> as his graphic execution of the
+gesture described by Quintilian: "The fore
+finger of the right hand joining the middle
+of its nail to the extremity of its own
+thumb, and moderately extending the
+rest of the fingers, is graceful in <i>approving</i>."
+Fig. 62 is taken from De Jorio's
+plates and descriptions of the gestures
+among modern Neapolitans, with the same idea of approbation&mdash;"good."
+Both of these may be compared with Fig. 63, a common sign among the
+North American Indians to express affirmation and approbation. With
+the knowledge of these details it is possible to
+believe the story of Macrobius that Cicero used
+to vie with Roscius, the celebrated actor, as to
+which of them could express a sentiment in the
+greater variety of ways, the one by gesture and
+the other by speech, with the apparent result of
+victory to the actor who was so satisfied with the
+superiority of his art that he wrote a book on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Gestures were treated of with still more distinction as connected with
+pantomimic dances and representations. &#198;schylus appears to have
+brought theatrical gesture to a high degree of perfection, but Telestes, a
+dancer employed by him, introduced the dumb
+show, a dance without marked dancing steps, and
+subordinated to motions of the hands, arms, and
+body, which is dramatic pantomime. He was so
+great an artist, says Athen&#230;us, that when he represented
+the <i>Seven before Thebes</i> he rendered every
+circumstance manifest by his gestures alone. From
+Greece, or rather from Egypt, the art was brought to
+Rome, and in the reign of Augustus was the great
+delight of that Emperor and his friend M&#230;cenas.
+Bathyllus, of Alexandria, was the first to introduce
+it to the Roman public, but he had a dangerous rival in Pylades. The latter
+was magnificent, pathetic, and affecting, while Bathyllus was gay and
+sportive. All Rome was split into factions about their respective merits.
+Athen&#230;us speaks of a distinguished performer of his own time (he
+died A.D. 194) named Memphis, whom he calls the "dancing philosopher,"
+because he showed what the Pythagorean philosophy could do by
+exhibiting in silence everything with stronger evidence than they could
+who professed to teach the arts of language. In the reign of Nero, a
+celebrated
+pantomimist who had heard that the cynic philosopher Demetrius
+spoke of the art with contempt, prevailed upon him to witness
+his performance, with the result that the cynic, more and more astonished,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>[pg 287]</span>
+at last cried out aloud, "Man, I not only see, but I hear what you
+do, for to me you appear to speak with your hands!"</p>
+
+<p>Lucian, who narrates this in his work <i>De Saltatione</i>, gives another
+tribute to the talent of, perhaps, the same performer. A barbarian
+prince of Pontus (the story is told elsewhere of Tyridates, King of
+Armenia), having come to Rome to do homage to the Emperor Nero,
+and been taken to see the pantomimes, was asked on his departure by the
+Emperor what present he would have as a mark of his favor. The
+barbarian begged that he might have the principal pantomimist, and upon
+being asked why he made such an odd request, replied that he had
+many neighbors who spoke such various and discordant languages that
+he found it difficult to obtain any interpreter who could understand
+them or explain his commands; but if he had the dancer he could by
+his assistance easily make himself intelligible to all.</p>
+
+<p>While the general effect of these pantomimes is often mentioned,
+there remain but few detailed descriptions of them. Apuleius, however,
+in the tenth book of his <i>Metamorphosis</i> or "Golden Ass," gives
+sufficient
+details of the performance of the Judgment of Paris to show that it
+strongly resembled the best form of ballet opera known in modern times.
+These exhibitions were so greatly in favor that, according to Ammianus
+Marcellinus, there were in Rome in the year 190 six thousand persons
+devoted
+to the art, and that when a famine raged they were all kept in the
+city, though besides all the strangers all the philosophers were forced
+to leave. Their popularity continued until the sixth century, and it is
+evident from a decree of Charlemagne that they were not lost, or at least,
+had been revived in his time. Those of us who have enjoyed the performance
+of the original Ravel troupe will admit that the art still survives,
+though not with the magnificence or perfection, especially with
+reference to serious subjects, which it exhibited in the age of imperial
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Early and prominent among the post-classic works upon gesture is
+that of the venerable Bede (who flourished A.D. 672-735) <i>De Loquel&#226;
+per Gestum Digitorum, sive de Indigitatione</i>. So much discussion had
+indeed been carried on in reference to the use of signs for the desideratum
+of a universal mode of communication, which also was designed
+to be occult and mystic, that Rabelais, in the beginning of the sixteenth
+century, who, however satirical, never spent his force upon matters of
+little importance, devotes much attention to it. He makes his English
+philosopher, Thaumast "The Wonderful" declare, "I will dispute by
+signs only, without speaking, for the matters are so abstruse, hard, and
+arduous, that words proceeding from the mouth of man will never be
+sufficient for unfolding of them to my liking."</p>
+
+<p>The earliest contributions of practical value connected with the subject
+were made by George Dalgarno, of Aberdeen, in two works, one
+published in London, 1661, entitled <i>Ars Signorum, vulgo character
+universalis et lingua philosophica</i>, and the other printed at Oxford,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>[pg 288]</span>
+1680, entitled, <i>Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor</i>.
+He spent his life in obscurity, and his works, though he was incidentally
+mentioned by Leibnitz under the name of "M. Dalgarus," passed into
+oblivion. Yet he undoubtedly was the precursor of Bishop Wilkins in
+his <i>Essay toward a Real Character and a Philosophical Language</i>,
+published in London, 1668, though indeed the first idea was far older, it
+having been, as reported by Piso, the wish of Galen that some way
+might be found out to represent things by such peculiar signs and names
+as should express their natures. Dalgarno's ideas respecting the education
+of the dumb were also of the highest value, and though they were too
+refined and enlightened to be appreciated at the period when he wrote,
+they probably were used by Dr. Wallis if not by Sicard. Some of his
+thoughts should be quoted: "As I think the eye to be as docile as the ear;
+so neither see I any reason but the hand might be made as tractable an
+organ as the tongue; and as soon brought to form, if not fair, at least
+legible characters, as the tongue to imitate and echo back articulate
+sounds." A paragraph prophetic of the late success in educating blind
+deaf-mutes is as follows: "The soul can exert her powers by the ministry
+of any of the senses: and, therefore, when she is deprived of her
+principal secretaries, the eye and the ear, then she must be contented
+with the service of her lackeys and scullions, the other senses; which are
+no less true and faithful to their mistress than the eye and the ear; but
+not so quick for dispatch."</p>
+
+<p>In his division of the modes of "expressing the inward emotions by
+outward and sensible signs" he relegates to physiology cases "when
+the internal passions are expressed by such external signs as have a
+natural connection, by way of cause and effect, with the passion they
+discover, as laughing, weeping, frowning, &amp;c., and this way of
+interpretation
+being common to the brute with man belongs to natural philosophy.
+And because this goes not far enough to serve the rational soul,
+therefore, man has invented Sematology." This he divides into Pneumatology,
+interpretation by sounds conveyed through the ear; Schematology,
+by figures to the eye, and Haptology, by mutual contact, skin
+to skin. Schematology is itself divided into Typology or Grammatology,
+and Cheirology or Dactylology. The latter embraces "the transient
+motions of the fingers, which of all other ways of interpretation comes
+nearest to that of the tongue."</p>
+
+<p>As a phase in the practice of gestures in lieu of speech must be mentioned
+the code of the Cistercian monks, who were vowed to silence except
+in religious exercises. That they might literally observe their vows
+they were obliged to invent a system of communication by signs, a list
+of which is given by Leibnitz, but does not show much ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>A curious description of the speech of the early inhabitants of the
+world, given by Swedenborg in his <i>Arcana C&oelig;lestia</i>, published
+1749-1756,
+may be compared with the present exhibitions of deaf-mutes in institutions
+for their instruction. He says it was not articulate like the
+vocal speech of our time, but was tacit, being produced not by external
+respiration, but by internal. They were able to express their meaning
+by slight motions of the lips and corresponding changes of the face.</p>
+
+<p>Austin's comprehensive work, <i>Chironomia, or a Treatise on Rhetorical
+Delivery, London</i>, 1806, is a repertory of information for all writers
+on gesture, who have not always given credit to it, as well as on all
+branches of oratory. This has been freely used by the present writer, as
+has also the volume by the canon Andrea de Jorio, <i>La Mimica degli
+Antichi investigata nel Gestire Napoletano, Napoli</i>, 1832. The canon's
+chief object was to interpret the gestures of the ancients as shown in
+their works of art and described in their writings, by the modern
+gesticulations of the Neapolitans, and he has proved that the general
+system
+of gesture once prevailing in ancient Italy is substantially the same as
+now observed. With an understanding of the existing language of
+gesture the scenes on the most ancient Greek vases and reliefs obtain a
+new and interesting significance and form a connecting link between the
+present and prehistoric times. Two of De Jorio's plates are here
+reproduced,
+Figs. 64 and 67, with such explanation and further illustration
+as is required for the present subject.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig64.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig64.png" alt="Group. Old Greek" /></a>Fig. 64.&mdash;Group from an ancient Greek vase.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>[pg 289]</span>
+
+<p>The spirited figures upon the ancient vase, Fig. 64, are red upon a
+black ground and are described in the published account in French of
+the collection of Sir John Coghill, Bart., of which the following is a free
+translation:</p>
+
+<p>Dionysos or Bacchus is represented with a strong beard, his head girt
+with the credemnon, clothed in a long folded tunic, above which is an
+ample cloak, and holding a thyrsus. Under the form of a satyr, Comus,
+or the genius of the table, plays on the double flute and tries to excite
+to the dance two nymphs, the companions of Bacchus&mdash;Galen&#233;, Tranquility,
+and Eudia, Serenity. The first of them is dressed in a tunic, above which
+is a fawn skin, holding a tympanum or classic drum on which she is
+about to strike, while her companion marks the time by a snapping of
+the fingers, which custom the author of the catalogue wisely states is
+still kept up in Italy in the dance of the tarantella. The composition
+is said to express allegorically that pure and serene pleasures are
+benefits derived from the god of wine.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig65.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig65.png" alt="Negation. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 65.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig66.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig66.png" alt="Love. Modern Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 66.</div>
+
+<p>This is a fair example of the critical acumen of art-commentators.
+The gestures of the two nymphs are interesting, but on very slight
+examination it appears that those of Galen&#233; have nothing to do with
+beat of drum, nor have those of Eudia any connection with music,
+though it is not so clear what is the true subject under discussion.
+Aided, however, by the light of the modern sign language of Naples,
+there seems to be by no means serenity prevailing, but a quarrel between
+the ladies, on a special subject which is not necessarily pure. The
+nymph at the reader's left fixes her eyes upon her companion with her
+index in the same direction, clearly indicating, <i>thou.</i> That the
+address
+is reproachful is shown from her countenance, but with greater certainty
+from her attitude and the corresponding one of her companion, who raises
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>[pg 290]</span>
+both her hands in surprise accompanied with negation. The latter is
+expressed
+by the right hand raised toward the shoulder, with the palm opposed
+to the person to whom response is made. This is the rejection of the
+idea presented, and is expressed by some of our Indians, as shown in Fig.
+65. A sign of the Dakota tribe of Indians with the same signification is given
+in Fig. 270, page <a href="#page441">441</a>, <i>infra</i>. At the same
+time the upper part of the nymph's body is
+drawn backward as far as the preservation of
+equilibrium permits. So a reproach or accusation
+is made on the one part, and denied,
+whether truthfully or not, on the other. Its
+subject also may be ascertained. The left
+hand of Eudia is not mute; it is held towards
+her rival with the balls of the index and
+thumb united, the modern Neapolitan sign for <i>love</i>, which is drawn
+more clearly in Fig. 66. It is called the kissing of the thumb and finger, and
+there is ample authority to show that among the ancient classics it was
+a sign of marriage. St. Jerome, quoted by Vincenzo Requena, says:
+"<i>Nam et ipsa digitorum conjunctio, et quasi molli
+osculo se complectans et f&oelig;derans, maritum pingit
+et conjugem</i>;" and Apuleius clearly alludes to
+the same gesture as used in the adoration of Venus,
+by the words "<i>primore digito in erectum pollicem
+residente</i>." The gesture is one of the few
+out of the large number described in various parts
+of Rabelais' great work, the significance of which
+is explained. It is made by Naz-de-cabre or Goat's
+Nose (<i>Pantagruel</i>, Book III, Ch. XX), who lifted
+up into the air his left hand, the whole fingers
+whereof he retained fistways closed together, except the thumb and the
+forefinger, whose nails he softly joined and coupled to one another.
+"I understand, quoth Pantagruel, what he meaneth by that sign. It
+denotes marriage." The quarrel is thus established to be about love;
+and the fluting satyr seated between the two nymphs, behind whose back
+the accusation is furtively made by the jealous one, may well be the object
+concerning whom jealousy is manifested. Eudia therefore, instead of
+"serenely" marking time for a "tranquil" tympanist, appears to be crying,
+"Galen&#233;! you bad thing! you are having, or trying to have, an affair
+with my Comus!"&mdash;an accusation which this writer verily believes to
+have been just. The lady's attitude in affectation of surprised denial is
+not that of injured innocence.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig67.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig67.png" alt="Group. Old Greek" /></a>Fig. 67.&mdash;Group from a vase in the Homeric Gallery.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>[pg 291]</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig68.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig68.png" alt="Hesitation. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 68.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig69.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig69.png" alt="Wait. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 69.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 67, taken from a vase in the Homeric Gallery, is rich in natural
+gestures. Without them, from the costumes and attitudes it is easy to
+recognize the protagonist or principal actor in the group, and its general
+subject. The warrior goddess Athen&#233; stands forth in the midst of what
+appears to be a council of war. After the study of modern gesture
+speech, the votes of each member of the council, with the degree of
+positiveness
+or interest felt by each, can be ascertained. Athen&#233; in animated
+motion turns her eyes to the right, and extends her left arm and
+hand to the left, with her right hand brandishing a lance in the same
+direction, in which her feet show her to be ready to spring. She is urging
+the figures on her right to follow her at once to attempt
+some dangerous enterprise. Of these the elderly man, who is calmly seated,
+holds his right hand flat and reversed, and suspended slightly above his
+knee.
+This probably is the ending of the modern Neapolitan gesture, Fig. 68,
+which signifies hesitation, advice to pause
+before hasty action, "go slowly," and commences higher with a
+gentle wavering movement downward. This can be compared with
+the sign of some of our Indians, Fig. 69, for <i>wait! slowly!</i> The
+female figure at the left of the group, standing firmly and decidedly,
+raises her left hand directed to the goddess with the palm vertical. If
+this is supposed to be a stationary gesture it means, "<i>wait! stop!</i>"
+It may, however,
+be the commencement of the last mentioned gesture, "<i>go slow</i>."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:38%;"><a href="images/fig70.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig70.png" alt="Question, asking. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 70.</div>
+
+<p>Both of these members of the council advise delay and express doubt of the
+propriety of immediate action.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:53%;"><a href="images/fig71.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig71.png" alt="Tell me. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 71.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:27%;"><a href="images/fig72.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig72.png" alt="Interrogation. Australian" /></a>Fig. 72.</div>
+
+<p>The sitting warrior on the left of Athen&#233; presents his left hand flat
+and carried well up. This position, supposed to be stationary, now
+means to <i>ask, inquire</i>, and it may be that he inquires of the other
+veteran what reasons he can produce
+for his temporizing policy. This may be collated with the modern Neapolitan
+sign for <i>ask</i>, Fig. 70, and the common Indian sign for "<i>tell
+me!</i>" Fig. 71. In connection
+with this it is also interesting to compare the Australian sign for
+interrogation, Fig. 72, and also the Comanche Indian sign for <i>give
+me</i>, Fig. 301, page <a href="#page480">480</a>, <i>infra</i>. If, however, the artist had
+the intention to represent the flat hand as in motion
+from below upward, as is probable from the connection,
+the meaning is <i>much, greatly</i>. He strongly disapproves
+the counsel of the opposite side. Our Indians
+often express the idea of quantity, <i>much</i>, with
+the same conception of comparative height, by an upward motion of
+the extended palm, but with them the palm is held downward. The
+last figure to the right, by the action of his whole body, shows his rejection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>[pg 292]</span>
+of the proposed delay, and his right hand gives the modern sign of
+combined surprise and reproof.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:52%;"><a href="images/fig73.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig73.png" alt="Pulcinella" /></a>Fig. 73.</div>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note the similarity of the merely emotional gestures
+and attitudes of modern Italy with those of the classics. The Pulcinella,
+Fig. 73, for instance, drawn from life in the streets of Naples, has the
+same pliancy and <i>abandon</i> of the limbs as appears in the supposed
+foolish slaves of the Vatican Terence.</p>
+
+<p>In close connection with this branch of the study reference must be made
+to the gestures exhibited in the works of Italian art only modern
+in comparison with the high antiquity of their predecessors. A
+good instance is in the Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci, painted
+toward the close of the fifteenth century, and to the figure of Judas
+as there portrayed. The gospel denounces him as a thief, which
+is expressed in the painting by the hand extended and slightly
+curved; imitative of the pilferer's act in clutching and drawing toward
+him furtively the stolen object, and is the same gesture that
+now indicates <i>theft</i> in Naples, Fig. 74, and among some of the North
+American Indians, Fig. 75. The pictorial propriety of the sign is
+preserved by the apparent desire of the traitor to obtain the one
+white loaf of bread on the table
+(the remainder being of coarser quality) which lies near where his hand
+is tending. Raffaelle was equally particular in his exhibition of gesture
+language, even unto the minutest detail of the
+arrangement of the fingers. It is traditional
+that he sketched the Madonna's hands for the
+Spasimo di Sicilia in eleven different positions before he was satisfied.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:33%;"><a href="images/fig74.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig74.png" alt="Thief. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 74.</div>
+
+<p>No allusion to the bibliography of gesture
+speech, however slight, should close without
+including the works of Mgr. D. De Haerne, who
+has, as a member of the Belgian Chamber of
+Representatives, in addition to his rank in the Roman Catholic Church,
+been active in promoting the cause of education in general, and especially
+that of the deaf and dumb. His admirable treatise <i>The Natural
+Language of Signs</i> has been translated and is accessible to American
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>[pg 293]</span>
+readers in the <i>American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb</i>, 1875. In that
+valuable serial, conducted by Prof. <span class="sc">E.A. Fay</span>, of the National Deaf
+Mute College at Washington, and now in its twenty-sixth volume, a
+large amount of the current literature on the subject indicated by its
+title can be found.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/fig75.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig75.png" alt="Steal. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 75.</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>MODERN USE OF GESTURE SPEECH.</h2>
+
+<p>Dr. <span class="sc">Tylor</span> says (<i>Early History of Mankind</i>, 44): "We cannot lay down
+as a rule that gesticulation decreases as civilization advances, and say,
+for instance, that a Southern Frenchman, because his talk is illustrated
+with gestures as a book with pictures, is less civilized than a German
+or Englishman." This is true, and yet it is almost impossible for persons
+not accustomed to gestures to observe them without associating
+the idea of low culture. Thus in Mr. Darwin's summing up of those
+characteristics of the natives of Tierra del Fuego, which rendered it
+difficult to believe them to be fellow-creatures, he classes their "violent
+gestures" with their filthy and greasy skins, discordant voices, and
+hideous faces bedaubed with paint. This description is quoted by the Duke
+of Argyle in his <i>Unity of Nature</i> in approval of those
+characteristics as evidence, of the lowest condition of humanity.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not the power of the visible gesture relative to, and its
+influence upon the words of modern oral speech are in inverse proportion
+to the general culture, it seems established that they do not bear that or
+any constant proportion to the development of the several languages
+with which gesture is still more or less associated. The statement has
+frequently been made that gesture is yet to some highly-advanced languages
+a necessary modifying factor, and that only when a language has
+become so artificial as to be completely expressible in written
+signs&mdash;indeed,
+has been remodeled through their long familiar use&mdash;can the bodily
+signs be wholly dispensed with. The evidence for this statement is now
+doubted, and it is safer to affirm that a common use of gesture depends
+more upon the sociologic conditions of the speakers than upon the degree
+of copiousness of their oral speech.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>[pg 294]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>USE BY OTHER PEOPLES THAN NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The nearest approach to a general rule which it is now proposed to
+hazard is that where people speaking precisely the same dialect are
+not numerous, and are thrown into constant contact on equal terms
+with others of differing dialects and languages, gesture is necessarily
+resorted to for converse with the latter, and remains for an indefinite
+time
+as a habit or accomplishment among themselves, while large bodies enjoying
+common speech, and either isolated from foreigners, or, when in contact
+with them, so dominant as to compel the learning and adoption of
+their own tongue, become impassive in its delivery. The ungesturing
+English, long insular, and now rulers when spread over continents, may
+be compared with the profusely gesticulating Italians dwelling in a maze
+of dialects and subject for centuries either to foreign rule or to the
+influx
+of strangers on whom they depended. So common is the use of
+gestures in Italy, especially among the lower and uneducated classes,
+that utterance without them seems to be nearly impossible. The driver
+or boatman will often, on being addressed, involuntarily drop the reins
+or oars, at the risk of a serious accident, to respond with his arms and
+fingers in accompaniment of his tongue. Nor is the habit confined to
+the uneducated. King Ferdinand returning to Naples after the revolt
+of 1821, and finding that the boisterous multitude would not allow his
+voice to be heard, resorted successfully to a royal address in signs,
+giving
+reproaches, threats, admonitions, pardon, and dismissal, to the entire
+satisfaction of the assembled lazzaroni. The medium, though probably
+not the precise manner of its employment, recalls Lucan's account of
+the quieting of an older tumult&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p class="i10">tumultum</p>
+<p>Composuit vultu, dextraque silentia fecit.</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>This rivalry of Punch would, in London, have occasioned measureless
+ridicule and disgust. The difference in what is vaguely styled temperament
+does not wholly explain the contrast between the two peoples, for
+the performance was creditable both to the readiness of the King in an
+emergency and to the aptness of his people, the main distinction being
+that in Italy there was in 1821, and still is, a recognized and cultivated
+language of signs long disused in Great Britain. In seeking to account
+for this it will be remembered that the Italians have a more direct descent
+from the people who, as has been above shown, in classic times so long and
+lovingly cultivated gesture as a system. They have also had more generally
+before their eyes the artistic relics in which gestures have been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>It is a curious fact that some English writers, notably Addison
+(<i>Spectator</i>,
+407), have contended that it does not suit the genius of that nation
+to use gestures even in public speaking, against which doctrine Austin
+vigorously remonstrates. He says: "There may possibly be nations
+whose livelier feelings incline them more to gesticulation than is common
+among us, as there are also countries in which plants of excellent use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>[pg 295]</span>
+to man grow spontaneously; these, by care and culture, are found to thrive
+also in colder countries."</p>
+
+<p>It is in general to be remarked that as the number of dialects in any
+district decreases so will the gestures, though doubtless there is also
+weight in the fact not merely that a language has been reduced to
+and modified by writing, but that people who are accustomed generally
+to read and write, as are the English and Germans, will after a time
+think and talk as they write, and without the accompaniments still
+persistent
+among Hindus, Arabs, and the less literate of European nations.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that in the comparatively small island of Sicily gesture language
+has been maintained until the present time in a perfection not
+observed elsewhere in Europe must be considered in connection with the
+above remark on England's insularity, and it must also be admitted that
+several languages have prevailed in the latter, still leaving dialects.
+This
+apparent similarity of conditions renders the contrast as regards use of
+gestures more remarkable, yet there are some reasons for their persistence
+in Sicily which apply with greater force than to Great Britain. The
+explanation, through mere tradition, is that the common usage of signs
+dates from the time of Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, who prohibited
+meetings and conversation among his subjects, under the direst penalties,
+so that they adopted that expedient to hold communication. It would be
+more useful to consider the peculiar history of the island. The Sicanians
+being its aborigines it was colonized by Greeks, who, as the Romans
+asserted, were still more apt at gesture than themselves. This colonization
+was also by separate bands of adventurers from several different states of
+Greece, so that they started with dialects and did not unite in a common
+or national organization, the separate cities and their territories being
+governed
+by oligarchies or tyrants frequently at war with each other, until, in
+the fifth century B.C., the Carthaginians began to contribute a new
+admixture
+of language and blood, followed by Roman, Vandal, Gothic, Herulian,
+Arab, and Norman subjugation. Thus some of the conditions above suggested
+have existed in this case, but, whatever the explanation, the accounts
+given by travelers of the extent to which the language of signs has
+been used even during the present generation are so marvelous as to deserve
+quotation. The one selected is from the pen of Alexandre Dumas,
+who, it is to be hoped, did not carry his genius for romance into a
+professedly
+sober account of travel:</p>
+
+<p>"In the intervals of the acts of the opera I saw lively conversations
+carried on between the orchestra and the boxes. Arami, in particular,
+recognized a friend whom he had not seen for three years, and who related
+to him, by means of his eyes and his hands, what, to judge by the
+eager gestures of my companion, must have been matters of great interest.
+The conversation ended, I asked him if I might know without impropriety
+what was the intelligence which had seemed to interest him so
+deeply. 'O, yes,' he replied, 'that person is one of my good friends, who
+has been away from Palermo for three years, and he has been telling
+me that he was married at Naples; then traveled with his wife in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>[pg 296]</span>
+Austria and in France; there his wife gave birth to a daughter, whom
+he had the misfortune to lose; he arrived by steamboat yesterday, but
+his wife had suffered so much from sea-sickness that she kept her bed,
+and he came alone to the play.' 'My dear friend,' said I to Arami, 'if
+you would have me believe you, you must grant me a favor.' 'What is
+it?' said he. 'It is, that you do not leave me during the evening, so
+that I may be sure you give no instructions to your friend, and when
+we join him, that you ask him to repeat aloud what he said to you by
+signs.' 'That I will,' said Arami. The curtain then rose; the second
+act of Norma was played; the curtain falling, and the actors being
+recalled, as usual, we went to the side-room, where we met the traveler.
+'My dear friend,' said Arami, 'I did not perfectly comprehend what you
+wanted to tell me; be so good as to repeat it.' The traveler repeated
+the story word for word, and without varying a syllable from the
+translation, which Arami had made of his signs; it was marvelous indeed.</p>
+
+<p>"Six weeks after this, I saw a second example of this faculty of mute
+communication. This was at Naples. I was walking with a young
+man of Syracuse. We passed by a sentinel. The soldier and my companion
+exchanged two or three grimaces, which at another time I should
+not even have noticed, but the instances I had before seen led me to
+give attention. 'Poor fellow,' sighed my companion. 'What did he
+say to you?' I asked. 'Well,' said he, 'I thought that I recognized him
+as a Sicilian, and I learned from him, as we passed, from what place he
+came; he said he was from Syracuse, and that he knew me well. Then I
+asked him how he liked the Neapolitan service; he said he did not like it
+at all, and if his officers did not treat him better he should certainly
+finish by
+deserting. I then signified to him that if he ever should be reduced to
+that extremity, he might rely upon me, and that I would aid him all in
+my power. The poor fellow thanked me with all his heart, and I have
+no doubt that one day or other I shall see him come.' Three days after,
+I was at the quarters of my Syracusan friend, when he was told that a
+man asked to see him who would not give his name; he went out and
+left me nearly ten minutes. 'Well,' said he, on returning, 'just as I
+said.' 'What?' said I. 'That the poor fellow would desert.'"</p>
+
+<p>After this there is an excuse for believing the tradition that the
+revolt called "the Sicilian Vespers," in 1282, was arranged throughout
+the island without the use of a syllable, and even the day and hour for
+the massacre of the obnoxious foreigners fixed upon by signs only. Indeed,
+the popular story goes so far as to assert that all this was done by
+facial expression, without even manual signs.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NEAPOLITAN SIGNS.</h4>
+
+<p>It is fortunately possible to produce some illustrations of the modern
+Neapolitan sign language traced from the plates of De Jorio, with
+translations, somewhat condensed, of his descriptions and remarks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig76.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig76.png" alt="Public writer. Neapolitan group" /></a>Fig. 76.&mdash;Neapolitan public letter-writer and clients.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig77.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig77.png" alt="Money. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 77.</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 76 an ambulant secretary or public writer is seated at his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>[pg 297]</span>
+little table, on which are the meager tools of his trade. He wears
+spectacles in token that he has read and written much, and has one seat at
+his side to accommodate his customers. On this is seated a married
+woman who asks him to write a letter to her absent husband. The
+secretary, not being told what to write about, without surprise, but somewhat
+amused, raises his left hand with the ends of the thumb and finger
+joined, the other fingers naturally open, a common sign for <i>inquiry</i>.
+"What shall the letter be about?" The wife, not being ready of speech,
+to rid herself of the embarrassment, resorts to the mimic art, and, without
+opening her mouth, tells with simple gestures all that is in her mind.
+Bringing her right hand to her heart, with a corresponding glance of the
+eyes she shows that the theme is to be <i>love</i>. For emphasis also she
+curves the whole upper part of her body towards him, to exhibit the
+intensity
+of her passion. To complete the mimic story, she makes with her
+left hand the sign of <i>asking</i> for something, which has been above
+described
+(see page <a href="#page291">291</a>). The letter, then, is to assure her husband of her
+love and to beg him to return it with corresponding affection. The other
+woman, perhaps her sister, who has understood the whole direction, regards
+the request as silly and fruitless and is much disgusted. Being
+on her feet, she takes a step toward the wife, who she thinks is unadvised,
+and raises her left hand with a sign of disapprobation. This position of
+the hand is described in full as open, raised high, and oscillated from
+right to left. Several of the Indian signs have the
+same idea of oscillation of the hand raised,
+often near the head, to express <i>folly, fool</i>.
+She clearly says, "What a thing to ask!
+what a fool you are!" and at the same time
+makes with the right hand the sign of <i>money</i>.
+This is made by the extremities of the thumb
+and index rapidly rubbed against each other,
+and is shown more clearly in Fig. 77. It is taken from the handling and
+counting of coin. This may be compared with an Indian sign, see Fig.
+115, page <a href="#page344">344</a>.</p>
+
+<p>So the sister is clearly disapproving with her left hand and with her
+right giving good counsel, as if to say, in the combination, "What a
+fool you are to ask for his love; you had better ask him to send you
+some money."</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig78.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig78.png" alt="&quot;Hot Corn.&quot; Neapolitan Group" /></a>Fig. 78.&mdash;Neapolitan hot-corn vender.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig79.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig79.png" alt="&quot;Horn&quot; sign. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 79.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig80.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig80.png" alt="Reproach. Old Roman" /></a>Fig. 80.</div>
+
+<p>In Naples, as in American cities, boiled ears of green corn are vended
+with much outcry. Fig. 78 shows a boy who is attracted by the local
+cry "<i>Pollanchelle tenerelle!</i>" and seeing the sweet golden ears still
+boiling in the kettle from which steams forth fragrance, has an ardent desire
+to taste the same, but is without a <i>soldo</i>. He tries begging. His
+right open hand is advanced toward the desired object with the sign of
+<i>asking</i>
+or <i>begging</i>, and he also raises his left forefinger to indicate the
+number one&mdash;"Pretty girl, please only give me one!" The pretty girl is by no
+means cajoled, and while her left hand holds the ladle ready to use if he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>[pg 298]</span>
+dares to touch her merchandise, she replies by gesture "<i>Te voglio d&#224; no
+cuorno!</i>" freely translated, "I'll give you one <i>in a horn!</i>" This
+gesture is drawn, with clearer outline in Fig. 79, and has many
+significations, according to the subject-matter and context, and also as
+applied to different parts of the body. Applied to the head it has
+allusion, descending from high antiquity, to a marital misfortune
+which was probably common in prehistoric
+times as well as the present. It is also
+often used as an amulet against the <i>jettatura</i>
+or evil eye, and misfortune in general, and directed toward another person
+is a prayerful wish for his or her preservation from evil. This use
+is ancient, as is shown on medals and statues, and is supposed by some
+to refer to the horns of animals slaughtered in sacrifice. The position
+of the fingers, Fig. 80, is also given as
+one of Quintilian's oratorical gestures
+by the words "<i>Duo quoque medii sub
+pollicem veniunt</i>," and is said by him to
+be vehement and connected with reproach
+or argument. In the present case, as a response to an impertinent
+or disagreeable petition, it simply means, "instead of giving what you
+ask, I will give you nothing but what is vile and useless, as horns are."</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>Fig. 81 tells a story which is substantially the foundation of the slender
+plot of most modern scenic pantomimes preliminary to the bursting
+forth from their chrysalides of Harlequin, Columbine, Pantaloon, and
+company. A young girl, with the consent of her parents, has for some
+time promised her hand to an honest youth. The old mother, in despite
+of her word, has taken a caprice to give her daughter to another suitor.
+The father, though much under the sway of his spouse, is in his heart
+desirous to keep his engagement, and has called in the notary to draw
+the contract. At this moment the scene begins, the actors of which, for
+greater perspicuity and brevity, may be provided with stage names as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>Cecca, diminutive for Francisca, the mother of&mdash;</p>
+<p>Nanella, diminutive of Antoniella, the betrothed of&mdash;</p>
+<p>Peppino, diminutive of Peppe, which is diminutive of Giuseppe.</p>
+<p>Pasquale, husband of Cecca and father of Nanella.</p>
+<p>Tonno, diminutive of Antonio, favored by Cecca.</p>
+<p>D. Alfonso, notary.</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig81.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig81.png" alt="Marriage contract. Neapolitan group" /></a>Fig. 81.&mdash;Disturbance at signing of Neapolitan marriage contract.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig82.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig82.png" alt="Negation. Pai-Ute sign" /></a>Fig. 82.</div>
+
+<p>Cecca tries to pick a quarrel with Peppino, and declares that the contract
+shall not be signed. He reminds her of her promise, and accuses
+her of breach of faith. In her passion she calls on her daughter to
+repudiate
+her lover, and casting her arms around her, commands her to
+make the sign of breaking off friendship&mdash;"<i>scocchiare</i>"&mdash;which, she
+has herself made to Peppino, and which consists in extending the hand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>[pg 299]</span>
+with the joined ends of finger and thumb before described, see Fig. 66,
+and then separating them, thus breaking the union. This the latter
+reluctantly
+pretends to do with one hand, yet with the other, which is concealed
+from her irate mother's sight, shows her constancy by continuing
+with emphatic pressure the sign of <i>love</i>. According to the gesture
+vocabulary,
+on the sign <i>scocchiare</i> being made to a person who is willing to
+accept the breach of former affection, he replies in the same manner, or
+still more forcibly by inserting the index of the other hand between
+the index and thumb of the first, thus showing the separation by the
+presence of a material obstacle. Simply refraining from holding out the
+hand in any responsive gesture is sufficient to indicate that the breach
+is not accepted, but that the party addressed desires to continue in
+friendship instead of resolving into enmity. This weak and inactive
+negative, however, does not suit Peppino's vivacity, who, placing his
+left hand on his bosom, makes, with his right, one of the signs for
+emphatic
+negation. This consists of the palm turned to the person addressed
+with the index somewhat extended and separated from the other
+fingers, the whole hand being oscillated from right to left.
+This gesture appears on ancient Greek vases, and is compound,
+the index being demonstrative and the negation
+shown by the horizontal oscillation, the whole being translatable
+as, "That thing I want not, won't have, reject."
+The sign is virtually the same as that made by Arapaho
+and Cheyenne Indians (see <span class="sc">Extracts from Dictionary</span>,
+page <a href="#page440">440</a>, <i>infra</i>.). The conception of oscillation to
+show negation also appears with different execution in the
+sign of the Jicarilla Apaches and the Pai-Utes, Fig. 82.
+The same sign is reported from Japan, in the same sense.</p>
+
+<p>Tonno, in hopes that the quarrel is definitive, to do his part in stopping
+the ceremony, proceeds to blow out the three lighted candles, which
+are an important traditional feature of the rite. The good old man
+Pasquale,
+with his hands extended, raised in surprised displeasure and
+directed toward the insolent youth, stops his attempt. The veteran
+notary, familiar with such quarrels in his experience, smiles at this one,
+and, continuing in his quiet attitude, extends his right hand placidly to
+Peppino with the sign of <i>adagio</i>, before described, see Fig. 68,
+advising
+him not to get excited, but to persist quietly, and all would be well.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig83.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig83.png" alt="Coming home of bride. Neapolitan group" /></a>Fig. 83.&mdash;Coming home of Neapolitan bride.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 83 portrays the first entrance of a bride to her husband's house.
+She comes in with a tender and languid mien, her pendent arms indicating
+soft yielding, and the right hand loosely holds a handkerchief, ready
+to apply in case of overpowering emotion. She is, or feigns to be, so
+timid and embarrassed as to require support by the arm of a friend who
+introduces her. She is followed by a male friend of the family, whose
+joyful face is turned toward supposed by-standers, right hand pointing
+to the new acquisition, while with his left he makes the sign of horns
+before described, see Fig. 79, which in this connection is to wish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>[pg 300]</span>
+prosperity and avert misfortune, and is equivalent to the words in the
+Neapolitan
+dialect, "<i>Mal'uocchie non nce pozzano</i>"&mdash;may evil eyes never have
+power over her.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig84.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig84.png" alt="Pretty. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 84.</div>
+
+<p>The female confidant, who supports and guides her embarrassed friend
+with her right arm, brings her left hand into the sign of
+<i>beautiful</i>&mdash;"See
+what a beauty she is!" This sign is made by the thumb and index open
+and severally lightly touching each side of the lower cheek, the other
+fingers open. It is given on a larger scale and slightly varied in Fig. 84,
+evidently referring to a fat and rounded visage. Almost
+the same sign is made by the Ojibwas of Lake Superior,
+and a mere variant of it is made by the Dakotas&mdash;stroking
+the cheeks alternately down to the tip
+of the chin with the palm or surface of the extended fingers.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig85.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig85.png" alt="&quot;Mano in fica.&quot; Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 85.</div>
+
+<p>The mother-in-law greets the bride by making the
+sign <i>mano in fica</i> with her right hand. This sign, made
+with the hand clenched and the point of the thumb between
+and projecting beyond the fore and middle fingers,
+is more distinctly shown in Fig. 85. It has a very
+ancient origin, being found on Greek antiques that have escaped the
+destruction of time, more particularly in bronzes, and undoubtedly refers
+to the <i>pudendum muliebre</i>. It is used offensively and ironically, but
+also&mdash;which is doubtless the case in this instance&mdash;as
+an invocation or prayer against evil, being more
+forcible than the horn-shaped gesture before described.
+With this sign the Indian sign for <i>female</i>,
+see Fig. 132, page <a href="#page357">357</a>, <i>infra</i>, may be compared.</p>
+
+<p>The mother-in-law also places her left hand hollowed
+in front of her abdomen, drawing with it her
+gown slightly forward, thereby making a pantomimic
+representation of the state in which "women wish to be who love
+their lords"; the idea being plainly an expressed hope that the household
+will be blessed with a new generation.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig86.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig86.png" alt="Snapping the fingers. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 86.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:18%;"><a href="images/fig87.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig87.png" alt="Joy, acclamation" /></a>Fig. 87.</div>
+
+<p>Next to her is a hunchback, who is present as a familiar clown or
+merrymaker, and dances and laughs to please the company,
+at the same time snapping his fingers. Two other
+illustrations of this action, the middle finger in one leaving
+and in the other having left the thumb and passed to its
+base, are seen in Figs. 86, 87. This gesture by itself has,
+like others mentioned, a great variety of significations,
+but here means <i>joy</i> and acclamation. It is
+frequently used among us for subdued applause,
+less violent than clapping the two
+hands, but still oftener to express negation
+with disdain, and also carelessness. Both these
+uses of it are common in Naples, and appear in Etruscan vases and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>[pg 301]</span>
+Pompeian paintings, as well as in the classic authors. The significance of
+the action in the hand of the contemporary statue of Sardanapalus at
+Anchiale
+is clearly <i>worthlessness</i>, as shown by the inscription in Assyrian,
+"Sardanapalus, the son of Anacyndaraxes, built in one day Anchiale
+and Tarsus. Eat, drink, play; the rest is not worth <i>that</i>!"</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig88.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig88.png" alt="Invitation to drink wine" /></a>Fig. 88.</div>
+
+<p>The bridegroom has left his mother to do the honors to the bride, and
+himself attends to the rest of the company, inviting one of them to
+drink some wine by a sign, enlarged in Fig. 88, which is not merely
+pointing to the mouth with the thumb, but the hand with
+the incurved fingers represents the body of the common
+glass flask which the Neapolitans use, the extended
+thumb being its neck; the invitation is therefore
+specially to drink wine. The guest, however,
+responds by a very obvious gesture that he don't wish
+anything to drink, but he would like to eat some
+macaroni, the fingers being disposed as if handling
+that comestible in the fashion of vulgar Italians. If
+the idea were only to eat generally, it would have
+been expressed by the fingers and thumb united in a point and moved
+several times near and toward the mouth, not raised above it, as is
+necessary for suspending the strings of macaroni.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig89.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig89.png" alt="Woman's quarrel. Neapolitan group" /></a>Fig. 89.&mdash;Quarrel between Neapolitan women.</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 89 the female in the left of the group is much disgusted at
+seeing one of her former acquaintances, who has met with good fortune,
+promenade in a fine costume with her husband. Overcome with jealousy,
+she spreads out her dress derisively on both sides, in imitation of the
+hoop-skirts once worn by women of rank, as if to say "So you are playing
+the great lady!" The insulted woman, in resentment, makes with both
+hands, for double effect, the sign of horns, before described, which in
+this
+case is done obviously in menace and imprecation. The husband is a
+pacific fellow who is not willing to get into a woman's quarrel, and is
+very
+easily held back by a woman and small boy who happen to join the group.
+He contents himself with pretending to be in a great passion and biting
+his finger, which gesture may be collated with the emotional clinching
+of the teeth and biting the lips in anger, common to all mankind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig90.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig90.png" alt="Chestnut vender" /></a>Fig. 90.&mdash;The cheating Neapolitan chestnut huckster.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig91.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig91.png" alt="Warning. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 91.</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 90 a contadina, or woman from the country, who has come to
+the city to sell eggs (shown to be such by her head-dress, and the form
+of the basket which she has deposited on the ground), accosts a vender
+of roast chestnuts and asks for a measure of them. The chestnut
+huckster says they are very fine and asks a price beyond that of the
+market; but a boy sees that the rustic woman is not sharp in worldly
+matters
+and desires to warn her against the cheat. He therefore, at the moment
+when he can catch her eye, pretending to lean upon his basket, and
+moving thus a little behind the huckster, so as not to be seen, points him
+out with his index finger, and lays his left forefinger under his eye,
+pulling
+down the skin slightly, so as to deform the regularity of the lower
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>[pg 302]</span>
+eyelid. This is a <i>warning against a cheat</i>, shown more clearly in
+Fig. 91.
+This sign primarily indicates a squinting person, and metaphorically one
+whose looks cannot be trusted, even as in a squinting
+person you cannot be certain in which direction he is looking.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig92.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig92.png" alt="Justice. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 92.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 92 shows the extremities of the index and thumb
+closely joined in form of a cone, and turned down, the
+other fingers held at pleasure, and the hand and arm
+advanced to the point and held steady. This signifies
+<i>justice</i>, a just person, that which is just and right. The
+same sign may denote friendship, a menace, which specifically is that of
+being brought to justice, and snuff, <i>i.e.</i> powdered tobacco; but the
+expression of the countenance and the circumstance of
+the use of the sign determine these distinctions.
+Its origin is clearly the balance or emblem of
+justice, the office of which consists in ascertaining
+physical weight, and thence comes the moral
+idea of distinguishing clearly what is just and
+accurate and what is not. The hand is presented in the usual manner
+of holding the balance to weigh articles.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:37%;"><a href="images/fig93.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig93.png" alt="Little. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 93.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:27%;"><a href="images/fig94.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig94.png" alt="Little. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 94.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:27%;"><a href="images/fig95.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig95.png" alt="Little. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 95.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 93 signifies <i>little, small</i>, both as regards the size of physical
+objects or figuratively, as of a small degree of talent, affection, or the
+like. It is made either by the point of
+the thumb placed under the end
+of the index (<i>a</i>), or <i>vice versa</i> (<i>b</i>),
+and the other fingers held at will,
+but separated from those mentioned. The intention is to exhibit a small
+portion either of the thumb
+or index separated from the rest of the hand. The gesture is found
+in Herculanean bronzes, with obviously the same signification.
+The signs made by some tribes of Indians for the
+same conception are very similar, as is seen by Figs. 94 and 95.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:16%;"><a href="images/fig96.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig96.png" alt="Demonstration. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 96.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 96 is simply the index extended by itself. The other
+fingers are generally bent inwards and pressed down by the
+thumb, as mentioned by Quintilian, but that is not necessary
+to the gesture if the forefinger is distinctly separated
+from the rest. It is most commonly used for indication,
+pointing out, as it is over all the world, from which comes the
+name index, applied by the Romans as also by us, to the
+forefinger. In different relations to the several parts of
+the body and arm positions it has many significations, <i>e.g.</i>,
+attention, meditation, derision, silence, number, and demonstration in
+general.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>[pg 303]</span>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig97.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig97.png" alt="&quot;Fool.&quot; Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 97.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 97 represents the head of a jackass, the thumbs being the ears,
+and the separation of the little from the third fingers showing the jaws.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig98.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig98.png" alt="&quot;Fool.&quot; Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 98.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 98 is intended to portray the head of the same animal in a front
+view, the hands being laid upon each other, with thumbs extending
+on each side to represent the ears. In each case the thumbs are
+generally moved forward and back, in the manner of the quadruped, which,
+without
+much apparent reason, has been selected as the
+emblem of stupidity. The sign, therefore, means <i>stupid, fool</i>.
+Another mode of executing the same conception&mdash;the ears of an ass&mdash;is shown
+in Fig. 99, where the end of the thumb is applied to the ear or temple and
+the hand is wagged up and down. Whether the ancient
+Greeks had the same low opinion of the ass as is now entertained is not
+clear, but they regarded long ears with derision, and Apollo,
+as a punishment to Midas for his foolish decision, bestowed on him the
+lengthy ornaments of the patient beast.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig99.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig99.png" alt="&quot;Fool.&quot; Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 99.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:23%;"><a href="images/fig100.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig100.png" alt="Inquiry. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 100.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 100 is the fingers elongated and united in a point, turned upwards.
+The hand is raised slightly toward the face of the gesturer and shaken a
+few times in the direction of the person conversed with. This is
+<i>inquiry</i>, not a mere interrogative, but to express that the person
+addressed has not been clearly understood, perhaps
+from the vagueness or diffusiveness of his expressions.
+The idea appears to suggest the
+gathering of his thoughts together into one
+distinct expression, or to be <i>pointed</i> in what he wishes to say.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig101.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig101.png" alt="Crafty, deceitful. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 101.</div>
+
+<p><i>Crafty, deceitful</i>, Fig. 101. The little fingers
+of both reversed hands are hooked together,
+the others open but slightly curved,
+and, with the hands, moved several times to the right and left. The gesture
+is intended to represent a crab and the tortuous movements of the
+crustacean, which are likened to those of a man who cannot be depended
+on in his walk through life. He is not straight.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>[pg 304]</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig102.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig102.png" alt="Insult. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 102.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig103.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig103.png" alt="Insult. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 103.</div>
+
+<p>Figs. 102 and 103 are different positions of the hand in which the
+approximating
+thumb and forefinger form a circle. This is the direst insult
+that can be given. The amiable canon De Jorio only hints at its
+special significance, but it may be evident to persons aware of a practice
+disgraceful to Italy. It is very ancient.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig104.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig104.png" alt="Silence. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 104.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 104 is easily recognized as a request or command to be <i>silent</i>,
+either on the occasion or on the subject. The mouth, supposed to be
+forcibly closed, prevents speaking, and the natural gesture, as might be
+supposed, is historically ancient, but the instance, frequently adduced
+from the attitude of the god Harpokrates, whose finger is on his lips, is
+an error. The Egyptian hieroglyphists, notably in the designation of
+Horus, their dawn-god, used the finger in or on the lips for "child." It
+has been conjectured in the last instance that the gesture
+implied, not the mode of taking nourishment, but
+inability to speak&mdash;<i>in-fans</i>. This conjecture, however,
+was only made to explain the blunder of the Greeks,
+who saw in the hand placed connected with the mouth in the hieroglyph
+of Horus (the) son, "Hor-(p)-chrot," the gesture familiar to
+themselves of a finger on the lips to express "silence," and so, mistaking
+both the name and the characterization, invented the God of
+Silence, Harpokrates. A careful examination of all the linear hieroglyphs
+given by Champollion (<i>Dictionnaire Egyptien</i>) shows that the
+finger or the hand to the mouth of an adult (whose posture is always
+distinct from that of a child) is always in connection with the positive
+ideas of voice, mouth, speech, writing, eating, drinking, &amp;c., and never
+with the negative idea of silence. The special character for <i>child</i>,
+Fig. 105, always has the above-mentioned part of the sign
+with reference to nourishment from the breast.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig105.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig105.png" alt="Child. Egyptian hieroglyph" /></a>Fig. 105.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 106 is a forcible <i>negation</i>. The outer ends of
+the fingers united in a point under the chin
+are violently thrust forward. This is the rejection
+of an idea or proposition, the same conception being executed in several
+different modes by the North American Indians.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig106.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig106.png" alt="Negation. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 106.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 107 signifies <i>hunger</i>, and is made by extending the thumb and
+index under the open mouth and turning them horizontally and vertically
+several times. The idea is emptiness and desire to be filled. It is
+also expressed by beating the ribs with the flat hands, to show that the
+sides meet or are weak for the want of something between them.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig107.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig107.png" alt="Hunger. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 107.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 108 is made in mocking and ridicule. The open and oscillating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>[pg 305]</span>
+hand touches the point of the nose with that of the thumb. It has the
+particular sense of stigmatizing the person addressed or in question as a
+dupe. A credulous person is generally imagined with a gaping mouth and
+staring eyes, and as thrusting forward his face, with pendant chin, so that
+the nose is well advanced and therefore most prominent in the profile. A
+dupe is therefore called <i>naso lungo</i> or long-nose, and with Italian
+writers "<i>restare con
+un palmo di naso</i>"&mdash;to be left with a palm's length of nose&mdash;means
+to have met with loss, injury, or disappointment.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig108.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig108.png" alt="Mockery. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 108.</div>
+
+<p>The thumb stroking the forehead from one side to the other, Fig. 109,
+is a natural sign of <i>fatigue</i>, and of the physical toil that produces
+fatigue. The wiping off of perspiration is obviously
+indicated. This gesture is often used ironically.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig109.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig109.png" alt="Fatigue. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 109.</div>
+
+<p>As a <i>dupe</i> was shown above, now the <i>duper</i> is signified, by
+Fig. 110. The gesture is to
+place the fingers between the
+cravat and the neck and rub
+the latter with the back of the hand. The idea is that the deceit
+is put within the cravat, taken in and down, similar to our phrase to
+"swallow" a false and deceitful story, and a "cram" is also an English
+slang word for an incredible lie. The conception of the slang term is
+nearly related to that of the Neapolitan sign, viz., the artificial
+enlargement of the &oelig;sophagus of the person victimized or on whom imposition
+is attempted to be practiced, which is necessary to take it down.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig110.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig110.png" alt="Deceit. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 110.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 111 shows the ends of the index and
+thumb stroking the two sides of the nose from
+base to point. This means <i>astute, attentive, ready</i>.
+Sharpness of the nasal organ is popularly associated
+with subtlety and finesse. The old Romans
+by <i>homo emunct&#230; naris</i> meant an acute
+man attentive to his interests. The sign is often
+used in a bad sense, then signifying <i>too</i> sharp to
+be trusted.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig111.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig111.png" alt="Astuteness, readiness. Neapolitan" /></a>Fig. 111.</div>
+
+<p>This somewhat lengthy but yet only partial list of Neapolitan gesture-signs
+must conclude with one common throughout Italy, and also among us with a
+somewhat different signification, yet perhaps also derived from classic
+times. To
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>[pg 306]</span>
+express suspicion of a person the forefinger of the right hand is placed
+upon the side of the nose. It means <i>tainted</i>, not sound. It is used to
+give an unfavorable report of a person inquired of and to warn against such.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The Chinese, though ready in gesticulation and divided by dialects,
+do not appear to make general use of a systematic sign language, but
+they adopt an expedient rendered possible by the peculiarity of their
+written characters, with which a large proportion of their adults are
+acquainted, and which are common in form to the whole empire. The inhabitants
+of different provinces when meeting, and being unable to converse
+orally, do not try to do so, but write the characters of the words
+upon the ground or trace them on the palm of the hand or in the air.
+Those written characters each represent words in the same manner as
+do the Arabic or Roman numerals, which are the same to Italians, Germans,
+French, and English, and therefore intelligible, but if expressed
+in sound or written in full by the alphabet, would not be mutually
+understood. This device of the Chinese was with less apparent necessity
+resorted to in the writer's personal knowledge between a Hungarian
+who could talk Latin, and a then recent graduate from college who could
+also do so to some extent, but their pronunciation was so different as to
+occasion constant difficulty, so they both wrote the words on paper,
+instead of attempting to speak them.</p>
+
+<p>The efforts at intercommunication of all savage and barbarian tribes,
+when brought into contact with other bodies of men not speaking an
+oral language common to both, and especially when uncivilized inhabitants
+of the same territory are separated by many linguistic divisions,
+should in theory resemble the devices of the North American Indians.
+They are not shown by published works to prevail in the Eastern hemisphere
+to the same extent and in the same manner as in North America.
+It is, however, probable that they exist in many localities, though not
+reported, and also that some of them survive after partial or even high
+civilization has been attained, and after changed environment has rendered
+their systematic employment unnecessary. Such signs may be,
+first, unconnected with existing oral language, and used in place of it;
+second, used to explain or accentuate the words of ordinary speech, or
+third, they may consist of gestures, emotional or not, which are only
+noticed in oratory or impassioned conversation, being, possibly, survivals
+of a former gesture language.</p>
+
+<p>From correspondence instituted it may be expected that a considerable
+collection of signs will be obtained from West and South Africa,
+India, Arabia, Turkey, the Fiji Islands, Sumatra, Madagascar, Ceylon,
+and especially from Australia, where the conditions are similar in many
+respects to those prevailing in North America prior to the Columbian
+discovery.
+In the <i>Aborigines of Victoria, Melbourne</i>, 1878, by R. Brough
+Smythe, the author makes the following curious remarks: "It is believed
+that they have several signs, known only to themselves, or to those
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>[pg 307]</span>
+among the whites who have had intercourse with them for lengthened
+periods, which convey information readily and accurately. Indeed, because
+of their use of signs, it is the firm belief of many (some uneducated
+and some educated) that the natives of Australia are acquainted with
+the secrets of Freemasonry."</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Report of the cruise of the United States Revenue steamer
+Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, Washington</i>, 1881, it appears that the
+Innuits
+of the northwestern extremity of America use signs continually.
+Captain Hooper, commanding that steamer, is reported by Mr. Petroff
+to have found that the natives of Nunivak Island, on the American side,
+below Behring Strait, trade by signs with those of the Asiatic coast,
+whose language is different. Humboldt in his journeyings among the
+Indians of the Orinoco, where many small isolated tribes spoke languages
+not understood by any other, found the language of signs in full operation.
+Spix and Martius give a similar account of the Puris and Coroados of Brazil.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>It is not necessary to enlarge under the present heading upon the
+signs of deaf-mutes, except to show the intimate relation between sign
+language as practiced by them and the gesture signs, which, even if not
+"natural," are intelligible to the most widely separated of mankind. A
+Sandwich Islander, a Chinese, and the Africans from the slaver Amistad
+have, in published instances, visited our deaf-mute institutions
+with the same result of free and pleasurable intercourse; and an English
+deaf-mute had no difficulty in conversing with Laplanders. It appears,
+also, on the authority of Sibscota, whose treatise was published
+in 1670, that Cornelius Haga, ambassador of the United Provinces to
+the Sublime Porte, found the Sultan's mutes to have established a language
+among themselves in which they could discourse with a speaking
+interpreter, a degree of ingenuity interfering with the object of their
+selection as slaves unable to repeat conversation. A curious instance has
+also been reported to the writer of operatives in a large mill where the
+constant rattling of the machinery rendered them practically deaf during
+the hours of work and where an original system of gestures was adopted.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the late international convention, at Milan, of persons
+interested in the instruction of deaf-mutes which, in the enthusiasm
+of the members for the new system of artificial articulate speech, made
+war upon all gesture-signs, it is curious that such prohibition of gesture
+should be urged regarding mutes when it was prevalent to so great an
+extent among the speaking people of the country where the convention
+was held, and when the advocates of it were themselves so dependent
+on gestures to assist their own oratory if not their ordinary conversation.
+Artificial articulation surely needs the aid of significant gestures
+more, when in the highest perfection to which it can attain, than does oral
+speech in its own high development. The use of artificial speech is also
+necessarily confined to the oral language acquired by the interlocutors
+and throws away the advantage of universality possessed by signs.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>[pg 308]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>USE BY MODERN ACTORS AND ORATORS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Less of practical value can be learned of sign language, considered as
+a system, from the study of gestures of actors and orators than would
+appear without reflection. The pantomimist who uses no words whatever
+is obliged to avail himself of every natural or imagined connection
+between thought and gesture, and, depending wholly on the latter,
+makes himself intelligible. On the stage and the rostrum words are
+the main reliance, and gestures generally serve for rhythmic movement
+and to display personal grace. At the most they give the appropriate
+representation of the general idea expressed by the words, but do not
+attempt to indicate the idea itself. An instance is recorded of the
+addition
+of significance to gesture when it is employed by the gesturer,
+himself silent, to accompany words used by another. Livius Andronicus,
+being hoarse, obtained permission to have his part sung by
+another actor while he continued to make the gestures, and he did so
+with much greater effect than before, as Livy, the historian, explains,
+because he was not impeded by the exertion of the voice; but the correct
+explanation probably is, because his attention was directed to ideas,
+not mere words.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GESTURES OF ACTORS.</h4>
+
+<p>To look at the performance of a play through thick glass or with closed
+ears has much the same absurd effect that is produced by also stopping
+the ears while at a ball and watching the apparently objectless capering
+of the dancers, without the aid of musical accompaniment. Diderot,
+in his <i>Lettre sur les sourds muets</i>, gives his experience as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I used frequently to attend the theater and I knew by heart most
+of our good plays. Whenever I wished to criticise the movements and
+gestures of the actors I went to the third tier of boxes, for the further
+I was from them the better I was situated for this purpose. As soon
+as the curtain rose, and the moment came when the other spectators
+disposed themselves to listen, I put my fingers into my ears, not without
+causing some surprise among those who surrounded me, who, not
+understanding, almost regarded me as a crazy man who had come to
+the play only not to hear it. I was very little embarrassed by their
+comments, however, and obstinately kept my ears closed as long as the
+action and gestures of the players seemed to me to accord with the discourse
+which I recollected. I listened only when I failed to see the
+appropriateness of the gestures.. There are few actors capable
+of sustaining such a test, and the details into which I could enter
+would be mortifying to most of them."</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that Diderot made this test with regard to the
+appropriate gestural representation of plays that he knew by heart, but if
+he had been entirely without any knowledge of the plot, the difficulty in
+his comprehending it from gestures alone would have been enormously
+increased. When many admirers of Ristori, who were wholly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>[pg 309]</span>
+unacquainted with the language in which her words were delivered, declared
+that her gesture and expression were so perfect that they understood
+every sentence, it is to be doubted if they would have been so delighted
+if they had not been thoroughly familiar with the plots of Queen Elizabeth
+and Mary Stuart. This view is confirmed by the case of a deaf-mute,
+told to the writer by Professor <span class="sc">Fay</span>, who had prepared to enjoy
+Ristori's acting by reading in advance the advertised play, but on his
+reaching the theater another play was substituted and he could derive no
+idea from its presentation. The experience of the present writer is that
+he could gain very little meaning in detail out of the performance at a
+Chinese theater, where there is much more true pantomime than in the
+European, without a general notion of the subject as conveyed from
+time to time by an interpreter. A crucial test on this subject was made
+at the representation at Washington, in April, 1881, of <i>Frou-Frou</i> by
+Sarah Bernhardt and the excellent French company supporting her.
+Several persons of special intelligence and familiar with theatrical
+performances, but who did not understand spoken French, and had not heard
+or read the play before or even seen an abstract of it, paid close
+attention to ascertain what they could learn of the plot and incidents from
+the gestures alone. This could be determined in the special play the
+more certainly as it is not founded on historic events or any known
+facts. The result was that from the entrance of the heroine during the
+first scene in a peacock-blue riding habit to her death in a black
+walking-suit,
+three hours or five acts later, none of the students formed any distinct
+conception of the plot. This want of apprehension extended even
+to uncertainty whether <i>Gilberte</i> was married or not; that is, whether
+her adventures were those of a disobedient daughter or a faithless wife,
+and, if married, which of the half dozen male personages was her husband.
+There were gestures enough, indeed rather a profusion of them,
+and they were thoroughly appropriate to the words (when those were
+understood) in which fun, distress, rage, and other emotions were
+expressed, but in no cases did they interpret the motive for those
+emotions.
+They were the dressing for the words of the actors as the superb
+millinery was that of their persons, and perhaps acted as varnish to
+bring out dialogues and soliloquies in heightened effect. But though
+varnish can bring into plainer view dull or faded characters, it cannot
+introduce into them significance where none before existed. The simple
+fact was that the gestures of the most famed histrionic school, the
+Com&#233;die Fran&#231;aise, were not significant, far less self-interpreting, and
+though praised as the perfection of art, have diverged widely from
+nature. It thus appears that the absence of absolute self-interpretation
+by gesture is by no means confined to the lower grade of actors, such as
+are criticised in the old lines:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>When to enforce some very tender part</p>
+<p>His left hand sleeps by instinct on the heart;</p>
+<p>His soul, of every other thought bereft,</p>
+<p>Seems anxious only&mdash;where to place the left!</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>[pg 310]</span>
+
+<p>Without relying wholly upon the facts above mentioned, it will be
+admitted upon reflection that however numerous and correct may be
+the actually significant gestures made by a great actor in the
+representation
+of his part, they must be in small proportion to the number of
+gestures not at all significant, and which are no less necessary to give
+to his declamation precision, grace, and force. Significant gestures on
+the stage may be regarded in the nature of high seasoning and
+ornamentation, which by undue use defeat their object and create disgust.
+Histrionic perfection is, indeed, more shown in the slight shades of
+movement of the head, glances of the eye, and poises of the body than
+in violent attitudes; but these slight movements are wholly unintelligible
+without the words uttered with them. Even in the expression of
+strong emotion the same gesture will apply to many and utterly diverse
+conditions of fact. The greatest actor in telling that his father was
+dead can convey his grief with a shade of difference from that which
+he would use if saying that his wife had run away, his son been arrested
+for murder, or his house burned down; but that shade would not without
+words inform any person, ignorant of the supposed event, which of
+the four misfortunes had occurred. A true sign language, however,
+would fully express the exact circumstances, either with or without any
+exhibition of the general emotion appropriate to them.</p>
+
+<p>Even among the best sign-talkers, whether Indian or deaf-mute, it is
+necessary to establish some <i>rapport</i> relating to theme or
+subject-matter,
+since many gestures, as indeed is the case in a less degree with spoken
+words, have widely different significations, according to the object of
+their exhibition, as well as the context. Panurge (<i>Pantagruel</i>, Book
+III, ch. xix) hits the truth upon this point, however ungallant in his
+application of it to the fair sex. He is desirous to consult a dumb man,
+but says it would be useless to apply to a woman, for "whatever it be
+that they see they do always represent unto their fancies, and imagine
+that it hath some relation to love. Whatever signs, shows, or gestures
+we shall make, or whatever our behavior, carriage, or demeanor
+shall happen to be in their view and presence, they will interpret the
+whole in reference to androgynation." A story is told to the same point
+by Guevara, in his fabulous life of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. A
+young Roman gentleman encountering at the foot of Mount Celion a
+beautiful Latin lady, who from her very cradle had been deaf and dumb,
+asked her in gesture what senators in her descent from the top of the
+hill she had met with, going up thither. She straightway imagined that
+he had fallen in love with her and was eloquently proposing marriage,
+whereupon she at once threw herself into his arms in acceptance. The
+experience of travelers on the Plains is to the same general effect, that
+signs commonly used to men are understood by women in a sense so
+different as to occasion embarrassment. So necessary was it to strike
+the mental key-note of the spectators by adapting their minds to time,
+place, and circumstance, that even in the palmiest days of pantomime
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>[pg 311]</span>
+it was customary for the crier to give some short preliminary explanation
+of what was to be acted, which advantage is now retained by our
+play-bills, always more specific when the performance is in a foreign
+language, unless, indeed, the management is interested in the sale of
+librettos.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GESTURES OF OUR PUBLIC SPEAKERS.</h4>
+
+<p>If the scenic gestures are so seldom significant, those appropriate to
+oratory are of course still less so. They require energy, variety, and
+precision,
+but also a degree of simplicity which is incompatible with the needs
+of sign language. As regards imitation, they are restrained within narrow
+bounds and are equally suited to a great variety of sentiments. Among the
+admirable illustrations in Austin's <i>Chironomia</i> of gestures
+applicable to
+the several passages in Gay's "Miser and Plutus" one is given for "But
+virtue's sold" which is perfectly appropriate, but is not in the slightest
+degree suggestive either of virtue or of the transaction of sale. It could
+be used for an indefinite number of thoughts or objects which properly
+excited abhorrence, and therefore without the words gives no special
+interpretation.
+Oratorical delivery demands general grace&mdash;cannot rely
+upon the emotions of the moment for spontaneous appropriateness, and
+therefore requires preliminary study and practice, such as are applied to
+dancing and fencing with a similar object; indeed, accomplishment in
+both dancing and fencing has been recommended as of use to all orators.
+In reference to this subject a quotation from Lord Chesterfield's letters
+is in place: "I knew a young man, who, being just elected a member of
+Parliament, was laughed at for being discovered, through the key-hole
+of his chamber door, speaking to himself in the glass and forming his
+looks and gestures. I could not join in that laugh, but, on the contrary,
+thought him much wiser than those that laughed at him, for he knew
+the importance of those little graces in a public assembly and they did not."</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>OUR INDIAN CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SIGN LANGUAGE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In no other thoroughly explored part of the world has there been
+found spread over so large a space so small a number of individuals
+divided by so many linguistic and dialectic boundaries as in North
+America. Many wholly distinct tongues have for an indefinitely long time
+been confined to a few scores of speakers, verbally incomprehensible to
+all others on the face of the earth who did not, from some rarely operating
+motive, laboriously acquire their language. Even when the American
+race, so styled, flourished in the greatest population of which we
+have any evidence (at least according to the published views of the
+present writer, which seem to have been generally accepted), the immense
+number of languages and dialects still preserved, or known by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>[pg 312]</span>
+early recorded fragments to have once existed, so subdivided it that
+only the dwellers in a very few villages could talk together with ease.
+They were all interdistributed among unresponsive vernaculars, each to
+the other being <i>bar-bar-ous</i> in every meaning of the term. The number
+of known stocks or families of Indian languages within the territory of
+the United States amounts now to sixty-five, and these differ among
+themselves as radically as each differs from the Hebrew, Chinese, or
+English. In each of these linguistic families there are several, sometimes
+as many as twenty, separate languages, which also differ from
+each other as much as do the English, French, German, and Persian
+divisions of the Aryan linguistic stock.</p>
+
+<p>The use of gesture-signs, continued, if not originating, in necessity
+for communication with the outer world, became entribally convenient
+from the habits of hunters, the main occupation of all savages, depending
+largely upon stealthy approach to game, and from the sole form of
+their military tactics&mdash;to surprise an enemy. In the still expanse of
+virgin forests, and especially in the boundless solitudes of the great
+plains, a slight sound can be heard over a large area, that of the human
+voice being from its rarity the most startling, so that it is now, as
+it probably has been for centuries, a common precaution for members of a
+hunting or war party not to speak together when on such expeditions,
+communicating exclusively by signs. The acquired habit also exhibits
+itself not only in formal oratory and in impassioned or emphatic
+conversation, but also as a picturesque accompaniment to ordinary social
+talk. Hon. <span class="sc">Lewis H. Morgan</span> mentions in a letter to this writer that he
+found a silent but happy family composed of an Atsina (commonly
+called Gros Ventre of the Prairie) woman, who had been married two
+years to a Frenchman, during which time they had neither of them attempted
+to learn each other's language; but the husband having taken
+kindly to the language of signs, they conversed together by that means
+with great contentment. It is also often resorted to in mere laziness,
+one gesture saving many words. The gracefulness, ingenuity, and apparent
+spontaneity of the greater part of the signs can never be realized
+until actually witnessed, and their beauty is much heightened by the
+free play to which the arms of these people are accustomed, and the small
+and well-shaped hands for which they are remarkable. Among them
+can seldom be noticed in literal fact&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>The graceless action of a heavy hand&mdash;</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>which the Bastard metaphorically condemns in King John.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions upon which the survival of sign language among the
+Indians has depended is well shown by those attending its discontinuance
+among certain tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Many instances are known of the discontinuance of gesture speech
+with no development in the native language of the gesturers, but from
+the invention for intercommunication of one used in common. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>[pg 313]</span>
+Kalapuyas of Southern Oregon until recently used a sign language, but
+have gradually adopted for foreign intercourse the composite tongue,
+commonly called the Tsinuk or Chinook jargon, which probably arose
+for trade purposes on the Columbia River before the advent of Europeans,
+founded on the Tsinuk, Tsihali, Nutka, &amp;c., but now enriched by
+English and French terms, and have nearly forgotten their old signs.
+The prevalence of this mongrel speech, originating in the same causes
+that produced the pigeon-English or <i>lingua-franca</i> of the Orient,
+explains the marked scantiness of sign language among the tribes of the
+Northwest coast.</p>
+
+<p>Where the Chinook jargon has not extended on the coast to the North,
+the Russian language commences, used in the same manner, but it has not
+reached so deeply into the interior of the continent as the Chinook, which
+has been largely adopted within the region bounded by the eastern line
+of Oregon and Washington, and has become known even to the Pai-Utes
+of Nevada. The latter, however, while using it with the Oregonian
+tribes to their west and north, still keep up sign language for
+communication with the Banaks, who have not become so familiar with the
+Chinook. The Alaskan tribes on the coast also used signs not more than
+a generation ago, as is proved by the fact that some of the older men
+can yet converse by this means with the natives of the interior, whom
+they occasionally meet. Before the advent of the Russians the coast
+tribes traded their dried fish and oil for the skins and paints of the
+eastern tribes by visiting the latter, whom they did not allow to come to the
+coast, and this trade was conducted mainly in sign language. The
+Russians brought a better market, so the travel to the interior ceased,
+and with it the necessity for the signs, which therefore gradually died
+out, and are little known to the present generation on the coast, though
+still continuing in the interior, where the inhabitants are divided by
+dialects.</p>
+
+<p>No explanation is needed for the disuse of a language of signs for the
+special purpose now in question when the speech of surrounding civilization
+is recognized as necessary or important to be acquired, and
+gradually becomes known as the best common medium, even before it is
+actually spoken by many individuals of the several tribes. When it
+has become general, signs, as systematically employed before, gradually
+fade away.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>THEORIES ENTERTAINED RESPECTING INDIAN SIGNS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In this paper it is not designed to pronounce upon theories, and certainly
+none will be advocated in a spirit of dogmatism. The writer recognizes
+that the subject in its novelty specially requires an objective
+and not a subjective consideration. His duty is to collect the facts as
+they are, and this as soon as possible, since every year will add to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>[pg 314]</span>
+confusion and difficulty. After the facts are established the theories
+will take care of themselves, and their final enunciation will be in the
+hands of men more competent than the writer will ever pretend to be,
+although his knowledge, after careful study of all data attainable, may
+be considerably increased. The mere collection of facts, however, cannot be
+prosecuted to advantage without predetermined rules of judgment,
+nor can they be classified at all without the adoption of some principle
+which involves a tentative theory. More than a generation ago Baader
+noticed that scientific observers only accumulated great masses of separate
+facts without establishing more connection between them than an
+arbitrary and imperfect classification; and before him Goethe complained
+of the indisposition of students of nature to look upon the universe
+as a whole. But since the great theory of evolution has been
+brought to general notice no one will be satisfied at knowing a fact
+without also trying to establish its relation to other facts. Therefore a
+working hypothesis, which shall not be held to with tenacity, is not only
+allowable but necessary. It is also important to examine with proper
+respect the theories advanced by others. Some of these, suggested in
+the few publications on the subject and also by correspondents, will be
+mentioned.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>NOT CORRELATED WITH MEAGERNESS OF LANGUAGE.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The story has been told by travelers in many parts of the world that
+various languages cannot be clearly understood in the dark by their
+possessors, using their mother tongue between themselves. The evidence
+for this anywhere is suspicious; and when it is asserted, as it often has
+been, in reference to some of the tribes of North American Indians, it
+is absolutely false, and must be attributed to the error of travelers who,
+ignorant of the dialect, never see the natives except when trying to
+make themselves intelligible to their visitors by a practice which they
+have found by experience to have been successful with strangers to
+their tongue, or perhaps when they are guarding against being overheard by
+others. Captain Burton, in his <i>City of the Saints</i>, specially
+states that the Arapahos possess a very scanty vocabulary, pronounced
+in a quasi-unintelligible way, and can hardly converse with one another
+in the dark. The truth is that their vocabulary is by no means scanty,
+and they do converse with each other with perfect freedom without any
+gestures when they so please. The difficulty in speaking or understanding
+their language is in the large number of guttural and interrupted
+sounds which are not helped by external motions of the mouth and lips
+in articulation, and the light gives little advantage to its comprehension
+so far as concerns the vocal apparatus, which, in many languages,
+can be seen as well as heard, as is proved by the modern deaf-mute
+practice of artificial speech. The corresponding story that no white
+man ever learned Arapaho is also false. A member of Fr&#233;mont's party
+so long ago as 1842 spoke the language. Burton in the same connection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>[pg 315]</span>
+gives a story "of a man who, being sent among the Cheyennes to qualify
+himself for interpreting, returned in a week and proved his competency;
+all he did, however, was to go through the usual pantomime with
+a running accompaniment of grunts." And he might as well have
+omitted the grunts, for he obviously only used sign language. Lieutenant
+Abert, in 1846-'47, made much more sensible remarks from his
+actual observation than Captain Burton repeated at second-hand from
+a Mormon met by him at Salt Lake. He said: "Some persons think
+that it [the Cheyenne language] would be incomplete without gesture,
+because the Indians use gestures constantly. But I have been assured
+that the language is in itself capable of bodying forth any idea to which
+one may wish to give utterance."</p>
+
+<p>In fact, individuals of those American tribes specially instanced in
+these reports as unable to converse without gesture, often, in their
+domestic <i>abandon</i>, wrap themselves up in robes or blankets with only
+breathing holes before the nose, so that no part of the body is seen, and
+chatter away for hours, telling long stories. If in daylight they thus
+voluntarily deprive themselves of the possibility of making signs, it is
+clear that their preference for talks around the fire at night is
+explicable
+by very natural reasons wholly distinct from the one attributed. The
+inference, once carelessly made from the free use of gesture by some of
+the Shoshonian stock, that their tongue was too meager for use without
+signs, is refuted by the now ascertained fact that their vocabulary is
+remarkably copious and their parts of speech better differentiated than
+those of many people on whom no such stigma has been affixed. The
+proof of this was seen in the writer's experience, when Ouray, the head
+chief of the Utes, was at Washington, in the early part of 1880, and
+after an interview with the Secretary of the Interior made report of it
+to the rest of the delegation who had not been present. He spoke without
+pause in his own language for nearly an hour, in a monotone and
+without a single gesture. The reason for this depressed manner was
+undoubtedly because he was very sad at the result, involving loss of
+land and change of home; but the fact remains that full information
+was communicated on a complicated subject without the aid of a manual
+sign, and also without even such change of inflection of voice as is
+common among Europeans. All theories based upon the supposed poverty
+of American languages must be abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The grievous accusation against foreign people that they have no
+intelligible language is venerable and general. With the Greeks the
+term &alpha;&gamma;&lambda;&omega;&sigma;&sigma;&omicron;&sigmaf;,
+"tongueless," was used synonymous with
+&beta;&alpha;&rho;&beta;&alpha;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;,
+"barbarian" of all who were not Greek. The name "Slav," assumed by a
+grand division of the Aryan family, means "the speaker," and is
+contradistinguished from the other peoples of the world, such as the Germans,
+who are called in Russian "Njemez," that is, "speechless." In
+Isaiah (xxxiii, 19) the Assyrians are called a people "of a stammering
+tongue, that one cannot understand." The common use of the expression
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>[pg 316]</span>
+"tongueless" and "speechless," so applied, has probably given rise,
+as <span class="sc">Tylor</span> suggests, to the mythical stories of actually speechless tribes of
+savages, and the considerations and instances above presented tend
+to discredit the many other accounts of languages which are incomplete
+without the help of gesture. The theory that sign language was in
+whole or in chief the original utterance of mankind would be strongly
+supported by conclusive evidence to the truth of such travelers' tales,
+but does not depend upon them. Nor, considering the immeasurable
+period during which, in accordance with modern geologic views, man
+has been on the earth, is it probable that any existing races can be found
+in which speech has not obviated the absolute necessity for gesture in
+communication among themselves. The signs survive for convenience,
+used together with oral language, and for special employment when
+language is unavailable.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison sometimes drawn between sign language and that of
+our Indians, founded on the statement of their common poverty in abstract
+expressions, is not just to either. This paper will be written in
+vain if it shall not suggest the capacities of gesture speech in that
+regard, and a deeper study into Indian tongues has shown that they are by no
+means so confined to the concrete as was once believed.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>ITS ORIGIN FROM ONE TRIBE OR REGION.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Col. Richard I. Dodge, United States Army, whose long experience
+among the Indians entitles his opinion to great respect, says in a letter:</p>
+
+<p>"The embodiment of signs into a systematic language is, I believe,
+confined to the Indians of the Plains. Contiguous tribes gain, here and
+there, a greater or less knowledge of this language; these again extend
+the knowledge, diminished and probably perverted, to their neighbors,
+until almost all the Indian tribes of the United States east of the Sierras
+have some little smattering of it. The Plains Indians believe the
+Kiowas to have invented the sign language, and that by them its use was
+communicated to other Plains tribes. If this is correct, analogy would
+lead us to believe that those tribes most nearly in contact with the
+Kiowas would use it most fluently and correctly, the knowledge becoming
+less as the contact diminishes. Thus the Utes, though nearly contiguous
+(in territory) to the Plains Indians, have only the merest 'picked
+up' knowledge of this language, and never use it among themselves,
+simply because, they and the Plains tribes having been, since the memory
+of their oldest men, in a chronic state of war, there has been no social
+contact."</p>
+
+<p>In another communication Colonel Dodge is still more definite:</p>
+
+<p>"The Plains Indians themselves believe the sign language was invented
+by the Kiowas, who holding an intermediate position between the
+Comanches, Tonkaways, Lipans, and other inhabitants of the vast plains
+of Texas, and the Pawnees, Sioux, Blackfeet, and other northern tribes,
+were the general go-betweens, trading with all, making peace or war
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>[pg 317]</span>
+with or for any or all. It is certain that the Kiowas are at present
+more universally proficient in this language than any other Plains tribe.
+It is also certain that the tribes farthest away from them and with
+whom they have least intercourse use it with least facility."</p>
+
+<p>Dr. William H. Corbusier, assistant surgeon United States Army, a
+valued contributor, gives information as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The traditions of the Indians point toward the south as the direction
+from which the sign language came. They refer to the time when
+they did not use it; and each tribe say they learned it from those south
+of them. The Comanches, who acquired it in Mexico, taught it to the
+Arapahoes and Kiowas, and from these the Cheyennes learned it. The
+Sioux say that they had no knowledge of it before they crossed the Missouri
+River and came in contact with the Cheyennes, but have quite
+recently learned it from them. It would thus appear that the Plains Indians
+did not invent it, but finding it adapted to their wants adopted it
+as a convenient means of communicating with those whose language
+they did not understand, and it rapidly spread from tribe to tribe over
+the Plains. As the sign language came from Mexico, the Spaniards
+suggest themselves as the introducers of it on this continent. They are
+adepts in the use of signs. Cortez as he marched through Mexico
+would naturally have resorted to signs in communicating with the numerous
+tribes with which he came in contract. Finding them very necessary,
+one sign after another would suggest itself and be adopted by
+Spaniards and Indians, and, as the former advanced, one tribe after
+another would learn to use them. The Indians on the Plains, finding
+them so useful, preserved them and each tribe modified them to suit
+their convenience, but the signs remained essentially the same. The
+Shoshones took the sign language with them as they moved northwest,
+and a few of the Piutes may have learned it from them, but the Piutes
+as a tribe do not use it."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ben. Clarke, the respected and skillful interpreter at Fort Reno
+writes to the same general effect:</p>
+
+<p>"The Cheyennes think that the sign language used by the Cheyennes,
+Arapahoes, Ogallala and Brul&#233; Sioux, Kiowas, and Comanches
+originated with the Kiowas. It is a tradition that, many years ago,
+when the Northern Indians were still without horses, the Kiowas
+often raided among the Mexican Indians and captured droves of horses
+on these trips. The Northern Plains Indians used to journey to them
+and trade for horses. The Kiowas were already proficient in signs, and
+the others learned from them. It was the journeying to the South that
+finally divided the Cheyennes, making the Northern and Southern
+Cheyennes. The same may be said of the Arapahoes. That the Kiowas
+were the first sign talkers is only a tradition, but as a tribe they
+are now considered to be the best or most thorough of the Plains Indians."</p>
+
+<p>Without engaging in any controversy on this subject it may be noticed
+that the theory advanced supposes a comparatively recent origin of sign
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>[pg 318]</span>
+language from one tribe and one region, whereas, so far as can be traced,
+the conditions favorable to a sign language existed very long ago and
+were co-extensive with the territory of North America occupied by any
+of the tribes. To avoid repetition reference is made to the discussion
+below under the heads of universality, antiquity, identity, and permanence.
+At this point it is only desired to call attention to the ancient
+prevalence of signs among tribes such as the Iroquois, Wyandot, Ojibwa,
+and at least three generations back among the Crees beyond our northern
+boundary and the Mandans and other far-northern Dakotas, not
+likely at that time to have had communication, even through intertribal
+channels, with the Kaiowas. It is also difficult to understand how
+their signs would have in that manner reached the Kutchin of Eastern
+Alaska and the Kutine and Selish of British Columbia, who use signs
+now. At the same time due consideration must be given to the great
+change in the intercommunication of tribes, produced by the importation
+of the horse, by which the habits of those Indians now, but not very
+anciently, inhabiting the Plains were entirely changed. It is probable
+that a sign language before existing became, contemporaneously with
+nomadic life, cultivated and enriched.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the Spanish origin suggested, there is ample evidence that
+the Spaniards met signs in their early explorations north of and in the
+northern parts of Mexico, and availed themselves of them but did not
+introduce them. It is believed also that the elaborate picture writing
+of Mexico was founded on gesture signs.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the statement that the Kaiowas are the most expert
+sign talkers of the Plains, a number of authorities and correspondents
+give the precedence to the Cheyennes, and an equal number to the
+Arapahos. Probably the accident of meeting specially skillful talkers
+in the several tribes visited influences such opinions.</p>
+
+<p>The writer's experience, both of the Utes and Pai-Utes, is different from
+the above statement respecting the absence of signs among them. They
+not only use their own signs but fully understand the difference between
+the signs regarded as their own and those of the Kaiowas. On
+special examination they understood some of the latter only as words
+of a foreign language interpolated in an oral conversation would be
+comprehended from the context, and others they would recognize as
+having seen before among other tribes without adoption. The same is
+true regarding the Brul&#233; Sioux, as was clearly expressed by Medicine
+Bull, their chief. The Pimas, Papagos, and Maricopas examined had a
+copious sign language, yet were not familiar with many Kaiowa signs
+presented to them.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of referring to a time past when they did not use signs, the
+Indians examined by the writer and by most of his correspondents
+speak of a time when they and their fathers used it more freely and
+copiously than at present, its disuse being from causes before mentioned.
+It, however, may be true in some cases that a tribe, having been for a
+long time in contact only with others the dialect of which was so nearly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>[pg 319]</span>
+akin as to be comprehensible, or from any reason being separated from
+those of a strange speech, discontinued sign language for a time, and then
+upon migration or forced removal came into circumstances where it was
+useful, and revived it. It is asserted that some of the Muskoki and the
+Ponkas now in the Indian Territory never saw sign language until they
+arrived there. Yet there is some evidence that the Muskoki did use
+signs a century ago, and some of the Ponkas still remaining on their old
+homes on the Missouri remember it and have given their knowledge to
+an accurate correspondent, Rev. J.O. Dorsey, though for many years
+they have not been in circumstances to require its employment.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most salutary criticism to be offered regarding the theory
+would
+be in the form of a query whether sign language has ever been invented
+by any one body of people at any one time, and whether it is not
+simply a phase in evolution, surviving and reviving when needed. Criticism
+on this subject is made reluctantly, as it would be highly interesting
+to determine that sign language on this continent came from a particular
+stock, and to ascertain that stock. Such research would be similar
+to that into the Aryan and Semitic sources to which many modern
+languages have been traced backwards from existing varieties, and if
+there appear to be existing varieties in signs their roots may still be
+found to be <i>sui generis</i>. The possibility that the discrepancy
+between
+signs was formerly greater than at present will receive attention in
+discussing
+the distinction between the identity of signs and their common
+use as an art. It is sufficient to add now that not only does the burden
+of proof rest unfavorably upon the attempt to establish one parent
+stock for sign language in North America, but it also comes under the
+stigma now fastened upon the immemorial effort to name and locate the
+original oral speech of man. It is only next in difficulty to the old
+persistent
+determination to decide upon the origin of the whole Indian
+"race," in which most peoples of antiquity in the eastern hemisphere,
+including
+the lost tribes of Israel, the Gipsies, and the Welsh, have figured
+conspicuously as putative parents.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>IS THE INDIAN SYSTEM SPECIAL AND PECULIAR?</i></h3>
+
+<p>This inquiry is closely connected with the last. If the system of signs
+was invented here in the correct sense of that term, and by a known and
+existing tribe, it is probable that it would not be found prevailing in
+any important degree where the influence of the inventors could not
+readily have penetrated. An affirmative answer to the question also
+presupposes
+the same answer to another question, viz, whether there is any
+one uniform system among the North American Indians which can therefore
+be compared with any other system. This last inquiry will be considered
+in its order. In comparing the system as a whole with others,
+the latter are naturally divided into signs of speaking men foreign to
+America and those of deaf-mutes.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>[pg 320]</span>
+
+
+<h4>COMPARISONS WITH FOREIGN SIGNS.</h4>
+
+<p>The generalization of <span class="sc">Tylor</span> that "gesture language is substantially
+the same among savage tribes all over the world," interpreted by his
+remarks in another connection, is understood as referring to their common
+use of signs, and of signs formed on the same principles, but not
+of precisely the same signs to express the same ideas. In this sense of
+the generalization the result of the writer's study not only sustains it,
+but shows a surprising number of signs for the same idea which are
+substantially
+identical, not only among savage tribes, but among all peoples
+that use gesture signs with any freedom. Men, in groping for a
+mode of communication with each other, and using the same general
+methods, have been under many varying conditions and circumstances
+which have determined differently many conceptions and their semiotic
+execution, but there have also been many of both which were similar.
+Our Indians have no special superstition concerning the evil-eye like
+the Italians, nor have they been long familiar with the jackass so as to
+make him emblematical of stupidity; therefore signs for these concepts
+are not cisatlantic, but even in this paper many are shown which are
+substantially in common between our Indians and Italians. The large
+collection already obtained, but not now published, shows many others
+identical, not only with those of the Italians and the classic Greeks and
+Romans, but of other peoples of the Old World, both savage and civilized.
+The generic uniformity is obvious, while the occasion of specific
+varieties can be readily understood.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COMPARISON WITH DEAF-MUTE SIGNS.</h4>
+
+<p>The Indians who have been shown over the civilized East have often
+succeeded in holding intercourse, by means of their invention and
+application
+of principles in what may be called the voiceless mother utterance,
+with white deaf-mutes, who surely have no semiotic code more
+nearly connected with that attributed to the plain-roamers than is derived
+from their common humanity. They showed the greatest pleasure
+in meeting deaf-mutes, precisely as travelers in a foreign country are
+rejoiced to meet persons speaking their language, with whom they can
+hold direct communication without the tiresome and often suspected
+medium of an interpreter. When they met together they were found to
+pursue the same course as that noticed at the meeting of deaf-mutes
+who were either not instructed in any methodical dialect or who had
+received such instruction by different methods. They often disagreed
+in the signs at first presented, but soon understood them, and finished
+by adopting some in mutual compromise, which proved to be those most
+strikingly appropriate, graceful, and convenient; but there still remained
+in some cases a plurality of fitting signs for the same idea or
+object. On one of the most interesting of these occasions, at the
+Pennsylvania
+Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, in 1873, it was remarked
+that the signs of the deaf-mutes were much more readily understood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>[pg 321]</span>
+by the Indians, who were Absaroka or Crows, Arapahos, and Cheyennes,
+than were theirs by the deaf-mutes, and that the latter greatly excelled
+in pantomimic effect. This need not be surprising when it is considered
+that what is to the Indian a mere adjunct or accomplishment is to the
+deaf-mute the natural mode of utterance, and that there is still greater
+freedom from the trammel of translating words into action&mdash;instead of
+acting the ideas themselves&mdash;when, the sound of words being unknown,
+they remain still as they originated, but another kind of sign, even
+after the art of reading is acquired, and do not become entities as with
+us. The "action, action, action," of Demosthenes is their only oratory,
+not the mere heightening of it, however valuable.</p>
+
+<p>On March 6, 1880, the writer had an interesting experience in taking
+to the National Deaf-Mute College at Washington seven Utes (which
+tribe, according to report, is unacquainted with sign language), among whom
+were Augustin, Alejandro, Jakonik, Severio, and Wash. By the kind attention
+of President <span class="sc">Gallaudet</span> a thorough test was given,
+an equal number of deaf-mute pupils being placed in communication
+with the Indians, alternating with them both in making individual signs
+and in telling narratives in gesture, which were afterwards interpreted
+in speech by the Ute interpreter and the officers of the college. Notes of
+a few of them were taken, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Among the signs was that for <i>squirrel</i>, given by a deaf-mute. The
+right hand was placed over and facing the left, and about four inches
+above the latter, to show the height of the animal; then the two hands were
+held edgewise and horizontally in front, about eight inches apart (showing
+<i>length</i>); then imitating the grasping of a small object and
+biting it rapidly with the incisors, the extended index was pointed
+upward and forward (<i>in a tree</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This was not understood, as the Utes have no sign for the tree squirrel,
+the arboreal animal not being now found in their region.</p>
+
+<p>Deaf-mute sign for <i>jack-rabbit</i>: The first two fingers of each hand
+extended (the remaining fingers and thumbs closed) were placed on either
+side of the head, pointing upward; then arching the hands, palm down,
+quick, interrupted, jumping movements forward were made.</p>
+
+<p>This was readily understood.</p>
+
+<p>The signs for the following narrative were given by a deaf-mute:
+When he was a boy he mounted a horse without either bridle or saddle,
+and as the horse began to go he grasped him by the neck for support; a dog
+flew at the horse, began to bark, when the rider was thrown off and
+considerably hurt.</p>
+
+<p>In this the sign for <i>dog</i> was as follows: Pass the arched hand
+forward from the lower part of the face, to illustrate elongated nose and
+mouth, then with both forefingers extended, remaining fingers and thumbs
+closed, place them upon either side of the lower jaw, pointing upward,
+to show lower canines, at the same time accompanying the gesture with
+an expression of withdrawing the lips so as to show the teeth snarling;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>[pg 322]</span>
+then, with the fingers of the right hand extended and separated throw
+them quickly forward and slightly upward (<i>voice</i> or <i>talking</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This sign was understood to mean <i>bear</i>, as that for <i>dog</i> is
+different
+among the Utes, <i>i.e.</i>, by merely showing the height of the dog and
+pushing the flat hand forward, finger-tips first.</p>
+
+<p>Another deaf-mute gestured to tell that when he was a boy he went
+to a melon-field, tapped several melons, finding them to be green or
+unripe;
+finally reaching a good one he took his knife, cut a slice, and ate
+it. A man made his appearance on horseback, entered the patch on
+foot, found the cut melon, and detecting the thief, threw the melon towards
+him, hitting him in the back, whereupon he ran away crying. The
+man mounted and rode off in an opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p>All of these signs were readily comprehended, although some of the
+Indians varied very slightly in their translation.</p>
+
+<p>When the Indians were asked whether, if they (the deaf-mutes) were
+to come to the Ute country they would be scalped, the answer was given,
+"Nothing would be done to you; but we would be friends," as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The palm of the right hand was brushed toward the right over that
+of the left (<i>nothing</i>), and the right hand made to grasp the palm of
+the left,
+thumbs extended over and lying upon the back of the opposing hand.</p>
+
+<p>This was readily understood by the deaf-mutes.</p>
+
+<p>Deaf-mute sign of milking a cow and drinking the milk was fully and
+quickly understood.</p>
+
+<p>The narrative of a boy going to an apple-tree, hunting for ripe fruit
+and filling his pockets, being surprised by the owner and hit upon the
+head with a stone, was much appreciated by the Indians and completely
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>A deaf-mute asked Alejandro how long it took him to come to Washington
+from his country. He replied by placing the index and second
+finger of the right hand astride the extended forefinger (others closed)
+of the left; then elevating the fingers of the left hand (except thumb
+and forefinger) back forward (<i>three</i>); then extending the fingers of
+both
+hands and bringing them to a point, thumbs resting on palmar sides and
+extended, placing the hands in front of the body, the tips opposite the
+opposing wrist, and about four inches apart; then, revolving them in
+imitation of <i>wheels</i>, he elevated the extended forefinger of the left
+hand (<i>one</i>); then placing the extended flat hands, thumbs touching,
+the backs sloping downward towards the respective right and left
+sides, like the roof of a house; then repeating the sign of wheels as in
+the preceding, after which the left hand was extended before the body,
+fingers toward the right, horizontal, palm down and slightly arched,
+the right wrist held under it, the fingers extending upward beyond it,
+and quickly and repeatedly snapped upward (<i>smoke</i>); the last three
+signs
+being <i>covered&mdash;wagon&mdash;smoke</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>cars</i>; then elevating four fingers
+of the left hand (<i>four</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Translation</i>.&mdash;Traveled three days on horseback, one in a wagon, and
+four in the cars.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>[pg 323]</span>
+
+<p>The deaf-mutes understood all but the sign for wheel, which they
+make as a large circle, with <i>one</i> hand.</p>
+
+<p>Another example: A deaf-mute pretended to hunt something; found
+birds, took his bow and arrows and killed several.</p>
+
+<p>This was fully understood.</p>
+
+<p>A narrative given by Alejandro was also understood by the deaf-mutes,
+to the effect that he made search for deer, shot one with a gun,
+killed and skinned it, and packed it up.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that many of the above signs admitted of and were
+expressed by pantomime, yet that was not the case with all that were
+made. President <span class="sc">Gallaudet</span> made also some remarks in gesture which
+were understood by the Indians, yet were not strictly pantomimic.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion of all present at the test was that two intelligent mimes
+would seldom fail of mutual understanding, their attention being
+exclusively directed to the expression of thoughts by the means of
+comprehension and reply equally possessed by both, without the mental
+confusion of conventional sounds only intelligible to one.</p>
+
+<p>A large collection has been made of natural deaf-mute signs, and also
+of those more conventional, which have been collated with those of the
+several tribes of Indians. Many of them show marked similarity, not
+only in principle but often in detail.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The result of the studies so far as prosecuted is that what is called
+<i>the</i> sign language of Indians is not, properly speaking, one
+language,
+but that it and the gesture systems of deaf-mutes and of all peoples
+constitute together one language&mdash;the gesture speech of mankind&mdash;of
+which each system is a dialect.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>TO WHAT EXTENT PREVALENT AS A SYSTEM.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The assertion has been made by many writers, and is currently repeated
+by Indian traders and some Army officers, that all the tribes of
+North America have long had and still use a <i>common</i> and
+<i>identical</i> sign
+language, in which they can communicate freely without oral assistance.
+Although this remarkable statement is at variance with some of the
+principles of the formation and use of signs set forth by Dr. <span class="sc">E.B. Tylor</span>,
+whose admirable chapters on gesture speech in his <i>Researches into the
+Early History of Mankind</i> have in a great degree prompted the
+present inquiries, that eminent authority did not see fit to discredit it.
+He repeats the report as he received it, in the words that "the same
+signs serve as a medium of converse from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of
+Mexico." Its truth or falsity can only be established by careful comparison
+of lists or vocabularies of signs taken under test conditions at
+widely different times and places. For this purpose lists have been
+collated by the writer, taken in different parts of the country at several
+dates, from the last century to the last month, comprising together several
+thousand signs, many of them, however, being mere variants or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>[pg 324]</span>
+synonyms for the same object or quality, some being repetitions of
+others and some of small value from uncertainty in description or
+authority, or both.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ONCE PROBABLY UNIVERSAL IN NORTH AMERICA.</h4>
+
+<p>The conclusion reached from the researches made is to the effect that
+before the changes wrought by the Columbian discovery the use of gesture
+illustrated the remark of Quintilian upon the same subject (l. xi, c. 3)
+that "<i>In tanta per omnes gentes nationesque lingu&#230; diversitate hic mihi
+omnium hominum communis sermo videatur</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Quotations may be taken from some old authorities referring to widely
+separated regions. The Indians of Tampa Bay, identified with the Timucua,
+met by Cabe&#231;a de Vaca in 1528, were active in the use of signs,
+and in his journeying for eight subsequent years, probably through
+Texas and Mexico, he remarks that he passed through many dissimilar
+tongues, but that he questioned and received the answers of the Indians by
+signs "just as if they spoke our language and we theirs." Micha&#235;lius,
+writing in 1628, says of the Algonkins on or near the Hudson River: "For
+purposes of trading as much was done by signs with the thumb and fingers as
+by speaking." In Bossu's <i>Travels through that part of North America
+formerly called Louisiana</i>, <i>London</i>, 1771 (Forster's translation),
+an account is given of Monsieur de Belle-Isle some years previously
+captured by the
+Atak-apa, who remained with them two years and "conversed in their
+pantomimes with them." He was rescued by Governor Bienville and was
+sufficiently expert in the sign language to interpret between Bienville and
+the tribe. In Bushmann's <i>Spuren</i>, p. 424,
+there is a reference to the "Accocessaws on the west side of the Colorado,
+two hundred miles southwest of Nacogdoches," who use thumb signs which they
+understand: "<i>Theilen sich aber auch durch
+Daum-Zeichen mit, die sie alle verstehen.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>Omitting many authorities, and for brevity allowing a break in the
+continuity
+of time, reference may be made to the statement in Major Long's
+expedition of 1819, concerning the Arapahos, Kaiowas, Ietans, and
+Cheyennes, to the effect that, being ignorant of each other's languages,
+many of them when they met would communicate by means of signs,
+and would thus maintain a conversation without the least difficulty or
+interruption. A list of the tribes reported upon by Prince Maximilian
+von Wied-Neuweid, in 1832-'34, appears elsewhere in this paper. In
+Fr&#233;mont's expedition of 1844 special and repeated allusion is made to
+the expertness of the Pai-Utes in signs, which is contradictory to the
+statement above made by correspondents. The same is mentioned regarding a
+band of Shoshonis met near the summit of the Sierra Nevada, and one of
+"Diggers," probably Chemehuevas, encountered on a tributary of the Rio
+Virgen.</p>
+
+<p>Ruxton, in his <i>Adventures in Mexico and the Rocky Mountains</i>, <i>New
+York</i>, 1848, p. 278, sums up his experience with regard to the Western
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>[pg 325]</span>
+tribes so well as to require quotation: "The language of signs is so
+perfectly understood in the Western country, and the Indians themselves
+are such admirable pantomimists, that, after a little use, no difficulty
+whatever exists in carrying on a conversation by such a channel; and
+there are few mountain men who are at a loss in thoroughly understanding
+and making themselves intelligible by signs alone, although they
+neither speak nor understand a word of the Indian tongue."</p>
+
+<p>Passing to the correspondents of the writer from remote parts of
+North America, it is important to notice that Mr. J.W. Powell, Indian
+superintendent, reports the use of sign language among the Kutine, and
+Mr. James Lenihan, Indian agent, among the Selish, both tribes of
+British Columbia. The Very Rev. Edward Jacker, while contributing
+information
+upon the present use of gesture language among the Ojibwas of
+Lake Superior, mentions that it has fallen into comparative neglect because
+for three generations they had not been in contact with tribes of a
+different
+speech. Dr. Francis H. Atkins, acting assistant surgeon, United
+States Army, in forwarding a contribution of signs of the Mescalero
+Apaches remarks: "I think it probable that they have used sign language
+rather less than many other Indians. They do not seem to use
+it to any extent at home, and abroad the only tribes they were likely
+to come into contact with were the Navajos, the Lipans of old Mexico,
+and the Comanches. Probably the last have been almost alone their
+visiting neighbors. They have also seen the Pueblos a little, these
+appearing
+to be, like the Ph&oelig;nicians of old, the traders of this region." He also
+alludes to the effect of the Spanish, or rather <i>lingua Mexicana</i>,
+upon all the Southern tribes and, indeed, upon those as far north as
+the Utes, by which recourse to signs is now rendered less necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this particular topic it is proper to admit that, while
+there is not only recorded testimony to the past use of gesture signs by
+several tribes of the Iroquoian and Algonkian families, but evidence
+that it still remains, it is, however, noticeable that these families when
+met by their first visitors do not appear to have often impressed the
+latter with their reliance upon gesture language to the same extent as
+has always been reported of the tribes now and formerly found farther
+inland. An explanation may be suggested from the fact that among
+those families there were more people dwelling near together in communities
+speaking the same language, though with dialectic peculiarities, than
+became known later in the farther West, and not being nomadic their
+intercourse with strange tribes was less individual and conversational.
+Some of the tribes, in especial the Iroquois proper, were in a
+comparatively
+advanced social condition. A Mohawk or Seneca would probably have
+repeated the arrogance of the old Romans, whom in other respects they
+resembled, and compelled persons of inferior tribes to learn his language
+if they desired to converse with him, instead of resorting to the
+compromise
+of gesture speech, which he had practiced before the prowess and policy of
+the confederated Five Nations had gained supremacy and which
+was still used for special purposes between the members of his own tribe.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>[pg 326]</span>
+The studies thus far pursued lead to the conclusion that at the time
+of the discovery of North America all its inhabitants practiced sign
+language, though with different degrees of expertness, and that while
+under changed circumstances it was disused by some, others, in especial
+those who after the acquisition of horses became nomads of the Great
+Plains, retained and cultivated it to the high development now attained,
+from which it will surely and speedily decay.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MISTAKEN DENIAL THAT SIGN LANGUAGE EXISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>The most useful suggestion to persons interested in the collection
+of signs is that they shall not too readily abandon the attempt to discover
+recollections of them even among tribes long exposed to European
+influence and officially segregated from others. The instances where
+their existence, at first denied, has been ascertained are important with
+reference to the theories advanced.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. J. Owen Dorsey has furnished a considerable vocabulary of signs
+finally procured from the Poncas, although, after residing among them
+for years, with thorough familiarity with their language, and after special
+and intelligent exertion to obtain some of their disused gesture language,
+he had before reported it to be entirely forgotten. A similar report was
+made by two missionaries among the Ojibwas, though other trustworthy
+authorities have furnished a copious list of signs obtained from that
+tribe. This is no imputation against the missionaries, as in October,
+1880, five intelligent Ojibwas from Petoskey, Mich., told the writer that
+they had never heard of gesture language. An interesting letter from
+Mr. B.O. Williams, sr., of Owasso, Mich., explains the gradual decadence
+of signs used by the Ojibwas in his recollection, embracing sixty years,
+as chiefly arising from general acquaintance with the English language.
+Further discouragement came from an Indian agent giving the decided
+statement, after four years of intercourse with the Pai-Utes, that no
+such thing as a communication by signs was known or even remembered
+by them, which, however, was less difficult to bear because on the day of
+the receipt of that well-intentioned missive some officers of the Bureau
+of Ethnology were actually talking in signs with a delegation of that
+very tribe of Indians then in Washington, from one of whom, N&#225;tci, a
+narrative printed in this paper (page <a href="#page500">500</a>), was received.</p>
+
+<p>The report from missionaries, army officers, and travelers in Alaska
+was unanimous against the existence of a sign language there until Mr.
+Ivan Petroff, whose explorations had been more extensive, gave the
+excellent exposition and dialogue now produced (see page <a href="#page492">492</a>). Collections
+were also obtained from the Apaches and Zu&#241;i, Pimas, Papagos,
+and Maricopas, after agents and travelers had denied them to be possessed
+of any knowledge on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>For the reasons mentioned under the last heading, little hope was
+entertained of procuring a collection from any of the Iroquoian stock, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>[pg 327]</span>
+the intelligent and respectable chief of the Wyandots, H&#233;nto (Gray Eyes),
+came to the rescue. His tribe was moved from Ohio in July, 1843, to
+the territory now occupied by the State of Kansas, and then again
+moved to Indian Territory, in 1870. He asserts that about one-third of the
+tribe, the older portion, know many signs, a partial list of which he gave
+with their descriptions. He was sure that those signs were used before the
+removal from Ohio, and he saw them used also by Shawnees, Delawares, and
+Senecas there.</p>
+
+<p>Unanimous denial of any existence of sign language came from the
+British provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and was followed by the collection
+obtained by the Hon. Horatio Hale. His statement of the time
+and manner of its being procured by him is not only interesting but
+highly instructive:</p>
+
+<p>"The aged Mohawk chief, from whom the information on this subject
+has been obtained, is commonly known by his English name of John
+Smoke Johnson. 'Smoke' is a rude version of his Indian name,
+<i>Sakayenkwaraton</i>, which may be rendered 'Disappearing Mist.' It is
+the term applied to the haze which rises in the morning of an autumn day,
+and gradually passes away. Chief Johnson has been for many years 'speaker'
+of the great council of the Six Nations. In former times he was noted as a
+warrior, and later has been esteemed one of the most eloquent orators of
+his race. At the age of eighty-eight years he retains much of his original
+energy. He is considered to have a better knowledge of the traditions and
+ancient customs of his people than any other person now living. This
+superior knowledge was strikingly apparent in the course of the
+investigations which were made respecting the sign language. Two other
+members of his tribe, well-educated and
+very intelligent men of middle age, the one a chief and government
+interpreter,
+the other a clergyman now settled over a white congregation,
+had both been consulted on the subject and both expressed the opinion
+that nothing of the sign language, properly speaking, was known among
+the Six Nations. They were alike surprised and interested when the old
+chief, in their presence, after much consideration, gradually drew forth
+from the stores of his memory the proofs of an accomplishment which
+had probably lain unused for more than half a century."</p>
+
+<p>One of the most conclusive instances of the general knowledge of sign
+language, even when seldom used, was shown in the visit of five Jicarilla
+Apaches to Washington in April, 1880, under the charge of Dr. Benjamin
+Thomas, their agent. The latter said he had never heard of any
+use of signs among them. But it happened that there was a delegation
+of Absaroka (Crows) at the same hotel, and the two parties from
+such widely separated regions, not knowing a word of each other's language,
+immediately began to converse in signs, resulting in a decided sensation.
+One of the Crows asked the Apaches whether they ate horses, and it
+happening that the sign for <i>eating</i> was misapprehended for that known
+by the Apaches for <i>many</i>, the question was supposed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>[pg 328]</span>
+to be whether the latter had many horses, which was answered in the
+affirmative. Thence ensued a misunderstanding on the subject of hippophagy,
+which was curious both as showing the general use of signs as a practice
+and the diversity in special signs for particular meanings. The surprise of
+the agent at the unsuspected accomplishment of his charges was not unlike
+that of a hen who, having hatched a number of duck eggs, is perplexed at
+the instinct with which the brood takes to the water.</p>
+
+<p>The denial of the use of signs is often faithfully though erroneously
+reported from the distinct statements of Indians to that effect. In that,
+as in other matters, they are often provokingly reticent about their old
+habits and traditions. Chief Ouray asserted to the writer, as he also did
+to Colonel Dodge, that his people, the Utes, had not the practice of sign
+talk, and had no use for it. This was much in the proud spirit in
+which an Englishman would have made the same statement, as the idea
+involved an accusation against the civilization of his people, which he
+wished to appear highly advanced. Still more frequently the Indians do not
+distinctly comprehend what is sought to be obtained. Sometimes, also, the
+art, abandoned in general, only remains in the memories of a few persons
+influenced by special circumstances or individual fancy.</p>
+
+<p>In this latter regard a comparison may be made with the old science
+of heraldry, once of practical use and a necessary part of a liberal
+education,
+of which hardly a score of persons in the United States have
+any but the vague knowledge that it once existed; yet the united memories
+of those persons could, in the absence of records, reproduce all
+essential points on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Another cause for the mistaken denial in question must be mentioned.
+When travelers or sojourners have become acquainted with signs in any
+one place they may assume that those signs constitute <i>the</i> sign
+language,
+and if they afterwards meet tribes not at once recognizing those signs,
+they remove all difficulty about the theory of a "one and indivisible"
+sign language by simply asserting that the tribes so met do not understand
+<i>the</i> sign language, or perhaps that they do not use signs at all.
+This precise assertion has, as above mentioned, been made regarding the
+Utes and Apaches. Of course, also, Indians who have not been
+brought into sufficient contact with certain tribes using different signs,
+for the actual trial which would probably result in mutual comprehension,
+tell the travelers the same story. It is the venerable one of
+"&alpha;&gamma;&lambda;&omega;&sigma;&sigma;&omicron;&sigmaf;,"
+"Njemez," "barbarian," and "stammering," above noted,
+applied to the hands instead of the tongue. Thus an observer possessed
+by a restrictive theory will find no signs where they are in plenty, while
+another determined on the universality and identity of sign language
+can, as elsewhere explained, produce, from perhaps the same individuals,
+evidence in his favor from the apparently conclusive result of
+successful communication.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>[pg 329]</span>
+
+
+<h4>PERMANENCE OF SIGNS.</h4>
+
+<p>In connection with any theory it is important to inquire into the
+permanence
+of particular gesture signs to express a special idea or object
+when the system has been long continued. Many examples have been
+given above showing that the gestures of classic times are still in use
+by the modern Italians with the same signification; indeed that the
+former on Greek vases or reliefs or in Herculanean bronzes can only be
+interpreted by the latter. In regard to the signs of instructed deaf-mutes
+in this country there appears to be a permanence beyond expectation.
+Mr. Edmund Booth, a pupil of the Hartford Institute half a century
+ago, and afterwards a teacher, says in the "<i>Annals</i>" for April,
+1880, that the signs used by teachers and pupils at Hartford, Philadelphia,
+Washington, Council Bluffs, and Omaha were nearly the same as
+he had learned. "We still adhere to the old sign for President from
+Monroe's three-cornered hat, and for governor we designate the cockade
+worn by that dignitary on grand occasions three generations ago."</p>
+
+<p>The specific comparisons made, especially by Dr. Washington Matthews
+and Dr. W.O. Boteler, of the signs reported by the Prince of Wied in
+1832 with those now used by the same tribes from whom he obtained
+them, show a remarkable degree of permanency in many of those that
+were so clearly described by the Prince as to be proper subjects of any
+comparison. If they have persisted for half a century their age is probably
+much greater. In general it is believed that signs, constituting as
+they do a natural mode of expression, though enlarging in scope as new
+ideas and new objects require to be included and though abbreviated as
+hereinafter explained, do not readily change in their essentials.</p>
+
+<p>The writer has before been careful to explain that he does not present
+any signs as precisely those of primitive man, not being so carried away
+by enthusiasm as to suppose them possessed of immutability and immortality
+not found in any other mode of human utterance. Yet such signs
+as are generally prevalent among Indian tribes, and also in other parts
+of the world, must be of great antiquity. The use of derivative meanings
+to a sign only enhances this presumption. At first there might
+not appear to be any connection between the ideas of <i>same</i> and
+<i>wife</i>,
+expressed by the sign of horizontally extending the two forefingers side
+by side. The original idea was doubtless that given by the Welsh captain
+in Shakspere's Henry V: "'Tis so like as my fingers is to my
+fingers," and from this similarity comes "equal," "companion," and
+subsequently the close life-companion "wife." The sign is used in each
+of these senses by different Indian tribes, and sometimes the same tribe
+applies it in all of the senses as the context determines. It appears also
+in many lands with all the significations except that of "wife." It is
+proper here to mention that the suggestion of several correspondents
+that the Indian sign as applied to "wife" refers to "lying together" is
+rendered improbable by the fact that when the same tribes desire to
+express the sexual relation of marriage it is gestured otherwise.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>[pg 330]</span>
+Many signs but little differentiated were unstable, while others that
+have proved the best modes of expression have survived as definite and
+established. Their prevalence and permanence being mainly determined by the
+experience of their utility, it would be highly interesting to ascertain
+how long a time was required for a distinctly new conception or
+execution to gain currency, become "the fashion," so to speak, over a
+large part of the continent, and to be supplanted by a new "mode." A
+note may be made in this connection of the large number of diverse
+signs for <i>horse</i>, all of which must have been invented within a
+comparatively
+recent period, and the small variation in the signs for <i>dog</i>,
+which are probably ancient.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SURVIVAL IN GESTURE.</h4>
+
+<p>Even when the specific practice of sign language has been generally
+discontinued for more than one generation, either from the adoption
+of a jargon or from the common use of the tongue of the conquering
+English, French, or Spanish, some of the gestures formerly employed as
+substitutes for words may survive as a customary accompaniment to oratory
+or impassioned conversation, and, when ascertained, should be carefully
+noted. An example, among many, may be found in the fact that
+the now civilized Muskoki or Creeks, as mentioned by Rev. H.F. Buckner,
+when speaking of the height of children or women, illustrate their
+words by holding their hands at the proper elevation, palm up; but
+when describing the height of "soulless" animals or inanimate objects,
+they hold the palm downward. This, when correlated with the distinctive
+signs of other Indians, is an interesting case of the survival of a
+practice which, so far as yet reported, the oldest men of the tribe, now
+living only remember to have once existed. It is probable that a collection
+of such distinctive gestures among the most civilized Indians
+would reproduce enough of their ancient system to be valuable, while
+possibly the persistent inquirer might in his search discover some of its
+surviving custodians even among Chabta or Cheroki, Innuit or Abnaki,
+Klamath or Nutka.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DISTINCTION BETWEEN IDENTITY OF SIGNS AND THEIR USE AS AN ART.</h4>
+
+<p>The general report that there is but one sign language in North America,
+any deviation from which is either blunder, corruption, or a dialect in
+the nature of provincialism, may be examined in reference to some of the
+misconceived facts which gave it origin and credence. It may not appear
+to be necessary that such examination should be directed to any mode of
+collecting and comparing signs which would amount to their distortion.
+It is useful, however, to explain that distortion would result from
+following
+the views of a recent essayist, who takes the ground that the description
+of signs should be made according to a "mean" or average. There can be no
+philosophic consideration of signs according to a "mean" of observations.
+The proper object is to ascertain the radical or essential part
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>[pg 331]</span>
+as distinct from any individual flourish or mannerism on the one hand, and
+from a conventional or accidental abbreviation on the other; but
+a mere average will not accomplish that object. If the hand, being
+in any position whatever, is, according to five observations, moved
+horizontally one foot to the right, and, according to five other
+observations,
+moved one foot horizontally to the left, the "mean" or resultant
+will be that it is stationary, which sign does not correspond
+with any of the ten observations. So if six observations give it a
+rapid motion of one foot to the right and five a rapid motion of the
+same distance to the left, the mean or resultant would be somewhat
+difficult to express, but perhaps would be a slow movement to the right
+for an inch or two, having certainly no resemblance either in essentials
+or accidents to any of the signs actually observed. In like manner
+the tail of the written letter "<i>y</i>" (which, regarding its mere
+formation,
+might be a graphic sign) may have in the chirography of several
+persons various degrees of slope, may be a straight line, or looped, and
+may be curved on either side; but a "mean" taken from the several
+manuscripts would leave the unfortunate letter without any tail whatever,
+or travestied as a "<i>u</i>" with an amorphous flourish. A definition
+of the radical form of the letter or sign by which it can be distinguished
+from any other letter or sign is a very different proceeding. Therefore,
+if a "mean" or resultant of any number of radically different signs to
+express the same object or idea, observed either among several individuals
+of the same tribe or among different tribes, is made to represent
+those signs, they are all mutilated and ignored as distinctive
+signs, though the result may possibly be made intelligible in practice,
+according to principles mentioned in the present paper. The expedient
+of a "mean" may be practically useful in the formation of a mere
+interpreter's
+jargon, but it elucidates no principle. It is also convenient
+for any one determined to argue for the uniformity of sign language
+as against the variety in unity apparent in all the realms of nature.
+On the "mean" principle, he only needs to take his two-foot rule and
+arithmetical tables and make all signs his signs and his signs all signs.
+Of course they are uniform, because he has made them so after the
+brutal example of Procrustes.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it is proper to urge a warning that a mere sign
+talker is often a bad authority upon principles and theories. He may
+not be liable to the satirical compliment of Dickens's "brave courier,"
+who "understood all languages indifferently ill"; but many men speak
+some one language fluently, and yet are wholly unable to explain or
+analyze its words and forms so as to teach it to another person, or even
+to give an intelligent summary or classification of their own knowledge.
+What such a sign talker has learned is by memorizing, as a child may
+learn English, and though both the sign talker and the child may be able
+to give some separate items useful to a philologist or foreigner, such
+items are spoiled when colored by the attempt of ignorance to theorize.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>[pg 332]</span>
+A German who has studied English to thorough mastery, except in the
+mere facility of speech, may in a discussion upon some of its principles
+be contradicted by any mere English speaker, who insists upon his
+superior knowledge because he actually speaks the language and his
+antagonist does not, but the student will probably be correct and the
+talker wrong. It is an old adage about oral speech that a man who
+understands but one language understands none. The science of a
+sign talker possessed by a restrictive theory is like that of Mirabeau,
+who was greater as an orator than as a philologist, and who on a visit
+to England gravely argued that there was something seriously wrong
+in the British mind because the people would persist in saying "give
+me some bread" instead of "<i>donnez-moi du pain</i>," which was so much
+easier and more natural. A designedly ludicrous instance to the same
+effect was Hood's arraignment of the French because they called their
+mothers "mares" and their daughters "fillies." It is necessary to take
+with caution any statement from a person who, having memorized or
+hashed up any number of signs, large or small, has decided in his conceit
+that those he uses are the only genuine Simon Pure, to be exclusively
+employed according to his direction, all others being counterfeits
+or blunders. His vocabulary has ceased to give the signs of any Indian
+or body of Indians whatever, but becomes his own, the proprietorship
+of which he fights for as if secured by letters-patent. When a
+sign is contributed by one of the present collaborators, which such a
+sign talker has not before seen or heard of, he will at once condemn it
+as bad, just as a United States Minister to Vienna, who had been nursed
+in the mongrel Dutch of Berks County, Pennsylvania, declared that the
+people of Germany spoke very bad German.</p>
+
+<p>An argument for the uniformity of the signs of our Indians is derived
+from the fact that those used by any of them are generally understood by
+others. But signs may be understood without being identical with any
+before seen. The entribal as well as intertribal exercise of Indians for
+generations in gesture language has naturally produced great skill both
+in expression and reception, so as to render them measurably independent
+of any prior mutual understanding, or what in a system of signals is called
+preconcert. Two accomplished army signalists can, after sufficient trial,
+communicate without having any code in common between them, one
+being mutually devised, and those specially designed for secrecy are
+often deciphered. So, if any one of the more conventional signs is
+not quickly comprehended, an Indian skilled in the principle of signs
+resorts to another expression of his flexible art, perhaps reproducing
+the gesture unabbreviated and made more graphic, perhaps presenting
+either the same or another conception or quality of the same object or
+idea by an original portraiture.</p>
+
+<p>An impression of the community of signs is the more readily made
+because explorers and officials are naturally brought into contact more
+closely with those individuals of the tribes visited who are experts in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>[pg 333]</span>
+sign language than with their other members, and those experts, on
+account of their skill as interpreters, are selected as guides to accompany
+the visitors. The latter also seek occasion to be present when
+signs are used, whether with or without words, in intertribal councils,
+and then the same class of experts comprises the orators, for long exercise
+in gesture speech has made the Indian politicians, with no special
+effort, masters of the art acquired by our public speakers only after
+laborious apprenticeship. The whole theory and practice of sign language
+being that all who understand its principles can make themselves
+mutually intelligible, the fact of the ready comprehension and response
+among all the skilled gesturers gives the impression of a common code.
+Furthermore, if the explorer learn to employ with ingenuity the signs used
+by any of the tribes, he will probably be understood in any other by the
+same class of persons who will surround him in the latter, thereby
+confirming him in the "common" theory. Those of the tribe who are less
+skilled, but who are not noticed, might be unable to catch the meaning
+of signs which have not been actually taught to them, just as ignorant
+persons among us cannot derive any sense from newly-coined words or
+those strange to their habitual vocabulary, which, though never before
+heard, linguistic scholars would instantly understand and might afterward
+adopt.</p>
+
+<p>It is also common experience that when Indians find that a sign which
+has become conventional among their tribe is not understood by an
+interlocutor,
+a self-expressive sign is substituted for it, from which a visitor may
+form the impression that there are no conventional signs. It may likewise
+occur that the self-expressive sign substituted will be met with by
+a visitor in several localities, different Indians, in their ingenuity,
+taking the best and the same means of reaching the exotic intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>There is some evidence that where sign language is now found among
+Indian tribes it has become more uniform than ever before, simply because
+many tribes have for some time past been forced to dwell near together
+at peace. A collection was obtained in the spring of 1880, at Washington,
+from a united delegation of the Kaiowa, Comanche, Apache, and
+Wichita tribes, which was nearly uniform, but the individuals who gave
+the signs had actually lived together at or near Anadarko, Indian
+Territory,
+for a considerable time, and the resulting uniformity of their signs
+might either be considered as a jargon or as the natural tendency to
+a compromise for mutual understanding&mdash;the unification so often observed
+in oral speech, coming under many circumstances out of former
+heterogeneity. The rule is that dialects precede languages and that out
+of many dialects comes one language. It may be found that other individuals
+of those same tribes who have from any cause not lived in the
+union explained may have signs for the same ideas different from those
+in the collection above mentioned. This is probable, because some signs
+of other representatives of one of the component bodies&mdash;Apache&mdash;have
+actually been reported differing from those for the same ideas given by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>[pg 334]</span>
+the Anadarko group. The uniformity of the signs of those Arapahos,
+Cheyennes, and Sioux who have been secluded for years at one particular
+reservation, so far as could be done by governmental power, from the
+outer world, was used in argument by a correspondent; but some collected
+signs of other Cheyennes and Sioux differ, not only from those on
+the reservation, but among each other. Therefore the signs used in
+common by the tribes at the reservation seem to have been modified
+and to a certain extent unified.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the collation and analysis of the large number of signs
+collected is that in numerous instances there is an entire discrepancy
+between the signs made by different bodies of Indians to express the
+same idea, and that if any of these are regarded as rigidly determinate,
+or even conventional with a limited range, and used without further
+devices, they will fail in conveying the desired impression to any one
+unskilled in gesture as an art, who had not formed the same precise
+conception or been instructed in the arbitrary motion. Few of the gestures
+that are found in current use are, in their origin, conventional.
+They are only portions, more or less elaborate, of obvious natural
+pantomime, and those proving efficient to convey most successfully at any
+time the several ideas became the most widely adopted, liable, however,
+to be superseded by more appropriate conceptions and delineations. The
+skill of any tribe and the copiousness of its signs are proportioned first
+to the necessity for their use, and secondly to the accidental ability of
+the individuals in it who act as custodians and teachers, so that the
+several tribes at different times vary in their degree of proficiency, and
+therefore both the precise mode of semiotic expression and the amount
+of its general use are always fluctuating. Sign language as a product
+of evolution has been developed rather than invented, and yet it seems
+probable that each of the separate signs, like the several steps that lead
+to any true invention, had a definite origin arising out of some
+appropriate occasion, and the same sign may in this manner have had many
+independent origins due to identity in the circumstances, or if lost, may
+have been reproduced.</p>
+
+<p>The process is precisely the same as that observed among deaf-mutes.
+One of those unfortunate persons, living with his speaking relatives, may
+invent signs which the latter are taught to understand, though strangers
+sometimes will not, because they may be by no means the fittest
+expressions. Should a dozen or more deaf-mutes, possessed only of such crude
+signs, come together, they will be able at first to communicate only on
+a few common subjects, but the number of those and the general scope
+of expression will be continually enlarged. Each one commences with
+his own conception and his own presentment of it, but the universality
+of the medium used makes it sooner or later understood. This independent
+development, thus creating diversity, often renders the first interchange
+of thought between strangers slow, for the signs must be self-interpreting.
+There can be no natural universal language which is absolute
+and arbitrary. When used without convention, as sign language
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>[pg 335]</span>
+alone of all modes of utterance can be, it must be tentative, experimental,
+and flexible. The mutes will also resort to the invention of new signs
+for new ideas as they arise, which will be made intelligible, if necessary,
+through the illustration and definition given by signs formerly adopted,
+so that the fittest signs will be evolved, after rivalry and trial, and
+will survive. But there may not always be such a preponderance of fitness
+that all but one of the rival signs shall die out, and some, being equal in
+value to express the same idea or object, will continue to be used
+indifferently,
+or as a matter of individual taste, without confusion. A multiplication
+of the numbers confined together, either of deaf-mutes or of Indians
+whose speech is diverse, will not decrease the resulting uniformity,
+though it will increase both the copiousness and the precision of the
+vocabulary. The Indian use of signs, though maintained by linguistic
+diversities, is not coincident with any linguistic boundaries. The tendency
+is to their uniformity among groups of people who from any cause
+are brought into contact with each other while still speaking different
+languages. The longer and closer such contact, while no common tongue
+is adopted, the greater will be the uniformity of signs.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Dodge takes a middle ground with regard to the identity of
+the signs used by our Indians, comparing it with the dialects and
+provincialisms
+of the English language, as spoken in England, Ireland,
+Scotland, and Wales. But those dialects are the remains of actually
+diverse languages, which to some speakers have not become integrated.
+In England alone the provincial dialects are traceable as the legacies of
+Saxons, Angles, Jutes, and Danes, with a varying amount of Norman
+influence. A thorough scholar in the composite tongue, now called English,
+will be able to understand all the dialects and provincialisms of
+English in the British Isles, but the uneducated man of Yorkshire is not
+able to communicate readily with the equally uneducated man of
+Somersetshire.
+This is the true distinction to be made. A thorough sign talker
+would be able to talk with several Indians who have no signs in common,
+and who, if their knowledge of signs were only memorized, could not
+communicate together. So also, as an educated Englishman will understand
+the attempts of a foreigner to speak in very imperfect and broken English,
+a good Indian sign expert will apprehend the feeble efforts of a tyro in
+gestures. But Colonel Dodge's conclusion that there is but one true Indian
+sign language, just as there is but one true English language, is not
+proved unless it can be shown that a much larger proportion of the Indians
+who use signs at all, than present researches show to be the case, use
+identically the same signs to express the same ideas. It would also seem
+necessary to the parallel that the signs so used should be absolute, if not
+arbitrary, as are the words of an oral language, and not independent of
+preconcert and self-interpreting at the instant of their invention or first
+exhibition, as all true signs must originally have been and still
+measurably
+remain. All Indians, as all gesturing men, have many natural signs in
+common and many others which are now conventional. The conventions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>[pg 336]</span>
+by which the latter were established occurred during long periods, when
+the tribes forming them were so separated as to have established altogether
+diverse customs and mythologies, and when the several tribes were
+with such different environment as to have formed varying conceptions
+needing appropriate sign expression. The old error that the North
+American Indians constitute one homogeneous race is now abandoned.
+Nearly all the characteristics once alleged as segregating them from the
+rest of mankind have proved not to belong to the whole of the
+pre-Columbian population, but only to those portions of it first explored.
+The practice of scalping is not now universal, even among the tribes least
+influenced by civilization, if it ever was, and therefore the cultivation
+of the scalp-lock separated from the rest of the hair of the head, or with
+the removal of all other hair, is not a general feature of their
+appearance. The arrangement of the hair is so different among tribes as to
+be one of the most convenient modes for their pictorial distinction. The
+war paint, red in some tribes, was black in others; the mystic rites of
+the calumet were in many regions unknown, and the use of wampum
+was by no means extensive. The wigwam is not the type of native
+dwellings, which show as many differing forms as those of Europe. In
+color there is great variety, and even admitting that the term "race"
+is properly applied, no competent observer would characterize it as red,
+still less copper-colored. Some tribes differ from each other in all
+respects
+nearly as much as either of them do from the lazzaroni of Naples,
+and more than either do from certain tribes of Australia. It would
+therefore be expected, as appears to be the case, that the conventional
+signs of different stocks and regions differ as do the words of English,
+French, and German, which, nevertheless, have sprung from the same
+linguistic roots. No one of those languages is a dialect of any of the
+others; and although the sign systems of the several tribes have greater
+generic unity with less specific variety than oral languages, no one of
+them is necessarily the dialect of any other.</p>
+
+<p>Instead, therefore, of admitting, with present knowledge, that the
+signs of our Indians are "identical" and "universal," it is the more
+accurate
+statement that the systematic attempt to convey meaning by
+signs is universal among the Indians of the Plains, and those still
+comparatively
+unchanged by civilization. Its successful execution is by an
+<i>art</i>, which, however it may have commenced as an instinctive mental
+process, has been cultivated, and consists in actually pointing out objects
+in sight not only for designation, but for application and predication, and
+in suggesting others to the mind by action and the airy forms produced by
+action. To insist that sign language is uniform were to assert that it is
+perfect&mdash;"That faultless monster that the world ne'er saw."</p>
+
+
+<h4>FORCED AND MISTAKEN SIGNS.</h4>
+
+<p>Examination into the identity of signs is complicated by the fact that in
+the collection and description of Indian signs there is danger lest the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>[pg 337]</span>
+civilized understanding of them may be mistaken or forced. The liability
+to those errors is much increased when the collections are not taken
+directly from the Indians themselves, but are given as obtained at
+second-hand
+from white traders, trappers, and interpreters, who, through
+misconception in the beginning and their own introduction or modification
+of gestures, have produced a jargon in the sign, as well as in the
+oral intercourse. An Indian talking in signs, either to a white man or
+to another Indian using signs which he never saw before, catches the
+meaning of that which is presented and adapts himself to it, at least
+for the occasion. Even when he finds that his interlocutor insists upon
+understanding and presenting a certain sign in a manner and with a
+significance
+widely different from those to which he has been accustomed,
+it is within the very nature, tentative and elastic, of the gesture
+art&mdash;both performers being on an equality&mdash;that he should adopt the
+one that seems to be recognized or that is pressed upon him, as with
+much greater difficulty he has learned and adopted many foreign terms
+used with whites before attempting to acquire their language, but never
+with his own race. Thus there is now, and perhaps always has been,
+what may be called a <i>lingua-franca</i>, in the sign vocabulary. It is
+well known that all the tribes of the Plains having learned by experience
+that white visitors expect to receive certain signs really originating with
+the latter, use them in their intercourse just as they sometimes do the
+words "squaw" and "papoose," corruptions of the Algonkian, and once
+as meaningless in the present West as the English terms "woman" and
+"child," but which the first pioneers, having learned them on the Atlantic
+coast, insisted upon treating as generally intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>The perversity in attaching through preconceived views a wrong significance
+to signs is illustrated by an anecdote found in several versions
+and in several languages, but repeated as a veritable Scotch legend by
+Duncan Anderson, esq., Principal of the Glasgow Institution for the Deaf
+and Dumb, when he visited Washington in 1853.</p>
+
+<p>King James I. of England, desiring to play a trick upon the Spanish
+ambassador, a man of great erudition, but who had a crotchet in his
+head upon sign language, informed him that there was a distinguished
+professor of that science in the university at Aberdeen. The ambassador
+set out for that place, preceded by a letter from the King with
+instructions to make the best of him. There was in the town one Geordy,
+a butcher, blind of one eye, a fellow of much wit and drollery. Geordy
+is told to play the part of a professor, with the warning not to speak a
+word; is gowned, wigged, and placed in a chair of state, when the
+ambassador is shown in and they are left alone together. Presently the
+nobleman came out greatly pleased with the experiment, claiming that
+his theory was demonstrated. He said: "When I entered the room I
+raised one finger to signify there is one God. He replied by raising two
+fingers to signify that this Being rules over two worlds, the material
+and the spiritual. Then I raised three fingers, to say there are three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>[pg 338]</span>
+persons in the Godhead. He then closed his fingers, evidently to say
+these three are one." After this explanation on the part of the nobleman
+the professors sent for the butcher and asked him what took place
+in the recitation room. He appeared very angry and said: "When the
+crazy man entered the room where I was he raised one finger, as much
+as to say I had but one eye, and I raised two fingers to signify that I
+could see out of my one eye as well as he could out of both of his.
+When he raised three fingers, as much as to say there were but three
+eyes between us, I doubled up my fist, and if he had not gone out of
+that room in a hurry I would have knocked him down."</p>
+
+<p>The readiness with which a significance may be found in signs when
+none whatever exists is also shown in the great contest narrated by
+Rabelais between Panurge and the English philosopher, Thaumast, commencing
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"Everybody then taking heed in great silence, the Englishman lifted
+his two hands separately, clinching the ends of his fingers in the form
+that at Chion they call the fowl's tail. Then he struck them, together
+by the nails four times. Then he opened them and struck one flat upon
+the other with a clash once; after which, joining them as above, he
+struck twice, and four times afterwards, on opening them. Then he
+placed them, joined and extended the one above the other, seeming to
+pray God devoutly.</p>
+
+<p>"Panurge suddenly moved his right hand in the air, placed the
+right-hand thumb at the right-hand nostril, holding the four fingers
+stretched out and arrayed in parallel lines with the point of the nose;
+shutting the left eye entirely, and winking with the right, making a
+profound depression with eyebrow and eyelid. Next he raised aloft the left
+with a strong clinching and extension of the four fingers and elevation of
+the thumb, and held it in line directly corresponding with the position of
+the right, the distance between the two being a cubit and a half. This
+done, in the like manner he lowered towards the ground both hands, and
+finally held them in the midst as if aiming straight at the Englishman's
+nose."</p>
+
+<p>And so on at great length. The whole performance of Panurge was
+to save the credit of Pantagruel by making fantastic and mystic motions
+in pretended disputation with the signs given by Thaumast in good
+faith. Yet the latter confessed himself conquered, and declared that he
+had derived inestimable information from the purposely meaningless
+gestures. The satire upon the diverse interpretations of the gestures
+of Naz-de-cabre (<i>Pantagruel</i>, Book III, chap. xx) is to the same
+effect, showing it to have been a favorite theme with Rabelais.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ABBREVIATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>A lesson was learned by the writer as to the abbreviation of signs,
+and the possibility of discovering the original meaning of those most
+obscure, from the attempts of a Cheyenne to convey the idea of <i>old man</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>[pg 339]</span>
+He held his right hand forward, bent at elbow, fingers and thumb closed
+sidewise. This not conveying any sense, he found a long stick, bent his
+back, and supported his frame in a tottering step by the stick held, as
+was before only imagined. Here at once was decrepit age dependent
+on a staff. The principle of abbreviation or reduction may be illustrated
+by supposing a person, under circumstances forbidding the use of the
+voice, seeking to call attention to a particular bird on a tree, and
+failing
+to do so by mere indication. Descriptive signs are resorted to, perhaps
+suggesting the bill and wings of the bird, its manner of clinging to the
+twig with its feet, its size by seeming to hold it between the hands, its
+color by pointing to objects of the same hue; perhaps by the action of
+shooting into a tree, picking up the supposed fallen game, and plucking
+feathers. These are continued until understood, and if one sign or
+combination of signs proves to be successful it will be repeated on the
+next occasion by both persons engaged, and after becoming familiar between
+them and others will be more and more abbreviated. Conventionality
+in signs largely consists in the form of abbreviation which is agreed upon.
+When the signs of the Indians have from ideographic form thus become
+demotic, they may be called conventional, but still not arbitrary. In
+them, as in all his actions, man had at the first a definite meaning or
+purpose, together with method in their subsequent changes or modifications.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Dodge gives a clear account of the manner in which an established
+sign is abbreviated in practice, as follows: "There are an almost
+infinite number and variety of abbreviations. For instance, to tell a
+man to 'talk,' the most common formal sign is made thus: Hold the
+right hand in front of, the back near, the mouth, end of thumb and
+index-finger joined into an 'O,' the outer fingers closed on the palm;
+throw the hand forward sharply by a quick motion of the wrist, and
+at the same time flip forward the index-finger. This may be done once
+or several times.</p>
+
+<p>"The formal sign to 'cease' or 'stop doing' anything is made by bringing
+the two hands open and held vertically in front of the body, one
+behind the other, then quickly pass one upward, the other downward,
+simulating somewhat the motion of the limbs of a pair of scissors,
+meaning 'cut it off.' The latter sign is made in conversation in a variety
+of ways, but habitually with one hand only.</p>
+
+<p>"The formal sign to 'stop talking' is first to make the formal sign for
+'talk,' then the formal sign for 'cut;' but this is commonly abbreviated
+by first making the formal sign for 'talk' with the right hand, and then
+immediately passing the same hand, open, fingers extended, downward
+across and in front of the mouth, 'talk, cut.'</p>
+
+<p>"But though the Plains Indian, if asked for the sign to 'stop talking,'
+will properly give the sign either in its extended or abbreviated
+form as above, he in conversation abbreviates it so much further that
+the sign loses almost all resemblance to its former self. Whatever the
+position of the hand, a turn of the wrist, a flip of the forefinger, and a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>[pg 340]</span>
+turn, of the wrist back to its original position is fully equivalent to the
+elaborate signs."</p>
+
+<p>It may be added that nearly every sign which to be intelligibly described
+and as exhibited in full requires the use of both hands, is outlined,
+with one hand only, by skillful Indians gesturing between themselves,
+so as to be clearly understood between them. Two Indians, whose
+blankets are closely held to their bodies by the left hand, which is
+necessarily
+rendered unavailable for gesture, will severally thrust the right
+from beneath the protecting folds and converse freely. The same is true
+when one hand of each holds the bridle of a horse.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian signs are also made in such abbreviated forms as to be
+little more than hinted at, requiring a perfect knowledge of the full and
+original form before the slight and often furtive suggestion of it can be
+understood. Deaf-mutes continually seek by tacit agreement to shorten
+their signs more and more. While the original of each may be preserved
+in root or stem, it is only known to the proficient, as the root
+or stem of a plant enables botanists, but no others, to distinguish it.
+Thus the natural character of signs, the universal significance which is
+their peculiarly distinctive feature, may and often does become lost.
+From the operation of the principle of independent and individual
+abbreviation
+inherent in all sign language, without any other cause, that of
+the Indians must in one or two generations have become diverse, even
+if it had in fact originated from one tribe in which all conceptions and
+executions were absolute.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>ARE SIGNS CONVENTIONAL OR INSTINCTIVE?</i></h3>
+
+<p>There has been much discussion on the question whether gesture signs
+were originally invented, in the strict sense of that term, or whether they
+result from a natural connection between them and the ideas represented
+by them, that is whether they are conventional or instinctive.
+Cardinal Wiseman (<i>Essays</i>, III, 537) thinks that they are of both
+characters;
+but referring particularly to the Italian signs and the proper
+mode of discovering their meaning, observes that they are used primarily
+with words and from the usual accompaniment of certain phrases.
+"For these the gestures become substitutes, and then by association
+express all their meaning, even when used alone." This would be the
+process only where systematic gestures had never prevailed or had been
+so disused as to be forgotten, and were adopted after elaborate oral
+phrases and traditional oral expressions had become common. In other
+parts of this paper it is suggested that conventionality chiefly consists
+in abbreviation, and that signs are originally self-interpreting,
+independent
+of words, and therefore in a certain sense instinctive.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of the above query, having the same intent, is whether
+signs are arbitrary or natural. The answer will depend upon what the
+observer considers to be natural to himself. A common sign among
+both deaf-mutes and Indians for <i>woman</i> consists in designating the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>[pg 341]</span>
+arrangement of the hair, but such a represented arrangement of hair
+familiar to the gesturer as had never been seen by the person addressed
+would not seem "natural" to the latter. It would be classed as arbitrary,
+and could not be understood without context or explanation,
+indeed without translation such as is required from foreign oral speech.
+Signs most naturally, that is, appropriately, expressing a conception of
+the thing signified, are first adopted and afterwards modified by
+circumstances
+of environment, so as to appear, without full understanding,
+conventional and arbitrary, yet they are as truly "natural" as the signs
+for
+hearing, seeing, eating, and drinking, which continue all over the world
+as they were first formed because there is no change in those operations.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>CLASSES OF DIVERSITIES IN SIGNS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>While there is not sufficient evidence that any exhibition of sign
+language in any tribe is a dialect derived or corrupted from an ascertained
+language in any other tribe, it still is convenient to consider the
+different forms appearing in different tribes as several dialects (in the
+usual mode of using that term) of a common language. Every sign
+talker necessarily has, to some extent, a dialect of his own. No one
+can use sign language without original invention and without modification
+of the inventions of others; and all such new inventions and modifications
+have a tendency to spread and influence the production of other
+variations. The diversities thus occasioned are more distinct than that
+mere individuality of style or expression which may be likened to the
+differing chirography of men who write, although such individual
+characteristics
+also constitute an important element of confusion to the
+inexperienced observer. In differing handwriting there is always an
+attempt or desire to represent an alphabet which is essentially
+determinate,
+but no such fixedness or limited condition of form restricts
+gesture speech.</p>
+
+<p>Those variations and diversities of form and connected significance
+specially calling for notice may be: 1st. In the nature of synonyms.
+2d. Substantially the same form with such different signification as not
+to be synonymous. 3d. Difference in significance produced by such
+slight variation in form as to be, to a careless observer, <i>symmorphic</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SYNONYMS.</h4>
+
+<p>In this division are placed signs of differing forms which are used in
+senses so nearly the same as to have only a slight shade of distinction,
+or sometimes to be practically interchangeable. The comprehensive
+and metaphorical character of signs renders more of them interchangeable
+than is the case with words; still, like words, some signs with
+essential resemblance of meaning have partial and subordinate differences
+made by etymology or usage. Doubtless signs are purposely
+selected as delineating the most striking outlines of an object, or the
+most characteristic features of an action; but different individuals, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>[pg 342]</span>
+likewise different bodies of people, would not always agree in the
+selection of those outlines and features. Taking the illustration of the
+attempt to invent a sign for <i>bird</i>, before used, any one of a dozen,
+signs might have been agreed upon with equal appropriateness, and, in
+fact, a number have been so selected by several individuals and tribes,
+each one, therefore, being a synonym of the other. Another example of
+this is in the signs for <i>deer</i>, designated by various modes of
+expressing
+fleetness, by his gait when not in rapid motion, by the shape of his horns,
+by the color of his tail, and sometimes by combinations of several of
+those characteristics. Each of these signs may be indefinitely abbreviated,
+and therefore create indefinite diversity. Another illustration, in
+which an association of ideas is apparent, is in the upward raising of
+the index in front of and above the head, which means <i>above</i>
+(sometimes containing the religious conception of <i>heaven, great
+spirit</i>, &amp;c.), and also <i>now, to-day</i>. Not unfrequently these
+several signs to express the
+same ideas are used interchangeably by the same people, and some one
+of the duplicates or triplicates may have been noticed by separate
+observers to the exclusion of the others. On the other hand, they might
+all have been noticed, but each one among different bodies. Thus confusing
+reports would be received, which might either be erroneous in
+deducing the prevalence of particular signs or the opposite. Sometimes
+the synonym may be recognized as an imported sign, used with another
+tribe known to affect it. Sometimes the diverse signs to express the
+same thing are only different trials at reaching the intelligence of the
+person addressed. An account is given by Lieut. Heber M. Creel, Seventh
+Cavalry, U.S.A., of an old Cheyenne squaw, who made about
+twenty successive and original signs to a recruit of the Fourth Cavalry
+to let him know that she wanted to obtain out of a wagon a piece of
+cloth belonging to her, to wipe out an oven preparatory to baking bread.
+Thus by tradition, importation, recent invention, or from all these causes
+together, several signs entirely distinct are produced for the same object
+or action.</p>
+
+<p>This class is not intended to embrace the cases common both to sign and
+oral language where the same sign has several meanings, according to the
+expression, whether facial or vocal, and the general manner accompanying
+its delivery. The sign given, for "stop talking" on page <a href="#page339">339</a> may be
+used in simple acquiescence, "very well," "all right!" or for
+comprehension,
+"I understand;" or in impatience, "you have talked enough!" which
+may be carried further to express actual anger in the violent "shut up!"
+But all these grades of thought accompany the idea of a cessation of
+talk. In like manner an acquaintance of the writer asking the same
+favor (a permission to go through their camp) of two chiefs, was answered
+by both with the sign generally used for repletion after eating, viz., the
+index and thumb turned toward the body, passed up from the abdomen
+to the throat; but in the one case, being made with a gentle motion and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>[pg 343]</span>
+pleasant look, it meant, "I am satisfied," and granted the request; in the
+other, made violently, with the accompaniment of a truculent frown, it
+read, "I have had enough of that!" But these two meanings might also have
+been expressed by different intonations of the English word "enough." The
+class of signs now in view is better exemplified by the French word
+<i>souris</i>, which is spelled and pronounced precisely the same with the
+two wholly distinct and independent significations of <i>smile</i> and
+<i>mouse</i>. From many examples may be selected the Omaha sign for
+<i>think,
+guess</i>, which is precisely the same as that of the Absaroka, Shoshoni
+and Banak for <i>brave</i>, see page <a href="#page414">414</a>. The context alone, both of the
+sign and the word, determines in what one of its senses it is at the time
+used, but it is not discriminated merely by a difference in expression.</p>
+
+<p>It would have been very remarkable if precisely the same sign were not
+used by different or even the same persons or bodies of people with wholly
+distinct significations. The graphic forms for objects and ideas are much
+more likely to be coincident than sound is for similar expressions, yet in
+all
+oral languages the same precise sound is used for utterly diverse meanings.
+The first conception of many different objects must have been the
+same. It has been found; indeed, that the homophony of words and the
+homomorphy of ideographic pictures is noticeable in opposite
+significations,
+the conceptions arising from the opposition itself. The differentiation
+in portraiture or accent is a subsequent and remedial step not
+taken until after the confusion has been observed and become inconvenient.
+Such confusion and contradiction would only be eliminated if
+sign language were absolutely perfect as well as absolutely universal.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SYMMORPHS.</h4>
+
+<p>In this class are included those signs conveying different ideas, and
+really different in form of execution as well as in conception, yet in
+which the difference in form is so slight as practically
+to require attention and discrimination. An example
+from oral speech may be found in the English word
+"desert," which, as pronounced "des'-ert" or "desert',"
+and in a slightly changed form, "dessert," has such
+widely varying significations. These distinctions relating
+to signs require graphic illustration.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig112.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig112.png" alt="Tree. Dakota, Hidatsu" /></a>Fig. 112.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig113.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig113.png" alt="To grow. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 113.</div>
+
+<p>The sign made by the Dakota, Hidatsa,
+and several other tribes, for <i>tree</i> is made
+by holding the right hand before the body,
+back forward, fingers and thumb separated,
+then pushing it slightly upward,
+Fig. 112. That for <i>grass</i> is the same made
+near the ground; that for <i>grow</i> is made
+like <i>grass</i>, though instead of holding the back of the hand near the
+ground the hand is pushed upward in an interrupted manner, Fig. 113. For
+<i>smoke</i>, the hand (with the back down, fingers pointing upward as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>[pg 344]</span>
+in <i>grow</i>) is thrown upward several times from the same place instead
+of continuing the whole motion upward. Frequently the fingers are
+thrown forward from under the thumb with each successive upward
+motion. For <i>fire</i>, the hand is employed as in the gesture for
+<i>smoke</i>, but
+the motion is frequently more waving, and in other cases made higher
+from the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig114.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig114.png" alt="Rain. Shoshoni, Apache" /></a>Fig. 114.</div>
+
+<p>The sign for <i>rain</i>, made by the Shoshoni, Apache, and other Indians,
+is by holding the hand (or hands) at
+the height of and before the shoulder,
+fingers pendent, palm down, then
+pushing it downward a short distance,
+Fig. 114. That for <i>heat</i> is the
+same, with the difference that the
+hand is held above the head and
+thrust downward toward the forehead;
+that for <i>to weep</i> is made by
+holding the hand as in <i>rain</i>, and the
+gesture made from the eye downward
+over the cheek, back of the
+fingers nearly touching the face.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig115.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig115.png" alt="Sun. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 115.</div>
+
+<p>The common sign for <i>sun</i> is made
+by bringing the tips of the thumb and index together so as to form a
+circle; remaining fingers closed. The hand is then held toward the sky,
+Fig. 115. The motion with the same circular position of index and
+thumb is for <i>want</i>, by bringing the hand backward toward the mouth,
+in a curve forming a short arch between the origin and termination
+of the gesture.</p>
+
+<p>For <i>drink</i> the gesture by several tribes is the same as for
+<i>want</i>, with the slight difference in the position of the last
+three fingers, which are not so tightly clinched, forming
+somewhat the shape of a cup; and that for <i>money</i> is made by
+holding out the hand with the same arrangement of fingers
+in front of the hips, at a distance of about twelve or fifteen inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig116.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig116.png" alt="Sun. Cheyenne" /></a>Fig. 116.</div>
+
+<p>Another sign for <i>sun</i>, made by the Cheyennes, is by placing the tips
+of the partly separated thumb and index of one hand against those of
+the other, approximating a circle, and
+holding them toward the sky, Fig. 116,
+and that for <i>various things</i>, observed
+among the Brul&#233; Sioux with the same
+position of the hands, is made by placing
+the circle horizontal, and moving it interruptedly
+toward the right side, each
+movement forming a short arch. Compare also the sign for <i>village</i>,
+described
+on page <a href="#page386">386</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The Arikara sign for <i>soldier</i> is by placing the clinched hands
+together
+before the breast, thumbs touching, then drawing them horizontally outward
+toward their respective sides, Fig. 117. That for <i>done</i>, made by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>[pg 345]</span>
+the Hidatsa, is shown below in this paper, see Fig. 334, page <a href="#page528">528</a>. That
+for <i>much</i> (<i>Cheyenne</i> I, <i>Comanche</i> III), see Fig. 274, page <a href="#page447">447</a>,
+is to be correlated
+with the above.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/fig117.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig117.png" alt="Soldier. Arikara" /></a>Fig. 117.</div>
+
+<p>The sign for <i>to be told</i> or <i>talked to</i>, and for the reception
+of speech, by the tribes generally, is made by placing the
+flat right hand, palm upward,
+about fifteen inches in front of the right side of the face or breast,
+fingers pointing to the left, then drawing the hand toward the bottom
+of the chin, and is illustrated in Fig. 71, page <a href="#page291">291</a>. The Comanche sign
+for <i>give</i> or <i>asking</i> is shown in Fig. 301, page <a href="#page480">480</a>
+(<i>Comanche</i> III), and is
+made by bringing the hand toward the body but a short distance, and the
+motion repeated, the tips of the fingers indicating the outline of a circle.</p>
+
+<p>The tribal sign for <i>Kaiowa</i>, illustrated in its place among the
+<span class="sc">Tribal Signs</span>, is made by holding the hand with extended and separated fingers
+and thumb near the side of the head, back outward, and giving it a
+rotary motion. This gesture is made in front of the face by many tribes.
+The generic sign for <i>deer</i>, made by the Dakota and some others, is by
+holding
+the hand motionless at the side of the head, with extended and separated
+thumb and fingers, representing the branched antlers. That for
+<i>fool</i>, reported from the same Indians, is the same as above described
+for <i>Kaiowa</i>, which it also signifies, though frequently only one or
+two fingers are used.</p>
+
+<p>The tribal sign both for the <i>Sahaptin</i> or <i>Nez Perc&#233;s</i> and for
+<i>Caddo</i> (see
+<span class="sc">Tribal Signs</span>) is made by passing the extended index, pointing under
+the nose from right to left. When the second finger is not tightly closed
+it strongly resembles the sign often made for <i>lie, falsehood</i>, by
+passing
+the extended index and second fingers separated toward the left, over
+the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>The tribal sign for Cheyenne (see <span class="sc">Tribal Signs</span>) differs from the sign
+for <i>spotted</i> only in the finger (or hand) in the latter being
+alternately passed across the upper and lower sides of the left forearm.</p>
+
+<p>The sign for <i>steal, theft</i>, see Fig. 75, page <a href="#page293">293</a>, is but slightly
+different
+from that for <i>bear</i>, see Fig. 239, page <a href="#page413">413</a>, especially when the
+latter is
+made with one hand only. The distinction, however, is that the grasping
+in the latter sign is not followed by the idea of concealment in the
+former, which is executed by the right hand, after the motion of grasping,
+being brought toward and sometimes under the left armpit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cold</i> and <i>winter</i>, see Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue, page <a href="#page486">486</a>, may
+be compared
+with <i>love</i>, see Kin Ch&#275;-&#277;ss' speech, page <a href="#page521">521</a>, and with
+<i>prisoner</i>. In
+these the difference consists in that <i>cold</i> and <i>winter</i> are
+represented by
+crossing the arms with clinched hands before the breast; <i>love</i> by
+crossing
+the arms so as to bring the fists more under the chin, and <i>prisoner</i>
+by holding the crossed wrists a foot in front of the breast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Melon, squash, muskmelon</i>, used by the Utes and Apaches, is made by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>[pg 346]</span>
+holding the hand arched, fingers separated and pointing forward, and
+pushing the hand forward over a slight curve near the ground, and the
+generic sign for <i>animals</i> by the Apaches is made in the same manner
+at the height intended to represent the object.</p>
+
+<p>The sign for <i>where?</i>, and <i>to search</i>, <i>to seek for</i>, made
+by the Dakota (IV),
+is by holding the back of the hand upward, index pointing forward,
+and carrying it from left to right about eight inches, raising and lowering
+it several times while so doing, as if quickly pointing at different
+objects. That for <i>some of them</i>, a part of a number of things or
+persons, made by the Kaiowa, Comanche, Wichita, and Apache Indians is nearly
+identical, the gesture being made less rapidly.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>RESULTS SOUGHT IN THE STUDY OF SIGN LANGUAGE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>These may be divided into (1) its practical application, (2) its aid to
+philologic researches in general with (3) particular reference to the
+grammatic machinery of language, and (4) its arch&#230;ologic relations.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>PRACTICAL APPLICATION.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The most obvious application of Indian sign language will for its
+practical utility depend, to a large extent, upon the correctness of the
+view submitted by the present writer that it is not a mere semaphoric
+repetition of motions to be memorized from a limited traditional list,
+but is a cultivated art, founded upon principles which can be readily
+applied by travelers and officials, so as to give them much independence
+of professional interpreters&mdash;as a class dangerously deceitful and tricky.
+This advantage is not merely theoretical, but has been demonstrated to
+be practical by a professor in a deaf mute college who, lately visiting
+several of the wild tribes of the plains, made himself understood among
+all of them without knowing a word of any of their languages; nor
+would it only be experienced in connection with American tribes, being
+applicable to intercourse with savages in Africa and Asia, though it is
+not pretended to fulfill by this agency the schoolmen's dream of an
+ecumenical mode of communication between all peoples in spite of their
+dialectic divisions.</p>
+
+<p>It must be admitted that the practical value of signs for intercourse
+with the American Indians will not long continue, their general progress
+in the acquisition of English or of Spanish being so rapid that those
+languages are becoming, to a surprising extent, the common medium,
+and signs are proportionally disused. Nor is a systematic use of signs
+of so great assistance in communicating with foreigners, whose speech is
+not understood, as might at first be supposed, unless indeed both parties
+agree to cease all attempt at oral language, relying wholly upon
+gestures. So long as words are used at all, signs will be made only as
+their accompaniment, and they will not always be ideographic.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>[pg 347]</span>
+An amusing instance in which savages showed their preference to
+signs instead of even an onomatope may be quoted from Wilfred Powell's
+<i>Observations on New Britain and neighboring Islands during Six
+Years' Exploration</i>, in <i>Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc</i>., vol. iii, No. 2
+(new
+monthly series), February, 1881, p. 89, 90: "On one occasion, wishing
+to purchase a pig, and not knowing very well how to set about it, being
+ignorant of the dialect, which is totally different from that of the
+natives
+in the north, I asked Mr. Brown how I should manage, or what he
+thought would be the best way of making them understand. He said,
+'Why don't you try granting?' whereupon I began to grunt most vociferously.
+The effect was magical. Some of them jumped back, holding
+their spears in readiness to throw; others ran away, covering their eyes
+with their hands, and all exhibited the utmost astonishment and alarm.
+In fact, it was so evident that they expected me to turn into a pig, and
+their alarm was so irresistibly comic, that Mr. Brown and I both burst
+out laughing, on which they gradually became more reassured, and
+those that had run away came back, and seeing us so heartily amused,
+and that I had not undergone any metamorphosis, began to laugh too;
+but when I drew a pig on the sand with a piece of stick, and made motions
+of eating, it suddenly seemed to strike them what was the matter,
+for they all burst out laughing, nodding their heads, and several of
+them ran off, evidently in quest of the pig that was required."</p>
+
+
+<h4>POWERS OF SIGNS COMPARED WITH SPEECH.</h4>
+
+<p>Sign language, being the mother utterance of nature, poetically styled
+by Lamartine the visible attitudes of the soul, is superior to all others
+in that it permits every one to find in nature an image to express his
+thoughts on the most needful matters intelligently to any other person.
+The direct or substantial natural analogy peculiar to it prevents a
+confusion
+of ideas. It is to some extent possible to use words without understanding
+them which yet may be understood by those addressed,
+but it is hardly possible to use signs without full comprehension of them.
+Separate words may also be comprehended by persons hearing them
+without the whole connected sense of the words taken together being
+caught, but signs are more intimately connected. Even those most
+appropriate will not be understood if the subject is beyond the
+comprehension
+of their beholders. They would be as unintelligible as the wild
+clicks of his instrument, in an electric storm, would be to the
+telegrapher,
+or as the semaphore, driven by wind, to the signalist. In oral speech
+even onomatopes are arbitrary, the most strictly natural sounds striking
+the ear of different individuals and nations in a manner wholly diverse.
+The instances given by <span class="sc">Sayce</span> are in point. Exactly the same sound
+was intended to be reproduced in the "<i>bilbit</i> amphora" of N&#230;vius,
+the
+"<i>glut glut</i> murmurat unda sonans" of the Latin Anthology, and the
+"<i>puls</i>"
+of Varro. The Persian "<i>bulbul</i>," the "<i>jugjug</i>" of Gascoigne,
+and the
+"<i>whitwhit</i>" of others are all attempts at imitating the note of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>[pg 348]</span>
+nightingale. Successful signs must have a much closer analogy and establish,
+a <i>consensus</i> between the talkers far beyond that produced by the mere
+sound of words.</p>
+
+<p>Gestures, in the degree of their pantomimic character, excel in graphic
+and dramatic effect applied to narrative and to rhetorical exhibition, and
+beyond any other mode of description give the force of reality. Speech,
+when highly cultivated, is better adapted to generalization and
+abstraction;
+therefore to logic and metaphysics. The latter must ever henceforth,
+be the superior in formulating thoughts. Some of the enthusiasts
+in signs have contended that this unfavorable distinction is not from
+any inherent incapability, but because their employment has not been
+continued unto perfection, and that if they had been elaborated by the
+secular labor devoted to spoken language they might in resources and
+distinctiveness have exceeded many forms of the latter. Gallaudet, Peet,
+and others maybe right in asserting that man could by his arms, hands,
+and fingers, with facial and bodily accentuation, express any idea that
+could be conveyed by words.</p>
+
+<p>The combinations which can be made with corporeal signs are infinite.
+It has been before argued that a high degree of culture might have
+been attained by man without articulate speech and it is but a further step
+in the reasoning to conclude that if articulate speech had not been
+possessed
+or acquired, necessity would have developed gesture language
+to a degree far beyond any known exhibition of it. The continually
+advancing civilization and continually increasing intercourse of countless
+ages has perfected oral speech, and as both, civilization and intercourse
+were possible with signs alone it is to be supposed that they
+would have advanced in some corresponding manner. But as sign language
+has been chiefly used during historic time either as a scaffolding
+around a more valuable structure to be thrown aside when the latter was
+completed, or as an occasional substitute, such development was not to
+be expected.</p>
+
+<p>The process of forming signs to express abstract ideas is only a variant
+from that of oral speech, in which the words for the most abstract ideas,
+such as law, virtue, infinitude, and immortality, are shown by Max M&#252;ller
+to have been derived and deduced, that is, abstracted, from sensuous
+impressions. In the use of signs the countenance and manner as well as
+the tenor decide whether objects themselves are intended, or the forms,
+positions, qualities, and motions of other objects which are suggested,
+and signs for moral and intellectual ideas, founded on analogies, are
+common all over the world as well as among deaf-mutes. Concepts of
+the intangible and invisible are only learned through percepts of tangible
+and visible objects, whether finally expressed to the eye or to the
+ear, in terms of sight or of sound.</p>
+
+<p>Sign language is so faithful to nature, and so essentially living in its
+expression, that it is not probable that it will ever die. It may become
+disused, but will revert. Its elements are ever natural and universal, by
+recurring to which the less natural signs adopted dialectically or for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>[pg 349]</span>
+expedition can always, with, some circumlocution, be explained. This
+power of interpreting itself is a peculiar advantage, for spoken languages,
+unless explained by gestures or indications, can only be interpreted by
+means of some other spoken language. When highly cultivated, its
+rapidity on familiar subjects exceeds that of speech and approaches to
+that of thought itself. This statement may be startling to those who
+only notice that a selected spoken word may convey in an instant a
+meaning for which the motions of even an expert in signs may require
+a much longer time, but it must be considered that oral speech is now
+wholly conventional, and that with the similar development of sign language
+conventional expressions with hands and body could be made
+more quickly than with the vocal organs, because more organs could be
+worked at once. Without such supposed development the habitual
+communication between deaf-mutes and among Indians using signs is
+perhaps as rapid as between the ignorant class of speakers upon the
+same subjects, and in many instances the signs would win at a trial of
+speed. At the same time it must be admitted that great increase in
+rapidity is chiefly obtained by the system of preconcerted abbreviations,
+before explained, and by the adoption of arbitrary forms, in which
+naturalness
+is sacrificed and conventionality established, as has been the
+case with all spoken languages in the degree in which they have become
+copious and convenient.</p>
+
+<p>There is another characteristic of the gesture speech that, though it
+cannot be resorted to in the dark, nor where the attention of the person
+addressed has not been otherwise attracted, it has the countervailing
+benefit of use when the voice could not be employed. This may be an
+advantage
+at a distance which the eye can reach, but not the ear, and still
+more frequently when silence or secrecy is desired. Dalgarno recommends
+it for use in the presence of great people, who ought not to
+be disturbed, and curiously enough "Disappearing Mist," the Iroquois
+chief, speaks of the former extensive use of signs in his tribe by women
+and boys as a mark of respect to warriors and elders, their voices, in
+the good old days, not being uplifted in the presence of the latter. The
+decay of that wholesome state of discipline, he thinks, accounts partly
+for the disappearance of the use of signs among the modern impudent
+youth and the dusky claimants of woman's rights.</p>
+
+<p>An instance of the additional power gained to a speaker of ordinary
+language by the use of signs, impressed the writer while dictating to
+two amanuenses at the same moment, to the one by signs and the other
+by words, on different subjects, a practice which would have enabled
+C&#230;sar to surpass his celebrated feat. It would also be easy to talk to
+a deaf and blind man at once, the latter being addressed by the voice
+and the former in signs.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>RELATIONS TO PHILOLOGY.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The aid to be derived from the study of sign language in prosecuting
+researches into the science of language was pointed out by <span class="sc">Leibnitz</span>, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>[pg 350]</span>
+his <i>Collectanea Etymologica</i>, without hitherto exciting any thorough
+or
+scientific work in that direction, the obstacle to it probably being that
+scholars competent in other respects had no adequate data of the gesture
+speech of man to be used in comparison. The latter will, it is hoped, be
+supplied by the work now undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>In the first part of this paper it was suggested that signs played an
+important part in giving meaning to spoken words. Philology, comparing
+the languages of earth in their radicals, must therefore include
+the graphic or manual presentation of thought, and compare the elements
+of ideography with those of phonics. Etymology now examines
+the ultimate roots, not the fanciful resemblances between oral forms,
+in the different tongues; the internal, not the mere external parts of
+language. A marked peculiarity of sign language consists in its limited
+number of radicals and the infinite combinations into which those
+radicals enter while still remaining distinctive. It is therefore a proper
+field for etymologic study.</p>
+
+<p>From these and other considerations it is supposed that an analysis
+of the original conceptions of gestures, studied together with the
+holophrastic
+roots in the speech of the gesturers, may aid in the ascertainment
+of some relation between concrete ideas and words. Meaning does not
+adhere to the phonic presentation of thought, while it does to signs. The
+latter are doubtless more flexible and in that sense more mutable than
+words, but the ideas attached to them are persistent, and therefore there
+is not much greater metamorphosis in the signs than in the cognitions.
+The further a language has been developed from its primordial roots,
+which have been twisted into forms no longer suggesting any reason for
+their original selection, and the more the primitive significance of its
+words has disappeared, the fewer points of contact can it retain with
+signs. The higher languages are more precise because the consciousness
+of the derivation of most of their words is lost, so that they have
+become counters, good for any sense agreed upon and for no other.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, possible to ascertain the included gesture even in many
+English words. The class represented by the word <i>supercilious</i> will
+occur
+to all readers, but one or two examples may be given not so obvious and
+more immediately connected with the gestures of our Indians.
+<i>Imbecile</i>,
+generally applied to the weakness of old age, is derived from the Latin
+<i>in</i>, in the sense of on, and <i>bacillum</i>, a staff, which at once
+recalls the Cheyenne
+sign for <i>old man</i>, mentioned above, page <a href="#page339">339</a>. So <i>time</i> appears
+more nearly connected with &tau;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;&omega;, to stretch, when
+information is given
+of the sign for <i>long time</i>, in the Speech of Kin
+Ch&#275;-&#277;ss, in this paper, viz.,
+placing the thumbs and forefingers in such a position as if a small thread
+was held between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, the hands first
+touching each other, and then moving slowly from each other, as if
+<i>stretching</i> a piece of gum-elastic.</p>
+
+<p>In the languages of North America, which have not become arbitrary
+to the degree exhibited by those of civilized man, the connection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>[pg 351]</span>
+between the idea and the word is only less obvious than, that still unbroken
+between the idea and the sign, and they remain strongly affected by the
+concepts of outline, form, place, position, and feature on which gesture
+is founded, while they are similar in their fertile combination of
+radicals.</p>
+
+<p>Indian language consists of a series of words that are but slightly
+differentiated parts of speech following each other in the order suggested
+in the mind of the speaker without absolute laws of arrangement,
+as its sentences are not completely integrated. The sentence
+necessitates parts of speech, and parts of speech are possible only when
+a language has reached that stage where sentences are logically
+constructed.
+The words of an Indian tongue, being synthetic or undifferentiated
+parts of speech, are in this respect strictly analogous to the
+gesture elements which enter into a sign language. The study of the
+latter is therefore valuable for comparison with the words of the former.
+The one language throws much light upon the other, and neither can be
+studied to the best advantage without a knowledge of the other.</p>
+
+<p>Some special resemblances between the language of signs and the character
+of the oral languages found on this continent may be mentioned.
+Dr. <span class="sc">J. Hammond Trumbull</span> remarks of the composition of their
+words that they were "so constructed as to be thoroughly self-defining
+and immediately intelligible to the hearer." In another connection the
+remark is further enforced: "Indeed, it is a requirement of the Indian
+languages that every word shall be so framed as to admit of immediate
+resolution to its significant elements by the hearer. It must be thoroughly
+<i>self-defining</i>, for (as Max M&#252;ller has expressed it) 'it requires
+tradition, society, and literature to maintain words which can no longer be
+analyzed at once.'... In the ever-shifting state of a nomadic
+society no debased coin can be tolerated in language, no obscure legend
+accepted on trust. The metal must be pure and the legend distinct."</p>
+
+<p>Indian languages, like those of higher development, sometimes exhibit
+changes of form by the permutation of vowels, but often an incorporated
+particle, whether suffix, affix, or infix, shows the etymology which often,
+also, exhibits the same objective conception that would be executed in
+gesture. There are, for instance, different forms for standing, sitting,
+lying, falling, &amp;c., and for standing, sitting, lying on or falling from
+the same level or a higher or lower level. This resembles the pictorial
+conception and execution of signs.</p>
+
+<p>Major <span class="sc">J.W. Powell</span>, with particular reference to the disadvantages of
+the multiplied inflections in Indian languages, alike with the Greek and
+Latin, when the speaker is compelled, in the choice of a word to express
+his idea, to think of a great multiplicity of things, gives the following
+instance:</p>
+
+<p>"A Ponca Indian in saying that a man killed a rabbit, would have to
+say: the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case, purposely
+killed, by shooting an arrow, the rabbit, he, the one, animate,
+sitting, in the objective case; for the form of a verb to kill would have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>[pg 352]</span>
+to be selected, and the verb changes its form by inflection and
+incorporated particles to denote person, number, and gender as animate or
+inanimate, and gender as standing, sitting, or lying, and case; and the
+form of the verb would also express whether the killing was done
+accidentally or purposely, and whether it was by shooting or by some other
+process, and, if by shooting, whether by bow and arrow, or with a gun;
+and the form of the verb would in like manner have to express all of
+these things relating to the object; that is, the person, number, gender,
+and case of the object; and from the multiplicity of paradigmatic forms
+of the verb to kill, this particular one would have to be selected." This
+is substantially the mode in which an Indian sign talker would find it
+necessary to tell the story, as is shown by several examples given below
+in narratives, speeches, and dialogues.</p>
+
+<p>Indian languages exhibit the same fondness for demonstration which
+is necessary in sign language. The two forms of utterance are alike in
+their want of power to express certain words, such as the verb "to be,"
+and in the criterion of organization, so far as concerns a high degree of
+synthesis and imperfect differentiation, they bear substantially the same
+relation to the English language.</p>
+
+<p>It may finally be added that as not only proper names but nouns, generally
+in Indian languages are connotive, predicating some attribute of
+the object, they can readily be expressed by gesture signs, and therefore
+among them, if anywhere, it is to be expected that relations may be
+established between the words and the signs.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ETYMOLOGY OF WORDS FROM GESTURES.</h4>
+
+<p>There can be no attempt in the present limits to trace the etymology
+of any large number of words in the several Indian languages to a gestural
+origin, nor, if the space allowed, would it be satisfactory. The
+signs have scarcely yet been collected, verified, and collated in
+sufficient
+numbers for such comparison, even with the few of the Indian languages
+the radicals of which have been scientifically studied. The signs will,
+in a future work, be frequently presented in connection with the
+corresponding
+words of the gesturers, as is done now in a few instances in
+another part of this paper. For the present the subject is only indicated
+by the following examples, introduced to suggest the character of the
+study in which the students of American linguistics are urgently requested
+to assist:</p>
+
+<p>The Dakota word <i>Sha<sup>n</sup>te-suta</i>&mdash;from <i>sha<sup>n</sup>te</i>, heart, and
+<i>suta</i>, strong&mdash;<i>brave</i>,
+not cowardly, literally strong-hearted, is made by several tribes of
+that stock, and particularly by the Brul&#233; Sioux, in gestures by collecting
+the tips of the fingers and thumb of the right hand to a point, and
+then placing the radial side of the hand over the heart, finger tips
+pointing
+downward&mdash;<i>heart</i>; then place the left fist, palm inward, horizontally
+before the lower portion of the breast, the right fist back of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>[pg 353]</span>
+left, then raise the right and throw it forcibly over and downward in
+front of the left&mdash;<i>brave</i>, <i>strong</i>. See Fig. 242, page <a href="#page415">415</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The Arikaras make the sign for <i>brave</i> by striking the clinched fist
+forcibly toward the ground in front of and near the breast.</p>
+
+<p>Brave, or "strong-hearted," is made by the Absaroka, Shoshoni, and
+Banak Indians by merely placing the clinched fist to the breast, the
+latter having allusion to the heart, the clinching of the hand to strength,
+vigor, or force.</p>
+
+<p>An Ojibwa sign for <i>death, to die</i>, is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Place the palm of the hand at a short distance from the side of the
+head, then withdraw it gently in an oblique downward direction, inclining
+the head and upper part of the body in the same direction.</p>
+
+<p>The same authority, The Very Rev. E. Jacker, who contributes it,
+notes that there is an apparent connection between this conception and
+execution and the etymology of the corresponding terms in Ojibwa.
+"He dies," is <i>nibo</i>; "he sleeps," is <i>niba</i>. The common idea
+expressed
+by the gesture is a sinking to rest. The original significance of the root
+<i>nib</i> seems to be "leaning;" <i>anibeia</i>, "it is leaning";
+<i>anibekweni</i>, "he inclines
+the head sidewards." The word <i>niba</i> or <i>nibe</i> (only in
+compounds)
+conveys the idea of "night," perhaps as the falling over, the going to
+rest, or the death of the day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ogima</i>, the Ojibwa term for <i>chief</i>, is derived from a root
+which signifies
+"above" (<i>Ogidjaii</i>, upon; <i>ogidjina</i>, above; <i>ogidaki</i>, on
+a hill or mountain,
+etc.). <i>Ogitchida</i>, a brave, a hero (Otawa, <i>ogida</i>), is probably
+from the same root.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sagima</i>, the Ojibwa form of sachem, is from the root <i>sag</i>,
+which implies
+a coming forth, or stretching out. These roots are to be considered in
+connection with several gestures described under the head of <i>Chief</i>,
+in <span class="sc">Extracts from Dictionary</span>, <i>infra</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Onijishin</i>, it is <i>good</i> (<i>Ojibwa</i>), originally signifies
+"it lies level." This
+may be compared with the sign for <i>good</i>, in the Tendoy-Huerito
+Dialogue,
+Fig. 309, page <a href="#page487">487</a>, and also that for <i>happy</i>, <i>contentment</i>, in
+the Speech
+of Kin Ch&#275;-&#277;ss, page <a href="#page523">523</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In Klamath the radix <i>lam</i> designates a whirling motion, and appears
+in the word <i>l&#225;ma</i>, "to be crazy, mad," readily correlated with the
+common
+gesture for <i>madman</i> and <i>fool</i>, in which the hand is rotated
+above
+and near the head.</p>
+
+<p><i>Evening</i>, in Klamath, is <i>litkh&#237;</i>, from <i>luta</i>, to hang
+down, meaning the
+time when the sun hangs down, the gesture for which, described elsewhere
+in this paper (see N&#225;tci's Narrative, page <a href="#page503">503</a>), is executive of the
+same conception, which is allied to the etymology usually given for
+<i>eve</i>,
+<i>even</i>, "the decline of the day." These Klamath etymologies have been
+kindly contributed by Mr. A.S. Gatschet.</p>
+
+<p>The Very Rev. E. Jacker also communicates a suggestive <i>excursus
+exegeticus</i> upon the probable gestural origin of the Ojibwa word
+<i>tibishko</i>, "opposite in space; just so; likewise:"</p>
+
+<p>"The adverb <i>tibishko</i> (or <i>dibishko</i>) is an offshoot of the root
+<i>tib</i> (or <i>dib</i>),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>[pg 354]</span>
+which in most cases conveys the idea of measuring or weighing, as appears
+from the following samples: <i>dibaige</i>, he measures; <i>dibowe</i>, he
+settles
+matters by his speech or word, <i>e.g.</i>, as a juryman; <i>dibaamage</i>, he
+pays out; <i>dibakonige</i>, he judges; <i>dibabishkodjige</i>, he weighs;
+<i>dibamenimo</i>,
+he restricts himself, <i>e.g.</i>, to a certain quantity of food;
+<i>dibissitchige</i>, he
+fulfills a promise; <i>dibijigan</i>, a pattern for cutting clothes.</p>
+
+<p>"The original, meaning of <i>tib</i>, however, must be supposed to have
+been more comprehensive, if we would explain other (apparent) derivatives,
+such as: <i>tibi</i>, 'I don't know where, where to, where from,' &amp;c.;
+<i>tibik</i>, night; <i>dibendjige</i>, he is master or owner;
+<i>titibisse</i>, it rolls (as a ball),
+it turns (as a wheel); <i>dibaboweigan</i>, the cover of a kettle. The
+notion
+of measuring does not very naturally enter into the ideas expressed
+by these terms.</p>
+
+<p>"The difficulty disappears if we assume the root <i>tib</i> or <i>dib</i>
+to have
+been originally the phonetic equivalent of a <i>gesture</i> expressive of
+the notion of covering as well as of that of measuring. This gesture would
+seem to be the holding of one hand above the other, horizontally, at
+some distance, palms opposite or both downwards. This, or some similar
+gesture would most naturally accompany the above terms. As for
+<i>tibik</i>, night, compare (<i>Dunbar</i>): 'The two hands open and
+extended,
+crossing one another horizontally.' The idea of covering evidently enters
+into this conception. The strange adverb <i>tibi</i> ('I don't know
+where,' &amp;c., or 'in a place unknown to me'), if derived from the same
+root, would originally signify 'covered.' In <i>titibisse</i>, or
+<i>didibisse</i> (it rolls,
+it turns), the reduplication of the radical syllable indicates the
+repetition
+of the gesture, by holding the hands alternately above one another,
+palms downwards, and thus producing a rotary motion.</p>
+
+<p>"In German, the clasping of the hands in a horizontal position, expressive
+of a promise or the conclusion of a bargain, is frequently
+accompanied by the interjection <i>top!</i> the same radical consonants as
+in <i>tib</i>. Compare also the English <i>tap</i>, the French <i>tape</i>,
+the Greek, &tau;&upsilon;&pi;&tau;&omega; the Sanscrit <i>tup</i> and <i>tub</i>, &amp;c."</p>
+
+
+<h4>GESTURES CONNECTED WITH THE ORIGIN OF WRITING.</h4>
+
+<p>Though written characters are generally associated with speech, they
+are shown, by successful employment in hieroglyphs and by educated
+deaf-mutes to be representative of ideas without the intervention of
+sounds, and so also are the outlines of signs. This will be more apparent
+if the motions expressing the most prominent feature, attribute,
+or function of an object are made, or supposed to be made, so as to
+leave a luminous track impressible upon the eye separate from the members
+producing it. The actual result is an immateriate graphic representation
+of visible objects and qualities which, invested with substance,
+has become familiar to us as the <i>rebus</i>, and also appears in the
+form of heraldic blazonry styled punning or "canting."</p>
+
+<p>Gesture language is, in fact, not only a picture language, but is actual
+writing, though dissolving and sympathetic, and neither alphabetic nor
+phonetic.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>[pg 355]</span>
+
+<p>Dalgarno aptly says: "<i>Qui enim caput nutat, oculo connivet, digitum
+movet in a&#235;re, &amp;c., (ad mentis cogitata exprimendum); is non minus vere
+scribit, quam qui Literas pingit in Charta, Marmore, vel &#230;re.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>It is neither necessary nor proper to enter now upon any prolonged
+account of the origin, of alphabetic writing. There is, however, propriety,
+if not necessity, for the present writer, when making any remarks
+under this heading and under some others in this paper indicating special
+lines of research, to disclaim all pretension to being a Sinologue or
+Egyptologist, or even profoundly versed in Mexican antiquities. His
+partial and recently commenced studies only enable him to present
+suggestions
+for the examination of scholars. These suggestions may safely
+be introduced by the statement that the common modern alphabetic
+characters, coming directly from the Romans, were obtained by them
+from the Greeks, and by the latter from the Ph&oelig;nicians, whose alphabet
+was connected with that of the old Hebrew. It has also been of
+late the general opinion that the whole family of alphabets to which
+the Greek, Latin, Gothic, Runic, and others belong, appearing earlier in
+the Ph&oelig;nician, Moabite, and Hebrew, had its beginning in the ideographic
+pictures of the Egyptians, afterwards used by them to express
+sounds. That the Chinese, though in a different manner from the
+Egyptians, passed from picture writing to phonetic writing, is established
+by delineations still extant among them, called <i>ku-w&#259;n</i>, or "ancient
+pictures,"
+with which some of the modern written characters can be identified.
+The ancient Mexicans also, to some extent, developed phonetic
+expressions out of a very elaborate system of ideographic picture writing.
+Assuming that ideographic pictures made by ancient peoples would be
+likely to contain representations of gesture signs, which subject is
+treated
+of below, it is proper to examine if traces of such gesture signs may not
+be found in the Egyptian, Chinese, and Aztec characters. Only a few
+presumptive examples, selected from a considerable number, are now
+presented in which the signs of the North American Indians appear to
+be included, with the hope that further investigation by collaborators will
+establish many more instances not confined to Indian signs.</p>
+
+<p>A typical sign made by the Indians for <i>no</i>, <i>negation</i>, is as
+follows:
+The hand extended or slightly curved is held in front of the body, a
+little to the right of the median line; it is then carried with a rapid
+sweep a foot or more farther to the right. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>One for <i>none</i>, <i>nothing</i>, sometimes used for simple negation, is
+also
+given: Throw both hands outward toward their respective
+sides from the breast. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig118.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig118.png" alt="No, negation. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 118.</div>
+
+<p>With these compare the two forms of the Egyptian
+character for <i>no</i>, <i>negation</i>, Fig. 118, taken from Champollion,
+<i>Grammaire &#201;gyptienne</i>, <i>Paris</i>, 1836, p. 519.</p>
+
+<p>No vivid fancy is needed to see the hands indicated at the extremities
+of arms extended symmetrically from the body on each side.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>[pg 356]</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig119.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig119.png" alt="Negation. Maya" /></a>Fig. 119.</div>
+
+<p>Also compare the Maya character for the same idea of negation,
+Fig. 119, found in Landa, <i>Relation des Choses de Yucatan</i>, <i>Paris</i>,
+1864, 316.
+The Maya word for negation is "<i>ma</i>," and the word "<i>mak</i>," a
+six-foot
+measuring rod, given by Brasseur de Bourbourg in his
+dictionary, apparently having connection with this character,
+would in use separate the hands as illustrated, giving the
+same form as the gesture made without the rod.</p>
+
+<p>Another sign for <i>nothing</i>, <i>none</i>, made by the Comanches, is:
+Flat hand
+thrown forward, back to the ground, fingers pointing forward and downward.
+Frequently the right hand is brushed over the left thus thrown
+out.</p>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:9%;"><a href="images/fig120.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig120.png" alt="Nothing. Chinese" /></a>Fig. 120.</div>
+
+<p>Compare the Chinese character for the same meaning, Fig. 120.
+This will not be recognized as a hand without study of similar
+characters, which generally have a cross-line cutting off the
+wrist. Here the wrist bones follow under the cross cut, then
+the metacarpal bones, and last the fingers, pointing
+forward and downward.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:16%;"><a href="images/fig121.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig121.png" alt="Child. Egyptian figurative" /></a>Fig. 121.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig122.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig122.png" alt="Child. Egyptian linear" /></a>Fig. 122.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:11%;"><a href="images/fig123.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig123.png" alt="Child. Egyptian hieratic" /></a>Fig. 123.</div>
+
+<p>The Arapaho sign for <i>child</i>, <i>baby</i>, is the forefinger
+in the mouth, <i>i.e.</i>, a nursing child, and a natural sign
+of a deaf-mute is the same. The Egyptian figurative character for the
+same is seen in Fig. 121. Its linear form is Fig. 122, and its hieratic is
+Fig. 123 (Champollion, <i>Dictionnaire Egyptien</i>, <i>Paris</i>,
+1841, p. 31.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:8%;"><a href="images/fig126.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig126.png" alt="Birth. Chinese character" /></a>Fig. 126.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig125.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig125.png" alt="Son. Modern Chinese" /></a>Fig. 125.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:7%;"><a href="images/fig124.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig124.png" alt="Son. Ancient Chinese" /></a>Fig. 124.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:48%;"><a href="images/fig127.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig127.png" alt="Birth. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 127.</div>
+
+<p>These afford an interpretation to the ancient Chinese
+form for <i>son</i>, Fig. 124, given in <i>Journ. Royal Asiatic
+Society</i>, I, 1834, p. 219, as belonging to the Shang dynasty,
+1756, 1112 B.C., and the modern Chinese form, Fig. 125, which,
+without the comparison, would not be supposed to have any pictured
+reference to an infant with hand or finger at or
+approaching the mouth, denoting the taking of
+nourishment. Having now suggested this, the
+Chinese character for <i>birth</i>, Fig. 126, is understood
+as the expression of a common gesture among the Indians, particularly
+reported from the Dakota, for <i>born</i>, <i>to be born</i>, viz: Place
+the left hand
+in front of the body, a little to the
+right, the palm downward and slightly
+arched, then pass the extended right
+hand downward, forward, and upward,
+forming a short curve underneath the
+left, as in Fig. 127 (<i>Dakota</i> V). This
+is based upon the curve followed by
+the head of the child during birth,
+and is used generically. The same
+curve, when made with one hand, appears
+in Fig. 128.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:38%;"><a href="images/fig128.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig128.png" alt="Birth, generic. N.A. Indians" /></a>Fig. 128.</div>
+
+<p>It may be of interest to compare with the Chinese <i>child</i> the Mexican
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>[pg 357]</span>
+abbreviated character for <i>man</i>, Fig. 129, found in Pipart in
+<i>Compte Rendu
+Cong. Inter. des Am&#233;ricanistes, 2<sup>me</sup>
+Session</i>, <i>Luxembourg</i>, 1877, 1878,
+II, 359. The figure on the right is called the abbreviated form of that
+by its side, yet its origin may be different.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig129.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig129.png" alt="Man. Mexican" /></a>Fig. 129.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig130.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig130.png" alt="Man. Chinese character" /></a>Fig. 130.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig131.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig131.png" alt="Woman. Chinese character" /></a>Fig. 131.</div>
+
+<p>The Chinese character for <i>man</i>, is Fig. 130, and may have the same
+obvious conception as a Dakota
+sign for the same signification:
+"Place the extended index, pointing
+upward and forward before the
+lower portion of the abdomen."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig132.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig132.png" alt="Woman. Ute" /></a>Fig. 132.</div>
+
+<p>The Chinese specific character for <i>woman</i>
+is Fig. 131, the cross mark denoting
+the wrist, and if the remainder
+be considered the hand,
+the fingers may be imagined in the
+position made by many tribes, and especially
+the Utes, as depicting the
+<i>pudendum muliebre</i>, Fig. 132.</p>
+<p>The Egyptian generic character
+for <i>female</i> is <a href="images/semicircle.png"><img width="40" src="images/semicircle.png" alt="semicircle" border="0" align="middle" /></a> (Champollion, <i>Dict.</i>,) believed
+to represent the curve of
+the mamm&#230; supposed to be cut off or separated from the chest, and
+the gesture with the same meaning was made by the Cheyenne
+Titchkematski, and photographed, as in Fig. 133. It forms
+the same figure as the Egyptian character as well as can be
+done by a position of the human hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig133.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig133.png" alt="Female, generic. Cheyenne" /></a>Fig. 133.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig134.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig134.png" alt="To give water. Chinese character" /></a>Fig. 134.</div>
+
+<p>The Chinese character for <i>to give water</i>
+is Fig. 134, which may be compared with
+the common Indian gesture <i>to drink</i>, <i>to give
+water</i>, viz: "Hand held with tips of fingers
+brought together and passed to the mouth,
+as if scooping up water", Fig. 135, obviously from the primitive custom,
+as with Mojaves, who still drink with scooped hands.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig135.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig135.png" alt="Water, to drink. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 135.</div>
+
+<p>Another common Indian gesture sign for <i>water to drink</i>, <i>I want to
+drink</i>,
+is: "Hand brought downward past the mouth with loosely extended
+fingers, palm toward the face." This appears in the Mexican character
+for <i>drink</i>, Fig. 136, taken from Pipart, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 351.
+<i>Water</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the pouring out of water with the drops falling
+or about to fall, is shown in Fig. 137, taken from the
+same author (p. 349), being the same arrangement of
+them as in the sign for <i>rain</i>, Fig. 114, p. <a href="#page344">344</a>, the hand, however,
+being inverted. <i>Rain</i> in the Mexican
+picture writing is shown by small circles
+inclosing a dot, as in the last two figures,
+but not connected together, each having
+a short line upward marking the line of descent.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig136.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig136.png" alt="Drink. Mexican" /></a>Fig. 136.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig137.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig137.png" alt="Water. Mexican" /></a>Fig. 137.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>[pg 358]</span>
+
+<p>With the gesture for drink may be compared Fig. 138, the Egyptian
+Goddess Nu in the sacred sycamore tree, pouring out the water of life
+to the Osirian and his soul, represented as a bird, in Amenti (Sharpe,
+from a funereal stele in the British Museum,
+in <i>Cooper's Serpent Myths</i>, p. 43).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig138.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig138.png" alt="Water, giving. Egypt" /></a>Fig. 138.</div>
+
+<p>The common Indian gesture for <i>river</i>
+or <i>stream</i>, <i>water</i>, is made by passing the
+horizontal flat hand, palm down, forward
+and to the left from the right side in a
+serpentine manner.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig139.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig139.png" alt="Water. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 139.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig140.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig140.png" alt="Water, abbreviated" /></a>Fig. 140.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig141.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig141.png" alt="Water. Chinese character" /></a>Fig. 141.</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptian character for the same
+is Fig. 139 (Champollion, <i>Dict.</i>, p. 429).
+The broken line is held to represent the
+movement of the water on the surface of
+the stream. When made with one line less angular and more waving
+it means <i>water</i>. It is interesting to compare with this the identical
+character in the syllabary invented by a West African negro,
+Mormoru Doalu Bukere, for <i>water</i>, <a href="images/water.png"><img width="60" src="images/water.png" alt="water" border="0" align="middle" /></a>, mentioned
+by <span class="sc">Tylor</span> in his <i>Early History of Mankind</i>, p. 103.</p>
+
+<p>The abbreviated Egyptian sign for <i>water</i> as a stream
+is Fig. 140 (Champollion, <i>loc. cit.</i>), and the Chinese for the same
+is as in Fig. 141.</p>
+
+<p>In the picture-writing of the Ojibwa the Egyptian abbreviated character,
+with two lines instead of three, appears with the same signification.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian character for <i>weep</i>, Fig. 142, an eye,
+with tears falling, is also found in the pictographs of
+the Ojibwa (Schoolcraft, I, pl. 54, Fig. 27), and is also
+made by the Indian gesture of drawing lines by the index repeatedly
+downward from the eye, though perhaps more frequently made by
+the full sign for <i>rain</i>, described on page <a href="#page344">344</a>, made with the
+back of the hand downward from the eye&mdash;"eye rain."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig142.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig142.png" alt="To weep. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 142.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig143.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig143.png" alt="Force, vigor. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 143.</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptian character for <i>to be strong</i> is Fig. 143 (Champollion,
+<i>Dict.</i>, p. 91), which is sufficiently
+obvious, but may be compared with the sign for <i>strong</i>, made by some
+tribes as follows: Hold the clinched fist in front of the right side, a
+little
+higher than the elbow, then throw it forcibly about six inches toward
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p>A typical gesture for <i>night</i> is as follows: Place the flat hands,
+horizontally,
+about two feet apart, move them quickly in an upward curve
+toward one another until the right lies across the left. "Darkness covers
+all." See Fig. 312, page <a href="#page489">489</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig144.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig144.png" alt="Night. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 144.</div>
+
+<p>The conception of covering executed by delineating
+the object covered beneath the middle
+point of an arch or curve, appears also clearly in
+the Egyptian characters for <i>night</i>, Fig. 144 (Champollion,
+<i>Dict.</i>, p. 3).</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>[pg 359]</span>
+
+<p>The upper part of the character is taken separately to form that for
+sky (see page <a href="#page372">372</a>, <i>infra</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig145.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig145.png" alt="Calling upon. Egyptian figurative" /></a>Fig. 145.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig146.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig146.png" alt="Calling upon. Egyptian linear" /></a>Fig. 146.</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptian figurative and linear characters, Figs. 145 and 146
+(Champollion, <i>Dict.</i>, p. 28), for <i>calling upon</i> and
+<i>invocation</i>, also
+used as an interjection, scarcely require the quotation of an Indian
+sign, being common all over the world.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig147.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig147.png" alt="To collect, to unite. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 147.</div>
+
+<p>The gesture sign made by several tribes for <i>many</i>
+is as follows: Both hands, with spread and slightly
+curved fingers, are held pendent about two feet apart
+before the thighs; then bring them toward one another,
+horizontally, drawing them upward as they come together. (<i>Absaroka</i>
+I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I; <i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i>
+II.) "An accumulation of objects." This may be the same motion indicated by
+the Egyptian character, Fig. 147, meaning to <i>gather together</i>
+(Champollion, <i>Dict.</i>, p. 459).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig148.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig148.png" alt="Locomotion. Egyptian figurative" /></a>Fig. 148.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig149.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig149.png" alt="Locomotion. Egyptian linear" /></a>Fig. 149.</div>
+
+<p>The Egyptian character, Fig. 148, which in its linear
+form is represented in Fig. 149, and meaning to <i>go</i>, to <i>come</i>,
+<i>locomotion</i>, is presented to show readers unfamiliar with
+hieroglyphics
+how a corporeal action may be included in a linear character without
+being obvious or at least certain, unless it should be made clear by
+comparison
+with the full figurative form or by other means. This
+linear form might be noticed many times without certainty or
+perhaps suspicion that it represented the human legs and feet in the
+act of walking. The same difficulty, of course, as also the same prospect
+of success by careful research, attends the tracing of other corporeal
+motions which more properly come under the head of gesture signs.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>SIGN LANGUAGE WITH REFERENCE TO GRAMMAR.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Apart from the more material and substantive relations between signs
+and language, it is to be expected that analogies can by proper research
+be ascertained between their several developments in the manner of
+their use, that is, in their grammatic mechanism, and in the genesis of
+the sentence. The science of language, ever henceforward to be studied
+historically, must take account of the similar early mental processes in
+which the phrase or sentence originated, both in sign and oral utterance.
+In this respect, as in many others, the North American Indians may be
+considered to be living representatives of prehistoric man.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SYNTAX.</h4>
+
+<p>The reader will understand without explanation that there is in the
+gesture speech no organized sentence such as is integrated in the languages
+of civilization, and that he must not look for articles or particles
+or passive voice or case or grammatic gender, or even what appears in
+those languages as a substantive or a verb, as a subject or a predicate,
+or as qualifiers or inflexions. The sign radicals, without being
+specifically
+any of our parts of speech, may be all of them in turn. There is,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>[pg 360]</span>
+however, a grouping and sequence of the ideographic pictures, an
+arrangement
+of signs in connected succession, which may be classed under the
+scholastic head of syntax. This subject, with special reference to the
+order of deaf-mute signs as compared with oral speech, has been the
+theme of much discussion, some notes of which, condensed from the
+speculations of M. R&#233;mi Valade and others, follow in the next paragraph
+without further comment than may invite attention to the profound
+remark of <span class="sc">Leibnitz</span>.</p>
+
+<p>In mimic construction there are to be considered both the order in
+which the signs succeed one another and the relative positions in which
+they are made, the latter remaining longer in the memory than the
+former, and spoken language may sometimes in its early infancy have
+reproduced the ideas of a sign picture without commencing from the
+same point. So the order, as in Greek and Latin, is very variable. In
+nations among whom the alphabet was introduced without the intermediary
+to any impressive degree of picture-writing, the order being (1)
+language of signs, almost superseded by (2) spoken language, and (3)
+alphabetic writing, men would write in the order in which they had
+been accustomed to speak. But if at a time when spoken language
+was still rudimentary, intercourse being mainly carried on by signs,
+figurative writing had been invented, the order of the figures would be
+the order of the signs, and the same order would pass into the spoken
+language. Hence <span class="sc">Leibnitz</span> says truly that "the writing of the Chinese
+might seem to have been invented by a deaf person." The oral language
+has not known the phases which have given to the Indo-European
+tongues their formation and grammatical parts. In the latter, signs
+were conquered by speech, while in the former, speech received the yoke.</p>
+
+<p>Sign language cannot show by inflection the reciprocal dependence of
+words and sentences. Degrees of motion corresponding with vocal intonation
+are only used rhetorically or for degrees of comparison. The
+relations of ideas and objects are therefore expressed by placement, and
+their connection is established when necessary by the abstraction of
+ideas. The sign talker is an artist, grouping persons and things so as
+to show the relations between them, and the effect is that which is seen
+in a picture. But though the artist has the advantage in presenting in
+a permanent connected scene the result of several transient signs, he can
+only present it as it appears at a single moment. The sign talker has
+the succession of time at his disposal, and his scenes move and act, are
+localized and animated, and their arrangement is therefore more varied
+and significant.</p>
+
+<p>It is not satisfactory to give the order of equivalent words as
+representative
+of the order of signs, because the pictorial arrangement is
+wholly lost; but adopting this expedient as a mere illustration of the
+sequence in the presentation of signs by deaf-mutes, the following is
+quoted from an essay by Rev. J.R. Keep, in <i>American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>[pg 361]</span>
+vol. xvi, p. 223, as the order in which the parable
+of the Prodigal Son is translated into signs:</p>
+
+<p>"Once, man one, sons two. Son younger say, Father property your
+divide: part my, me give. Father so.&mdash;Son each, part his give. Days
+few after, son younger money all take, country far go, money spend,
+wine drink, food nice eat. Money by and by gone all. Country everywhere
+food little: son hungry very. Go seek man any, me hire. Gentleman
+meet. Gentleman son send field swine feed. Son swine husks
+eat, see&mdash;self husks eat want&mdash;cannot&mdash;husks him give nobody. Son
+thinks, say, father my, servants many, bread enough, part give away
+can&mdash;I none&mdash;starve, die. I decide: Father I go to, say I bad, God disobey,
+you disobey&mdash;name my hereafter <i>son</i>, no&mdash;I unworthy. You me
+work give servant like. So son begin go. Father far look: son see,
+pity, run, meet, embrace. Son father say, I bad, you disobey, God
+disobey&mdash;name
+my hereafter <i>son</i>, no&mdash;I unworthy. But father servants call,
+command robe best bring, son put on, ring finger put on, shoes feet put
+on, calf fat bring, kill. We all eat, merry. Why? Son this my formerly
+dead, now alive: formerly lost, now found: rejoice."</p>
+
+<p>It may be remarked, not only from this example, but from general
+study, that the verb "to be" as a copula or predicant does not have any
+place in sign language. It is shown, however, among deaf-mutes as
+an assertion of presence or existence by a sign of stretching the arms
+and hands forward and then adding the sign of affirmation. <i>Time</i> as
+referred to in the conjunctions <i>when</i> and <i>then</i> is not
+gestured. Instead of
+the form, "When I have had a sleep I will go to the river," or "After
+sleeping I will go to the river," both deaf-mutes and Indians would express
+the intention by "Sleep done, I river go." Though time present,
+past, and future is readily expressed in signs (see page <a href="#page366">366</a>), it is done
+once for all in the connection to which it belongs, and once established
+is not repeated by any subsequent intimation, as is commonly the case
+in oral speech. Inversion, by which the object is placed before the action,
+is a striking feature of the language of deaf-mutes, and it appears
+to follow the natural method by which objects and actions enter into
+the mental conception. In striking a rock the natural conception is
+not first of the abstract idea of striking or of sending a stroke into
+vacancy, seeing nothing and having no intention of striking anything
+in particular, when suddenly a rock rises up to the mental vision and
+receives the blow; the order is that the man sees the rock, has the
+intention
+to strike it, and does so; therefore he gestures, "I rock strike." For
+further illustration of this subject, a deaf-mute boy, giving in signs the
+compound action of a man shooting a bird from a tree, first represented
+the tree, then the bird as alighting upon it, then a hunter coming toward
+and looking at it, taking aim with a gun, then the report of the latter
+and the falling and the dying gasps of the bird. These are undoubtedly
+the successive steps that an artist would have taken in drawing the
+picture,
+or rather successive pictures, to illustrate the story. It is,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>[pg 362]</span>
+however, urged that this pictorial order natural to deaf-mutes is not
+natural
+to the congenitally blind who are not deaf-mute, among whom it is found
+to be rhythmical. It is asserted that blind persons not carefully educated
+usually converse in a metrical cadence, the action usually coming first
+in the structure of the sentence. The deduction is that all the senses
+when intact enter into the mode of intellectual conception in proportion
+to their relative sensitiveness and intensity, and hence no one mode of
+ideation can be insisted on as normal to the exclusion of others.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not the above statement concerning the blind is true, the
+conceptions and presentations of deaf-mutes and of Indians using sign
+language because they cannot communicate by speech, are confined to
+optic and, therefore, to pictorial arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>The abb&#233; Sicard, dissatisfied with the want of tenses and conjunctions,
+indeed of most of the modern parts of speech, in the natural signs,
+and with their inverted order, attempted to construct a new language
+of signs, in which the words should be given in the order of the French
+or other spoken language adopted, which of course required him to supply
+a sign for every word of spoken language. Signs, whatever their
+character, could not become associated with words, or suggest them,
+until words had been learned. The first step, therefore, was to explain
+by means of natural signs, as distinct from the new signs styled
+methodical,
+the meaning of a passage of verbal language. Then each word was
+taken separately and a sign affixed to it, which was to be learned by the
+pupil. If the word represented a physical object, the sign would be the
+same as the natural sign, and would be already understood, provided
+the object had been seen and was familiar; and in all cases the endeavor
+was to have the sign convey as strong a suggestion of the meaning
+of the word as was possible. The final step was to gesticulate these
+signs, thus associated with words, in the exact order in which the words
+were to stand in a sentence. Then the pupil would write the very
+words desired in the exact order desired. If the previous explanation
+in natural signs had not been sufficiently full and careful, he would not
+understand the passage. The methodical signs did not profess to give
+him the ideas, except in a very limited degree, but only to show him
+how to express ideas according to the order and methods of spoken language.
+As there were no repetitions of time in narratives in the sign
+language, it became necessary to unite with the word-sign for verbs
+others, to indicate the different tenses of the verbs, and so by degrees
+the methodical signs not only were required to comprise signs for
+every word, but also, with every such sign, a grammatical sign to indicate
+what part of speech the word was, and, in the case of verbs, still
+other signs to show their tenses and corresponding inflections. It was,
+as Dr. Peet remarks, a cumbrous and unwieldly vehicle, ready at every
+step to break down under the weight of its own machinery. Nevertheless,
+it was industriously taught in all our schools from the date of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>[pg 363]</span>
+founding of the American Asylum in 1817 down to about the year 1835, when
+it was abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The collection of narratives, speeches, and dialogues of our Indians in
+sign language, first systematically commenced by the present writer,
+several examples of which are in this paper, has not yet been sufficiently
+complete and exact to establish conclusions on the subject of the syntactic
+arrangement of their signs. So far as studied it seems to be similar to
+that of deaf-mutes and to retain the characteristic of pantomimes in
+figuring first the principal idea and adding the accessories successively
+in the order of importance, the ideographic expressions being in the
+ideologic
+order. If the examples given are not enough to establish general
+rules of construction, they at least show the natural order of ideas in
+the minds of the gesturers and the several modes of inversion by which
+they pass from the known to the unknown, beginning with the dominant
+idea or that supposed to be best known. Some special instances of
+expedients other than strictly syntactic coming under the machinery
+broadly designated as grammar may be mentioned.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DEGREES OF COMPARISON.</h4>
+
+<p>Degrees of comparison are frequently expressed, both by deaf-mutes
+and by Indians, by adding to the generic or descriptive sign that for
+"big" or "little." <i>Damp</i> would be "wet&mdash;little"; <i>cool</i>,
+"cold&mdash;little"; <i>hot</i>,
+"warm&mdash;much." The amount or force of motion also often indicates
+corresponding
+diminution or augmentation, but sometimes expresses a different
+shade of meaning, as is reported by Dr. Matthews with reference
+to the sign for <i>bad</i> and <i>contempt</i>, see page <a href="#page411">411</a>. This change
+in degree of
+motion is, however, often used for emphasis only, as is the raising of the
+voice in speech or italicizing and capitalizing in print. The Prince of
+Wied gives an instance of a comparison in his sign for <i>excessively
+hard</i>,
+first giving that for <i>hard</i>, viz: Open the left hand, and strike
+against it
+several times with the right (with the backs of the fingers). Afterwards
+he gives <i>hard, excessively</i>, as follows: Sign for <i>hard</i>, then
+place the
+left index-finger upon the right shoulder, at the same time extend and
+raise the right arm high, extending the index-finger upward,
+perpendicularly.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. G.L. Deffenbaugh describes what may perhaps be regarded as
+an intensive sign among the Sahaptins in connection with the sign for
+<i>good</i>; <i>i.e.</i>, <i>very good</i>. "Place the left hand in position in
+front of the body
+with all fingers closed except first, thumb lying on second, then with
+forefinger of right hand extended in same way point to end of forefinger
+of left hand, move it up the arm till near the body and then to a
+point in front of breast to make the sign <i>good</i>." For the latter see
+<span class="sc">Extracts from Dictionary</span> page <a href="#page487">487</a>, <i>infra</i>. The same special motion
+is prefixed to the sign for <i>bad</i> as an intensive.</p>
+
+<p>Another intensive is reported by Mr. Benjamin Clark, interpreter at
+the Kaiowa, Comanche, and Wichita agency, Indian Territory, in which
+after the sign for <i>bad</i> is made, that for <i>strong</i> is used by
+the Comanches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>[pg 364]</span>
+as follows: Place the clinched left fist horizontally in front of the
+breast,
+back forward, then pass the palmar side of the right fist downward in
+front of the knuckles of the left.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. W.H. Corbusier, assistant surgeon U.S.A., writes as follows
+in response to a special inquiry on the subject: "By carrying the right
+fist from behind forward over the left, instead of beginning the motion
+six inches above it, the Arapaho sign for <i>strong</i> is made. For
+<i>brave</i>,
+first strike the chest over the heart with the right fist two or three
+times, and then make the sign for <i>strong</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"The sign for <i>strong</i> expresses the superlative when used with other
+signs; with coward it denotes a base coward; with hunger, starvation;
+and with sorrow, bitter sorrow. I have not seen it used with the sign for
+pleasure or that of hunger, nor can I learn that it is ever used with them."</p>
+
+
+<h4>OPPOSITION.</h4>
+
+<p>The principle of opposition, as between the right and left hands, and
+between the thumb and forefinger and the little finger, appears among
+Indians in some expressions for "above," "below," "forward," "back,"
+but is not so common as among the methodical, distinguished from the
+natural, signs of deaf-mutes. It is also connected with the attempt to
+express degrees of comparison. <i>Above</i> is sometimes expressed by
+holding the left hand horizontal, and in front of the body, fingers open,
+but joined together, palm upward. The right hand is then placed horizontal,
+fingers open but joined, palm downward, an inch or more above
+the left, and raised and lowered a few inches several times, the left hand
+being perfectly still. If the thing indicated as "above" is only a
+<i>little</i>
+above, this concludes the sign, but if it be <i>considerably</i> above, the
+right
+hand is raised higher and higher as the height to be expressed is greater,
+until, if <i>enormously</i> above, the Indian will raise his right hand as
+high
+as possible, and, fixing his eyes on the zenith, emit a duplicate grunt,
+the more prolonged as he desires to express the greater height. All
+this time the left hand is held perfectly motionless. <i>Below</i> is
+gestured
+in a corresponding manner, all movement being made by the left or
+lower hand, the right being held motionless, palm downward, and the
+eyes looking down.</p>
+
+<p>The code of the Cistercian monks was based in large part on a system
+of opposition which seems to have been wrought out by an elaborate process
+of invention rather than by spontaneous figuration, and is more of
+mnemonic than suggestive value. They made two fingers at the right
+side of the nose stand for "friend," and the same at the left side for
+"enemy," by some fanciful connection with right and wrong, and placed
+the little finger on the tip of the nose for "fool" merely because it had
+been decided to put the forefinger there for "wise man."</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROPER NAMES.</h4>
+
+<p>It is well known that the names of Indians are almost always connotive,
+and particularly that they generally refer to some animal, predicating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>[pg 365]</span>
+often some attribute or position of that animal. Such names readily admit
+of being expressed in sign language, but there may be sometimes a
+confusion between the sign expressing the animal which is taken as a
+name-totem, and the sign used, not to designate that animal, but as a
+proper name. A curious device to differentiate proper names was observed
+as resorted to by a Brul&#233; Dakota. After making the sign of the
+animal he passed his index forward from the mouth in a direct line,
+and explained it orally as "that is his name," <i>i.e.</i>, the name of the person
+referred to. This approach to a grammatic division of substantives
+maybe correlated with the mode in which many tribes, especially the
+Dakotas, designate names in their pictographs, <i>i.e.</i>, by a line from the
+mouth of the figure drawn representing a man to the animal, also drawn
+with proper color or position. Fig. 150 thus shows the name of
+Shun-ka Luta, Red Dog, an Ogallalla chief, drawn by himself.
+The shading of the dog by vertical lines is designed
+to represent red, or <i>gules</i>, according to the heraldic
+scheme of colors, which is used in other parts
+of this paper where it seemed useful to designate
+particular colors. The writer possesses in painted robes many examples
+in which lines are drawn from the mouth to a name-totem.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig150.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig150.png" alt="Shun'-ka Lu'-ta. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 150.</div>
+
+<p>It would be interesting to dwell more than is now allowed upon the
+peculiar objectiveness of Indian proper names with the result, if not
+the intention, that they can all be signified in gesture, whereas the
+best sign-talker among deaf-mutes is unable to translate the proper
+names occurring in his speech or narrative and, necessarily ceasing
+signs, resorts to the dactylic alphabet. Indians are generally named
+at first according to a clan or totemic system, but later in life often
+acquire
+a new name or perhaps several names in succession from some exploit
+or adventure. Frequently a sobriquet is given by no means complimentary.
+All of the subsequently acquired, as well as the original
+names, are connected with material objects or with substantive actions
+so as to be expressible in a graphic picture, and, therefore, in a
+pictorial
+sign. The determination to use names of this connotive character is
+shown by the objective translation, whenever possible, of those European
+names which it became necessary to introduce into their speech. William
+Penn was called "Onas," that being the word for feather-quill in the
+Mohawk dialect. The name of the second French governor of Canada
+was "Montmagny" which was translated by the Iroquois "Onontio"&mdash;"Great
+Mountain," and becoming associated with the title, has been
+applied to all successive Canadian governors, though the origin being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>[pg 366]</span>
+generally forgotten, it has been considered as a metaphorical compliment.
+It is also said that Governor Fletcher was not named by the
+Iroquois "Cajenquiragoe," "the great swift arrow," because of his speedy
+arrival at a critical time, but because they had somehow been informed
+of the etymology of his name&mdash;"arrow maker" (<i>Fr. fl&#233;chier</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4>GENDER.</h4>
+
+<p>This is sometimes expressed by different signs to distinguish the sex of
+animals, when the difference in appearance allows of such varied
+portraiture.
+An example is in the signs for the male and female buffalo, given by
+the Prince of Wied. The former is, "Place the tightly closed hands on
+both sides of the head, with the fingers forward;" the latter is,
+"Curve the
+two forefingers, place them on the sides of the head and move them several
+times." The short stubby horns of the bull appear to be indicated, and
+the cow's ears are seen moving, not being covered by the bull's shock
+mane. Tribes in which the hair of the women is differently arranged
+from that of men often denote their females by corresponding gesture.
+In many cases the sex of animals is indicated by the addition of a generic
+sign for male or female.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TENSE.</h4>
+
+<p>While it has been mentioned that there is no inflection of signs to
+express
+tense, yet the conception of present, past, and future is gestured
+without difficulty. A common mode of indicating the present time is
+by the use of signs for <i>to-day</i>, one of which is, "(1) both hands
+extended,
+palms outward; (2) swept slowly forward and to each side, to convey
+the idea of openness." (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.) This may combine the idea of
+<i>now</i> with <i>openness</i>, the first part of it resembling the
+general deaf-mute
+sign for <i>here</i> or <i>now</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two signs nearly related together are also reported as expressing the
+meaning <i>now, at once</i>, viz.: "Forefinger of the right hand extended,
+upright,
+&amp;c. (J), is carried upward in front of the right side of the body
+and above the head so that the extended finger points toward the center
+of the heavens, and then carried downward in front of the right breast,
+forefinger still pointing upright." (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Place the extended
+index, pointing upward, palm to the left, as high as and before the top
+of the head; push the hand up and down a slight distance several times,
+the eyes being directed upward at the time." (<i>Hidatsa</i> I;
+<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Arikara</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i>
+II.)</p>
+
+<p>Time past is not only expressed, but some tribes give a distinct
+modification
+to show a short or long time past. The following are examples:</p>
+
+<p><i>Lately, recently</i>.&mdash;Hold the left hand at arm's length, closed, with
+forefinger
+only extended and pointing in the direction of the place where
+the event occurred; then hold the right hand against the right shoulder,
+closed, but with index extended and pointing in the direction of the left.
+The hands may be exchanged, the right extended and the left retained,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>[pg 367]</span>
+as the case may require for ease in description. (<i>Absaroka I; Shoshoni
+and Banak</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Long ago</i>.&mdash;Both hands closed, forefingers extended and straight;
+pass
+one hand slowly at arm's length, pointing horizontally, the other against
+the shoulder or near it, pointing in the same direction as the opposite
+one. Frequently the tips of the forefingers are placed together, and the
+hands drawn apart, until they reach the positions described.
+(<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The Comanche, Wichita, and other Indians designate a <i>short time
+ago</i> by placing the tips of the forefinger and thumb of the left hand
+together, the remaining fingers closed, and holding the hand before the
+body with forefinger and thumb pointing toward the right shoulder; the
+index and thumb of the right hand are then similarly held and placed
+against those of the left, when the hands are slowly drawn apart a short
+distance. For a <i>long time ago</i> the hands are similarly held, but
+drawn
+farther apart. Either of these signs may be and frequently is preceded
+by those for <i>day, month</i>, or <i>year</i>, when it is desired to
+convey a definite
+idea of the time past.</p>
+
+<p>A sign is reported with the abstract idea of <i>future</i>, as follows:
+"The
+arms are flexed and hands brought together in front of the body as in
+type-position (W). The hands are made to move in wave-like motions
+up and down together and from side to side." (<i>Oto</i> I.) The authority
+gives the poetical conception of "Floating on the tide of time."</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary mode of expressing future time is, however, by some
+figurative reference, as the following: Count off fingers, then shut all
+the fingers of both hands several times, and touch the hair and tent or
+other white object. (<i>Apache</i> III.) "Many years; when I am old
+(whitehaired)."</p>
+
+
+<h4>CONJUNCTIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>An interesting instance where the rapid connection of signs has the
+effect of the conjunction <i>and</i> is shown in <span class="sc">N&#225;tci's Narrative</span>,
+<i>infra</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PREPOSITIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>In the <span class="sc">Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue</span> (page <a href="#page489">489</a>) the combination of
+gestures supplies the want of the proposition <i>to</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PUNCTUATION.</h4>
+
+<p>While this is generally accompanied by facial expression, manner of
+action, or pause, instances have been noticed suggesting the device of
+interrogation points and periods.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Mark of interrogation.</i></h5>
+
+<p>The Shoshoni, Absaroka, Dakota, Comanche, and other Indians, when
+desiring to ask a question, precede the gestures constituting the
+information
+desired by a sign intended to attract attention and "asking for,"
+viz., by holding the flat right hand, with the palm down, directed, to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>[pg 368]</span>
+individual interrogated, with or without lateral oscillating motion; the
+gestural sentence, when completed, being closed by the same sign and
+a look of inquiry. This recalls the Spanish use of the interrogation
+points before and after the question.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Period</i>.</h5>
+
+<p>A Hidatsa, after concluding a short statement, indicated its conclusion
+by placing the inner edges of the clinched hands together before the
+breast, and passing them outward and downward to their respective
+sides in an emphatic manner, Fig. 334, page <a href="#page528">528</a>. This sign is also used
+in other connections to express <i>done</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The same mode of indicating the close of a narrative or statement is
+made by the Wichitas, by holding the extended left hand horizontally
+before the body, fingers pointing to the right, palm either toward the
+body or downward, and cutting edgewise downward past the tips of the
+left with the extended right hand. This is the same sign given in the
+<span class="sc">Address of Kin Ch&#275;-&#277;ss</span> as <i>cut off</i>, and is illustrated in Fig. 324,
+page
+<a href="#page522">522</a>. This is more ideographic and convenient than the device of the
+Abyssinian Galla, reported by M.A. d'Abbadie, who denoted a comma
+by a slight stroke of a leather whip, a semicolon by a harder one, and
+a full stop by one still harder.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>GESTURES AIDING ARCH&#198;OLOGIC RESEARCH.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The most interesting light in which the Indians of North America
+can be regarded is in their present representation of a stage of evolution
+once passed through by our own ancestors. Their signs, as well as
+their myths and customs, form a part of the paleontology of humanity to
+be studied in the history of the latter as the geologist, with similar
+object,
+studies all the strata of the physical world. At this time it is only
+possible to suggest the application of gesture signs to elucidate
+pictographs,
+and also their examination to discover religious, sociologic, and
+historic ideas preserved in them, as has been done with great success in
+the radicals of oral speech.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SIGNS CONNECTED WITH PICTOGRAPHS.</h4>
+
+<p>The picture writing of Indians is the sole form in which they recorded
+events and ideas that can ever be interpreted without the aid of a
+traditional
+key, such as is required for the signification of the wampum
+belts of the Northeastern tribes and the <i>quippus</i> of Peru. Strips of
+bark, tablets of wood, dressed skins of animals, and the smooth surfaces
+of rock have been and still are used for such records, those most
+ancient, and therefore most interesting, being of course the rock etchings;
+but they can only be deciphered, if at all, by the ascertained
+principles on which the more modern and the more obvious are made.
+Many of the numerous and widespread rock carvings are mere idle
+sketches&mdash;of natural objects, mainly animals, and others are as
+exclusively
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>[pg 369]</span>
+mnemonic as the wampum above mentioned. Even since the
+Columbian discovery some tribes have employed devices yet ruder than
+the rudest pictorial attempt as markers for the memory. An account
+of one of these is given in E. Winslow's Relation (A.D. 1624), <i>Col.
+Mass.
+Hist. Soc.</i>, 2d series, ix, 1822, p. 99, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"Instead of records and chronicles they take this course: Where any
+remarkable act is done, in memory of it, either in the place or by some
+pathway near adjoining, they make a round hole in the ground about a
+foot deep, and as much over, which, when others passing by behold,
+they inquire the cause and occasion of the same, which being once
+known, they are careful to acquaint all men as occasion serveth therewith.
+And lest such holes should be filled or grown over by any accident,
+as men pass by they will often renew the same; by which means
+many things of great antiquity are fresh in memory. So that as a man
+traveleth, if he can understand his guide, his journey will be the less
+tedious, by reason of the many historical discourses which will be related
+unto him."</p>
+
+<p>Gregg, in <i>Commerce of the Prairies</i>, <i>New York</i>, 1844, II, 286, says of
+the
+Plains tribes: "When traveling, they will also pile heaps of stones upon
+mounds or conspicuous points, so arranged as to be understood by their
+passing comrades; and sometimes they set up the bleached buffalo
+heads, which are everywhere scattered over those plains, to indicate the
+direction of their march, and many other facts which may be communicated
+by those simple signs."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:53%;"><a href="images/fig151.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig151.png" alt="&quot;I am going to the east.&quot; Abnaki" /></a>Fig. 151.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:56%;"><a href="images/fig152.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig152.png" alt="&quot;Am not gone far.&quot; Abnaki" /></a>Fig. 152.</div>
+
+<p>A more ingenious but still arbitrary mode of giving intelligence is
+practiced at this day by the Abnaki,
+as reported by H.L. Masta,
+chief of that tribe, now living at
+Pierreville, Quebec. When they
+are in the woods, to say "I am
+going to the east," a stick is stuck
+in the ground pointing to that
+direction, Fig. 151. "Am not gone
+far," another stick is stuck across
+the former, close to the ground,
+Fig. 152. "Gone far" is the reverse, Fig. 153. The number of days
+journey of proposed absence is
+shown by the same number of
+sticks across the first; thus Fig.
+154 signifies five days' journey.
+Cutting the bark off from a tree
+on one, two, three or four sides
+near the butt means "Have had
+poor, poorer, poorest luck."
+Cutting it off all around the tree
+means "I am starving." Smoking
+a piece of birch bark and hanging it on a tree means "I am sick."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>[pg 370]</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:47%;"><a href="images/fig153.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig153.png" alt="&quot;Gone far.&quot; Abnaki" /></a>Fig. 153.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:47%;"><a href="images/fig154.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig154.png" alt="&quot;Gone five days' journey.&quot; Abnaki" /></a>Fig. 154.</div>
+
+<p>Where there has existed any form of artistic representation, however
+rude, and at the same time a system of ideographic gesture signs prevailed,
+it would be expected that the form of the latter would appear in
+the former. The sign of <i>river</i> and
+<i>water</i> mentioned on page <a href="#page358">358</a> being
+established, when it became necessary
+or desirable to draw a character
+or design to convey the same idea,
+nothing would be more natural than
+to use the graphic form of delineation
+which is also above described.
+It was but one more and an easy step
+to fasten upon bark, skins, or rocks the evanescent air pictures that still
+in pigments or carvings preserve their skeleton outline, and in their
+ideography
+approach, as has been shown
+above, the rudiments of the phonetic
+alphabets that have been constructed
+by other peoples. A transition
+stage between gestures and
+pictographs, in which the left hand is
+used as a supposed drafting surface
+upon which the index draws lines,
+is exhibited in the <span class="sc">Dialogue between Alaskan Indians</span>, <i>infra</i>, page
+<a href="#page498">498</a>. This device is common among deaf-mutes, without equal arch&#230;ologic
+importance, as it may have been suggested by the art of writing,
+with which they are generally acquainted, even if not instructed in it.</p>
+
+<p>The reproduction of apparent gesture lines in the pictographs made
+by our Indians has, for obvious reasons, been most frequent in the attempt
+to convey those subjective ideas which were beyond the range of
+an artistic skill limited to the direct representation of objects, so that
+the part of the pictographs which is still the most difficult of
+interpretation
+is precisely the one which the study of sign language is likely to
+elucidate. The following examples of pictographs of the Indians, in
+some cases compared with those from foreign sources, have been selected
+because their interpretation is definitely known and the gestures
+corresponding with or suggested by them are well determined.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig155.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig155.png" alt="Sun. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 155.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;clear:none;"><a href="images/fig156.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig156.png" alt="Sun. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 156.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;clear:none;"><a href="images/fig157.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig157.png" alt="Sun. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 157.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig159.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig159.png" alt="Sun with rays. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 159.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig158.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig158.png" alt="Sun with rays. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 158.</div>
+
+<p>The common Indian gesture sign for <i>sun</i> is: "Right hand
+closed, the index and thumb curved, with tips touching, thus
+approximating a circle, and held toward the
+sky," the position of the fingers of the hand
+forming a circle being shown in Fig. 155. Two
+of the Egyptian characters for sun, Figs. 156 and 157, are plainly the
+universal
+conception of the disk. The latter, together with indications of
+rays, Fig. 158, and in its linear form, Fig. 159, (Champollion,
+<i>Dict.</i>, 9),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>[pg 371]</span>
+constitutes the Egyptian character for <i>light</i>. The rays emanating
+from
+the whole disk appear in Figs. 160 and 161, taken from a MS. contributed
+by Mr. <span class="sc">G.K. Gilbert</span> of the United States Geological
+Survey, from the rock etchings
+of the Moqui pueblos in Arizona. The
+same authority gives from the same
+locality Figs. 162 and 163 for <i>sun</i>,
+which may be distinguished from several other similar etchings for
+<i>star</i>
+also given by him, Figs. 164, 165, 166, 167, by always showing some
+indication
+of a face, the latter being absent in the characters denoting <i>star</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:13%;clear:none;"><a href="images/fig160.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig160.png" alt="Sun with rays. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 160.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:12%;clear:none;"><a href="images/fig161.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig161.png" alt="Sun with rays. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 161.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig163.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig163.png" alt="Sun with rays. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 163.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig162.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig162.png" alt="Sun with rays. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 162.</div>
+
+<p>With the above characters for sun compare
+Fig. 168, found at Cuzco, Peru, and
+taken from Wiener's <i>P&#233;rou et Bolivie,
+Paris</i>, 1880, p. 706.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig164.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig164.png" alt="Star. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 164.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig165.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig165.png" alt="Star. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 165.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig166.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig166.png" alt="Star. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 166.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig167.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig167.png" alt="Star. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 167.</div>
+
+<p>The Ojibwa pictograph for sun is seen
+in Fig. 169, taken from Schoolcraft, <i>loc.
+cit.</i>, v. 1, pl. 56, Fig. 67.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:12%;"><a href="images/fig168.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig168.png" alt="Star. Peruvian pictograph" /></a>Fig. 168.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:12%;"><a href="images/fig169.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig169.png" alt="Star. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 169.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:22%;"><a href="images/fig171.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig171.png" alt="Sunrise. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 171.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig170.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig170.png" alt="Sunrise. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 170.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:22%;"><a href="images/fig172.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig172.png" alt="Sunrise. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 172.</div>
+
+<p>A gesture sign for <i>sunrise, morning</i>, is: Forefinger of right hand
+crooked to represent half of the sun's disk and pointed or extended to the
+left, then slightly elevated.
+(<i>Cheyenne</i> II.) In this connection
+it may be noted that when
+the gesture is carefully
+made in open
+country the pointing
+would generally be
+to the east, and the body turned so that its left would be in that
+direction.
+In a room in a city, or under circumstances where the points of
+the compass are not specially attended to, the left side supposes
+the east, and the gestures relating to sun, day, &amp;c., are
+made with such reference. The half only of the disk
+represented in the above gesture appears in the following
+Moqui pueblo etchings for <i>morning</i> and <i>sunrise</i>,
+Figs. 170, 171, and 172. (Gilbert, <i>MS.</i>)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:12%;"><a href="images/fig173.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig173.png" alt="Moon, month. Californian pictograph" /></a>Fig. 173.</div>
+
+<p>A common gesture for <i>day</i> is when the index and thumb form a circle
+(remaining fingers closed) and are passed from east to west.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 173 shows a pictograph found in Owen's Valley, California, a similar
+one being reported in the <i>Ann. Rep. Geog. Survey west of the 100th
+Meridian for 1876, Washington</i>, 1876, pl. opp. p. 326, in which the
+circle
+may indicate either <i>day</i> or <i>month</i> (both these gestures having
+the same
+execution), the course of the sun or moon being represented perhaps in
+mere contradistinction to the vertical line, or perhaps the latter
+signifies <i>one</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>[pg 372]</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:28%;"><a href="images/fig174.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig174.png" alt="Pictograph, including sun. Coyotero Apache" /></a>Fig. 174.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:22%;"><a href="images/fig175.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig175.png" alt="Moon. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 175.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 174 is a pictograph of the Coyotero Apaches, found at Camp
+Apache, in Arizona, reported in the <i>Tenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geolog. and
+Geograph. Survey of the Territories for 1876</i>, <i>Washington</i>, 1878,
+pl. lxxvii.
+The sun and the ten spots of approximately the same shape represent
+the days, eleven, which the
+party with five pack mules
+passed in traveling through
+the country. The separating
+lines are the nights, and may
+include the conception of covering
+over and consequent obscurity above referred to (page <a href="#page354">354</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:12%;"><a href="images/fig177.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig177.png" alt="Moon. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 177.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig176.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig176.png" alt="Moon. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 176.</div>
+
+<p>A common sign for <i>moon, month</i>, is the right
+hand closed, leaving the thumb and index extended,
+but curved to form a half circle and the
+hand held toward the sky, in a position which is
+illustrated in Fig. 175, to which curve the Moqui
+etching, Fig. 176, and the identical form in the
+ancient Chinese has an obvious resemblance.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig179.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig179.png" alt="Sky. Egyptian character" /></a>Fig. 179.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig178.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig178.png" alt="Sky. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 178.</div>
+
+<p>The crescent, as we commonly figure the satellite,
+appears also in the Ojibwa pictograph, Fig.
+177 (Schoolcraft, I, pl. 58), which is the same,
+with a slight addition, as the
+Egyptian figurative character.</p>
+
+<p>The sign for <i>sky</i>, also <i>heaven</i>,
+is generally made by passing the index from east to west across the
+zenith. This curve is apparent in the Ojibwa pictograph Fig. 178,
+reported in Schoolcraft, I, pl. 18, Fig. 21, and is abbreviated
+in the Egyptian character with the same
+meaning, Fig. 179 (Champollion, <i>Dict.</i>, p. 1).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig182.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig182.png" alt="Clouds. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 182.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig181.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig181.png" alt="Clouds. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 181.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig180.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig180.png" alt="Clouds. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 180.</div>
+
+<p>A sign for <i>cloud</i> is as follows: (1) Both hands partially closed,
+palms facing and near each other, brought up to
+level with or slightly above, but in front of the head; (2) suddenly
+separated sidewise, describing
+a curve like a scallop;
+this scallop motion
+is repeated for "many
+clouds." (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.) The same conception is in the Moqui
+etchings,
+Figs. 180, 181, and 182 (Gilbert <i>MS</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig183.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig183.png" alt="Clouds. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 183.</div>
+
+<p>The Ojibwa pictograph for <i>cloud</i> is more elaborate, Fig. 183,
+reported
+in Schoolcraft, I, pl. 58. It is composed of the sign for
+<i>sky</i>, to which that for <i>clouds</i> is added, the latter being
+reversed
+as compared with the Moqui etchings, and picturesquely
+hanging from the sky.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig184.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig184.png" alt="Rain. New Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 184.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig185.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig185.png" alt="Rain. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 185.</div>
+
+<p>The gesture sign for <i>rain</i> is described and illustrated on
+page <a href="#page344">344</a>. The pictograph, Fig. 184, reported as found in New Mexico by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>[pg 373]</span>
+Lieutenant Simpson (<i>Ex. Doc. No. 64, Thirty-first Congress, first
+session</i>,
+1850, pl. 9) is said to represent Montezuma's adjutants sounding a blast
+to him for rain. The small character inside the curve
+which represents the sky, corresponds with the gesturing
+hand. The Moqui etching (Gilbert <i>MS.</i>) for <i>rain</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+a cloud from which the drops are falling, is given in Fig. 185.</p>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig187.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig187.png" alt="Lightning. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 187.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig186.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig186.png" alt="Lightning. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 186.</div>
+
+<p>The same authority gives
+two signs for <i>lightning</i>, Figs.
+186 and 187. In the latter the sky is shown, the changing
+direction of the streak, and clouds with rain falling.
+The part relating specially to the streak is portrayed
+in a sign as follows: Right hand elevated before
+and above the head, forefinger pointing upward, brought down
+with great rapidity with a sinuous, undulating motion; finger still
+extended diagonally downward toward the right. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig189.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig189.png" alt="Lightning, fatal. Pictograph at Jemez, N.M." /></a>Fig. 189.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig188.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig188.png" alt="Lightning, harmless. Pictograph at Jemez, N.M." /></a>Fig. 188.</div>
+
+<p>Figs. 188 and 189 also represent <i>lightning</i>, taken by
+Mr. W.H. Jackson,
+photographer of the
+late U.S. Geolog. and
+Geog. Survey, from the
+decorated walls of an estufa
+in the Pueblo de
+Jemez, New Mexico. The former is
+blunt, for harmless, and the latter terminating
+in an arrow or spear point,
+for destructive or fatal, lightning.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig191.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig191.png" alt="Voice. Antelope. Cheyenne drawing" /></a>Fig. 191.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig190.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig190.png" alt="Voice. &quot;The-Elk-that-hollows-walking&quot;" /></a>Fig. 190.</div>
+
+<p>A common sign for <i>speech, speak</i>,
+among the Indians is the repeated
+motion of the index in a straight line
+forward from the mouth. This line,
+indicating the voice, is shown in Fig. 190, taken from the <i>Dakota
+Calendar</i>, being the expression for the fact
+that "the-Elk-that-hollows-walking," a Minneconjou chief, "made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>[pg 374]</span>
+medicine." The ceremony is indicated by the head of an albino buffalo. A
+more graphic portraiture of the conception of <i>voice</i> is in Fig. 191,
+representing
+an antelope and the whistling sound produced by the animal
+on being surprised or alarmed. This is taken from MS. drawing book
+of an Indian prisoner at Saint Augustine,
+Fla., now in the Smithsonian Institution, No. 30664.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 192 is the exhibition of wrestling for
+a turkey, the point of interest in the present
+connection being the lines from the mouth
+to the objects of conversation. It is taken
+from the above-mentioned MS. drawing book.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig192.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig192.png" alt="Voice, talking. Cheyenne drawing" /></a>Fig. 192.</div>
+
+<p>The wrestlers, according to the foot
+prints, had evidently come together, when,
+meeting the returning hunter, who is
+wrapped in his blanket with only one
+foot protruding, they separated and threw
+off their blankets, leggings, and moccasins,
+both endeavoring to win the turkey,
+which lies between them and the donor.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 193, taken from the same MS.
+drawing book, the conversation is about the lassoing, shooting, and
+final killing of a buffalo which has wandered to a camp. The dotted
+lines indicate footprints. The Indian drawn under the buffalo having
+secured the animal by the fore feet, so informs his companions, as
+indicated by the line drawn from his mouth to the object mentioned; the
+left-hand figure, having also secured the buffalo by the horns, gives his
+nearest comrade an opportunity to strike it with an ax, which he no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>[pg 375]</span>
+doubt announces that he will do, as the line from his mouth to the head
+of the animal suggests. The Indian in the upper left-hand corner is told
+by a squaw to take an arrow and join his companions, when he turns his
+head to inform her that he has one already, which fact he demonstrates
+by holding up the weapon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig193.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig193.png" alt="Killing the buffalo. Cheyenne drawing" /></a>Fig. 193.</div>
+
+<p>The Mexican pictograph, Fig. 194, taken from Kingsborough, II, pt.
+1, p. 100, is illustrative of the sign made by the Arikara and Hidatsa for
+<i>tell</i> and <i>conversation</i>. <i>Tell me</i> is: Place the flat
+right hand, palm upward,
+about fifteen inches in front of the right side of the face, fingers
+pointing to the left and front; then draw the hand inward toward and
+against the bottom of the chin. For <i>conversation</i>, talking between
+two
+persons, both hands are held before the breast, pointing forward, palms
+up, the edges being moved several times toward one another. Perhaps,
+however, the picture in fact only means the common poetical image of
+"flying words."</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>[pg 376]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig194.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig194.png" alt="Talking. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 194.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig195.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig195.png" alt="Talking, singing. Maya character" /></a>Fig. 195.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 195 is one of Landa's characters, found in <i>Rel. des choses de
+Yucatan</i>, p. 316, and suggests one of the gestures for <i>talk</i> and more
+especially that for <i>sing</i>, in which the
+extended and separated
+fingers are passed forward
+and slightly downward
+from the mouth&mdash;"many
+voices." Although the
+last opinion about the
+bishop is unfavorable to
+the authenticity of his
+work, yet even if it were
+prepared by a Maya, under
+his supervision, the
+latter would probably
+have given him some genuine
+native conceptions,
+and among them gestures
+would be likely to occur.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig198.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig198.png" alt="Hearing serpent. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 198.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig197.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig197.png" alt="&quot;I hear, but your words are from a bad heart.&quot; Ojibwa" /></a>Fig. 197.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig196.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig196.png" alt="Hearing ears. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 196.</div>
+
+<p>The natural sign for
+<i>hear</i>, made both by Indians
+and deaf-mutes,
+consisting in the motion
+of the index, or the index
+and thumb joined, in a
+straight line to the ear, is
+illustrated in the Ojibwa
+pictograph Fig. 196,
+"hearing ears," and those
+of the same people, Figs.
+197 and 198, the latter
+of which is a hearing serpent, and the former means "I hear, but your
+words are from a bad heart," the hands being thrown out as in the
+final part of a gesture for <i>bad heart</i>, which is
+made by the hand being closed and held near
+the breast, with the back toward the breast,
+then as the arm is suddenly extended
+the hand is opened and the fingers
+separated from each other.
+(<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The final part of the gesture,
+representing the idea of <i>bad</i>, not connected with heart, is
+illustrated in Fig. 236 on page <a href="#page411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The above Ojibwa pictographs are taken from Schoolcraft, <i>loc. cit.</i>
+I, plates 58, 53, 59.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 199, a bas-relief taken from Dupaix's Monuments of New Spain,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>[pg 377]</span>
+in Kingsborough, <i>loc. cit.</i> IV, pt. 3, p. 31, has been considered to
+be a
+royal edict or command. The gesture <i>to hear</i> is plainly depicted, and
+the
+right hand is directed to the persons addressed, so the command appears
+to be uttered with the preface
+of <i>Hear Ye! Oyez!</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig199.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig199.png" alt="Royal edit. Maya" /></a>Fig. 199.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig200.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig200.png" alt="To kill. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 200.</div>
+
+<p>The typical sign for <i>kill</i>
+or <i>killed</i> is: Right hand
+clinched, thumb lying along
+finger tips, elevated to near
+the shoulder, strike downward
+and outward vaguely in the direction of the object
+to be killed. The abbreviated sign is simply to
+clinch the right hand in the manner described and
+strike it down and out from the right side. (<i>Cheyenne</i>
+II.) This gesture, also appears among the Dakotas and
+is illustrated in Fig. 200.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig201.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig201.png" alt="&quot;Killed arm.&quot; Dakota" /></a>Fig. 201.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 201, taken from the <i>Dakota Calendar</i>, illustrates this gesture.
+It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>[pg 378]</span>
+represents the year in which a Minneconjou chief was stabbed in the
+shoulder by a Gros Ventre, and afterwards named "Dead Arm" or
+"Killed Arm." At first the figure was supposed to show the permanent
+drawing up of the arm by anchylosis, but that would not be likely
+to be the result of the wound described, and with knowledge of the gesture
+the meaning is more clear.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 202, taken from <i>Report upon the Reconnaissance of Northwestern
+Wyoming, &amp;c., Washington</i>, 1875, p. 207, Fig. 53, found in the Wind
+River Valley, Wyoming Territory, was interpreted by members of a Shoshoni
+and Banak delegation to Washington in 1880 as "an Indian killed
+another." The latter is very roughly delineated in the horizontal figure,
+but is also represented by the line under the hand of the upright figure,
+meaning the same individual. At the right is the scalp taken and the
+two feathers showing the dead warrior's rank. The arm nearest the
+prostrate foe shows the gesture for <i>killed</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig202.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig202.png" alt="Pictograph, including &quot;kill.&quot; Wyoming Ter." /></a>Fig. 202.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig203.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig203.png" alt="Pictograph, including &quot;kill.&quot; Wyoming Ter." /></a>Fig. 203.</div>
+
+<p>The same gesture appears in Fig. 203, from the same authority and
+locality. The scalp is here held forth, and the
+numeral <i>one</i> is designated by the stroke at the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 204, from the same locality and authority,
+was also interpreted by the Shoshoni and
+Banak. It appears from their description that
+a Blackfoot had attacked the habitation of
+some of his own people. The right-hand upper
+figure represents his horse with the lance suspended
+from the side. The lower figure illustrates
+the log house built against a stream.
+The dots are the prints of the horse's hoofs,
+while the two lines running outward from the
+upper inclosure show that two thrusts of the
+lance were made over the wall of the house, thus killing the occupant
+and securing two bows and five arrows, as represented in the
+left-hand
+group. The right-hand figure of that group shows the hand raised in
+the attitude of making the gesture for <i>kill</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>[pg 379]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig204.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig204.png" alt="Pictograph, including &quot;kill.&quot; Wyoming Ter." /></a>Fig. 204.</div>
+
+<p>As the Blackfeet, according to the interpreters, were the only Indians
+in the locality mentioned who constructed log houses, the drawing becomes
+additionally interesting, as an
+attempt appears to have been made
+to illustrate the crossing of the logs
+at the corners, the gesture for which
+(<i>log-house</i>) will be found on page <a href="#page428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig205.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig205.png" alt="Veneration. Egyptian character" /></a>Fig. 205.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 205 is the Egyptian character
+for <i>veneration, to glorify</i> (Champollion,
+<i>Dict.</i>, 29), the author's understanding
+being that the hands are raised
+in surprise, astonishment.</p>
+
+<p>The Menomoni Indians now begin
+their prayers by raising their hands
+in the same manner. They may have
+been influenced in this respect by the
+attitudes of their missionaries in
+prayer and benediction. The Apaches,
+who have received less civilized tuition,
+in a religious gesture corresponding
+with prayer spread their hands
+opposite the face,
+palms up and backward, apparently
+expressing
+the desire to
+<i>receive</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig206.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig206.png" alt="Mercy. Supplication, favor. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 206.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 206 is a copy
+of an Egyptian tablet
+reproduced from
+Cooper's <i>Serpent
+Myths</i>, page 28. A
+priest kneels before
+the great goddess
+Ranno, while supplicating
+her favor. The
+conception of the author
+is that the hands
+are raised by the supplicant
+to shield his
+face from the glory of
+the divinity. It may
+be compared with
+signs for asking for
+<i>mercy</i> and for giving mercy to another, the former being: Extend both
+forefingers, pointing upward, palms toward the breast, and hold the hands
+before the chest; then draw them inward toward their respective sides,
+and pass them up ward as high as the sides of the head by either cheek.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>[pg 380]</span>
+(<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i>
+II.) The latter, <i>to have
+mercy on another</i>, as made by the same tribes, is: Hold both hands
+nearly
+side by side before the chest, palms forward, forefinger only extended
+and pointing upward; then move them forward
+and upward, as if passing them by the
+cheeks of another person from the
+breast to the sides of the head.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:65%;"><a href="images/fig207.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig207.png" alt="Supplication. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 207.</div>
+
+<p>A similar gesture for <i>supplication</i>
+appears in Fig. 207, taken from Kingsborough,
+<i>loc. cit.</i>, III, pt. I, p. 24.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig208.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig208.png" alt="Smoke. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 208.</div>
+
+<p>An Indian gesture sign for <i>smoke</i>,
+and also one for <i>fire</i>, has been described
+above, page <a href="#page344">344</a>. With the former is connected the Aztec design
+(Fig. 208) taken from Pipart, <i>loc. cit.</i>, II, 352, and the latter
+appears
+in Fig. 209, taken from Kingsborough, III, pt. I, p. 21.</p>
+
+<p>A sign for <i>medicine-man, shaman</i>, is thus described: "With its
+index-finger extended and
+pointing upward, or
+all the fingers extended,
+back of hand outward, move
+the right hand from
+just in front of the
+forehead, spirally
+upward, nearly to
+arm's length, from
+left to right." (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:68%;"><a href="images/fig209.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig209.png" alt="Fire. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 209.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 210, from the
+<i>Dakota Calendar</i>,
+represents the making
+of medicine or
+conjuration. In that
+case the head and
+horns of a white buffalo
+cow were used.</p>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig210.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig210.png" alt="&quot;Making medicine.&quot; Conjuration. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 210.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig211.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig211.png" alt="Meda. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 211.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 211 is an Ojibwa pictograph taken from Schoolcraft, <i>loc. cit.</i>,
+representing
+<i>medicine-man, meda</i>. With these horns and spiral may be collated
+Fig. 212 which portrays the ram-headed Egyptian god Knuphis,
+or Chnum, the spirit, in
+a shrine on the boat of the sun, canopied
+by the serpent-goddess Ranno, who is also seen facing him inside
+the shrine. This is reproduced from Cooper's <i>Serpent Myths</i>, p. 24.
+The same deity is represented in Champollion, <i>Gram.</i>, p. 113, as
+reproduced in Fig. 213.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 214 is an Ojibwa pictograph found in Schoolcraft, I, pl. 58, and given
+as <i>power</i>. It corresponds with the sign for <i>doctor</i>, or
+<i>medicine-man</i>,
+made by the Absarokas by passing the extended and separated index
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>[pg 381]</span>
+and second finger of the right hand upward from the forehead, spirally,
+and is considered to indicate "superior knowledge." Among the Otos,
+as part of the sign with the same meaning,
+both hands are raised to the side of the head, and
+the extended indices pressing the temples.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig212.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig212.png" alt="The God Knuphis. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 212.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig213.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig213.png" alt="The God Knuphis. Egyptian" /></a>Fig. 213.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig214.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig214.png" alt="Power. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 214.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 215 is also an Ojibwa pictograph from
+Schoolcraft I, pl. 59, and is said to signify <i>Meda's
+power</i>. It corresponds with another sign made
+for <i>medicine-man</i> by the Absarokas and Comanches,
+viz, The hand passed upward before
+the forehead, with index loosely extended. Combined
+with the sign for <i>sky</i>, before given, page
+<a href="#page372">372</a>, it means knowledge of superior matters; spiritual power.</p>
+
+<p>The common sign for <i>trade</i> is made by extending the forefingers,
+holding them obliquely upward, and crossing
+them at right angles to one another, usually
+in front of the chest. This is often
+abbreviated by merely crossing the forefingers,
+see Fig. 278, page <a href="#page452">452</a>.
+It is illustrated in Fig. 216, taken
+from the Prince of Wied's <i>Travels
+in the Interior of North America;
+London</i>, 1843, p. 352.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig215.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig215.png" alt="Meda's Power. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 215.</div>
+
+<p>To this the following explanation is given: "The cross signifies, 'I
+will barter or trade.' Three animals are drawn on the right hand of the
+cross; one is a buffalo; the two others, a weasel (<i>Mustela
+Canadensis</i>) and an otter. The writer offers in
+exchange for the skins of these animals (probably
+meaning that of a white buffalo) the articles
+which he has drawn on the left side of the cross.
+He has, in the first place, depicted a beaver very plainly, behind which
+there is a gun; to the left of the beaver are thirty strokes, each ten
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>[pg 382]</span>
+separated by a longer line; this means, I will give thirty beaver skins
+and a gun for the skins of the three animals on the right hand of the
+cross."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:65%;"><a href="images/fig216.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig216.png" alt="Trade pictograph" /></a>Fig. 216.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 217 is from Kingsborough, III, pt. 1, p. 25,
+and illustrates the sign for to <i>give</i> or <i>to present</i>,
+made by the Brul&#233;-Dakotas by holding both hands
+edgewise before the breast, pointing forward and
+upward, the right above the left, then throwing
+them quickly downward until the forearms
+reach a horizontal position.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/fig217.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig217.png" alt="Offering. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 217.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 218 is taken from the <i>Dakota Calendar</i>,
+representing a successful raid of the
+Absarokas or Crows upon the Brul&#233;-Sioux, in which the village of
+the latter was surprised and a large number of horses captured. That
+capture is exhibited by the horse-tracks
+moving from the <i>village</i>, the gesture
+sign for which is often made by a circle
+formed either by the opposed thumbs and
+forefingers of both hands or by a circular motion
+of both hands, palms inward, toward each other. In
+some cases there is a motion of
+the circle, from above downward, as formed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:14%;"><a href="images/fig218.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig218.png" alt="Stampede of horses. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 218.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 219, from Kingsborough I, pt. 3, p. 10, represents <i>Chapultepec</i>,
+"Mountain of the Locust," by one enormous locust on top of
+a hill. This shows the mode of augmentation in the same
+manner as is often done by an exaggerated gesture. The
+curves at the base of the mountain are intelligible only as
+being formed in the sign for <i>many</i>, described on pages <a href="#page359">359</a>
+and <a href="#page488">488</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig219.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig219.png" alt="Chapultepec. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 219.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 220, taken from Pipart, <i>loc. cit.</i>, is the Mexican pictograph
+for <i>soil
+cultivated</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, tilled and planted. Fig. 221, from the same
+authority,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>[pg 383]</span>
+shows the sprouts coming from the cultivated soil, and may be compared with
+the signs for <i>grass</i> and <i>grow</i> on page <a href="#page343">343</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig220.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig220.png" alt="Soil. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 220.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig221.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig221.png" alt="Cultivated soil. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 221.</div>
+
+<p>The gesture sign for <i>road, path</i>, is sometimes made by indicating two
+lines forward from the body, then imitating
+walking with the hands upon the imaginary
+road. The same natural representation of
+road is seen in Fig. 222, taken from Pipart,
+<i>loc. cit.</i>, page 352. A place where two roads
+meet&mdash;cross-roads&mdash;is shown in Fig. 223, from Kingsborough.
+Two persons are evidently having a chat in sign language
+at the cross-roads.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig222.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig222.png" alt="Road, path. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 222.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig223.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig223.png" alt="Cross-roads and gesture sign. Mexican pictograph" /></a>Fig. 223.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig224.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig224.png" alt="Small-pox measles. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 224.</div>
+
+<p>If no gesture is actually included in all of
+the foregoing pictographs, it is seen that a
+gesture sign is made with the same conception
+which is obvious in the ideographic pictures. They are selected as
+specially transparent and clear. Many others less distinct
+are now the subject of examination for elucidation. The following examples
+are added to show the ideographic style of
+pictographs not connected with gestures,
+lest it may be suspected that an attempt
+is made to prove that gestures are always
+included in or connected with them.
+Fig. 224, from the <i>Dakota Calendar</i>,
+refers to the small-pox which broke out in the
+year (1802) which it specifies. Fig. 225 shows in the design at the
+left, a warning or notice, that though a goat can climb up the rocky
+trail a horse will tumble&mdash;"No Thoroughfare." This was contributed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>[pg 384]</span>
+by Mr. J.K. Hillers, photographer of the United States Geological Survey,
+as observed by him in Ca&#241;on De Chelly, New Mexico, in 1880.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/fig225.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig225.png" alt="&quot;No thoroughfare.&quot; Pictograph" /></a>Fig. 225.</div>
+
+
+<h4>SIGNS CONNECTED WITH ETHNOLOGIC FACTS.</h4>
+
+<p>The present limits permit only a few examples of the manner in
+which the signs of Indians refer to sociologic, religious, historic, and
+other ethnologic facts. They may incite research to elicit further
+information
+of the same character.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig226.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig226.png" alt="Raising of war party. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 226.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig227.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig227.png" alt="&quot;Led four war parties.&quot; Dakota drawing" /></a>Fig. 227.</div>
+
+<p>The Prince of Wied gives in his list of signs the heading <i>Partisan</i>,
+a term of the Canadian voyageurs, signifying a leader of an occasional
+or volunteer war party, the sign being reported
+as follows: Make first the sign of
+the pipe, afterwards open the thumb and
+index-finger of the right hand, back of the
+hand outward, and move it forward and upward
+in a curve. This is explained by
+the author's account in a different connection,
+that to become recognized as a leader
+of such a war party as above mentioned,
+the first act among the tribes
+using the sign was the consecration, by fasting succeeded
+by feasting, of a medicine pipe without ornament, which the
+leader of the expedition afterward bore before him as his
+badge of authority, and it therefore naturally became an emblematic
+sign. This sign with its interpretation supplies a meaning to Fig. 226
+from the <i>Dakota Calendar</i> showing "One Feather," a Sioux chief who
+raised in that year a large war party against the Crows, which fact is
+simply denoted by his holding out demonstratively an unornamented
+pipe. In connection with this subject, Fig. 227, drawn and explained
+by Two Strike, an Ogalala Dakota, relating to his own achievements,
+displays four plain pipes to exhibit the fact that he had led four war
+parties.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:11%;"><a href="images/fig228.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig228.png" alt="Sociality. Friendship. Ojibwa pictograph" /></a>Fig. 228.</div>
+
+<p>The sign of the pipe or of smoking is made in a different manner, when
+used to mean <i>friend</i>, as follows: (1) Tips of the two first fingers
+of the
+right hand placed against or at right angles to the mouth; (2) suddenly
+elevated upward and outward to imitate smoke expelled.
+(<i>Cheyenne</i> II). "We two smoke together." This is illustrated
+in the Ojibwa pictograph, Fig. 228, taken
+from Schoolcraft I, pl. 59.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig230.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig230.png" alt="Peace. Friendship with whites. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 230.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig229.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig229.png" alt="Peace. Friendship. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 229.</div>
+
+<p>A ceremonial sign for <i>peace, friendship</i>,
+is the extended fingers, separated (R), interlocked in front of the breast,
+hands horizontal, backs outward. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) Fig. 229 from the
+<i>Dakota
+Calendar</i> exhibits the beginning of this gesture. When the idea conveyed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>[pg 385]</span>
+is peace or friendship with the whites, the hand shaking of the latter is
+adopted as in Fig. 230, also taken from the <i>Dakota Calendar</i>, and
+referring
+to the peace made in 1855 by General Harney, at Fort
+Pierre, with a number of the tribes of the Dakotas.</p>
+
+<p>It is noticeable that while the ceremonial gesture of
+uniting or linking hands is common and ancient in
+token of peace, the practice of shaking hands on
+meeting, now the annoying etiquette of the Indians in their intercourse
+with whites, was not until very recently and is even now seldom
+used by them between each other, and is clearly a foreign importation.
+Their fancy for affectionate greeting was in giving a pleasant bodily,
+sensation by rubbing each other on the breast, abdomen, and limbs, or
+by a hug. The senseless and inconvenient custom of shaking hands is,
+indeed, by no means general throughout the world, and in the extent to
+which it prevails in the United States is a subject of ridicule by
+foreigners.
+The Chinese, with a higher conception of politeness, shake their
+own hands. The account of a recent observer of the meeting of two
+polite Celestials is: "Each placed the fingers of one hand over the fist
+of the other, so that the thumbs met, and then standing a few feet apart
+raised his hands gently up and down in front of his breast. For special
+courtesy, after the foregoing gesture, they place the hand which had been
+the actor in it on the stomach of its owner, not on that part of the
+interlocutor,
+the whole proceeding being subjective, but perhaps a relic of
+objective performance." In Miss Bird's <i>Unbeaten Trades in Japan,
+London</i>,
+1880, the following is given as the salutatory etiquette of that
+empire: "As acquaintances come in sight of each other they slacken their
+pace and approach with downcast eyes and averted faces as if neither
+were worthy of beholding each other; then they bow low, so low as to
+bring the face, still kept carefully averted, on a level with the knees, on
+which the palms of the hands are pressed. Afterwards, during the
+friendly strife of each to give the <i>pas</i> to the other, the palms of
+the hands
+are diligently rubbed against each other."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig231.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig231.png" alt="Friendship. Australian" /></a>Fig. 231.</div>
+
+<p>The interlocking of the fingers of both hands above given as an Indian
+sign (other instances being mentioned
+under the head of <span class="sc">Signals</span>, <i>infra</i>) is
+also reported by R. Brough Smyth, <i>Aborigines
+of Victoria</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, Vol. II, p.
+308, as made by the natives of Cooper's
+Creek, Australia, to express the highest degree of friendship, including
+a special form of hospitality in which the wives of the entertainer
+performed
+a part. Fig. 231 is reproduced from a cut in the work referred to.</p>
+
+<p>But besides this interlocked form of signifying the union of friendship
+the hands are frequently grasped together. Sometimes the sign is
+abbreviated
+by simply extending the hand as if about to grasp that of
+another, and sometimes the two forefingers are laid side by side, which
+last sign also means, <i>same, brother</i> and <i>companion</i>. For
+description and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>[pg 386]</span>
+illustration of these three signs, see respectively pages <a href="#page521">521</a>, <a href="#page527">527</a>, and <a href="#page317">317</a>.
+A different execution of the same conception of union or linking to signify
+<i>friend</i> is often made as follows: Hook the curved index over the
+curved
+forefinger of the left hand, the palm of the latter pointing forward, the
+palm of the right hand being turned toward the face; remaining fingers
+and thumbs being closed. (<i>Dakota</i> VIII.) Fig. 232.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig232.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig232.png" alt="Friend. Brule Dakota" /></a>Fig. 232.</div>
+
+<p>Wied's sign for medicine is "Stir with the right
+hand into the left, and afterward blow into the
+latter." All persons familiar with the Indians
+will understand that the term "medicine," foolishly
+enough adopted by both French and English
+to express the aboriginal magic arts, has no therapeutic
+significance. Very few even pretended
+remedies were administered to the natives and
+probably never by the professional shaman, who worked by incantation,
+often pulverizing and mixing the substances mystically used, to prevent
+their detection. The same mixtures were employed in divination. The
+author particularly mentions Mandan ceremonies, in which a white "medicine"
+stone, as hard as pyrites, was produced by rubbing in the hand
+snow or the white feathers of a bird. The blowing away of the disease,
+considered to be introduced by a supernatural power foreign to the
+body, was a common part of the juggling performance.</p>
+
+<p>A sign for <i>stone</i> is as follows: With the back of the arched right
+hand
+(H) strike repeatedly in the palm of the left, held horizontal, back
+outward,
+at the height of the breast and about a foot in front; the ends of
+the fingers point in opposite directions. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) From its use
+when
+the stone was the only hammer.</p>
+
+<p>A suggestive sign for <i>knife</i> is reported, viz: Cut past the mouth
+with
+the raised right hand. (<i>Wied.</i>) This probably refers to the general
+practice
+of cutting off food, as much being crammed into the mouth as can
+be managed and then separated from the remaining mass by a stroke
+of a knife. This is specially the usage with fat and entrails, the Indian
+delicacies.</p>
+
+<p>An old sign for <i>tomahawk, ax</i>, is as follows: Cross the arms and
+slide the edge of the right hand, held vertically, down over the left
+arm. (<i>Wied.</i>) This is still employed, at least for a small hatchet,
+or
+"dress tomahawk," and would be unintelligible without special knowledge.
+The essential point is laying the extended right hand in the
+bend of the left elbow. The sliding down over the left arm is an almost
+unavoidable but quite unnecessary accompaniment to the sign, which
+indicates the way in which the hatchet is usually carried. Pipes, whips,
+bows and arrows, fans, and other dress or emblematic articles of the
+"buck" are seldom or never carried in the bend of the left elbow as is
+the ax. The pipe is usually held in the left hand.</p>
+
+<p>The following sign for <i>Indian village</i> is given by Wied: Place the
+open thumb and forefinger of each hand opposite to each other, as if to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>[pg 387]</span>
+make a circle, but leaving between them a small interval; afterward move
+them from above downward simultaneously. The villages of the tribes
+with which the author was longest resident, particularly the Mandans
+and Arikaras, were surrounded by a strong circular stockade, spaces or
+breaks in the circle being left for entrance or exit.</p>
+
+<p>Signs for <i>dog</i> are made by some of the tribes of the plains
+essentially
+the same as the following: Extend and spread the right, fore, and middle
+fingers, and draw the hand about eighteen inches from left to right across
+the front of the body at the height of the navel, palm downward, fingers
+pointing toward the left and a little downward, little and ring fingers to
+be
+loosely closed, the thumb against the ring-finger. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) The
+sign
+would not be intelligible without knowledge of the fact that before the
+introduction of the horse, and even yet, the dog has been used to draw
+the tent- or lodge-poles in moving camp, and the sign represents the
+trail. Indians less nomadic, who built more substantial lodges, and to
+whom the material for poles was less precious than on the plains, would
+not have comprehended this sign without such explanation as is equivalent
+to a translation from a foreign language, and the more general one
+is the palm lowered as if to stroke gently in a line conforming to the
+animal's
+head and neck. It is abbreviated by simply lowering the hand
+to the usual height of the wolfish aboriginal breed, and suggests
+<i>the</i> animal
+<i>par excellence</i> domesticated by the Indians and made a companion.</p>
+
+<p>Several examples connected with this heading may be noticed under
+the preceding head of gestures connected with pictographs, and others
+of historic interest will be found among the <span class="sc">Tribal Signs</span>, <i>infra</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>NOTABLE POINTS FOR FURTHER RESEARCHES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>It is considered desirable to indicate some points to which for special
+reasons the attention of collaborators for the future publication on the
+general subject of sign language may be invited. These now follow:</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>INVENTION OF NEW SIGNS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>It is probable that signs will often be invented by individual Indians
+who may be pressed for them by collectors to express certain ideas,
+which signs of course form no part of any current language; but while
+that fact should, if possible, be ascertained and reported, the signs so
+invented are not valueless merely because they are original and not
+traditional, if they are made in good faith and in accordance with the
+principles of sign formation. Less error will arise in this direction than
+from the misinterpretation of the idea intended to be conveyed by
+spontaneous
+signs. The process resembles the coining of new words to which
+the higher languages owe their copiousness. It is observed in the signs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>[pg 388]</span>
+invented by Indians for each new product of civilization brought to
+their notice.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting instance is in the sign for <i>steamboat</i>, made at the
+request
+of the writer by White Man (who, however, did not like that sobriquet
+and announced his intention to change his name to Lean Bear), an
+Apache, in June, 1880, who had a few days before seen a steamboat for
+the first time. After thinking a moment he gave an original sign, described
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <i>water</i>, by placing the flat right hand before the
+face,
+pointing upward and forward, the back forward, with the wrist as high
+as the nose; then draw it down and inward toward the chin; then with
+both hands indicate the outlines of a horizontal oval figure from before
+the body back to near the chest (being the outline of the deck); then
+place both flat hands, pointing forward, thumbs higher than the outer
+edges, and push them forward to arms'-length (illustrating the powerful
+forward motion of the vessel).</p>
+
+<p>An original sign for <i>telegraph</i> is given in <span class="sc">Natci's Narrative</span>,
+<i>infra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>An Indian skilled in signs, as also a deaf-mute, at the sight of a new
+object, or at the first experience of some new feeling or mental relation,
+will devise some mode of expressing it in pantomimic gesture or by a
+combination
+of previously understood signs, which will be intelligible to
+others, similarly skilled, provided that they have seen the same objects
+or have felt the same emotions. But if a number of such Indians or
+deaf-mutes were to see an object&mdash;for instance an elephant&mdash;for the first
+time, each would perhaps hit upon a different sign, in accordance with
+the characteristic appearance most striking to him. That animal's trunk
+is generally the most attractive lineament to deaf-mutes, who make a
+sign by pointing to the nose and moving the arm as the trunk is moved.
+Others regard the long tusks as the most significant feature, while others
+are struck by the large head and small eyes. This diversity of conception
+brings to mind the poem of "The Blind Men and the Elephant," which
+with true philosophy in an amusing guise explains how the sense of touch
+led the "six men of Indostan" severally to liken the animal to a wall,
+spear, snake, tree, fan, and rope. A consideration of invented or original
+signs, as showing the operation of the mind of an Indian or other
+uncivilized
+gesturer, has a psychologic interest, and as connected with the
+vocal expression, often also invented at the same time, has further value.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>DANGER OF SYMBOLIC INTERPRETATION.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the examination of sign language it is important to form a clear
+distinction between signs proper and symbols. The terms signs and
+symbols are often used interchangeably, but with liability to
+misconstruction,
+as many persons, whether with right or wrong lexical definition,
+ascribe to symbols an occult and mystic signification. All characters
+in Indian picture-writing have been loosely styled symbols, and, as
+there is no logical distinction, between the characters impressed with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>[pg 389]</span>
+enduring form and when merely outlined in the ambient air, all Indian
+gestures, motions, and attitudes might with equal appropriateness be
+called symbolic. While, however, all symbols come under the generic
+head of signs, very few signs are in accurate classification symbols. S.T.
+Coleridge has defined a symbol to be a sign included in the idea it
+represents. This may be intelligible if it is intended that an ordinary
+sign is extraneous to the concept and, rather than suggested by it, is
+invented to express it by some representation or analogy, while a symbol
+may be evolved by a process of thought from the concept itself; but it is
+no very exhaustive or practically useful distinction. Symbols are less
+obvious and more artificial than mere signs, require convention, are not
+only abstract, but metaphysical, and often need explanation from history,
+religion, and customs. They do not depict but suggest subjects; do not
+speak directly through the eye to the intelligence, but presuppose in the
+mind knowledge of an event or fact which the sign recalls. The symbols
+of the ark, dove, olive branch, and rainbow would be wholly meaningless
+to people unfamiliar with the Mosaic or some similar cosmology, as
+would be the cross and the crescent to those ignorant of history. The
+last named objects appeared in the class of <i>emblems</i> when used in
+designating
+the conflicting powers of Christendom and Islamism. Emblems
+do not necessarily require any analogy between the objects representing,
+and the objects or qualities represented, but may arise from pure accident.
+After a scurrilous jest the beggar's wallet became the emblem of the
+confederated
+nobles, the Gueux of the Netherlands; and a sling, in the early
+minority of Louis XIV, was adopted from the refrain of a song by the
+Frondeur opponents of Mazarin. The portraiture of a fish, used, especially
+by the early Christians, for the name and title of Jesus Christ was
+still more accidental, being, in the Greek word &iota;&chi;&theta;&upsilon;&sigmaf;,
+an acrostic composed
+of the initials of the several Greek words signifying that name and title.
+This origin being unknown to persons whose religious enthusiasm was
+as usual in direct proportion to their ignorance, they expended much
+rhetoric to prove that there was some true symbolic relation between an
+actual fish and the Saviour of men. Apart from this misapplication, the
+fish undoubtedly became an emblem of Christ and of Christianity, appearing
+frequently on the Roman catacombs and at one time it was used
+hermeneutically.</p>
+
+<p>The several tribal signs for the Sioux, Arapahos, Cheyennes, &amp;c., are
+their emblems precisely as the star-spangled flag is that of the United
+States, but there is nothing symbolic in any of them. So the signs for
+individual chiefs, when not merely translations of their names, are
+emblematic
+of their family totems or personal distinctions, and are no more
+symbols than are the distinctive shoulder-straps of army officers. The
+<i>crux ansata</i> and the circle formed by a snake biting its tail are
+symbols,
+but <i>consensus</i> as well as invention was necessary for their
+establishment,
+and the Indians have produced nothing so esoteric, nothing which they
+intended for hermeneutic as distinct from descriptive or mnemonic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>[pg 390]</span>
+purposes. Sign language can undoubtedly be and is employed to express
+highly metaphysical ideas, but to do that in a symbolic system requires
+a development of the mode of expression consequent upon a similar
+development
+of the mental idiocrasy of the gesturers far beyond any yet
+found among historic tribes north of Mexico. A very few of their signs
+may at first appear to be symbolic, yet even those on closer examination
+will probably be relegated to the class of emblems.</p>
+
+<p>The point urged is that while many signs can be used as emblems and
+both can be converted by convention into symbols or be explained as
+such by perverted ingenuity, it is futile to seek for that form of
+psychologic
+exuberance in the stage of development attained by the tribes now
+under consideration. All predetermination to interpret either their
+signs or their pictographs on the principles of symbolism as understood
+or pretended to be understood by its admirers, and as are sometimes
+properly applied to Egyptian hieroglyphs, results in mooning mysticism.
+This was shown by a correspondent who enthusiastically lauded the
+<i>Dakota Calendar</i> (edited by the present writer, and which is a mere
+figuration
+of successive occurrences in the history of the people), as a numerical
+exposition of the great doctrines of the Sun religion in the equations
+of time, and proved to his own satisfaction that our Indians preserved
+hermeneutically the lost geometric cultus of pre-Cushite scientists.</p>
+
+<p>Another exhibition of this vicious practice was recently made in the
+interpretation of an inscribed stone alleged to have been unearthed near
+Zanesville, Ohio. Two of the characters were supposed, in liberal exercise
+of the imagination, to represent the <i>&Alpha;</i> and <i>&Omega;</i>
+of the Greek alphabet.
+At the comparatively late date when the arbitrary arrangement
+of the letters of that alphabet had become fixed, the initial and
+concluding
+letters might readily have been used to represent respectively
+the beginning and the end of any series or number of things, and this
+figure of speech was employed in the book of Revelations. In the attempted
+interpretation of the inscription mentioned, which was hawked
+about to many scientific bodies, and published over the whole country,
+the supposed alpha and omega were assumed to constitute a universal
+as well as sacred symbol for the everlasting Creator. The usual <i>menu</i>
+of Roman feasts, commencing with eggs and ending with apples, was
+also commonly known at the time when the book of Revelations was
+written, and the phrase "<i>ab ovo usque ad mala</i>" was as appropriate as
+"from alpha to omega" to express "from the beginning to the end."
+In deciphering the stone it would, therefore, be as correct in principle
+to take one of its oval and one of its round figures, call them egg and
+apple, and make them the symbols of eternity. In fact, not depending
+wholly for significance upon the order of courses of a feast or the
+accident
+of alphabetical position, but having intrinsic characteristics in reference
+to the origin and fruition of life, the egg and apple translation,
+would be more acceptable to the general judgment, and it is recommended
+to enthusiasts who insist on finding symbols where none exist.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>[pg 391]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>SIGNS USED BY WOMEN AND CHILDREN.</i></h3>
+
+<p>For reasons before given it is important to ascertain the varying extent
+of familiarity with sign language among the members of the several
+tribes, how large a proportion possesses any skill in it, and the average
+amount of their vocabulary. It is also of special interest to learn the
+degree
+to which women become proficient, and the age at which children
+commence its practice; also whether they receive systematic instruction
+in it. The statement was made by Titchkem&#225;tski that the Kaiowa and
+Comanche women know nothing of sign language, while the Cheyenne
+women are versed in it. As he is a Cheyenne, however, he may not
+have a large circle of feminine acquaintances beyond his own tribe,
+and his negative testimony is not valuable. Rev. A.J. Holt, from
+large experience, asserts that the Kaiowa and Comanche women do
+know and practice sign language, though the Cheyenne either are more
+familiar with it than the Kaiowa or have a greater degree of expertness.
+The Comanche women, he says, are the peers of any sign-talkers.
+Colonel Dodge makes the broad assertion that even among the Plains
+tribes only the old, or at least middle-aged, men use signs properly,
+and that he has not seen any women or even young men who were at
+all reliable in signs. He gives this statement to show the difficulty in
+acquiring sign language; but it is questionable if the fact is not simply
+the result of the rapid disuse of signs, in many tribes, by which, cause
+women, not so frequently called upon to employ them, and the younger
+generation, who have had no necessity to learn them, do not become
+expert. Disappearing Mist, as before mentioned, remembers a time
+when the Iroquois women and children used signs more than the men.</p>
+
+<p>It is also asserted, with some evidence, that the signs used by males
+and females are different, though mutually understood, and some minor
+points for observation may be indicated, such as whether the commencement
+of counting upon the fingers is upon those of the right or the left
+hand, and whether Indians take pains to look toward the south when
+suggesting the course of the sun, which would give the motion from
+left to right.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>A suggestion has been made by a correspondent that some secret
+signs of affiliation are known and used by the members of the several
+associations, religious and totemic, which have been often noticed among
+several Indian tribes. No evidence of this has been received, but the
+point is worth attention.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>POSITIVE SIGNS RENDERED NEGATIVE.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In many cases positive signs to convey some particular idea are not
+reported, and in their place a sign with the opposite signification is
+given,
+coupled with the sign of negation. In other words, the only mode of
+expressing the intended meaning is supposed to be by negation of the
+reverse of what it is desired to describe. In this manner "fool&mdash;no,"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>[pg 392]</span>
+would be "wise," and "good&mdash;no," would be "bad." This mode of expression
+is very frequent as a matter of option when the positive signs are in
+fact also used. The reported absence of positive signs for the ideas
+negatived
+is therefore often made with as little propriety as if when an ordinary
+speaker chose to use the negative form "not good," it should be
+inferred that he was ignorant of the word "bad." It will seldom prove,
+on proper investigation, that where sign language has reached and retained
+any high degree of development it will show such poverty as to
+require the expedient of negation of an affirmative to express an idea
+which is intrinsically positive.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>DETAILS OF POSITIONS OF FINGERS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The signs of the Indians appear to consist of motions more often than
+of positions&mdash;a fact enhancing the difficulty both of their description
+and illustration&mdash;and the motions when not designedly abbreviated are
+generally large, free, and striking, seldom minute. It seems also to be
+the general rule among Indians as among deaf-mutes that the point of
+the finger is used to trace outlines and the palm of the hand to describe
+surfaces. From an examination of the identical signs made to each
+other for the same object by Indians of the same tribe and band, they
+appear to make many gestures with little regard to the position of the
+fingers and to vary in such arrangement from individual taste. Some
+of the elaborate descriptions, giving with great detail the attitude of the
+fingers of any particular gesturer and the inches traced by his motions,
+are of as little necessity as would be, when quoting a written word, a
+careful reproduction of the flourishes of tailed letters and the thickness
+of down-strokes in individual chirography. The fingers must be in
+<i>some</i>
+position, but that is frequently accidental, not contributing to the
+general
+and essential effect. An example may be given in the sign for <i>white
+man</i> which Medicine Bull, <i>infra</i>, page <a href="#page491">491</a>, made by drawing the
+palmar
+surface of the extended index across the forehead, and in <span class="sc">Lean Wolf's
+Complaint</span>, <i>infra</i>, page <a href="#page526">526</a>, the same motion is made by the back of
+the thumb pressed upon the middle joint of the index, fist closed. The
+execution
+as well as the conception in both cases was the indication of the line of
+the hat on the forehead, and the position of the fingers in forming the
+line is altogether immaterial. There is often also a custom or "fashion" in
+which not only different tribes, but different persons in the same tribe,
+gesture the same sign with different degrees of beauty, for there is
+calligraphy in sign language, though no recognized orthography. It is
+nevertheless better to describe and illustrate with unnecessary minuteness
+than to fail in reporting a real distinction. There are, also, in
+fact, many signs formed by mere positions of the fingers, some of which
+are abbreviations, but in others the arrangement of the fingers in itself
+forms a picture. An instance of the latter is one of the signs given for
+the <i>bear</i>, viz.: Middle and third finger of right hand clasped down
+by the thumb, fore and little finger extended crooked downward. See
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>[pg 393]</span>
+<span class="sc">Extracts from Dictionary</span>, <i>infra</i>. This reproduction, of the animals
+peculiar claws, with the hand and in any position relative to the body,
+would
+suffice without the pantomime of scratching in the air, which is added
+only if the sign without it should not be at once comprehended.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>MOTIONS RELATIVE TO PARTS OF THE BODY.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig233.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig233.png" alt="Lie, Falsehood. Arikara" /></a>Fig. 233.</div>
+
+<p>The specified relation of the positions and motions of the hands to
+different parts of the body is essential to the formation and description
+of many signs. Those for <i>speak</i>, <i>hear</i>, and <i>see</i>, which
+must be respectively
+made relative to the mouth, ear and eye, are manifest examples;
+and there are others less obviously dependent upon parts of the body,
+such as the heart or head, which would not be intelligible without
+apposition.
+There are also some directly connected with height from the
+ground and other points of reference. In, however, a large proportion
+of the signs noted the position of the hands with reference to the body
+can be varied or disregarded. The hands making the motions can be
+held high or low, as the gesturer is standing or sitting, or the person
+addressed is distant or near by. These variations have been partly
+discussed
+under the head of abbreviations. While descriptions made with
+great particularity are cumbrous, it is desirable to give the full detail
+of that gesture which most clearly carries out the generic conception,
+with, if possible, also the description of such deviations
+and abbreviations as are most confusing. For instance, it is
+well to explain that signs for yes and no, described with precise
+detail as in <span class="sc">Extracts from Dictionary</span>, <i>infra</i>, are
+also often made by an Indian when wrapped in his blanket
+with only a forefinger protruding, the former by a mere downward
+and the latter by a simple outward bend of that
+finger. An example may be also taken from the following
+sign for <i>lie, falsehood</i>, made by an Ankara, Fig. 233. in which
+the separated index and second fingers are moved sidewise in a downward
+line near but below the mouth, which may be compared with other executions
+of the motion with the same position of the fingers directly
+forward from the mouth, and with that given in <span class="sc">Lean Wolf's Complaint</span>,
+illustrated on page <a href="#page528">528</a>, in which the motion is made carelessly
+across the body. The original sign was undoubtedly made directly
+from the mouth, the conception being "two tongues," two accounts or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>[pg 394]</span>
+opposed statements, one of which must be false, but the finger-position
+coming to be established for two tongues has relation to the original
+conception
+whether or not made near or in reference to the mouth, the latter
+being understood.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that sometimes the position of the fingers is material
+as forming or suggesting a figure without reference to motion,
+while in other cases the relative position of the hands to each other and
+to parts of the body are significant without any special arrangement of
+the fingers. Again, in others, the lines drawn in the air by the hand or
+hands execute the conception without further detail. In each case only
+the essential details, when they can be ascertained, should be minutely
+described.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLECTING SIGNS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The object always should be, not to translate from English into signs,
+but to ascertain the real signs and their meaning. By far the most
+satisfactory
+mode of obtaining this result is to induce Indians or other gesturers
+observed to tell stories, make speeches, or hold talks in gesture,
+with one of themselves as interpreter in his own oral language if the
+latter is understood by the observer, and, if not, the words, not the
+signs,
+should be translated by an intermediary linguistic interpreter. It will be
+easy afterward to dissect and separate the particular signs used. This
+mode will determine the genuine shade of meaning of each sign, and
+corresponds with the plan now adopted by the Bureau of Ethnology for
+the study of the tribal vocal languages, instead of that arising out of
+exclusively missionary purposes, which was to force a translation of the
+Bible from a tongue not adapted to its terms and ideas, and then to
+compile a grammar and dictionary from the artificial result. A little
+ingenuity will direct the more intelligent or complaisant gesturers to the
+expression of the thoughts, signs for which are specially sought; and
+full orderly descriptions of such tales and talks with or even without
+analysis and illustration are more desired than any other form of
+contribution.</p>
+
+<p>The original authorities, or the best evidence, for Indian signs&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>,
+the Indians themselves&mdash;being still accessible, the collaborators in this
+work should not be content with secondary authority. White sign talkers
+and interpreters may give some genuine signs, but they are very apt
+to interpolate their own improvements. Experience has led to the apparently
+paradoxical judgment that the direct contribution of signs purporting
+to be those of Indians, made by a habitual practitioner of signs
+who is not an Indian, is less valuable than that of a discriminating
+observer who is not himself an actor in gesture speech. The former,
+being to himself the best authority, unwittingly invents and modifies
+signs, or describes what he thinks they ought to be, often with a very
+different conception from that of an Indian. Sign language not being
+fixed and limited, as is the case with oral languages, expertness in it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>[pg 395]</span>
+not necessarily a proof of accuracy in anyone of its forms. The proper
+inquiry is not what a sign might, could, would, or should be, or what is
+the best sign for a particular meaning, but what is any sign actually
+used for such meaning. If any one sign is honestly invented or adopted
+by any one man, whether Indian, African, Asiatic, or deaf-mute, it has
+its value, but it should be identified to be in accordance with the fact
+and
+should not be subject to the suspicion that it has been assimilated or
+garbled in interpretation. Its prevalence and special range present
+considerations
+of different interest and requiring further evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The genuine signs alone should be presented to scholars, to give
+their studies proper direction, while the true article can always be
+adulterated
+into a composite jargon by those whose ambition is only to be
+sign talkers instead of making an honest contribution to ethnologic and
+philologic science. The few direct contributions of interpreters to the
+present work are, it is believed, valuable, because they were made without
+expression of self-conceit or symptom of possession by a pet theory.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>MODE IN WHICH RESEARCHES HAVE BEEN MADE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>It is proper to give to all readers interested in the subject, but
+particularly
+to those whose collaboration for the more complete work above
+mentioned is solicited, an account of the mode in which the researches
+have thus far been conducted and in which it is proposed to continue
+them. After study of all that could be obtained in printed form, and a
+considerable amount of personal correspondence, the results were embraced
+in a pamphlet issued by the Bureau of Ethnology in the early
+part of 1880, entitled "<i>Introduction to the Study of Sign Language among
+the North American Indians as Illustrating the Gesture Speech of
+Mankind.</i>"
+In this, suggestions were made as to points and manner of observation
+and report, and forms prepared to secure uniformity and
+accuracy were explained, many separate sheets of which with the pamphlet
+were distributed, not only to all applicants, but to all known and
+accessible persons in this country and abroad who, there was reason to
+hope, would take sufficient interest in the undertaking to contribute
+their assistance. Those forms, <span class="sc">Types of Hand Positions, Outlines
+of Arm Positions</span>, and <span class="sc">Examples</span>, thus distributed, are reproduced
+at the end of this paper.</p>
+
+<p>The main object of those forms was to eliminate the source of confusion
+produced by attempts of different persons at the difficult description
+of positions and motions. The comprehensive plan required that
+many persons should be at work in many parts of the world. It will
+readily be understood that if a number of persons should undertake
+to describe in words the same motions, whether of pantomimists on the
+stage or of other gesturers, even if the visual perception of all the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>[pg 396]</span>
+observers should be the same in the apprehension of the particular gestures,
+their language in description might be so varied as to give very
+diverse impressions to a reader who had never seen the gestures described.
+But with a set form of expressions for the typical positions,
+and skeleton outlines to be filled up and, when necessary, altered in a
+uniform style, this source of confusion is greatly reduced. The graphic
+lines drawn to represent the positions and motions on the same diagrams
+will vary but little in comparison with the similar attempt of explanation
+in writing. Both modes of description were, however, requested,
+each tending to supplement and correct the other, and provision was
+also made for the notation of such striking facial changes or emotional
+postures as might individualize or accentuate the gestures. It was also
+pointed out that the prepared sheets could be used by cutting and pasting
+them in the proper order, for successive signs forming a speech or
+story, so as to exhibit the semiotic syntax. Attention was specially
+directed to the importance of ascertaining the intrinsic idea or conception
+of all signs, which it was urged should be obtained directly from the
+persons using them and not by inference.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1880 the prompt and industrious co-operation of
+many observers in this country, and of a few from foreign lands, had
+supplied a large number of descriptions which were collated and collected
+into a quarto volume of 329 pages, called "<i>A Collection of Gesture
+Signs and Signals of the North American Indians, with some comparisons</i>."</p>
+
+<p>This was printed on sized paper with wide margins to allow of convenient
+correction and addition. It was not published, but was regarded
+as proof, a copy being sent to each correspondent with a request for his
+annotations, not only in revision of his own contribution, but for its
+comparison with those made by others. Even when it was supposed
+that mistakes had been made in either description or reported conception,
+or both, the contribution was printed as received, in order that a
+number of skilled and disinterested persons might examine it and thus
+ascertain the amount and character of error. The attention of each
+contributor was invited to the fact that, in some instances, a sign as
+described by one of the other contributors might be recognized as intended
+for the same idea or object as that furnished by himself, and the
+former might prove to be the better description. Each was also requested
+to examine if a peculiar abbreviation or fanciful flourish might
+not have induced a difference in his own description from that of another
+contributor with no real distinction either in conception or essential
+formation. All collaborators were therefore urged to be candid in
+admitting, when such cases occurred, that their own descriptions were
+mere unessential variants from others printed, otherwise to adhere to
+their own and explain the true distinction. When the descriptions
+showed substantial identity, they were united with the reference to all
+the authorities giving them.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these copies have been returned with valuable annotations,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>[pg 397]</span>
+not only of correction but of addition and suggestion, and are now being
+collated again into one general revision.</p>
+
+<p>The above statement will, it is hoped, give assurance that the work
+of the Bureau of Ethnology has been careful and thorough. No scheme
+has been neglected which could be contrived and no labor has been spared
+to secure the accuracy and completeness of the publication still in
+preparation. It may also be mentioned that although the writer has made
+personal observations of signs, no description of any sign has been
+printed by him which rests on his authority alone. Personal controversy
+and individual bias were thus avoided. For every sign there is
+a special reference either to an author or to some one or more of the
+collaborators. While the latter have received full credit, full
+responsibility was also imposed, and that course will be continued.</p>
+
+<p>No contribution has been printed which asserted that any described
+sign is used by "all Indians," for the reason that such statement is not
+admissible evidence unless the authority had personally examined all
+Indians. If any credible person had affirmatively stated that a certain
+identical, or substantially identical, sign had been found by him, actually
+used by Abnaki, Absaroka, Arikara, Assiniboins, etc., going through
+the whole list of tribes, or any definite portion of that list, it would
+have been so inserted under the several tribal heads. But the expression
+"all Indians," besides being insusceptible of methodical classification,
+involves hearsay, which is not the kind of authority desired in a serious
+study. Such loose talk long delayed the recognition of Anthropology as
+a science. It is true that some general statements of this character are
+made by some old authors quoted in the Dictionary, but their descriptions
+are reprinted, as being all that can be used of the past, for whatever
+weight they may have, and they are kept separate from the linguistic
+classification given below.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the difficulties met with in the task proposed, the same
+motto might be adopted as was prefixed to Austin's <i>Chironomia</i>: "<i>Non
+sum nescius, quantum susceperim negotii, qui motus corporis exprimere
+verbis, imitari scriptura conatus sim voces.</i>" <i>Rhet. ad Herenn</i>, 1.3. If
+the descriptive recital of the signs collected had been absolutely
+restricted to written or printed words the work would have been still
+more difficult and the result less intelligible. The facilities enjoyed of
+presenting pictorial illustrations have been of great value and will give
+still more assistance in the complete work than in the present paper.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the subject of illustrations it may be noted that
+a writer in the <i>Journal of the Military Service Institution of the
+United
+States</i>, Vol. II, No. 5, the same who had before invented the mode of
+describing
+signs by "means" mentioned on page <a href="#page330">330</a> <i>supra</i>, gives a curious
+distinction between deaf-mute and Indian signs regarding their respective
+capability of illustration, as follows: "This French system is
+taught, I believe, in most of the schools for deaf-mutes in this country,
+and in Europe; but so great has been the difficulty of fixing the hands
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>[pg 398]</span>
+in space, either by written description or illustrated cuts, that no text
+books are used. I must therefore conclude that the Indian sign language
+is not only the more natural, but the more simple, as the gestures
+can be described quite accurately in writing, and I think can be
+illustrated."
+The readers of this paper will also, probably, "think" that
+the signs of Indians can be illustrated, and as the signs of
+deaf-mutes
+are often identical with the Indian, whether expressing the same or
+different ideas, and when not precisely identical are always made on
+the same principle and with the same members, it is not easy to imagine
+any greater difficulty either in their graphic illustration or in their
+written
+description. The assertion is as incorrect as if it were paraphrased
+to declare that a portrait of an Indian in a certain attitude could be
+taken by a pencil or with the camera while by some occult influence the
+same artistic skill would be paralysed in attempting that of a
+deaf-mute in the same attitude. In fact, text books on the "French system"
+are used and one in the writer's possession published in Paris twenty-five
+years ago, contains over four hundred illustrated cuts of deaf-mute
+gesture signs.</p>
+
+<p>The proper arrangement and classification of signs will always be
+troublesome and unsatisfactory. There can be no accurate translation
+either of sentences or of words from signs into written English. So far
+from the signs representing words as logographs, they do not in their
+presentation of the ideas of actions, objects, and events, under physical
+forms, even suggest words, which must be skillfully fitted to them by
+the glossarist and laboriously derived from, them by the philologer. The
+use of words in formulation, still more in terminology, is so wide a
+departure from primitive conditions as to be incompatible with the only
+primordial language yet discovered. No vocabulary of signs will be
+exhaustive for the simple reason that the signs are exhaustless, nor will
+it be exact because there cannot be a correspondence between signs and
+words taken individually. Not only do words and signs both change
+their meaning from the context, but a single word may express a complex
+idea, to be fully rendered only by a group of signs, and, <i>vice
+versa</i>,
+a single sign may suffice for a number of words. The elementary principles
+by which the combinations in sign and in the oral languages of
+civilization are effected are also discrepant. The attempt must therefore
+be made to collate and compare the signs according to general ideas,
+conceptions, and, if possible, the ideas and conceptions of the gesturers
+themselves, instead of in order of words as usually arranged in
+dictionaries.</p>
+
+<p>The hearty thanks of the writer are rendered to all his collaborators,
+a list of whom is given below, and will in future be presented in a manner
+more worthy of them. It remains to give an explanation of the
+mode in which a large collection of signs has been made directly by the
+officers of the Bureau of Ethnology. Fortunately for this undertaking,
+the policy of the government brought to Washington during the year
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>[pg 399]</span>
+1880 delegations, sometimes quite large, of most of the important tribes.
+Thus the most intelligent of the race from many distant and far separated
+localities were here in considerable numbers for weeks, and indeed,
+in some cases, months, and, together with their interpreters and agents,
+were, by the considerate order of the honorable Secretary of the Interior,
+placed at the disposal of this Bureau for all purposes of gathering
+ethnologic
+information. The facilities thus obtained were much greater
+than could have been enjoyed by a large number of observers traveling
+for a long time over the continent for the same express purpose. The
+observations relating to signs were all made here by the same persons,
+according to a uniform method, in which the gestures were obtained
+directly from the Indians, and their meaning (often in itself clear from
+the context of signs before known) was translated sometimes through
+the medium of English or Spanish, or of a native language known in common
+by some one or more of the Indians and by some one of the observers.
+When an interpreter was employed, he translated the words used
+by an Indian in his oral paraphrase of the signs, and was not relied upon
+to explain the signs according to his own ideas. Such translations and
+a description of minute and rapidly-executed signs, dictated at the moment
+of their exhibition, were sometimes taken down by a phonographer,
+that there might be no lapse of memory in any particular, and in many
+cases the signs were made in successive motions before the camera, and
+prints secured as certain evidence of their accuracy. Not only were
+more than one hundred Indians thus examined individually, at leisure,
+but, on occasions, several parties of different tribes, who had never
+before
+met each other, and could not communicate by speech, were examined at
+the same time, both by inquiry of individuals whose answers were consulted
+upon by all the Indians present, and also by inducing several of
+the Indians to engage in talk and story-telling in signs between
+themselves.
+Thus it was possible to notice the difference in the signs made
+for the same objects and the degree of mutual comprehension notwithstanding
+such differences. Similar studies were made by taking Indians
+to the National Deaf Mute College and bringing them in contact with
+the pupils.</p>
+
+<p>By far the greater part of the actual work of the observation and
+record of the signs obtained at Washington has been ably performed by
+Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span>, the assistant of the present writer. When the
+latter has made personal observations the former has always been
+present, taking the necessary notes and sketches and superintending
+the photographing. To him, therefore, belongs the credit for all those
+references in the following "<span class="sc">List of Authorities and Collaborators</span>,"
+in which it is stated that the signs were obtained at Washington
+from Indian delegations. Dr. <span class="sc">Hoffman</span> acquired in the West, through
+his service as acting assistant surgeon, United States Army, at a large
+reservation, the indispensable advantage of becoming acquainted with
+the Indian character so as to conduct skillfully such researches as that in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>[pg 400]</span>
+question, and in addition has the eye and pencil of an artist, so that he
+seizes readily, describes with physiological accuracy, and reproduces in
+action and in permanent illustration all shades of gesture exhibited.
+Nearly all of the pictorial illustrations in this paper are from his
+pencil.
+For the remainder, and for general superintendence of the artistic
+department
+of the work, thanks are due to Mr. <span class="sc">W.H. Holmes</span>, whose high
+reputation needs no indorsement here.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>[pg 401]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND COLLABORATORS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>1. A list prepared by <span class="sc">William Dunbar</span>, dated Natchez, June 30,
+1800, collected from tribes then "west of the Mississippi," but probably
+not from those very far west of that river, published in the
+<i>Transactions
+of the American Philosophical Society</i>, vol. vi, pp. 1-8, as read
+January
+16, 1801, and communicated by Thomas Jefferson, president of the
+society.</p>
+
+<p>2. The one published in <i>An Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh
+to the Rocky Mountains, performed in the years 1819-1820,
+Philadelphia</i>,
+1823, vol. i, pp. 378-394. This expedition was made by order of the
+Hon. J.O. Calhoun, Secretary of War, under the command of Maj. <span class="sc">S.
+H. Long</span>, of the United States Topographical Engineers, and is commonly
+called James' Long's Expedition. This list appears to have been
+collected chiefly by Mr. T. Say, from the Pani, and the Kansas, Otos,
+Missouris, Iowas, Omahas, and other southern branches of the great
+Dakota family.</p>
+
+<p>3. The one collected by Prince <span class="sc">Maximilian von Wied-Neuwied</span> in
+<i>Reise in das Innere Nord-America in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834</i>.
+<i>Coblenz</i>,
+1839 [&mdash;1841], vol. ii, pp. 645-653. His statement is, "the Arikaras,
+Mandans, Minnitarris [Hidatsa], Crows [Absaroka], Cheyennes, Snakes
+[Shoshoni], and Blackfeet [Satsika] all understand certain signs, which,
+on the contrary, as we are told, are unintelligible to the Dakotas,
+Assiniboins,
+Ojibwas, Krihs [Crees], and other nations. The list gives examples
+of the sign language of the former." From the much greater proportion
+of time spent and information obtained by the author among the
+Mandans and Hidatsa then and now dwelling near Port Berthold, on the
+Upper Missouri, it might be safe to consider that all the signs in his list
+were in fact procured from those tribes. But as the author does not say
+so, he is not made to say so in this work. If it shall prove that the signs
+now used by the Mandans and Hidatsa more closely resemble those on his
+list than do those of other tribes, the internal evidence will be verified.
+This list is not published in the English edition, <i>London</i>, 1843, but
+appears
+in the German, above cited, and in the French, <i>Paris</i>, 1840.
+Bibliographic
+reference is often made to this distinguished explorer as "Prince
+Maximilian," as if there were but one possessor of that Christian name
+among princely families. For brevity the reference in this paper will be
+<i>Wied</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No translation of this list into English appears to have been printed
+in any shape before that recently published by the present writer in the
+<i>American Antiquarian</i>, vol. ii, No. 3, while the German and French
+editions
+are costly and difficult of access, so the collection cannot readily
+be compared by readers with the signs now made by the same tribes.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>[pg 402]</span>
+The translation, now presented is based upon the German original, but
+in a few cases where the language was so curt as not to give a clear
+idea, was collated with the French edition of the succeeding year,
+which, from some internal evidence, appears to have been published
+with the assistance or supervision of the author. Many of the descriptions
+are, however, so brief and indefinite in both their German and
+French forms that they necessarily remain so in the present translation.
+The princely explorer, with the keen discrimination shown in all his
+work, doubtless observed what has escaped many recent reporters of
+Indian signs, that the latter depend much more upon motion than mere
+position, and are generally large and free, seldom minute. His object
+was to express the general effect of the motion rather than to describe it
+with such precision as to allow of its accurate reproduction by a reader
+who had never seen it. To have presented the signs as now desired for
+comparison, toilsome elaboration would have been necessary, and even
+that would not in all cases have sufficed without pictorial illustration.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the manifest importance of determining the prevalence
+and persistence of the signs as observed half a century ago, an exception
+is made to the general arrangement hereafter mentioned by introducing
+after the <i>Wied</i> signs remarks of collaborators who have made
+special comparisons, and adding to the latter the respective names of
+those collaborators&mdash;as, (<i>Matthews</i>), (<i>Boteler</i>). It is hoped
+that the work
+of those gentlemen will be imitated, not only regarding the <i>Wied</i>,
+signs, but many others.</p>
+
+<p>4. The signs given to publication by Capt. <span class="sc">R.F. Burton</span>, which, it
+would be inferred, were collected in 1860-'61, from the tribes met or
+learned of on the overland stage route, including Southern Dakotas,
+Utes, Shoshoni, Arapahos, Crows, Pani, and Apaches. They are contained
+in <i>The City of the Saints</i>, <i>New York</i>, 1862, pp. 123-130.</p>
+
+<p>Information has been recently received to the effect that this collection
+was not made by the distinguished English explorer from his personal
+observation, but was obtained by him from one man in Salt Lake
+City, a Mormon bishop, who, it is feared, gave his own ideas of the
+formation and use of signs rather than their faithful description.</p>
+
+<p>5. A list read by Dr. <span class="sc">D.G. Macgowan</span>, at a meeting of the American
+Ethnological Society, January 23, 1866, and published in the <i>Historical
+Magazine</i>, vol. x, 1866, pp. 86, 87, purporting to be the signs of the
+Caddos, Wichitas, and Comanches.</p>
+
+<p>6. Annotations by Lieut. <span class="sc">Heber M. Creel</span>, Seventh United States
+Cavalry, received in January, 1881. This officer is supposed to be
+specially familiar with the Cheyennes, among whom he lived for eighteen
+months; but his recollection is that most of the signs described by
+him were also observed among the Arapaho, Sioux, and several other
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>7. A special contribution from Mr. <span class="sc">F.F. Gerard</span>, of Fort A. Lincoln,
+D.T., of signs obtained chiefly from a deaf-mute Dakota, who has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>[pg 403]</span>
+traveled among most of the Indian tribes living between the Missouri River
+and the Rocky Mountains. Mr. Gerard's own observations are based
+upon the experience of thirty-two years' residence in that country, during
+which long period he has had almost daily intercourse with Indians.
+He states that the signs contributed by him are used by the Blackfeet,
+(Satsika), Absaroka, Dakota, Hidatsa, Mandan, and Arikara Indians,
+who may in general be considered to be the group of tribes referred to
+by the Prince of Wied.</p>
+
+<p>In the above noted collections the generality of the statements as
+to locality of the observation and use of the signs rendered it impossible
+to arrange them in the manner considered to be the best to study
+the diversities and agreements of signs. For that purpose it is more
+convenient that the names of the tribe or tribes among which the
+described signs have been observed should catch the eye in immediate
+connection with them than that those of the observers only should follow.
+Some of the latter indeed have given both similar and different
+signs for more than one tribe, so that the use of the contributor's name
+alone would create confusion. To print in every case the name of the
+contributor, together with the name of the tribe, would seriously burden
+the paper and be unnecessary to the student, the reference being
+readily made to each authority through this <span class="sc">list</span> which also serves as
+an index. The seven collections above mentioned will therefore be referred
+to by the names of the authorities responsible for them. Those
+which now follow are arranged alphabetically by tribes, under headings
+of Linguistic Families according to Major <span class="sc">J.W. Powell</span>'s classification,
+which are also given below in alphabetic order. Example: The first
+authority is under the heading <span class="sc">Algonkian</span>, and, concerning only the
+Abnaki tribe, is referred to as (<i>Abnaki</i> I), Chief <span class="sc">Masta</span> being the
+personal authority.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>ALGONKIAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Abnaki</i> I. A letter dated December 15, 1879, from <span class="sc">H.L. Masta</span>, chief
+of the Abnaki, residing near Pierreville, Quebec.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arapaho</i> I. A contribution from Lieut. <span class="sc">H.B. Lemly</span>, Third United
+States Artillery, compiled from notes and observations taken by him in
+1877, among the Northern Arapahos.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arapaho</i> II. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">O-qo-his'-sa</span> (the Mare,
+better known as Little Raven) and <span class="sc">Na'-watc</span> (Left Hand), members of
+a delegation of Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians, from Darlington, Ind.
+T., who visited Washington during the summer of 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cheyenne</i> I. Extracts from the <i>Report of Lieut. <span class="sc">J.W. Abert</span>, of his
+Examination of New Mexico in the years 1846-'47</i>, in Ex. Doc. No. 41,
+Thirtieth Congress, first session, Washington, 1848, p. 417, <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Cheyenne</i> II. A list prepared in July, 1879, by Mr. <span class="sc">Frank H. Cushing</span>,
+of the Smithsonian Institution, from continued interviews with
+<span class="sc">Titc-ke-ma'-tski</span> (Cross-Eyes), an intelligent Cheyenne, then employed
+at that Institution.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>[pg 404]</span>
+
+<p><i>Cheyenne</i> III. A special contribution with diagrams from Mr. <span class="sc">Ben
+Clark</span>, scout and interpreter, of signs collected from the Cheyennes
+during his long residence among that tribe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cheyenne</i> IV. Several communications from Col. <span class="sc">Richard I. Dodge</span>,
+A.D.C., United States Army, author of <i>The Plains of the Great West
+and their Inhabitants</i>, <i>New York</i>, 1877, relating to his large experience
+with the Indians of the prairies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cheyenne</i> V. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Wa-u</span><sup>n</sup>' (Bob-tail) and
+<span class="sc">Mo-hi'nuk-ma-ha'-it</span>
+(Big Horse), members of a delegation of Arapaho and
+Cheyenne Indians from Darlington, Ind. T., who visited Washington
+during the summer of 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ojibwa</i> I. The small collection of <span class="sc">J.G. Kohl</span>, made about the middle
+of the present century, among the Ojibwas around Lake Superior.
+Published in his <i>Kitchigami. Wanderings Around Lake Superior,
+London</i>, 1860.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ojibwa</i> II. Several letters from the Very Rev. <span class="sc">Edward Jacker</span>,
+Pointe St. Ignace, Mich., respecting the Ojibwas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ojibwa</i> III. A communication from Rev. <span class="sc">James A. Gilfillan</span>, White
+Earth, Minn., relating to signs observed among the Ojibwas during his
+long period of missionary duty, still continuing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ojibwa</i> IV. A list from Mr. <span class="sc">B.O. Williams</span>, Sr., of Owosso, Mich.,
+from recollection of signs observed among the Ojibwas of Michigan
+sixty years ago.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ojibwa</i> V. Contributions received in 1880 and 1881 from Mr. <span class="sc">F.
+Jacker</span>, of Portage River, Houghton County, Michigan, who has resided
+many years among and near the tribe mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I. A list from Rev. <span class="sc">H.F. Buckner</span>, D.D., of
+Eufaula, Ind. T., consisting chiefly of tribal signs observed by him
+among the Sac and Fox, Kickapoos, &amp;c., during the early part of the
+year 1880.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>DAKOTAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Absaroka</i> I. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">De-e'-ki-tcis</span> (Pretty
+Eagle),
+<span class="sc">&#201;-tci-di-ka-h&#259;tc'-ki</span> (Long Elk), and <span class="sc">Pe-ri'-tci-ka'-di-a</span> (Old Crow),
+members of a delegation of Absaroka or Crow Indians from Montana
+Territory, who visited Washington during the months of April and May,
+1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> I. A comprehensive list, arranged with great care and skill,
+from Dr. <span class="sc">Charles E. McChesney</span>, acting assistant surgeon, United
+States Army, of signs collected among the Dakotas (Sioux) near Fort
+Bennett, Dakota, during the year 1880. Dr. McChesney requests that
+recognition should be made of the valuable assistance rendered to him
+by Mr. <span class="sc">William Fielden</span>, the interpreter at Cheyenne Agency, Dakota
+Territory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> II. A short list from Dr. <span class="sc">Blair D. Taylor</span>, assistant surgeon,
+United States Army, from recollection of signs observed among
+the Sioux during his late service in the region inhabited by that tribe.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>[pg 405]</span>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> III. A special contribution from Capt. <span class="sc">A.W. Corliss</span>, Eighth
+United States Infantry, of signs observed by him during his late service
+among the Sioux.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> IV. A copious contribution with diagrams from Dr. <span class="sc">William
+H. Corbusier</span>, assistant surgeon, United States Army, of signs obtained
+from the Ogalala Sioux at Pine Ridge Agency, Dakota Territory,
+during 1879-'80.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> V. A report of Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span>, from observations among
+the Teton Dakotas while acting assistant surgeon, United States Army,
+and stationed at Grand River Agency, Dakota, during 1872-'73.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> VI. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Pe-zhi'</span> (Grass), chief of
+the Blackfoot Sioux; <span class="sc">Na-zu'-la-ta</span><sup>n</sup>-<span class="sc">ka</span> (Big Head), chief of the Upper
+Yanktonais; and <span class="sc">Ce-ta</span><sup>n</sup>-<span class="sc">ki</span><sup>n</sup>-<span class="sc">ya</span><sup>n</sup> (Thunder Hawk), chief of the Uncpapas,
+Teton Dakotas, located at Standing Rock, Dakota Territory,
+while at Washington in June, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> VII. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Shun-ku Lu-ta</span> (Red Dog),
+an Ogalala chief from the Red Cloud Agency, who visited Washington
+in company with a large delegation of Dakotas in June, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dakota</i> VIII. A special list obtained from <span class="sc">Ta-ta</span><sup>n</sup><span class="sc">ka Wa-ka</span><sup>n</sup>
+(Medicine
+Bull), and other members of a delegation of Lower Brul&#233; Dakotas,
+while at Washington during the winter of 1880-'81.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hidatsa</i> I. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Tce-caq'-a-daq-a-qic</span> (Lean
+Wolf), chief of the Hidatsa, located at Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory,
+while at Washington with a delegation of Sioux Indians, in June, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I. A valuable and illustrated contribution from
+Dr. <span class="sc">Washington Matthews</span>, assistant surgeon, United States Army,
+author of <i>Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians,
+Washington</i>,
+1877, &amp;c., lately prepared from his notes and recollections of signs
+observed during his long service among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians
+of the Upper Missouri.</p>
+
+<p><i>Omaha</i> I. A special list from Rev. <span class="sc">J. Owen Dorsey</span>, lately missionary
+at Omaha Agency, Nebraska, from observations made by him
+at that agency in 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oto</i> I. An elaborate list, with diagrams, from Dr. <span class="sc">W.G. Boteler</span>,
+United States Indian service, collected from the Otos at the Oto Agency,
+Nebraska, during 1879-'80.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oto and Missouri</i> I. A similar contribution by the same authority
+respecting
+the signs of the Otos and Missouris, of Nebraska, collected
+during the winter of 1879-'80, in the description of many of which he
+was joined by Miss <span class="sc">Katie Barnes</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ponka</i> I. A short list from Rev. <span class="sc">J. Owen Dorsey</span>, obtained by him
+in 1880 from the Ponkas in Nebraska.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ponka</i> II. A short list obtained at Washington from <span class="sc">Khi-dha-sk&#259;</span>,
+(White Eagle), and other chiefs, a delegation from Kansas in January, 1881.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>IROQUOIAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Iroquois</i> I. A list of signs contributed by the Hon. <span class="sc">Horatio Hale</span>,
+author of "Philology" of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, &amp;c., now
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>[pg 406]</span>
+residing at Clinton, Ontario, Canada, obtained in June, 1880, from
+<span class="sc">Sakayenkwaraton</span> (Disappearing Mist), familiarly known as John
+Smoke Johnson, chief of the Canadian division of the Six Nations, or
+Iroquois proper, now a very aged man, residing at Brantford, Canada.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wyandot</i> I. A list of signs from <span class="sc">Hen'-to</span> (Gray Eyes), chief of the
+Wyandots, who visited Washington during the spring of 1880, in the
+interest of that tribe, now dwelling in Indian Territory.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>KAIOWAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Kaiowa</i> I. A list of signs from <span class="sc">Sittimgea</span> (Stumbling Bear), a Kaiowa
+chief from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in June, 1880.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>KUTINEAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Kutine</i> I. A letter from <span class="sc">J.W. Powell</span>, Esq., Indian superintendent,
+British Columbia, relating to his observations among the Kutine and others.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>PANIAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Arikara</i> I. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Kua-nuq'-kna-ui'-uq</span> (Son of
+the Star), chief of the Arikaras, residing at Fort Berthold, Dakota
+Territory,
+while at Washington with a delegation of Indians, in June, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pani</i> I. A short list obtained from "<span class="sc">Esau</span>," a Pani Indian, acting as
+interpreter to the Ponka delegation at Washington, in January, 1881.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>PIMAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Pima and Papago</i> I. A special contribution obtained from <span class="sc">Antonito</span>,
+son of the chief of the Pima Indians in Arizona Territory, while on a
+visit to Washington in February, 1881.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>SAHAPTIAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Sahaptian</i> I. A list contributed by Rev. <span class="sc">G.L. Deffenbaugh</span>, of Lapwai,
+Idaho, giving signs obtained at Kamiah, Idaho, chiefly from <span class="sc">Felix</span>,
+chief of the Nez Perc&#233;s, and used by the Sahaptin or Nez Perc&#233;s.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>SHOSHONIAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Comanche</i> I. Notes from Rev. <span class="sc">A.J. Holt</span>, Denison, Texas, respecting,
+the Comanche signs, obtained at Anadarko, Indian Territory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Comanche</i> II. Information obtained at Washington, in February, 1880,
+from Maj. <span class="sc">J.M. Haworth</span>, Indian inspector, relating to signs used by
+the Comanches of Indian Territory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Comanche</i> III. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Kobi</span> (Wild Horse), a
+Comanche chief from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in June,
+1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pai-Ute</i> I. Information obtained at Washington from <span class="sc">Na'toi</span>, a Pai-Ute
+chief, who was one of a delegation of that tribe to Washington in
+January, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Tendoy</span> (The
+Climber), <span class="sc">Tisidimit</span>, <span class="sc">Pete</span>, and <span class="sc">Wi'agat</span>, members of a delegation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>[pg 407]</span>
+Shoshoni and Banak chiefs from Idaho, who visited Washington during
+the months of April and May, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ute</i> I. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Alejandre</span>, <span class="sc">Ga-lo-te</span>, <span class="sc">Augustin</span>,
+and other chiefs, members of a delegation of Ute Indians of Colorado,
+who visited Washington during the early months of the year 1880.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>TINNEAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Apache</i> I. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Huerito</span> (Little Blonde),
+<span class="sc">Agustin Vijel</span>, and <span class="sc">Santiago Largo</span> (James Long), members of a
+delegation of Apache chief from Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico, who
+were brought to Washington in the months of March and April, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apache</i> II. A list of signs obtained from <span class="sc">Na'-ka'-na'-ni-ten</span> (White
+Man), an Apache chief from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in
+June, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apache</i> III. A large collection made during the summer of 1880, by
+Dr. <span class="sc">Francis H. Atkins</span>, acting assistant surgeon, United States Army,
+from the Mescalero Apaches, near South Fork, N. Mex.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kutchin</i> I. A communication, received in 1881, from Mr. <span class="sc">Ivan Petroff</span>,
+special agent United States census, transmitting a dialogue,
+taken down by himself in 1866, between the Kenaitze Indians on the
+lower Kinnik River, in Alaska, and some natives of the interior who
+called themselves <i>Tennanah</i> or <i>Mountain-River-Men</i>, belonging
+to the
+Tinne Kutchin tribe.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>WICHITAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Wichita</i> I. A list of signs from Rev. <span class="sc">A.J. Holt</span>, missionary, obtained
+from <span class="sc">Kin-ch&#275;-&#277;ss</span> (Spectacles), medicine-man of the Wichitas, at the
+Wichita Agency, Indian Territory, in 1879.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wichita</i> II. A list of signs from <span class="sc">Tsodi&#225;ko</span> (Shaved Head Boy), a
+Wichita chief, from Indian Territory, who visited Washington in June, 1880.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>ZU&#x00d1;IAN.</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Zun&#x0304;i</i> I. Some preliminary notes received in 1880 from Rev. <span class="sc">Taylor
+F. Ealy</span>, missionary among the Zun&#x0304;i, upon the signs of that body of
+Indians.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>FOREIGN CORRESPONDENCE.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Valuable contributions have been received in 1880-'81 and collated
+under their proper headings, from the following correspondents in distant
+countries:</p>
+
+<p>Rev. <span class="sc">Herman N. Barnum</span>, D.D., of Harpoot, Turkey, furnishes a list
+of signs in common use among Turks, Armenians, and Koords in that region.</p>
+
+<p>Miss <span class="sc">L.O. Lloyd</span>, Charleton House, Mowbray, near Cape Town, Africa,
+gives information concerning the gestures and signals of the Bushmen.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. <span class="sc">Lorimer Fison</span>, Navuloa, Fiji, notes in letters comparisons between
+the signs and gestures of the Fijians and those of the North
+American Indians. As this paper is passing through the press a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>[pg 408]</span>
+<i>Collection</i> is returned with annotations by him and also by Mr. <span class="sc">Walter
+Carew</span>, Commissioner for the Interior of Navitilevu. The last named
+gentleman describes some signs of a Fijian uninstructed deaf-mute.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="sc">F.A. von Rupprecht</span>, Kepahiang, Sumatra, supplies information
+and comparisons respecting the signs and signals of the Redjangs
+and Lelongs, showing agreement with some Dakota, Comanche, and
+Ojibwa signs.</p>
+
+<p>Letters from Mr. <span class="sc">A.W. Howitt</span>, F.G.S., Sale, Gippsland, Victoria,
+upon Australian signs, and from Rev. <span class="sc">James Sibree</span>, jr., F.R.G.S.,
+relative to the tribes of Madagascar, are gratefully acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p>Many other correspondents are now, according to their kind promises,
+engaged in researches, the result of which have not yet been received.
+The organization of those researches in India and Ceylon has been
+accomplished
+through the active interest of Col. <span class="sc">H.S. Olcott</span>, U.S. Commissioner,
+Breach Candy, Bombay.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>Grateful acknowledgment must be made to Prof. <span class="sc">E.A. Fay</span>, of the
+National Deaf Mute College, through whose special attention a large
+number of the natural signs of deaf-mutes, remembered by them as having
+been invented and used before instruction in conventional signs,
+indeed before attending any school, was obtained. The gentlemen who
+made the contributions in their own MS., and without prompting, are as
+follows: Messrs. <span class="sc">M. Ballard</span>, <span class="sc">R.M. Ziegler</span>, <span class="sc">J. Cross</span>, <span class="sc">Philip J.
+Hasenstab</span>, and <span class="sc">Lars Larson</span>. Their names respectively follow their
+several descriptions. Mr. <span class="sc">Ballard</span> is an instructor in the college, and
+the other gentlemen were pupils during the session of 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Similar thanks are due to Mr. <span class="sc">J.L. Noyes</span>, superintendent of the
+Minnesota Institution for the education of the Deaf and Dumb, Faribault,
+Minn., and to Messrs. <span class="sc">George Wing</span> and <span class="sc">D.H. Carroll</span>, teachers
+in that institution, for annotations and suggestions respecting
+deaf-mute signs. The notes made by the last named gentlemen are followed
+by their respective names in reference.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>Special thanks are also rendered to Prof. <span class="sc">James D. Butler</span>, of Madison,
+Wis., for contribution of Italian gesture-signs, noted by him in
+1843, and for many useful suggestions.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>Other Italian signs are quoted from the Essay on Italian gesticulations
+by his eminence Cardinal <span class="sc">Wiseman</span>, in his <i>Essays on Various Subjects,
+London</i>, 1855, Vol. III, pp. 533-555. Many Neapolitan signs are
+extracted from the illustrated work of the canon <span class="sc">Andrea de Jorio</span>, <i>La
+Mimica degli Antichi investigata nel gestire Napoletano</i>, <i>Napoli</i>, 1832.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>A small collection of Australian signs has been extracted from <span class="sc">R.
+Brough Smyth</span>'s <i>The Aborigines of Victoria</i>, <i>London</i>, 1878.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>[pg 409]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>EXTRACTS FROM DICTIONARY.</h2>
+
+<p>In the printed but unpublished <i>Collection</i> before mentioned, page
+<a href="#page396">396</a>,
+nearly three hundred quarto pages are devoted to descriptions of signs
+arranged in alphabetic order. A few of these are now presented to
+show the method adopted. They have been selected either as having
+connection
+with the foregoing discussion of the subject or because for some
+of them pictorial illustrations had already been prepared. There is
+propriety
+in giving all the signs under some of the title words when descriptions
+of only one or two of those signs have been used in the foregoing remarks.
+This prevents an erroneous inference that the signs so mentioned are the
+only or the common or the generally prevailing signs for the idea conveyed.
+This course has involved some slight repetition both of descriptions
+and of illustrations, as it seemed desirable that they should appear
+to the eye in the several connections indicated. The extracts are rendered
+less interesting and instructive by the necessity for omitting
+cross-references
+which would show contrasts and similarities for comparison,
+but would require a much larger part of the collected material to be
+now printed than is consistent with the present plan. Instead of occupying
+in this manner the remaining space allotted to this paper, it was
+decided to present, as of more general interest, the descriptions of
+<span class="sc">Tribal Signs, Proper Names, Phrases, Dialogues, Narratives,
+Discourses</span>, and <span class="sc">Signals</span>, which follow the <span class="sc">Extracts</span>.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that in the following extracts there has been an
+attempt to supply the conceptions or origin of the several signs.
+When the supposed conception, obtained through collaborators, is
+printed before the authority given as reference, it is understood to have
+been gathered from an Indian as being his own conception, and is therefore
+of special value. When printed after the authority and within
+quotation marks it is in the words of the collaborator as offered by
+himself.
+When printed after the authority and without quotation marks
+it is suggested by this writer.</p>
+
+<p>The letters of the alphabet within parentheses, used in some of the
+descriptions,
+refer to the corresponding figures in <span class="sc">Types of Hand Positions</span>
+at the end of this paper. When such letters are followed by Arabic
+numerals it is meant that there is some deviation, which is described
+in the text, from that type of hand position corresponding with the letter
+which is still used as the basis of description. Example: In the
+first description from (<i>Sahaptin</i> I) for <i>bad</i>, <i>mean</i>,
+page <a href="#page412">412</a>, (G) refers to
+the type of hand position so marked, being identically that position,
+but in the following reference, to (R 1), the type referred to by the
+letter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>[pg 410]</span>
+R has the palm to the front instead of backward, being in all other
+respects the position which it is desired to illustrate; (R), therefore,
+taken
+in connection with the description, indicates that change, and that alone.
+This mode of reference is farther explained in the <span class="sc">Examples</span> at the end
+of this paper.</p>
+
+<p>References to another title word as explaining a part of a description
+or to supply any other portions of a compound sign will always be
+understood
+as being made to the description by the same authority of the
+sign under the other title-word. Example: In the second description
+by (<i>Sahaptin</i> I) for <i>bad, mean</i>, above mentioned, the reference
+to <span class="sc">Good</span>
+is to that sign for <i>good</i> which is contributed by Rev. <span class="sc">G.L.
+Deffenbaugh</span>,
+and is referred to as (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.).</p>
+
+
+<h5>ANTELOPE.</h5>
+
+<p>Pass the open right hand outward from the small of the back. (<i>Wied</i>.)
+This, as explained by Indians lately examined, indicates the lighter
+coloration
+upon the animal's flanks. A Ute who could speak Spanish accompanied
+it with the word <i>blanco</i>, as if recognizing that it required
+explanation.</p>
+
+<p>With the index only extended, hold the hand eighteen or twenty
+inches transversely in front of the head, index
+pointing to the left, then rub the sides
+of the body with the flat hands. (<i>Cheyenne</i>
+IV; <i>Dakota</i> VI.) "The latter sign refers to
+the white sides of the animal; the former could
+not be explained."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig234.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig234.png" alt="Antelope. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 234.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig235.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig235.png" alt="Running antelope. Personal totem" /></a>Fig. 235.</div>
+
+<p>Extend and separate the forefingers and thumbs, nearly close
+all the other fingers, and place the hands with backs outward
+above and a little in front of the ears, about four inches from the
+head, and shake them back and forth several times. Antelope's
+horns. This is an Arapaho sign. (<i>Dakota</i> I, II, IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, leaving the end of the index in the form of a hook,
+and the thumb extended as in Fig. 234; then wave the hand quickly back
+and forth a short distance, opposite the temple. (<i>Hidatsa</i> I;
+<i>Arikara</i> I.)
+"Represents the pronged horn of the animal. This is the sign ordinarily
+used, but it was noticed that in conversing with one of the Dakotas
+the sign of the latter (<i>Dakota</i> VI) was used several times, to be
+more
+readily understood."</p>
+
+<p>Place both hands, fingers fully extended and spread, close to the sides
+of the head. <i>Wied's</i> sign was readily understood as signifying the
+white flanks. (<i>Apache</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>[pg 411]</span>
+
+<p>In connection with the above signs Fig. 235 is presented, which was
+drawn by Running Antelope, an Uncpapa Dakota, as his personal totem,
+or proper name.</p>
+
+
+<h5>BAD, MEAN.</h5>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Good</span> and then that of <span class="sc">Not</span>. (<i>Long.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Close the hand, and open it whilst passing it downward. (<i>Wied.</i>)
+This is the same as my description; but differently worded, possibly
+notes a less forcible form. I say, however, that the arm is "extended."
+The precise direction in which the hand is moved is not, I think,
+essential.
+(<i>Matthews.</i>) This sign is invariably accompanied by a countenance
+expressive of contempt. (<i>F. Jacker.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Scatter the dexter fingers outward, as if spurting away water from
+them. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>(1) Right hand partially elevated, fingers closed, thumb clasping the
+tips; (2) sudden motion downward and outward accompanied by equally
+sudden opening of fingers and snapping of the fingers from the thumb.
+(<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand closed back to front is moved forcibly downward and forward,
+the fingers being violently opened at instant of stopping the motion
+of hand. (<i>Cheyenne IV.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand closed (B) carried forward in front of the body toward the
+right and downward, during which the hand is opened, fingers downward,
+as if dropping out the contents. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Not worth keeping."</p>
+
+<p>Half close the fingers of the right hand, hook the thumb over the fore
+and middle fingers; move the hand, back upward, a foot or so toward
+the object referred to, and suddenly let the fingers fly open. Scattered
+around, therefore bad. An Arapaho sign. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Close the fingers of the right hand, resting the tips against the thumb,
+then throw the hand downward
+and outward toward the right to
+arm's length, and spring open
+the fingers. Fig. 236. (<i>Dakota</i>
+VI, VII, VIII; <i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig236.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig236.png" alt="Bad. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 236.</div>
+
+<p>The sign most commonly used
+for this idea is made by the hand
+being closed near the breast, with
+the back toward the breast, then
+as the arm is suddenly extended
+the hand is opened and the fingers separated from each other. (<i>Mandan
+and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Hands open, palms turned in; move one hand toward, and the other
+from, the body; then vice vers&#226;. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Throw the clinched right hand forward, downward, and outward, and
+when near at arm's length, suddenly snap the fingers from the thumb as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>[pg 412]</span>
+if sprinkling water. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.) "To throw away contemptuously;
+not worth keeping."</p>
+
+<p>Raise hand in front of breast, fingers hooked, thumb resting against
+second finger, palm downward (G), then with a nervous movement
+throw the hand downward to the right and a little behind the body, with
+an expression of disgust on the face. During motion of hand the fingers
+are suddenly extended as though throwing something out of the
+hand, and in final position the fingers and thumb are straight and
+separated,
+palm backward (R 1). (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.) "Away with it!"</p>
+
+<p>Another: Same motion of arm and hand as in <i>good</i>. But in the
+first position fingers are closed, and as the hand moves to the right they
+are thrown open, until in final position all are extended as in final for
+<i>good</i>. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Extend the right hand, palm downward, and move it in a horizontal
+line from the body, then suddenly turn the hand over as if throwing
+water from the back of it or the index. (<i>Comanche</i> I.) "Good, no."</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right hand, interruptedly, downward and backward past
+the right side. (<i>Pima and Papago</i> I.) "Putting aside."</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Hold forward the closed hand with the little finger up, at the same
+time nodding the head. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the tongue out a little and then shake the head with a displeased
+look. (<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Use the sign for <i>handsome</i> (see first part of the sign for <span class="sc">Good</span>), at
+the
+same time shake the head as if to say "no." (<i>Ziegler</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>The hand closed (except the little finger which is extended and raised),
+and held forward with the fingers to the front is the sign for <i>bad</i>
+illustrated
+in the Report for 1879 of the Ohio Institution for the Deaf and
+Dumb. This sign is used among the deaf-mutes in England.</p>
+
+
+<h5>BEAR, animal.</h5>
+
+<p>Pass the hand before the face to mean ugliness, at the same time grinning
+and extending the fingers like claws. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Hands in front of and about eight inches above the elbows, fingers
+slightly bent and open, thumbs and palms to the front to represent
+claws,&mdash;or bear in standing position. Sometimes accompanied by clawing
+motion. (<i>Creel</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>(1) Middle and third finger of right hand clasped down by the thumb,
+forefinger and little finger extended, crooked downward; (2)
+the motion of scratching made in the air. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)
+Fig. 237.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig237.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig237.png" alt="Bear. Cheyenne" /></a>Fig. 237.</div>
+
+<p>Fingers of both hands closed, except the thumb and little
+finger, which are extended, and point straight toward the
+front, hands horizontal, backs upward, are held in front of
+their respective sides near the body, and then moved directly forward
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>[pg 413]</span>
+with, short, sharp jerking motions. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "From the motion of
+the bear in running." This is also reported as an Arapaho sign.
+(<i>Dakota</i>
+IV.) The paws and claws are represented.</p>
+
+<p>Seize a short piece of wood, say about two feet long, wave in the right
+hand, and strike a blow at an imaginary person. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Seize a short thing about six inches long, hold it as dagger,
+pretend to thrust it downward under the breast-bone repeatedly, and
+each time farther, grunting or gasping in doing so; withdraw the stick,
+holding it up, and, showing the blood, point to the breast with the left
+forefinger, meaning to say <i>so do thou when you meet the bear</i>.
+(<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Pretend to stab yourself with an arrow in various parts of
+the body, then point towards the body with the left-hand forefinger.
+(<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Arms are flexed and hands clasped about center of breast; then slowly
+fall with arms pendulous and both hands in type-position (Q). The sign
+is completed by slowly lifting the hands and arms several times in
+imitation
+of the animal's locomotion. Movement and appearance of animal's
+front feet. (<i>Oto</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig238.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig238.png" alt="Bear. Kaiowa, etc." /></a>Fig. 238.</div>
+
+<p>Hold the closed right hand at the height of the elbow before the right
+side, palm downward, extend and curve the thumb and
+little finger so that their tips are nearly directed toward
+one another before the knuckles of the closed fingers;
+then push the hand forward several times. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "Paw and long
+claws." Fig. 238.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig239.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig239.png" alt="Bear. Ute" /></a>Fig. 239.</div>
+
+<p>Hold both closed hands before the body, palms down, and about eight
+inches apart; reach forward a short distance, relaxing
+the fingers as if grasping something with them, and
+draw them back again as the hands are withdrawn to their
+former position. Ordinarily but one hand is used, as
+in Fig. 239. (<i>Ute</i> I.) "Scratching, and grasping with the claws."</p>
+
+<p>The right hand thrown in the position as for <i>horse</i>, as follows:
+Elevate the right-hand, extended, with fingers joined, outer edge
+toward the ground, in front of the body or right shoulder, and pointing
+forward, resting the curved thumb against the palmar side of the
+index, then extend both hands with fingers extended and curved, separated,
+palms down, and push them forward several times, making
+a short arch. (<i>Apache</i> I.) "The animal that scratches with
+long claws."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/fig240.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig240.png" alt="Bear. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 240.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 240 is from a Moqui rock etching, contributed by Mr. G.
+K. Gilbert, showing the pictorial mode of representing the animal.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>[pg 414]</span>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Claw both shoulders with the fingers. (<i>Wing</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Grizzly.</p>
+
+<p>Right hand flat and extended, held at height of shoulder, palm forward,
+then bring the palm to the mouth, lick it with the tongue, and
+return it to first position. (<i>Omaha</i> I.) "Showing blood on the paw."</p>
+
+<p>Other remarks upon the signs for <i>bear</i> are made on pages <a href="#page293">293</a> and
+<a href="#page345">345</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h5>BRAVE.</h5>
+
+<p>Close the fists, place the left near the breast, and move the right over
+the left toward the left side. (<i>Wied</i>.) A motion
+something like this, which I do not now
+distinctly recall&mdash;a short of wrenching motion
+with the fists in front of the chest&mdash;I have seen
+used for <i>strong</i>. If <i>Wied's</i> sign-maker's hand
+first struck the region over the heart (as he may
+have done) he would then have indicated a
+"strong heart," which is the equivalent for
+<i>brave</i>. (<i>Matthews</i>.) This sign is used by the
+Sioux at the present day to denote <i>small</i>.
+(<i>McChesney</i>.) I have seen a similar sign repeatedly,
+the only variation being that the right
+fist is passed over and downward, in front of
+the left, instead of toward the left side. (<i>Hoffman</i>.) Fig. 241.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig241.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig241.png" alt="Brave. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 241.</div>
+
+<p>Clinch the right fist, and place it to the breast. (<i>Absaroka</i> I;
+<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands fists, backs outward, obliquely upward, near together,
+right inside of left, are moved forward from in front of the chest, two or
+three times and back again to original position and then the right-hand
+fist is thrown with some force over the left on a curve. <i>Endurance</i>
+is
+expressed by this sign, and it is connected with the sun-dance trials of
+the young man in testing his bravery and powers of endurance before
+admission to the ranks of the warriors. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Push the two fists forward about a foot, at the height of the breast,
+the right about two inches behind the left, palms inward. (<i>Dakota</i>
+IV.) "The hands push all before them."</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left arm in front as if supporting a shield, and the right
+drawn back as if grasping a weapon. Close the fists, lower the head,
+moving it a little forward (with a "lunge") as well as the arms and fists..
+(<i>Omaha</i> I.) "I am brave."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>[pg 415]</span>
+
+<p>Another: Index and thumb extended parallel, palm to left, the other
+fingers bent. Shake the open fingers several times at the person referred
+to, the forearm being held at an angle of about 20&#176;. (<i>Omaha</i> I.) "You
+are very brave; you do not fear death when you see the danger."</p>
+
+<p>Strike the breast gently with the palmar side of the right fist.
+(<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the left clinched hand horizontally before the breast, palm
+toward the body, and at the same time strike forcibly downward in
+front of it with the right fist, as in Fig. 242.
+Sometimes the right fist is placed back of
+the left, then thrown over the latter toward
+the front and downward, as in Fig. 241
+above. The same gesture has also been
+made by throwing the palmar side of the
+right fist edgewise downward in front of the
+knuckles of the left, as in Fig. 243. In each
+instance the left fist is jerked upward very
+perceptibly as the right one is thrust downward.
+(<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i>
+II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig242.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig242.png" alt="Brave. Kaiowa, etc." /></a>Fig. 242.</div>
+
+<p>Strike the clinched fist forcibly toward
+the ground in front of and near the breast. (<i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; He is the bravest of all.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Brave</span> and then the left forefinger, upright, back
+inward about twelve inches in front of
+left breast, right index similarly held
+near the right breast, move them at the
+same time outward or forward, obliquely
+to the left, (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig243.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig243.png" alt="Brave. Kaiowa, etc." /></a>Fig. 243.</div>
+
+<p>Raise right hand, fingers extended,
+palm downward (W 1), swing it around
+"over all," then point to the man, raise
+left fist (A 1, changed to left and palm
+inward) to a point in front of and near the body, close fingers of right
+hand and place the fist (A 2, palm inward) between left fist and body
+and then with violent movement throw it over left fist, as though breaking
+something, and stop at a point in front of and a little below left fist,
+and lastly point upward with right hand. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.) "Of all here
+he is strongest."</p>
+
+<p>The right fist, palm downward, is struck against the breast several
+times, and the index is then quickly elevated before the face, pointing
+upward. (<i>Apache</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>[pg 416]</span>
+
+<p>Move the fist, thumb to the head, across the forehead from right to
+left, and cast it toward the earth over the left shoulder. (<i>Apache</i>
+III.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Run forward with a bold expression of the countenance. (<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Not to run back but to run forward. (<i>Ziegler</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Left hand held as if pressing a loaf against the chest. Make a motion
+with the right hand, palm upward as if cutting through the fingers of
+the left with a sawing motion. (<i>Wing</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Other remarks connected with the signs for <i>brave</i> appear on pages
+<a href="#page352">352</a>, <a href="#page353">353</a>, and <a href="#page358">358</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h5>CHIEF.</h5>
+
+<p>The forefinger of the right hand extended, pass it perpendicularly
+downward, then turn it upward, and raise it in a right line as high as
+the head. (<i>Long</i>.) "Rising above others."</p>
+
+<p>Raise the index finger of the right hand, holding it straight upward,
+then turn it in a circle and bring it straight down, a little toward the
+earth. (<i>Wied</i>.) The right hand is raised, and in position (J)
+describes
+a semicircle as in beginning the act of throwing. The arm is elevated
+perfectly erect aside of the head, the palm of the index and hand should
+be outward. There is an evident similarity in both execution and conception
+of this sign and <i>Wied's</i>; the little variation may be the result of
+different interpretation. The idea of superiority is most prominent in
+both. (<i>Boteler</i>.) "A prominent one before whom all succumb." The
+Arikaras understood this sign, and they afterwards used it in talking to
+me. (<i>Creel</i>.) <i>Wied's</i> air-picture reminds of the royal scepter
+with its sphere.</p>
+
+<p>Raise the forefinger, pointed upwards, in a vertical direction, and then
+reverse both finger and motion; the greater the elevation the "bigger"
+the chief. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the closed hand, with the index extended and pointing upward,
+near the right cheek, pass it upward as high as the head, then turn it
+forward and downward toward the ground, the movement terminating
+a little below the initial point. See Fig. 306 in <span class="sc">Tendoy-Huerito
+Dialogue</span>, p. <a href="#page487">487</a>. (<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Ponka</i> II;
+<i>Shoshoni</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>(1) Sign for <span class="sc">Man</span>, as follows: Right hand, palm inward, elevated to
+about the level of the breast, index carelessly pointing upward, suddenly
+pointed straight upward, and the whole hand moved a little forward, at
+the same time taking care to keep the back of the hand toward the person
+addressed; (2) middle, third, little finger, and thumb slightly closed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>[pg 417]</span>
+together, forefinger pointing forward and downward; (3) curved motion
+made forward, outward, and downward. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.) "He who
+stands still and commands," as shown by similarity of signs to <i>sit
+here</i> or <i>stand here</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Extend the index, remaining fingers closed, and raise it to the right
+side of the head and above it as far as the arm can reach. Have also
+seen the sign given by <i>Wyandot</i> I. (<i>Ojibwa</i> V.)</p>
+
+<p>The extended forefinger of the right hand (J), of which the other fingers
+are closed, is raised to the right side of the head and above it as
+far as the arm can be extended, and then the hand is brought down in
+front of the body with the wrist bent, the back of hand in front and the
+extended forefinger pointing downward. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Raised above
+others."</p>
+
+<p>Move the upright and extended right index, palm forward, from the
+shoulder upward as high, as the top of the head, then forward six inches
+through a curve, and move it forward six inches, and then downward,
+its palm backward, to the height of the shoulder. An Arapaho sign,
+Above all others. He looks over or after us. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Elevate the extended index before the shoulder, palm forward, pass
+it upward as high as the head, and forming a short curve to the front,
+then downward again slightly to the front to before the breast and about
+fifteen inches from it. (<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII, VIII; <i>Hidatsa</i> I;
+<i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand closed, forefinger pointing up, raise the hand from the
+waist in front of the body till it passes above the head. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Bring the closed right hand, forefinger pointing up, on
+a level with the face; then bring the palm of the left hand with force
+against the right forefinger; next send up the right hand above the
+head, leaving the left as it is. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The right arm is extended by side of head, with the hand in position
+(J). The arm and hand then descend, the finger describing a semicircle
+with the arm as a radius. The sign stops with arm hanging at full
+length. (<i>Oto</i> I.) "The arm of authority before whom all must fall."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands elevated to a position in front of and as high as the shoulders,
+palms facing, fingers and thumbs spread and slightly curved; the
+hands are then drawn outward a short distance towards their respective
+sides and gently elevated as high as the top of the head. (<i>Wyandot</i>
+I.)
+"One who is elevated by others."</p>
+
+<p>Elevate the closed hand&mdash;index only extended and pointing upward&mdash;to
+the front of the right side of the face or neck or shoulder; pass it
+quickly upward, and when as high as the top of the head, direct it forward
+and downward again toward the ground. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i>
+III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>[pg 418]</span>
+Close the right hand, index raised, extended, and placed before the
+breast, then move it forward from the mouth, pointing forward, until at
+arm's length. (<i>Ute</i> I.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Head, of tribe.</p>
+
+<p>Place the extended index, pointing upward, at some distance before
+the right shoulder, then place the left hand, with fingers and thumb
+extended and separated, just back of the index; then in
+passing the index upward as high as the head, draw the
+left hand downward a short distance, as in Fig. 244. Superior
+to others. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place both flat hands before the body, palms down,
+and pass them horizontally outward toward their respective
+sides, then make the sign for <span class="sc">Chief</span>. (<i>Arikara</i> I.) "Chief
+of the wide region and those upon it."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig244.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig244.png" alt="Chief. Head of tribe. Absaroka" /></a>Fig. 244.</div>
+
+<p>After pointing out the man, point to the
+ground, all fingers closed except first
+(J 1, pointing downward in stead of upward),
+then point upward with same hand
+(J 2), then move hand to a point in front of
+body, fingers extended, palm downward
+(W 1), and move around horizontally.
+(<i>Sahaptin</i> I.) "In this place he is head over all."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig245.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig245.png" alt="Chief. Head of tribe. Pai-Ute" /></a>Fig. 245.</div>
+
+<p>Grasp the forelock with the right hand, palm backward, pass the hand
+upward about six inches and hold it in that position a moment.
+(<i>Pai-Ute</i> I.) Fig 245.</p>
+
+<p>Elevate the extended index vertically above and in front of the head,
+holding the left hand, forefinger pointing upward, from one to two feet
+below and underneath the right, the position of the left, either elevated
+or depressed, also denoting the relative position of the second individual
+to that of the chief. (<i>Apache</i> I.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, War. Head of a war party; Partisan.</p>
+
+<p>First make the sign of the <i>pipe</i>; then open the thumb and index
+finger
+of the right hand, back of the hand outward, moving it forward and
+upward in a curve. (<i>Wied</i>.) For remarks upon this sign see page <a href="#page384">384</a>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>[pg 419]</span>
+
+<p>Place the right hand, index only extended and pointing forward and
+upward, before the right side of the breast nearly at arm's length, then
+place the left hand, palm forward with fingers spread and extended,
+midway between the breast and the right hand. (<i>Arapaho</i> II;
+<i>Cheyenne</i>
+V; <i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>First make the sign for <span class="sc">Battle</span>, viz: Both hands (A 1) brought to the
+median line of the body on a level with the breast and close together;
+describe with both hands at the same time a series of circular movements
+of small circumference; and then add the sign for <span class="sc">Chief</span>, (<i>Dakota</i>
+I.) "First in battle."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; of a band.</p>
+
+<p>Point toward the left and front with the extended forefinger of the
+left hand, palm down; then place the extended index about twelve
+inches behind the left hand, pointing in the same direction.
+(<i>Arapaho</i>
+II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:70%;"><a href="images/fig246.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig246.png" alt="Chief of a band. Absaroka and Arikara" /></a>Fig. 246.</div>
+
+<p>Place the extended index at some distance before the right shoulder,
+pointing forward and slightly upward,
+then place the left hand with
+fingers and thumb extended and separated over the
+index, and while pushing the index to the front, draw the left hand
+backward toward body and to the left. Ahead of others. (<i>Absaroka</i> I;
+<i>Arikara</i> I.) Fig. 246.</p>
+
+<p>Point the extended index forward and upward before the chest, then
+place the spread fingers of the left
+hand around the index, but at a short
+distance behind it, all pointing the
+same direction. Ahead of the remainder.
+(<i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig247.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig247.png" alt="Chief of a band. Pai-Ute" /></a>Fig. 247.</div>
+
+<p>Grasp the forelock with the right hand, palm backward, and pretend to
+lay the hair down over the right side of the head by passing the hand in
+that direction. (<i>Pai-Ute</i> I.) Fig. 247.</p>
+
+<p>The French deaf-mute sign for <i>order, command</i>, maybe compared with
+several of the above signs. In it the index tip first touches the lower lip,
+then is raised above the head and brought down with violence.
+(<i>L'enseignment
+primaire des sourds-muets; par M. P&#233;lissier. Paris, 1856</i>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>[pg 420]</span>
+
+<p>Not only in Naples, but, according to De Jorio, in Italy generally the
+conception of <i>authority</i> in gesture is by pressing the right hand on
+the flank, accompanied by an erect and squared posture of the bust with
+the head slightly inclined to the right. The idea of <i>substance</i> is
+conveyed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig248.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig248.png" alt="Warrior. Absaroka, etc." /></a>Fig. 248.</div>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Warrior lower than actual, but distinguished for bravery.</p>
+
+<p>Place the left forefinger, pointing toward the left
+and front, before the left side of the chest, then
+place the extended index near (or against) the forefinger,
+and, while passing the latter outward toward the left, draw the
+index toward the right. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Arikara</i> I;
+<i>Shoshoni</i> I.) Fig. 248.</p>
+
+
+<h5>DEAD, DEATH.</h5>
+
+<p>Throw the forefinger from the perpendicular into a horizontal position
+toward the earth, with the back downward. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand flat over the face, back outward, and pass with the
+similarly held right hand below the former, gently striking or touching
+it. (<i>Wied</i>.) The sign given (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I) has no
+similarity in
+execution or conception with <i>Wied's</i>. (<i>Boteler</i>.) This sign may
+convey
+the idea of <i>under</i> or <i>burial</i>, quite differently executed from
+most others
+reported. Dr. McChesney conjectures this sign to be that of wonder or
+surprise at hearing of a death, but not a distinct sign for the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The finger of the right hand passed to the left hand and then cast
+down. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand slightly arched, palm down, fingers pointing
+toward the right about fifteen inches before the breast, then place the
+extended index nearer the breast, pointing toward the left, pass it
+quickly forward underneath the left hand and in an upward curve to
+termination. (<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Ponka</i> II;
+<i>Pani</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the palm of the hand at a short distance from the side of the
+head, then withdrawing it gently in an oblique downward direction and
+inclining the head and upper part of the body in the same direction.
+(<i>Ojibwa</i> II.) See page <a href="#page353">353</a> for remarks upon this sign.</p>
+
+<p>Hold both hands open, with palms over ears, extend fingers back on
+brain, close eyes, and incline body a little forward and to right or left
+very low, and remain motionless a short time, pronouncing the word
+<i>Ke-nee-boo</i> slowly. (<i>Ojibwa</i> IV.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>[pg 421]</span>
+
+<p>Left hand flattened and held back upward, thumb inward in front of
+and a few inches from the breast. Right hand slightly clasped, forefinger
+more extended than the others, and passed suddenly under the
+left hand, the latter being at the same time gently moved toward the
+breast. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.) "Gone under."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands horizontal in front of body, backs outward, index of each
+hand alone extended, the right index is passed under the left with a
+downward, outward and then upward and inward curved motion at the
+same time that the left is moved inward toward the body two or three
+inches, the movements being ended on the same level as begun. "Upset,
+keeled over." For <i>many deaths</i> repeat the sign many times. The
+sign of (<i>Cheyenne</i> II) expresses "gone under," but is not used in the
+sense of <i>death, dead</i>, but <i>going under a cover</i>, as entering a
+lodge, under a table, &amp;c. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Alive</span>, viz.: The right hand, back upward, is to be
+at the height of the elbow and forward, the index extended and pointing
+forward, the other fingers closed, thumb against middle finger; then,
+while rotating the hand outward, move it to a position about four inches
+in front of the face, the back looking forward and the index pointing
+upward; then the sign for No. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Hold the left hand pointing toward the right, palm obliquely
+downward and backward, about a foot in front of the lower part of the
+chest, and pass the right hand pointing toward the left, palm downward,
+from behind forward underneath it. Or from an upright position in
+front of the face, back forward, index extended and other fingers closed,
+carry the right hand downward and forward underneath the left and
+about four inches beyond it, gradually turning the right hand until its
+back is upward and its index points toward the left. An Arapaho sign.
+Gone under or buried. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand slightly bent with the palm down, before the breast,
+then pass the extended right hand, pointing toward the left, forward
+under and beyond the left. (<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the right hand, flat, palm downward, before the body; then throw
+it over on its back to the right, making a curve of about fifteen inches.
+(<i>Dakota</i> VI; <i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Arikara</i> I.) The gesture of
+reversal in this
+and other instances may be compared with picture-writings in which
+the reversed character for the name or totem of a person signifies his
+death. One of these is given in Fig. 249, taken from Schoolcraft's <i>Hist.
+Am. Tribes</i>, I, p. 356, showing the cedar burial post or
+<i>adjedatig</i> of Wabojeeg,
+an Ojibwa war chief, who died on Lake Superior about 1793. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>[pg 422]</span>
+belonged to the deer clan of his tribe and the animal is drawn reversed
+on the post.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig249.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig249.png" alt="Ojibwa gravestone, including &quot;dead&quot;" /></a>Fig. 249.</div>
+
+<p>Extend right hand, palm down, hand curved. Turn the palm up in
+moving the hand down towards the earth. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The countenance is brought to a sleeping
+composure with the eyes closed. This
+countenance being gradually assumed, the
+head next falls toward either shoulder.
+The arms having been closed and crossed
+upon the chest with the hands in type
+positions (B B) are relaxed and drop simultaneously
+towards the ground, with the fall of the head. This attitude is
+maintained some seconds. (<i>Oto and Missouri</i>
+I.) "The bodily appearance at death."</p>
+
+<p>Place the open hand, back upward, fingers
+a little drawn together, at the height
+of the breast, pointing forward; then move
+it slowly forward and downward, turning it over at the same time.
+(<i>Iroquois</i> I.) "To express 'gone into the earth, face upward.'"</p>
+
+<p>The flat right hand is waved outward and downward toward the same
+side, the head being inclined in the same direction at the time, with
+eyes closed. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand loosely extended about fifteen inches in front of the
+breast, palm down, then pass the index, pointing to the left, in a short
+curve downward, forward, and upward beneath the left palm. (<i>Kaiowa</i>
+I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig250.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig250.png" alt="Dead. Shoshoni and Banak" /></a>Fig. 250.</div>
+
+<p>Bring the left hand to the left breast, hand half clinched (H), then
+bring the right hand to the left
+with the thumb and forefinger
+in such a position as if you were
+going to take a bit of string
+from the fingers of the left hand,
+and pull the right hand off in a
+horizontal line as if you were
+stretching a string out, extend
+the hand to the full length of
+the arm from you and let the index
+finger point outward at the
+conclusion of the sign. (<i>Comanche</i> I.) "Soul going to happy
+hunting-grounds."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>[pg 423]</span>
+
+<p>The left hand is held slightly arched, palm down, nearly at arm's
+length before the breast; the right extended, flat, palm down, and
+pointing forward, is pushed from the top of the breast, straightforward,
+underneath, and beyond the left. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) Fig. 250.</p>
+
+<p>Close both eyes, and after a moment throw the palm of the right hand
+from the face downward and outward toward the right side, the head
+being dropped in the same direction. (<i>Ute</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Touch the breast with the extended and joined fingers of the right
+hand, then throw the hand, palm to the left, outward toward the right,
+leaning the head in that direction at the same time. (<i>Apache</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Close the eyes with the tips of the index and second finger, respectively,
+then both hands are placed side by side, horizontally, palms downward,
+fingers extended and united; hands separated by slow horizontal
+movement to right and left. (<i>Kutchin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Palm of hand upward, then a wave-like motion toward the ground.
+(<i>Zun&#x0304;i</i> I.)</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Place the hand upon the cheek, and shut the eyes, and move the hand
+downward toward the ground. (<i>Ballard.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Let your head lie on the open hand with eyes shut. (<i>Cross.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Use the right shut hand as if to draw a screw down to fasten the lid
+to the coffin and keep the eyes upon the hand. (<i>Hasenstab.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Move the head toward the shoulder and then close the eyes. (<i>Larson.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf mute signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>The French deaf-mute conception is that of gently falling or sinking,
+the right index falling from the height of the right shoulder upon the
+left forefinger, toward which the head is inclined.</p>
+
+<p>The deaf-mute sign commonly used in the United States is the same
+as <i>Dakota</i> VI; <i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Arikara</i> I; above. Italians
+with obvious conception,
+make the sign of the cross.</p>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; To Die.</p>
+
+<p>Right hand, forefinger extended, side up, forming with the thumb
+a 'U'; the other fingers slightly curved, touching each other, the little
+finger having its side toward the ground. Move the hand right and left
+then forward, several times; then turn it over suddenly, letting it fall
+toward the earth. (<i>Ojibwa</i> V; <i>Omaha</i> I.) "An animal wounded,
+but
+staggering a little before it falls and dies."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>[pg 424]</span>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig251.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig251.png" alt="Dying. Kaiowa, etc." /></a>Fig. 251.</div>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Dying.</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand as in <i>dead</i>; pass the index in the same manner
+underneath the left, but in a slow, gentle, interrupted movement.
+(<i>Kaiowa</i>
+I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "Step by
+step; inch
+by inch." Fig. 251.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig252.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig252.png" alt="Nearly dying. Kaiowa" /></a>Fig. 252.</div>
+
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Nearly, but recovers.</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand as in <i>dead</i>; pass the index with a slow, easy,
+interrupted
+movement downward, under the left palm, as in <i>dying</i>, but
+before passing from under the palm on the opposite side return the index
+in the same manner to point of starting; then elevate it. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) Fig. 252.</p>
+
+<p>Other remarks upon the signs for <i>dead</i> are given on page <a href="#page353">353</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h5>GOOD.</h5>
+
+<p>The hand held horizontally, back upward, describes with the arm a
+horizontal curve outward. (<i>Long.</i>) This is like the Eurasian motion
+of benediction, but may more suggestively be compared with several of
+the signs for <i>yes</i>, and in opposition to several of those for
+<i>bad</i> and <i>no</i>,
+showing the idea of acceptance or selection of objects presented, instead
+of their rejection.</p>
+
+<p>Place the right hand horizontally in front of the breast and move it
+forward. (<i>Wied.</i>) This description is essentially the same as the one
+I
+furnished. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.) I stated, however, that the hand
+was moved outward (<i>i.e.</i>, to the right). I do not remember seeing it
+moved directly forward. In making the motion as I have described it
+the hand would have to go both outward and forward. (<i>Matthews</i>.)
+The left arm is elevated and the hand held in position (W). The arm
+and hand are thus extended from the body on a level with the chest;
+the elbow being slightly bent, the arm resembles a bent bow. The right
+arm is bent and the right hand, in position (W), sweeps smoothly over
+the left arm from the biceps muscle over the ends of the fingers. This
+sign and <i>Wied's</i> are noticeably similar. The difference is, the
+<i>Oto</i> sign
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>[pg 425]</span>
+uses the left arm in conjunction and both <i>more to the left</i>. The
+conception
+is of something that easily passes; smoothness, evenness, etc., in
+both. (<i>Boteler</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Wave the hand from the mouth, extending the thumb from the index
+and closing the other three fingers. This sign also means <i>I know</i>.
+(<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>(1) Right-hand fingers pointing to the left placed on a level with
+mouth, thumb inward; (2) suddenly moved with curve outward so as
+to present palm to person addressed. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the open right hand, palm downward, from the heart, twenty-four
+inches horizontally forward and to the right through an arc of about
+90&#176;. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) "Heart easy or smooth."</p>
+
+<p>Another: Gently strike the chest two or three times over the heart
+with the radial side of the right hand, the fingers partly flexed and
+pointing downward. An Arapaho sign. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the flat right hand, palm down, thumb touching the breast, then
+move it forward and slightly upward and to the right. (<i>Arapaho</i> II;
+<i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Ojibwa</i> V; <i>Dakota</i> VI, VII, VIII; <i>Kaiowa</i>
+I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat hand, palm down, from the breast forward and in a slight
+curve to the right. (<i>Dakota</i> VI; <i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Ankara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The extended right hand, palm downward, thumb backward, fingers
+pointing to the left, is held nearly or quite in contact with the body
+about on a level with the stomach; it is then carried outward to the
+right a foot or two with a rapid sweep, in which the forearm is moved
+but not necessarily the humerus. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Move right hand, palm down, over the blanket, right and left, several
+times. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Hit the blanket, first on the right, then on the left, palm
+down, several times. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Point at the object with the right forefinger, shaking it a
+little up and down, the other fingers being closed. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Same as preceding, but with the hand open, the thumb
+crooked under and touching the forefinger; hand held at an angle of 45&#176;
+while shaking a little back and forth. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Hold the closed hands together, thumbs up; separate by
+turning the wrists down, and move the fists a little apart; then reverse
+movements till back to first position. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Hold the left hand with back toward the ground, fingers
+and thumb apart, and curved; hold the right hand opposite it, palm
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>[pg 426]</span>
+down, hands about six inches apart; shake the hands held thus, up
+and down, keeping them the same distance apart. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Hold the hands with the palms in, thumbs up, move hands
+right and left, keeping them about six inches apart. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Look at the right hand, first on the back, then on the palm,
+then on the back again. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The flat right hand, palm down, is moved forward and upward, starting
+at a point about twelve inches before the breast. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the flat right hand forward and slightly outward from the shoulder,
+palm either upward or downward, and pass it edgewise horizontally
+to the right and left. This sign was made when no personality was
+involved. The same gesturer when claiming for himself the character
+of goodness made the following: Rapidly pat the breast with the flat
+right hand. (<i>Pima and Papago</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Throw right hand from front to side, fingers extended and palm down,
+forearm horizontal. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Make an inclination of the body forward, moving at the same time
+both hands forward from the breast, open, with the palm upward, and
+gradually lowering them. This is also used for <i>glad, pleased</i>.
+(<i>Iroquois</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Bring both hands to the front, arms extended, palms outward; elevate
+them upward and slightly forward; the face meanwhile expressive of
+wonder. (<i>Comanche</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Bring the hand opposite the breast, a little below, hand extended,
+palm downward (W), and let it move off in a horizontal direction. If
+it be very good, this may be repeated. If comparatively good, repeat
+it more violently. (<i>Comanche</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the right hand palm down, pointing to the left, and placed
+horizontally
+before the breast, then raise it several times slightly. Good
+and glad. (<i>Kutchin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Smack the lips. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Close the hand while the thumb is up, and nod the head and smile as
+if to approve of something good. (<i>Hasenstab</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Point the forefinger to the mouth and move the lips with a pleased
+look as if tasting sweet fruit. (<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Use the sign for <i>handsome</i> by drawing the outstretched palm of the
+right hand down over the right cheek; at the same time nod the head as
+if to say "yes." (<i>Ziegler</i>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>[pg 427]</span>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Some of the Indian signs appear to be connected with a pleasant taste
+in the month, as is the sign of the French and American deaf-mutes, waving
+thence the hand, either with or without touching the lips, back upward,
+with fingers straight and joined, in a forward and downward curve.
+They make nearly the same gesture with hand sidewise for general assent:
+"Very well!"</p>
+
+<p>The conventional sign for <i>good</i>, given in the illustration to the
+report
+of the Ohio Institution for the education of the deaf and dumb, is: The
+right hand raised forward and closed, except the thumb, which is extended
+upward, held vertically, its nail being toward the body; this is
+in opposition to the sign for <i>bad</i> in the same illustration, the one
+being
+merely the exhibition of the thumb toward and the other of the little
+finger away from the body. They are English signs, the traditional
+conception being acceptance and rejection respectively.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italian signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>The fingers gathered on the mouth, kissed and stretched out and spread,
+intimate a dainty morsel. The open hand stretched out horizontally, and
+gently shaken, intimates that a thing is so-so, not good and not bad.
+(<i>Butler</i>.) Compare also the Neapolitan sign given by De Jorio, see
+Fig.
+62, p. <a href="#page286">286</a>, <i>supra</i>. Cardinal Wiseman gives as the Italian sign for
+<i>good</i>
+"the hand thrown upwards and the head back with a prolonged ah!"
+<i>Loc. cit.</i>, p. 543.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Heart is.</p>
+
+<p>Strike with right hand on the heart and make the sign for <span class="sc">Good</span> from
+the heart outward. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Touch the left breast over the heart two or three times with the ends
+of the fingers of the right hand; then make the sign for <span class="sc">Good</span>.
+(<i>Dakota</i>
+IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the fingers of the flat right hand over the breast, then make the
+sign for <span class="sc">Good</span>. (<i>Dakota</i> VII.)</p>
+
+<p>Move hand to position in front of breast, fingers extended, palm downward
+(W), then with quick movement throw hand forward and to the
+side to a point 12 or 15 inches from body, hand same as in first position.
+(<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>For further remarks on the signs for <i>good</i>, see page <a href="#page286">286</a>.</p>
+
+<h5>HABITATION, including HOUSE, LODGE, TIPI, WIGWAM.</h5>
+
+<h5>&mdash;&mdash; HOUSE.</h5>
+
+<p>The hand half open and the forefinger extended and separated; then
+raise the hand upward and give it a half turn, as if screwing something.
+(<i>Dunbar</i>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>[pg 428]</span>
+
+<p>Cross the ends of the extended fingers of the two hands, the hands to
+be nearly at right angle, radial side up, palms inward and backward,
+thumbs in palms. Represents the logs at the end of a log house. (<i>Creel</i>;
+<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Partly fold the hands; the fingers extended in imitation of the corner
+of an ordinary log house. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands outspread near each other, elevated to front of face; suddenly
+separated, turned at right angles, palms facing; brought down
+at right angles, suddenly stopped. Representing square form of a
+house. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>The fingers of both hands extended and slightly separated, then those
+of the right are placed into the several spaces between those of the left,
+the tips extending to about the first joints. (<i>Absaroka</i> I.) "From
+the arrangement of the logs in a log building."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands extended, fingers spread, place those of the right into the
+spaces between those of the left, then move the hands in this position a
+short distance upward. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.) "Arrangement of logs and
+elevation."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig253.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig253.png" alt="Log house. Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 253.</div>
+
+<p>Both hands are held edgewise before the body, palms facing, spread
+the fingers, and place those of one hand into the spaces between those
+of the other, so that the tips of each protrude about an inch
+beyond. (<i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Arikara</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "The arrangement of logs in a frontier
+house." Fig. 253. In connection with this sign compare the
+pictograph, Fig. 204, page <a href="#page379">379</a>, <i>supra</i>. In ordinary conversation
+the sign for <i>white man's house</i> is often dropped, using instead
+the generic term employed for <i>lodge</i>, and this in turn is
+often abbreviated, as by the Kaiowas, Comanches, Wichitas,
+and others, by merely placing the tips of the extended forefingers
+together, leaving the other fingers and thumbs closed, with the
+wrists about three or four inches apart.</p>
+
+<p>Both hands held pointing forward, edges down, fingers extended and
+slightly separated, then place the fingers of one hand into the spaces
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>[pg 429]</span>
+between the fingers of the other, allowing the tips of the fingers of
+either
+hand to protrude as far as the first joint, or near it. (<i>Shoshoni and
+Banak</i> I.) "From the appearance of a corner of a log
+house&mdash;protruding and alternate layers of logs."</p>
+
+<p>Fingers of both hands interlaced at right angles several times; then
+the sign for <span class="sc">Lodge</span>. (<i>Kutchin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Draw the outlines of a house in the air with hands tip to tip at a right
+angle. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Put the open hands together toward the face, forming a right angle
+with the arms. (<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Stone; Fort.</p>
+
+<p>Strike the back of the right fist against the palm of the left hand, the
+left palm backward, the fist upright ("idea of resistance or strength");
+then with both hands opened, relaxed, horizontal, and palms backward,
+place the ends of the right fingers behind and against the ends of the
+left; then separate them, and moving them backward, each through a
+semicircle, bring their bases together. The latter sign is also that of
+the Arapahos for <i>house</i>. An inclosure. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) The first
+part of
+this sign is that for <i>stone</i>.</p>
+
+<h5>&mdash;&mdash; LODGE, TIPI, WIGWAM.</h5>
+
+<p>The two hands are reared together in the form of the roof of a house,
+the ends of the fingers upward. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the opened thumb and forefinger of each hand opposite each
+other, as if to make a circle, but leaving between them a small interval;
+afterward move them from above downward simultaneously (which is
+the sign for <i>village</i>); then elevate the finger to indicate the
+number&mdash;one.
+(<i>Wied</i>.) Probably he refers to an earthen lodge. I think that the
+sign I have given you is nearly the same with all the Upper Missouri
+Indians. (<i>Matthews</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the fingers of both hands ridge-fashion before the breast.
+(<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Indicate outlines (an inverted V, thus ^),
+with the forefingers touching
+or crossed at the tips, the other fingers closed. (<i>Creel</i>; <i>Arapaho</i>
+I.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands open, fingers upward, tips touching, brought downward,
+and at same time separated to describe outline of a cone, suddenly
+stopped. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands approximated, held forward horizontally, fingers joined
+and slightly arched, backs upward, withdraw them in a sideward and
+downward direction, each hand moving to its corresponding side, thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>[pg 430]</span>
+combinedly describing a hemisphere. Carry up the right and, with its
+index pointing downward indicate a spiral line rising upward from the
+center of the previously formed arch. (<i>Ojibwa</i> V.) "From the
+dome-shaped form of the wigwam, and the smoke rising from the opening
+in the roof."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands flat and extended, placing the tips of the fingers of one
+against those of the other, leaving the palms or wrists about four inches
+apart. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Wyandot</i> I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i>
+I.) "From its exterior outline."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands carried to the front of the breast and placed V-shaped,
+inverted, thus ^, with the palms, looking toward each other, edge of
+fingers outward, thumbs inward. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "From the outline of
+the tipi."</p>
+
+<p>With the hands nearly upright, palms inward, cross the ends of the
+extended forefingers, the right one either in front or behind the left, or
+lay the ends together; resting the ends of
+the thumbs together side by side, the other
+fingers to be nearly closed, and resting
+against each other, palms inward. Represents
+the tipi poles and the profile of
+the tipi. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig254.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig254.png" alt="Lodge. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 254.</div>
+
+<p>Place the tips of the fingers of both
+hands together in front of the breast, with the wrists some distance
+apart. (<i>Dakota</i> V.) Fig. 254.</p>
+
+<p>Fingers of both hands extended and separated; then interlace them
+so that the tips of the fingers of one hand protrude beyond the backs of
+those of the opposing one; hold the hands in front of the breast, pointing
+upward, leaving the wrists about six inches apart. (<i>Dakota</i> VII,
+VIII;
+<i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Arikara</i> I; <i>Pani</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The extended hands, with finger tips upward and touching, the palms
+facing one another, and the wrists about two inches apart, are held
+before the chest. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the tip of the index against the tip of the forefinger of the left
+hand, the remaining fingers and thumbs closed, before the chest, leaving
+the wrists about six inches apart. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i>
+II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "Outline of lodge." This is an abbreviated sign,
+and care must be taken to distinguish it from <i>to meet</i>, in which the
+fingers are brought from their respective sides instead of upward to form the
+gesture.</p>
+
+<p>Another: Place the tips of the fingers of the flat extended hands together
+before the breast, leaving the wrists about six inches apart.
+(<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>[pg 431]</span>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig255.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig255.png" alt="Lodge. Kaiowa, etc." /></a>Fig. 255.</div>
+
+<p>Another: Both hands flat and extended, fingers slightly separated;
+then place the fingers of the right hand between the fingers of the left
+as far as the second joints, so that the fingers of
+one hand protrude about an inch beyond those of
+the other; the wrists must be held about six inches
+apart. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.) "Outline of Indian lodge and crossing
+of tent-poles above the covering." Fig. 255.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig256.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig256.png" alt="Lodge. Sahaptin" /></a>Fig. 256.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 256 represents a Sahaptin sign given to the
+writer by a gentleman long familiar with the northwestern
+tribes of Indians. The conception is the same union of the
+lodge poles at the top, shown in several other signs, differently executed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig258.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig258.png" alt="Lodge. Pai-Ute" /></a>Fig. 258.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:35%;"><a href="images/fig257.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig257.png" alt="Lodge. Pai-Ute" /></a>Fig. 257.</div>
+
+<p>Place the tips of the spread fingers of both hands against one another
+pointing upward before the body, leaving a space of from four to six
+inches between the wrists. Fig. 257.
+The fingers are sometimes bent so as
+to more nearly represent the outline of
+a house and roof. Fig. 258. This,
+however, is accidental. (<i>Pai-Ute</i> I.)
+"Represents the boughs and branches used in the construction of a Pai-Ute
+'wik-i-up.'"</p>
+
+<p>Place the tips of the two flat hands together before the body, leaving
+a space of about six inches between the wrists.
+(<i>Ute</i> I.) "Outline of the shape of the lodge."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig259.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig259.png" alt="Lodge. Kutchin" /></a>Fig. 259.</div>
+
+<p>Left hand and right
+hand put together in shape
+of sloping shelter (<i>Kutchin</i>
+I.) Fig. 259.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Great Council House.</p>
+
+<p>Place both flat and extended hands in front of the shoulders, pointing
+forward, palms facing; then pass them straight upward and slightly inward
+near the termination of the gesture. This appears to combine the
+gestures for <i>much</i>, <i>large</i>, and <i>lodge</i>. (<i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Coming or going out of a.</p>
+
+<p>Same as the sign for <i>entering a lodge</i>, only the fingers of the right
+hand point obliquely upward after passing under the left hand.
+(<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Coming out from under cover."</p>
+
+<p>Hold the open left hand a foot or eighteen inches in front of the
+breast, palm downward or backward, fingers pointing toward the right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>[pg 432]</span>
+and pass the right, back upward, with index extended, or all of the fingers
+extended, and pointing forward, about eighteen inches forward underneath
+the left through an arc from near the mouth. Some at the same
+time move the left hand toward the breast. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Entering a.</p>
+
+<p>The left hand is held with the back upward, and the right hand also
+with the back up is passed in a curvilinear direction down under the
+other, so as to rub against its palm, then up on the other side of it. The
+left hand here represents the low door of the skin lodge and the right
+the man stooping down to pass in, (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right hand in short curves under the left, which is held
+a short distance forward. (<i>Wied</i>.) I have described the same sign. It
+is not necessary to pass the hand more than once. By saying curves, he
+seems to imply many passes. If the hand is passed more than once it
+means repetition of the act. (<i>Matthews; McChesney</i>.) The conception
+is
+of the stooping to pass through the low entrance, which is often covered
+by a flap of skin, sometimes stretched on a frame, and which must be
+shoved aside, and the subsequent rising when the entrance has been
+accomplished.
+A distinction is reported by a correspondent as follows:
+"If the intention is to speak of a person entering the gesturer's own
+lodge, the right hand is passed under the left and toward the body, near
+which the left hand is held; if of a person entering the lodge of another,
+the left hand is held further from the body and the right is passed under
+it and outward. In both cases both hands are slightly curved and
+compressed."
+As no such distinction is reported by others it may be an
+individual invention or peculiarity.</p>
+
+<p>A gliding movement of the extended hand, fingers joined, backs up,
+downward, then ascending, indicative of the stooping and resumption
+of the upright position in entering the same. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>(1) Sign for <span class="sc">Lodge</span>, the left hand being still in position used in making
+sign for <span class="sc">Lodge</span>; (2) forefinger and thumb of right hand brought
+to a point and thrust through the outline of an imaginary lodge represented
+by the left hand. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>First make the sign for <span class="sc">Lodge</span>, then place the left hand, horizontal
+and slightly arched, before the body, and pass the right hand with extended
+index underneath the left&mdash;forward and slightly upward beyond
+it. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Dakota</i> V; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I;
+<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Left hand (W), ends of fingers toward the right, stationary in front
+of the left breast; pass the right hand directly and quickly out from
+the breast under the stationary left hand, ending with the extended
+fingers of the right hand pointing outward and slightly downward,
+joined, palm downward flat, horizontal (W). (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Gone under;
+covered."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>[pg 433]</span>
+
+<p>Hold the open left hand a foot or eighteen inches in front of the
+breast, palm downward or backward, fingers pointing toward the right,
+and pass the right hand, palm upward, fingers bent sidewise and
+pointing backward, from before backward underneath it, through a
+curve until near the mouth. Some at the same time move the left hand
+a little forward. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>The left hand, palm downward, finger-tips forward, either quite extended
+or with the fingers slightly bent, is held before the body. Then
+the right hand nearly or quite extended, palm downward, finger-tips
+near the left thumb, and pointing toward it, is passed transversely
+under the left hand and one to four inches below it. The fingers of the
+right hand point slightly upward when the motion is completed. This
+sign usually, but not invariably, refers to entering a house. (<i>Mandan
+and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the slightly curved left hand, palm down, before the breast,
+pointing to the right, then pass the flat right hand, palm down, in a
+short curve forward, under and upward beyond the left. (<i>Ute</i> I.)
+"Evidently
+from the manner in which a person is obliged to stoop in entering
+an ordinary Indian lodge."</p>
+
+<h5>HORSE.</h5>
+
+<p>The right hand with the edge downward, the fingers joined, the
+thumb recumbent, extended forward. (<i>Dunbar</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the index and middle finger of the right hand astraddle the
+index finger of the left. [In the original the expression "third" finger
+is used, but it is ascertained in another connection that the author counts
+the thumb as the first finger and always means what is generally styled
+middle finger when he says third. The alteration is made to prevent
+confusion.]
+(<i>Wied</i>.) I have described this sign in words to the same effect.
+(<i>Matthews</i>.) The right arm is raised, and the hand, opened edgewise,
+with
+fingers parallel and approximated, is drawn from left to right before the
+body at the supposed height of the animal. There is no conceivable
+identity in the execution of this sign and <i>Wied's</i>, but his sign for
+<i>horse</i> is
+nearly identical with the sign for <i>ride a horse</i> among the Otos.
+(<i>Boteler</i>.)
+This sign is still used by the Cheyennes. (<i>Dodge</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>A hand passed across the forehead. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Left-hand thumb and forefinger straightened out, held to the level of
+and in front of the breast; right-hand forefinger separated from the
+middle finger and thrown across the left hand to imitate the act of
+bestriding. They appear to have no other conception of a horse, and
+have thus indicated that they have known it only as an animal to be
+ridden. (<i>Creel</i>; <i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>[pg 434]</span>
+
+<p>Draw the right hand from left to right across the body about the
+heart, the fingers all closed except the index. This is abbreviated by
+making a circular sweep of the right open hand from about the left
+elbow to the front of the body, probably indicating the mane. A Pani
+sign. (<i>Cheyenne</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the first two fingers of the right hand, thumb extended (N 1),
+downward, astraddle the first two joined and straight fingers of the
+left hand (T 1), sidewise to the right. Many Sioux Indians use only the
+forefinger straightened. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Horse mounted."</p>
+
+<p>The first and second fingers extended and separated, remaining fingers
+and thumb closed; left forefinger extended, horizontal, remaining fingers
+and thumb closed; place the right-hand fingers astride of the forefinger
+of the left, and both hands jerked together, up and down, to represent
+the motion of a horse. (<i>Dakota</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>The two hands being clinched and near together, palms downward,
+thumbs against the forefingers, throw them, each alternately, forward
+and backward about a foot, through an ellipsis two or three times, from
+about six inches in front of the chest, to imitate the galloping of a
+horse,
+or the hands may be held forward and not moved. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig260.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig260.png" alt="Horse. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 260.</div>
+
+<p>Place the extended and separated index and second fingers of the
+right hand astraddle of the extended forefinger of the left.
+Fig. 260. Sometimes all the fingers of the left hand are extended
+in making this sign, as in Fig. 261, though this may
+be the result of carelessness.
+(<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII, VIII; <i>Hidatsa</i> I;
+<i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Arikara</i> I; <i>Pani</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig261.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig261.png" alt="Horse. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 261.</div>
+
+<p>The left hand is before the chest, back upward in the position
+of an index-hand pointing forward; then the first and second fingers
+of the right hand only being extended, separated and pointing downward,
+are set one on each side of the left forefinger, the interdigital
+space resting on the forefinger. The palm faces downward and backward.
+This represents a rider astride of a horse. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Close hands, except forefingers, which are curved downward; move
+them forward in rotation, imitating the fore feet of the horse, and make
+puffing sound of "Uh, uh"! (<i>Omaha</i> I.) "This sign represents the
+horse racing off to a safe distance, and puffing as he tosses his head."</p>
+
+<p>The arm is flexed and the hand extended is brought on a level
+with the mouth. The hand then assumes the position (W 1), modified
+by being held edges up and down, palm toward the chest, instead of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>[pg 435]</span>
+flat. The arm and hand being held thus about the usual height of a
+horse are made to pass in an undulating manner across the face or body
+about one foot distant from contact. The latter movements are to resemble
+the animal's gait. (<i>Oto</i> I.) "Height of animal and movement of same."</p>
+
+<p>The index and second fingers of the right hand are placed astraddle
+the extended forefinger of the left. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig262.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig262.png" alt="Horse. Kaiowa, etc." /></a>Fig. 262.</div>
+
+<p>Place the flat right hand, thumb down, edgewise before the right side
+of the shoulder, pointing toward the right. (<i>Kaiowa</i>
+I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) Fig. 262.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig263.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig263.png" alt="Horse. Caddo" /></a>Fig. 263.</div>
+
+<p>Another: Hold the right hand flat, extended, with fingers
+joined, the thumb extended upward,
+then pass the hand at arm's length before the face from left to
+right. This is said by the authorities cited below to be also the Caddo
+sign, and that the other tribes mentioned originally obtained it from
+that tribe. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> I, III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.) Fig. 263.</p>
+
+<p>Another: Place the extended and separated index and second fingers
+astraddle the extended and horizontal forefinger of the left hand. This
+sign is only used when communicating with uninstructed white men, or
+with other Indians whose sign for horse is specifically distinct.
+(<i>Kaiowa</i>
+I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig264.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig264.png" alt="Horse. Pima and Papago" /></a>Fig. 264.</div>
+
+<p>Place the extended index and second fingers of the right hand across
+the extended first two fingers of the left. Fig. 264.
+Size of the animal is indicated by passing the right hand, palm down,
+with fingers loosely separated, forward from the right side, at any
+height as the case may necessitate, after which the sign for <span class="sc">Horse</span> may
+be made. (<i>Pima and Papago</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig265.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig265.png" alt="Horse. Ute" /></a>Fig. 265.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig266.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig266.png" alt="Horse. Ute" /></a>Fig. 266.</div>
+
+<p>Place the right hand, palm down, before the right side of the chest;
+place the tips of the second and third fingers against the ball of the
+thumb, allowing the index and little fingers to project
+to represent the ears. Fig. 265. Frequently the middle
+fingers extend equally with and against the thumb, forming
+the head of the animal, the ears always being represented
+by the two outer fingers, viz, the index and little
+finger. Fig. 266. (<i>Ute</i> I.) A similar sign is reported
+by Colonel Dodge as used by the Utes.</p>
+
+<p>Elevate the right hand, extended, with fingers joined, outer edge
+toward the ground, in front of the body or right shoulder, and pointing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>[pg 436]</span>
+forward, resting the curved thumb against the palmar side of the index.
+This sign appears also to signify <i>animal</i> generically, being
+frequently
+employed as a preliminary sign when denoting other species. (<i>Apache</i>
+I.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Imitate the motion of the elbows of a man on horseback. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Act in the manner of a driver, holding the lines in his hands and
+shouting to the horse. (<i>Cross</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Move the hands several times as if to hold the reins. (<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>The French deaf-mutes add to the straddling of the index the motion
+of a trot. American deaf-mutes indicate the ears by placing two fingers
+of each hand on each side of the head and moving them backward and
+forward. This is sometimes followed by straddling the left hand by the
+fore and middle fingers of the right.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, A man on a.</p>
+
+<p>Same sign as for <span class="sc">Horse</span>, with the addition of erecting the thumb
+while making the gesture. (<i>Dodge</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Bay.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Horse</span>, and then rub the lower part of the cheek
+back and forth. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Black.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Horse</span>, and then, point to a black object or rub
+the back of the left hand with the palmar side of the fingers of the
+right. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Bronco. An untamed horse.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign <span class="sc">To Ride</span> by placing the extended and separated index
+and second fingers of the right hand astraddle the extended forefinger
+of the left hand, then with both hands retained in their relative positions
+move them forward in high arches to show the bucking of the
+animal. (<i>Ute</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Grazing of a.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Horse</span>, then lower the hand and pass it from side
+to side as if dipping it upon the surface. (<i>Ute</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Packing a.</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand, pointing forward, palm inward, a foot in front of
+the chest and lay the opened right hand, pointing forward, first obliquely
+along the right side of the upper edge of the left hand, then on top, and
+then obliquely along the left side. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Racing, Fast horse.</p>
+
+<p>The right arm is elevated and bent at right angle before the face; the
+hand, in position (S 1) modified by being horizontal, palm to the face,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>[pg 437]</span>
+is drawn across edgewise in front of the face. The hand is then closed
+and in position (B) approaches the mouth from which it is opened and
+closed successively forward several times, finally it is suddenly thrust
+out in position (W 1) back concave. (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I.) "Is
+expressed
+in the (<i>Oto</i> I) sign for <span class="sc">Horse</span>, then the motion for quick running."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Racing.</p>
+
+<p>Extend the two forefingers and after placing them parallel near
+together in front of the chest, backs upward, push them rapidly forward
+about a foot. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Place both hands, with the forefingers only extended and pointing
+forward side by side with the palms down, before the body; then push
+them alternately backward and forward, in imitation of the movement
+of horses who are running "neck and neck." (<i>Ute</i> I; <i>Apache</i> I,
+II.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Saddling a.</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand as in the sign for <span class="sc">Horse</span>, <i>Packing a</i>, and lay the
+semiflexed right hand across its upper edge two or three times, the ends
+of the right fingers toward the left. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig267.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig267.png" alt="Saddling a horse. Ute" /></a>Fig. 267.</div>
+
+<p>Place the extended and separated fingers rapidly
+with a slapping sound astraddle the extended fore
+and second fingers of the left hand. The sound is
+produced by the palm of the right hand which comes
+in contact with the upper surface of the left. (<i>Ute</i> I.) Fig. 267.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Spotted; pied.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Horse</span>, then the sign for <span class="sc">Spotted</span>, see page <a href="#page345">345</a>.
+(<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<h5>KILL, KILLING.</h5>
+
+<p>The hands are held with the edge upward, and the right hand strikes
+the other transversely, as in the act of chopping. This sign seems to be
+more particularly applicable to convey the idea of death produced by
+a blow of the tomahawk or war-club. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Clinch the hand and strike from above downward. (<i>Wied</i>.) I do not
+remember this. I have given you the sign for killing with a stroke.
+(<i>Matthews</i>.) There is an evident similarity in conception and
+execution
+between the (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I) sign and <i>Wied's</i>.
+(<i>Boteler</i>.) I have
+frequently seen this sign made by the Arikara, Gros Ventre, and Mandan
+Indians at Fort Berthold Agency. (<i>McChesney</i>.) This motion,
+which maybe more clearly expressed as the downward thrust of a knife
+held in the clinched hand, is still used by many tribes for the general
+idea of "kill," and illustrates the antiquity of the knife as a weapon.
+<i>Wied</i> does not say whether the clinched hand is thrust downward with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>[pg 438]</span>
+the edge or the knuckles forward. The latter is now the almost universal
+usage among the same tribes from which he is supposed to have
+taken his list of signs, and indicates the thrust of a knife more
+decisively
+than if the fist were moved with the edge in advance. The actual employment
+of arrow, gun, or club in taking life, is, however, often specified
+by appropriate gesture.</p>
+
+<p>Smite the sinister palm earthward with the dexter fist sharply, in sign
+of "going down"; or strike out with the dexter fist toward the ground,
+meaning to "shut down"; or pass the dexter under the left forefinger,
+meaning to "go under." (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand cast down. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the right fist, palm down, knuckles forward, and make a thrust
+forward and downward. (<i>Arapaho</i>
+II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Dakota</i> VI, VII,
+VIII; <i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Arikara</i>
+I; <i>Pani</i> I.) Fig. 268.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig268.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig268.png" alt="Kill. N.A. Indian" /></a>Fig. 268.</div>
+
+<p>Right hand clinched, thumb lying
+along the finger tips, elevated to near the shoulder,
+strike downward and out vaguely in the direction of
+the object to be killed. The abstract sign for <i>kill</i> is simply
+to clinch the right hand in the manner described and
+strike it down and out from the right side. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, extending the forefinger alone;
+point toward the breast, then throw from you forward, bringing the hand
+toward the ground. (<i>Ojibwa</i> V; <i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands clinched, with the thumbs resting against the middle joints
+of the forefingers, hold the left transversely in front of and as high as
+the breast, then push the right, palm down, quickly over and down in front
+of the left. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) "To force
+under&mdash;literally."</p>
+
+<p>With the dexter fist carried to the front of the body at the right side,
+strike downward and outward several times, with back of hand upward,
+thumb toward the left, several times. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Strike down."</p>
+
+<p>With the first and second joints of the fingers of the right hand bent,
+end of thumb against the middle of the index, palm downward, move
+the hand energetically forward and downward from a foot in front of the
+right breast. Striking with a stone&mdash;man's first weapon. (<i>Dakota</i>,
+IV.)</p>
+
+<p>The left hand, thumb up, back forward, not very rigidly extended, is
+held before the chest and struck in the palm with the outer edge of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>[pg 439]</span>
+right hand. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.) "To kill with a blow; to deal
+the death blow." Fig. 269.</p>
+
+<p>Right hand, fingers open but slightly curved, palm to the left; move
+downward, describing a curve. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig269.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig269.png" alt="Kill. Mandan and Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 269.</div>
+
+<p>Another: Similar to the last, but the index
+finger is extended, pointing in front of
+you, the other fingers but half open.
+(<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the flat right hand, palm down, at
+arm's length to the right, bring it quickly,
+horizontally, to the side of the head, then
+make the sign for <span class="sc">Dead</span>. (<i>Ojibwa</i> V; <i>Wyandot</i>
+I.) "To strike with a club, dead."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands, in positions (AA), with arms semiflexed toward the body,
+make the forward rotary sign with the clinched fists as in fighting; the
+right hand is then raised from the left outward, as clutching a knife
+with the blade pointing downward and inward toward the left fist; the
+left fist, being held <i>in situ</i>, is struck now by the right, edgewise
+as above
+described, and both suddenly fall together. (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I.)
+"To
+strike down in battle with a knife. Indians seldom disagree or kill
+another in times of tribal peace."</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Strike a blow in the air with the clinched fist, and then incline the
+head to one side, and lower the open hand, palm upward. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Strike the other hand with the fist, or point a gun, and, having shot,
+suddenly point to your breast with the finger, and hold your head sidewise
+on the hand. (<i>Cross</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Use the closed hand as if to strike, and then move back the head with
+the eyes shut and the mouth opened. (<i>Hasenstab</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Put the head down over the breast, and then move down the stretched
+hand along the neck. (<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Turkish sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Draw finger across the throat like cutting with a knife. (<i>Barnum</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; In battle, To.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Battle</span> by placing both hands at the height of the
+breast, palms facing, the left forward from the left shoulder, the right
+outward and forward from the right, fingers pointing up and spread,
+move them alternately toward and from one another; then strike the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>[pg 440]</span>
+back of the fingers of the right hand into the slightly curved palm of
+the left, immediately afterward throwing the right outward and downward
+toward the right. (<i>Ute</i> I.) "Killed and falling over."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; You; I will kill you.</p>
+
+<p>Direct the right hand toward the offender and spring the finger from
+the thumb, as in the act of sprinkling water. (<i>Long</i>.) The conception
+is perhaps "causing blood to flow," or, perhaps, "sputtering away the
+life," though there is a strong similarity to the motion used for the
+<i>discharge of a gun or arrow</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Remarks and illustrations connected with the signs for <i>kill</i> appear
+on pages <a href="#page377">377</a> and <a href="#page378">378</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, to, with a knife.</p>
+
+<p>Clinch the right hand and strike forcibly toward the ground before
+the breast from the height of the face. (<i>Ute</i> I.) "Appears to have
+originated when flint knives were still used."</p>
+
+<h5>NO, NOT. (Compare <span class="sc">Nothing</span>.)</h5>
+
+<p>The hand held up before the face, with the palm outward and vibrated
+to and fro. (<i>Dunbar</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The right hand waved outward to the right with the thumb upward.
+(<i>Long</i>; <i>Creel</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Wave the right hand quickly by and in front of the face toward the
+right. (<i>Wied</i>.) Refusing to accept the idea or statement presented.</p>
+
+<p>Move the hand from right to left, as if motioning away. This sign
+also means "I'll have nothing to do with you." (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>A deprecatory wave of the right hand from front to right, fingers
+extended and joined. (<i>Arapaho</i> I; <i>Cheyenne</i> V.)</p>
+
+<p>Right-hand fingers extended together, side of hand in front of and
+facing the face, in front of the mouth and waved suddenly to the right.
+(<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the right hand extended before the body, fingers pointing upward,
+palm to the front, then throw the hand outward to the right, and
+slightly downward. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Arikara</i> I.)
+See Fig. 65, page <a href="#page290">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The right hand, horizontal, palm toward the left, is pushed sidewise
+outward and toward the right from in front of the left breast. <i>No,
+none, I have none</i>, etc., are all expressed by this sign. Often these
+Indians
+for <i>no</i> will simply shake the head to the right and left. This
+sign, although it may have originally been introduced from the white
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>[pg 441]</span>
+people's habit of shaking the head to express "no," has been in use among
+them for as long as the oldest people can remember, yet they do not use
+the variant to express "yes." (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Dismissing the idea,
+etc."</p>
+
+<p>Place the opened relaxed right hand, pointing toward the left, back
+forward, in front of the nose or as low as the breast, and throw it forward
+and outward about eighteen inches. Some at the same time turn
+the palm upward. Or make the sign at the height of the breast with
+both hands. Represents the shaking of the head. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) The
+shaking of the head in negation is not so universal or "natural" as is
+popularly supposed, for the ancient Greeks, followed by the modern
+Turks and rustic Italians, threw the head back, instead of shaking it,
+for "no." Rabelais makes Pantagruel (Book 3) show by many quotations
+from the ancients how the shaking of the head was a frequent if not
+universal concomitant of oracular utterance&mdash;not connected with negation.</p>
+
+<p>Hold the flat hand edgewise, pointing upward before the right side of
+the chest, then throw it outward and
+downward to the right. (<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII.) Fig. 270.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig270.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig270.png" alt="Negation. No. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 270.</div>
+
+<p>The hand, extended or slightly curved, is held in front of the body a
+little to the right of the median line; it is then carried with a rapid sweep
+a foot or more farther to the right. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the hand as in <i>yes</i>, as follows: The hand open, palm downward,
+at the level of the breast, is moved forward with a quick downward
+motion from the wrist, imitating
+a bow of the head; then move it from side to side. (<i>Iroquois</i> I.)
+"A shake of the head."</p>
+
+<p>Throw the flat right hand forward and outward to the right, palm to
+the front. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Quick motion of open hand from the mouth forward, palm toward the
+mouth. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place hand in front of body, fingers relaxed, palm toward body (Y 1),
+then with easy motion move to a point, say, a foot from the body, a little
+to right, fingers same, but palm upward. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.) "We don't
+agree." To express <i>All gone</i>, use a similar motion with both hands.
+"Empty."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>[pg 442]</span>
+
+<p>The hand waved outward with the thumb upward in a semi-curve.
+(<i>Comanche</i> I; <i>Wichita</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Elevate the extended index and wave it quickly from side to side
+before the face. This is sometimes accompanied by shaking
+the head. (<i>Pai-Ute</i> I.) Fig. 271.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig271.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig271.png" alt="Negation. No. Pai-Ute" /></a>Fig. 271.</div>
+
+<p>Extend the index, holding it vertically before the face,
+remaining fingers and thumb closed; pass the finger
+quickly from side to side a foot or so before the face.
+(<i>Apache</i> I.) This sign, as also that of (<i>Pai-Ute</i> I), is
+substantially
+the same as that with the same significance
+reported from Naples by De Jorio.</p>
+
+<p>Another: The right hand, naturally relaxed, is thrown
+outward and forward toward the right. (<i>Apache</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Wave extended index before the face from side to side. (<i>Apache</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Wave the index briskly before the right shoulder. This
+appears to be more common than the preceding. (<i>Apache</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand extended at the height of the eye, palm outward, then
+moved outward a little toward the right. (<i>Kutchin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Extend the palm of the right hand horizontally a foot from the waist,
+palm downward, then suddenly throw it half over from the body, as if
+tossing a chip from the back of the hand. (<i>Wichita</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Shake the head. (<i>Ballard.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Move both hands from each other, and, at the same time, shake the
+head. (<i>Hasenstab.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>French deaf-mutes wave the hand to the right and downward, with
+the first and second fingers joined and extended, the other fingers closed.
+This position of the fingers is that for the letter N in the finger
+alphabet,
+the initial for the word <i>non</i>. American deaf-mutes for emphatic
+negative wave the right hand before the face.</p>
+
+<p><i>Turkish sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Throwing head back or elevating the chin and partly shutting the
+eyes. This also means, "Be silent." (<i>Barnum.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><i>Japanese sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Move the right hand rapidly back and forth before the face. Communicated
+in a letter from Prof. <span class="sc">E.S. Morse</span>, late of the University of
+Tokio, Japan. The same correspondent mentions that the Admiralty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>[pg 443]</span>
+Islanders pass the forefinger across the face, striking the nose in
+passing,
+for negation. If the <i>no</i> is a doubtful one they <i>rub</i> the nose
+in passing, a gesture common elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>For further illustrations and comparisons see pp. <a href="#page290">290</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a>,
+<a href="#page355">355</a>, and <a href="#page356">356</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<h5>NONE, NOTHING; I HAVE NONE.</h5>
+
+<p>Motion of rubbing out. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Little</i> or <i>nothing</i> is signified by passing one hand over the
+other. (<i>Creel</i>; <i>Ojibwa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>May be signified by smartly brushing the right hand across the left
+from the wrist toward the fingers, both hands extended, palms toward
+each other and fingers joined. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Is included in <i>gone, destroyed. (Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the open left hand about a foot in front of the navel, pointing
+obliquely forward toward the right, palm obliquely upward and
+backward, and sweep the palm of the open right hand over it and about
+a foot forward and to the right through a curve. All bare. (<i>Dakota</i>
+IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Pass the ulnar side of the right index along the left index
+several times from tip to base, while pronating and supinating the latter.
+Some roll the right index over on its back as they move it along the
+left. The hands are to be in front of the navel, backs forward and outward,
+the left index straight and pointing forward toward the right, the
+right index straight and pointing forward and toward the left; the other
+fingers loosely closed. Represents a bush bare of limbs. (<i>Dakota</i>
+IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: With the light hand pointing obliquely forward to the left,
+the left forward to the right, palms upward, move
+them alternately several times up and down,
+each time striking the ends of the fingers. Or,
+the left hand being in the above position, rub
+the right palm in a circle on the left two or three
+times, and then move it forward and to the right.
+Rubbed out; that is all; it is all gone. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the palm of the flat right hand over
+the left from the wrist toward and off of the tips
+of the fingers. (<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII, VIII; <i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i>
+I.) Fig. 272.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig272.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig272.png" alt="None. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 272.</div>
+
+<p>Brush the palm of the left hand from wrist to finger tips with the
+palm of the right. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>[pg 444]</span>
+
+<p>Another: Throw both hands outward toward their respective sides
+from the breast. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right palm over the palm of the left hand from the wrist
+forward over the fingers. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "Wiped out."</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand open, with the palm upward, at the height of the
+elbow and before the body; pass the right quickly over the left, palms
+touching, from the wrist toward the tips of the left, as if brushing off
+dust. (<i>Apache</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Place the hands near each other, palms downward, and move them
+over and apart, bringing the palms upward in opposite directions.
+(<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Make a motion as in picking up something between the thumb and
+finger, carry it to the lips, blow it away, and show the open hand.
+(<i>Wing</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Australian sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p><i>Pannie</i> (none or nothing). For instance, a native says <i>Bomako
+ingina</i> (give a tomahawk). I reply by shaking the hand,
+thumb, and all fingers, separated and loosely extended,
+palm down. (<i>Smyth</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>) Fig. 273.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig273.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig273.png" alt="None. Australian" /></a>Fig. 273.</div>
+
+<p><i>Turkish sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Blowing across open palm as though blowing off feathers; also means
+"Nothing, nothing left." (<i>Barnum</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, I have none.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Expressed by the signs for none, after pointing to one's self.
+(<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Stretch the tongue and move it to and fro like a pendulum, then
+shake the head as if to say "no." (<i>Ziegler</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Left. Exhausted for the present.</p>
+
+<p>Hold both hands naturally relaxed nearly at arm's length before the
+body, palms toward the face, move them alternately to and fro a few
+inches, allowing the fingers to strike those of the opposite hand each
+time as far as the second joint. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) Cleaned out.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>[pg 445]</span>
+
+<h5>QUANTITY, LARGE; MANY; MUCH.</h5>
+
+<p>The flat of the right hand patting the back of the left hand, which is
+repeated in proportion to the greater or lesser quantity. (<i>Dunbar</i>.)
+Simple repetition.</p>
+
+<p>The hands and arms are passed in a curvilinear direction outward and
+downward, as if showing the form of a large globe; then the hands are
+closed and elevated, as if something was grasped in each hand and held
+up about as high as the face. (<i>Long</i>; <i>Creel</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Clutch at the air several times with both hands. The motion greatly
+resembles those of danseuses playing the castanets. (<i>Ojibwa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>In the preceding signs the authorities have not distinguished between
+the ideas of "many" and "much." In the following there appears by
+the expressions of the authorities to be some distinction intended between
+a number of objects and a quantity in volume.</p>
+
+<h5>&mdash;&mdash; MANY.</h5>
+
+<p>A simultaneous movement of both hands, as if gathering or heaping
+up. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.) Literally "a heap."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands, with spread and slightly curved fingers, are held pendent
+about two feet apart before the thighs; then draw them toward one
+another, horizontally, drawing them upward as they come together.
+(<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I; <i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i>
+II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "An accumulation of objects."</p>
+
+<p>Hands about eighteen inches from the ground in front and about the
+same distance apart, held scoop-fashion, palms looting toward each
+other, fingers separated; then, with a diving motion, as if scooping
+up corn from the ground, bring the hands nearly together, with fingers
+nearly closed, as though holding the corn, and carry upward to the
+height of the breast, where the hands are turned over, fingers pointing
+downward, separated, as though the contents were allowed to drop to
+the ground. (<i>Dakota</i> I, II.)</p>
+
+<p>Open the fingers of both hands, and hold the two hands before the
+breast, with the fingers upward and a little apart, and the palms turned
+toward each other, as if grasping a number of things. (<i>Iroquois</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the hands on either side of and as high as the head, then open
+and close the fingers rapidly four or five times. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.)
+"Counting 'tens' an indefinite number of times."</p>
+
+<p>Clasp the hands effusively before the breast. (<i>Apache</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>;</p>
+
+<p>Put the fingers of the two hands together, tip to tip, and rub them
+with a rapid motion. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>[pg 446]</span>
+
+<p>Make a rapid movement of the fingers and thumbs of both hands
+upward and downward, and at the same time cause both lips to touch
+each other in rapid succession, and both eyes to be half opened.
+(<i>Hasenstab</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Move the fingers of both hands forward and backward. (<i>Ziegler</i>.)
+Add to <i>Ziegler's</i> sign: slightly opening and closing the hands.
+(<i>Wing</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Horses.</p>
+
+<p>Raise the right arm above the head, palm forward, and thrust forward
+forcibly on a line with the shoulder. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Persons, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Hands and fingers interlaced. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Take up a bunch of grass or a clod of earth; place it in the hand of
+the person addressed, who looks down upon it. (<i>Omaha</i> I.) "Represents
+as many or more than the particles contained in the mass."</p>
+
+<h5>&mdash;&mdash; MUCH.</h5>
+
+<p>Move both hands toward one another and slightly upward. (<i>Wied</i>.)
+I have seen this sign, but I think it is used only for articles that may be
+piled on the ground or formed into a heap. The sign most in use for the
+general idea of <i>much</i> or <i>many</i> I have given. (<i>Matthews</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Bring the hands up in front of the body with the fingers carefully
+kept distinct. (<i>Cheyenne</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands closed, brought up in a curved motion toward each other
+to the level of the neck or chin, (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands and arms are partly extended; each hand is then made to
+describe, simultaneously with the other, from the head downward, the
+arc of a circle curving outward. This is used for <i>large</i> in some
+senses. (<i>Ojibwa</i> V; <i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands flat and extended, placed before the breast, finger tips
+touching, palms down; then separate them by passing outward and
+downward as if smoothing the outer surface of a globe. (<i>Absaroka</i> I;
+<i>Shoshoni and Banack</i> I; <i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "A heap."</p>
+
+<p><i>Much</i> is included in <i>many</i> or <i>big</i>, as the case may
+require. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The hands, with fingers widely separated, slightly bent, pointing forward,
+and backs outward, are to be rapidly approximated through downward
+curves, from positions twelve to thirty-six inches apart, at the
+height of the navel, and quickly closed. Or the hands may be moved
+until the right is above the left. So much that it has to be gathered
+with both hands. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>[pg 447]</span>
+
+<p>Hands open, palms turned in, held about three feet apart and about
+two feet from the ground. Raise them about a foot, then bring in an
+upward curve toward each other. As they pass each other, palms down,
+the right hand is about three inches above the left. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place both hands flat and extended, thumbs touching, palms downward,
+in front of and as high as the face; then move them outward and
+downward a short distance toward their respective sides, thus describing
+the upper half of a circle. (<i>Wyandot</i> I.) "A heap."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands clinched, placed as high as and in front of the hips, palms
+facing opposite sides and about
+a foot apart, then bring them upward
+and inward, describing an
+arc, until the thumbs touch.
+(<i>Apache</i> I.) Fig. 274.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:55%;"><a href="images/fig274.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig274.png" alt="Much, quantity. Apache" /></a>Fig. 274.</div>
+
+<p>Sweep out both hands as if inclosing
+a large object; wave the
+hands forward and somewhat upward. (<i>Apache</i> III.) "Suggesting
+immensity."</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>The French deaf-mutes place the two hands, with fingers united and
+extended in a slight curve, nearly together, left above right, in front of
+the body, and then raise the left in a direct line above the right, thus
+suggesting the idea of a large and slightly-rounded object being held
+between the two palms.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; And heavy.</p>
+
+<p>Hands open, palms turned in, held about three feet apart, and about
+two feet from the ground, raise them about a foot; close the fists, backs
+of hands down, as if lifting something heavy; then move a short distance
+up and down several times. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Remarks connected with the signs for <i>quantity</i> appear on pages <a href="#page291">291</a>,
+<a href="#page359">359</a>, and <a href="#page382">382</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<h5>QUESTION; INQUIRY; INTERROGATION.</h5>
+
+<p>The palm of the hand upward and carried circularly outward, and
+depressed. (<i>Dunbar</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The hand held up with the thumb near the face, and the palm directed
+toward the person of whom the inquiry is made; then rotated upon
+the wrist two or three times edgewise, to denote uncertainty. (<i>Long;
+Comanche</i> I; <i>Wichita</i> I.) The motion might be mistaken for the
+derisive,
+vulgar gesture called "taking a sight," "<i>donner un pied de nez</i>,"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>[pg 448]</span>
+descending to our small boys from antiquity. The separate motion of the
+fingers in the vulgar gesture as used in our eastern cities is, however,
+more nearly correlated with some of the Indian signs for <i>fool</i>, one
+of which is the same as that for <i>Kaiowa</i>, see <span class="sc">Tribal Signs</span>. It may be
+noted that the Latin "<i>sagax</i>," from which is derived "sagacity," was
+chiefly used to denote the keen scent of dogs, so there is a relation
+established between the nasal organ and wisdom or its absence, and that
+"<i>suspendere naso</i>" was a classic phrase for hoaxing. The Italian
+expressions
+"<i>restare con un palmo di naso</i>," "<i>con tanto di naso</i>," etc.,
+mentioned by the canon De Jorio, refer to the same vulgar gesture in
+which the face is supposed to be thrust forward sillily. Further remarks
+connected with this sign appear on pp. <a href="#page304">304</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Extend the open hand perpendicularly with the palm outward, and
+move it from side to side several times. (<i>Wied</i>.) This sign is still
+used. For "outward," however, I would substitute "forward." The
+hand is usually, but not always, held before the face. (<i>Matthews</i>.)
+This is not the sign for <i>question</i>, but is used to attract attention
+before commencing a conversation or any other time during the talk, when
+found necessary. (<i>McChesney</i>.) With due deference to Dr. McChesney,
+this is the sign for <i>question</i>, as used by many tribes, and
+especially Dakotas.
+The Prince of Wied probably intended to convey the motion of
+<i>forward, to the front</i>, when he said <i>outward</i>. In making the
+sign for
+<i>attention</i> the hand is held more nearly horizontal, and is directed
+toward the individual whose attention is desired. (<i>Hoffman</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand in front of right side of body, forearm horizontal, palm
+of hand to the left, fingers extended, joined and horizontal, thumb
+extending upward naturally, turn hand to the left about 60&#176;, then resume
+first position. Continue this motion for about two to four seconds,
+depending on earnestness of inquiry. (<i>Creel</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand, fingers pointing upward, palm outward, elevated to the
+level of the shoulder, extended toward the person addressed, and slightly
+shaken from side to side. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the elbow of the right arm against the side, extending the right
+hand, palm inward, with all the fingers straight joined, as far as may
+be, while the elbow remains fixed against the side; then turn the extended
+hand to the right and left, repeating this movement several
+times, being performed by the muscles of the arm. (<i>Sac, Fox, and
+Kickapoo</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the flat and extended right hand, palm forward, about twelve
+inches in front of and as high as the shoulder, then shake the hand from
+side to side as it is moved upward and forward. (<i>Apache</i> I.) See Fig.
+304, in <span class="sc">Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue</span>, p. <a href="#page486">486</a>. This may be compared
+with the ancient Greek sign, Fig. 67, and with the modern Neapolitan
+sign, Fig. 70, both of which are discussed on p. <a href="#page291">291</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>[pg 449]</span>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>A quick motion of the lips with an inquiring look. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>The French deaf-mutes for <i>inquiry</i>, "<i>qu'est-ce que c'est</i>?" bring the
+hands to the lower part of the chest, with open palms about a foot
+separate and diverging outward.</p>
+
+<p><i>Australian sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>One is a sort of note of interrogation. For instance, if I were to
+meet a native and make the sign: Hand flat, fingers and thumb extended,
+the two middle fingers touching, the two
+outer slightly separated from the middle by turning
+the hand palm upward as I met him, it would
+mean: "Where are you going?" In other words
+I should say "<i>Minna</i>?" (what name?). (<i>Smyth</i>.) Fig. 275.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig275.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig275.png" alt="Question. Australian" /></a>Fig. 275.</div>
+
+<p>Some comparisons and illustrations connected with the signs for
+<i>question</i> appear on pages <a href="#page291">291</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>, and <a href="#page303">303</a>, <i>supra</i>, and under
+<span class="sc">Phrases</span>,
+<i>infra</i>. Quintilian remarks upon this subject as follows: "In
+questioning,
+we do not compose our gesture after any single manner; the position
+of the hand, for the most part is to be changed, however disposed before."</p>
+
+<h5>SOLDIER.</h5>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, American.</p>
+
+<p>The upright nearly closed hands, thumbs against the middle of the
+forefingers, being in front of the body, with their thumbs near together,
+palms forward, separate them about two feet horizontally on the same
+line. All in a line in front. (<i>Cheyenne</i> III; <i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass each hand down the outer seam of the pants. (<i>Sac, Fox, and
+Kickapoo</i> I.) "Stripes."</p>
+
+<p>Sign for <span class="sc">White Man</span> as follows: The extended index (M turned inward)
+is drawn from the left side of the head around in front to the
+right side, about on a line with the brim of the hat, with the back of
+the hand outward; and then for <span class="sc">Fort</span>, viz, on level of the breasts in
+front of body, both hands with fingers turned inward, straight, backs
+joined, backs of hands outward, horizontal, turn outward the hands
+until the fingers are free, curve them, and bring the wrists together so
+as to describe a circle with a space left between the ends of the curved
+fingers. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "From his fortified place of abode."</p>
+
+<p>Another: Both hands in front of body, fists, backs outward, hands in
+contact, draw them apart on a straight line right to right, left to left
+about two feet, then draw the index, other fingers closed, across the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>[pg 450]</span>
+forehead above the eyebrows. This is the sign preferred by the Sioux.
+(<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Extend the fingers of the right hand; place the thumb on the same
+plane close beside them, and then bring the thumb side of the hand
+horizontally against the middle of the forehead, palm downward and
+little finger to the front. (<i>Dakota</i> II; <i>Ute</i> I.) "Visor of
+forage cap."</p>
+
+<p>First make the sign for <span class="sc">Soldier</span> substantially the same as (<i>Dakota</i>
+VI) below, then that for <span class="sc">White Man</span>, viz.: Draw the opened right hand
+horizontally
+from left to right across the forehead a little above the eyebrows,
+the back of the hand to be upward and the fingers pointing toward the
+left; or, close all the fingers except the index and draw it across the
+forehead in the same manner. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) For illustrations of other
+signs for white man see Figs 315 and 329, <i>infra</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/fig276.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig276.png" alt="Soldier. Dakota and Arikara" /></a>Fig. 276.</div>
+
+<p>Place the radial sides of the clinched hands together before the chest,
+then draw them horizontally apart. (<i>Dakota</i>
+VI; <i>Arikara</i> I.) "All in a line." Fig. 276.</p>
+
+<p>Put thumbs to temples, and forefingers forward, meeting in front, other
+fingers closed. (<i>Apache</i> III.) "Cap-visor."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Arikara.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Arikara</span> (see <span class="sc">Tribal Signs</span>) and that for <span class="sc">Brave</span>.
+(<i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Dakota.</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">Dakota</span> (see <span class="sc">Tribal Signs</span>) and that for <span class="sc">Soldier</span>.
+(<i>Dakota</i> VI.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Indian.</p>
+
+<p>Both fists before the body, palms down, thumbs touching, then draw
+them horizontally apart to the right and left. (<i>Arapaho</i> II;
+<i>Cheyenne</i> V;
+<i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i> I.) This is the same sign illustrated in Fig.
+276, above,
+as given by tribes there cited for <i>white</i> or <i>American</i> soldier.
+The
+tribes now cited use it for <i>a soldier</i> of the same tribe as the
+gesturer, or
+perhaps for <i>soldier</i> generically, as they subjoin a tribal sign or
+the sign
+for <i>white man</i>, when desiring to refer to any other than their own
+tribe.</p>
+
+<h5>TRADE or BARTER; EXCHANGE.</h5>
+
+<h5>&mdash;&mdash; TRADE.</h5>
+
+<p>First make the sign of <span class="sc">Exchange</span> (see below), then pat the left arm
+with the right finger, with a rapid motion from the hand passing it
+toward the shoulder. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>[pg 451]</span>
+
+<p>Strike the extended index finger of the right hand several times upon
+that of the left. (<i>Wied</i>.) I have described the same sign in
+different
+terms and at greater length. It is only necessary, however, to place
+the fingers in contact once. The person whom the prince saw making
+this sign may have meant to indicate something more than the simple
+idea of trade, <i>i.e.</i>, trade often or habitually. The idea of
+frequency is
+often conveyed by the repetition of a sign (as in some Indian languages
+by repetition of the root). Or the sign-maker may have repeated the
+sign to demonstrate it more clearly. (<i>Matthews</i>.) Though some
+difference
+exists in the motions executed in <i>Wied's</i> sign and that of (<i>Oto
+and Missouri</i> I), there is sufficient similarity to justify a probable
+identity
+of conception and to make them easily understood. (<i>Boteler</i>.) In the
+author's mind <i>exchange</i> was probably intended for one transaction, in
+which each of two articles took the place before occupied by the other,
+and <i>trade</i> was intended for a more general and systematic barter,
+indicated
+by the repetition of strokes. Such distinction would not perhaps
+have occurred to most observers, but as the older authorities, such as
+Long and Wied, give distinct signs under the separate titles of
+<i>trade</i> and
+<i>exchange</i> they must be credited with having some reason for so doing.
+A pictograph connected with this sign is shown on page <a href="#page381">381</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Cross the forefingers of both hands before the breast. (<i>Burton</i>.)
+"Diamond cut diamond." This conception of one smart trader cutting
+into the profits of another is a mistake arising from the rough resemblance
+of the sign to that for <i>cutting</i>. Captain Burton is right, however,
+in reporting that this sign for <i>trade</i> is also used for <i>white man</i>,
+<i>American</i>, and that the same Indians using it orally call white men
+"shwop," from the English or American word "swap" or "swop." This
+is a legacy from the early traders, the first white men met by the Western
+tribes, and the expression extends even to the Sahaptins on the
+Yakama River, where it appears incorporated in their language as
+<i>swiapoin</i>. It must have penetrated to them through the Shoshoni.</p>
+
+<p>Cross the index fingers. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Cross the forefingers at right angles. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Both hands, palms facing each other, forefingers extended, crossed
+right above left before the breast. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>The left hand, with forefinger extended, pointing toward the right
+(rest of fingers closed), horizontal, back outward, otherwise as (M), is
+held in front of left breast about a foot; and the right hand, with
+forefinger
+extended (J), in front of and near the right breast, is carried outward
+and struck over the top of the stationary left (+) crosswise, where
+it remains for a moment. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the extended left index about a foot in front of the breast, pointing
+obliquely forward toward the right, and lay the extended right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>[pg 452]</span>
+index at right angles across the left, first raising the right about a foot
+above the left, palms of both inward, other fingers half closed. This
+is also an Arapaho sign as well as Dakota. Yours is there and mine is
+there; take either. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig277.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig277.png" alt="Trade. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 277.</div>
+
+<p>Place the first two fingers of the right hand across those of the left,
+both being slightly spread. The hands
+are sometimes used, but are placed
+edgewise. (<i>Dakota</i> V.) Fig. 277.</p>
+
+<p>Another: The index of the right hand
+is laid across the forefinger of the left when the transaction includes but
+two persons trading single article for article. (<i>Dakota</i> V.)</p>
+
+<p>Strike the back of the extended index at a right angle against the
+radial side of the extended forefinger of
+the left hand. (<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII.) Fig.
+278.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig278.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig278.png" alt="Trade. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 278.</div>
+
+<p>The forefingers are extended, held obliquely
+upward, and crossed at right angles
+to one another, usually in front of the chest. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i>
+I.)</p>
+
+<p>Bring each hand as high as the breast, forefinger pointing up, the
+other fingers closed, then move quickly the right hand to the left, the
+left to the right, the forefingers making an acute angle as they cross.
+(<i>Omaha</i> I; <i>Ponka</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The palm point of the right index extended touches the chest; it is
+then turned toward the second individual interested, then touches the
+object. The arms are now drawn toward the body, semiflexed, with the
+hands, in type-positions (W W), crossed, the right superposed to the
+left. The individual then casts an interrogating glance at the second
+person. (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I.) "To cross something from one to
+another."</p>
+
+<p>Close the hands, except the index fingers and the thumbs; with them
+open, move the hands several times past one another at the height of
+the breast; the index fingers pointing upward and the thumbs outward.
+(<i>Iroquois</i> I.) "The movement indicates 'exchanging.'"</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand horizontally before the body, with the forefinger
+only extended and pointing to the right, palm downward; then, with
+the right hand closed, index only extended, palm to the right, place the
+index at right angles on the forefinger of the left, touching at the second
+joints. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the hands in front of the body, all the fingers closed except the
+forefingers. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>[pg 453]</span>
+
+<p>Close the fingers of both hands (K); bring them opposite each
+shoulder; then bring the hands across each other's pathway, without
+permitting them to touch. At the close of the sign the left hand will be
+near and pointing at the right shoulder; right hand will be near and
+pointing at the left shoulder. (<i>Comanche</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Close both hands, leaving the forefingers only extended; place the
+right before and several inches above the left, then pass the right hand
+toward the left elbow and the left hand toward the right elbow, each
+hand following the course made by a flourishing cut with a short sword.
+This sign, according to the informant, is also employed by the Banak
+and Umatilla Indians. (<i>Comanche</i> II; <i>Pai-Ute</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The forefingers of both hands only extended, pass the left from left to
+right, and the right at the same time crossing its course from the tip
+toward the wrist of the left, stopping when the wrists cross. (<i>Ute</i>
+I.) "Exchange of articles."</p>
+
+<p>Right hand carried across chest, hand extended, palm upward, fingers
+and thumb closed as if holding something; left hand, in same position,
+carried across the right, palm downward. (<i>Kutchin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Hands pronated and forefingers crossed. (<i>Zun&#x0304;i</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Close the hand slightly, as if taking something, and move it forward
+and open the hand as if to drop or give away the thing, and again close
+and withdraw the hand as if to take something else. (<i>Bollard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>American instructed deaf-mutes use substantially the sign described
+by (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I).</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; To buy.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig279.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig279.png" alt="Buy. Ute" /></a>Fig. 279.</div>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand about twelve inches before the breast, the thumb
+resting on the closed third and fourth
+fingers; the fore and second fingers
+separated and extended, palm toward
+the breast; then pass the extended
+index into the crotch formed by the
+separated fingers of the left hand. This
+is an invented sign, and was given to illustrate the difference between
+buying and trading. (<i>Ute</i> I.) Fig. 279.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Make a circle on the palm of the left hand with the forefinger of the
+right hand, to denote <i>coin</i>, and close the thumb and finger as if to
+take the money, and put the hand forward to signify giving it to some one,
+and move the hand a little apart from the place where it left the money,
+and then close and withdraw the hand, as if to take the thing purchased.
+(<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>[pg 454]</span>
+
+<p><i>Italian sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>To indicate paying, in the language of the fingers, one makes as
+though he put something, piece after piece, from one hand into the other&mdash;a
+gesture, however, far less expressive than that when a man lacks
+money, and yet cannot make up a face to beg it; or simply to indicate
+want of money, which is to rub together the thumb and forefinger, at
+the same time stretching out the hand. (<i>Butler</i>.) An illustration
+from
+De Jorio of the Neapolitan sign for <i>money</i> is given on page <a href="#page297">297</a>,
+<i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<h5>&mdash;&mdash; EXCHANGE.</h5>
+
+<p>The two forefingers are extended perpendicularly, and the hands are
+then passed by each other transversely in front of the breast so as nearly
+to exchange positions. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass both hands, with extended forefingers, across each other before
+the breast. (<i>Wied</i>.) See remarks on this author's sign for <span class="sc">Trade</span>,
+<i>supra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Hands brought up to front of breast, forefingers extended and other
+fingers slightly closed; hands suddenly drawn toward and past each
+other until forearms are crossed in front of breast. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)
+"Exchange;
+right hand exchanging position with the left."</p>
+
+<p>Left hand, with forefinger extended, others closed (M, except back of
+hand outward), is brought, arm extended, in front of the left breast, and
+the extended forefinger of the right hand, obliquely upward, others
+closed, is placed crosswise over the left and maintained in that position
+for a moment, when the fingers of the right hand are relaxed (as in Y),
+brought near the breast with hand horizontal, palm inward, and then
+carried out again in front of right breast twenty inches, with palm looking
+toward the left, fingers pointing forward, hand horizontal, and then
+the left hand performs the same movements on the left side of the body,
+(<i>Dakota</i> I.) "You give me, I give you."</p>
+
+<p>The hands, backs forward, are held as index hands, pointing upward,
+the elbows being fully bent; each hand is then, simultaneously with the
+other, moved to the opposite shoulder, so that the forearms cross one
+another almost at right angles. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>YES; AFFIRMATION; IT IS SO. (Compare <span class="sc">Good</span>.)</h5>
+
+<p>The motion is somewhat like <i>truth</i>, viz: The forefinger in the
+attitude
+of pointing, from the mouth forward in a line curving a little upward, the
+other fingers being carefully closed; but the finger is held rather more
+upright, and is passed nearly straightforward from opposite the breast,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>[pg 455]</span>
+and when at the end of its course it seems gently to strike something,
+though with rather a slow and not suddenly accelerated motion.
+(<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Wave the hand straight forward from the face. (<i>Burton</i>.) This may
+be compared with the forward nod common over most of the world for
+assent, but that gesture is not universal, as the New Zealanders elevate
+the head and chin, and the Turks are reported by several travelers to
+shake the head somewhat like our negative. Rev. H.N. Barnum denies
+that report, giving below the gesture observed by him. He, however,
+describes the Turkish gesture sign for <i>truth</i> to be "gently bowing
+with
+head inclined to the right." This sidewise inclination may be what has
+been called the shake of the head in affirmation.</p>
+
+<p>Another: Wave the hand from the mouth, extending the thumb from
+the index and closing the other three fingers. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Gesticulate vertically downward and in front of the body with the extended
+forefinger (right hand usually), the remaining fingers and thumb
+closed, their nails down. (<i>Creel</i>; <i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand elevated to the level and in front of the shoulder, two first
+fingers somewhat extended, thumb resting against the middle finger;
+sudden motion in a curve forward and downward. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.) It has
+been suggested that the correspondence between this gesture and the
+one given by the same gesturer for sitting (made by holding the right
+hand to one side, fingers and thumb drooping, and striking downward
+to the ground or object to be sat upon) seemingly indicates that the
+origin of the former is in connection with the idea of "resting," or
+"settling
+a question." It is however at least equally probable that the forward
+and downward curve is an abbreviation of the sign for <i>truth,
+true</i>, a typical description of which follows given by (<i>Dakota</i>
+I). The
+sign for <i>true</i> can often be interchanged with that for <i>yes</i>, in
+the same manner as the several words.</p>
+
+<p>The index of the horizontal hand (M), other fingers closed, is carried
+straight outward from the mouth. This is also the sign for <i>truth</i>.
+(<i>Dakota</i> I.) "But one tongue."</p>
+
+<p>Extend the right index, the thumb against it, nearly close the other
+fingers, and holding it about a foot in front of the right breast, bend
+the hand from the wrist downward until the end of the index has passed
+about six inches through an arc. Some at the same time move the hand
+forward a little. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) "A nod; the hand representing the
+head and the index the nose."</p>
+
+<p>Hold the naturally closed hand before the right side of the breast, or
+shoulder, leaving the index and thumb extended, then throw the hand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>[pg 456]</span>
+downward, bring the index against the inner side of the thumb.
+(<i>Dakota</i>
+VI, VII, VIII.) Fig. 280. Compare also Fig. 61, p. <a href="#page286">286</a>, <i>supra</i>,
+Quintilian's sign for approbation.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig280.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig280.png" alt="Yes, affirmation. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 280.</div>
+
+<p>The right hand, with the forefinger only extended
+and pointing forward, is held before and
+near the chest. It is then moved forward one or
+two feet, usually with a slight curve downward.
+(<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Bend the right arm, pointing toward the chest
+with the index finger; unbend, throwing the hand
+up and forward. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Close the three fingers, close the thumb over them, extend
+forefinger, and then shake forward and down. This is more emphatic
+than the preceding, and signifies, <i>Yes, I know</i>. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The right arm is raised to head with the index finger in type-position
+(I1), modified by being more opened. From aside the head the hands
+sweep in a curve to the right ear as of something entering or hearing
+something; the finger is then more open and carried direct to the ground
+as something emphatic or direct. (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I.) "'I hear,'
+emphatically
+symbolized." It is doubted if this sign is more than an expression
+of understanding which may or may not imply positive assent.
+It would not probably be used as a direct affirmative, for instance, in
+response to a question.</p>
+
+<p>The hand open, palm downward, at the level of the breast, is moved
+forward with a quick downward motion from the wrist, imitating a bow
+of the head. (<i>Iroquois</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Throw the closed right hand, with the index extended and bent, as
+high as the face, and let it drop again naturally; but as the hand reaches
+its greatest elevation the index is fully extended and suddenly drawn
+into the palm, the gesture resembling a beckoning from above toward
+the ground. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Quick motion of the right hand forward from the mouth; first position
+about six inches from the mouth and final as far again away. In first
+position the index finger is extended, the others closed; in final, the
+index loosely closed, thrown in that position as the hand is moved forward,
+as though hooking something with it; palm of hand out. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Move right hand to a position in front of the body, letting
+arm hang loosely at the side, the thumb standing alone, all fingers
+hooked except forefinger, which is partially extended (E 1, palm
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>[pg 457]</span>
+upward). The sign consists in moving the forefinger from its partially
+extended position to one similar to the others, as though making a sly
+motion for some one to come to you. This is done once each tune the
+assent is made. More emphatic than the preceding. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.) "We
+are together, think alike."</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Indicate by nodding the head. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>The French mutes unite the extremities of the index and thumb so as
+to form a circle and move the hand downward with back vertical and
+turned outward. It has been suggested in explanation that the circle
+formed and exhibited is merely the letter O, the initial of the word
+<i>oui</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fiji sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Assent is expressed, not by a downward nod as with ourselves, but
+by an upward nod; the head is jerked backward. Assent is also expressed
+by uplifting the eyebrows. (<i>Fison</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Turkish sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>One or two nods of the head forward. (<i>Barnum</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Other remarks and illustrations upon the signs for <i>yes</i> are given on
+page <a href="#page286">286</a>, <i>supra</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>[pg 458]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>TRIBAL SIGNS.</h2>
+
+
+<h5>ABSAROKA or CROW.</h5>
+
+<p>The hands held out each side, and striking the air in the manner of
+flying. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Imitate the flapping of the bird's wings with the two hands, palms
+downward, brought close to the shoulder. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Imitate the flapping of a bird's wings with the two hands, palms
+to the front and brought close to the shoulder. (<i>Creel</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the flat hand as high as and in front or to the side of the right
+shoulder, move it up and down, the motion occurring at the wrist. For
+more thorough representation both hands are sometimes employed.
+(<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Dakota</i> V, VI, VIII;
+<i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Pani</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)
+"Bird's wing."</p>
+
+<p>Both hands extended, with fingers joined (W), held near the shoulders,
+and flapped to represent the wings of a crow. (<i>Dakota</i> II, III.)</p>
+
+<p>At the height of the shoulders and a foot outward from them, move
+the upright hands forward and backward twice or three times from the
+wrist, palms forward, fingers and thumbs extended and separated a little;
+then place the back or the palm of the upright opened right hand
+against the upper part of the forehead; or half close the fingers,
+placing the end of the thumb against the ends of the fore and middle
+fingers, and then place the back of the hand against the forehead.
+This sign is also made by the Arapahos. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) "To imitate
+the flying of a bird, and also indicate the manner in which the
+Absaroka wear their hair."</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:55%;"><a href="images/fig281.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig281.png" alt="Absaroka tribal sign. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 281.</div>
+
+<p>Make with the arms the motion
+of flapping wings. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>The flat right hand, palm outward to the front and right, is held
+in front of the right shoulder, and quickly waved back and forth a
+few times. When made for the information of one ignorant of the common
+sign, both hands are used, and the hands are moved outward from
+the body, though still near the shoulder. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.)
+"Wings, <i>i.e.</i>, of a crow." Fig. 281.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>[pg 459]</span>
+
+<h5>APACHE.</h5>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig282.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig282.png" alt="Apache tribal sign. Kaiowa, etc." /></a>Fig. 282.</div>
+
+<p>Make either of the signs for <span class="sc">Poor, In Property</span>, by rubbing the index
+back and forth over the extended left forefinger; or, by passing
+the extended index alternately along the upper and lower sides
+of the extended left forefinger from tip to base. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; Wichita
+II.) Fig. 282. "It is said that when the first Apache came to
+the region they now occupy he was asked who or what he was, and not
+understanding the language he merely made the sign for <i>poor</i>, which
+expressed his condition."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig283.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig283.png" alt="Apache tribal sign. Pima and Papago" /></a>Fig. 283.</div>
+
+<p>Rub the back of the extended left forefinger from end to end with the
+extended index. (<i>Comanche</i> II; <i>Ute</i> I.) "Poor,
+poverty-stricken."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Coyotero.</p>
+
+<p>Place the back of the right hand near the end of the foot, the fingers
+curved upward, to represent the turned-up toes of the moccasins. (<i>Pima
+and Papago</i> I; <i>Apache</i> I.) Fig. 283.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Mescalero.</p>
+
+<p>Same sign as for <span class="sc">Lipan</span> <i>q.v.</i> (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>[pg 460]</span>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Warm Spring.</p>
+
+<p>Hand curved (Y, more flexed) and laid on its back on top of the foot
+(<i>moccasins much curved up at toe</i>); then draw hands up legs to near
+knee,
+and cut off with edges of hands (<i>boot tops</i>). (<i>Apache</i> III.)
+"Those who wear booted moccasins with turn-up toes."</p>
+
+<h5>ARAPAHO.</h5>
+
+<p>The fingers of one hand touch the breast in different parts, to indicate
+the tattooing of that part in points. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Seize the nose with the thumb and forefinger. (Randolph B. Marcy,
+captain United States Army, in <i>The Prairie Traveler</i>. <i>New
+York</i>, 1859, p. 215.)</p>
+
+<p>Rub the right side of the nose with the forefinger: some call this tribe
+the "Smellers," and make their sign consist of seizing the nose with
+the thumb and forefinger. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Finger to side of nose. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Touch the left breast, thus implying what they call themselves, viz:
+the "Good Hearts." (<i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Rub the side of the extended index against the right side of the nose.
+(<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i>
+III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the left hand, palm down, and fingers extended; then with the
+right hand, fingers extended, palm inward and thumb up, make a sudden
+stroke from left to right across the back of the fingers of the left
+hand, as if cutting them off. (<i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.) This is
+believed
+to be an error of the authority, and should apply to the <span class="sc">Cheyenne</span>
+tribal sign.</p>
+
+<p>Join the ends of the fingers (the thumb included) of the right hand,
+and, pointing toward the heart near the chest, throw the hand forward
+and to the right once, twice, or many times, through an arc of about six
+inches. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) "Some say they use this sign because these
+Indians tattoo their breasts."</p>
+
+<p>Collect the fingers and thumb of the right hand to a point, and tap
+the tips upon the left breast briskly. (<i>Comanche</i> II; <i>Ute</i> I.)
+"Goodhearted."
+It was stated by members of the various tribes at Washington,
+in 1880, that this sign is used to designate the Northern Arapahos, while
+that in which the index rubs against or passes upward alongside of
+the nose refers to the Southern Arapahos.</p>
+
+<p>Another: Close the right hand, leaving the index only extended; then
+rub it up and down, held vertically, against the side of the nose where
+it joins the cheek. (<i>Comanche</i> II; <i>Ute</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>[pg 461]</span>
+
+<p>The fingers and thumb of the right hand, are brought to a point, and
+tapped upon the right side of the breast. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>ARIKARA. (Corruptly abbreviated <span class="sc">Ree</span>.)</h5>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig284.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig284.png" alt="Arikara tribal sign. Arapaho and Dakota" /></a>Fig. 284.</div>
+
+<p>Imitate the manner of shelling corn, holding the left hand stationary,
+the shelling being done with the right. (<i>Creel</i>.) Fig. 284.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig285.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig285.png" alt="Arikara tribal sign. Absaroka" /></a>Fig. 285.</div>
+
+<p>With the right hand closed, curve the thumb and index, join their
+tips so as to form a circle, and place to the lobe of the ear.
+(<i>Absaroka</i>
+I; <i>Hidatsa</i> I.) "Big ear-rings." Fig. 285.</p>
+
+<p>Both hands, fists, (B, except thumbs) in front of body, backs looking
+toward the sides of the body, thumbs obliquely upward, left hand
+stationary,
+the backs of the fingers of the two hands touching, carry the
+right thumb forward and backward at the inner side of the left thumb
+and without moving the hand from the left, in imitation of the act of
+shelling corn. (<i>Dakota</i> I, VII, VIII.)</p>
+
+<p>Collect the fingers and thumb of the right hand nearly to a point, and
+make a tattooing or dotting motion toward the upper
+portion of the cheek. This is the
+old sign, and was used by them previous
+to the adoption of the more modern
+one representing "corn-eaters."
+(<i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the back of the closed right hand
+transversely before the mouth, and rotate
+it forward and backward several
+times. This gesture may be accompanied,
+as it sometimes is, by a motion
+of the jaws as if eating, to illustrate more fully the meaning of the
+rotation
+of the fist. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Wichita</i> II;
+<i>Apache</i> I.) "Corn-eater; eating corn from the ear."</p>
+
+<p>Signified by the same motions with the thumbs and forefingers that
+are used in shelling corn. The dwarf Ree (Arikara) corn is their peculiar
+possession, which their tradition says was given to them by a superior
+being, who led them to the Missouri River and instructed them how to
+plant it. (Rev. C.L. Hall, in <i>The Missionary Herald</i>, April, 1880.)
+"They
+are the corn-shellers." Have seen this sign used by the Arikaras as a
+tribal designation. (<i>Dakota</i> II.)</p>
+
+<h5>ASSINABOIN.</h5>
+
+<p>Hands in front of abdomen, horizontal, backs outward, ends of fingers
+pointing toward one another, separated and arched (H), then, moved up
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>[pg 462]</span>
+and down and from side to side as though covering a corpulent body.
+This sign is also used to indicate the Gros Ventres of the Prairie or
+Atsina. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign of <i>cutting the throat</i>. (<i>Kutine</i> I.) As the
+Assinaboins
+belong to the Dakotan stock, the sign generally given for the Sioux may
+be used for them also.</p>
+
+<p>With the right hand flattened, form a curve by passing it from the top
+of the chest to the pubis, the fingers pointing to the left, and the back
+forward. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) "Big bellies."</p>
+
+<h5>ATSINA, LOWER GROS VENTRE.</h5>
+
+<p>Both hands closed, the tips of the fingers pointing toward the wrist
+and resting upon the base of the joint, the thumbs lying upon, and
+extending over the middle joint of the forefingers; hold the left before
+the chest, pointing forward, palm up, placing the right, with palm down,
+just back of the left, and move as if picking small objects from the
+left with the tip of the right thumb. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Shoshoni and
+Banak</i> I.) "Corn-shellers."</p>
+
+<p>Bring the extended and separated fingers and thumb loosely to a point,
+flexed at the metacarpal joints; point them toward the left clavicle, and
+imitate a dotting motion as if tattooing the skin. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i>
+III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "They used to tattoo themselves,
+and live in the country south of the Dakotas."</p>
+
+<p>See also the sign of (<i>Dakota</i> I) under <span class="sc">Assinaboin</span>.</p>
+
+<h5>BANAK.</h5>
+
+<p>Make a whistling sound "phew" (beginning at a high note and ending
+about an octave lower); then draw the extended index across the throat
+from the left to the right and out to nearly at arm's length. They used
+to cut the throats of their prisoners. (<i>Pai-Ute</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Major Haworth states that the <i>Banaks</i> make the following sign for
+themselves: Brush the flat right hand backward over the forehead as
+if forcing back the hair. This represents the manner of wearing the
+tuft of hair backward from the forehead. According to this informant,
+the Shoshoni use the same sign for <span class="sc">Banak</span> as for themselves.</p>
+
+<h5>BLACKFEET. (This title refers to the Algonkian Blackfeet, properly
+called <span class="sc">Satsika</span>. For the Dakota Blackfeet, or Sihasapa, see under
+head of <span class="sc">Dakota</span>.)</h5>
+
+<p>The finger and thumb encircle the ankle. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the right hand, bent spoon-fashion, from the heel to the little toe
+of the right foot. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>[pg 463]</span>
+
+<p>The palmar surfaces of the extended fore and second fingers of the
+right hand (others closed) are rubbed along the leg just above the ankle.
+This would not seem to be clear, but these Indians do not make any
+sign indicating <i>black</i> in connection with the above. The sign does
+not,
+however, interfere with any other sign as made by the Sioux. (<i>Creel</i>;
+<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Black feet."</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat hand over the outer edge of the right foot from the heel
+to beyond the toe, as if brushing off dust. (<i>Dakota</i> V, VII, VIII.)
+Fig. 286.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig286.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig286.png" alt="Blackfoot tribal sign. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 286.</div>
+
+<p>Touch the right foot with the right hand. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig287.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig287.png" alt="Blackfoot tribal sign. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 287.</div>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, thumb resting over the second joint of the
+forefinger,
+palm toward the face, and rotate over the cheek, though an inch
+or two from it. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) "From manner of painting
+the cheeks." Fig. 287.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>[pg 464]</span>
+
+<h5>CADDO.</h5>
+
+<p>Pass the horizontally extended index from right to left under the nose.
+(<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> I,
+II, III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> I, II.) "'Pierced noses,' from former custom of perforating
+the
+septum for the reception of rings." Fig. 288. This sign is also used for
+the Sahaptin. For some remarks see page <a href="#page345">345</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig288.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig288.png" alt="Caddo tribal sign. Arapaho and Kaiowa" /></a>Fig. 288.</div>
+
+<h5>CALISPEL. See <span class="sc">Pend d'Oreille</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>CHEYENNE.</h5>
+
+<p>Draw the hand across the arm, to imitate cutting it with a knife.
+(<i>Marcy</i> in <i>Prairie Traveller</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 215.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the lower edge of the right hand across the left arm as if
+gashing it with a knife. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>With the index-finger of the right hand proceed as if cutting the left
+arm in different places with a sawing motion from the wrist upward, to
+represent the cuts or burns on the arms of that nation. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Bridge palm of left hand with index-finger of right. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the extended right hand, fingers joined, across the left wrist as
+if cutting it. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the ulnar side of the extended index repeatedly across the extended
+finger and back of
+the left hand. Frequently,
+however, the index is drawn
+across the wrist or forearm.
+(<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V;
+<i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i> I.) Fig.
+289. See p. <a href="#page345">345</a> for remarks.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig289.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig289.png" alt="Cheyenne tribal sign. Arapaho and Cheyenne" /></a>Fig. 289.</div>
+
+<p>The extended index, palm upward, is drawn across the forefinger of
+the left hand (palm inward), several times, left hand stationary, right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>[pg 465]</span>
+hand is drawn toward the body until the index is drawn clear off; then
+repeat. Some Cheyennes believe this to have reference to the former
+custom of cutting the arm as offerings to spirits, while others think it
+refers to a more ancient custom of cutting off the enemy's fingers for
+necklaces. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the extended index at the right side of the nose, where it joins
+the face, the tip reaching as high, as the forehead, and close to the inner
+corner of the eye. This position makes the thumb of the right hand rest
+upon the chin, while the index is perpendicular. (<i>Sac, Fox, and
+Kickapoo</i>
+I.) It is considered that this sign, though given to the collaborator
+as expressed, was an error. It applies to the Southern Arapahos.
+Lieutenant Creel states the last remark to be correct, the gesture having
+reference to the Southern bands.</p>
+
+<p>As though sawing through the left forearm at its middle with the
+edge of the right held back outward, thumb upward. Sign made at the
+left side of the body. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Same sign as for a <i>saw</i>.
+The
+Cheyenne Indians are known to the Sioux by the name of 'The Saws.'"</p>
+
+<p>Right-hand fingers and thumb extended and joined (as in S), outer
+edge downward, and drawn sharply across the other fingers and forearm
+as if cutting with a knife. (<i>Dakota</i>, III.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the extended right index or the ulnar (inner) edge of the open
+right hand several times across the base of the extended left index, or
+across the left forearm at different heights from left to right. This sign
+is also made by the Arapahos. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) "Because their arms are
+marked with scars from cuts which they make as offerings to spirits."</p>
+
+<p>Draw the extended index several times across the extended forefinger
+from the tip toward the palm, the latter pointing forward and slightly
+toward the right. From the custom of striping arms transversely with
+colors. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> II, III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Ute</i> I; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Another: Make the sign for <span class="sc">Dog</span>, viz: Close the right hand, leaving
+the index and second fingers only extended and joined, hold it forward
+from and lower than the hip and draw it backward, the course following
+the outline of a dog's form from head to tail; then add the sign <span class="sc">To Eat</span>,
+as follows: Collect the thumb, index, and second fingers to a point, hold
+them above and in front of the mouth and make a repeated dotting motion
+toward the mouth. This sign is generally used, but the other and
+more common one is also employed, especially so with individuals not
+fully conversant with the sign language as employed by the Comanches,
+&amp;c. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i>
+II.) "Dog-eaters."</p>
+
+<p>Draw the extended index across the back of the left hand and arm as
+if cutting it. The index does not touch the arm as in signs given for
+the same tribe by other Indians, but is held at least four or five inches
+from it. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>[pg 466]</span>
+
+<h5>CHIPEWAY. See <span class="sc">Ojibwa</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>COMANCHE.</h5>
+
+<p>Imitate, by the waving of the hand or forefinger, the forward crawling
+motion of a snake. (<i>Burton</i>, also <i>Blackmore</i> in introduction to
+Dodge's
+<i>Plains of the Great West</i>. <i>New York</i>, 1877, p. xxv.) The same sign is
+used for the Shoshoni, more commonly called "Snake", Indians, who as
+well as the Comanches belong to the Shoshonian linguistic family. "The
+silent stealth of the tribe." (<i>Dodge; Marcy</i> in <i>Thirty Years of
+Army
+Life on the Border</i>. <i>New York</i>, 1866, p. 33.) Rev. A.J. Holt remarks,
+however, that among the Comanches themselves the conception of this
+sign is the trailing of a rope, or lariat. This refers probably to their
+well-known horsemanship.</p>
+
+<p>Motion of a snake. (<i>Macgowan</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the elbow of the right arm near the right side, but not touching
+it; extend the forearm and hand, palm inward, fingers joined on a level
+with the elbow, then with a shoulder movement draw the forearm and
+hand back until the points of the fingers are behind the body; at the
+same time that the hand is thus being moved back, turn it right and
+left several times. (<i>Creel</i>; <i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.) "Snake in the
+grass. A snake drawing itself back in the grass instead of crossing the
+road in front of you."</p>
+
+<p>Another: The sign by and for the Comanches themselves is made by
+holding both hands and arms upward from the elbow, both palms inward,
+and passing both hands with their backs upward along the lower
+end of the hair to indicate <i>long hair</i>, as they never cut it.
+(<i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand horizontal, flat, palm downward (W), advanced to the
+front by a motion to represent the crawling of a snake. (<i>Dakota</i>
+III.)</p>
+
+<p>Extend the closed right hand to the front and left; extend the index,
+palm down, and rotate from side to side while drawing it back to the
+right hip. (<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Dakota</i> VI, VII,
+VIII; <i>Ponka</i> II;
+<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Pani</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.) This motion
+is just the reverse of the sign for <i>Shoshoni</i>, see Fig. 297 <i>infra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Make the reverse gesture for <i>Shoshoni</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, begin away from
+the body, drawing the hand back to the side of the right hip while rotating
+it. (<i>Comanche</i> II.)</p>
+
+<h5>CREE, KNISTENO, KRISTENEAUX.</h5>
+
+<p>Sign for <span class="sc">Wagon</span> and then the sign for <span class="sc">Man</span>. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "This
+indicates the Red River half-breeds, with their carts, as these people are
+so known from their habit of traveling with carts."</p>
+
+<p>Place the first and second fingers of the right hand in front of the
+mouth. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>[pg 467]</span>
+
+<h5>CROW. See <span class="sc">Absaroka</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>DAKOTA, or SIOUX.</h5>
+
+<p>The edge of the hand passed across the throat, as in the act of cutting
+that part. (<i>Long</i>; <i>Marcy</i> in <i>Army Life</i>, p. 33.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the lower edge of the hand across the throat. (<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the extended right hand across the throat. (<i>Arapaho</i> I.) "The
+cut-throats."</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right hand, with palm down, from left to right across the
+throat. (<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Dakota</i> VI, VIII;
+<i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the forefinger of the left hand from right to left across the
+throat. (<i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.) "A cut-throat."</p>
+
+<p>Forefinger and thumb of right hand extended (others closed) is drawn
+from left to right across the throat as though cutting it. The Dakotas
+have been named the "cut-throats" by some of the surrounding tribes.
+(<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Cut-throats."</p>
+
+<p>Right hand horizontal, flat, palm downward (as in W), and drawn
+across the throat as if cutting with a knife. (<i>Dakota</i> II, III.)</p>
+
+<p>Draw the open right hand, or the right index, from left to right
+horizontally
+across the throat, back of hand upward, fingers pointing toward
+the left. This sign is also made by the Arapahos. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) "It
+is said that after a battle the Utes took
+many Sioux prisoners and cut their
+throats; hence the sign "cut-throats."</p>
+
+<p>Draw the extended right hand, palm
+downward, across the throat from left to
+right. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> II, III;
+<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I; <i>Ute</i> I; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.) "Cut-throats." Fig 290.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig290.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig290.png" alt="Dakota tribal sign. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 290.</div>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Blackfoot (Sihasapa).</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right hand along the outer
+edge of the foot from the heel to beyond
+the toes. (<i>Dakota</i> VIII; <i>Hidatsa</i> I;
+<i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Arikara</i> I; <i>Pani</i> I.) Same as
+Fig. 286, above.</p>
+
+<p>Pass the right hand quickly over the right foot from the great toe
+outward, turn the heel as if brushing something therefrom. (<i>Dakota</i>
+V.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the widely separated thumb and index of the right hand over the
+lower leg, from just below the knee nearly down to the heel. (<i>Kaiowa</i>
+I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>[pg 468]</span>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Brul&#233;.</p>
+
+<p>Rub the upper and outer part of the right thigh in a small circle with
+the open right hand, fingers pointing downward. This sign is also made
+by the Arapahos. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.) "These Indians were once caught in
+a prairie fire, many burned to death, and others badly burned about
+the thighs; hence the name Si-ca<sup>n</sup>-gu 'burnt thigh' and the sign.
+According to the Brul&#233; chronology, this fire occurred in 1763, which they
+call 'The-People-were-burned-winter.'"</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right hand quickly over the thigh from near the buttock
+forward, as if brushing dust from that part. (<i>Dakota</i> V, VI, VII,
+VIII.)</p>
+
+<p>Brush the palm of the right hand over the right thigh, from near the
+buttock toward the front of the middle third of the thigh. (<i>Kaiowa</i>
+I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Ogalala.</p>
+
+<p>Fingers and thumb separated, straight (as in R), and dotted about
+over the face to represent the marks made by the small-pox. (<i>Arapaho</i>
+II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V; <i>Dakota</i> III, VI, VII, VIII.) "This band
+suffered from the disease many years ago."</p>
+
+<p>With the thumb over the ends of the fingers, hold the right hand
+upright, its back forward, about six inches in front of the face, or on
+one side of the nose near the face,
+and suddenly extend and spread all
+the fingers, thumb included. (<i>Dakota</i>
+IV.) "The word <i>Ogalala</i> means
+scattering or throwing at, and the
+name was given them, it is said,
+after a row in which they threw
+ashes into one another's faces."</p>
+
+<h5>FLATHEAD, or SELISH.</h5>
+
+<p>One hand placed on the top of the
+head, and the other on the back of
+the head. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the right hand to the top
+of the head. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Pat the right side of the head above and back of the ear with the flat
+right hand. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) From the elongation of the
+occiput. Fig. 291.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig291.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig291.png" alt="Flathead tribal sign. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 291.</div>
+
+<h5>FOX, or OUTAGAMI.</h5>
+
+<p>Same sign as for <span class="sc">Sac</span>. (<i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>[pg 469]</span>
+
+<h5>GROS VENTRE. See <span class="sc">Hidatsa</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>HIDATSA, GROS VENTRE, or MINITARI.</h5>
+
+<p>Both hands flat and extended, palms toward the body, with the tips
+of the fingers pointing toward one another; pass from the top of the
+chest downward, outward, and inward toward the groin. (<i>Absaroka</i> I;
+<i>Dakota</i> V, VI, VII, VIII; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) "Big belly."</p>
+
+<p>Left and right hands in front of breast, left placed in position first,
+separated about four or five inches, left hand outside of the right,
+horizontal,
+backs outward, fingers extended and pointing left and right;
+strike the back of the right against the palm of the left several times,
+and then make the sign for <span class="sc">Go, Going</span>, as follows: Both hands (A 1)
+brought to the median line of body on a level with the breast, some
+distance apart, then describe a series of half circles or forward arch-like
+movements with both hands. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "The Gros Ventre Indians,
+Minitaris (the Hidatsa Indians of <i>Matthews</i>), are known to the
+Sioux as the Indians who went to the mountains to kill their enemies;
+hence the sign."</p>
+
+<p>Express with the hand the sign of a big belly. (<i>Dakota</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right hand, back forward, from the top of the breast,
+downward, outward, and inward to the pubis. (<i>Dakota</i> VI;
+<i>Hidatsa</i> I; <i>Arikara</i> I.) "Big belly."</p>
+
+<h5>INDIAN (generically).</h5>
+
+<p>Hand in type-position K, inverted, back forward, is raised above the
+head with forefinger directed perpendicularly to the crown. Describe
+with it a short gentle curve upward and backward in such a manner
+that the finger will point upward and backward, back outward, at the
+termination of the motion. (<i>Ojibwa</i> V.) "Indicates a feather planted
+upon the head&mdash;the characteristic adornment of the Indian."</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <span class="sc">White Man</span>, viz: Draw the open right hand horizontally
+from left to right across the forehead a little above the eyebrows,
+the back of the hand to be upward and the fingers pointing
+toward the left, or close all the fingers except the index, and draw it
+across the forehead in the same manner; then make the sign for NO;
+then move the upright index about a foot from side to side, in front of
+right shoulder, at the same time rotating the hand a little. (<i>Dakota</i>
+IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Rub the back of the extended left hand with the palmar surfaces of
+the extended fingers of the right. (<i>Comanche</i> II.) "People of the
+same
+kind; dark-skinned."</p>
+
+<p>Rub the back of the left hand with the index of the right. (<i>Pai-Ute</i>
+I;
+<i>Wichita</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>[pg 470]</span>
+
+<h5>KAIOWA.</h5>
+
+<p>Make the signs of the <span class="sc">Prairie</span> and of <span class="sc">Drinking Water</span>. (<i>Burton</i>;
+<i>Blackmore</i> in Dodge's <i>Plains of the Great West</i>. <i>New York</i>, 1877,
+p. xxiv.)</p>
+
+<p>Cheyennes make the same sign as (<i>Comanche</i> II), and think it was
+intended to convey the idea of cropping the hair. The men wear one side
+of the hair of the head full length and done up as among the Cheyennes,
+the other side being kept cropped off about even with the neck
+and hanging loose. (<i>Cheyenne</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Right-hand fingers and thumb, extended and joined (as in W), placed
+in front of right shoulder, and revolving loosely at the wrist.
+(<i>Dakota</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the flat hand with extended and separated fingers before the
+face, pointing forward and upward, the wrist near the chin; pass it
+upward and forward several times.
+(<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig292.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig292.png" alt="Kaiowa tribal sign. Comanche" /></a>Fig. 292.</div>
+
+<p>Place the right hand a short distance
+above the right side of the head,
+fingers and thumb separated and extended;
+shake it rapidly from side to
+side, giving it a slight rotary motion
+in doing so. (<i>Comanche</i> II.)
+"Rattle-brained." Fig. 292. See p. <a href="#page345">345</a> for
+remarks upon this sign.</p>
+
+<p>Same sign as (<i>Comanche</i> II), with
+the exception that both hands are
+generally used instead of the right one
+only. (<i>Ute</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Make a rotary motion of the right hand, palm extended upward and
+outward by the side of the head. (<i>Wichita</i> I.) "Crazy heads."</p>
+
+<h5>KICKAPOO.</h5>
+
+<p>With the thumb and finger go through the motion of clipping the
+hair over the ear; then with the hand make a sign that the borders of
+the leggings are wide. (<i>Sac, Fox, and, Kickapoo</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>KNISTENO or KRISTENEAUX. See <span class="sc">Cree</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>KUTINE.</h5>
+
+<p>Place the index or second finger of the right hand on each side of the
+left index finger to imitate riding a horse. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>[pg 471]</span>
+
+<p>Hold the left fist, palm upward, at arm's length before the body, the
+right as if grasping the bowstring and drawn back. (<i>Shoshoni and
+Banak</i> I.) "From their peculiar
+manner of holding the
+long bow horizontally in
+shooting." Fig. 293.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig293.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig293.png" alt="Kutine tribal sign. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 293.</div>
+
+<h5>LIPAN.</h5>
+
+<p>With the index and second
+fingers only extended and
+separated, hold the hand at
+arm's length to the front of
+the left side; draw it back
+in distinct jerks; each time
+the hand rests draw the fingers
+back against the inside
+of the thumb, and when the hand is again started on the next movement
+backward snap the fingers to full length. This is repeated five
+or six times during the one movement of the hand. The country which
+the Lipans at one time occupied contained large ponds or lakes, and
+along the shores of these the reptile was found which gave them this
+characteristic appellation. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> III; <i>Wichita</i> II.)
+"Frogs." Fig. 294.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig294.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig294.png" alt="Lipan tribal sign. Apache" /></a>Fig. 294.</div>
+
+<h5>MANDAN.</h5>
+
+<p>The first and second fingers of the right hand extended, separated,
+backs outward, other fingers and thumb closed, are drawn from the
+left shoulder obliquely downward in front of the body to the right hip.
+(<i>Dakota</i> I.) "The Mandan Indians are known to the Sioux as 'The
+people who wear a scarlet sash, with a train,' in the manner above
+described."</p>
+
+<h5>MINITARI. See <span class="sc">Hidatsa</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>NEZ PERC&#201;S. See <span class="sc">Sahaptin</span>.</h5>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>[pg 472]</span>
+
+<h5>OJIBWA, or CHIPPEWA.</h5>
+
+<p>Right hand horizontal, back outward, fingers separated, arched, tips
+pointing inward, is moved from right to left breast and generally over
+the front of the body with a trembling motion and at the same time a
+slight outward or forward movement of the hand as though drawing
+something out of the body, and then make the sign for <span class="sc">Man</span>, viz: The
+right-hand is held in front of the right breast with the forefinger
+extended,
+straight upright (J), with the back of the hand outward; move
+the hand upward and downward with finger extended. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)
+"Perhaps the first Chippewa Indian seen by a Sioux had an eruption on
+his body, and from that his people were given the name of the 'People
+with a breaking out,' by which name the Chippewas have ever been
+known by the Sioux."</p>
+
+<h5>OSAGE, or WASAJI.</h5>
+
+<p>Pull at the eyebrows over the left eye with the thumb and forefinger
+of the left hand. This sign is also used by the Osages themselves. (<i>Sac,
+Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the flat right hand, back forward, with the edge pointing backward,
+against the side of the head, then make repeated cuts, and the
+hand is moved backward toward the occiput. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i>
+III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "Former custom of shaving the
+hair from
+the sides of the head, leaving but an occipito-frontal ridge."</p>
+
+<p>Pass the flat and extended right hand backward over the right side
+of the head, moving the index against the second finger in imitation
+of cutting with a pair of scissors. (<i>Comanche</i> II.) "Represents the
+manner of removing the hair from the sides of the head, leaving a ridge
+only from the forehead to the occiput."</p>
+
+<h5>OUTAGAMI. See <span class="sc">Fox</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>PANI (Pawnee).</h5>
+
+<p>Imitate a wolf's ears with the two forefingers of the right hand extended
+together, upright, on the left side of the head. (<i>Burton.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Place a hand on each side of the forehead, with two fingers pointing
+to the front to represent the narrow, sharp ears of the wolf. (<i>Marcy</i>
+in <i>Prairie Traveler</i>, p. 215.)</p>
+
+<p>Extend the index and second fingers of the right hand upward from
+the right side of the head. (<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V;
+<i>Dakota</i> VII,
+VIII; <i>Ponka</i> II; <i>Pani</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand, as (N), is passed from the back part of the right side of
+the head, forward seven or eight inches. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "The Pani
+Indians
+are known as the <i>Shaved-heads</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, leaving only the scalp locks on
+the head."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>[pg 473]</span>
+
+<p>First and second fingers of right hand, straight upward and separated,
+remaining fingers and thumb closed (as in N), like the ears of a small
+wolf. (<i>Dakota</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the closed right hand to the side of the temple, palm forward
+leaving the index and second fingers extended and slightly separated,
+pointing upward. This is ordinarily used, though, to be more explicit,
+both hands may be used. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Ute</i>
+I; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.) For illustration see Fig. 336, facing page <a href="#page531">531</a>.</p>
+
+<h5>PEND D'OREILLE, or CALISPEL.</h5>
+
+<p>Make the motion of paddling a canoe. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig295.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig295.png" alt="Pend d'Oreille tribal sign. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 295.</div>
+
+<p>Both fists are held as if grasping a paddle vertically downward and
+working a canoe. Two strokes are made on each side of the body from
+the side backward. (<i>Shoshoni</i> and
+<i>Banak</i> I.) Fig. 295.</p>
+
+<h5>PUEBLO.</h5>
+
+<p>Place the clinched hand back of the
+occiput as if grasping the queue, then
+place both fists in front of the right
+shoulder, rotating them slightly to represent
+a loose mass of an imaginary
+substance. Represents the large mass
+of hair tied back of the head. (<i>Arapaho</i>
+II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V.)</p>
+
+<h5>REE. See <span class="sc">Arikara</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>SAC, or SAUKI.</h5>
+
+<p>Pass the extended palm of the right hand over the right side of the
+head from front to back, and the palm of the left hand in the same
+manner over the left side of the head. (<i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.)
+"Shaved-headed Indians."</p>
+
+<h5>SAHAPTIN, or NEZ PERC&#201;S.</h5>
+
+<p>The right index, back outward, passed from right to left under the
+nose. Piercing the nose to receive the ring. (<i>Creel</i>; <i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the thumb and forefinger to the nostrils. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig296.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig296.png" alt="Sahaptin or Nez Perce tribal sign. Comanche" /></a>Fig. 296.</div>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, leaving the index straight but flexed at right
+angles with the palm; pass it horizontally
+to the left by and under the
+nose. (<i>Comanche</i> II.) "Pierced nose."
+Fig. 296. This sign is made by the
+Nez Perc&#233;s for themselves, according
+to Major Haworth. Information
+was received from Arapaho and Cheyenne Indians, who visited Washington
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>[pg 474]</span>
+in 1880, that this sign is also used to designate the <i>Caddos</i>, who
+practiced the same custom of perforating the nasal septum. The same
+informants also state that the <i>Shawnees</i> are sometimes indicated by
+the same sign.</p>
+
+<p>Pass the extended index, pointing toward the left, remaining fingers
+and thumb closed, in front of and across the upper lip, just below the
+nose. The second finger is also sometimes extended. (<i>Shoshoni and
+Banak</i> I.) "From the custom of piercing the noses for the reception of
+ornaments."</p>
+
+<p>See p. <a href="#page345">345</a> for remarks upon the signs for <i>Sahaptin</i>.</p>
+
+<h5>SATSIKA. See <span class="sc">Blackfeet</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>SELISH. See <span class="sc">Flathead</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>SHEEPEATER. See under <span class="sc">Shoshoni</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>SHAWNEE. See remarks under <span class="sc">Sahaptin</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>SHOSHONI, or SNAKE.</h5>
+
+<p>The forefinger is extended horizontally and passed along forward in
+a serpentine line. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Right hand closed, palm down, placed in front of the right hip; extend
+the index and push it diagonally
+toward the left front, rotating it quickly
+from side to side in doing so. (<i>Absaroka</i>
+I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) "Snake." Fig. 297.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig297.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig297.png" alt="Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 297.</div>
+
+<p>Right hand, horizontal, flat, palm downward
+(W), advanced to the front by a motion
+to represent the crawling of a snake. (<i>Dakota</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>With the right index pointing forward,
+the hand is to be moved forward about a
+foot in a sinuous manner, to imitate the
+crawling of a snake. Also made by the Arapahos. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the closed right hand, palm down, in front of the right hip; extend
+the index, and move it forward and toward the left, rotating the
+hand and finger from side to side in doing so. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i>
+II, III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Make the motion of a serpent with the right finger. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>[pg 475]</span>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, leaving the index only extended and pointing
+forward, palm to the left, then move it forward and to the left.
+(<i>Pai-Ute</i>
+I.) The rotary motion of the hand does not occur in this description,
+which in this respect differs from the other authorities.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;, Sheepeater. Tukuarikai.</p>
+
+<p>Both hands, half closed, pass from the top of the ears backward, downward,
+and forward, in a curve, to represent a ram's horns; then, with the
+index only extended and curved, place the hand above and in front of
+the mouth, back toward the face, and pass it downward and backward
+several times. (<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I.) "Sheep," and "to eat."</p>
+
+<h5>SIHASAPA. See under <span class="sc">Dakota</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>SIOUX. See <span class="sc">Dakota</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>TENNANAH.</h5>
+
+<p>Right hand hollowed, lifted to mouth, and describing waving line
+gradually descending from right to left; left hand describing mountainous
+outline, one peak rising above the other. (<i>Kutchin</i> I.)"
+Mountain-river-men."</p>
+
+<h5>UTE.</h5>
+
+<p>"They who live on mountains" have a complicated sign which denotes
+"living in mountains," and is composed of the signs <span class="sc">Sit</span> and <span class="sc">Mountain</span>.
+(<i>Burton</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Rub the back of the extended flat left hand with the extended fingers
+of the right, then touch some black object. Represents black skin.
+Although the same sign is generally used to signify <i>negro</i>, an
+addition
+is sometimes made as follows: place the index and second fingers to the
+hair on the right side of the head, and rub them against each other to
+signify <i>curly hair</i>. This addition is only made when the connection
+would cause a confusion between the "black skin" Indian (<i>Ute</i>) and
+negro. (<i>Arapaho</i> II; <i>Cheyenne</i> V.)</p>
+
+<p>Left hand horizontal, flat, palm downward, and with the fingers of
+the right hand brush the other toward the wrist. (<i>Dakota</i> III.)</p>
+
+<p>Place the flat and extended left hand at the height of the elbow before
+the body, pointing to the front and right, palm toward the ground; then
+pass the palmar surface of the flat and extended fingers of the right
+hand over the back of the left from near the wrist toward the tips of
+the fingers. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II;
+<i>Wichita</i> II.) "Those
+who use sinew for sewing, and for strengthening the bow."</p>
+
+<p>Indicate the color <i>black</i>, then separate the thumbs and forefingers
+of both hands as far as possible, leaving the remaining fingers closed,
+and pass upward over the lower part of the legs. (<i>Shoshoni</i> and
+<i>Banak</i>
+I.) "Black or dark leggings."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>[pg 476]</span>
+
+<h5>WASAJI. See <span class="sc">Osage</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>WICHITA.</h5>
+
+<p>Indicate a circle over the upper portion of the right cheek, with the
+index or several fingers of the right hand. The statement of the Indian
+authorities for the above is that years ago the Wichita women painted
+spiral lines on the breasts, starting at the nipple and extending several
+inches from it; but after an increase in modesty or a change in the upper
+garment, by which the breast ceased to be exposed, the cheek has been
+adopted as the locality for the sign. (<i>Creel</i>; <i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i> III;
+<i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>Extend the fingers and thumb of the right hand, semi-closed, and
+bring the hand toward the face nearly touching it, repeating this several
+times as if going through the motion of tattooing. The Comanches
+call the Wichitas "Painted Faces"; Caddos call them "Tattooed Faces,"
+both tribes using the same sign. (<i>Comanche</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>Wyandot.</h5>
+
+<p>Pass the flat right hand from the top of the forehead backward over
+the head and downward and backward as far as the length of the arm.
+(<i>Wyandot</i> I.) "From the manner of wearing the hair."</p>
+
+
+<h4>PROPER NAMES.</h4>
+
+<h5>WASHINGTON, CITY OF.</h5>
+
+<p>The sign for <i>go</i> by closing the hand (as in type position B 1) and
+bending the arm; the hand is then brought horizontally to the epigastrium,
+after which both the hand and arm are suddenly extended; the
+sign for <i>house</i> or <i>lodge</i>; the sign for <i>cars</i>, consisting
+of the sign
+for <i>go</i> and <i>wagon</i>, <i>e.g.</i>, both arms are flexed at a right angle
+before
+the chest; the hands then assume type position (L) modified by the
+index being hooked and the middle finger partly opened and hooked
+similarly; the hands are held horizontally and rotated forward side
+by side to imitate two wheels, palms upward; and the sign for
+<i>council</i>
+as follows: The right arm is raised, flexed at elbow, and the hand
+brought to the mouth (in type position G 1, modified by being inverted),
+palm up, and the index being more open. The hand then passes from
+the mouth in jerks, opening and closing successively; then the right
+hand (in position S 1), horizontal, marks off divisions on the left arm
+extended. The sign for <i>father</i> is briefly executed by passing the
+open
+hand down and from the loins, then bringing it erect before the body;
+then the sign for <i>cars</i>, making with the mouth the noise of an
+engine.
+The hands then raised before the eyes and approximated at points, as in
+the sign for <i>lodge</i>; then diverge to indicate <i>extensive</i>; this
+being followed
+by the sign for <i>council</i>. (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I.) "The home of
+our father, where we go on the puffing wagon to council."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>[pg 477]</span>
+
+<h5>MISSOURI RIVER.</h5>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <i>water</i> by placing the right hand upright six or
+eight inches in front of the mouth, back outward, index and thumb
+crooked, and their ends about an inch apart, the other fingers nearly
+closed; then move it toward the mouth, and then downward nearly to
+the top of the breast-bone, at the same time turning the hand over toward
+the mouth until the little finger is uppermost; and the sign for
+<i>large</i> as follows: The opened right hands, palms facing, fingers
+relaxed
+and slightly separated, being at the height of the breast and
+about two feet apart, separate them nearly to arm's length; and then
+rapidly rotate the right hand from right to left several times, its back
+upward, fingers spread and pointing forward to show that it is stirred
+up or muddy. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:53%;"><a href="images/fig298.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig298.png" alt="Buffalo. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 298.</div>
+
+<h5>EAGLE BULL, a Dakota chief.</h5>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:43%;"><a href="images/fig299.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig299.png" alt="Eagle tail. Arikara" /></a>Fig. 299.</div>
+
+<p>Place the clinched fists to either side of the head with the forefingers
+extended and curved, as in Fig. 298; then extend the left hand, flat,
+palm down, before the left side,
+fingers pointing forward; the
+outer edge of the flat and extended
+right hand is then laid
+transversely across the back of
+the left hand, and slid forward
+over the fingers as in Fig. 299.
+(<i>Dakota</i> VI; <i>Ankara</i> I.) "Bull
+and eagle&mdash;'<i>Halia&#235;tus leucocephalus, (Linn.) Sav.</i>'" In the
+picture-writing
+of the Moquis, Fig. 300 represents the eagle's tail as showing the
+difference of color which is indicated in the latter part of the
+above gesture.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:15%;"><a href="images/fig300.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig300.png" alt="Eagle tail. Moqui pictograph" /></a>Fig. 300.</div>
+
+<h5>RUSHING BEAR, an Arikara chief.</h5>
+
+<p>Place the right fist in front of the right side of the breast,
+palm down; extend and curve the thumb and little finger so
+that their tips point toward one another before the knuckles
+of the remaining closed fingers, then reach forward a short distance and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>[pg 478]</span>
+pull toward the body several times ratter quickly; suddenly push the
+fist, in this form, forward to arm's length twice. (<i>Dakota</i> VI;
+<i>Arikara</i> I.) "Bear, and rushing."</p>
+
+<h5>SPOTTED TAIL, a Dakota chief.</h5>
+
+<p>With the index only of the right hand extended, indicate a line of
+curve from the sacrum (or from the right buttock) downward, backward,
+and outward toward the right; then extend the left forefinger, pointing
+forward from the left side, and with the extended index draw imaginary
+lines transversely across the left forefinger. (<i>Absaroka</i> I;
+<i>Shoshoni</i> I;
+<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII; <i>Arikara</i> I.) "Tail, and spotted."</p>
+
+<h5>STUMBLING BEAR, a Kaiowa chief.</h5>
+
+<p>Place the right fist in front of the right side of the breast, palm down;
+extend and curve the thumb and little finger so that their tips point
+toward one another before the knuckles of the remaining closed fingers;
+then place the left flat hand edgewise before the breast, pointing to the
+right; hold the right hand flat pointing down nearer the body; move
+it forward toward the left, so that the right-hand fingers strike the left
+palm and fall downward beyond the left. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I.) "Bear, and
+stumble or stumbling."</p>
+
+<h5>SWIFT RUNNER, a Dakota warrior.</h5>
+
+<p>Place the right hand in front of the right side, palm down; close all
+the fingers excepting the index, which is slightly curved, pointing
+forward;
+then push the hand forward to arm's length twice, very quickly.
+(<i>Dakota</i> VI; <i>Arikara</i> I.) "Man running rapidly or swiftly."</p>
+
+<h5>WILD HORSE, a Comanche chief.</h5>
+
+<p>Place the extended and separated index and second fingers of the
+right hand astraddle the extended forefinger of the left hand. With
+the right hand loosely extended, held as high as and nearly at arm's
+length before the shoulder, make several cuts downward and toward the
+left. (<i>Comanche</i> III.) "Horse, and prairie or wild."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>[pg 479]</span>
+
+
+<h4>PHRASES.</h4>
+
+<h5>PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES; SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.</h5>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, leaving the thumb and index fully extended
+and separated; place the index over the forehead so that the thumb
+points to the right, palm toward the face; then draw the index across
+the forehead toward the right; then elevate the extended index, pointing
+upward before the shoulder or neck; pass it upward as high as
+the top of the head; make a short turn toward the front and pass it
+pointing downward toward the ground, to a point farther to the front
+and a little lower than at the beginning. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Dakota</i>
+VI, VII;
+<i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I; <i>Ute</i> I; <i>Apache</i> I.) "White man and
+chief."</p>
+
+<p>Make the sign for <i>white man</i> (American), by passing the palmar
+surface
+of the extended index and thumb of the right hand across the forehead
+from left to right, then that for <i>chief</i>, and conclude by making that
+for <i>parent</i> by collecting the fingers and thumb of the right hand
+nearly
+to a point and drawing them forward from the left breast. (<i>Kaiowa</i> I;
+<i>Comanche</i> III; <i>Apache</i> II; <i>Wichita</i> II.) "White man;
+chief; father."</p>
+
+<h5>SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.</h5>
+
+<p>Draw the palmar side of the index across the forehead from left to
+right, resting the thumb upon the right temple, then make the sign for
+<i>chief</i>&mdash;the white chief, "Secretary;" then make the sign for <i>great
+lodge,
+council house</i>, by making the sign for <i>lodge</i>, then placing both
+hands
+somewhat bent, palms facing, about ten inches apart, and passing them
+upward from the waist as high as the face. (<i>Arikara</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>WHERE IS YOUR MOTHER?</h5>
+
+<p>After placing the index into the mouth&mdash;<i>mother</i>, point the index at
+the individual addressed&mdash;<i>your</i>, then separate and extend the index
+and
+second fingers of the right hand; hold them, pointing forward, about
+twelve or fifteen inches before the face, and move them from side to
+side, eyes following the same direction&mdash;<i>I see</i>, then throw the flat
+right
+hand in a short curve outward to the right until the back points toward
+the ground&mdash;<i>not</i>, and look inquiringly at the individual addressed.
+(<i>Ute</i> I.) "Mother your I see not; where is she?"</p>
+
+<h5>ARE YOU BRAVE?</h5>
+
+<p>Point to the person and make sign for <i>brave</i>, at same time looking
+with an inquiring expression. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i>
+I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>[pg 480]</span>
+
+<h5>BISON, I HAVE SHOT A.</h5>
+
+<p>Move the open left hand, palm to the front, toward the left and away
+from the body slowly (motion of the buffalo when chased). Move right
+hand on wrist as axis, rapidly (man on pony chasing buffalo); then extend
+left hand to the left, draw right arm as if drawing a bow, snap the
+forefinger and middle finger of left hand, and thrust the right forefinger
+over the left hand. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig301.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig301.png" alt="Give me. Absaroka" /></a>Fig. 301.</div>
+
+<h5>GIVE ME SOMETHING TO EAT.</h5>
+
+<p>Bring the thumb, index and second fingers to a point as if grasping a
+small object, the remaining fingers naturally extended, then place the
+hand just above the mouth and a few inches in
+front of it, and make repeated thrusts quickly
+toward the mouth several times; then place the
+naturally extended right hand nearly at arm's
+length before the body, palm up, fingers pointing
+toward the front and left, and make a short
+circular motion with the hand, as in Fig. 301, bringing the outer edge
+toward the body as far as the wrist will permit, throwing the hand forward
+again at a higher elevation. The motion being at the wrist only.
+(<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Dakota</i> VII, VIII; <i>Comanche</i> III.)</p>
+
+<h5>I WILL SEE YOU HERE AFTER NEXT YEAR.</h5>
+
+<p>Raise the right hand above the head (J 2), palm to the front, all the
+fingers closed except the index, hand slanting a little to backward, then
+move forward and downward toward the person addressed, describing a
+curve. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>YOU GAVE US MANY CLOTHES, BUT WE DON'T WANT THEM.</h5>
+
+<p>Lean forward, and, holding the hands concavo-convex, draw them up
+over the limbs severally, then cross on the chest as wrapping a blanket.
+The arms are then extended before the body, with the hands in
+type-position
+(W), to a height indicating a large pile. The right hand then
+sweeps outward, showing a negative state of mind. The index of right
+hand finally touches the chest of the second party and approaches the
+body, in position (I), horizontal. (<i>Oto and Missouri</i> I.) "Something
+to put on that I don't want from you."</p>
+
+<h5>QUESTION. See also this title in <span class="sc">Extracts from Dictionary</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Hold the extended and flattened right hand, palm forward, at the
+height of the shoulder or face, and about fifteen inches from it, shaking
+the hand from side to side (at the wrist) as the arm is slightly raised,
+resembling the outline of an interrogation mark (<i>?</i>) made from below
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>[pg 481]</span>
+upward. (<i>Absaroka</i> I; <i>Dakota</i> V, VI, VII; <i>Hidatsa</i> I;
+<i>Kaiowa</i> I; <i>Arikara</i>
+I;
+<i>Comanche</i> II, III; <i>Pai-Ute</i> I; <i>Shoshoni and Banak</i> I;
+<i>Ute</i> I;
+<i>Apache</i> I, II; <i>Wichita</i> II.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; What? What is it?</p>
+
+<p>First attract the person's notice by the sign for <i>attention</i>, viz:
+The
+right hand (T) carried directly out in front of the body, with arm fully
+extended and there moved sidewise with rapid motions; and then the
+right hand, fingers extended, pointing forward or outward, fingers joined,
+horizontal, is carried outward, obliquely in front of the right breast, and
+there turned partially over and under several times. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; What are you doing? What do you want?</p>
+
+<p>Throw the right hand about a foot from right to left several times,
+describing an arc with its convexity upward, palm inward, fingers
+slightly bent and separated, and pointing forward. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; When?</p>
+
+<p>With its index extended and pointing forward, back upward, rotate
+the right hand several times to the right and left, describing an arc
+with the index. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; What are you? <i>i.e.</i>, What tribe do you belong to?</p>
+
+<p>Shake the upright open right hand four to eight inches from side to
+side a few times, from twelve to eighteen inches in front of the chin, the
+palm forward, fingers relaxed and a little separated. (<i>Dakota</i> IV.)</p>
+
+<p>It must be remarked that in the three preceding signs there is no
+essential difference, either between themselves or between them and the
+general sign for <span class="sc">Question</span> above given, which can be applied to the
+several special questions above mentioned. A similar remark may be
+made regarding several signs given below, which are printed in deference
+to collaborators.</p>
+
+<p>Pass the right hand from left to right across the face. (<i>Kutine</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; What do you want?</p>
+
+<p>The arm is drawn to front of chest and the hand in position (N 1),
+modified by palms being downward and hand horizontal. From the
+chest center the hand is then passed spirally forward toward the one
+addressed; the hand's palm begins the spiral motion with a downward
+and ends in an upward aspect. (<i>Oto</i> I.) "To unwind or open."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Whence come you?</p>
+
+<p>First the sign for <i>you</i>, viz: The hand open, held upward obliquely,
+and pointing forward; then the hand, extended open and drawn to the
+breast, and lastly the sign for <i>bringing</i>, as follows: The hand half
+shut, with the thumb pressing against the forefinger, being first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>[pg 482]</span>
+moderately extended either to the right or left, is brought with a moderate
+jerk to the opposite side, as if something was pulled along by the hand.
+(<i>Dunbar</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Who are you? or what is your name?</p>
+
+<p>The right or left hand approximates close to center of the body; the
+arm is flexed and hand in position (D), or a little more closed. From
+inception of sign near center of body the hand slowly describes the arc
+of a quadrant, and fingers unfold as the hand recedes. We think the
+proper intention is for the inception of sign to be located at the heart,
+but it is seldom truly, anatomically thus located. (<i>Oto</i> I.) "To
+unfold one's self or make known."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Are you through?</p>
+
+<p>With arms hanging at the side and forearms horizontal, place the fists
+near each other in front of body: then with a quick motion separate
+them as though breaking something asunder. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Do you know?</p>
+
+<p>Shake the right hand in front of the face, a little to the right, the
+whole arm elevated so as to throw the hand even with the face, and the
+forearm standing almost perpendicular. Principal motion with hand,
+slight motion of forearm, palm out. (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; How far is it?</p>
+
+<p>Sign for <span class="sc">Do you know?</span> followed with a precise movement throwing
+right hand (palm toward face) to a position as far from body as convenient,
+signifying <i>far</i>; then with the same quick, precise motion,
+bring the hand to a position near the face&mdash;<i>near</i>. (<i>Sahaptin</i>
+I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; How will you go&mdash;horseback or in wagon?</p>
+
+<p>First make the sign for <span class="sc">Do you know?</span> then throw right hand
+forward&mdash;<i>go</i>
+or <i>going</i>; then throw fore and middle fingers of right
+astride the forefinger of the left hand,
+signifying, <i>will you ride?</i>; then swing the
+forefingers of each hand around each
+other, sign of <i>wheel running</i>, signifying,
+<i>or will you go in wagon</i>? (<i>Sahaptin</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; How many?</p>
+
+<p>After making the sign for <i>question</i>,
+touch the tips of as many of the extended
+and separated fingers of the left hand
+held in front of the body upright, with
+back outward, with the right index as
+may be necessary. (<i>Dakota</i> I.) "Count
+them off to me&mdash;how many?"</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig302.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig302.png" alt="Counting. How many? Shoshoni and Banak" /></a>Fig. 302.</div>
+
+<p>Place the left hand carelessly before
+the breast, fingers extended and slightly separated, back to the front,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>[pg 483]</span>
+then count off a few with the extended index, by laying down the fingers
+of the left, beginning at the little finger, as in Fig. 302. In asking
+the question, the sign for <i>question</i> must precede the sign for
+<i>many</i>, the latter
+being also accompanied by a look of interrogation. (<i>Shoshoni and
+Banak</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Has he?</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Move to and fro the finger several times toward the person spoken of
+(<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Have you?</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural sign</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Move the finger to and fro several times toward the person to whom
+the one is speaking. (<i>Larson</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Are you?</p>
+
+<p><i>Deaf-mute natural signs</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Point to the person spoken to and slightly nod the head, with an inquiring
+look. (<i>Ballard</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Point with the forefinger, as if to point toward the second person, at
+the same time nod the head as if to say "yes." (<i>Ziegler</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The following was obtained at Washington during the winter of
+1880-'81 from Ta-ta<sup>n</sup>-ka Wa-ka<sup>n</sup> (Medicine Bull), a Brul&#233; Dakota chief;
+by Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span>.</p>
+
+<h5>I AM GOING HOME IN TWO DAYS.</h5>
+
+<p>(1) Place the flat hands in front of and as high as the elbows, palms
+down, pass each hand across to the opposite side of the body, the right
+above the left crossing near the wrist at the termination of the gesture
+(<i>night</i>), repeat in quick succession&mdash;<i>nights</i>, (2) elevate the
+extended index
+and second finger of the right hand, backs to the front&mdash;<i>two</i>, (3)
+place the tips of the extended and joined fingers of the right hand against
+the breast&mdash;<i>I</i>, (4) after touching the breast as in the preceding,
+pass
+the extended index from the breast, pointing downward, forward nearly
+to arm's length, and terminating by holding the hand but continuing
+the motion of the index until it points forward and upward&mdash;<i>am going
+to</i>, (5) throw the clinched right fist about six inches toward the earth
+at arm's length after the completion of the preceding gesture&mdash;<i>my
+home</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ANALYSIS.</h4>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+  Ha[n]-he'-pi | no[n]'-pa |  mi'-ye  | ti-ya'-ta | wa-gle'-kta.
+      (1)      |   (2)     |   (3)    |   (5)     |    (4)
+     nights    |   two     |    I     |  my home  | am going to.
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">Ha<sup>n</sup>-he'-pi</td>
+<td class="br">no<sup>n</sup>'-pa</td>
+<td class="br">mi'-ye</td>
+<td class="br">ti-ya'-ta</td>
+<td class="bn">wa-gle'-kta.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">(1)</td>
+<td class="br">(2)</td>
+<td class="br">(3)</td>
+<td class="br">(5)</td>
+<td class="bn">(4)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">nights</td>
+<td class="br">two</td>
+<td class="br">I</td>
+<td class="br">my home</td>
+<td class="bn">am going to.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the gesture No. 4, "am going to," was made before
+the gesture No. 5, "my home," although the Dakota words pronounced
+were in the reverse order, showing a difference in the syntax of
+the gestures and of the oral speech in this instance. The other gestures,
+1, 2, and 3, had been made deliberately, the Dakota word translating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>[pg 484]</span>
+each being in obvious connection with the several gestures, but the two
+final words were pronounced rapidly together as if they could not in the
+mind of the gesturer be applied separately to the reversed order of the
+signs for them.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The same authority obtained the above sentence in Ponka and Pani,
+together with the following signs for it, from individuals of those tribes.
+Those signs agreed between each other, but differed from the Dakota,
+as will be observed, in the signs <i>to my house</i>, as signifying <i>to
+my home</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Touch the breast with the tips of the extended fingers&mdash;<i>I</i>. This
+precedes the signs for Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, which correspond to Nos. 1,
+2, 3, and 4 of the Dakota; then follows: (6) place the tips of the extended
+fingers of the flat hands together, leaving the wrists about six
+inches apart&mdash;<i>lodge</i>, (7) and conclude by placing the clinched fists
+nearly at arm's length before the body, the right several inches above
+the left, then throw them toward the ground&mdash;about six or eight inches&mdash;the
+fists retaining their relative positions&mdash;<i>my</i>, <i>mine</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ANALYSIS.</h4>
+
+<p>The following is the Ponka sentence as given by the gesturer in connection
+with the several gestures as made:</p>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+&mdash;&mdash; |Na<sup>n</sup>'-ba|ja<sup>n</sup> &#670;i|a-g&#162;e'|ta min&#x0304;'-ke| &#647;i |wi'-wi-a t&#277;'-&#647;a.
+(1)|  (3)  | (2) | (4)  |   (5)     |(6)|      (7)
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td class="br">Na<sup>n</sup>'-ba</td>
+<td class="br">ja<sup>n</sup> &#670;i</td>
+<td class="br">a-g&#162;e'</td>
+<td class="br">ta min&#x0304;'-ke</td>
+<td class="br"> &#647;i </td>
+<td class="bn">wi'-wi-a t&#277;'-&#647;a.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">(1)</td>
+<td class="br">(3)</td>
+<td class="br">(2)</td>
+<td class="br">(4)</td>
+<td class="br">(5)</td>
+<td class="br">(6)</td>
+<td class="bn">(7)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The following is the full sentence as spoken by Ponkas without regard
+to gesture, and its literal translation:</p>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+Na<sup>n</sup>'-ba| ja<sup>n</sup>  |  &#670;&#301;  | a-g&#162;e' | ta'|min&#x0304;'-ke|  &#647;i  |wi'-wi-&#647;a| t&#232;'-&#647;a.|&mdash;
+  Two  |night,|  if, |  I go  |will| I who |lodge|  my own | the,  |to.
+       |sleep | when |homeward|    |       |     |         | one,  |
+                                                           standing|
+                                                            object,|
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">Na<sup>n</sup>'-ba</td>
+<td class="br">ja<sup>n</sup></td>
+<td class="br">&#670;&#301;</td>
+<td class="br">a-g&#162;e'</td>
+<td class="br">ta'</td>
+<td class="br">min&#x0304;'-ke</td>
+<td class="br">&#647;i</td>
+<td class="br">wi'-wi-&#647;a</td>
+<td class="br">t&#232;'-&#647;a.</td>
+<td class="bn">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">Two</td>
+<td class="br">night,<br />sleep</td>
+<td class="br">if,<br />when</td>
+<td class="br">I go<br />homeward</td>
+<td class="br">will</td>
+<td class="br">I who</td>
+<td class="br">lodge</td>
+<td class="br">my own</td>
+<td class="br">the,<br />one,<br />standing<br />object</td>
+<td class="br">to.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Pani gestures were given with the accompanying words, viz:</p>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+   | Pit' ku-r&#277;t' | ka'-ha | wi | ta-tukh'-ta | a-ka'-ru | ru-r&#277;t'-i-ru.
+(1)|     (3)      |   (2)  | (4)|     (5)     |    (6)   |     (7)
+ I |  (In) two    | nights |  I |  am going   |  house   |    to my.
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">Pit' ku-r&#277;t'</td>
+<td class="br">ka'-ha</td>
+<td class="br">wi</td>
+<td class="br">ta-tukh'-ta</td>
+<td class="br">a-ka'-ru</td>
+<td class="bn">ru-r&#277;t'-i-ru.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">(1)</td>
+<td class="br">(3)</td>
+<td class="br">(2)</td>
+<td class="br">(4)</td>
+<td class="br">(5)</td>
+<td class="br">(6)</td>
+<td class="bn">(7)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">I</td>
+<td class="br">(In) two</td>
+<td class="br">nights</td>
+<td class="br">I</td>
+<td class="br">am going</td>
+<td class="br">house</td>
+<td class="bn">to my.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The orthography in the above sentences, as in others where the original
+text is given (excepting the Dakota and Ojibwa), is that adopted by
+Maj. <span class="sc">J.W. Powell</span> in the second edition of the <i>Introduction to the Study
+of Indian Languages</i>. <i>Washington</i>, 1880. The characters more particularly
+requiring explanation are the following, viz:</p>
+
+<p><i>&#162;</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>then</i>, <i>though</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>n&#x0304;</i>, as <i>ng</i> in <i>sing</i>, <i>singer</i>; Sp. <i>luengo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>&#670;</i>, an intermediate sound between <i>k</i> and <i>g</i> in <i>gig</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>kh</i>, as the German <i>ch</i>, in <i>nacht</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>&#647;</i>, an intermediate sound between <i>t</i> and <i>d</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Nasalized vowels are written with a superior <i>n</i>, thus: <i>a<sup>n</sup></i>, <i>e<sup>n</sup></i>.</p>
+
+<p>The following phrases were obtained by the same authority from Antonito,
+son of Antonio Azul, chief of the Pimas in Arizona.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>[pg 485]</span>
+
+<h5>I AM HUNGRY, GIVE ME SOMETHING TO EAT.</h5>
+
+<p>(1) Touch the breast with the tips of the extended fingers of the right
+hand&mdash;<i>I</i>, (2) place the outer edge of the flat and extended right
+hand
+against the pit of the stomach, palm upward, then make a sawing motion
+from side to side with the hand&mdash;<i>hunger</i>, (3) place the right hand
+before the face, back upward, and fingers pointing toward the mouth,
+then thrust the fingers rapidly to and from the mouth several
+times-<i>eat</i>.</p>
+
+<center>ANALYSIS.</center>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+A<sup>n</sup>-an'-t | pi'-hu-ki'um | &mdash;&mdash;
+   (1)   |    (2)      |  (3)
+ I (have)|   hunger    | eat.
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">A<sup>n</sup>-an'-t</td>
+<td class="br">pi'-hu-ki'um</td>
+<td class="br">&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">(1)</td>
+<td class="br">(2)</td>
+<td class="br">(3)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">I (have)</td>
+<td class="br">hunger</td>
+<td class="br"> eat.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The last sign is so intimately connected with that for hunger, that no
+translation can be made.</p>
+
+<h5>GIVE ME A DRINK OF WATER.</h5>
+
+<p>(1) Place the tips of the index and thumb together, the remaining
+fingers curved, forming a cup, then pass it from a point about six inches
+before the chin, in a curve upward, backward and downward past the
+mouth&mdash;<i>water</i>, (2) then place the flat right hand at the height of
+the
+elbow in front of or slightly to the right of the body, palm up, and in
+passing it slowly from left to right, give the hand a lateral motion at
+the wrist&mdash;<i>give me</i>.</p>
+
+<center>ANALYSIS.</center>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+Shu'-wu-to | do'-i'.
+   (1)     |   (2)
+  water    | give me.
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">Shu'-wu-to</td>
+<td class="bn"> do'-i'.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">(1)</td>
+<td class="bn">(2)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">water</td>
+<td class="bn"> give me.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig303.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig303.png" alt="I am going home. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 303.</div>
+
+<p>The following was also obtained by Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span> from Ta-ta<sup>n</sup>-ka
+Wa-ka<sup>n</sup>, before referred to, at
+the time of his visit to Washington.</p>
+
+<h5>I AM GOING HOME.</h5>
+
+<p>(1) Touch the breast with the extended index&mdash;<i>I</i>, (2)
+then pass it in a downward curve, outward and upward
+toward the right nearly to arm's length, as high as the
+shoulder&mdash;<i>am going (to)</i>, (3)
+and when at that point suddenly
+clinch the hand and throw it edgewise a short distance toward the
+ground&mdash;<i>my country, my home</i>.</p>
+
+<center>ANALYSIS.</center>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+Ma-ko'-ce  mi-ta'-wa  kin  e-kta'  wa-gle'   kta.
+         (3)                (2)            (1)
+ Country  &#x01C1;  my own  &#x01C1; the &#x01C1;  to  &#x01C1; I go home &#x01C1; will.
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">Ma-ko'-ce </td>
+<td class="bn">mi-ta'-wa</td>
+<td class="bn">kin</td>
+<td class="bn">e-kta'</td>
+<td class="bn">wa-gle'</td>
+<td class="bn">kta.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bn" colspan="2">(3)</td>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bn">(2)</td>
+<td class="bn" colspan="2">(1)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br"> Country</td>
+<td class="blr">my own</td>
+<td class="blr">the</td>
+<td class="blr">to</td>
+<td class="blr">I go home</td>
+<td class="bl">will.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>[pg 486]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>DIALOGUES.</h2>
+
+
+<h3><i>TENDOY-HUERITO DIALOGUE.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following conversation took place at Washington in April, 1880,
+between <span class="sc">Tendoy</span>, chief of the Shoshoni and Banak Indians of Idaho,
+and <span class="sc">Huerito</span>, one of the Apache chiefs from New Mexico, in the presence
+of Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span>. Neither of these Indians spoke any language
+known to the other, or had ever met or heard of one another before
+that occasion:</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig304.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig304.png" alt="Question. Apache" /></a>Fig. 304.</div>
+
+<p><i>Huerito</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Who are you?</span></p>
+
+<p>Place the flat and extended right hand, palm forward, about twelve inches
+in front of and as high as the shoulder, then shake the hand from side to
+side
+as it is moved forward and upward&mdash;<i>question, who are you?</i> Fig. 304.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig305.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig305.png" alt="Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 305.</div>
+
+<p><i>Tendoy</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Shoshoni chief.</span></p>
+
+<p>Place the closed right hand near the right hip leaving the index only
+extended, palm down; then pass the hand toward the front and left,
+rotating it from side to side&mdash;<i>Shoshoni</i>, Fig. 305; then place the
+closed hand, with the index extended and pointing upward, near the right
+cheek, pass it upward as high as the head, then turn it forward and
+downward toward the ground, terminating with the movement a little
+below the initial point&mdash;<i>chief</i>. Fig. 306.</p>
+
+<p><i>Huerito</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">How old are you?</span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig306.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig306.png" alt="Chief. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 306.</div>
+
+<p>Clinch both hands and cross the forearms before the breast with a
+trembling motion&mdash;<i>cold&mdash;winter, year</i>, Fig. 307; then elevate the
+left
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>[pg 487]</span>
+hand as high as the neck and about twelve or fifteen inches before it,
+palm toward the face, with fingers extended and pointing upward; then,
+with the index, turn down one finger after another slowly, beginning at
+the little finger, until three or four are folded against the palm, and
+look inquiringly at the person addressed&mdash;<i>how many</i>? See Fig. 302.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig307.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig307.png" alt="Cold, winter, year. Apache" /></a>Fig. 307.</div>
+
+<p><i>Tendoy</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Fifty-six.</span></p>
+
+<p>Close and extend the fingers and thumbs of both hands, with the
+palms forward, five times&mdash;<i>fifty</i>; then extend
+the fingers and thumb of the left
+hand, close the right, and place the extended thumb alongside of and
+near the left thumb&mdash;<i>six</i>. Fig. 308.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig308.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig308.png" alt="&quot;Six.&quot; Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 308.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig309.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig309.png" alt="Good, very well. Apache" /></a>Fig. 309.</div>
+
+<p><i>Huerito</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Very well. Are there any buffalo in your country?</span></p>
+
+<p>Place the flat right hand, pointing to the left, with the palm down,
+against the breast-bone; then move it forward and slightly to the right
+and in an upward curve; make the gesture rather slow and nearly to
+arm's length (otherwise, <i>i.e.</i>, if made hastily and but a short
+distance,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>[pg 488]</span>
+it would only mean <i>good</i>)&mdash;<i>very good</i>, Fig. 309; place both
+closed hands
+to their respective sides of the head, palms toward the hair, leaving
+the forefingers curved&mdash;<i>buffalo</i>, see Fig. 298, p. <a href="#page477">477</a>; then reach
+out the fist to arm's length toward the west, and throw it forcibly toward the
+ground for a distance of about six inches, edge downward&mdash;<i>country, away
+to the west</i>; then point the curved index rather quickly and carelessly
+toward the person addressed&mdash;<i>your</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig310.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig310.png" alt="Many. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 310.</div>
+
+<p><i>Tendoy</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Yes; many black buffalo.</span></p>
+
+<p>Pass the closed right hand, with the index partly flexed, to a position
+about eight inches before the right collar-bone, and, as the hand
+reaches that elevation, quickly close the index&mdash;<i>yes</i>; then make
+the same sign as in the preceding question for <i>buffalo</i>; touch the
+hair on the right side of the head with the palms of the extended
+fingers of the right hand&mdash;<i>black</i>;
+spread the curved fingers and
+thumbs of both hands, place them
+before either thigh, pointing downward;
+then draw them toward
+one another and upward as high
+as the stomach, so that the fingers
+will point toward one another,
+or may be interlaced&mdash;<i>many</i>. Fig. 310.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig311.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig311.png" alt="Hear, heard. Apache" /></a>Fig. 311.</div>
+
+<p><i>Tendoy</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Did you hear anything from the Secretary? If so, tell me.</span></p>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, leaving the index and thumb widely separated,
+pass it by the ear from the back of the ear downward and toward
+the chin, palm toward the head&mdash;<i>hear</i>,
+see Fig. 316, p. <a href="#page492">492</a>; point to
+the individual addressed&mdash;<i>you</i>;
+close the hand again, leaving
+the index and thumb separated
+as in the sign for <i>hear</i> and placing
+the palmar surface of the finger
+horizontally across the forehead,
+pointing to the left, allow the
+thumb to rest against the right
+temple; then draw the index
+across the forehead from left to
+right, leaving the thumb touching
+the head&mdash;<i>white man</i>; then place the closed hand, with elevated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>[pg 489]</span>
+index, before the right side of the neck or in front of the top of the
+shoulder;
+pass the index, pointing upward, as high as the top of the head; turn it
+forward and downward as far as the breast&mdash;<i>chief</i>; pass the extended
+index, pointing up ward and forward, forward from the mouth
+twice&mdash;<i>talk</i>;
+then open and flatten the hand, palm up, outer edge toward the face, place
+it about fifteen inches in front of the chin, and draw it horizontally
+inward until the hand nearly touches the neck&mdash;<i>tell me</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Huerito</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">He told me that in four days I would go to my country.</span></p>
+
+<p>Close the right hand, leaving the index curved; place it about six
+inches from the ear and move it in toward the external
+meatus&mdash;<i>told me,
+hear, I heard</i>, Fig. 311; with the right hand still closed, form a
+circle with
+the index and thumb by allowing their tips to touch; pass the hand
+from east to west at arm's length&mdash;<i>day</i>; place the left hand before
+the breast, the fingers extended, and the thumb resting against the palm,
+back forward, and, with the index, turn down one finger after another,
+beginning at the little finger&mdash;<i>four</i>; touch the breast with the tips
+of the
+finger and thumb of the left hand collected to a point&mdash;<i>I</i>; drop the
+hand a short distance and move it forward to arm's length and slightly
+upward until it points above the horizon&mdash;<i>go to</i>*; then as the arm
+is
+extended, throw the fist edgewise toward the ground&mdash;<i>my country</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig312.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig312.png" alt="Night. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 312.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig313.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig313.png" alt="Rain. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 313.</div>
+
+<p><i>Tendoy</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">In two days I go to my country just as you go to
+yours. I go to mine where there is a great deal of snow,
+and we shall see each other no more.</span></p>
+
+<p>Place the flat hands horizontally, about two feet apart, move them
+quickly in an upward curve toward one another until the right lies
+across the left&mdash;<i>night</i>, Fig. 312, repeat this sign&mdash;<i>two
+nights</i> (literally
+<i>two sleeps hence</i>); point toward the individual addressed with the
+right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>[pg 490]</span>
+hand&mdash;<i>you</i>; and in a continuous movement pass the hand to the right,
+<i>i.e.</i>, toward the south, nearly to arm's length&mdash;<i>go</i>; then
+throw the fist
+edgewise toward the ground at that distance&mdash;<i>your country</i>; then
+touch
+the breast with the tips of the fingers of the left hand&mdash;<i>I</i>; move
+the
+hand off slowly toward the left, <i>i.e.</i>, toward the north to arm's
+length&mdash;<i>go
+to</i>*; and throw the clinched hand toward the ground&mdash;<i>my country</i>;
+then hold both hands toward the left as high as the head, palms down,
+with fingers and thumbs pendent and separated; move them toward the
+ground two or three times&mdash;<i>rain</i>, Fig. 313; then place the flat hands
+horizontally to the left of the body about
+two feet from the ground&mdash;<i>deep</i>; (literally,
+<i>deep rain</i>) <i>snow</i>&mdash;and raise them
+until about three feet from the ground&mdash;<i>very
+deep</i>&mdash;<i>much</i>; place the hands before the body about twelve inches apart,
+palms down, with forefingers only extended and pointing toward one another;
+push them toward and from one another several times&mdash;<i>see each
+other</i>, Fig. 314; then hold the flat right
+hand in front of the breast, pointing
+forward, palm to the left, and throw it
+over on its back toward the right&mdash;<i>not, no more</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig314.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig314.png" alt="See each other. Shoshoni" /></a>Fig. 314.</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Explanatory Note</span>.&mdash;Where the asterisks appear in the above dialogue
+the preposition <i>to</i> is included in the gesture. After touching the
+breast for <i>I</i>, the slow movement forward signifies <i>going to</i>,
+and <i>country</i>
+is signified by locating it at arm's length toward the west, to the left of
+the gesturer, as the stopping-place, also <i>possession</i> by the clinched
+fist being
+directed toward the ground. It is the same as for <i>my</i> or <i>mine</i>,
+though made before the body in the latter signs. The direction of Tendoy's
+hands, first to the south and afterwards to the north, was understood
+not as pointing to the exact locality of the two parts of the country,
+but to the difference in their respective climates.</p>
+
+<h3><i>OMAHA COLLOQUY.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following is contributed by Rev. <span class="sc">J. Owen Dorsey</span>:</p>
+
+<p><i>Question</i>. <span class="sc">From what quarter is the wind?</span></p>
+
+<p>Raise the curved right hand, palm in, in front of the left shoulder.
+Draw in toward the body a little, then from the body several times in
+different directions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer</i>. <span class="sc">From that quarter.</span></p>
+
+<p>Hand as above; draw in towards the body <i>once</i>, and <i>farther</i>
+with <i>emphasis</i>, according to the direction of the wind.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>[pg 491]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>BRUL&#201; DAKOTA COLLOQUY.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following signs, forming a question and answer, were obtained by
+Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span>, from Ta-ta<sup>n</sup>-ka Wa-ka<sup>n</sup> (Medicine Bull), a Brul&#233;
+Dakota chief who visited Washington during the winter of 1880-'81:</p>
+
+<p><i>Question</i>. <span class="sc">We went to the department [of the interior], shook
+hands with the secretary and had a conversation with him,
+did you hear of it?</span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig315.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig315.png" alt="White man, American. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 315.</div>
+
+<p>(1) Extend and separate the thumb and index, leaving the remaining
+fingers closed, place the ball of the thumb against the temple above the
+outer corner of the eye, and the index across the forehead, the tip resting
+on the left temple, then draw the index across to the right until its
+tip touches the thumb&mdash;<i>white man</i>, Fig. 315; (2) Elevate the extended
+index before the shoulder, palm forward, pass it upward, as high as
+the head, and forming a short curve to the front, then downward again
+slightly to the front to before the breast and about fifteen inches from
+it&mdash;<i>chief</i>; (3) Fingers of both hands
+extended and separated; then interlace them so that the tips of the
+fingers of one hand protrude beyond the backs of those of the opposing
+one; hold the hands in front of the breast, pointing upward, leaving
+the wrists about six inches apart&mdash;<i>lodge</i>;
+(4) Place the left hand a short distance before the breast, palm
+down and slightly arched, fingers directed toward the right and front,
+then pass the flat and extended right hand forward, under and beyond
+the left, forming a downward curve, the right hand being as high as
+the left at the commencement and termination of the gesture&mdash;<i>enter,
+entered</i>;
+(5) Clasp the hands before the body, left uppermost&mdash;<i>shook hands,
+friendly</i>; (6) Place the flat right hand before the chin, palm up with
+fingers directed to the left, then pass the hand forward several
+times&mdash;<i>talk,
+talked to him</i>; (7) Reverse this motion, beginning away from the
+body, drawing the hand edgewise toward the chin several
+times&mdash;<i>talked
+to me</i>; (8) Separate the extended thumb and index as far as possible,
+leaving the remaining fingers closed, place the hand about six inches
+opposite the right ear, palm toward the head, then pass it in a curve
+forward and downward, terminating at the height of the elbow&mdash;<i>hear,
+heard</i>; (9) then in a continuous movement direct the extended index
+at the individual addressed, the face expressing a look of
+inquiry&mdash;<i>you</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>[pg 492]</span>
+
+<h4>ANALYSIS.</h4>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+Wa-&#347;i'-cu<sup>n</sup> | i-ta<sup>n</sup>-ca<sup>n</sup> | ti-el' | ti'-ma-hel |   unk-i'-pi
+    (1)    &#x01C1;    (2)    &#x01C1;       (3)            &#x01C1;      (4)
+White man  |   chief   |lodge in|lodge within| we were at that place
+
+|na  | na'-pe-u<sup>n</sup>-za-pi | na  |    ki-ci      | wo-un-gla-ka-pi |  ki<sup>n</sup>
+     &#x01C1;            (5)         &#x01C1;             (6,7)               &#x01C1;
+|and | hand we hold it,| and | to each other |     we talk     |  the
+         take hold of                                            thing
+
+| na-ya-h&#x307;o<sup>n</sup>-hu-o
+    (8,9)
+| you hear it?
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">Wa-&#347;i'-cu<sup>n</sup></td>
+<td class="bn"> i-ta<sup>n</sup>-ca<sup>n</sup></td>
+<td class="bn"> ti-el'</td>
+<td class="bn">ti'-ma-hel</td>
+<td class="bn">unk-i'-pi</td>
+<td class="bn">na</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">(1)</td>
+<td class="blr">(2)</td>
+<td class="blr" colspan="2">(3)</td>
+<td class="bl">(4)</td>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">White man</td>
+<td class="br">chief </td>
+<td class="br">lodge in</td>
+<td class="br">lodge within</td>
+<td class="br">we were at that place</td>
+<td class="br">and </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">na'-pe-u<sup>n</sup>-za-pi</td>
+<td class="bn">na</td>
+<td class="bn">ki-ci</td>
+<td class="bn">wo-un-gla-ka-pi </td>
+<td class="bn">ki<sup>n</sup></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">(5)</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="blr" colspan="2">(6,7)</td>
+<td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">hand we hold it,<br />take hold of</td>
+<td class="br">and</td>
+<td class="br">to each other</td>
+<td class="br">we talk</td>
+<td class="bn">the<br />thing</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">na-ya-h&#x307;o<sup>n</sup>-hu-o</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">(8,9)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bn"> you hear it?</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:55%;"><a href="images/fig316.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig316.png" alt="Hear, heard. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 316.</div>
+
+<p>It will be observed that the interrogation point is placed under the
+last syllable, hu-o, the latter implying a question, though the gesture was
+not made to accompany it, the gestures for <i>hear</i> and <i>you</i>,
+with a look of inquiry, being deemed sufficient to express the
+desire on the part of the speaker.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer</i>. <span class="sc">Yes, I heard of it, but did not see it.</span></p>
+
+<p>(1) Hold the naturally closed hand before the right side of the
+breast or shoulder, leaving the index and thumb loosely extended,
+then, as the hand is thrown downward and forward, bring the index
+against the inner side of the thumb&mdash;<i>yes</i>. (2) Repeat gesture
+No. 8&mdash;<i>heard</i>, Fig. 316; (3) pass the extended index forward from
+the right eye&mdash;<i>saw</i>; (4) then in a continuous motion extend all the
+fingers
+so as to place the flat hand edgewise, and pointing forward about twelve
+inches before the right side of the breast, and throw it outward and
+slightly downward&mdash;<i>no, not</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ANALYSIS.</h4>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+Ha-u | na-wa'-h&#x307;o<sup>n</sup> | tka | wa<sup>n</sup>-mla'-ke | &#347;ni
+ (1) |    (2)     |     |     (3)     | (4)
+Yes, |  I heard   |(but)|  I saw it.  | not.
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">Ha-u</td>
+<td class="br"> na-wa'-h&#x307;o<sup>n</sup></td>
+<td class="br">tka</td>
+<td class="br">wa<sup>n</sup>-mla'-ke</td>
+<td class="bn">&#347;ni</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">(1)</td>
+<td class="br">(2)</td>
+<td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="br">(3)</td>
+<td class="bn">(4)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="br">Yes,</td>
+<td class="br"> I heard</td>
+<td class="br">(but)</td>
+<td class="br">I saw it.</td>
+<td class="bn">not.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><i>DIALOGUE BETWEEN ALASKAN INDIANS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following introductory notes are furnished by <span class="sc">Mr. Ivan Petroff</span>,
+who contributes the Dialogue:</p>
+
+<p>It has been repeatedly stated that among the natives of Alaska no
+trace of gesture or sign language can be found. The universal spread
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>[pg 493]</span>
+of the Russian language in former times as a medium of trade and general
+intercourse has certainly prevented observations of this primitive
+linguistic feature in all the vast regions visited by the Russians. On
+the other hand, the homogeneous elements of the Innuit tongue, spoken
+along the whole seacoast from the Arctic to the Alaskan Peninsula, and
+the Island of Kadiak, has, to a great extent, abolished all causes for the
+employment of sign language between tribes in their mutual intercourse.
+Basing their opinions upon what they saw while touching upon the coast
+here and there, even the acknowledged authorities on Alaskan matters
+have declared that sign language did not and could not exist in all that
+country. Without entering into any lengthened dispute upon this question,
+I venture to present in the subjoined pages a succinct account of
+at least one instance where I saw natives of different tribes converse
+with each other only by means of signs and gestures within the boundaries
+of Alaska.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of September, 1866, there arrived on the Lower Kinnik
+River, a stream emptying its waters into Cook's Inlet, two Indians from
+a distant region, who did not speak the Kenaitze language. The people
+of the settlement at which the strangers made their first appearance
+were equally at a loss to understand the visitors. At last a chief of
+great age, bearing the name of Chatidoolts (mentioned by Vancouver
+as a youth), was found to be able to interpret some of the signs made
+by the strangers, and after a little practice he entered into a continued
+conversation with them in rather a roundabout way, being himself
+blind. He informed me that it was the second or third time within his
+recollection that strangers like those then present had come to Kinnik
+from the northeast, but that in his youth he had frequently "talked
+with his hands" to their visitors from the west and east. He also told
+me that he had acquired this art from his father, who, as the old man
+expressed himself, had "seen every country, and spoken to all the tribes
+of the earth." The conversation was carried on with the help of the old
+man's sons, who described to their blind parent the gestures of the
+strangers, and were instructed in turn by him with what gestures to
+reply.</p>
+
+<p>This being an entirely new experience to me I at once proceeded to
+carefully make notes of the desultory talk, extending over several days.
+My object, primarily, was to make use of the signs for purposes of trade
+in the future.</p>
+
+<p>The notes thus obtained contain a narrative of the two strangers,
+interpreted
+to me at the time by Chatidoolts. I shall present each sign
+or sentence as I noted it at the time, with only casual reference to that
+incomplete and frequently erroneous interpretation.</p>
+
+<p>The two Indians wore the pointed hunting shirt of tanned moose-skin,
+ornamented with beads and fringes which is still common to the Kutchin
+tribes. They were not tattooed, but ears and noses were encumbered
+with pendants of dentalium and a small red glass bead. Their feet were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>[pg 494]</span>
+clothed in moccasins. One of them had a rifle of English manufacture,
+and his companion carried two huge knives, one of them of copper evidently
+of native manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Kenaitze</i>.&mdash;Left hand raised to height of eye, palm outward,
+moved
+several times from right to left rapidly; fingers extended and closed;
+pointing to strangers with left hand. Right hand describes a curve
+from north to east&mdash;<i>Which of the northeastern tribes is yours?</i></p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Tennanah</i>.&mdash;Right hand, hollowed, lifted to mouth, then extended
+and describing waving line gradually descending from right to left. Left
+hand describing mountainous outline, apparently one peak rising above
+the other, said by Chatidoolts to mean&mdash;<i>Tenan-tnu-kohtana,
+Mountain-river-men</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>K</i>.&mdash;Left hand raised to height of eye, palm outward, moved from
+right to left, fingers extended. Left index describes curve from east to
+west. Outline of mountain and river as in preceding sign.&mdash;<i>How many
+days from Mountain-river?</i></p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>T</i>.&mdash;Right hand raised toward sky, index and thumb forming first
+crescent and then ring. This repeated three times&mdash;<i>moon, new and full
+three times</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Right hand raised, palm to front, index raised and lowered at regular
+intervals&mdash;<i>walked</i>. Both hands imitating paddling of canoe,
+alternately
+right and left&mdash;<i>traveled three months on foot and by canoe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Both arms crossed over breast, simulating shivering&mdash;<i>cold,
+winter</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(7) Right index pointing toward speaker&mdash;<i>I</i>. Left hand pointing to
+the west&mdash;<i>traveled westward</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(8) Right hand lifted cup-shaped to mouth&mdash;<i>water</i>. Right hand
+describing
+waving line from right to left gradually descending, pointing
+to the west&mdash;<i>river running westward</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(9) Right hand gradually pushed forward, palm upward, from height of
+breast. Left hand shading eyes; looking at great distance&mdash;<i>very
+wide</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(10) Left and right hands put together in shape of sloping
+shelter&mdash;<i>lodge,
+camp</i>. See Fig. 259, on p. <a href="#page431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p>(11) Both hands lifted, height of eye, palm inward, fingers
+spread&mdash;<i>many
+times</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(12) Both hands closed, palm outward, height of
+hips&mdash;<i>surprised</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(13) Index pointing from eye forward&mdash;<i>see</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(14) Right hand held up, height of shoulder, three fingers extended,
+left hand pointing to me&mdash;<i>three white men</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(15) <i>K</i>.&mdash;Right hand pointing to me, left hand held up, three fingers
+extended&mdash;<i>three white men</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(16) Making Russian sign of cross&mdash;<i>Russians. Were the three white
+men Russians?</i></p>
+
+<p>(17) <i>T</i>.&mdash;Left hand raised, palm inward, two fingers extended, sign
+of cross with right&mdash;<i>two Russians</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(18) Right hand extended, height of eye, palm outward, moved outward
+a little to right&mdash;<i>no</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>[pg 495]</span>
+
+<p>(19) One finger of left hand raised&mdash;<i>one</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(20) Sign of cross with right&mdash;<i>Russian</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(21) Right hand height of eye, fingers closed and extended, palm outward
+a little to right&mdash;<i>no</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(22) Right hand carried across chest, hand extended, palm upward,
+fingers and thumb closed as if holding something. Left hand in same
+position carried across the right, palm downward&mdash;<i>trade</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(23) Left hand upholding one finger, right pointing to me&mdash;<i>one white
+man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(24) Right hand held horizontally, palm downward, about four feet
+from ground&mdash;<i>small</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(25) Forming rings before eyes with index and
+thumb&mdash;<i>eye-glasses</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(26) Right hand clinched, palm upward, in front of chest, thumb
+pointing inward&mdash;<i>gave one</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(27) Forming cup with right hand, simulating drinking&mdash;<i>drink</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(28) Right hand grasping chest repeatedly, fingers curved and
+spread&mdash;<i>strong</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(29) Both hands pressed to temple and head moved from side to
+side&mdash;<i>drunk, headache</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(30) Both index fingers placed together, extended, pointing
+forward&mdash;<i>together</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(31) Fingers interlaced repeatedly&mdash;<i>build</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(32) Left hand extended, fingers closed, pointing outward (vertically),
+right hand extended, fingers closed, placed slopingly against
+left&mdash;<i>camp</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(33) Both wrists placed against temples, hands curved upward and
+outward, fingers spread&mdash;<i>horns</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(34) Both hands horizontally lifted to height of shoulder, right arm
+extended gradually full length to the right, hand drooping a little at
+the end&mdash;<i>long back, moose</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(35) Both hands upright, palm outward, fingers extended and spread,
+placing one before the other alternately&mdash;<i>trees, forest, dense
+forest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(36) Sign of cross&mdash;<i>Russian</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(37) Motions of shooting a gun&mdash;<i>shot</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(38) Sign for <i>moose</i> (Nos. 33, 34), showing two fingers of left
+hand&mdash;<i>two</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(39) Sign for <i>camp</i> as before (No. 10) <i>camp</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(40) Right hand describing curve from east to west, twice&mdash;<i>two days</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(41) Left hand lifted height of mouth, back outward, fingers closed
+as if holding something; right hand simulating motion of tearing off
+and placing in mouth&mdash;<i>eating moose meat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(42) Right hand placed horizontally against heart, fingers closed,
+moved forward a little and raised a little several times&mdash;<i>glad at
+heart</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(43) Fingers of left hand and index of right hand extended and placed
+together horizontally, pointing forward, height of chest. Hands separated,
+right pointing eastward and left westward&mdash;<i>three men and speaker
+parted, going west and east</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>[pg 496]</span>
+
+<p>(44) Pressing both arms against chest and shivering&mdash;<i>very cold</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(45) Drawing index of each hand around corresponding legs below
+the knee&mdash;<i>deep snow</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(46) Drawing imaginary line with index of right hand across each
+foot, just behind the toes&mdash;<i>snow shoes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(47) Head lowered to right side into palm of hand three times&mdash;<i>slept
+three times</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(48) Sign for <i>camp</i>, as before (No. 10)&mdash;<i>camp</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(49) Pointing to speaker&mdash;<i>I</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(50) Fingers of right hand extended and joined and pointed forward
+from mouth, left hand lowered horizontally to a foot from the
+ground&mdash;<i>fox</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(51) Left hand raised height of eye, back to the left, fingers closed,
+with exception of middle finger held upright; then middle finger suddenly
+closed&mdash;<i>trap</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(52) Both hands lifted height of eye, palm inward, fingers
+spread&mdash;<i>many</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(53) Right hand pointing to speaker&mdash;<i>I</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(54) Sign for <i>trap</i> (No. 51), as above&mdash;<i>trap</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(55) Right hand lowered to within a few inches of the ground and
+moved from left to right about two feet. Motions of both hands descriptive
+of playful jumping of marten around a tree or stump&mdash;<i>marten</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(56) Holding up the fingers of both hands three times until aggregating
+thirty&mdash;<i>thirty</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(57) Left forearm held up vertically, palm to front, fingers
+spread&mdash;<i>tree</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(58) Motion of chopping with hatchet&mdash;<i>cut</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(59) Driving invisible wedge around small circle&mdash;<i>peeling birch
+bark</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(60) Right hand, fingers extended and joined, moved slowly from left
+to right horizontally while blowing upon it with mouth&mdash;<i>pitching seams
+of canoe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(61) Motions of using paddle very vigorously&mdash;<i>paddle up stream</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(62) Lifting both arms above head on respective sides, hands closed
+as if grasping something and lifting the body&mdash;<i>poling canoe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(63) Sign for <i>moon</i> (No. 4), (crescent and ring) once&mdash;<i>one
+month</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(64) Right hand vertically, height of chest, palm to left, fingers
+extended, closed. Left hand horizontally, palm downward, pushed
+against right&mdash;<i>stopped</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(65) Right hand, index extended, drawing outline of mountains, one
+above other&mdash;<i>high mountains</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(66) Left hand lifted to left shoulder, back to front, fingers bent and
+closed. Right hand, fingers bent and closed, placed over left and then
+slowly drawn across chest to right shoulder. Motion with both hands as
+if adjusting pack&mdash;<i>pack, knapsack</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(67) Sign for <i>water</i> as before (No. 8). Both hands brought forward,
+palms down, arms passed outward horizontally to respective sides, palms
+down&mdash;<i>lake</i>. Both hands describing circular line backward until
+touching collar bone&mdash;<i>big and deep</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>[pg 497]</span>
+
+<p>(68) Left hand raised slightly about height of nipple, three fingers
+closed; index and thumb holding tip of index of right hand. Both
+hands moved across chest from left to right&mdash;<i>beaver</i>.<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>(69) Previous sign for <i>many</i> (No. 52) repeated several
+times&mdash;<i>very plentiful</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(70) Both hands held up with fingers spread, palm forward, twice and
+left hand once&mdash;height of eye&mdash;<i>twenty-five</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(71) Pointing to himself&mdash;<i>I</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(72) Sign for <i>trap</i> as before (No. 51)&mdash;<i>trapped</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(73) Sign for temporary <i>shelter</i> (No. 10)&mdash;<i>camped</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(74) Sign for new and full moon (No. 4), once&mdash;<i>one month</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(75) Right hand passed slowly over the hair and chin. Left hand
+touching a pendant of white beads&mdash;<i>old man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(76) Index of right hand held up&mdash;<i>one</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(77) Both hands partially closed and placed against breast, back of
+hands to front, a few inches apart&mdash;<i>women</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(78) Index and middle finger of right hand held up, palm forward;
+eyes directed as if counting&mdash;<i>two</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(79) Sign for <i>trap</i> as before (No. 51)&mdash;<i>trapping</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(80) Left forearm vertically in front of chest, palm of hand to front,
+fingers spread, elbow resting upon the back of the right
+hand&mdash;<i>tree</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(81) Arms and hands spanning imaginary tree of some size&mdash;<i>big</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(82) Sign for <i>tree</i> as before (No. 57), left forearm suddenly brought
+down across extended right hand&mdash;<i>fell</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(83) Right hand laid on top of head, then passed over the hair and
+chin, left hand touching white beads&mdash;<i>on the head of the old man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(84) Sign for <i>old man</i> as before (No. 75)&mdash;<i>old man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(85) Closing both eyes with fore and middle finger of right hand;
+both hands placed side by side, horizontally, palms downward, fingers
+extended and united, hands separated by slow horizontal movement to
+right and left&mdash;<i>dead</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(86) Sign for women as before (No. 77)&mdash;women.</p>
+
+<p>(87) Fingers of both hands interlaced at right angles several
+times&mdash;<i>built</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(88) Sign for <i>lodge</i> as before (No. 10)&mdash;<i>lodge</i>.<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>(89) Right index describing circle around the head, height of eye
+(cutting hair). Right hand passed over forehead and face. Left index
+pointing to black scabbard (blacking faces)&mdash;<i>mourning</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(90) Index and middle finger of right hand passed from eyes downward
+across cheeks&mdash;<i>weeping</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(91) Pointing to himself&mdash;<i>I</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(92) Make the signs for <i>shoot</i> (Nos. 33, 34), and <i>moose</i>
+(No. 37)&mdash;<i>shot a moose</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(93) Left hand extended horizontally, palm upward, right hand
+placed across left vertically, about the middle&mdash;<i>divided in two</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(94) Right hand closed, palm downward, moved forward from right
+breast the length of the arm and then opened&mdash;<i>I gave</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>[pg 498]</span>
+
+<p>(95) Sign for <i>women</i>, (No. 77)&mdash;<i>to women</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(96) Right hand, palm down, pointing to left, placed horizontally
+before heart and slightly raised several times&mdash;<i>good and glad</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(97) Pointing to his companion&mdash;<i>he</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(98) Motion of <i>paddling&mdash;in canoe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(99) Right arm and hand extended in N.E. direction, gradually
+curved back until index touches speaker&mdash;<i>came to me from the
+northeast</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(100) Sign for <i>together</i> as above (No. 30)&mdash;<i>together</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(101) Motion of <i>paddling&mdash;paddled</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(102) Pointing to ground&mdash;<i>to this place</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(103) <i>K</i>. Motion of drinking water out of hand&mdash;<i>water</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(104) Describing circle with right index on palm of left hand extended
+horizontally&mdash;<i>lake</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(105) Left hand raised to height of eye, palm to front, fingers leaning
+slightly backward. Fingers of left hand closed alternately&mdash;<i>how many?</i></p>
+
+<p>(106) <i>T</i>. Holding up right hand back to front, showing four fingers,
+eyes looking at them as if counting&mdash;<i>four</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(107) Sign for packing with wooden breast-brace as above; three
+fingers of right hand shown as above&mdash;<i>three portages</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(108) <i>K</i>. Right hand pointing to gun of stranger&mdash;<i>gun</i>. Left
+hand
+raised height of eye, palm to front, and moved rapidly several times to
+right and left&mdash;<i>interrogation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(109) Sign for <i>trade</i> as before (No. 22)&mdash;<i>trade</i>; <i>i.e.</i>, <i>where did
+you buy the gun?</i></p>
+
+<p>(110) <i>T</i>. Sign for <i>Mountain-river</i> as above (No. 2). Pointing
+eastward&mdash;<i>from the eastward</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(111) Pointing to sun and then raising both hands, backs to front,
+fingers spread&mdash;<i>ten days</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(112) Pointing to me&mdash;<i>white man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(113) Left hand held up vertically, palm outward, fingers joined.
+Right index placed horizontally across fingers of left hand in front,
+about the middle joint&mdash;<i>pallisaded</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(114) Describing square with right index on flat palm of left
+hand&mdash;<i>building</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(115) Pointing to his gun, powder-horn, blanket, and beads&mdash;<i>trading
+goods</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(116) Both hands horizontal, brought forward and upward from chest
+and then downward&mdash;<i>plenty</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In giving this narrative I have observed the original sequence, but
+there were frequent interruptions, caused by consultation between
+Chatidoolts
+and his sons, and before the strangers departed again they had
+obtained a knowledge of some words of the Kenaitze language.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b>
+<a href="#footnotetag1"> (return) </a>
+<p>Chatidoolts explained this to his sons as well as to me, saying that the mountain men
+had a peculiar mode of catching beavers with long sticks.</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href="#footnotetag2"> (return) </a><p>They never occupy a house in which one of the other Indians died.</p></blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>[pg 499]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>OJIBWA DIALOGUE.</i></h3>
+
+<h4>[Communicated by the Very Rev. <span class="sc">Edward Jacker</span>.]</h4>
+
+<p>The following short dialogue forms part of the scanty tradition the
+civilized Ojibwas possess regarding their ancestors' sign language:</p>
+
+<p>Two Indians of different tongue meet on a journey. First Indian
+points to second Indian with the outstretched forefinger of the right
+hand, bringing it within a few inches of his breast; next he extends
+both forearms horizontally, clinches all but the forefingers, and bends
+the hands inward; then he brings them slowly and in a straight line
+together, until the tips of the outstretched forefingers meet. This gesture
+is accompanied with a look of inquiry&mdash;<i>You met somebody?</i></p>
+
+<p>Second Indian, facing the south, points to the east, and with the
+outstretched
+hand forms a half-circle from east to west (corresponding to the
+daily course of the sun); then he raises the arm and points to a certain
+height above the southern horizon. Then the sign for <i>meeting</i> (as above)
+may be made, or omitted. After this he bends the right hand downward,
+and repeatedly moves the outstretched forefinger and middle finger in opposite
+directions (in imitation of the motion of the legs in the act of walking).
+Finally he raises the right hand and stretches up the forefinger (or several
+fingers). <i>To-day, when the sun stood at such a height, I met one (or
+several) persons traveling on foot</i>. If the travelers met were on horseback
+he makes the sign for <i>horse</i> as described by (<i>Dakota</i> III), see
+<span class="sc">Extracts from Dictionary</span>, or the identical one for <i>going</i> given by
+(<i>Ojibwa</i> I),
+which is as follows: To describe a journey on horseback the first two
+fingers of the right hand are placed astride of the forefinger of the left
+hand, and both represent the galloping movement of a horse. If it is a
+foot journey, wave the two fingers several times through the air.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>[pg 500]</span>
+
+
+<h2>NARRATIVES.</h2>
+
+<p>The following, which is presented as a good descriptive model, was
+obtained by Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span>, of the Bureau of Ethnology, from
+Natci, a Pai-Ute chief connected with the delegation of that tribe to
+Washington in January, 1880, and refers to an expedition made by him
+by direction of his father, Winnimukka, Head Chief of the Pai-Utes,
+to the northern camp of his tribe, partly for the purpose of preventing
+the hostile outbreak of the Banaks which occurred in 1878, and more
+particularly to prevent those Pai-Utes from being drawn into any difficulty
+with the United States by being leagued with the Banaks.</p>
+
+<h3><i>N&#193;TCI'S NARRATIVE.</i></h3>
+
+<p>(1) Close the right hand, leaving the index extended, pointed westward
+at arm's length a little above the horizon, head thrown back with
+the eyes partly closed and following the direction&mdash;<i>Away to the
+west</i>, (2)
+indicate a large circle on the ground with the forefinger of the right
+hand pointing downward&mdash;<i>place</i> (locative), (3) the tips of the spread
+fingers of both hands placed against one another, pointing upward before
+the body, leaving a space of four or five inches between the
+wrists&mdash;<i>house</i>
+(brush tent or wik'-i-up), see Fig. 257, p. <a href="#page431">431</a>, (4) with the right
+hand closed, index extended or slightly bent, tap the breast several
+times&mdash;<i>mine</i>. (5) Draw an imaginary line, with the right index toward
+the ground, from some distance in front of the body to a position nearer
+to it&mdash;<i>from there I came</i>, (6) indicate a spot on the ground by
+quickly
+raising and depressing the right hand with the index pointing
+downward&mdash;<i>to
+a stopping place</i>, (7) grasp the forelock with the right hand,
+palm to the forehead, and raise it about six inches, still holding the
+hair upward&mdash;<i>the chief of the tribe</i> (Winnimukka), see Fig. 245, p.
+<a href="#page418">418</a>, (8) touch the breast with the index&mdash;<i>me</i>, (9) the right hand held
+forward from the hip at the level of the elbow, closed, palm downward,
+with the middle finger extended and quickly moved up and down a
+short distance&mdash;<i>telegraphed</i>, (10) head inclined toward the right, at
+the same time making movement toward and from the ear with the extended
+index pointing toward it&mdash;<i>I heard</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, understood.</p>
+
+<p>(11) An imaginary line indicated with the extended and inverted
+index from a short distance before the body to a place on the
+right&mdash;<i>I went</i>, (12) repeat gesture No. 6&mdash;<i>a stopping place</i>, (13)
+inclining the head,
+with eyes closed, toward the right, bring the extended right hand, palm
+up, to within six inches of the right ear&mdash;<i>where I slept</i>. (14) Place
+the spread and extended index and thumb of the right hand, palm downward,
+across the right side of the forehead&mdash;<i>white man</i> (American), (15)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>[pg 501]</span>
+elevating both hands before the breast, palms forward, thumbs touching,
+the little finger of the right hand closed&mdash;<i>nine</i>, (16) touch the
+breast
+with the right forefinger suddenly&mdash;<i>and myself</i>, (17) lowering the
+hand, and pointing downward and forward with the index still extended (the
+remaining fingers and thumb being loosely closed) indicate an imaginary
+line along the ground toward the extreme right&mdash;<i>went</i>, (18) extend
+the forefinger of the closed left hand, and place the separated fore and
+second fingers of the right astraddle the forefinger of the left, and make
+a series of arched or curved movements toward the right&mdash;<i>rode
+horseback</i>, (19) keeping the hands in their relative position, place them a
+short distance below the right ear, the head being inclined toward that
+side&mdash;<i>sleep</i>, (20) repeat the signs for <i>riding</i> (No. 18) and
+<i>sleeping</i> (No. 19)
+three times&mdash;<i>four days and nights</i>, (21) make sign No. 18, and
+stopping suddenly point toward the east with the extended index-finger of the
+right (others being closed) and follow the course of the sun until it
+reaches the zenith&mdash;<i>arrived at noon of the fifth day</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(22) Indicate a circle as in No. 2&mdash;<i>a camp</i>, (23) the hands then
+placed together as in No. 3, and in this position, both moved in short irregular
+upward and downward jerks from side to side&mdash;<i>many wik'-i-ups</i>, (24)
+then indicate the chief of the tribe as in No. 7&mdash;meaning that <i>it was
+one of the camps of the chief of the tribe</i>. (25) Make a peculiar whistling
+sound of "phew" and draw the extended index of the right hand across
+the throat from left to right&mdash;<i>Banak</i>, (26) draw an imaginary line
+with the same extended index, pointing toward the ground, from the right to
+the body&mdash;<i>came from the north</i>, (27) again make gesture No.
+2&mdash;<i>camp</i>,
+(28) and follow it twice by sign given as No. 18 (forward from the body,
+but a short distance)&mdash;<i>two rode</i>. (29) Rub the back of the right hand
+with the extended index of the left&mdash;<i>Indian</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the narrator's
+own
+tribe, Pai-Ute, (30) elevate both hands side by side before the breast,
+palms forward, thumbs touching, then, after a short pause, close all the
+fingers and thumbs except the two outer fingers of the right
+hand&mdash;<i>twelve</i>,
+(31) again place the hands side by side with fingers all spread or
+separated, and move them in a horizontal curve toward the
+right&mdash;<i>went out of camp</i>, (32) and make the sign given as No.
+25&mdash;<i>Banak</i>, (33) that of
+No. 2&mdash;<i>camp</i>, (34) then join the hands as in No. 31, from the right
+toward
+the front&mdash;<i>Pai-Utes returned</i>, (35) close the right hand, leaving the
+index only extended, move it forward and downward from the mouth
+three or four times, pointing forward, each time ending the movement
+at a different point&mdash;<i>I talked to them</i>, (36) both hands pointing
+upward,
+fingers and thumbs separated, palms facing and about four inches apart,
+held in front of the body as far as possible in that
+position&mdash;<i>the men in
+council</i>, (37) point toward the east with the index apparently curving
+downward over the horizon, then gradually elevate it to an altitude of
+45&#176;&mdash;<i>talked all night and until nine o'clock next morning</i>, (38)
+bring the
+closed hands, with forefingers extended, upward and forward from their
+respective sides, and place them side by side, palms forward, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>[pg 502]</span>
+front&mdash;<i>my brother</i>, Fig. 317, (39) (see also pp. 385, 386) followed by the
+gesture,
+No. 18, directed toward the left and front&mdash;<i>rode</i>, (40) by No.
+7&mdash;<i>the head chief</i>, (41) and No. 2&mdash;<i>camp</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig317.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig317.png" alt="Brother. Pai-Ute" /></a>Fig. 317.</div>
+
+<p>(42) Continue by placing the hands, slightly curved, palm to palm,
+holding them about six inches below the right ear, the head being inclined
+considerably in that direction&mdash;<i>one sleep (night)</i>,
+(43) make sign No. 14&mdash;<i>white man</i>, (44) raise the left
+hand to the level of the elbow forward from the left
+hip, fingers pointing upward, thumb and forefinger
+closed&mdash;<i>three</i>, (45) and in this position draw them toward the body
+and slightly to the right&mdash;<i>came</i>, (46)
+then make gesture So. 42&mdash;<i>sleep</i>; (47) point with the right index to
+the eastern horizon&mdash;<i>in the morning</i>, (48) make sign No. 14&mdash;<i>white
+man</i>, (49)
+hold the left hand nearly at arm's length before the body, back up,
+thumb and forefinger closed, the remaining fingers pointing
+downward&mdash;<i>three</i>,
+(50) with the right index finger make gesture No. 35, the movement
+being directed towards the left hand&mdash;<i>talked to them</i>, (51) motion
+along the ground with the left hand, from the body toward the left and
+front, retaining the position of the fingers just stated (in No.
+49)&mdash;<i>they
+went</i>, (52) tap toward the ground, as in gesture No. 6, with the left
+hand nearly at arm's length&mdash;<i>to their camp</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(53) Make gesture No. 18 toward the front&mdash;<i>I rode</i>, (54) extend the
+right hand to the left and front, and tap towards the earth several times
+as in sign No. 6, having the fingers and thumb collected to a
+point&mdash;<i>camp
+of the white men</i>. (55) Close both hands, with the forefingers of
+each partly extended and crooked, and place one on either side of the
+forehead, palms forward&mdash;<i>cattle</i> (a steer), (56) hold the left hand
+loosely
+extended, back forward, about twenty inches before the breast, and
+strike the back of the partly extended right hand into the
+left&mdash;<i>shot</i>,
+(57) make a short upward curved movement with both hands, their
+position unchanged, over and downward toward the right&mdash;<i>fell over,
+killed</i>, (58) then hold the left hand a short distance before the body
+at the height of the elbow, palm downward, fingers closed, with the thumb
+lying over the second joint of the forefinger, extend the flattened right
+hand, edge down, before the body, just by the knuckles of the left, and
+draw the hand towards the body, repeating the movement&mdash;<i>skinned</i>,
+(59) make the sign given in No. 25&mdash;<i>Banak</i>, (60) place both hands with
+spread fingers upward and palms forward, thumb to thumb, before the
+right shoulder, moving them with a tremulous motion toward the left
+and front&mdash;<i>came in</i>, (61) make three short movements toward the
+ground in front, with the left hand, fingers loosely curved, and pointing
+downward&mdash;<i>camp of the three white men</i>, (62) then with the right hand open
+and flattened, edge down, cut towards the body as well as to the right
+and left&mdash;<i>cut up the meat</i>, (63) and make the pantomimic gesture of
+<i>handing it around to the visitors</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(64) Make sign No. 35, the movement being directed to the left hand,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>[pg 503]</span>
+as held in No. 49&mdash;<i>told the white men</i>, (65) grasping the hair on the
+right side of the head with the left hand, and drawing the extended right
+hand with the edge towards and across the side of the head from behind
+forward&mdash;<i>to scalp</i>; (66) close the right hand, leaving the index
+partly extended, and wave it several times quickly from side to side a short
+distance before the face, slightly shaking the head at the same
+time&mdash;<i>no</i>, Fig. 318, (67) make gesture No. 4&mdash;<i>me</i>, (68) repeat No.
+65&mdash;<i>scalp</i>, (69)
+and raising the forelock high with the left hand, straighten the
+whole frame with a triumphant air&mdash;<i>make me a great
+chief</i>. (70) Close the right hand with the index fully
+extended, place the tip to the mouth and direct it firmly
+forward and downward toward the ground&mdash;<i>stop</i>, (71) then
+placing the hands, pointing upward, side by side, thumbs
+touching, and all the fingers separated, move them from
+near the breast outward toward the right, palms facing
+that direction at termination of movement&mdash;<i>the Banaks
+went to one side</i>, (72) with the right hand closed, index
+curved, palm downward, point toward the western horizon, and at arm's
+length dip the finger downward&mdash;<i>after sunset</i>, (73) make
+the gesture given as No. 14&mdash;<i>white men</i>, (74) pointing to the heart
+as in
+No. 4&mdash;<i>and I</i>, (75) conclude by making gesture No. 18 from near body
+toward the left, four times, at the end of each movement the hands
+remaining in the same position, thrown slightly upward&mdash;<i>we four escaped
+on horseback</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig318.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig318.png" alt="No, negation. Pai-Ute" /></a>Fig. 318.</div>
+
+<p>The above was paraphrased orally by the narrator as follows: "Hearing
+of the trouble in the north, I started eastward from my camp in
+Western Nevada, when, upon arriving at Winnemucca Station, I received
+telegraphic orders from the head chief to go north to induce our
+bands in that region to escape the approaching difficulties with the
+Banaks. I started for Camp McDermit, where I remained one night.
+Leaving next morning in company with nine others, we rode on for four
+days and a half. Soon after our arrival at the Pai-Ute camp, two Banaks
+came in, when I sent twelve Pai-Utes to their camp to ask them all to
+come in to hold council. These messengers soon returned, when I collected
+all the Pai-Utes ands talked to them all night regarding the dangers
+of an alliance with the Banaks and of their continuance in that
+locality. Next morning I sent my brother to the chief, Winnimukka,
+with a report of proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>"On the following day three white men rode into camp, who had come
+up to aid in persuading the Pai-Utes to move away from the border.
+Next morning I consulted with them respecting future operations, after
+which they went away a short distance to their camp. I then followed
+them, where I shot and killed a steer, and while skinning it the Banaks
+came in, when the meat was distributed. The Banaks being disposed
+to become violent at any moment, the white men became alarmed, when
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>[pg 504]</span>
+I told them that rather than allow them to be scalped I would be scalped
+myself in defending them, for which action I would be considered as
+great a chief as Winnemukka by my people. When I told the Banaks
+to cease threatening the white men they all moved to one side a short
+distance to hold a war council, and after the sun went down the white
+men and I mounted our horses and fled toward the south, whence we came."</p>
+
+<p>Some of the above signs seem to require explanation. Natci was
+facing the west during the whole of this narration, and by the right he
+signified the north; this will explain the significance of his gesture to
+the right in Nos. 11 and 17, and to the left in No. 75.</p>
+
+<p>No. 2 (repeated in Nos. 22,27,33, and 41) designates an Indian brush
+lodge, and although Natci has not occupied one for some years, the
+gesture illustrates the original conception in the round form of the
+foundation of poles, branches, and brush, the interlacing of which in
+the construction of the <i>wik'-i-up</i> has survived in gestures Nos. 3
+and 23 (the latter referring to more than one, <i>i.e.</i>, an encampment).</p>
+
+<p>The sign for Banak, No. 25 (also 32 and 59), has its origin from the
+tradition among the Pai-Utes that the Banaks were in the habit of cutting
+the throats of their victims. This sign is made with the index
+instead of the similar gesture with the flat hand, which among several
+tribes denotes the Sioux, but the Pai-Utes examined had no specific
+sign for that body of Indians, not having been in sufficient contact with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>"A stopping place," referred to in Nos. 6, 12, 52, and 54, represents
+the temporary station, or camp of white men, and is contradistinguished
+from a village, or perhaps from any permanent encampment of a number
+of persons, by merely dotting toward the ground instead of indicating a
+circle.</p>
+
+<p>It will also be seen that in several instances, after indicating the
+nationality, the fingers previously used in representing the number were
+repeated without its previously accompanying specific gesture, as in
+No. 61, where the three fingers of the left hand represented the men
+(white), and the three movements toward the ground signified the camp
+or tents of the three (white) men.</p>
+
+<p>This also occurs in the gesture (Nos. 59, 60, and 71) employed for the
+Banaks, which, having been once specified, is used subsequently without
+its specific preceding sign for the tribe represented.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid connection of the signs Nos. 57 and 58 and of Nos. 74 and
+75 indicates the conjunction, so that they are severally readily understood
+as "shot <i>and</i> killed," and "the white men <i>and</i> I." The same
+remark applies to Nos. 15 and 16, "the nine <i>and</i> I."</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>[pg 505]</span>
+
+
+<h3><i>PATRICIO'S NARRATIVE.</i></h3>
+
+<p>This narrative was obtained in July, 1880, by Dr. <span class="sc">Francis H. Atkins</span>,
+acting assistant surgeon, United States Army, at South Fork, New
+Mexico, from <span class="sc">Ti-pe-bes-tlel</span> (Sheepskin-leggings), habitually called
+Patricio, an intelligent young Mescalero Apache. It gives an account
+of what is locally termed the "April Round-up," which was the disarming
+and imprisoning by a cavalry command of the United States Army,
+of the small Apache subtribe to which the narrator belonged.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Left hand on edge, curved, palm, forward, extended backward
+length of arm toward the West (<i>far westward</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(2) Arm same, turned hand, tips down, and moved it from north to
+south (<i>river</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(3) Dipped same hand several times above and beyond last line (<i>beyond</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(4) Hand curved (Y, more flexed) and laid on its back on top of his
+foot (<i>moccasins much curved up at toe</i>); then drew hands up legs to
+near
+knee, and cut off with edges of hands (<i>boot tops</i>), (<i>Warm Spring
+Apaches</i>, who wear booted moccasins with turn-up toes.)</p>
+
+<p>(5) Hands held before him, tips near together, fingers gathered (U);
+then alternately opened and gathered fingers of both hands (P to U, U
+to P), and thrusting them toward each other a few times (<i>shot or
+killed many</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(6) Held hands six inches from side of head, thumbs and forefingers
+widely separated (<i>Mexican</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, wears a broad hat).</p>
+
+<p>(7) Held right hand on edge, palm toward him, threw it on its back
+forward and downward sharply toward earth (T on edge to X), (<i>dead,
+so many dead</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(8) Put thumbs to temples and indexes forward, meeting in front,
+other fingers closed (<i>soldiers</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, cap-visor).</p>
+
+<p>(9) Repeated No. 5 and No. 7 (<i>were also shot dead</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(10) Placed first and second fingers of right hand, others closed,
+astride of left index, held horizontally (<i>horses</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(11) Held hands on edge and forward (T on edge forward), pushed
+them forward, waving vertically (<i>marching</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>ran off with soldiers'
+horses or others</i>). N.B.&mdash;Using both hands indicates double ranks of
+troops marching also.</p>
+
+<p>(12) Struck right fist across in front of chin from right to left sharply
+(<i>bad</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(13) Repeated No. 4 (<i>Warm Spring Apache</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(14) Moved fist, thumb to head, from center of forehead to right temple
+and a little backward (<i>fool</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(15) Repeated No. 8 and No. 11 (<i>soldiers riding in double column</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(16) Thrust right hand down over and beyond left, both palms down
+(W) (<i>came here</i>).</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>[pg 506]</span>
+
+<p>(17) Repeated No. 8 (<i>soldier</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(18) Touched hair (<i>hair</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(19) Touched tent (<i>quite white</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(20) Touched top of shoulder (<i>commissioned officer</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+shoulder-straps).</p>
+
+<p>(21) Thrust both hands up high (<i>high rank</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(22) Right forefinger to forehead; waved it about in front of face and
+rolled head about (primarily <i>fool</i>, but qualified in this case by the
+interpreter as <i>no sabe much</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(23) Drew hands up his thighs and body and pointed to himself (<i>Mescalero
+Indian</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(24) Approximated hands before him, palms down, with thumbs and
+indexes widely separated, as if inclosing a circle (<i>captured</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>corralled, surrounded</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(25) Placed tips of hands together, wrists apart, held them erect (T,
+both hands inclined), (<i>house</i>; in this case <i>the agency</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(26) Threw both hands, palms back, forward and downward, moving
+from knuckles (metacarpo-phalangeal joint) only, several times (<i>issuing
+rations</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(27) Thrust two fingers (N) toward mouth and downward (<i>food</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(28) Repeated No. 25 (<i>house</i>); outlined a hemispherical object
+(wik-i-up);
+repeated these several times, bringing the hands with emphasis
+several times down toward the earth (<i>village permanently here</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(29) Repeated No. 25 several times and pointed to a neighboring hillside
+(<i>village over there</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(30) Repeated Nos. 17 to 21, inclusive (<i>General X</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(31) Thrust two fingers forward from his eyes (primarily <i>I see</i>; also
+<i>I saw</i>, or <i>there were</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(32) Repeated No. 11 (<i>toward said hillside</i>), (<i>troops went over
+there with
+General X</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(33) Repeated No. 4, adding, swept indexes around head and touched
+red paper on a tobacco wrapper (<i>San Carlos Apaches</i>, scouts
+especially
+distinguished by wearing a red fillet about the head); also added, drew
+indexes across each cheek from nose outward (<i>were much painted</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(34) Repeated No. 24 and No. 23 (<i>to capture the Mescalero Indians</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(35) Repeated No. 31 (<i>there were</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(36) Repeated No. 33 (<i>San Carlos scouts</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(37) Repeated No. 8 (<i>and soldiers</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(38) Clasped his hands effusively before his breast (<i>so many!</i> <i>i.e.</i>, <i>a
+great many</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(39) Repeated No. 31 (<i>I saw</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(40) Repeated No. 23 (<i>my people</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(41) Brought fists together under chin, and hugged his arms close to
+his breast, with a shrinking motion of body (<i>afraid</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(42) Struck off half of left index with right index (<i>half</i>, or <i>a
+portion</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(43) Waved off laterally and upward with both hands briskly (<i>fled</i>).</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>[pg 507]</span>
+
+<p>(44) Projected circled right thumb and index to eastern horizon, thence
+to zenith (<i>next morning</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, sunrise to noon).</p>
+
+<p>(45) Repeated No. 23 (<i>the Mescaleros</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(46) Held hands in position of aiming a gun&mdash;left
+oblique&mdash;(<i>shoot</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(47) Waved right index briskly before right shoulder (<i>no, did not;
+negation</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(48) Swept his hand from behind forward, palm up (Y) (<i>the others
+came</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(49) Repeated No. 5 (<i>and shot</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(50) Repeated No. 23 (<i>the Mescaleros</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(51) Repeated No. 7 (<i>many dead</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(52) Repeated No. 8 (<i>soldiers</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(53) Repeated No. 10 (<i>horse, mounted</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(54) Hand forward, palm down (W) moved forward and up and down
+(<i>walking</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>infantry</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(55) Beckoned with right hand, two fingers curved (N horizontal and
+curved) (<i>came</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(56) Repeated No. 11 (<i>marching</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(57) Repeated No. 28 (<i>to this camp, or village</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(58) Repeated No. 23 (<i>with Mescaleros</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(59) Repeated No. 24 (<i>as prisoners, surrounded</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(60) Repeated No. 33 (<i>San Carlos scouts</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(61) Placed hands, spread out (R inverted), tips down, about waist
+(<i>many cartridges</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(62) Repeated No. 46 (<i>and guns</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(63) Repeated No. 5 (<i>shot many</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(64) Repeated No. 4 (<i>Warm Spring Apaches</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(65) Repeated No. 23 (<i>and Mescaleros</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(66) Moved fist&mdash;thumb to head&mdash;across his forehead from right to
+left, and cast it toward earth over left shoulder (<i>brave</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>the San
+Carlos scouts are brave</i>).</p>
+
+<h4>CONTINUOUS TRANSLATION OF THE ABOVE.</h4>
+
+<p>Far westward beyond the Rio Grande are the Warm Spring Apaches,
+who killed many Mexicans and soldiers and stole their horses. They
+(the Warm Spring Apaches) are bad and fools.</p>
+
+<p>Some cavalry came here under an aged officer of high rank, but of inferior
+intelligence, to capture the Mescalero Indians.</p>
+
+<p>The Mescaleros wished to have their village permanently here by the
+agency, and to receive their rations, <i>i.e.</i>, were peacefully inclined.</p>
+
+<p>Our village was over there. I saw the general come with troops and
+San Carlos scouts to surround (or capture) the Mescalero Indians.
+There were a great many San Carlos scouts and soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>I saw that my people were afraid, and half of them fled.</p>
+
+<p>Next morning the Mescaleros did not shoot (were not hostile). The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>[pg 508]</span>
+others came and killed many Mescaleros. The cavalry and infantry
+brought us (the Mescaleros) to this camp as prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>The San Carlos scouts were well supplied with ammunition and guns,
+and shot many Warm Spring Indians and Mescaleros.</p>
+
+<p>The San Carlos scouts are brave men.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>NA-WA-GI-JIG'S STORY.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following is contributed by Mr. <span class="sc">Francis Jacker</span>:</p>
+
+<p>This narrative was related to me by <i>John Na-wa-gi-jig</i> (literally
+"noon-day sky"), an aged Ojibwa, with whom I have been intimately connected
+for a long period of years. He delivered his story, referring to one of
+the many incidents in his perilous life, orally, but with pantomimes so
+graphic and vivid that it may be presented truly as a specimen of gesture
+language. Indeed, to any one familiar with Indian mimicry, the
+story might have been intelligible without the expedient of verbal
+language, while the oral exposition, incoherent as it was, could hardly be
+styled anything better than the subordinate part of the delivery. I
+have endeavored to reproduce these gestures in their original connections
+from memory, omitting the verbal accompaniment as far as practicable.
+In order to facilitate a clear understanding it is stated that the
+gesturer was in a sitting posture before a camp fire by the lake shore,
+and facing the locality where the event referred to had actually occurred,
+viz, a portion of Keweenaw Bay, Lake Superior, in the neighborhood of
+Portage Entry, as seen by the annexed diagram, Fig. 319. The time
+of the relation (latter part of April) also coincided with the
+<i>actual</i> time.
+In speaking of "arm," "hand," "finger," &amp;c., the "right" is understood
+if not otherwise specified. "Finger" stands for "forefinger."</p>
+
+<p>(1) With the exclamation "<i>me-wi-ja</i>" (a long time ago), uttered in a
+slow and peculiarly emphatic manner, he elevated the arm above and
+toward the right at the head, accompanying the motion with an upward
+wave of the hand and held it thus suspended a moment&mdash;<i>a long time
+ago</i>.
+(This gesture resembles sign for <i>time, a long</i>, of which it seems to
+be an
+abbreviation, and it is not sufficiently clear without the accompanying
+exclamation.) Withdrawing it slowly, he placed the hand back upon
+his knee.</p>
+
+<p>(2) He then brought up the left hand toward the temple and tapped
+his hair, which was gray, with the finger&mdash;<i>hair gray</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) From thence he carried it down upon the thigh, placing the extended
+finger perpendicularly upon a fold of his trousers, which the
+thumb and finger of the right held grasped in such a manner as to
+advantageously
+present the smooth black surface of the cloth&mdash;<i>of that color</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i>, <i>black</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:55%;"><a href="images/fig319.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig319.png" alt="" /></a>Fig. 319&mdash;Scene of Na-wa-gi-jig's story.</div>
+
+<p>(4) Next, with a powerful strain of the muscles, he slowly stretched
+out the right arm and fist and grasping the arm about the elbow with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>[pg 509]</span>
+the left, he raised the forearm perpendicularly upward, then brought it
+down with force, tightening the grasp in doing so (fingers pressing upon
+knuckle, thumb against pit of elbow)&mdash;<i>strength</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Pointing first at me&mdash;<i>you</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) He next held out the hand horizontally and flat, palm downward,
+about four feet above the ground, correcting the measure a moment
+afterward by elevating hand a few inches higher, and estimated the
+height thus indicated with a telling look, leaning the head toward the
+side&mdash;<i>about that height</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>a youth of about that size</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(7) He then rapidly extended the arm about two-thirds of its length
+forward and toward the right, terminating the motion with a jerk of the
+hand upward, palm turned outward, and accompanied the motion with
+a nod of the head, the hand in its downfall closing and dropping upon
+knee&mdash;<i>very well</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(8) Musing a few moments, he next slowly extended the arm and
+pointed with the fingers toward and along the surface of the
+frozen bay&mdash;<i>out there</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(9) In an easterly direction&mdash;<i>eastward</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(10) Thence turning the arm to the right he nodded the finger toward
+a projection of land southward at a distance of about two
+miles&mdash;following
+in each case the direction of the finger with the eyes&mdash;and immediately
+after placed the hand again eastward, indicating the spot with the
+same emphatic nod of the finger as though carrying the visible distance
+to a spot upon the expanse of the bay, which, bearing no object, could
+not be marked otherwise&mdash;<i>two miles out there</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(11) Carrying the finger toward the body, he touched his breast&mdash;<i>I
+myself</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(12) Thence erected the hand, turning its palm forward, forefinger
+perpendicularly extended, others slightly closed, and nodded it downward
+in an explanatory manner, all in an uninterrupted
+movement&mdash;<i>one</i>,
+meaning in connection with the preceding gesture&mdash;<i>I for one</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(13) Again, with an emphatic movement, he turned the hand upward,
+slightly erecting the index, thumb pointing forward, remaining fingers
+partially and naturally opened and more or less
+separated&mdash;<i>furthermore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(14) Then quickly and after a moment's stop brought down the hand
+to a horizontal position, first and second fingers joining and fully
+extending
+during the movement, and pointing forward&mdash;<i>another</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>joined by another</i>. Repeating this motion, he at the same time called
+out
+the name <i>Ga-bi-wa-bi-ko-ke</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(15) Following the exclamation with a repetition of No. 2&mdash;<i>gray
+hair</i>&mdash;repeatedly
+touching the hair, meaning in this case&mdash;<i>an old man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(16) Pointed with the finger toward the right, directing it obliquely
+toward the ground&mdash;<i>at a short distance toward my right</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(17) Repeated No. 13&mdash;<i>furthermore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(18) Repeated No. 14, adding the third finger to joined fore and middle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>[pg 510]</span>
+fingers, thumb resting upon tip of fourth&mdash;<i>another</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>joined by a
+third</i>, and pronounced the words "<i>o-gwis-san Sa-ba-dis</i>" (this is a
+corruption
+of the French "Jean Baptiste," a favorite name among Christianized
+Indians)&mdash;<i>John Baptist, his son</i>, while repeating the movement.</p>
+
+<p>(19) Held up the three separated fingers perpendicularly in front of
+the face, pushing the hand forward a little&mdash;<i>three in all</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(20) Presently lowered the hand, fingers relaxing, and carried it a
+short distance toward the left, thence back to the right, fingers pointing
+obliquely toward the ground in each case&mdash;<i>placed to the right and left
+of me at a short distance</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(21) He then brought the hand&mdash;back toward the right, index horizontally
+extended, remaining fingers closed, thumb placed against second
+finger&mdash;in front of abdomen, and moved it slowly up and down two
+or three times, giving it a slight jerk at the upward motion, and raising
+the arm partially in doing so. At the same time he inclined the body
+forward a little, eyes looking down&mdash;<i>fishing</i>. This refers to fishing
+on
+the ice, and, as may be inferred from it, to the use of hook and line. A
+short stick to which the line is attached serves as a rod and is moved
+up and down in the manner described.</p>
+
+<p>(22) After a short pause he elevated the hand, directing the index
+toward that point of the meridian which the sun passes at about the
+tenth hour of the day, and following the direction with, the eye&mdash;<i>about
+ten o'clock</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(23) Turning his face toward the southwest and holding up the flat
+and extended hand some distance in front of it, back outward, he waved
+it briskly and several times toward the face&mdash;<i>fresh breeze from the
+southwest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(24) Repeated No. 21 (<i>fishing</i>), playing the imaginary fish-line up
+and
+down regularly for a while, till all at once he changed the movement by
+raising the hand in an oblique course, which movement he repeated
+several times, each time increasing the divergence and the length of
+the motion&mdash;<i>the fish-hook don't sink perpendicularly any longer</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>it is moving</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(25) Quickly erecting his body he looked around him with
+surprise&mdash;<i>looking with surprise</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(26) Shading his eyes with the hand, gazed intensively toward the
+south&mdash;<i>fixedly gazing toward the south</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(27) Threw up his arm almost perpendicularly the next moment&mdash;<i>greatly
+astonished</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(28) Extended and slowly moved the arm from southeast to northwest
+as far as he could reach, at the same time exclaiming "<i>mig-wam</i>"
+"ice"&mdash;<i>the ice from shore to shore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(29) Approximated the flat and horizontally extended hands, backs
+upward, with their inner edges touching, whereupon, suddenly turning
+the edges downward, he withdrew them laterally, backs nearly opposed
+to each other&mdash;<i>parting</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>[pg 511]</span>
+
+<p>(30) Pushed the left hand, palm outward, fingers joined, edges up and
+down, forward and toward its side with a full sweep of the arm, head
+following the movement&mdash;<i>pushed in that direction</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>northeastward</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(31) Repeated No. 23, but waved the hand only once and with a quick
+and more powerful movement toward the face&mdash;<i>by the force of the
+wind</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(32) Rotated hands in front of body, rolling them tips over tips very
+rapidly, fingers with thumbs nearly collected to a point&mdash;<i>winding up the
+hook-line in a hurry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(33) Quickly passed the hand toward the left breast of his coat&mdash;<i>putting
+it in pocket</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(34) And bending the body forward made motion as if picking up
+something&mdash;<i>picking up</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(35) Raised the hand closed to fist, arm elevated so as to form a right
+angle with elbow, and made a short stroke downward and toward the
+left&mdash;<i>hatchet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(36) Thence moved the hand to side of breast and pushed it down the
+waist&mdash;<i>putting it into belt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(37) Placed the closed hands to each side of the waist (thumbs upward
+with tips facing each other) and approximated them rapidly and
+with a jerk in front of navel&mdash;<i>tightening the belt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(38) With both hands lowered to the ground, he described an elongated
+oval around his foot by placing tips of forefingers together in front of
+the toes and passing them around each side, meeting the fingers behind
+the heel and running them jointly backward a few inches to indicate a
+tail&mdash;<i>snow-shoe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(39) Raised up the heel, resting the foot on the toes and turning it
+a little toward the right, brought it back in a downward movement with
+a jerk&mdash;<i>putting it on</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(40) Waved the left hand emphatically forward, palm backward, fingers
+joined and pointing downward, extending them forward at termination
+of motion, at the same time pushing forward the head&mdash;<i>starting</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(41) Directed the finger of the same hand toward the light-house&mdash;<i>toward
+that point</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(42) Pointed with extended first two fingers of the same hand, thumb
+with remaining fingers partially extended to right and to
+left&mdash;<i>companions</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(43) Repeated No. 40 (<i>starting</i>) less emphatically.</p>
+
+<p>(44) Made several very quick jumping movements forward with the
+extended left fingers, joined, back upward&mdash;<i>going very fast</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(45) Repeated No. 23 (<i>wind</i>), increasing the force of the movement
+and terminating the sign with the second repetition (wave)&mdash;<i>wind
+increasing</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(46) Raised up the hand in front of head and then arrested it a moment,
+palm outward, fingers extended, upward and forward&mdash;<i>halt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(47) Partially turning the body toward the north he lowered the extended
+hand, back forward, fingers joined and pointing downward toward
+the left of his feet and moved it closely in front of them, and with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>[pg 512]</span>
+a cutting motion, toward the right, following the movement with the
+eye&mdash;<i>cut off right before feet</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>standing on the very edge</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(48) Still facing the north, he carried the hand, back upward, fingers
+joined and extended, from left side of body outward and toward the
+right horizontally, indicating the rippled surface of turbulent water by
+an appropriate motion, and extending the arm to full length, fingers
+pointing northeastward (toward the right) at termination of motion, and
+accompanied the movement with a corresponding turn of the head, eyes
+gazing far into distance&mdash;<i>water all along the shore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(49) Pushed the extended finger, back upward, forward (<i>i.e.</i>,
+northward)
+in a slightly arched movement&mdash;<i>across</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(50) Directing it toward an object (tree) at a distance of about one
+hundred yards the next moment&mdash;<i>a distance of about one hundred
+yards</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(51) Repeated No. 49 (<i>across</i>) without interrupting the
+motion&mdash;<i>that distance placed across</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(52) Motions as follows: Hands naturally relaxed, edges up and
+down, backs outward, are with a quick movement and simultaneously
+carried from the epigastrium forward and toward their sides, arms being
+extended from elbows only. The hands change their position during
+the movement and are ultimately placed palms upward, thumbs and fingers
+extended and widely separated, pointing forward. This is the
+general sign for <i>doubt</i>. He also turned the face from one side to the
+other as though interrogating his companions&mdash;<i>what are we to do</i>?</p>
+
+<p>(53) Repeated No. 35 (<i>hatchet</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(54) Raised up the finger perpendicularly, other fingers closed, thumb
+resting against second, and emphatically inclined it forward&mdash;<i>only
+one</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(55) Elevated the arm from the elbow toward the head, hand naturally
+relaxed, back obliquely upward, inclining the face sideward with a look
+of consternation, simultaneously, and again mechanically lowered it,
+dropping palm of hand heavily upon the knee&mdash;"<i>bad fix</i>."</p>
+
+<p>(56) Placed the hand to his hip and raised it up, closed to fist, by a
+rapid and very energetic movement, ejaculating <i>haw!&mdash;quick to the
+work</i> (referring to the ax or hatchet).</p>
+
+<p>(57) Turning the body downward, he passed the hand, with forefinger
+directed toward the ground, forward, sideward, and backward, in three
+movements, each time turning at a right angle&mdash;<i>measuring off a square
+piece on the ground</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>on the ice</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(58) Looked and pointed toward an object some twenty feet off, then
+opposed palms of hands horizontally, and at a short distance from each
+other, connecting both movements in such a manner as to clearly illustrate
+their meaning&mdash;<i>about twenty feet wide</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(59) Moved the hand&mdash;fist, thumb upward&mdash;several times quickly up
+and down a few inches, the arm progressing forward at every
+stroke&mdash;<i>cutting it off</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(60) Repeated No. 55 (<i>bad fix</i>), meaning in this case&mdash;<i>bad
+job</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(61) Opposed the palms of both hands, vertically, at a distance of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>[pg 513]</span>
+eight inches, holding them thus steady a moment and estimating the
+thus indicated measure with the eyes&mdash;<i>eight inches thick</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(62) Then struck the palm of left with the back of arched right
+forcibly&mdash;<i>solid ice</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(63) Laid the joined and extended first two fingers, palm up, across
+side of leg, a foot above heel, accompanying the movement with the
+eye&mdash;<i>one foot deep</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(64) Pushed downward perpendicularly and from same point the flat,
+extended hand&mdash;<i>sinking</i>, or <i>giving in</i>&mdash;and turning the hand
+upward at wrist, back downward, he flirted up the fingers several times
+quickly&mdash;<i>water&mdash;slush and water</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(65) Passed one hand over the other as in the act of pulling off
+mittens&mdash;<i>mittens</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(66) Made the motion of wringing out a wet piece of cloth&mdash;<i>wringing
+wet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(67) Grasped a fold of his trowsers (below the knee) and wrung
+it&mdash;<i>trowsers also wet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(68) Placed palms of both hands upon legs, near to the ankles, and
+dragged them up to the knees&mdash;<i>up to the knees</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(69) Shivered&mdash;<i>feeling cold</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(70) Pointed with thumb backward and toward the right (designating
+his companion) and repeated No. 2 (<i>hair gray</i>)&mdash;<i>my old companion</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>Ga-bi-wa-bi-ko-ke</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(71) Repeated No. 69 (<i>feeling cold</i>) more emphatically&mdash;<i>more so</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i>, <i>suffering worse from the cold.</i></p>
+
+<p>(72) Repeated No. 59 (<i>cutting the ice</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(73) Made sign for <i>tired&mdash;getting tired</i>, as follows: The left arm is
+partly extended forward, and is gently struck near the bend of the
+elbow, usually above it, with the palm of the right hand, at the same time
+the head is usually inclined to the left side, then in similar manner the
+right arm is extended and struck by the left hand, and the head in turn
+inclined to the right.</p>
+
+<p>(74) Repeated No. 35&mdash;(<i>hatchet</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(75) Turned the slightly closed left (thumb obliquely upward) over
+to its side, partially opening it in so doing, fingers pointing to
+left&mdash;<i>passing it over to his companion at the left</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>Sabadis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(76) Flung forefingers of both hands, backs forward, thumbs upward,
+remaining fingers partially closed, toward their respective sides
+alternately&mdash;<i>by turns</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(77) Repeated No. 59 (<i>cutting the ice</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(78) Elevated the hand above head, thumb and first two fingers extended
+and directed toward the western meridian, and shook it emphatically
+and with a tremulous motion up and down while thus suspended&mdash;<i>at
+a late hour</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(79) Followed with the sign for <i>done, finished</i>, as follows: Left
+hand,
+with forearm horizontally extended toward the right, is held naturally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>[pg 514]</span>
+relaxed, back outward, a few inches in front of body and at a right angle
+with opposite hand, which is placed on a higher level, slightly arched,
+edge downward, fingers joined and extended forward. Pass the right
+quickly and with a cutting motion downward and toward its side, at
+the same time withdraw the left a few inches toward the opposite
+direction&mdash;<i>finished our work</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(80) Quickly threw up his arm, ejaculating "haw!"&mdash;<i>let us start</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(81) Passed both hands approximated in front of body, naturally relaxed,
+backs outward, forward and toward their respective sides, extending
+and widely separating the fingers during the movement, and
+again approximating them with quickly accelerated speed and arresting
+them, closed to fists, in front of body and with a jerk upward&mdash;<i>with
+united efforts</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(82) Placing the fists, thumbs upward, pointing forward and placed
+upon side of forefingers, with their wrists against the breast, he pushed
+them forward and downward a few inches, head slightly participating
+in the movement&mdash;<i>pushing off</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(83) Repeated No. 38 (<i>snow-shoe)&mdash;with snow-shoes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(84) Immediately reassumed the position of "pushing off" as in No.
+82, slowly passing forward the fists further and further&mdash;<i>pushing and
+gradually moving off</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(85) Quickly passed and turned the closed left forward, upward, and
+backward, opening and again closing the fingers in so doing, and executing
+at almost the same instant a similar, but smaller, revolution with
+the right&mdash;<i>turning over the snow-shoe, tail up</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(86) With both hands closed to fists, left obliquely over the right and
+on the right side of the body, made motion as if paddling&mdash;<i>paddling</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(87) Moved and pointed finger of left towards its side, <i>i.e.</i>,
+northward&mdash;<i>toward the shore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(88) Moved both hands, flat and extended, backs upward, toward the
+left side, by an even and very slow movement&mdash;<i>moving along very slowly
+toward that direction</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(89) Repeated No. 23&mdash;<i>southwest wind</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(90) Repeated No. 30&mdash;<i>pushing northeastward</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(91) Turned the thumb of left over to the left&mdash;<i>Sabadis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(92) Repeated No. 32 (<i>winding up</i>), reversing the motion&mdash;<i>winding
+off the hook-line</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(93) Approximated both hands with their tips horizontally in front of
+body, first two fingers with thumb collected to a point, and moving the
+fingers as in the act of twisting a cord, gradually receded the
+hands&mdash;<i>twisting</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(94) Thrust forward three fingers of the right&mdash;<i>three</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>hook-lines</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(95) Repeated No. 93, then rubbed palm of flat and extended right
+forward over the thigh repeatedly and with a slight pressure&mdash;<i>twisting
+them tightly</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(96) Approximated both hands closed to fists, thumbs upward, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>[pg 515]</span>
+front of body and pulled them asunder repeatedly by short, quick, and
+sudden jerks&mdash;<i>proving strength of line</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(97) Hooked the forefinger, hand turned downward at wrist, remaining
+fingers closed, thumb resting upon first&mdash;<i>fish-hook</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(98) Raised and curved three fingers and thrust them forward a little
+separated, back to the front&mdash;<i>three</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>hooks</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(99) Collecting fore and middle fingers of each hand to a point with
+thumb, he opposed tips of both hands, vertically describing with the upper
+hand several short circular movements around the tip of the
+lower&mdash;<i>tying together</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(100) Hooked the separated fore and middle fingers of the right,
+pointing upward, back forward, and placed the hooked finger of the left,
+palm forward, in front and partially between the fork of the
+first&mdash;<i>in the shape of an anchor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(101) Thrust both hands, backs upward, fingers extended and separated,
+forward (<i>i.e.</i>, northward), vigorously, left being
+foremost&mdash;<i>throwing toward the shore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(102) Thence elevating the right toward the head, he thrust it downward
+in an oblique direction, fore and middle fingers extended and
+joined with the thumb&mdash;<i>sinking</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(103) Placing hands in the position attained last in No. 100 (<i>throwing
+out toward shore</i>), he closed the fingers, drawing the hands back toward
+the body and leaning backward simultaneously&mdash;<i>hauling in</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(104) Elevated the naturally closed hand to side of head, fingers
+opening and separating during the movement&mdash;at the same time and
+with a slight jerk of the shoulders inclining the head sideward&mdash;and
+again closed and slowly dropped it upon knee&mdash;<i>in vain</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(105) Dropped the finger perpendicularly downward, following the
+movement with the eye&mdash;<i>bottom</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(106) Passed the flat hand, palm down, from side to side in a smooth
+and horizontal movement&mdash;<i>smooth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(107) Made the sign for <i>stone, rock</i>, as follows: With the back of
+the arched right hand (H) strike repeatedly in the palm of the left, held
+horizontal, back outward, at the height of the breast and about a foot
+in front, the ends of the fingers pointing in opposite directions.</p>
+
+<p>(108) Repeated No. 100&mdash;<i>anchor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(109) Dragged the curved fore and middle fingers over the back of
+the extended left&mdash;<i>dragging</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(110) Waved the left&mdash;bent at the wrist, back outward&mdash;forward and
+upward from body, extending the arm to full length, at the same time
+inclining and pushing forward the head, and repeated the gesture more
+emphatically&mdash;<i>trying again and again</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(111) Waved both hands&mdash;backs outward, fingers slightly joined, tips
+facing each other and closely approximated in front of
+breast&mdash;forward
+and toward their respective sides a short distance, turning the palms
+upward during the movement, thumb and fingers being extended and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>[pg 516]</span>
+widely separated toward the last. At the same time he inclined the
+head to one side, face expressing disappointment&mdash;<i>all in vain</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(112) Repeated No. 80&mdash;<i>Let us start anew</i>!</p>
+
+<p>(113) Repeated No. 86&mdash;<i>paddling</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(114) Repeated the preceding gesture, executing the movement only
+once very emphatically&mdash;<i>vigorously</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(115) Waved the finger toward the place of the setting sun, following
+the direction with the eye&mdash;<i>day is near its close</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(116) Repeated No. 69, more emphatically&mdash;<i>feeling very cold</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(117) Repeated No. 70&mdash;<i>Ga-bi-wa bi-ko-ke</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(118) Made sign for <i>without</i>, dropping the hands powerless at the
+sides, with a corresponding movement of head&mdash;<i>exhausted</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(119) Pointed with finger toward the light-house and drawing back
+the finger a little, pushed it forward in the same direction, fully
+extending
+the arm&mdash;<i>that distance</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>one mile beyond light-house</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(120) Elevated both hands to height of shoulder, fingers extended
+toward the right, backs upward, moving them horizontally
+forward&mdash;left
+foremost&mdash;with an impetuous motion toward the last&mdash;<i>drifted out</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(121) Repeated No. 86, executing the movement a series of times
+without interruption and very energetically&mdash;<i>paddling steadily and
+vigorously</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(122) Pointed with the left forefinger to his breast&mdash;<i>I myself</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(123) Waved the thumb of the same hand over to left side without
+interrupting motion of hand&mdash;<i>and Sabadis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(124) Moved the extended left&mdash;back upward, fingers slightly
+joined&mdash;toward
+left side, and downward a few inches&mdash;<i>shore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(125) Elevated it to level of eyes, fingers joined and extended, palm
+toward the right, approaching it toward the face by a slow interrupted
+movement&mdash;<i>drawing nearer and nearer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(126) Drawing a deep breath&mdash;<i>relieved</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(127) Repeated No. 86 very emphatically&mdash;<i>paddling with increased
+courage and vigor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(128) Gazed and pointed northeastward, shading the eyes with the
+hand, at the same time pushing the left&mdash;bent downward at wrist, palm
+backward&mdash;forward in that direction, arm fully extended, fingers separated
+and pointing ahead at termination of motion&mdash;<i>out there at a great
+distance</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(129) Made a lateral movement with the hand flat and extended over
+the field of ice in front of him&mdash;<i>the ice-field</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(130) Described a series of waves with the flat and extended left, back
+upward, horizontally outward&mdash;<i>sea getting turbulent</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(131) Joyously flourished the hand above head, while pronouncing
+the word <i>ke-ya-bi</i>&mdash;<i>only yet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(132) Pointed the finger toward the upturned root of a tree a few
+yards off, thence carrying it forward directed it toward the shore in
+front&mdash;<i>a few yards from shore</i>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>[pg 517]</span>
+
+<p>(133) Pointing toward the sun first, he placed palms of both hands in
+opposition vertically, a space of only an inch or two intervening, with
+a glance sideways at the height thus indicated&mdash;<i>the sun just
+setting</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(134) Made three vigorous strokes with the imaginary paddle&mdash;<i>three
+more paddle-strokes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(135) Moved both hands (flat and extended, backs upward) evenly
+and horizontally toward the left, terminating the movement by turning
+hands almost perpendicularly upward at wrist, thus arresting them
+suddenly&mdash;<i>the ice-raft runs up against the shore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(136) Lastly threw up the hand perpendicularly above head, and
+bringing it down, placed the palm gently over the heart with an air of
+solemnity&mdash;<i>we are saved</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Free translation of the story</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago&mdash;my hair, then black and smooth, has since turned
+gray; I was then in the prime of life; you, I suppose, were a young lad
+at that time&mdash;the following incident occurred to me:</p>
+
+<p>Yonder on the ice, two miles eastward, I was one day fishing in company
+with two others, the old Gabiwabikoke and his son John Baptist.
+It was about ten o'clock in the morning&mdash;a fresh breeze from the southwest
+had previously been getting up&mdash;when the hook-line which I was
+playing up and down began to take an oblique course as though it were
+moved by a current. Surprised, I looked up and around me. When
+glancing toward the south I saw a dark streak stretching from shore to
+shore across the bay; the ice had parted and the wind was carrying it
+out toward the open lake. In an instant I had wound up my hook-line,
+picked up my hatchet and snow-shoes, which I put on my feet, and
+hurried&mdash;the others following my example&mdash;toward the nearest point of
+land, yonder where the light-house stands. The wind was increasing
+and we traveled as fast as we could. There we arrived at the very edge
+of the ice, a streak of water about one hundred yards in width extending
+northward along the shore as far as we could see. What to begin
+with, nothing but a single hatchet? We were in a bad situation. Well,
+something had to be done. I measured off a square piece on the ice and
+began cutting it off with the hatchet, a hard and tedious labor. The ice
+was only eight inches thick, but slush and water covered it to the depth
+of a foot. I soon had my mittens and trowsers wringing wet and began
+to feel cold and tired. The old Gabiwabikoke was in a worse state than
+I. His son next took the hatchet and we all worked by turns. It was
+about two o'clock in the afternoon when we finished our work. With
+the help of our snow-shoes (stemming their tail-ends against the edge
+of the solid ice), we succeeded in pushing off our raft. Turning our
+snow-shoes the other way (using their tails as handles), we commenced
+paddling with them toward the shore. It was a very slow progress, as
+the wind drifted us outward continually. John Baptist managed to twist
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>[pg 518]</span>
+our three hook-lines into a strong cord, and tying the hooks together in
+the shape of an anchor, he threw it out toward the shore. Hauling in
+the line the hooks dragged over the smooth rock bottom and would not
+catch. Repeated trials were of no avail. We all resumed our former
+attempt and paddled away with increased energy. The day was drawing
+near its close, and we began to feel the cold more bitterly. Gabiwabikoke
+was suffering badly from its effects and was entirely played
+out. We had already drifted more than a mile beyond the light-house
+point. John Baptist and I continued paddling steadily and vigorously,
+and felt relieved and encouraged when we saw the shore draw near and
+nearer. The ice-field, by this time, was miles away to the northeast,
+and a sea was getting up. At last, just when the sun was setting, only
+a few yards separated us from the shore; three more paddle-strokes and
+our raft ran up against the beach. We were safe.</p>
+
+<p><i>The oral part of the story in the language of the narrator, with a
+literal translation into English.</i></p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>(1) <i>Me<sup>n</sup>'wija</i></p>
+<p class="i4">a long time ago</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(2) <i>aw ninisis'san</i></p>
+<p class="i4">this my hair</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(3) <i>me'gwa giijina'gwak tibi'shko aw</i></p>
+<p class="i4">while     it looked     like     that</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(4) <i>me'gwa gimashkaw'isian</i></p>
+<p class="i4">while   I possessed strength</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(5) <i>kin dash</i></p>
+<p class="i4">you and (<i>i.e.</i>, and you)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(6) <i>ga'nabatch kikwiwi'se<sup>n</sup>siwina'ban</i></p>
+<p class="i4">perhaps (probably) were a boy</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(7) <i>mi'iw</i></p>
+<p class="i4">very well</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(8)-(10) <i>iwe'di</i></p>
+<p class="i6"> there</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(11)(12) <i>nin be'jig</i></p>
+<p class="i6"> I   one</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(13) <i>mi'nawa</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> again (furthermore)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(14) <i>Gabiwa'bikoke</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> "The Miner"</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(15) <i>akiwe<sup>n</sup>'si</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> old man</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(16) Expressed by gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(17) The same as No. 13.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(18) <i>ogwis'san ga'ie, Sabadis</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> his son    too, John Baptist.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(19) <i>mi minik'</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> so many</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(20)(21) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(22) <i>mi wa'pi</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> thus far, <i>i.e.</i>, at that time.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(23) <i>we'ai gion'din</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> then the wind blew from</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(24) <i>me'gwa nin wewe'banabina'ban</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> while  I  was (in the act of) fishing with the hook</p>
+<p class="i4"> <i>nin'goting gonin'gotchi</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> at one time somewhere (out of its course)</p>
+<p class="i4"> <i>oda'bigamo nimigis'skane'ab</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> was drawn my hook line</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(25) <i>a'nin ejiwe'bak</i>?</p>
+<p class="i4"> how it happens?</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(26) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(27) <i>taai'!</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> ho!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(28) <i>mi'gwam</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> the ice</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(29) <i>ma'dja</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> goes</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(30)(31) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(32) <i>we'wib</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> quickly</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(33)(34) Gestures only.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>[pg 519]</span>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(35) <i>wagak'wad&#335;<sup>n</sup>s</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> hatchet</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(36) (37) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(38) (39) <i>nin bita'gime</i></p>
+<p class="i8">I put on snowshoes</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(40) <i>win madja'min</i></p>
+<p class="i4">we go (start)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(41) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(42) (43) <i>mamaw'e</i></p>
+<p class="i8">together</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(44) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(45) <i>esh'kam ki'tchi no'din</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> more big wind</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(46) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(47) <i>mi ja'igwa gima'djishkad</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, <i>mi'gwam</i>)</p>
+<p class="i4"> already has moved off (<i>i.e.</i>, the ice)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(48) (49) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(50) <i>mi'wapi</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> thus far, <i>i.e.</i>, at such a distance</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(51) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(52) <i>a'nin dash gediji'tehigeiang?</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> how (<i>i.e.</i>, what) shall we do?</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(53) (54) <i>mi e'ta be'jigwang wagak'wad&#335;<sup>n</sup>s</i></p>
+<p class="i8">only one hatchet</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(55) <i>ge'get gisan'agissimin</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> indeed we are badly off.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(56) <i>haw! bak'wewada mi'gwam!</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> well! (hallo!) let us cut the ice!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(57) (58) (59) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(60) <i>sa'nagad</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> it is bad (hard)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(61) <i>mi epi'tading</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> so it is thick (so thick is it)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(62) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(63) <i>mi dash mi'nawa minik'</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> that again much (that much again)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(64) <i>nibi' gon ga'ie</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> water snow too (water and snow)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(65) <i>nimidjik a'wanag</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> my mittens</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(66) <i>a'pitchi</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> very much</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(67) <i>nindas'san gaie</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> my trowsers two</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(68) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(69) <i>nin gi'katch ja'igwa</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> I feel cold already</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(70) <i>aw sa kiwe<sup>n</sup>'si</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> the old man</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(71) <i>nawatch' win'</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> more yet he</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(72) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(73) <i>nind aie'kos ja'igwa</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> I am tired already</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(74) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(75) <i>Sa'badis</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> John Baptist</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(76) <i>memesh'kwat kaki'na</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> by turns all</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(77) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(78) <i>wi'ka ga'ishkwanawo'kweg</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> late in the afternoon</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(79) <i>mi gibakwewangid</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> now it is cut loose</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(80) <i>haw!</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> well! (ho!)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(81) <i>mama'we</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> together</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(82) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(83) <i>a'gimag</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> snowshoes</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(84) <i>ma'djishka</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> it is moving</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(85)-(87) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(88) <i>aga'wa ma'djishkca</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> scarcely it moves (very little)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(89) <i>no'din</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> wind</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(90) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(91) <i>Sa'badis</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> John Baptist</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>[pg 520]</span>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(92) <i>migiss'kaneyab</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> hook-line</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(93) (94) <i>oginisswa'biginan</i></p>
+<p class="i8">he twisted three cords together</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(95)-(98) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(99) <i>oginisso'bidonan (i.e., migaskanan)</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> he tied together three (<i>i.e.</i>, hooks)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(100) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(101) <i>ogiaba'gidonan dash</i></p>
+<p class="i4">he threw it out</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(102) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(103) <i>owikobi'donan</i></p>
+<p class="i6">he wants to draw it in</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(104) <i>kawes'sa</i></p>
+<p class="i4">in vain ("no go")</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(105)-(108) Gestures only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(109) <i>ka'win sagakwidis'sinon</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> (not) it don't catch on the rock-bottom</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(110) <i>mi'nawa&mdash;mo'jag</i></p>
+<p class="i4"> again&mdash;often (repeatedly)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(111) The same as No. 104.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(112) The same as No. 80.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(113) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(114) <i>e'nigok</i></p>
+<p class="i4">vigorously</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(115) <i>ja'igwa ona'kwishi</i></p>
+<p class="i4">already evening</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(116) <i>esh'kam kis'sina</i></p>
+<p class="i4">more cold (getting colder)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(117) The same as No. 70.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(118) <i>mi ja'igwa gianiji'tang</i></p>
+<p class="i4">already he has given up</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(119) <i>was'sa ja'igwa</i></p>
+<p class="i4">far already</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(120) <i>niwebas'himin</i></p>
+<p class="i4">we have drifted out</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(121) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(122) (123) <i>mi'sa e'ta mij'iang</i></p>
+<p class="i8">  (now) only we are two</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(124) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(125) <i>ja'igwa tehi'gibig</i></p>
+<p class="i4">already near to shore</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(126) <i>mi ja'igwa anibonen'damang</i></p>
+<p class="i4">now we catch new spirits</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(127) <i>esh'kam nigijijaw'isimin</i></p>
+<p class="i4">more    we are strong (<i>i.e.</i>, our strength and courage increases)</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(128) (129) <i>e-eh! was'sa ja'igwa'</i></p>
+<p class="i8">  oh! far already</p>
+<p class="i8">  <i>mi'gwam!</i></p>
+<p class="i8">  the ice!</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(130) <i>ja'igwa</i></p>
+<p class="i4">already</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(131) <i>ke'abi</i></p>
+<p class="i4">yet</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(132) <i>go'mapi</i></p>
+<p class="i4">so far perhaps</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(133) <i>ge'ga bangi'shimo</i></p>
+<p class="i4">nearly sundown</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(134) Gesture only.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(135) <i>mi gibima'jagang</i></p>
+<p class="i4">we have landed</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>(136) <i>mi gibima'disiang</i></p>
+<p class="i4">we have saved our lives.</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>[pg 521]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>DISCOURSES.</h2>
+
+
+<h3><i>ADDRESS OF KIN CH&#274;-&#276;SS.</i></h3>
+
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig320.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig320.png" alt="We are friends. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 320.</div>
+
+<p>The following is the farewell address of <span class="sc">Kin Ch&#275;-&#277;ss</span> (Spectacles),
+medicine-man of the Wichitas, to Rev. <span class="sc">A.J. Holt</span>, missionary, on his
+departure from the Wichita Agency, in the words of the latter:</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:54%;"><a href="images/fig321.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig321.png" alt="Talk, talking. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 321.</div>
+
+<p>He placed one hand on my breast, the other on his own, then clasped
+his two hands together after the manner of our congratulations&mdash;<i>We
+are friends</i>, Fig. 320. He placed one hand on me, the other on himself,
+then placed the first two fingers of his right
+hand between his lips&mdash;<i>We are brothers</i>. He
+placed his right hand over my heart, his left
+hand over his own heart, then linked the first
+fingers of his right and left hands&mdash;<i>Our hearts
+are linked together</i>. See Fig. 232, p. <a href="#page386">386</a>. He laid his right hand on
+me lightly, then put it to his mouth, with the knuckles lightly against
+his lips, and made the motion of flipping water from the right-hand
+forefinger, each flip casting the hand and arm from the mouth a foot or so,
+then bringing it back in the same position. (This repeated three or
+more times, signifying <i>talk</i> or <i>talking</i>.) Fig. 321. He then
+made a motion with his right hand as if
+he were fanning his right ear; this repeated. He then extended
+his right hand with his index finger pointing upward,
+his eyes also being turned upward&mdash;<i>You told me of the Great
+Father</i>. Pointing to himself, he hugged both hands to his bosom,
+as if he were affectionately clasping something he loved, and then
+pointed upward in the way before described&mdash;<i>I love him</i> (the Great
+Father). Laying his right hand on me, he clasped his
+hands to his bosom as before&mdash;<i>I love you</i>. Placing his
+right hand on my shoulder, he threw it over his own right
+shoulder as if he were casting behind him a little chip,
+only when his hand was over his shoulder his index
+finger was pointing behind him&mdash;<i>You go away</i>. Pointing
+to his breast, he clinched the same hand as if it held a
+stick, and made a motion as if he were trying to strike
+something on the ground with the bottom of the stick
+held in an upright position&mdash;<i>I stay, or I stay right here</i>, Fig. 322.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/fig322.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig322.png" alt="I stay, or I stay right here. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 322.</div>
+
+<p>Placing his right hand on me, he placed both his hands on his breast
+and breathed deeply two or three times, then using the index finger and
+thumb of each hand as if he were holding a small pin, he placed the
+two hands in this position as if he were holding a thread in each hand
+and between the thumb and forefinger of each hand close together, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>[pg 522]</span>
+then let his hands recede from each other, still holding his fingers in
+the same position, as if he were letting a thread slip between them until
+his hands were two feet apart&mdash;<i>You live long time</i>, Fig. 323. Laying
+his right hand on his breast, then extending his forefinger of the same
+hand, holding it from him at half-arm's length, the finger pointing nearly
+upward, then moving his hand, with the finger thus extended, from side
+to side about as rapidly as a man steps in walking, each time letting
+his hand get farther from him for three or four times, then suddenly
+placing his left hand in a horizontal position with the fingers extended
+and together so that the palm was sidewise, he used the right-hand palm,
+extended, fingers together, as a hatchet, and brought it down smartly,
+just missing the ends of the fingers of the left hand, Fig. 324. Then
+placing his left hand, with the thumb
+and forefinger closed, to his heart,
+he brought his right hand, fingers in
+the same position, to his left; then, as
+if he were holding something between
+his thumb and forefinger, he moved his
+right hand away as if he were slowly
+casting a hair from him, his left hand
+remaining at his breast, and his eyes
+following his right&mdash;<i>I go about a little while longer, but will be cut
+off shortly
+and my spirit will go away</i> (or will die). Placing the thumbs and
+forefingers
+again in such a position as if he held a small thread between
+the thumb and forefinger of each hand, and the hands touching each
+other, he drew his hands slowly from each other, as if he were stretching
+a piece of gum-elastic; then laying his right hand on me, he extended
+the left hand in a horizontal position, fingers extended and closed, and
+brought down his right hand with fingers extended and together, so as
+to just miss the tips of the fingers of his left hand; then placing his
+left forefinger and thumb against his heart, he acted as if he took a
+hair from the forefinger and thumb of his left hand with the forefinger
+and thumb of the right, and slowly cast it from him, only letting his
+left hand remain at his breast, and let the index finger of the right hand
+point outward toward the distant horizon&mdash;<i>After a long time you die</i>.
+When placing his left hand upon himself and his right hand upon me,
+he extended them upward over his head and clasped them there&mdash;<i>We
+then meet in heaven</i>. Pointing upward, then to himself, then to me, he
+closed the third and little finger of his right hand, laying his thumb
+over them, then extending his first and second fingers about as far apart
+as the eyes, he brought his hand to his eyes, fingers pointing outward,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>[pg 523]</span>
+and shot his hand outward&mdash;<i>I see you up there</i>. Pointing to me, then
+giving the last above-described sign of <i>look</i>, then pointing to
+himself,
+he made the sign as if stretching out a piece of gum-elastic between the
+fingers of his left and right hands, and then made the sign of
+<i>cut-off</i>
+before described, and then extended the palm of the right hand horizontally
+a foot from his waist, inside downward, then suddenly threw
+it half over and from him, as if you were to toss a chip from the back
+of the hand (this is the negative sign everywhere used among these
+Indians)&mdash;<i>I
+would see him a long time, which should never be cut off</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<i>always.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/fig323.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig323.png" alt="A long time. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 323.</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:45%;"><a href="images/fig324.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig324.png" alt="Done, finished. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 324.</div>
+
+<p>Pointing upward, then rubbing the back of his left hand lightly with
+the forefinger of his right, he again gave the negative sign.&mdash;<i>No Indian
+there</i> (in heaven). Pointing upward, then rubbing his forefinger over
+the
+back of my hand, he again made the negative sign&mdash;<i>No white man
+there</i>.
+He made the same sign again, only he felt his hair with the forefinger
+and thumb of his right hand, rolling the hair several times between
+the fingers&mdash;<i>No black man in heaven</i>. Then rubbing the back of his
+hand
+and making the negative sign, rubbing the back of my hand and making
+the negative sign, feeling of one of his hairs with the thumb and
+forefinger of his right hand, and making the negative sign, then using
+both hands as if he were reaching around a hogshead, he brought the
+forefinger of his right hand to the front in an upright position after
+their manner of counting, and said thereby&mdash;<i>No Indian, no white man, no
+black man, all one</i>. Making the "hogshead" sign, and that for
+<i>look</i>,
+he placed the forefinger of each hand side by side pointing upward&mdash;<i>All
+look the same</i>, or alike. Running his hands over his wild Indian costume
+and over my clothes, he made the "hogshead" sign, and that
+for <i>same</i>, and said thereby&mdash;<i>All dress alike there</i>. Then
+making the
+"hogshead" sign, and that for <i>love</i>, (hugging his hands), he extended
+both hands outward, palms turned downward, and made a sign exactly
+similar to the way ladies smooth a bed in making it; this is the sign for
+<i>happy&mdash;All will be happy alike there</i>. He then made the sign for
+<i>talk</i>
+and for <i>Father</i>, pointing to himself and to me&mdash;<i>You pray for
+me</i>. He
+then made the sign for <i>go away</i>, pointing to me, he threw right hand
+over his right shoulder so his index finger pointed behind him&mdash;<i>You go
+away</i>. Calling his name he made the sign for <i>look</i> and the sign of
+<i>negation</i>
+after pointing to me&mdash;<i>Kin Ch&#275;-&#277;ss see you no more</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig325.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig325.png" alt="Sit down. Australian" /></a>Fig. 325.</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 322, an illustration in the preceding address, also represents a
+common gesture for <i>sit down</i>, if made to the right of the hip, toward
+the locality to be occupied by the individual invited.
+The latter closely corresponds to an Australian gesture
+described by Smyth (<i>The Aborigines of Victoria,
+London</i>, 1878, Vol. II, p. 308, Fig. 260), as follows:
+"<i>Minnie-minnie</i> (wait a little). It is shaken downwards
+rapidly two or three times. Done more slowly towards the ground,
+it means 'Sitdown.'" This is reproduced in Fig. 325.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>[pg 524]</span>
+
+
+<h3><i>TSO-DI-A'-KO'S REPORT.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following statement was made to Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span> by <span class="sc">Tso-di-a'-ko</span>
+(Shaved-head Boy), chief of the Wichitas in Indian Territory,
+while on a visit to Washington, D.C., in June 1880.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian being asked whether there was any timber in his part of
+the Territory, replied in signs as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:55%;"><a href="images/fig326.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig326.png" alt="Cut down. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 326.</div>
+
+<p>(1) Move the right hand, fingers loosely extended, separated and
+pointing upward, back to the front, upward from the height of the waist
+to the front of the face&mdash;<i>tree</i> (for illustration see Fig. 112, p.
+<a href="#page343">343</a>); repeat
+this two or three times&mdash;<i>trees</i>; (2) then hold the hand, fingers
+extended
+and joined, pointing upward, with the back to the front, and push it
+forward
+toward different points on a level with the face-<i>standing at various
+places</i>; (3) both hands, with spread and slightly curved fingers, are
+held
+about two feet apart, before the thighs, palms facing, then draw them
+toward one another horizontally and gradually upward until the wrists
+cross, as if grasping a bunch of grass and pulling it up&mdash;<i>many</i>; (4)
+point to the southwest with the index, elevating it a little above the
+horizon&mdash;<i>country</i>;
+(5) then throw the fist edgewise toward the surface, in that
+direction&mdash;<i>my,
+mine</i>; (6) place both hands, extended, flat, edgewise before the
+body, the left below the right, and both edges pointing toward the ground
+a short distance to the left of the body, then make repeated cuts toward
+that direction from different points, the termination of each cut ending
+at nearly the same point&mdash;<i>cut down</i>, Fig. 326; (7) hold the left hand
+with the fingers and thumb collected to a point, directed horizontally
+forward, and make several cutting motions with the
+edge of the flat right hand transversely by the tips of the left,
+and upon the wrist&mdash;<i>cut off the ends</i>; (8) then cut upon the left
+hand, still held in the same position, with the right, the cuts
+being parallel to the longitudinal axis of the palm&mdash;<i>split</i>; (9) both
+hands closed in front of the body, about four inches apart,
+with forefingers and thumbs approximating half circles, palms toward
+the ground, move them forward so that the back of the hand
+comes forward and the half circles imitate the movement of
+wheels&mdash;<i>wagon</i>,
+Fig. 327; (10) hold the left flat hand before the body, pointing
+horizontally forward, with the palm down, then bring the right flat hand
+from the right side and slap the palm upon the back of the left several
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>[pg 525]</span>
+times&mdash;<i>load</i>, upon, Fig. 328; (11) partly close the right hand as if
+grasping
+a thick rod, palm toward the ground, and push it straight forward
+nearly to arm's length&mdash;<i>take</i>; (12) hold both hands with fingers
+naturally
+extended and slightly separated nearly at arm's length before the
+body, palms down, the right lying upon the left, then pass the upper
+forward and downward from the left quickly, so that the wrist of the
+right is raised and the fingers point earthward&mdash;<i>throw off</i>; (13) cut
+the
+left palm repeatedly with the outer edge of the extended right
+hand&mdash;<i>build</i>;
+(14) hold both hands edgewise before the body, palms facing,
+spread the fingers and place those of one hand into the spaces between
+those of the left, so that the tips of one protrude beyond the backs of
+the fingers of the other&mdash;<i>log house</i>, see Fig. 253, p. <a href="#page428">428</a>; (15) then
+place
+the flat right hand, palm down and fingers pointing to the left, against
+the breast and move it forward, and slightly upward and to the
+right&mdash;<i>good</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig327.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig327.png" alt="Wagon. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 327.</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/fig328.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig328.png" alt="Load upon. Wichita" /></a>Fig. 328.</div>
+
+<h4>ANALYSIS OF THE FOREGOING.</h4>
+
+<!--
+<pre>
+[There is] much | timber | [in] | my | country | [of which I] cut down
+            (3)    (1,2)          (5)    (4)                    (6)
+
+[some], | trimmed, | split, | loaded it upon | a wagon [and] | took it away, |
+            (7)       (8)           (10)          (9)             (11)
+
+[where I] threw [it] off | [and] built | [a] good | house |.
+              (12)             (13)          (15)    (14)
+</pre>
+-->
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">[There is]</td>
+<td class="br"> much </td>
+<td class="br">timber </td>
+<td class="bn">[in] </td>
+<td class="br"> my </td>
+<td class="br"> country </td>
+<td class="bn">[of which I]</td>
+<td class="bn">cut down</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bn">(3)</td>
+<td class="bn">(1,2)</td>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bn">(5)</td>
+<td class="bn">(4)</td>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bn">(6)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="br">[some],</td>
+<td class="br">trimmed,</td>
+<td class="br">split,</td>
+<td class="br">loaded it upon</td>
+<td class="bn">a wagon</td>
+<td class="br">[and]</td>
+<td class="br">took it away,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bn">(7)</td>
+<td class="bn">(8)</td>
+<td class="bn">(10)</td>
+<td class="bn">(9)</td>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bn">(11)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table align="center" summary="analysis" border="0" cellpadding="6">
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">[where I]</td>
+<td class="br">threw [it] off</td>
+<td class="br">[and] built</td>
+<td class="br">[a] good</td>
+<td class="br">house</td>
+<td class="bn">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="bn">(12)</td>
+<td class="bn">(13)</td>
+<td class="bn">(15)</td>
+<td class="bn">(14)</td>
+<td class="bn">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="sc">Notes</span>.&mdash;As will be seen, the word <i>timber</i> is composed of signs No. 1
+and 2, signifying trees standing. Sign No. 3, for <i>many</i>, in this
+instance,
+as in similar other examples, becomes <i>much</i>. The word "in," in
+connection
+with <i>country</i> and <i>my</i>, is expressed by the gesture of pointing
+(passing
+the hand less quickly than in ordinary sign language) before making sign
+No. 5. That sign commonly given for <i>possession</i>, would, without
+the prefix of indication, imply <i>my country</i>, and with that prefix
+signifies
+<i>in my country</i>. Sign No. 7, <i>trimmed</i>, is indicated by chopping
+off the ends,
+and facial expression denoting <i>satisfaction</i>. In sign Nos. 11 and 12
+the
+gestures were continuous, but at the termination of the latter the narrator
+straightened himself somewhat, denoting that he had overcome the
+greater part of the labor. Sign No. 14 denotes <i>log-house</i>, from the
+manner
+of interlacing the finger-ends, thus representing the corner of a
+log-house,
+and the arrangement of the ends of the same. <i>Indian lodge</i>
+would be indicated by another sign, although the latter is often used as
+an abbreviation for the former, when the subject of conversation is
+known to all present.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>[pg 526]</span>
+
+
+<h3><i>LEAN WOLF'S COMPLAINT</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following remarks were obtained by Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span> from
+<span class="sc">Tce-caq-a-daq-a-qic</span> (Lean Wolf), chief of the Hidatsa Indians of Dakota
+Territory, who visited Washington in 1880:</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Four years ago the American people agreed to be friends
+with us, but they lied. That is all.</span></p>
+
+<p>(1) Place the closed hand, with the thumb resting over the middle
+of the index, on the left side of the forehead, palmar side down, then
+draw the thumb across the forehead to the right, a short distance beyond
+the head&mdash;<i>white man</i>, American, Fig. 329.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig329.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig329.png" alt="White man; American. Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 329.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig330.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig330.png" alt="With us. Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 330.</div>
+
+<p>(2) Place the naturally extended hand, fingers and thumb slightly
+separated and pointing to the left, about fifteen inches before the right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>[pg 527]</span>
+side of the body, bringing it to within a short distance&mdash;<i>with us</i>,
+Fig. 330.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Extend the flat right hand to the front and right as if about to
+grasp the hand of another individual&mdash;<i>friend</i>, <i>friends</i>, Fig. 331. For
+remarks
+connected with this sign see pp. 384-386.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:65%;"><a href="images/fig331.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig331.png" alt="Friend. Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 331.</div>
+
+<p>(4) Place the flat right hand, with fingers only extended, back to the
+front, about eighteen inches before the right shoulder&mdash;<i>four</i>
+[years], Fig. 332.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:55%;"><a href="images/fig332.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig332.png" alt="Four. Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 332.</div>
+
+<p>(5) Close the right hand, leaving the index and second fingers extended
+and slightly separated, place it, back forward, about eight inches before
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>[pg 528]</span>
+the right side of the body, and pass it quickly to the left in a slightly
+downward curve&mdash;<i>lie</i>, Fig. 333.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:55%;"><a href="images/fig333.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig333.png" alt="Lie, falsehood. Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 333.</div>
+
+<p>(6) Place the clinched fists together before the breast, palms down,
+then separate them in a curve outward and downward to their respective
+sides&mdash;<i>done, finished, "that is all"</i>, Fig. 334.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/fig334.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig334.png" alt="Done, finished. Hidatsa" /></a>Fig. 334.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>[pg 529]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>SIGNALS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The collaborators in the work above explained have not generally responded
+to the request to communicate material under this head. It is,
+however, hoped that by now printing some extracts from published
+works and the few contributions recently procured, the attention of
+observers
+will be directed to the prosecution of research in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>The term "signal" is here used in distinction from the signs noted in
+the <span class="sc">Dictionary</span>, extracts from which are given above, as being some
+action or manifestation intended to be seen at a distance, and not allowing
+of the minuteness or detail possible in close converse. Signals may
+be executed, first, exclusively by bodily action; second, by action of the
+person in connection with objects, such as a blanket, or a lance, or the
+direction imparted to a horse; third, by various devices, such as smoke,
+fire or dust, when the person of the signalist is not visible. When
+not simply intended to attract attention they are generally conventional,
+and while their study has not the same kind of importance as
+that of gesture signs, it possesses some peculiar interest.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>SIGNALS EXECUTED BY BODILY ACTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Some of these are identical, or nearly so, with the gesture signs used
+by the same people.</p>
+
+<h5>ALARM. See <span class="sc">Notes on Cheyenne and Arapaho signals</span>, <i>infra</i>.</h5>
+
+<h5>ANGER.</h5>
+
+<p>Close the hand, place it against the forehead, and turn it back and
+forth while in that position. (Col. R.B. Marcy, U.S.A., <i>Thirty Years
+of Army Life on the Border</i>, <i>New York</i>, 1866, p. 34.)</p>
+
+<h5>COME HERE.</h5>
+
+<p>The right hand is to be advanced about eighteen inches at the height
+of the navel, horizontal, relaxed, palm downward, thumb in the palm;
+then draw it near the side and at the same time drop the hand to bring
+the palm backward. The farther away the person called is, the higher
+the hand is raised. If very far off, the hand is raised high up over the
+head and then swung forward, downward, and backward to the side.
+(<i>Dakota</i> I, IV.)</p>
+
+<h5>DANGER.</h5>
+
+<p><i>There is something dangerous in that place.</i>&mdash;Right-hand index-finger
+and thumb forming a curve, the other fingers closed; move the right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>[pg 530]</span>
+hand forward, pointing in the direction of the dangerous place or animal.
+(<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>DEFIANCE.</h5>
+
+<p>Right-hand index and middle fingers open; motion to ward the enemy
+signifies "I do not fear you." Reverse the motion, bringing the hand
+toward the subject, means "Do your worst to me." (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>DIRECTION.</h5>
+
+<p><i>Pass around that object or place near you</i>&mdash;she-&#237;-he ti-dh&#225;-ga.&mdash;When
+a man is at a distance, I say to him "Go around that way." Describe
+a curve by raising the hand above the head, forefinger open, move to
+right or left according to direction intended and hand that is used, <i>i.e.</i>,
+move to the left, use right hand; move to the right, use left hand.
+(<i>Omaha</i> I; <i>Ponka</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>HALT!</h5>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; To inquire disposition.</p>
+
+<p>Raise the right hand with the palm in front and gradually push it
+forward and back several times; if they are not hostile it will at once
+be obeyed. (Randolph B. Marcy, <i>The Prairie Traveler</i>. <i>New York</i>, 1859,
+p. 214.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Stand there! He is coming to you.</p>
+
+<p>Right hand extended, flat, edgewise, moved downward several times.
+(<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Stand there! He is going toward you.</p>
+
+<p>Hold the open right hand, palm to the left, with the tips of the fingers
+toward the person signaled to; thrust the hand forward in either an
+upward or downward curve. (<i>Omaha</i> I; <i>Ponka</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Lie down flat where you are&mdash;she-dhu bis-p&#233; zha<sup>n</sup>'-ga.</p>
+
+<p>Extend the right arm in the direction of the person signaled to, having
+the palm down; move downward by degrees to about the knees. (<i>Omaha</i>
+I; <i>Ponka</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>PEACE; FRIENDSHIP.</h5>
+
+<p>Hold up palm of hand.&mdash;Observed as made by an Indian of the Kansas
+tribe in 1833. (John T. Irving, <i>Indian Sketches</i>. <i>Philadelphia</i>, 1835,
+vol. ii, p. 253.)</p>
+
+<p>Elevate the extended hands at arm's length above and on either side
+of the head. Observed by Dr. W.J. Hoffman, as made in Northern
+Arizona in 1871 by the Apaches, Mojaves, Hualpais, and Seviches.
+"No arms"&mdash;corresponding with "hands up" of road-agents. Fig. 335.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig335.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig335.png" alt="Peace, friendship. Hualpais" /></a>Fig. 335.&mdash;A signal of peace.</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig336.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig336.png" alt="Question, ans'd by tribal sign for Pani" /></a>Fig. 336.&mdash;Signal, "Who are you?" Answer, "Pani."</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>[pg 531]</span>
+
+<p>The right hand held aloft, empty. (General G.A. Custer, <i>My Life on
+the Plains</i>, <i>New York</i>, 1874, p. 238.) This may be collated with the
+lines in Walt Whitman's <i>Salut au Monde</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>Toward all</p>
+<p>I raise high the perpendicular hand,&mdash;I make the signal.</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<p>The Natchez in 1682 made signals of friendship to La Salle's party by
+the joining of the two hands of the signalist, much embarrassing Tonty,
+La Salle's lieutenant, in command of the advance in the descent of the
+Mississippi, who could not return the signal, having but one hand.
+His men responded in his stead. (Margry, <i>Decouvertes et &#201;tablissments
+des Fran&#231;ais dans l'ouest et dans le sud de l'Am&#233;rique Septentrionale,
+&amp;c.</i>)</p>
+
+<h5>QUESTION.</h5>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; I do not know you. Who are you?</p>
+
+<p>After halting a party coming: Right hand raised, palm in front and
+slowly moved to the right and left. [Answered by tribal sign.] (Marcy's
+<i>Prairie Traveler</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, 214.) Fig. 336. In this illustration
+the answer
+is made by giving the tribal sign for Pani.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; To inquire if coming party is peaceful.</p>
+
+<p>Raise both hands, grasped in the manner of shaking hands, or by locking
+the two forefingers firmly while the hands are held up. If friendly
+they will respond with the same signal. (Marcy's <i>Prairie Traveler</i>, <i>loc.
+cit.</i>, 214.)</p>
+
+<h5>SUBMISSION.</h5>
+
+<p>The United States steamer Saranac in 1874, cruising in Alaskan waters,
+dropped anchor in July, 1874, in Freshwater Harbor, back of Sitka, in
+latitude 59&#176; north. An armed party landed at a T'linkit village,
+deserted by all the inhabitants except one old man and two women, the
+latter seated at the feet of the former. The man was in great fear,
+turned his back and held up his hands as a sign of utter helplessness.
+(Extract from notes kindly furnished by Lieutenant-Commander <span class="sc">Wm.
+Bainbridge Hoff</span>, U.S.N., who was senior aid to Rear-Admiral Pennock,
+on the cruise mentioned.)</p>
+
+<h5>SURRENDER.</h5>
+
+<p>The palm of the hand is held toward the person [to whom the surrender
+is made]. (<i>Long</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Hold the palm of the hand toward the person as high above the head
+as the arm can be raised. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>[pg 532]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>SIGNALS IN WHICH OBJECTS ARE USED IN CONNECTION WITH PERSONAL ACTION.</h2>
+
+
+<h5>BUFFALO DISCOVERED. See also <span class="sc">Notes on Cheyenne and Arapaho signals</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>When the Ponkas or Omahas discover buffalo the watcher stands
+erect on the hill, with his face toward the camp, holding his blanket
+with an end in each hand, his arms being stretched out (right and left)
+on a line with, shoulders. (<i>Dakota</i> VIII; <i>Omaha</i> I;
+<i>Ponka</i> I.) See Fig. 337.</p>
+
+<p>Same as (<i>Omaha</i> I), and (<i>Ponka</i> I); with the addition that
+after the
+blanket is held out at arm's length the arms are crossed in front of the
+body. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>CAMP!</h5>
+
+<p>When it is intended to encamp, a blanket is elevated upon a pole so
+as to be visible to all the individuals of a moving party. (<i>Dakota</i>
+VIII.)</p>
+
+<h5>COME! TO BECKON TO A PERSON.</h5>
+
+<p>Hold out the lower edge of the robe or blanket, then wave it in to the
+legs. This is made when there is a desire to avoid general observation.
+(<i>Matthews</i>.)</p>
+
+<h5>COME BACK!</h5>
+
+<p>Gather or grasp the left side of the unbuttoned coat (or blanket) with
+the right hand, and, either standing or sitting in position so that the
+signal can be seen, wave it to the left and right as often as may be
+necessary
+for the sign to be recognized. When made standing the person
+should not move his body. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>DANGER. See also <span class="sc">Notes on Cheyenne and Arapaho signals</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Horseman at a distance, galloping, passing and repassing, and
+crossing each other&mdash;<i>enemy comes</i>. But for notice of herd of buffalo,
+they gallop back and forward abreast&mdash;do not cross each other. (H.M.
+Brackenridge's <i>Views of Louisiana</i>. <i>Pittsburgh</i>, 1814, p. 250.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Riding rapidly round in a circle, "Danger! Get together as
+quickly as possible." (Richard Irving Dodge, lieutenant-colonel United
+States Army, <i>The Plains of the Great West</i>. <i>New York</i>, 1877, p. 368.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Point the right index in the direction of the danger, and then
+throw the arm over the front of the body diagonally, so that the hand
+rests near the left shoulder, back outward. If the person to be notified
+of the danger should be in the rear precede the above signal with that
+for "<i>Attention</i>." This signal can also be made with a blanket,
+properly
+grasped so as to form a long narrow roll. Perhaps this signal would
+more properly belong under "<i>Caution</i>," as it would be used to denote
+the presence of a dangerous beast or snake, and not that of a human
+enemy. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig337.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig337.png" alt="Buffalo discovered. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 337.&mdash;Signal for "buffalo discovered."</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig338.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig338.png" alt="Discovery. Dakota" /></a>Fig. 338.&mdash;Signal of discovery or alarm.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>[pg 533]</span>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Passing and repassing one another, either on foot or mounted,
+is used as a war-signal; which is expressed in the
+Hidatsa&mdash;makimak&#259;'da&mdash;halidi&#233;. (<i>Mandan and Hidatsa</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>DIRECTION.</h5>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Pass around that place.</p>
+
+<p>Point the folded blanket in the direction of the object or place to be
+avoided, then draw it near the body, and wave it rapidly several times
+in front of the body only, and then throwing it out toward the side on
+which you wish the person to approach you, and repeat a sufficient
+number of times for the signal to be understood. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>DISCOVERY.</h5>
+
+<p>The discovery of enemies, game, or anything else, is announced by
+riding rapidly to and fro, or in a circle. The idea that there is a
+difference
+in the signification of these two directions of riding appears, according
+to many of the Dakota Indians of the Missouri Valley, to be erroneous.
+Parties away from their regular encampment are generally in
+search of some special object, such as game, or of another party, either
+friendly or hostile, which is, generally understood, and when that object
+is found, the announcement is made to their companions in either of
+the above ways. The reason that a horseman may ride from side to
+side is, that the party to whom he desires to communicate may be at a
+particular locality, and his movement&mdash;at right angles to the direction
+to the party&mdash;would be perfectly clear. Should the party be separated
+into smaller bands, or have flankers or scouts at various points, the
+only way in which the rider's signal could be recognized as a motion
+from side to side, by all the persons to whom the signal was directed,
+would be for him to ride in a circle, which he naturally does.
+(<i>Dakota</i> VI, VII, VIII.) Fig. 338.</p>
+
+<p>The latter was noticed by Dr. Hoffman in 1873, on the Yellowstone
+River, while attached to the Stanley Expedition. The Indians had
+again concentrated after their first repulse by General Custer, and taken
+possession of the woods and bluffs on the opposite side of the river.
+As the column came up, one Indian was seen upon a high bluff to ride
+rapidly round in a circle, occasionally firing off his revolver. The signal
+announced the discovery of the advancing force, which had been expected,
+and he could be distinctly seen from the surrounding region. As
+many of the enemy were still scattered over the neighborhood, some of
+them would not have been able to recognize this signal had he ridden
+to and from an observer, but the circle produced a lateral movement
+visible from any point.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>[pg 534]</span>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Of enemies, or other game than Buffalo. See also <span class="sc">Notes on Cheyenne and Arapaho signals</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of enemies is indicated by riding rapidly around in a
+circle, so that the signal could be seen by their friends, but out of sight
+of the discovered enemy. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>When enemies are discovered, or other game than buffalo, the sentinel
+waves his blanket over his head up and down, holding an end in
+each hand. (<i>Omaha</i> I; <i>Ponka</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Of game, wood, water, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>This is communicated by riding rapidly forward and backward on the
+top of the highest hill. The same would be communicated with a blanket
+by waving it right and left, and then directly toward the game or whatever
+the party might be searching for, indicating that it is not to the right or
+to the left, but directly in front. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>DRILL, MILITARY.</h5>
+
+<p>"It is done by signals, devised after a system of the Indian's own
+invention, and communicated in various ways.</p>
+
+<p>"Wonderful as the statement may appear, the signaling on a bright
+day, when the sun is in the proper direction, is done with a piece of
+looking-glass held in the hollow of the hand. The reflection of the
+sun's rays thrown on the ranks communicates in some mysterious way
+the wishes of the chief. Once standing on a little knoll overlooking
+the valley of the South Platte, I witnessed almost at my feet a drill of
+about one hundred warriors by a Sioux chief, who sat on his horse on a
+knoll opposite me, and about two hundred yards from his command in
+the plain below. For more than half an hour he commanded a drill,
+which for variety and promptness of action could not be equaled by
+any civilized cavalry of the world. All I could see was an occasional
+movement of the right arm. He himself afterwards told me that he
+used a looking-glass." (Dodge's <i>Plains of the Great West</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>,
+pp. 307, 308.)</p>
+
+<h5>FRIENDSHIP.</h5>
+
+<p>If two Indians [of the plains] are approaching one another on horseback,
+and they may, for instance, be one mile apart, or as far as they
+can see each other. At that safe distance one wants to indicate to the
+other that he wishes to be friendly. He does this by turning his horse
+around and traveling about fifty paces back and forth, repeating this
+two or three times; this shows to the other Indian that he is not for
+hostility, but for friendly relations. If the second Indian accepts this
+proffered overture of friendship, he indicates the same by locking the
+fingers of both hands as far as to the first joints, and in that position
+raises his hands and lets them rest on his forehead with the palms
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>[pg 535]</span>
+either in or out, indifferently, as if he were trying to shield his eyes
+from the excessive light of the sun. This implies, "I, too, am for
+peace," or "I accept your overture." (<i>Sac, Fox, and Kickapoo</i> I.) It
+is interesting in this connection to note the reception of Father Marquette
+by an Illinois chief who is reported to have raised his hands to his eyes
+as if to shield them from overpowering splendor. That action was supposed
+to be made in a combination of humility and admiration, and a
+pretended inability to gaze on the face of the illustrious guest has been
+taken to be the conception of the gesture, which in fact was probably
+only the holding the interlocked hands in the most demonstrative posture.
+An oriental gesture in which the flat hand is actually interposed
+as a shield to the eyes before a superior is probably made with the
+poetical conception erroneously attributed to the Indian.</p>
+
+<p>The display of green branches to signalize friendly or pacific intentions
+does not appear to have been noticed among the North American
+Indians by trustworthy observers. Captain Cook makes frequent
+mention of it as the ceremonial greeting among islands he visited. See
+his <i>Voyage toward the South Pole. London</i>, 1784, Vol. II, pp. 30 and
+35.
+Green branches were also waved, in signal of <i>friendship</i> by the
+natives
+of the island of New Britain to the members of the expedition in charge
+of Mr. Wilfred Powell in 1878. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Geological
+Society</i>, February, 1881, p. 89.</p>
+
+<h5>HALT!</h5>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Stand there! he is coming this way.</p>
+
+<p>Grasp the end of the blanket or robe; wave it downward several
+times. (<i>Omaha</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; To inquire disposition.</p>
+
+<p>Wave the folded blanket to the right and left in front of the body,
+then point toward the person or persons approaching, and carry it from
+a horizontal position in front of the body rapidly downward and upward
+several times. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>MANY.</h5>
+
+<p>Wave the blanket directly in front of the body upward and downward
+several times. Many of <i>anything</i>. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>PEACE, COUPLED WITH INVITATION.</h5>
+
+<p>Motion of spreading a real or imaginary robe or skin on the ground.
+Noticed by Lewis and Clark on their first meeting with the Shoshoni in
+1805. (<i>Lewis and Clark's Travels</i>, &amp;c., London, 1817, vol. ii, p.
+74.) This
+signal is more particularly described as follows: Grasp the blanket by
+the two corners with the hands, throw it above the head, allowing it to
+unfold as it falls to the ground as if in the act of spreading it.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>[pg 536]</span>
+
+<h5>QUESTION.</h5>
+
+<p>The ordinary manner of opening communication with parties known
+or supposed to be hostile is to ride toward them in zigzag manner, or to
+ride in a circle. (Custer's <i>My Life on the Plains</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p.
+58.)</p>
+
+<p>This author mentions (p. 202) a systematic manner of waving a blanket,
+by which the son of Satana, the Kaiowa chief, conveyed information to
+him, and a similar performance by Yellow Bear, a chief of the Arapahos
+(p. 219), neither of which he explains in detail.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; I do not know you. Who are you?</p>
+
+<p>Point the folded blanket at arm's length toward the person, and then
+wave it toward the right and left in front of the face. You&mdash;I don't
+know. Take an end of the blanket in each hand, and extend the arms
+to full capacity at the sides of the body, letting the other ends hang
+down in front of the body to the ground, means, Where do you come
+from? or who are you? (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>SAFETY. ALL QUIET. See <span class="sc">Notes on Cheyenne and Arapaho signals</span>.</h5>
+
+<h5>SURRENDER.</h5>
+
+<p>Hold the folded blanket or a piece of cloth high above the head.
+"This really means 'I want to die right now.'" (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>SURROUNDED, We are.</h5>
+
+<p>Take an end of the blanket in each hand, extend the arms at the sides
+of the body, allowing the blanket to hang down in front of the body,
+and then wave it in a circular manner. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>SIGNALS MADE WHEN THE PERSON OF THE SIGNALIST IS NOT VISIBLE.</h2>
+
+<p>Those noted consist of <span class="sc">smoke</span>, <span class="sc">fire</span>, or <span class="sc">dust</span> signals.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>SMOKE SIGNALS GENERALLY.</i></h3>
+
+<p>They [the Indians] had abandoned the coast, along which bale-fires
+were left burning and sending up their columns of smoke to advise the
+distant bands of the arrival of their old enemy. (Schoolcraft's
+<i>History</i>,
+&amp;c., vol. iii, p. 35, giving a condensed account of De Soto's expedition.)</p>
+
+<p>"Their systems of telegraphs are very peculiar, and though they
+might seem impracticable at first, yet so thoroughly are they understood
+by the savages that it is availed of frequently to immense advantage.
+The most remarkable is by raising smokes, by which many important
+facts are communicated to a considerable distance and made intelligible
+by the manner, size, number, or repetition of the smokes, which are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>[pg 537]</span>
+commonly raised by firing spots of dry grass." (Josiah Gregg's <i>Commerce
+of the Prairies</i>. <i>New York</i>, 1844, vol. ii, p. 286.)</p>
+
+<p>The highest elevations of land are selected as stations from which
+signals with smoke are made. These can be seen at a distance of from
+twenty to fifty miles. By varying the number of columns of smoke different
+meanings are conveyed. The most simple as well as the most
+varied mode, and resembling the telegraphic alphabet, is arranged by
+building a small fire, which is not allowed to blaze; then by placing an
+armful of partially green grass or weeds over the fire, as if to smother
+it, a dense white smoke is created, which ordinarily will ascend in a
+continuous vertical column for hundreds of feet. Having established a
+current of smoke, the Indian simply takes his blanket and by spreading it
+over the small pile of weeds or grass from which the smoke takes its
+source, and properly controlling the edges and corners of the blanket, he
+confines the smoke, and is in this way able to retain it for several
+moments. By rapidly displacing the blanket, the operator is enabled to
+cause a dense volume of smoke to rise, the length or shortness of
+which, as well as the number and frequency of the columns, he can regulate
+perfectly, simply by a proper use of the blanket. (Custer's <i>My life on
+the Plains</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 187.)</p>
+
+<p>They gathered an armful of dried grass and weeds, which were placed
+and carried upon the highest point of the peak, where, everything being in
+readiness, the match was applied close to the ground; but the blaze was no
+sooner well lighted and about to envelop the entire amount of grass
+collected than it was smothered with the unlighted portion. A slender
+column of gray smoke then began to ascend in a perpendicular column. This
+was not enough, as it might be taken for the smoke rising from a simple
+camp-fire. The smoldering grass was then covered with a blanket, the corners
+of which were held so closely to the ground as to almost completely confine
+and cut off the column of smoke. Waiting a few moments, until the smoke was
+beginning to escape from beneath, the blanket was suddenly thrown aside,
+when a beautiful balloon-shaped column puffed up ward like the white cloud
+of smoke which attends the discharge of a
+field-piece. Again casting the blanket on the pile of grass, the
+column was interrupted as before, and again in due time released, so that a
+succession of elongated, egg-shaped puffs of smoke kept ascending toward
+the sky in the most regular manner. This bead-like column of smoke,
+considering the height from which it began to ascend, was visible from
+points on the level plain fifty miles distant. (<i>Ib.</i>, p. 217.)</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The following extracts are made from Fremont's <i>First and Second
+Expeditions</i>, 1842-3-4, Ex. Doc., 28th Cong. 2d Session, Senate,
+Washington, 1845:</p>
+
+<p>"Columns of smoke rose over the country at scattered intervals&mdash;signals
+by which the Indians here, as elsewhere, communicate to each other
+that enemies are in the country," p. 220. This was January 18, 1844, in
+the vicinity of Pyramid Lake, and perhaps the signalists were Pai-Utes.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>[pg 538]</span>
+
+<p>"While we were speaking, a smoke rose suddenly from the cottonwood
+grove below, which plainly told us what had befallen him [Tabeau];
+it was raised to inform the surrounding Indians that a blow had been
+struck, and to tell them to be on their guard," p. 268, 269. This was on
+May 5, 1844, near the Rio Virgen, Utah, and was narrated of "Diggers,"
+probably Chemehuevas.</p>
+
+<h5>ARRIVAL OF A PARTY AT AN APPOINTED PLACE, WHEN ALL IS SAFE.</h5>
+
+<p>This is made by sending upward one column of smoke from, a fire
+partially smothered by green grass. This is only used by previous
+agreement, and if seen by friends of the party, the signal is answered
+in the same manner. But should either party discover the presence of
+enemies, no signal would be made, but the fact would be communicated
+by a runner. (<i>Dakota</i> I.)</p>
+
+<h5>SUCCESS OF A WAR PARTY.</h5>
+
+<p>Whenever a war party, consisting of either Pima, Papago, or Maricopa
+Indians, returned from an expedition into the Apache country,
+their success was announced from the first and most distant elevation
+visible from their settlements. The number of scalps secured was shown
+by a corresponding number of columns of smoke, arranged in a horizontal
+line, side by side, so as to be distinguishable by the observers.
+When the returning party was unsuccessful, no such signals were made.
+(<i>Pima and Papago</i> I.) Fig. 339. A similar custom appears to have
+existed among the Ponkas, although the custom has apparently been discontinued
+by them, as shown in the following proper name: C&#250;-de g&#225;-xe,
+Smoke maker: He who made a smoke by burning grass returning from war.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>SMOKE SIGNALS OF THE APACHES.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following information was obtained by Dr. <span class="sc">W.J. Hoffman</span>
+from the Apache chiefs named on page <a href="#page407">407</a>, under the title of <span class="sc">Tinnean</span>,
+(<i>Apache</i> I):</p>
+
+<p>The materials used in making smoke of sufficient density and color
+consist of pine or cedar boughs, leaves and grass, which can nearly
+always be obtained in the regions occupied by the Apaches of Northern
+New Mexico. These Indians state that they employ but three kinds of
+signals, each of which consists of columns of smoke, numbering from one
+to three or more.</p>
+
+<h5>ALARM.</h5>
+
+<p>This signal is made by causing three or more columns of smoke to
+ascend, and signifies danger or the approach of an enemy, and also
+requires the concentration of those who see them. These signals are
+communicated from one camp to another, and the most distant bands
+are guided by their location. The greater the haste desired the greater
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>[pg 539]</span>
+the number of columns of smoke. These are often so hastily made that
+they may resemble puffs of smoke, and are caused by throwing heaps
+of grass and leaves upon the embers again and again.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/fig339.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig339.png" alt="Success of war party. Pima" /></a>Fig. 339.&mdash;Signal of successful war-party.</div>
+
+<h5>ATTENTION.</h5>
+
+<p>This signal is generally made by producing one continuous column,
+and signifies attention for several purposes, viz, when a band had become
+tired of one locality, or the grass may have been consumed by the ponies,
+or some other cause necessitated removal, or should an enemy be
+reported, which would require farther watching before a decision as to
+future action would be made. The intention or knowledge of anything
+unusual would be communicated to neighboring bands by causing one
+column of smoke to ascend.</p>
+
+<h5>ESTABLISHMENT OF A CAMP; QUIET; SAFETY.</h5>
+
+<p>When a removal of camp has been made, after the signal for <span class="sc">Attention</span>
+has been given, and the party have selected a place where they
+propose to remain until there may be a necessity or desire for their
+removal, two columns of smoke are made, to inform their friends that
+they propose to remain at that place. Two columns are also made at
+other times during a long continued residence, to inform the neighboring
+bands that a camp still exists, and that all is favorable and quiet.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>FOREIGN SMOKE SIGNALS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following examples of smoke signals in foreign lands are added for
+comparison.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Haigh, speaking of the Guanches of the Canary Islands at the
+time of the Spanish conquest, says: "When an enemy approached,
+they alarmed the country by raising a thick smoke or by whistling,
+which was repeated from one to another. This latter method is still in
+use among the people of Teneriffe, and may be heard at an almost incredible
+distance." (<i>Trans. Eth. Soc. Lond. vii</i>, 1869, sec. ser., pp. 109,
+110.)</p>
+
+<p>"The natives have an easy method of telegraphing news to their distant
+friends. When Sir Thomas Mitchell was traveling through Eastern
+Australia he often saw columns of smoke ascending through the trees
+in the forests, and he soon learned that the natives used the smoke of
+fires for the purpose of making known his movements to their friends.
+Near Mount Frazer he observed a dense column of smoke, and subsequently
+other smokes arose, extending in a telegraphic line far to the
+south, along the base of the mountains, and thus communicating to the
+natives who might be upon his route homeward the tidings of his return.</p>
+
+<p>"When Sir Thomas reached Portland Bay he noticed that when a whale
+appeared in the bay the natives were accustomed to send up a column
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>[pg 540]</span>
+of smoke, thus giving timely intimation to all the whalers. If the whale
+should be pursued by one boat's crew only it might be taken; but if
+pursued by several, it would probably be run ashore and become food
+for the blacks." (Smyth, <i>loc. cit.</i>, vol. 1, pp. 152, 153, quoting
+Maj. T.L. Mitchell's <i>Eastern Australia</i>, vol. ii, p. 241.)</p>
+
+<p>Jardine, writing of the natives of Cape York, says that a "communication
+between the islanders and the natives of the mainland is frequent;
+and the rapid manner in which news is carried from tribe to tribe, to
+great distances, is astonishing. I was informed of the approach of Her
+Majesty's Steamer Salamander, on her last visit, two days before her
+arrival here. Intelligence is conveyed by means of fires made to throw
+up smoke in different forms, and by messengers who perform long and
+rapid journeys." (Smyth, <i>loc. cit.</i>, vol. 1, p. 153, quoting from
+<i>Overland Expedition</i>, p. 85.)</p>
+
+<p>Messengers in all parts of Australia appear to have used this mode of
+signaling. In Victoria, when traveling through the forests, they were
+accustomed to raise smoke by filling the hollow of a tree with green
+boughs and setting fire to the trunk at its base; and in this way, as they
+always selected an elevated position for the fire when they could, their
+movements were made known.</p>
+
+<p>When engaged in hunting, when traveling on secret expeditions,
+when approaching an encampment, when threatened with danger, or
+when foes menaced their friends, the natives made signals by raising a
+smoke. And their fires were lighted in such a way as to give forth
+signals that would be understood by people of their own tribe and by
+friendly tribes. They exhibited great ability in managing their system
+of telegraphy; and in former times it was not seldom used to the injury
+of the white settlers, who at first had no idea that the thin column of
+smoke rising through the foliage of the adjacent bush, and raised perhaps
+by some feeble old woman, was an intimation to the warriors to
+advance and attack the Europeans. (R. Brough Smyth, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
+<i>The Aborigines of Victoria</i>. <i>Melbourne</i>, 1878, vol. i, pp. 152,
+153.)</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>FIRE ARROWS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>"Travelers on the prairie have often seen the Indians throwing up
+signal lights at night, and have wondered how it was done.... They
+take off the head of the arrow and dip the shaft in gunpowder,
+mixed with glue.... The gunpowder adheres to the wood, and
+coats it three or four inches from its end to the depth of one-fourth of
+an inch. Chewed bark mixed with dry gunpowder is then fastened to
+the stick, and the arrow is ready for use. When it is to be fired, a
+warrior places it on his bowstring and draws his bow ready to let it
+fly; the point of the arrow is then lowered, another warrior lights the
+dry bark, and it is shot high in the air. When it has gone up a little
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>[pg 541]</span>
+distance, it bursts out into a flame, and burns brightly until it falls to
+the ground. Various meanings are attached to these fire-arrow signals.
+Thus, one arrow meant, among the Santees, 'The enemy are about';
+two arrows from the same point, 'Danger'; three, 'Great danger';
+many, 'They are too strong, or we are falling back'; two arrows sent
+up at the same moment, 'We will attack'; three, 'Soon'; four, 'Now';
+if shot diagonally, 'In that direction.' These signals are constantly
+changed, and are always agreed upon when the party goes out or before
+it separates. The Indians send their signals very intelligently, and
+seldom make mistakes in telegraphing each other by these silent monitors.
+The amount of information they can communicate by fires and burning
+arrows is perfectly wonderful. Every war party carries with it bundles
+of signal arrows." (<i>Belden, The White Chief; or Twelve Years among the
+Wild Indians of the Plains</i>. <i>Cincinnati and New York</i>, 1871, pp. 106,
+107.)</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the above, it is possible that white influence has been
+felt in the mode of signaling as well as in the use of gunpowder, but
+it would be interesting to learn if any Indians adopted a similar expedient
+before gunpowder was known to them. They frequently used arrows,
+to which flaming material was attached, to set fire to the wooden houses
+of the early colonists. The Caribs were acquainted with this same mode
+of destruction as appears by the following quotation:</p>
+
+<p>"Their arrows were commonly poisoned, except when they made their
+military excursions by night; on these occasions they converted them
+into instruments of still greater mischief; for, by arming the points
+with pledgets of cotton dipped in oil, and set on fire, they fired whole
+villages of their enemies at a distance." (<i>Alcedo. The Geograph. and
+Hist. Dict. of America and the West Indies</i>. Thompson's trans.
+<i>London</i>, 1812, Vol. I, p. 314.)</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>DUST SIGNALS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>When an enemy, game, or anything else which was the special object
+of search is discovered, handfulls of dust are thrown into the air to
+announce that discovery. This signal has the same general signification
+as when riding to and fro, or, round in a circle on an elevated portion of
+ground, or a bluff. (<i>Dakota</i> VII, VII.)</p>
+
+<p>When any game or any enemy is discovered, and should the sentinel
+be without a blanket, he throws a handful of dust up into the air. When
+the Brul&#233;s attacked the Ponkas, in 1872, they stood on the bluff and
+threw up dust. (<i>Omaha</i> I; <i>Ponka</i> I.)</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be among the Bushmen a custom of throwing up
+sand or earth into the air when at a distance from home and in need of
+help of some kind from those who were there. (<i>Miss L.C. Lloyd, MS.
+Letter</i>, dated July 10, 1880, from Charlton House, Mowbray, near Cape
+Town, Africa.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>[pg 542]</span>
+
+
+
+<h3><i>NOTES ON CHEYENNE AND ARAPAHO SIGNALS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The following information was obtained from <span class="sc">Wa-u</span><sup>n</sup>'(<i>Bobtail</i>),
+<span class="sc">Mo-hi'-nuk'-ma-ha'-it</span>
+(<i>Big horse</i>), Cheyennes, and <span class="sc">O-qo-his'-sa</span> (<i>The Mare</i>, better
+known as "Little Raven"), and <span class="sc">Na'-watc</span> (<i>Left Hand</i>), Arapahos, chiefs
+and members of a delegation who visited Washington, D.C., in September,
+1880, in the interest of their tribes dwelling in Indian Territory:</p>
+
+<p>A party of Indians going on the war-path leave camp, announcing
+their project to the remaining individuals and informing neighboring
+friends by sending runners. A party is not systematically organized
+until several days away from its headquarters, unless circumstances
+should require immediate action. The pipe-bearers are appointed, who
+precede the party while on the march, carrying the pipes, and no one is
+allowed to cross ahead of these individuals, or to join the party by riding
+up before the head of the column, as it would endanger the success of the
+expedition. All new arrivals fall in from either side or the rear. Upon
+coming in sight of any elevations of land likely to afford a good view of
+the surrounding country the warriors come to a halt and secrete themselves
+as much as possible. The scouts who have already been selected, advance
+just before daybreak to within a moderate distance of the elevation to
+ascertain if any of the enemy has preceded them. This is only discovered by
+carefully watching the summit to see if any objects are in motion; if not,
+the flight of birds is observed, and if any should alight upon the hill or
+butte it would indicate the absence of anything that might ordinarily scare
+them away. Should a large bird, as a raven, crow, or eagle, fly toward the
+hill-top and make a sudden swerve to either side and disappear, it would
+indicate the presence of something sufficient to require further
+examination. When it is learned that there is reason to suspect an enemy
+the scout, who has all the time been closely watched by the party in the
+rear, makes a signal for them to lie
+still, signifying <i>danger or caution.</i> It is made by grasping the
+blanket
+with the right hand and waving it earthward from a position in front of and
+as high as the shoulder. This is nearly the same as civilized Americans use
+the hand for a similar purpose in battle or hunting to direct "lie quiet"!</p>
+
+<p>Should the hill, however, be clear of any one, the Indian will ascend
+slowly, and under cover as much as possible, and gain a view of the
+country. If there is no one to be seen, the blanket is grasped and waved
+horizontally from right to left and back again repeatedly, showing a clear
+surface. If the enemy is discovered, the scout will give the <i>alarm</i>
+by running down the hill, upon a side visible to the watchers, in a zigzag
+manner, which communicates the state of affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Should any expedition or advance be attempted at night, the same
+signals as are made with the blanket are made with a firebrand, which
+is constructed of a bunch of grass tied to a short pole.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>[pg 543]</span>
+
+<p>When a war party encamps for a night or a day or more, a piece of
+wood is stuck into the ground, pointing in the direction pursued, with
+a number of cuts, notches, or marks corresponding to the number of
+days which the party spent after leaving the last camp until leaving the
+present camp, serving to show to the recruits to the main party the
+course to be followed, and the distance.</p>
+
+<p>A hunting party in advancing takes the same precautions as a war
+party, so as not to be surprised by an enemy. If a scout ascends a
+prominent elevation and discovers no game, the blanket is grasped and
+waved horizontally from side to side at the height of the shoulders or
+head; and if game is discovered the Indian rides back and forth (from
+left to right) a short distance so that the distant observers can view the
+maneuver. If a large herd of buffalo is found, the extent traveled over
+in going to and fro increases in proportion to the size of the herd. A
+quicker gait is traveled when the herd is very large or haste on the part
+of the hunters is desired.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated that these Indians also use mirrors to signal from one
+elevation to another, but the system could not be learned, as they say
+they have no longer use for it, having ceased warfare(?).</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>[pg 544]</span>
+
+<h2>SCHEME OF ILLUSTRATION.</h2>
+
+<p>In the following pages the scheme of graphic illustration, intended
+both to save labor and secure accuracy, which was presented in the
+<i>Introduction
+to the Study of Sign Language</i>, is reproduced with some improvements.
+It is given for the use of observers who may not see that publication,
+the material parts of which being included in the present paper
+it is not necessary that the former should now be furnished. The <span class="sc">Types
+of Hand Positions</span> were prepared for reference by the corresponding
+letters of the alphabet to avoid tedious description, should any of them
+exactly correspond, or by alteration, as suggested in the note following
+them. These, as well as the <span class="sc">Outlines of Arm Positions</span>, giving
+front and side outline's with arms pendant, were distributed in separate
+sheets to observers for their convenience in recording, and this will still
+be cheerfully done when request is made to the present writer. When
+the sheets are not accessible the <span class="sc">Types</span> can be used for graphic changes by
+tracing the one selected, or by a few words indicating the change, as shown
+in the <span class="sc">Examples</span>. The <span class="sc">Outlines of Arm Positions</span> can also be readily traced
+for the same use as if the sheets had been provided. It is hoped that this
+scheme, promoting uniformity in description and illustration, will be
+adopted by all observers who cannot be specially addressed.</p>
+
+<p>Collaborators in the gestures of foreign uncivilized peoples will confer
+a favor by sending at least one photograph or sketch in native costume
+of a typical individual of the tribe, the gestures of which are reported
+upon, in order that it may be reproduced in the complete work. Such
+photograph or sketch need not be made in the execution of any particular
+gesture, which can be done by artists engaged on the work, but
+would be still more acceptable if it could be so made.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>[pg 545]</span>
+
+<h2>OUTLINES FOR ARM POSITIONS IN SIGN LANGUAGE.</h2>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a href="images/fig341.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig341.png" alt="Outline for arm positions, profile" /></a>Fig. 341.</div>
+
+<div class="figrightno" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig340.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig340.png" alt="Outline for arm positions, full face" /></a>Fig. 340.</div>
+
+<p>The gestures, to be indicated by corrected positions of arms and
+by dotted lines showing the motion from the initial to the final positions
+(which, are severally marked by an arrow-head and a cross&mdash;see
+<span class="sc">Examples</span>), will always be shown as they appear to an observer
+facing the gesturer, the
+front outline, Fig. 340, or side,
+Fig. 341, or both, being used as
+most convenient. The special positions
+of hands and fingers will be
+designated by reference to the
+<span class="sc">Types of Hand Positions</span>. For
+brevity in the written description,
+"hand" may be used for "right
+hand," when that one alone is employed
+in any particular gesture.
+When more convenient to use the
+profile figure in which the right
+arm is exhibited for a gesture actually
+made by the left hand and
+arm it can be done, the fact, however,
+being noted.</p>
+
+<p>In cases where the conception or origin of any sign is ascertained or
+suggested it should be annexed to the description, and when obtained
+from the gesturer will be so stated affirmatively, otherwise it will be
+considered
+to be presented by the observer. The graphic illustration of
+associated facial expression or bodily posture which may accentuate or
+qualify a gesture is necessarily left to the ingenuity of the contributor.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>[pg 546]</span>
+
+
+<h4><i>ORDER OF ARRANGEMENT</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>The following order of arrangement for written descriptions is suggested.
+The use of a separate sheet or part sheet of paper for each
+sign described and illustrated would be convenient in the collation. It
+should always be affirmatively stated whether the "conception or origin"
+of the sign was procured from the sign-maker, or is suggested or inferred
+by the observer.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p><i>Word or idea expressed by Sign</i>: __________________</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>DESCRIPTION:</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>____________________________________________________</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>____________________________________________________</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>____________________________________________________</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN:</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p>____________________________________________________</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p><i>Tribe</i>: ________________________________</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p><i>Locality</i>:______________________________</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p><i>Date</i>: _____________________ 188_.</p>
+  </div><div class="stanza">
+<p class="i10">               __________________________</p>
+<p class="i10">                            <i>Observer</i>.</p>
+  </div>  </div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>[pg 547]</span>
+
+
+<h2>TYPES OF HAND POSITIONS IN SIGN LANGUAGE.</h2>
+
+<table summary="Fig. 342a" width="100%">
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/a.png"><img width="61%" src="images/a.png" alt="A" /></a><br />
+A&mdash;Fist, palm outward, horizontal.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/b.png"><img width="70%" src="images/b.png" alt="B" /></a><br />
+B&mdash;Fist, back outward, oblique upward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/c.png"><img width="42%" src="images/c.png" alt="C" /></a><br />
+C&mdash;Clinched, with thumb extended
+against forefinger,
+upright, edge outward.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:70%;"><a href="images/d.png"><img width="70%" src="images/d.png" alt="D" /></a><br />
+D&mdash;Clinched, ball of thumb
+against middle of forefinger,
+oblique, upward,
+palm down.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:70%;"><a href="images/e.png"><img width="52%" src="images/e.png" alt="E" /></a><br />
+E&mdash;Hooked, thumb against
+end of forefinger, upright,
+edge outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:70%;"><a href="images/f.png"><img width="55%" src="images/f.png" alt="F" /></a><br />
+F&mdash;Hooked, thumb against
+side of forefinger, oblique,
+palm outward.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/g.png"><img width="61%" src="images/g.png" alt="G" /></a><br />
+G&mdash;Fingers resting against ball of thumb, back upward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/h.png"><img width="61%" src="images/h.png" alt="H" /></a><br />
+H&mdash;Arched, thumb horizontal
+against end of forefinger,
+back upward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/i.png"><img width="35%" src="images/i.png" alt="I" /></a><br />
+I&mdash;Closed, except forefinger
+crooked against end of
+thumb, upright, palm outward.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/j.png"><img width="29%" src="images/j.png" alt="J" /></a><br />
+J&mdash;Forefinger straight, upright,
+others closed, edge outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/k.png"><img width="31%" src="images/k.png" alt="K" /></a><br />
+K&mdash;Forefinger obliquely extended
+upward, others
+closed, edge outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/l.png"><img width="54%" src="images/l.png" alt="L" /></a><br />
+L&mdash;Thumb vertical, forefinger
+horizontal, others closed,
+edge outward.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 342<i>a</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>[pg 548]</span>
+
+<table summary="Fig. 342b, part 1" width="100%">
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/m.png"><img width="58%" src="images/m.png" alt="M" /></a><br />
+M&mdash;Forefinger horizontal, fingers
+and thumb closed, palm outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/n.png"><img width="33%" src="images/n.png" alt="N" /></a><br />
+N&mdash;First and second fingers straight upward and separated,
+remaining fingers and thumb closed, palm outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/o.png"><img width="45%" src="images/o.png" alt="O" /></a><br />
+O&mdash;Thumb, first and second fingers separated, straight
+upward, remaining fingers curved edge outward.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/p.png"><img width="50%" src="images/p.png" alt="P" /></a><br />
+P&mdash;Fingers and thumb partially
+curved upward and separated, knuckles outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/q.png"><img width="55%" src="images/q.png" alt="Q" /></a><br />
+Q&mdash;Fingers and thumb, separated, slightly curved, downward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/r.png"><img width="50%" src="images/r.png" alt="R" /></a><br />
+R&mdash;Fingers and thumb extended straight, separated, upward.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:80%;"><a href="images/s.png"><img width="45%" src="images/s.png" alt="S" /></a><br />
+S&mdash;Hand and fingers upright,
+joined, back outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/t.png"><img width="41%" src="images/t.png" alt="T" /></a><br />
+T&mdash;Hand and fingers upright, joined, palm outward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/u.png"><img width="49%" src="images/u.png" alt="U" /></a><br />
+U&mdash;Fingers collected to a point, thumb resting in middle.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table summary="Fig. 342b, part2" align="center" width="90%">
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/v.png"><img width="32%" src="images/v.png" alt="V" /></a><br />
+V&mdash;Arched, joined, thumb resting near end of forefinger, downward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/w.png"><img width="62%" src="images/w.png" alt="W" /></a><br />
+W&mdash;Hand horizontal, flat, palm downward.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/x.png"><img width="61%" src="images/x.png" alt="X" /></a><br />
+X&mdash;Hand horizontal, flat, palm upward.</div>
+</td>
+<td align="center">
+<div class="figure" style="width:85%;"><a href="images/y.png"><img width="61%" src="images/y.png" alt="Y" /></a><br />
+Y&mdash;Naturally relaxed, normal; used when hand simply
+follows arm with no intentional disposition.</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 342<i>b</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>[pg 549]</span>
+
+<h4>NOTE CONCERNING THE FOREGOING TYPES.</h4>
+
+<p>The positions are given as they appear to an observer facing the
+gesturer, and are designed to show the relations of the fingers to the
+hand rather than the positions of the hand relative to the body, which
+must be shown by the outlines (see <span class="sc">Outlines of Arm Positions</span>) or
+description. The right and left hands are figured above without
+discrimination, but in description or reference the right hand will be
+understood when the left is not specified. The hands as figured can
+also with proper intimation be applied with changes either upward,
+downward, or inclined to either side, so long as the relative positions
+of the fingers are retained, and when in that respect no one of the types
+exactly corresponds with a sign observed, modifications may be made by
+pen or pencil on that one of the types, or a tracing of it, found most
+convenient, as indicated in the <span class="sc">Examples</span>, and referred to by the letter
+of the alphabet under the type changed, with the addition of a
+numeral&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>,
+A 1, and if that type, <i>i.e.</i>, A, were changed a second time by
+the observer (which change would necessarily be drawn on another
+sheet of types or another tracing of a type selected when there are no
+sheets provided), it should be referred to as A 2.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>[pg 550]</span>
+
+<h2>EXAMPLES.</h2>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/fig343.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig343.png" alt="Example. To cut with an ax" /></a>Fig. 343.</div>
+
+<p><i>Word or idea expressed by sign: To cut, with an ax.</i></p>
+
+<p>DESCRIPTION.</p>
+
+<p>With the right hand flattened (X changed to
+right instead of left), palm upward, move it downward
+to the left side repeatedly from different
+elevations, ending each stroke at the same point.
+Fig. 343.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:33%;"><a href="images/fig344.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig344.png" alt="Example. A lie" /></a>Fig. 344.</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>[pg 551]</span>
+
+<p>CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN.</p>
+
+<p>From the act of felling a tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:14%;"><a href="images/fig344a.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig344a.png" alt="Example. A lie" /></a>
+L1, Fig. 344<i>a</i>.</div>
+
+<p><i>Word or idea expressed by sign: A lie.</i></p>
+
+<p>DESCRIPTION.</p>
+
+<p>Touch the left breast over
+the heart, and pass the hand
+forward from the mouth, the
+two first fingers only being
+extended and slightly separated
+(L, 1&mdash;with thumb resting on
+third finger, Fig. 344<i>a</i>). Fig. 344.</p>
+
+<p>CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN.</p>
+
+<p>Double-tongued.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:28%;"><a href="images/fig345.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig345.png" alt="Example. To ride" /></a>Fig. 345.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:13%;"><a href="images/fig345a.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig345a.png" alt="Example. To ride" /></a>N1 Fig. 345<i>a</i>.</div>
+
+<div class="figleftno" style="width:24%;"><a href="images/fig345b.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig345b.png" alt="Example. To ride" /></a>T1 Fig. 345<i>b</i>.</div>
+
+<p><i>Word or idea expressed by sign: To ride.</i></p>
+
+<p>DESCRIPTION.</p>
+
+<p>Place the first two fingers of the right
+hand, thumb extended (N 1, Fig. 345<i>a</i>)
+downward, astraddle the first two joined
+and straight fingers of the left (T 1, Fig.
+345<i>b</i>), sidewise, to the right, then make
+several short, arched movements forward
+with hands so joined. Fig. 345.</p>
+
+<p>CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN.</p>
+
+<p>The horse mounted and in motion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Word or idea expressed by signs: I
+am going home.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/fig346.png"><img width="100%" src="images/fig346.png" alt="Example. I am going home" /></a>Fig. 346.</div>
+
+<p>DESCRIPTION.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Touch the middle of the breast
+with the extended index (K), then
+(2) pass it slowly downward and
+outward to the right, and when the
+hand is at arm's length, at the height
+of the shoulder, (3) clinch it (A)
+suddenly and throw it edgewise toward
+the ground. Fig. 346.</p>
+
+<p>CONCEPTION OR ORIGIN.</p>
+
+<p>(1) I, personality; (2) motion and direction; (3) locality of my
+possessions&mdash;home.</p>
+
+<h4>EXPLANATION OF MARKS.</h4>
+
+<p>The following indicative marks are used in the above examples:</p>
+
+<p>&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;&#183;Dotted lines indicate movements to place the hand and
+arm in position to commence the sign and not forming part of it.</p>
+
+<p>-------------Short dashes indicate the course of hand employed in
+the sign, when made rapidly.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>[pg 552]</span>
+
+<p>&mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; &mdash; Longer dashes indicate a less rapid movement.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; Broken lines represent slow movement.</p>
+
+<p>> Indicates commencement of movement in representing sign, or part
+of sign.</p>
+
+<p><font size="+2"><b>�</b></font> Represents the termination of movements.</p>
+
+<p>&#x2609; Indicates the point in the gesture line at
+which the hand position is changed.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INDEX.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">  <div class="stanza">
+<p>Abbreviations in signs, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+<p>Abnaki, Intelligence communicated by, <a href="#page369">369</a></p>
+<p>Absaroka, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page458">458</a></p>
+<p>Abstract ideas expressed in signs, <a href="#page348">348</a></p>
+<p>Actors, modern, Use of gestures by, <a href="#page308">308</a></p>
+<p>Addison, Gestures of orators, <a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+<p>&#198;schylus, Theatrical gestures, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p>Affirmation, Sign for, <a href="#page286">286</a>, <a href="#page454">454</a></p>
+<p>Alarm, Signs for, <a href="#page529">529</a>, <a href="#page538">538</a></p>
+<p>Alaskan Indians, Dialogue between, <a href="#page492">492</a></p>
+<p>Alaskans, Sign language of the, <a href="#page313">313</a></p>
+<p>Alive, Sign for, <a href="#page421">421</a></p>
+<p>All together, Sign for, <a href="#page523">523</a></p>
+<p>Anger, Sign for, <a href="#page301">301</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signal for, <a href="#page529">529</a></p>
+<p>Antelope, Signs for, <a href="#page410">410</a></p>
+<p>Antiquity of gesture speech, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p>Apache pictographs connected with signs, <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page459">459</a></p>
+<p>Apaches, Smoke signals of the, <a href="#page538">538</a></p>
+<p>Aphasia, Gestures in, <a href="#page276">276</a></p>
+<p>Applause, Signs for, <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>Application, Practical, of sign language, <a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+<p>Approbation, Sign for, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p>Arapaho, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page460">460</a></p>
+<p>Arbitrary signs, <a href="#page340">340</a></p>
+<p>Arch&#230;ologic research connected with sign language, <a href="#page368">368</a></p>
+<p>Argyle, Duke of, Gestures of Fuegans, <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+<p>Arikara, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page461">461</a></p>
+<p>Arm positions, Outlines of, in sign language, <a href="#page545">545</a></p>
+<p>Arrangement in descriptions of signs, <a href="#page546">546</a></p>
+<p>Art, Modern Italian, exhibiting gestures, <a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+<p>Articulate speech, preceded by gesture, <a href="#page274">274</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+<p>Artificial articulation, <a href="#page275">275</a>, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p>Asking, Signs for, <a href="#page291">291</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a></p>
+<p>Assinaboin, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page461">461</a></p>
+<p>Astute, Sign for, <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>Athen&#230;us, Account of Telestes, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Classification of gestures, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p>Atsina, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page462">462</a></p>
+<p>Attention, Signal for, <a href="#page539">539</a></p>
+<p>Austin, Rev. Gilbert, Chironomia, <a href="#page289">289</a></p>
+<p>Australians, Gestures of, <a href="#page306">306</a></p>
+<p>Authorities in sign language, List of, <a href="#page401">401</a></p>
+<p>Ax, Sign for, <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p>Bad, Signs for, <a href="#page411">411</a></p>
+<p>Banak, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page462">462</a></p>
+<p>Battle, Sign for, <a href="#page419">419</a></p>
+<p>Bear, Signs for, <a href="#page412">412</a></p>
+<p>Bede, The venerable, Treatise on gestures, <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+<p>Bell, Prof. A. Graham, Vocal articulation of dogs, <a href="#page275">275</a></p>
+<p>Blackfeet, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page462">462</a></p>
+<p>Blind, Gestures of the, <a href="#page278">278</a></p>
+<p>Born, Signs for, <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>Bossu, M., Signs of the Atakapa, <a href="#page324">324</a></p>
+<p>Brave, Signs for, <a href="#page352">352</a>, <a href="#page364">364</a>, <a href="#page414">414</a></p>
+<p>Brother, Sign for, <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p>Brule Dakota colloquy in signs, <a href="#page491">491</a></p>
+<p>Buffalo, Sign for, <a href="#page488">488</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> Signals for, discovered, <a href="#page532">532</a></p>
+<p>Bushmann, J.C.E., Signs of Accocessaws, <a href="#page324">324</a></p>
+<p>Butler, Prof. James D., Italian signs, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+<p>Burton, Capt. R.F., Arapaho language, <a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+<p>Cab&#233;&#231;a de Vaca, Signs of Timucuas, <a href="#page324">324</a></p>
+<p>Caddo, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page464">464</a></p>
+<p>Camp, Signals for, <a href="#page532">532</a>, <a href="#page539">539</a></p>
+<p>Capture, Sign for, <a href="#page506">506</a></p>
+<p>Chesterfield, Lord, Gestures of orators, <a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+<p>Cheyenne, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page464">464</a></p>
+<p>Chief, Signs for, <a href="#page353">353</a>, <a href="#page416">416</a></p>
+<p>Child, Signs for, <a href="#page304">304</a>, <a href="#page356">356</a></p>
+<p>Children, Gestures of young, <a href="#page276">276</a></p>
+<p>Chinese characters connected with signs, <a href="#page356">356</a>, <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Expedient of the, in place of signs, <a href="#page306">306</a></p>
+<p>Chinook jargon, <a href="#page313">313</a></p>
+<p>Chironomia, by Rev. Gilbert Austin, <a href="#page289">289</a></p>
+<p>Cistercian monks, Gestures of the, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page364">364</a></p>
+<p>Clarke, Mr. Ben., Local source of sign language, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+<p>Classic pantomimes, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p>Cold, Signs for, <a href="#page345">345</a>, <a href="#page486">486</a></p>
+<p>Collaborators in sign language, List of, <a href="#page401">401</a></p>
+<p>Collecting signs, Suggestions for, <a href="#page394">394</a></p>
+<p>Comanche, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page466">466</a></p>
+<p>Come here, Signals for, <a href="#page529">529</a>, <a href="#page532">532</a></p>
+<p>Com&#233;die Fran&#231;aise, Gestures of the, <a href="#page309">309</a></p>
+<p>Comparison, Degrees of, in sign language, <a href="#page363">363</a></p>
+<p>Conjunctions in sign language, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p>Conventionality of signs, <a href="#page333">333</a>, <a href="#page336">336</a>, <a href="#page340">340</a></p>
+<p>Corbusier, Dr. William H., local source of sign language, <a href="#page317">317</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Sign for strong, <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>Corporeal gestures generally, <a href="#page270">270</a>, <a href="#page273">273</a></p>
+<p>Correspondents, Foreign, on sign language, <a href="#page407">407</a></p>
+<p>Crafty, Sign for, <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>Cree, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page466">466</a></p>
+<p>Cresollius, Precedence of gestures, <a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> Value of gestures, <a href="#page280">280</a></p>
+<p>Cut with an ax, Sign for, <a href="#page550">550</a></p>
+<p>Dakota calendar, <a href="#page373">373</a>, <a href="#page377">377</a>, <a href="#page382">382</a>, <a href="#page384">384</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page467">467</a></p>
+<p>Dalgarno, George, Gestures real writing, <a href="#page355">355</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Works of, <a href="#page284">284</a>, <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+<p>Danger, Signals for, <a href="#page529">529</a>, <a href="#page532">532</a></p>
+<p>Darwin, Charles, Analysis of emotional gestures, <a href="#page270">270</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Gestures of Fuegans, <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+<p>Day, Signs for, <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>Deaf and dumb, American annals of the, <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+<p>Deaf-Mute College, National, Test of signs at the, <a href="#page321">321</a></p>
+<p>Deaf-mutes, Methodical signs of, <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Milan Convention on instruction of, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signs of instructed, <a href="#page362">362</a>, <a href="#page397">397</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signs of uninstructed, <a href="#page277">277</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Sounds uttered by uninstructed, <a href="#page277">277</a></p>
+<p>Death, Signs for, <a href="#page353">353</a>, <a href="#page420">420</a>, <a href="#page497">497</a></p>
+<p>Deceit, Signs for, <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>Defiance, Signals for, <a href="#page530">530</a></p>
+<p>Denial of the existence of sign language, Mistaken, <a href="#page326">326</a></p>
+<p>Derision, Sign for, <a href="#page301">301</a></p>
+<p>Dialects, Numerous, connected with gesture language, <a href="#page294">294</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a></p>
+<p>Dialogues in sign language, <a href="#page486">486</a></p>
+<p>Dictionary of sign language, Extracts from, <a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+<p>Disappearing Mist, Account of, <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+<p>Discontinuance of sign language, Circumstances connected with the, <a href="#page312">312</a></p>
+<p>Discourses in signs, <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p>Discovery, Signals for, <a href="#page533">533</a></p>
+<p>Diversities in signs, Classes of, <a href="#page341">341</a></p>
+<p>Divisions of sign language, <a href="#page270">270</a></p>
+<p>Dodge, Col. Richard I., Abbreviations of signs, <a href="#page339">339</a></p>
+<p class="i10">  , Identity of sign language, <a href="#page316">316</a>, <a href="#page335">335</a></p>
+<p>Dog, Signs for, <a href="#page321">321</a>, <a href="#page387">387</a></p>
+<p>Done, finished, Sign for, <a href="#page513">513</a>, <a href="#page522">522</a>, <a href="#page528">528</a></p>
+<p>Dorsey, Rev. J. Owen, Mistaken denial of signs, <a href="#page326">326</a></p>
+<p>Doubt, Sign for, <a href="#page512">512</a></p>
+<p>Drink, Sign for, <a href="#page301">301</a>, <a href="#page344">344</a>, <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>Dumas, Alexandra, Sicilian signs, <a href="#page295">295</a></p>
+<p>Dupe, Sign for, <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>Dust signals, <a href="#page541">541</a></p>
+<p>Eat, Sign for, <a href="#page301">301</a>, <a href="#page480">480</a></p>
+<p>Egyptian characters connected with signs, <a href="#page304">304</a>, <a href="#page355">355</a>, <a href="#page357">357</a>, <a href="#page358">358</a>, <a href="#page359">359</a>, <a href="#page370">370</a>, <a href="#page379">379</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p>Emblems distinguished from signs, <a href="#page389">389</a></p>
+<p>Ethnologic facts connected with signs, <a href="#page384">384</a></p>
+<p>Etymology of words from gestures, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+<p>Evening, Signs for, <a href="#page353">353</a></p>
+<p>Evolution, distinguished from invention of sign language, <a href="#page319">319</a>, <a href="#page388">388</a></p>
+<p>Exchange, Signs for, <a href="#page454">454</a></p>
+<p>Facial expression generally, <a href="#page270">270</a>, <a href="#page273">273</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> play, giving detailed information, <a href="#page271">271</a></p>
+<p>Fatigue, Sign for, <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>Fay, Prof. E.A., contributions on signs, <a href="#page309">309</a>, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+<p>Fear, Sign for, <a href="#page506">506</a></p>
+<p>Female, Signs for, <a href="#page300">300</a>, <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p>Ferdinand, King of Naples, speech in signs, <a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+<p>Fingers, Details of position of, in sign language, <a href="#page392">392</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Special significance in disposition of, by Italians, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p>Fire arrows, Signals by, <a href="#page540">540</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signs for, <a href="#page344">344</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p>Flathead, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page468">468</a></p>
+<p>Fool, Signs for, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>, <a href="#page345">345</a>, <a href="#page505">505</a>, <a href="#page506">506</a></p>
+<p>Foreign correspondents on sign language, <a href="#page407">407</a></p>
+<p>Fox, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page468">468</a></p>
+<p>Fr&#233;mont, General J.C., Signs of Pai-Utes and Shoshonis, <a href="#page324">324</a></p>
+<p>Friend, friendship, Signs for, <a href="#page384">384</a>, <a href="#page491">491</a>, <a href="#page527">527</a></p>
+<p>Gallaudet, President T.H., Facial expression, <a href="#page271">271</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, President E.M., Test of Utes in signs, <a href="#page321">321</a>, <a href="#page323">323</a></p>
+<p>Gender in sign language, <a href="#page366">366</a></p>
+<p>Gestures as an occasional resource, <a href="#page279">279</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> as survival of a sign language, <a href="#page330">330</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, blind, of the, <a href="#page278">278</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Etymology of words from, <a href="#page352">352</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> in mental disorder, <a href="#page276">276</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Involuntary response to, <a href="#page280">280</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, fluent talkers, of, <a href="#page279">279</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> Language not proportionate to development of, <a href="#page293">293</a>, <a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> low tribes of men, of, <a href="#page279">279</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> lower animals, of, <a href="#page275">275</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> modern actors, used by, <a href="#page308">308</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> modern orators, used by, <a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> young children, of, <a href="#page276">276</a></p>
+<p>Gilbert, G.K., Pueblo etchings, <a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page372">372</a>, <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>Glad, Sign for, <a href="#page495">495</a></p>
+<p>Good, Signs for, <a href="#page424">424</a></p>
+<p>Grammar, Sign language with reference to, <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p>Grass, Sign for, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+<p>Greek vases, Figures on, explained by modern Italian gestures, <a href="#page289">289</a>, <a href="#page290">290</a></p>
+<p>Grow, Sign for, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+<p>Habitation, Signs for, <a href="#page427">427</a></p>
+<p>Haerne, Mgr. D. de, Works on sign language, <a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+<p>Hale, Horatio, Mohawk signs, <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+<p>Halt! Signals for, <a href="#page530">530</a>, <a href="#page535">535</a></p>
+<p>Hand positions, Types of, <a href="#page547">547</a></p>
+<p>Hand-shaking, connected with signs, <a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+<p>Harpokrates, Erroneous character for, <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>Hear, Signs for, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p>H&#233;nto (Gray Eyes), Wyandot signs, <a href="#page327">327</a></p>
+<p>Heredity, Cases of, in speech, <a href="#page276">276</a>, <a href="#page277">277</a></p>
+<p>Hesitation, Signs for, <a href="#page291">291</a></p>
+<p>Hidatsa, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page469">469</a></p>
+<p>History of sign language, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p>Hoffman, Dr. W.J. Collaboration of, in sign language, <a href="#page399">399</a></p>
+<p>Holmes, W.H., Artistic aid of, <a href="#page400">400</a></p>
+<p>Home, Signs for, <a href="#page483">483</a>, <a href="#page485">485</a></p>
+<p>Homomorphy of signs with diverse meanings, <a href="#page342">342</a></p>
+<p>Horn sign, Italian, <a href="#page298">298</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></p>
+<p>Horse, Signs for, <a href="#page433">433</a></p>
+<p>House, Signs for, <a href="#page427">427</a></p>
+<p>Humboldt, Signs of South Americans, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p>Hunger, Signs for, <a href="#page304">304</a>, <a href="#page485">485</a></p>
+<p>Illustration, Scheme of, in sign language, <a href="#page544">544</a></p>
+<p>Illustrations, Examples of, for collaboration on sign language, <a href="#page550">550</a></p>
+<p>Indian, generically, Signs for, <a href="#page469">469</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> languages, Discussion of, <a href="#page516">516</a></p>
+<p>Indians, Condition of the, favorable to sign language, <a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Theories respecting the signs of, <a href="#page313">313</a></p>
+<p>Innuits, Sign language of, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p>Inquiry, Signs for, <a href="#page291">291</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>, <a href="#page447">447</a>, <a href="#page480">480</a>, <a href="#page486">486</a>, <a href="#page494">494</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signals for, <a href="#page531">531</a>, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p>Insult, Sign of, <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>Interjectional cries, <a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+<p>Interrogation, Mark of, in sign language, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p>Invention of new signs in sign language, <a href="#page387">387</a></p>
+<p>Involuntary response to gestures, <a href="#page280">280</a></p>
+<p>Isolation, Loss of speech by, <a href="#page278">278</a></p>
+<p>Italians, Modern, Signs of, <a href="#page285">285</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p>Jacker, Very Rev. Edward, Disuse of signs, <a href="#page325">325</a></p>
+<p>Jorio, The canon Andrea de, Works on sign language, <a href="#page289">289</a></p>
+<p>Joy, Signs for, <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>Justice, Sign for, <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>Kaiowa, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page470">470</a></p>
+<p>Keep, Rev. J. R., Syntax of Sign language, <a href="#page360">360</a></p>
+<p>Kickapoo, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page470">470</a></p>
+<p>Kill, Signs for, <a href="#page377">377</a>, <a href="#page437">437</a></p>
+<p>Kin ch&#275;-&#277;ss, Address of, <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p>Knife, Sign for, <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+<p>Kutine, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page470">470</a></p>
+<p>Language, Primitive, theories upon, <a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+<p>Lately, Signs for, <a href="#page366">366</a></p>
+<p>Lean Wolf's Complaint, in signs, <a href="#page526">526</a></p>
+<p>Leibnitz, Signs connected with philology, <a href="#page349">349</a></p>
+<p class="i10">                     syntax, <a href="#page360">360</a></p>
+<p>Leonardo da Vinci, <a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+<p>Lie, falsehood, Signs for, <a href="#page345">345</a>, <a href="#page393">393</a>, <a href="#page550">550</a></p>
+<p>Lightning, Signs for, <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>Lipan, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page471">471</a></p>
+<p>Loss of speech by isolation, <a href="#page278">278</a></p>
+<p>Love, Signs for, <a href="#page345">345</a>, <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p>Low tribes of men, Gestures of, <a href="#page279">279</a></p>
+<p>Lower animals, Gestures of, <a href="#page275">275</a></p>
+<p>Lucian, de saltatione, <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+<p>Man, Sign for, <a href="#page416">416</a></p>
+<p>Mandan, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page471">471</a></p>
+<p>Mano in fica, Neapolitan sign, <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>Many, Signs for, <a href="#page445">445</a>, <a href="#page496">496</a>, <a href="#page524">524</a>, <a href="#page535">535</a></p>
+<p>Marriage, Signs for, <a href="#page290">290</a></p>
+<p>Maya characters connected with signs, <a href="#page356">356</a>, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p>Medicine, Signs for, <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+<p>Medicine-man, Signs for, <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p>Mental disorder, Gestures in, <a href="#page276">276</a></p>
+<p>Methodical signs of deaf-mutes, <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+<p>Mexican characters connected with signs, <a href="#page357">357</a>, <a href="#page375">375</a>, <a href="#page377">377</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a>, <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+<p>Micha&#235;lius, Algonkin signs, <a href="#page324">324</a></p>
+<p>Milan convention on instruction of deafmutes, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p>Missouri River, Sign for, <a href="#page477">477</a></p>
+<p>Modern use of sign language, <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+<p>Money, Sign for, <a href="#page297">297</a></p>
+<p>Moose, Sign for, <a href="#page495">495</a></p>
+<p>Moqui pictographs connected with signs, <a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>Morgan, Lewis H., Atsina signs, <a href="#page312">312</a></p>
+<p>Morse, E.S., Japanese signs, <a href="#page442">442</a></p>
+<p>Mother, Sign for, <a href="#page479">479</a></p>
+<p>Motions relative to parts of body in sign language, <a href="#page393">393</a></p>
+<p>Much, Signs for, <a href="#page446">446</a></p>
+<p>M&#252;ller, Max, Theories relating to language, <a href="#page277">277</a>, <a href="#page281">281</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+<p>Narratives in sign language, <a href="#page500">500</a></p>
+<p>Natci's narrative in signs, <a href="#page500">500</a></p>
+<p>National Deaf-Mute College, <a href="#page321">321</a>, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+<p>Natural pantomime, <a href="#page280">280</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> signs, <a href="#page307">307</a>, <a href="#page340">340</a></p>
+<p>Na-wa-gi-jig's story in signs, <a href="#page508">508</a></p>
+<p>Neapolitan gestures and signs, <a href="#page289">289</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a>-305</p>
+<p>Negation of affirmative in sign language, <a href="#page391">391</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signs for, <a href="#page290">290</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>, <a href="#page300">300</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a>, <a href="#page355">355</a>, <a href="#page440">440</a>, <a href="#page494">494</a></p>
+<p>Night, Signs for, <a href="#page358">358</a></p>
+<p>Nothing, none, Signs for, <a href="#page322">322</a>, <a href="#page355">355</a>, <a href="#page356">356</a>, <a href="#page443">443</a></p>
+<p>Now, Signs for, <a href="#page366">366</a></p>
+<p>Occasional resource, Gestures as an, <a href="#page279">279</a></p>
+<p>Ojibwa dialogue in signs, <a href="#page499">499</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> pictographs connected with signs, <a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page372">372</a>, <a href="#page376">376</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a>, <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page472">472</a></p>
+<p>Old man, Sign for, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+<p>Omaha colloquy in signs, <a href="#page490">490</a></p>
+<p>Onomatopeia, <a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+<p>Opposite, Signs for, <a href="#page353">353</a></p>
+<p>Opposition in sign language, <a href="#page364">364</a></p>
+<p>Oral language defined, <a href="#page273">273</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, primitive, <a href="#page274">274</a></p>
+<p>Orators, modern, Gestures used by, <a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+<p>Origin of sign language, <a href="#page273">273</a></p>
+<p>Osage, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page472">472</a></p>
+<p>Ouray, head chief of Utes, <a href="#page315">315</a>, <a href="#page328">328</a></p>
+<p>Pani, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page472">472</a></p>
+<p>Pantomime, Natural, <a href="#page280">280</a></p>
+<p>Pantomimes, Classic, <a href="#page286">286</a></p>
+<p>Partisan, Signs for, <a href="#page384">384</a>, <a href="#page418">418</a></p>
+<p>Patricio's narrative in signs, <a href="#page505">505</a></p>
+<p>Peace, Signals for, <a href="#page530">530</a>, <a href="#page534">534</a>, <a href="#page535">535</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signs for, <a href="#page438">438</a></p>
+<p>Pend d'Oreille, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page473">473</a></p>
+<p>Period, Mark of, in sign language, <a href="#page368">368</a></p>
+<p>Permanence of signs, <a href="#page329">329</a></p>
+<p>Peruvian characters connected with signs, <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>Philology, Relation of sign language to, <a href="#page349">349</a></p>
+<p>Phrases in sign language, <a href="#page479">479</a></p>
+<p>Pictographs connected with sign language, <a href="#page368">368</a></p>
+<p>Porter, Prof. Samuel, Thought without language, <a href="#page277">277</a></p>
+<p>Possession, Sign for, <a href="#page484">484</a>, <a href="#page524">524</a></p>
+<p>Powell, J.W., Indian orthography, <a href="#page484">484</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Inflexions in Indian languages, <a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Linguistic classification, <a href="#page403">403</a></p>
+<p>Prepositions in sign language, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p>Pretty, Signs for, <a href="#page300">300</a></p>
+<p>Primitive language, Theories upon, <a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> oral language, <a href="#page274">274</a></p>
+<p>Prisoner, Sign for, <a href="#page345">345</a></p>
+<p>Proper names in sign language, <a href="#page364">364</a>, <a href="#page476">476</a></p>
+<p>Pueblo pictographs connected with signs, <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page473">473</a></p>
+<p>Punctuation in sign language, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p>Quantity, Signs for, <a href="#page291">291</a>, <a href="#page359">359</a>, <a href="#page445">445</a></p>
+<p>Question, Signs for, <a href="#page291">291</a>, <a href="#page297">297</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>, <a href="#page447">447</a>, <a href="#page480">480</a>, <a href="#page486">486</a>, <a href="#page494">494</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signals for, <a href="#page531">531</a>, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p>Quintilian, Antiquity of gesture language, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Powers of gesture, <a href="#page280">280</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Questioning by gesture, <a href="#page449">449</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Rules for gesture, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p>Rabbit, Sign for, <a href="#page321">321</a></p>
+<p>Rabelais, Forced and mistaken signs, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Head shaking, <a href="#page441">441</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Primitive language, <a href="#page282">282</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Sign for marriage, <a href="#page290">290</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signs addressed to women, <a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Universal language, <a href="#page287">287</a></p>
+<p>Raffaelle, Attention to gestures, <a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+<p>Railroad cars, Sign for, <a href="#page322">322</a></p>
+<p>Rain myth, Signs for, <a href="#page344">344</a>, <a href="#page357">357</a>, <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p>Rapport necessary in gestures, <a href="#page310">310</a></p>
+<p>Rejection, Signs for, <a href="#page298">298</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a></p>
+<p>Researches in sign language, how made, <a href="#page395">395</a></p>
+<p>Results sought in study of sign language, <a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+<p>Ride, Sign for, <a href="#page551">551</a></p>
+<p>Ruxton, <a href="#page324">324</a></p>
+<p>Sac, or Sanki, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page473">473</a></p>
+<p>Safety, Signals for, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p>Sahaptin, Tribal sign, for, <a href="#page473">473</a></p>
+<p>Same, similar, Sign for, <a href="#page385">385</a></p>
+<p>Sayce, Prof. A.H., Origin of language in gestures, <a href="#page283">283</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+<p>Scocciare, Italian sign for, <a href="#page298">298</a></p>
+<p>Seraglio, mutes of the, Gestures of the, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p>Shawnee, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page474">474</a></p>
+<p>Sheepeater, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page474">474</a></p>
+<p>Shoshone, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page474">474</a></p>
+<p>Sibscota, Mutes of Seraglio, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p>Sicard, Abb&#233;, Deaf mute signs, <a href="#page277">277</a>, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href="#page362">362</a></p>
+<p>Sicily, Gesture language in, <a href="#page295">295</a></p>
+<p>Sign language, Abstract ideas expressed in, <a href="#page348">348</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Alaskans, of the, <a href="#page513">513</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Antiquity of, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Apache pictographs connected with, <a href="#page372">372</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Arch&#230;ologic research connected with, <a href="#page368">368</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Arrangement in description of signs in, <a href="#page546">546</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Australian, <a href="#page306">306</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Authorities in, list of, <a href="#page401">401</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Chinese characters connected with, <a href="#page356">356</a>, <a href="#page357">357</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Cistercian monks, of, <a href="#page283">283</a>, <a href="#page364">364</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, collaborators in, List of, <a href="#page401">401</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, comparison, Degrees of, in, <a href="#page363">363</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Conjunctions in, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Convention, not requiring, <a href="#page334">334</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Corporeal gestures in, <a href="#page270">270</a>, <a href="#page273">273</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, correspondents, Foreign, on, <a href="#page407">407</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, deaf-mutes, of uninstructed, <a href="#page277">277</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, dialects, numerous, connected with, <a href="#page294">294</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Dialogues in, <a href="#page486">486</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Dictionary of, Extracts from, <a href="#page409">409</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Discontinuance of, <a href="#page312">312</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Discourses in, <a href="#page521">521</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Egyptian characters connected with, <a href="#page304">304</a>, <a href="#page355">355</a>, <a href="#page357">357</a>-359, <a href="#page370">370</a>, <a href="#page379">379</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Emotional gestures in, <a href="#page270">270</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Ethnologic facts connected with, <a href="#page384">384</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> evolved rather than invented, <a href="#page319">319</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Facial expression in, <a href="#page270">270</a>, <a href="#page273">273</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, fingers, Details of position of, in, <a href="#page392">392</a>, <a href="#page547">547</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Gender in, <a href="#page366">366</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Grammar connected with, <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, hand positions, Types of, in, <a href="#page547">547</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, History of, <a href="#page285">285</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, illustration, Scheme of, in, <a href="#page544">544</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Indian and deaf-mute, compared, <a href="#page320">320</a></p>
+<p class="i6"> and foreign, compared, <a href="#page319">319</a></p>
+<p class="i6">Special and peculiar is the, <a href="#page319">319</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> Indians, North American, Once universal among, <a href="#page324">324</a>-326</p>
+<p class="i6">Conditions favorable to, <a href="#page311">311</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> Innuits, of the, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, interrogation, Mark of, in, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Invention of new signs in, <a href="#page387">387</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Italians, modern, of, <a href="#page285">285</a>, <a href="#page305">305</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, languages, Indian, compared with, <a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Maya characters connected with, <a href="#page356">356</a>, <a href="#page376">376</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Mexican characters connected with, <a href="#page357">357</a>, <a href="#page375">375</a>, <a href="#page377">377</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a>, <a href="#page382">382</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Mistaken denial of existence of, <a href="#page326">326</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Modern use of, <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Modern use of, by other than North American Indians, <a href="#page320">320</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Motions relative to parts of body in, <a href="#page393">393</a>, <a href="#page545">545</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Narratives in, <a href="#page500">500</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Negation or affirmative in, <a href="#page391">391</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Ojibwa pictographs connected with, <a href="#page371">371</a>, <a href="#page372">372</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a>, <a href="#page381">381</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Opposition in, <a href="#page364">364</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Oral language not proportioned to development of, <a href="#page293">293</a>, <a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Origin of, <a href="#page273">273</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Origin of, from a particular tribe, <a href="#page316">316</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Outlines of arm positions in, <a href="#page545">545</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, period, Mark of, in, <a href="#page368">368</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Peruvian characters connected with, <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Phrases in, <a href="#page479">479</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Pictographs connected with, <a href="#page368">368</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Practical application of, <a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, preceded articulate speech, <a href="#page274">274</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Prepositions in, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Prevalence of Indian system of, <a href="#page323">323</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Proper names in, <a href="#page364">364</a>, <a href="#page476">476</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Pueblo pictographs connected with, <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Punctuation, in, <a href="#page367">367</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Philology, relation of, to, <a href="#page349">349</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Researches, Mode in which made on, <a href="#page395">395</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Resemblance to Indian languages, <a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Results sought in the study of, <a href="#page346">346</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Seraglio, of the mutes of the, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Sicilian, <a href="#page295">295</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Sociologic conditions connected with, <a href="#page293">293</a>, <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, South American, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Survival of, <a href="#page306">306</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Syntax connected with, <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Tense in, <a href="#page366">366</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Time in, <a href="#page366">366</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Tribal signs in, <a href="#page458">458</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, writing, Origin of, connected with, <a href="#page354">354</a></p>
+<p>Signals, Apache, <a href="#page534">534</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, bodily action, Executed by, <a href="#page529">529</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Cheyenne and Arapaho, <a href="#page542">542</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Dust, <a href="#page541">541</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Fire arrows used in, <a href="#page540">540</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Foreign, <a href="#page549">549</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Smoke, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> when person signaling is not seen, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> with objects in connection with personal action, <a href="#page532">532</a></p>
+<p>Signs, Abbreviation in, <a href="#page338">338</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Arbitrary, <a href="#page340">340</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Conventional, <a href="#page333">333</a>, <a href="#page336">336</a>, <a href="#page340">340</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> deaf-mutes, of uninstructed, <a href="#page277">277</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, diversities in, Classes of, <a href="#page341">341</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Forced, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Homomorphy of, with diverse meanings, <a href="#page342">342</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Mistaken, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Natural, <a href="#page307">307</a>, <a href="#page340">340</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Oral language, not proportioned to development of, <a href="#page293">293</a>, <a href="#page314">314</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Permanence of, <a href="#page329">329</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Power of, compared with speech, <a href="#page347">347</a>, <a href="#page349">349</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Surviving in gesture, <a href="#page330">330</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Symmorphs in, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Synonyms in, <a href="#page341">341</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Systematic use of, distinguished from uniformity of, <a href="#page330">330</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Theories of Indians, respecting the, <a href="#page313">313</a></p>
+<p>Silence, Sign for, <a href="#page304">304</a></p>
+<p>Small, Sign for, <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>Smoke, Sign for, <a href="#page343">343</a>, <a href="#page380">380</a></p>
+<p class="i2"> signals, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Foreign, <a href="#page539">539</a></p>
+<p>Smyth, E. Brough, Australian, signs, <a href="#page306">306</a>, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+<p>Sociologic conditions connected with use of gestures, <a href="#page293">293</a></p>
+<p>Soldier, Signs for, <a href="#page344">344</a>, <a href="#page449">449</a>, <a href="#page505">505</a></p>
+<p>South Americans, Signs of, <a href="#page307">307</a></p>
+<p>Speak, speech, Signs for, <a href="#page345">345</a>, <a href="#page373">373</a></p>
+<p>Squirrel, Sign for, <a href="#page321">321</a></p>
+<p>Steamboat, Sign for, <a href="#page388">388</a></p>
+<p>Stone, Signs for, <a href="#page386">386</a>, <a href="#page515">515</a></p>
+<p>Stupidity, Signs for, <a href="#page303">303</a></p>
+<p>Submission, Signals for, <a href="#page531">531</a></p>
+<p>Suggestions for collecting signs, <a href="#page394">394</a></p>
+<p>Sun, Signs for, <a href="#page344">344</a>, <a href="#page370">370</a></p>
+<p>Sunrise, Sign for, <a href="#page371">371</a></p>
+<p>Surrender, Signals for, <a href="#page531">531</a>, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p>Surrounded, Signal for, <a href="#page536">536</a></p>
+<p>Suspicion, Sign for, <a href="#page306">306</a></p>
+<p>Swedenborg, Primitive language, <a href="#page288">288</a></p>
+<p>Symbols, distinguished from signs, <a href="#page388">388</a></p>
+<p>Symmorphs in signs, <a href="#page343">343</a></p>
+<p>Synonyms in signs, <a href="#page341">341</a></p>
+<p>Syntax, Sign language with reference to, <a href="#page359">359</a></p>
+<p>Talkers, fluent, Gestures of, <a href="#page279">279</a></p>
+<p>Tendoy-Huerito dialogue in signs, <a href="#page486">486</a></p>
+<p>Tennanah, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page475">475</a></p>
+<p>Tense in sign language, <a href="#page336">336</a></p>
+<p>Theft, Signs for, <a href="#page292">292</a>, <a href="#page345">345</a></p>
+<p>Time, in sign language, <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, long, Sign for, <a href="#page522">522</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Signs for, <a href="#page350">350</a>, <a href="#page508">508</a></p>
+<p>To-day, Signs for, <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+<p>Trade, Signs for, <a href="#page381">381</a>, <a href="#page450">450</a>, <a href="#page495">495</a></p>
+<p>Tree, Signs for, <a href="#page343">343</a>, <a href="#page496">496</a>, <a href="#page524">524</a></p>
+<p>Tribal signs, <a href="#page458">458</a></p>
+<p>Trumbull, Dr. J. Hammond, Composition of Indian words, <a href="#page351">351</a></p>
+<p>Tso-di-a'-ko's Report, in signs, <a href="#page524">524</a></p>
+<p>Tylor, Dr. E.B., Sign language, <a href="#page293">293</a>, <a href="#page320">320</a>, <a href="#page323">323</a></p>
+<p>Uniformity of signs distinguished from their systematic use, <a href="#page330">330</a></p>
+<p>Ute, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page475">475</a></p>
+<p>Village, Signs for, <a href="#page386">386</a></p>
+<p>Vinci, Leonardo da, use of gestures, <a href="#page292">292</a></p>
+<p>Wagon, Sign for, <a href="#page322">322</a></p>
+<p>Want, Sign for, <a href="#page344">344</a></p>
+<p>Warning, Sign for, <a href="#page301">301</a>, <a href="#page302">302</a></p>
+<p>Washington, City of, Sign for, <a href="#page470">470</a></p>
+<p>Water, Signs for, <a href="#page357">357</a>, <a href="#page494">494</a></p>
+<p>White man, Signs for, <a href="#page450">450</a>, <a href="#page469">469</a>, <a href="#page491">491</a>, 000, <a href="#page526">526</a></p>
+<p>Whitney, Prof. W.D., Primitive speech, <a href="#page283">283</a></p>
+<p>Wichita, Tribal signs for, <a href="#page476">476</a></p>
+<p>Wilkins, Bishop, Philosophic language, <a href="#page288">288</a></p>
+<p>Williams, Mr. B.O., <a href="#page326">326</a></p>
+<p>Wiseman, Cardinal, Gesture of blind man, <a href="#page278">278</a></p>
+<p class="i2">, Italian signs, <a href="#page408">408</a></p>
+<p>Woman, Sign for, <a href="#page497">497</a></p>
+<p>Worthlessness, Sign for, <a href="#page301">301</a></p>
+<p>Writing, origin of, Gestures connected with the, <a href="#page354">354</a></p>
+<p>Wyandot, Tribal sign for, <a href="#page476">476</a></p>
+  </div>  </div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sign Language Among North American
+Indians Compared With That Among Other Peoples And Deaf-Mutes, by Garrick Mallery
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 04:51:09 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 04:51:09 -0700
commit	4d2a62e8c3040d362736738f2fb48f9a1e7fe878 (patch)
tree	71dd3ae4d42fdf35e3dd636fab453cf37424c9a5 /17451-h