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diff --git a/17330-h/17330-h.htm b/17330-h/17330-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a161863 --- /dev/null +++ b/17330-h/17330-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9782 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta content="pg2html (binary v0.17)" name="linkgenerator" /> + <title> + History of Egypt, by S. Rappoport, Volume 10 + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + pre { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt From 330 B.C. To The +Present Time, Volume 10 (of 12), by S. Rappoport + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History Of Egypt From 330 B.C. To The Present Time, Volume 10 (of 12) + +Author: S. Rappoport + +Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17330] +Last Updated: September 8, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT FROM 330 *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + +Character set: ISO-8859-1 + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" alt="Frontispiece " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" alt="Titlepage " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + HISTORY OF EGYPT + </h1> + <h3> + From 330 B.C. to the Present Time + </h3> + <h2> + By S. RAPPOPORT, Doctor of Philosophy, Basel + </h2> + <h4> + Member of the Ecole Langues Orientales, Paris; Russian, German, <br /> + French Orientalist and Philologist + </h4> + <h2> + VOL. X. + </h2> + <h4> + Containing over Twelve Hundred Colored Plates and Illustrations + </h4> + <h3> + THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS, LONDON + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> PUBLISHER’S NOTE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <i>EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES</i> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> INTRODUCTORY ESSAY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I—EGYPT CONQUERED BY THE GREEKS + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II—EGYPT UNDER PTOLEMY SOTER </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III.—PTOLEMY PHILADELPHUS. B.C. + 284-246 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0002"> CHAPTER IV—PTOLEMY EUERGETES, PTOLEMY + PHILOPATOR, AND PTOLEMY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkC2HCH0001"> CHAPTER V—PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR AND PTOLEMY + EUERGETES II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkC2HCH0002"> CHAPTER VI—THE GROWTH OF ROMAN INFLUENCE + IN EGYPT </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkC2HCH0003"> CHAPTER VII—CLEOPATRA AND HER BROTHERS + </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Spines </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Cover </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Frontispiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Titlepage </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> 001.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> 002.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> 015.jpg Page Image—alexandria </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> 019.jpg Transporting Grain on the Nile </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> 021.jpg Phtah the God of Memphis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> 027.jpg Lighthouse at Alexandria </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0011"> 031.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0012"> 036.jpg the DÔm Palm. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0013"> 040.jpg a Silhouette on the Nile </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0014"> 044.jpg Crocodiles Basking in the Sun </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0015"> 049.jpg a Theban Belle </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0016"> 049b.jpg Prayer to Isis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0017"> 052.jpg Tombs of the Sacred Bulls </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0018"> 055.jpg the God Serapis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0019"> 056.jpb Manuscript on Papyrus; Hieroglyphics, + Thebes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0020"> 057.jpg Alexander Adoring Horus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0021"> 062.jpg on the Coast of The Red Sea </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0022"> 081.jpg Alexandrian Lady, Attired in Bombyx + Silk </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0023"> 082.jpg Egyptian Coinage </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0024"> 083.jpg Coin of Soter, With Jupiter </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0025"> 092.jpg the Chariot of Antiphilus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0026"> 095.jpg Berenice Soter </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0027"> 098.jpg Nit, Goddess of Sais. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0028"> 099.jpg a Cat Mummy </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0029"> 100.jpg Tailpiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> 101.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> 102.jpg Pharos in Old Alexandria </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> 106.jpg Bronze Cosmetic Holder </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> 112.jpg Rosetta Branch of the Nile </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> 116.jpg Temple of Philae </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> 118.jpg Anubis, God of the Lower World </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> 120.jpg at the Head of The Red Sea </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> 123.jpg the Cararact on The Aswan </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> 128.jpg an Athlete Disporting on a Crocodile + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> 131.jpg Modern Sphinx-like Face </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> 137.jpg Method of Egyptian Draftsmanship + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> 141.jpg Coin With the Heads of Soter and + Philadelphus And Arsinoë </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> 142.jpg Coin With the Heads of Soter, + Philadelphus And Berenice </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> 143.jpg Coin of ArsinoË, Sister Of Ptolemy + II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> 149.jpg a Typical Nile Pilot </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> 153.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> 157.jpg an Abyssinian Slave </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> 160b.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments from + the Fifth Tomb </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> 161.jpg Gate at Karnak </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> 163.jpg Ruins of Sais </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> 169.jpg Gateway of Ptolemy Euergetes at + Karnak </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> 175.jpg Coin of Ptolemy III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> 176.jpg Coin of Berenice, Wife Of Ptolemy + III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> 187.jpg Temple of Hathor. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> 188jpg Coin of Ptolemy Philopater </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> 189.jpg Coin of Arsinoe Philopate </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0031"> 196.jpg Roman Coin, Issued Under Ptolemy V. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> 201.jpg the Rosetta Stone (british Museum) + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> 207.jpg Outside Rosetta </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> 210.jpg a Desert Road Between Egypt and + Syria. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> 212.jpg Tailpiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0004"> 215.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0005"> 219.jpg Temple of Hermonthis. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0006"> 223.jpg Garden Near Heliopolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0007"> 227.jpg Temple of Apollonopolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0008"> 234.jpg the Apotheosis of Homer </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0009"> 235.jpg Hero’s Rotating Steam Engine </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0010"> 237.jpg Coin of Ptolemy V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0011"> 241.jpg Temple of Hathor at Philae </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0012"> 242b.jpg Color Plate </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0013"> 249.jpg Obelisk at Heliopolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0014"> 254.jpg Nilometer at Rhodha </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0015"> 256b.jpg Suk El Saleh, Cairo </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0016"> 260.jpg Temple of Kom Ombo. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0017"> 268.jpg Temple Portico at Contra-latopoli + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0018"> 274.jpg Coin of Cleopatra and Alexander </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0019"> 275.jpg Coin of Cleopatra and Alexander, + With Eagles </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0020"> 276.jpg the Memnonium at Thebes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0021"> 280.jpg Coin of Ptolemy Lathyrus and Selene. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0022"> 287.jpg Horus on the Crocodiles. Bulak + Museum. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0023"> 289.jpg Religious Procession on the Nile + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0024"> 291.jpg Egyptian Funeral Ceremonies </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0025"> 293.jpg Mummy, Mummy-cases, and Casket </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0026"> 295.jpg Development of Egyptian Caricature + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0027"> 297.jpg the Mines of Maghara </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0028"> 309.jpg Vocal Statue of Memnon </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0029"> 312.jpg the Sphinx </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0030"> 314.jpg </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0031"> 314b.jpg Bearers of Evil Tidings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0032"> 315.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0033"> 317.jpg Pillar of Pompey at Alexandria </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0034"> 333.jpg Ruins of Hermonthis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0035"> 338.jpg Egyptian Picture of Cleopatra </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0036"> 346.jpg Coin of Cleopatra and Anthony </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0037"> 347.jpg Later Coin of Cleopatra and Antony. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0038"> 351.jpg Greek Picture of Cleopatra </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0039"> 357.jpg Grand Column at Karnak </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0040"> 362.jpg Cleopatra’s Needle. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0041"> 364.jpg Graeco-egyptian Column </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + Professor Maspero closes his History of Egypt with the conquest of + Alexander the Great. There is a sense of dramatic fitness in this + selection, for, with the coming of the Macedonians, the sceptre of + authority passed for ever out of the hand of the Egyptian. For several + centuries the power of the race had been declining, and foreign nations + had contended for the vast treasure-house of Egypt. Alexander found the + Persians virtually rulers of the land. The ancient people whose fame has + come down to us through centuries untarnished had been forced to bow + beneath the yoke of foreign masters, and nations of alien blood were + henceforth to dominate its history. + </p> + <p> + The first Ptolemy founded a Macedonian or Greek dynasty that maintained + supremacy in Egypt until the year 30 B.C. His successors were his lineal + descendants, and to the very last they prided themselves on their Greek + origin; but the government which they established was essentially Oriental + in character. The names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra convey an Egyptian rather + than a Greek significance; and the later rulers of the dynasty were true + Egyptians, since their ancestors had lived in Alexandria for three full + centuries. + </p> + <p> + In the year 30 B.C. Augustus Cæsar conquered the last of the Ptolemies, + the famous Cleopatra. Augustus made Egypt virtually his private province, + and drew from it resources that were among the chief elements of his + power. After Augustus, the Romans continued in control until the coming of + the Saracens under Amr, in the seventh century. Various dynasties of + Mohammedans, covering a period of several centuries, maintained control + until the Mamluks, in 1250, overthrew the legitimate rulers, to be + themselves overthrown three centuries later by the Turks under Selim I. + Turkish rule was maintained until near the close of the eighteenth + century, when the French, under Napoleon Bonaparte, invaded Egypt. In + 1806, after the expulsion of the French by the English, the famous Mehemet + Ali destroyed the last vestiges of Mamluk power, and set up a + quasi-independent sovereignty which was not disturbed until toward the + close of the nineteenth century. The events of the last twenty-five years, + comprising a short period of joint control of Egypt by the French and + English, followed by the British occupation, are fresh in the mind of the + reader. + </p> + <p> + What may be termed the modern history of Egypt covers a period of more + than twenty-two centuries. During this time the native Egyptian can + scarcely be said to have a national history, but the land of Egypt, and + the races who have become acclimated there, have passed through many + interesting phases. Professor Maspero completes the history of antiquity + in that dramatic scene in which the ancient Egyptian makes his last futile + struggle for independence. But the Nile Valley has remained the scene of + the most important events where the strongest nations of the earth + contended for supremacy. It is most interesting to note that the invaders + of Egypt, while impressing their military stamp upon the natives, have + been mastered in a very real sense by the spell of Egypt’s greatness; but + the language, the key to ancient learning and civilisation, still remained + a well-guarded secret. Here and there one of the Ptolemies or Greeks + thought it worth his while to master the hieroglyphic writing. + Occasionally a Roman of the later period may have done the same, but such + an accomplishment was no doubt very unusual from the first. The + subordinated Egyptians therefore had no resource but to learn the language + of their conquerors, and presently it came to pass that not even the + native Egyptian remembered the elusive secrets of his own written + language. Egyptian, as a spoken tongue, remained, in a modified form, as + Koptic, but at about the beginning of our era the classical Egyptian had + become a dead language. No one any longer wrote in the hieroglyphic, + hieratic, or demotic scripts; in a word, the hieroglyphic writing was + forgotten. The reader of Professor Maspero’s pages has had opportunity to + learn how this secret was discovered in the nineteenth century. This + information is further amplified in the present volumes, and we see how in + our own time the native Egyptian has regained something of his former + grandeur through the careful and scientific study of monuments, + inscriptions, and works of art. Thus it will appear in the curious + rounding out of the enigmatic story that the most ancient history of + civilisation becomes also the newest and most modern human history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PUBLISHER’S NOTE + </h2> + <p> + It should be explained that Doctor Rappoport, in preparing these volumes, + has drawn very largely upon the authorities who have previously laboured + in the same field, and in particular upon the works of Creasy, Duruy, + Ebers, Lavisse, Marcel, Michaud, Neibuhr, Paton, Ram-baud, Sharp, and + Weil. The results of investigations by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie and + other prominent Egyptologists have been fully set forth and profusely + illustrated. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" alt="001.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" alt="002.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + <i>EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES</i> + </h2> + <p> + <i>ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE CONQUEST OF EGYPT—THE REIGNS OP THE + PTOLEMIES—GRADUAL GROWTH OF ROMAN INFLUENCE—INTRIGUES OF + CLEOPATRA WITH POMPEY, CAESAR, AND ANTONY</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Alexander the Great in Egypt—Alexandria founded—The Greeks + favour the Jews—Ptolemy Soter establishes himself in Egypt and + overcomes Perdiccas—Struggles for Syria—Beginning of Egyptian + coinage—Art and Scholarship—Ptolemy resigns in favour of his + son Philadelphus —First treaty with Rome—Building of the + Pharos—Growth of Commerce—Encouragement of Learning—The + library of Alexandria—Euclid the geometer—Poets, astronomers, + historians, and critics—The Septuagint—Marriage of + Philadelphus to his sister Arsinoë—Ptolemy Euergetes plunders Asia—Egyptian + temples enlarged—Religious tolerance—Annual tribute of the + Jews—Eratosthenes the astronomer—Philosophy and Science—Culmination + of Ptolemaic rule—The dynasty declines under Philopator—Syrians + invade Egypt; Philopator retaliates; visits Jerusalem—The Jews + persecuted—The king’s follies—Riots at Alexandria—Inglorious + end of Philopator—The young Ptolemy Epiphanes protected by Rome—Military + revolt suppressed—Coronation of Epiphanes—The Rosetta Stone—Marriage + of Epiphanes and Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus the Cheat—A second + rebellion repressed—Accession of Ptolemy Philometer under the + guardianship of Cleopatra—Antiochus Epiphanes defeats Philometer—Euergetes + seizes the throne and appeals to Rome—Antiochus supports Philometor + against his brother Euergetes—The brothers combine against Antiochus—Fraternal + rivalry—Philometer appeals to the Romans who adjust the quarrel—Philometer + arbitrates in a dispute between the Jews and the Samaritans—New + temples built—Egyptian asceticism—Philometer’s death; + Euergetes reigns alone, and divorces his queen Cleopatra—Popular + tumult in Alexandria—Euergetes flees—Cleopatra in power—Euergetes + regains the throne; conquers Syria and makes peace with Cleopatra—The + reign of Cleopatra Cocce with Lathyrus (Ptolemy Soter II.)—Cleopatra + in the ascendent—She helps the Jews, while Lathyrus helps the + Samaritans—Lathyrus flees to Cyprus—Ptolemy Alexander I rules + with Cleopatra—Death of Alexander and restoration of Lathyrus—Accession + of Cleopatra Berenicê—Ptolemy Alexander II. bequeaths Egypt to Rome, + murders Berenicê, and is slain by his guards—Auletes succeeds—The + Romans claim Egypt—Pompey assists Auletes who is expelled by the + Egyptians—Cleopatra Tryphama and Berenicê placed on the throne—Grabinius + and Mark Antony march into Egypt and restore Auletes—The reign of + Cleopatra—Pompey made governor—The Egyptian fleet aids Pompey—Pompey + is slain—Cæsar besieged by the Alexandrians—He overcomes + opposition, is captivated by Cleopatra and establishes her authority—The + Queen’s extravagance—Defeat of Antony—Death of Cleopatra—Octavianus + annexes Egypt.</i> + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + INTRODUCTORY ESSAY + </h2> + <p> + HELLENISM AND HEBRÆISM IN EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES I. + </p> + <p> + When Alexander the Great bridged the gulf dividing Occident and Orient, + the Greeks had attained to a state of maturity in the development of their + national art and literature. Greek culture and civilisation, passing + beyond the boundaries of their national domain, crossed this bridge and + spread over the Asiatic world. To perpetuate his name, the great + Macedonian king founded a city, and selected for this purpose, with + extraordinary prescience, a spot on the banks of the Nile, which, on + account of its geographical position, was destined to become a centre, not + only of international commerce and an entrepôt between Asia and Europe, + but also a centre of intellectual culture. The policy of Alexander to + remove the barriers between the Greeks and the Asiatics, and to pave the + way for the union of the races of his vast empire, was continued by the + Lagidæ dynasty in Egypt. With her independence and native dynasties, Egypt + had also lost her political strength and unity; she retained, however, her + ancient institutions, her customs, and religious system. The sway of + Persian dominion had passed over her without overthrowing this huge rock + of sacerdotal power which, deeply rooted with many ramifications, seemed + to mock the wave of time. Out of the ruins of political independence still + towered the monuments of civilisation of a mighty past which gave to this + country moral independence, and prevented the obliteration of nationality. + It would have mattered very little in the vast empire of Alexander if one + province had a special physiognomy. It was different, however, with the + Lagidæ: their power was concentrated in Egypt, and they were therefore + compelled to obliterate the separation existing between the conquering and + the conquered races, and fuse them, if possible, into one. A great + obstacle which confronted the Macedonian rulers in Egypt was the religion + of the country. The interest and the policy of the Lagidæ demanded the + removal of this obstacle, not by force but by diplomacy. Greek gods were + therefore identified with Egyptian; Phtah became Hephæstos; Thot, Hermes; + Ra, Helios; Amon, Zeus; and, in consequence of a dream which commanded him + to offer adoration to a foreign god, Ptolemy Soter created a new Greek god + who was of Egyptian origin. Osiris at that period was the great god of + Egypt; Memphis was the religious centre of the cult of Apis, the + representative of Osiris, and who, when living, was called Apis-Osiris, + and when dead Osiris-Apis. Cambyses had killed the god or his + representative: it was a bad move. Alexander made sacrifices to him: + Ptolemy Soter did more. He endeavoured to persuade the Egyptians that + Osirapi or Osiris-Apis was also sacred to the Greeks, and to identify him + with some Greek divinity. There was a Greek deity known as Serapis, + identified with Pluton, the god of Hades. Serapis, by a clever manouvre, a + <i>coup de religion</i>, was identified with Osiris-Apis. The lingual + similarity and the fact that Osirapi was the god of the Egyptian Hades + made the identification acceptable. + </p> + <p> + Like true Greek princes, the Ptolemies had broad views and were very + tolerant. Keeping the Greek religion themselves, they were favourably + disposed towards the creeds of other nationalities under their dominion. + Thanks to this broad-mindedness and tolerance which had become traditional + in the Lagidas family, and which has only rarely been imitated—to + the detriment of civilisation—in the history of European dynasties, + Oriental and Hellenic culture could flourish side by side. This benign + government attracted many scholars, scientists, poets, and philosophers. + Alexandria became the intellectual metropolis of the world; and it might + truly be said to have been the Paris of antiquity. At the courts of the + Ptolemies, the Medicis of Egypt, the greatest men of the age lived and + taught. Demetrius Phalerius, one of the most learned and cultured men of + an age of learning and knowledge, when driven from his luxurious palace at + Athens, found hospitality at the court of Ptolemy Soter. The foundation of + the famous Museion and library of Alexandria was most probably due to his + influence. He advised the first Ptolemy to found a building where poets, + scholars, and philosophers would have facilities for study, research, and + speculation. The Museion was similar in some respects to the Academy of + Plato. It was an edifice where scholars lived and worked together. Mental + qualification was the only requirement for admission. Nationality and + creed were no obstacles to those whose learning rendered them worthy of + becoming members of this ideal academy and of being received among the + immortals of antiquity. The Museion was in no sense a university, but an + academy for the cultivation of the higher branches of learning. It might + be compared in some respects to the College de France, or regarded as a + development of the system under which scholars had already lived and + worked together in the Ramesseum under Ramses II. The generosity of the + Lagidas provided amply for this new centre of learning and study. Free + from worldly cares, the scholars could leisurely gather information and + hand down to posterity the fruits of their researches. From all parts of + the world men flocked to this centre of fashionable learning, the + birthplace of modern science. All that was brilliant and cultured, all the + coryphées in the domain of intellect, were attracted by that splendid + court. + </p> + <p> + In the shade of the Museion a brilliant assembly—Ptolemy, Euclid, + Hipparchus, Apollonius, and Eratosthenes—made great discoveries and + added materially to the sum of human knowledge. Here Euclid wrote his + immortal “Elements;” and Herophilos, the father of surgery, added valuable + information to the knowledge of anatomy. The art and process of embalming, + in such vogue among the Egyptians, naturally fostered the advance of this + science. Whilst Alexandria in abstract speculation could not rival Greece, + yet it became the home of the pioneers of positive science, who left a + great and priceless legacy to modern civilisation. The importance of this + event (the foundation of the Museion), says Draper, in his <i>Intellectual + Development of Europe</i>, though hitherto little understood, admits of no + exaggeration so far as the intellectual progress of Europe is concerned. + The Museum made an impression upon the intellectual career of Europe so + powerful and enduring that we still enjoy its results. If the purely + literary productions of that age have sometimes been looked upon with + contempt, European intellectual culture is still greatly indebted to + Alexandria, and especially for the patronage she accorded to the works of + Aristotle. Whilst the speculative mind was in later centuries allured by + the supernatural, and the discussion of the criterion of truth and the + principles of morality ended in the mystic doctrines of Neo-Platonism, the + practical tendencies of the great Alexandrine scholars were instrumental + in laying the foundations of science. To the Museion were attached the + libraries: one in the Museion itself, and another in the quarter Rhacotis + in the temple of Serapis, which contained about 700,000 volumes. New books + were continually acquired. The librarians had orders to pay any sum for + the original of the works of great masters. The Ptolemies were not only + patrons of learning but were themselves highly educated. Ptolemy Soter was + an historian of no mean talent, and his son Philadelphus, as a pupil of + the poet Philetas and the philosopher Strabo, was a man of great learning. + Ptolemy III. was a mathematician, and Ptolemy Philopator, who had erected + and dedicated a temple to Homer, was the writer of a tragedy. The efforts + of the Ptolemies to bring the two nationalities, Hellenic and Egyptian, + nearer to each other, to mould and weld them into one if possible, to mix + and mingle the two civilisations and thus strengthen their own power, was + greatly aided by the national character of the Greeks and the political + position of the Egyptians. + </p> + <p> + The Greeks found in Egypt a national culture and especially a religious + system. The pliant Hellenic genius could not remain insensible to that + ancient and marvellous civilisation with its sphinxes and hieroglyphics, + its pyramids and temples, its learning and thought, so strangely + perplexing and interesting to the Greek mind. Not only the magnificence of + Egyptian art, the majesty of her temples and palaces, but the wisdom of + her social and political institutions impressed the conquerors. They made + themselves acquainted with the institutions of the country; they studied + its history and took an interest in its religion and mythology. Similarly, + the conquered Egyptians, who had preferred the Macedonian ruler to their + Persian oppressors, exhibited a natural desire to learn the languages and + habits of their rulers, to make themselves acquainted with their knowledge + and phases of thought, and art and science. The interest of the Greeks was + strengthened by this, and the Egyptians were made to see their history in + its proper light. To this endeavour we owe the history of Manetho. But, in + spite of the policy of the Ptolemies, the impressionable nature of the + Hellenic character and the interest of the Egyptians,—in spite of + all that tended to a fusion of Hellenism and Orientalism, it never came to + a proper amalgamation. The contradiction between the free-thought + philosophy of Greece, which was fast outgrowing its polytheism and + Olympian worship, and the deeply rooted sacerdotal system of the + Pharaonian institutions, was too great and too flagrant. Thus there never + was an Egypto-Hellenic phase of thought. But there was another + civilisation of great antiquity, possessing peculiar features, not less + interesting for the Greek mind than that of Egypt itself, with which + Hellenism found itself face to face in the ancient land of the Pharaohs. + It was the civilisation of Judæa, between which and Greek thought a + greater fusion was effected. + </p> + <p> + II. + </p> + <p> + From time immemorial the Hebrew race, with all its conservative tendencies + in religious matters, has been amenable to the influence of foreign + culture and civilian. Egypt and Phoenicia, Babylonia and Assyria, Hellas + and Rome have exercised an immense influence over it. It still is and + always has been endeavouring to bring into harmony the exclusiveness of + its national religion, with a desire to adopt the habits culture, + language, and manners of its neighbours; an attempt in which it may be + apparently successful, for a certain period at least, but which must + always have a tragic end. It is impossible to be conservative and + progressive at the same time, to be both national and cosmopolitan. The + attempts to reconcile religious formalism and free reasoning have never + succeeded in the history of human thought. It soon led to the conviction + that one factor must be sacrificed, and, as soon as this was perceived, + the party of zealots was quickly at hand to preach reaction. In the times + of the successors of Alexander, the Diadochæ and Epigones, the Seleucidæ + and the Lagidæ, who had divided the vast dominion among them, Greek + influence had spread all over Palestine. Greek towns were founded, + theatres and gymnasia established; Greek art was admired and her + philosophy studied. The Hellenic movement was paramount, and the + aristocratic families did their best to further it. Even the high priests, + like Jason and Menelaos, who were supposed to be the guardians of the + national exclusive movement, favoured Greek culture and institutions. + </p> + <p> + In the mother country, however, the germ of reaction was always very + strong. A constant opposition was directed against the influx of foreign + modes of life and thought, which effaced and obliterated the intellectual + movement. It was different, however, in the other countries of Macedonian + dominion, and especially in Egypt. Alexander the Great, who seems to have + been favourably inclined towards the Jews, settled a number of them in + Alexandria. His policy was kept up by the descendants of Lagos, that great + general of Alexander, who made himself king of the province which was + entrusted to the care of his administration. Egypt became the resort of + many refugees from Judæa, who gradually came under the influence of the + dazzling Greek thought and culture, so new and therefore so attractive to + the Semitic mind. Hellenism and Hebraism had known each other for some + time, for Phoenician merchants and seafarers had carried the seed of + Oriental wisdom to the distant west. The acquaintance, however, was a + slight one. At the court of the Ptolemies, on the threshold of Europe and + Asia, they met at last. On the shores of the Mediterranean, on the soil + where lay the traces of the ancient Egyptian civilisation, in the silent + avenues of mysterious sphinxes, amongst hieroglyphic-covered obelisks, + Greek and Hebrew thought stood face to face. The two civilisations + embodied the principles of the Beautiful and the Sublime, of Morality and + Æstheticism, of religious and philosophic speculation. The result of this + meeting marks a glorious page in the annals of human thought. Among the + monuments of a great historic past, the speculative spirit of the East + made love to the plastic beauty of the West, until, at last, they were + united in happy union. Hellenic taste and sense of beauty and Semitic + speculation not only evolved side by side in Egypt but mixed and + commingled; their thoughts were intertwined and interwoven, giving rise to + a new intellectual movement, a new philosophy of thought: the + Judæo-Hellenic. Alexandrian culture, during the reign of the Ptolemies, is + the offspring of a mixed marriage between two parents belonging to two + widely different races, and, as a cross breed, is endowed with many + qualities. It had the seriousness of the one parent and the delicacy of + the other. + </p> + <p> + The Ptolemies encouraged the movement towards fusion. The result was that + the Jews in Egypt, not being hampered by reactionary endeavours from the + side of conservative parties, and with an adaptability peculiar to their + race, soon acquired the language of the people in whose midst they dwelt. + They conversed and wrote in Greek; they moulded and shaped their own + thoughts into Greek form; they clothed the Semitic mode of thinking in + Hellenic garb. The immediate result was the translation of the Pentateuch + into Greek. Vanity, of which no individual or race is free, had + embellished this literary production, which has acquired a high degree of + importance alike among Jews and Christians, with many legends. This + translation, known as the Septuaginta (LXX), was followed by independent + histories relating to Biblical events. One of the best known authors is + the chronographer Demetrius, who lived in the second half of the third + century, and whose work Flavius Josephus is supposed to have utilised. Not + to speak of the Greek authors in Judæa and Syria, we may mention + Artapanos, who, following the fashion of the day, wrote history in the + form of a romance, and showed traces of an apologetic character. He + endeavoured to attribute all that was great in Egyptian civilisation to + Moses. This was due to the fact that Manetho, the Egyptian historian, and + others following his example, had spread fables and venomous tales about + the ancient sojourn and exodus of the Hebrews and their leader. To + counterbalance these accusations, fables had to be interwoven into + history, and history became romance. Moses was thus identified with + Hermes, and made out to be the father of Egyptian wisdom. But, if the + close acquaintanceship of Hebraism and Hellenism began with a mere + flirtation, encouraged by the rulers of the land and kept up by the Jews, + who wished to gain the favour of the conquering race and to show + themselves and their history in as favourable a light as possible, it soon + ended in a serious attachment. The Hebrews made themselves acquainted with + Hellenic life and thought. They studied Homer and Hesiod, Empedocles and + Parmenides, Plato and Aristotle, and they were startled by the discovery + that in Greek thought there were many elements, moral and religious, + familiar to them: this enhanced the attraction. The narrowness and + exclusiveness to which strict nationality always gives rise, engendering + contempt and hatred for everything foreign—which made even the + Greeks, with all their intellectual culture, draw a line of demarcation + between Greek and barbarian—gave way to a spirit of cosmopolitan + breadth of view which has only very rarely been equalled in history. + Hellenic and Hebrew forms of thought were brought into friendly union, and + gave birth to ideas and aspirations of which humanity may always be proud. + Greek æsthetic judgment and Semitic mysticism, different phases of thought + in themselves, were welded into one. The religious conceptions of Moses + and the Prophets were expressed in the language of the philosophical + schools; an attempt was made to bring into harmony the dogmas of + supernatural revelation and the fruits of human speculative thought. Such + an attempt is a great undertaking, for, if sincerely and relentlessly + pursued, it must end in breaking down the barriers of separation, in the + establishment of a common truth, and in the sacrifice of cherished ideals + and convictions which prove to be wrong. If carried to its logical + conclusion, such a cosmopolitan broad-mindedness, such a + cross-fertilisation of intellectual products, must give rise to the + ennobling idea that there is only one truth, and that the external forms + are only fleeting waves upon the vast ocean of human ideals. The attempt + was made in Alexandria by the Judæo-Hellenic philosophers. Unfortunately, + however, the Hebrews, with all their adaptability, have not yet carried + this attempt to its logical conclusion. The spirit of reaction has ever + and anon been ready to crush in its infancy the endeavour of truth and + sincerity, of broad-mindedness and tolerance. When placed before the + question to be or not to be, to be logical or illogical, it has chosen the + latter, and striven after the impossible: the reconciliation of what + cannot be reconciled without alterations, rejections, and selections. The + happy marriage of Hellenism and Hebraism in Egypt had a tragic end. The + union was dissolved, not, however, without having produced its issue: the + Alexandrian culture, which was carried to Rome by Philo Judæus, and thus + influenced later European thought and humanity at large. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/015.jpg" width="100%" + alt="015.jpg Page Image--Alexandria " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I—EGYPT CONQUERED BY THE GREEKS + </h2> + <p> + <i>Alexander the Great.—Cleomenes.—B.C. 332-323</i> + </p> + <p> + The way for the Grecian conquest of Egypt had been preparing for many + years. Ever since the memorable march of Xenophon, who led, in the face of + unknown difficulties, ten thousand Greeks across Asia Minor, the Greek + statesman had suspected that the Hellenic soldier was capable of undreamed + possibilities. + </p> + <p> + When the young Alexander, succeeding his father Philip on the throne of + Macedonia, got himself appointed general by the chief of the Greek states, + and marched against Darius Codomanus, King of Persia, at the head of the + allied armies, it was not difficult to foresee the result. The Greeks had + learned the weakness of the Persians by having been so often hired to + fight for them. For a century past, every Persian army had had a body of + ten or twenty thousand Greeks in the van, and without this guard the + Persians were like a flock of sheep without the shepherd’s dog. Those + countries which had trusted to Greek mercenaries to defend them could + hardly help falling when the Greek states united for their conquest. + </p> + <p> + Alexander defeated the Persians under Darius in a great and memorable + battle near the town of Issus at the foot of the Taurus, at the pass which + divides Syria from Asia Minor, and then, instead of marching upon Persia, + he turned aside to the easier conquest of Egypt. On his way there he spent + seven months in the siege of the wealthy city of Tyre, and he there + punished with death every man capable of carrying arms, and made slaves of + the rest. He was then stopped for some time before the little town of + Gaza, where Batis, the brave governor, had the courage to close the gates + against the Greek army. His angry fretfulness at being checked by so small + a force was only equalled by his cruelty when he had overcome it; he tied + Batis by the heels to his chariot, and dragged him round the walls of the + city, as Achilles had dragged the body of Hector. + </p> + <p> + On the seventh day after leaving Gaza he reached Pelusium, the most + easterly town in Egypt, after a march of one hundred and seventy miles + along the coast of the Mediterranean, through a parched, glaring desert + which forms the natural boundary of the country; while the fleet kept + close to the shore to carry the stores for the army, as no fresh water is + to be met with on the line of march. The Egyptians did not even try to + hide their joy at his approach; they were bending very unwillingly under + the heavy and hated yoke of Persia. The Persians had long been looked upon + as their natural enemies, and in the pride of their success had added + insults to the other evils of being governed by the satrap of a conqueror. + They had not even gained the respect of the conquered by their warlike + courage, for Egypt had in a great part been conquered and held by Greek + mercenaries. + </p> + <p> + The Persian forces had been mostly withdrawn from the country by Sabaces, + the satrap of Egypt, to be led against Alexander in Asia Minor, and had + formed part of the army of Darius when he was beaten near the town of + Issus on the coast of Cilicia. The garrisons were not strong enough to + guard the towns left in their charge; the Greek fleet easily overpowered + the Egyptian fleet in the harbour of Pelusium, and the town opened its + gates to Alexander. Here he left a garrison, and, ordering his fleet to + meet him at Memphis, he marched along the river’s bank to Heliopolis. All + the towns, on his approach, opened their gates to him. Mazakes, who had + been left without an army, as satrap of Egypt, when Sabaces led the troops + into Asia Minor, and who had heard of the death of Sabaces, and that + Alexander was master of Phoenicia, Syria, and the north of Arabia, had no + choice but to yield. The Macedonian army crossed the Nile near Heliopolis, + and then entered Memphis. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/019.jpg" width="100%" + alt="019.jpg Transporting Grain on the Nile " /> + </div> + <p> + Memphis had long been the chief city of all Egypt, even when not the seat + of government. In earlier ages, when the warlike virtues of the Thebans + had made Egypt the greatest kingdom in the world, Memphis and the lowland + corn-fields of the Delta paid tribute to Thebes; but, with the + improvements in navigation, the cities on the coast rose in importance; + the navigation of the Red Sea, though always dangerous, became less + dreaded, and Thebes lost the toll on the carrying trade of the Nile. + Wealth alone, however, would not have given the sovereignty to Lower + Egypt, had not the Greek mercenaries been at hand to fight for those who + would pay them. The kings of Saïs had guarded their thrones with Greek + shields; and it was on the rash but praiseworthy attempt of Amasis to + lessen the power of these mercenaries that they joined Cambyses, and Egypt + became a Persian province. In the struggles of the Egyptians to throw off + the Persian yoke, we see little more than the Athenians and Spartans + carrying on their old quarrels on the coasts and plains of the Delta; and + the Athenians, who counted their losses by ships, not by men, said that in + their victories and defeats together Egypt had cost them two hundred + triremes. Hence, when Alexander, by his successes in Greece, had put a + stop to the feuds at home, the mercenaries of both parties flocked to his + conquering standard, and he found himself on the throne of Upper and Lower + Egypt without any struggle being made against him by the Egyptians. The + Greek part of the population, who had been living in Egypt as foreigners, + now found themselves masters. Egypt became at once a Greek kingdom, as + though the blood and language of the people were changed at the + conqueror’s bidding. + </p> + <p> + Alexander’s character as a triumphant general gains little from this easy + conquest of an unwarlike country, and the overthrow of a crumbling + monarchy. But as the founder of a new Macedonian state, and for reuniting + the scattered elements of society in Lower Egypt after the Persian + conquest, in the only form in which a government could be made to stand, + he deserves to be placed among the least mischievous of conquerors. We + trace his march, not by the ruin, misery, and anarchy which usually follow + in the rear of an army, but by the building of new cities, the more + certain administration of justice, the revival of trade, and the growth of + learning. On reaching Memphis, his first care was to prove to the + Egyptians that he was come to re-establish their ancient monarchy. He went + in state to the temple of Apis, and sacrificed to the sacred bull, as the + native kings had done at their coronations; and gamed the good-will of the + crowd by games and music, Performed by skilful Greeks for their amusement. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/021.jpg" + alt="021.jpg Phtah the God of Memphis " /> + </div> + <p> + But though the temple of Phtah at Memphis, in which the state ceremonies + were performed, had risen in beauty and importance by the repeated + additions of the later kings, who had fixed the seat of government in + Lower Egypt, yet the Sun, or Amon-Ra, or Kneph-Ra, the god of Thebes, or + Jupiter-Amnion, as he was called by the Greeks, was the god under whose + spreading wings Egypt had seen its proudest days. Every Egyptian king had + called himself “the son of the Sun;” those who had reigned at Thebes had + boasted that they were “beloved by Amon-Ra;” and when Alexander ordered + the ancient titles to be used towards himself, he wished to lay his + offerings in the temple of this god, and to be acknowledged by the priests + as his son. As a reader of Homer, and the pupil of Aristotle, he must have + wished to see the wonders of “Egyptian Thebes,” the proper place for this + ceremony; and it could only have been because, as a general, he had not + time for a march of five hundred miles, that he chose the nearer and less + known temple of Kneph-Ra, in the oasis of Ammon, one hundred and eighty + miles from the coast. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, he floated down the river from Memphis to the sea, taking + with him the light-armed troops and the royal band of knights-companions. + When he reached Canopus, he sailed westward along the coast, and landed at + Rhacotis, a small village on the spot where Alexandria now stands. Here he + made no stay; but, as he passed through it, he must have seen at a glance, + for he was never there a second time, that the place was formed by nature + to be a great harbour, and that with a little help from art it would be + the port of all Egypt. The mouths of the Nile were too shallow for the + ever increasing size of the merchant vessels which were then being built; + and the engineers found the deeper water which was wanted, between the + village of Rhacotis and the little island of pharos. It was all that he + had seen and admired at Tyre, but it was on a larger scale and with deeper + water. It was the very spot that he was in search of; in every way + suitable for the Greek colony which he proposed to found as the best means + of keeping Egypt in obedience. Even before the time of Homer, the island + of Pharos had given shelter to the Greek traders on that coast. He gave + his orders to Hinocrates the architect to improve the harbour, and to lay + down the plan of his new city; and the success of the undertaking proved + the wisdom both of the statesman and of the builder, for the city of + Alexandria subsequently became the most famous of all the commercial and + intellectual centres of antiquity. From Rhacotis Alexander marched along + the coast to Parastonium, a distance of about two hundred miles through + the desert; and there, or on his way there, he was met by the ambassadors + from Cyrene, who were sent with gifts to beg for peace, and to ask him to + honour their city with a visit. Alexander graciously received the gifts of + the Cyrenæans, and promised them his friendship, but could not spare time + to visit their city; and, without stopping, he turned southward to the + oasis. + </p> + <p> + At Memphis Alexander received the ambassadors that came from Greece to + wish him joy of his success; he reviewed his troops, and gave out his + plans for the government of the kingdom. He threw bridges of boats over + the Nile at the ford below Memphis, and also over the several branches of + the river. He divided the country into two nomarchies or judgeships, and + to fill these two offices of nomarchs or chief judges, the highest civil + offices in the kingdom, he chose Doloaspis and Petisis, two Egyptians. + Their duty was to watch over the due administration of justice, one in + Upper and the other in Lower Egypt, and perhaps to hear appeals from the + lower judges. + </p> + <p> + He left the garrisons in the command of his own Greek generals; Pantaleon + commanded the counts, or knights-companions, who garrisoned Memphis, and + Pole-mon was governor of Pelusium. These were the chief fortresses in the + kingdom: Memphis overlooked the Delta, the navigation of the river, and + the pass to Upper Egypt; Pelusium was the harbour for the ships of war, + and the frontier town on the only side on which Egypt could be attacked. + The other cities were given to other governors; Licidas commanded the + mercenaries, Peucestes and Balacrus the other troops, Eugnostus was + secretary, while Æschylus and Ephippus were left as overlookers, or + perhaps, in the language of modern governments, as civil commissioners. + Apollonius was made prefect of Libya, of which district Parætonium was the + capital, and Cleomenes prefect of Arabia at Heroopolis, in guard of that + frontier. Orders were given to all these generals that justice was to be + administered by the Egyptian nomarchs according to the common law or + ancient customs of the land. Petisis, however, either never entered upon + his office or soon quitted it, and Doloaspis was left nomarch of all + Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Alexander sent into the Thebaid a body of seven thousand Samaritans, whose + quarrels with the Jews made them wish to leave their own country. He gave + them lands to cultivate on the banks of the Nile which had gone out of + cultivation with the gradual decline of Upper Egypt; and he employed them + to guard the province against invasion or rebellion. He did not stay in + Egypt longer than was necessary to give these orders, but hastened towards + the Euphrates to meet Darius. In his absence Egypt remained quiet and + happy. Peucestes soon followed him to Babylon with some of the troops that + had been left in Egypt; and Cleomenes, the governor of Heroopolis, was + then made collector of the taxes and prefect of Egypt. Cleomenes was a bad + man; he disobeyed the orders sent from Alexander on the Indus, and he + seems to have forgotten the mild feelings which guided his master; yet, + upon the whole, after the galling yoke of the Persians, the Egyptians must + have felt grateful for the blessings of justice and good government. + </p> + <p> + At one time, when passing through the Thebaid in his barge on the Nile, + Cleomenes was wrecked, and one of his children bitten by a crocodile. On + this plea, he called together the priests, probably of Crocodilopolis, + where this animal was held sacred, and told them that he intended to + revenge himself upon the crocodiles by having them all caught and killed; + and he was only bought off from carrying his threat into execution by the + priests giving him all the treasure that they could get together. + Alexander had left orders that the great market should be moved from + Canopus to his new city of Alexandria, as soon as it should be ready to + receive it. As the building went forward, the priests and rich traders of + Canopus, in alarm at losing the advantages of their port, gave Cleomenes a + large sum of money for leave to keep their market open. This sum he took, + and, when the building at Alexandria was finished, he again came to + Canopus, and because the traders would not or could not raise a second and + larger sum, he carried Alexander’s orders into execution, and closed the + market of their city. + </p> + <p> + But instances such as these, of a public officer making use of dishonest + means to increase the amount of the revenue which it was his duty to + collect, might unfortunately be found even in countries which were for the + most part enjoying the blessings of wise laws and good government; and it + is not probable that, while Alexander was with the army in Persia, the + acts of fraud and wrong should have been fewer in his own kingdom of + Macedonia. The dishonesty of Cleomenes was indeed equally shown toward the + Macedonians, by his wish to cheat the troops out of part of their pay. The + pay of the soldiers was due on the first day of each month, but on that + day he took care to be out of the way, and the soldiers were paid a few + days later; and by doing the same on each following month, he at length + changed the pay-day to the last day of the month, and cheated the army out + of a whole month’s pay. + </p> + <p> + Another act for which Cleomenes was blamed was not so certainly wrong. One + summer, when the harvest had been less plentiful than usual, he forbade + the export of grain, which was a large part of the trade of Egypt, thereby + lowering the price to the poor so far as they could afford to purchase + such costly food, but injuring the landowners. On this, the heads of the + provinces sent to him in alarm, to say that they should not be able to get + in the usual amount of tribute; he therefore allowed the export as usual, + but raised the duty; and he was reproached for receiving a larger revenue + while the landowners were suffering from a smaller crop. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/027.jpg" width="100%" + alt="027.jpg Lighthouse at Alexandria " /> + </div> + <p> + At Ecbatana, the capital of Media, Alexander lost his friend Hephæstion, + and in grief for his death he sent to Egypt to enquire of the oracle at + the temple of Kneph in the oasis of Ammon, what honours he might pay to + the deceased. The messengers brought him an answer, that he might declare + Hephæstion a demigod, and order that he should be worshipped. Accordingly, + Alexander then sent an express command to Cleomenes that he should build a + temple to his lost favourite in his new city of Alexandria, and that the + lighthouse which was to be built on the island of Pharos should be named + after him; and as modern insurances against risks by sea usually begin + with the words “In the name of God; Amen;” so all contracts between + merchants in the port of Alexandria were to be written solemnly “In the + name of Hephæstion.” Feeling diffident of enforcing obedience at the mouth + of the Nile, while he was himself writing from the sources of the Indus, + he added that if, when he came to Egypt he found his wish carried into + effect, he would pardon Cleomenes for those acts of misgovernment of which + he had been accused, and for any others which might then come to his ears. + </p> + <p> + A somatophylax in the Macedonian army was no doubt at first, as the word + means, one of the officers who had to answer for the king’s safety; + perhaps in modern language a colonel in the body-guards or household + troops; but as, in unmixed monarchies, the faithful officer who was + nearest the king’s person, to whose watchfulness he trusted in the hour of + danger, often found himself the adviser in matters of state, so, in the + time of Alexander, the title of somatophylax was given to those generals + on whose wisdom the king chiefly leaned, and by whose advice he was + usually guided. Among these, and foremost in Alexander’s love and esteem, + was Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. Philip, the father of Alexander, had given + Arsinoë, one of his relations, in marriage to Lagus; and her eldest son + Ptolemy, born soon after the marriage, was always thought to be the king’s + son, though never so acknowledged. As he grew up, he was put into the + highest offices by Philip, without raising in the young Alexander’s mind + the distrust which might have been felt if Ptolemy could have boasted that + he was the elder brother. He earned the good opinion of Alexander by his + military successes in Asia, and gained his gratitude by saving his life + when he was in danger among the Oxydracæ, near the river Indus; and + moreover, Alexander looked up to him as the historian whose literary + powers and knowledge of military tactics were to hand down to the wonder + of future ages those conquests which he witnessed. + </p> + <p> + Alexander’s victories over Darius, and march to the river Indus, are no + part of this history: it is enough to say that he died at Babylon eight + years after he had entered Egypt; and his half-brother Philip Arridæus, a + weak-minded, unambitious young man, was declared by the generals assembled + at Babylon to be his successor. His royal blood united more voices in the + army in his favour than the warlike and statesmanlike character of any one + of the rival generals. They were forced to be content with sharing the + provinces between them as his lieutenants; some hoping to govern by their + power over the weak mind of Arridæus, and others secretly meaning to make + themselves independent. + </p> + <p> + In this weighty matter, Ptolemy showed the wisdom and judgment which had + already gained him his high character. Though his military rank and skill + were equal to those of any one of Alexander’s generals, and his claim by + birth perhaps equal to that of Arridæous, he was not one of those who + aimed at the throne; nor did he even aim at the second place, but left to + Perdiccas the regency, with the care of the king’s person, in whose name + that ambitious general vainly hoped to govern the whole of Alexander’s + conquests. But Ptolemy, more wisely measuring his strength with the + several tasks, chose the province of Egypt, the province which, cut off as + it was from the rest by sea and desert, was of all others the easiest to + be held as an independent kingdom against the power of Perdiccas. When + Egypt was given to Ptolemy by the council of generals, Cleomenes was at + the same time and by the same power made second in command, and he + governed Egypt for one year before Ptolemy’s arrival, that being in name + the first year of the reign of Philip Arridæus, or, according to the + chronologer’s mode of dating, the first year after Alexander’s death. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/031.jpg" width="100%" alt="031.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER II—EGYPT UNDER PTOLEMY SOTER + </h2> + <p> + <i>Ptolemy governs Egypt, overcomes Perdiccas, and founds a dynasty</i>. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy Lagus was one of those who, at the death of Alexander, had raised + their voices against giving the whole of the conquered countries to one + king; he wished that they should have been shared equally among the + generals as independent kingdoms. In this he was overruled, and he + accepted his government as the lieutenant of the youthful Philip Arridæus, + though no doubt with the fixed purpose of making Egypt an independent + kingdom. On reaching Memphis, the seat of his government, his whole + thoughts were turned towards strengthening himself against Perdiccas, who + hoped to be obeyed, in the name of his young and weak-minded king, by all + his fellow generals. + </p> + <p> + The Greek and foreign mercenaries of which the army of Alexander was made + up, and who were faithful to his memory and to his family, had little to + guide them in the choice of which leader they should follow to his distant + province, beside the thought of where they should be best treated; and + Ptolemy’s high character for wisdom, generosity, and warlike skill had + gained many friends for him among the officers; they saw that the wealth + of Egypt would put it in his power to reward those whose services were + valuable to him; and hence crowds flocked to his standard. On reaching + their provinces, the Greek soldiers, whether Spartans or Athenians, + forgetting the glories of Thermopylæ and Marathon, and proud of their + wider conquests under the late king, always called themselves Macedonians. + They pleased themselves with the thought that the whole of the conquered + countries were still governed by the brother of Alexander; and no one of + his generals, in his wildest thoughts of ambition, whether aiming, like + Ptolemy, at founding a kingdom, or, like Perdiccas, at the government of + the world, was unwise enough to throw off the title of lieutenant to + Philip Arridæus, and to forfeit the love of the Macedonian soldiers and + his surest hold on their loyalty. + </p> + <p> + The first act of Ptolemy was to put to death Cleomenes, who had been made + sub-governor of Egypt by the same council of generals which had made + Ptolemy governor. This act may have been called for by the dishonesty and + crooked dealing which Cleomenes had been guilty of in collecting taxes; + but, though the whole tenor of Ptolemy’s life would seem to disprove the + charge, we cannot but fear that he was in part led to this deed because he + looked upon Cleomenes as the friend of Perdiccas, or because he could not + trust him in his plans for making himself king of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + From the very commencement of his government, Ptolemy prepared for the war + which he knew must follow a declaration of his designs. Perhaps better + than any other general of Alexander, he knew how to win the favour of the + people under his rule. The condition of the country quickly improved under + his mild administration. The growing seaport of Alexandria was a good + market for a country rich in natural produce, and, above all, Egypt’s + marvellously good geographical position stood her in good stead in time of + war. Surrounded nearly on all sides by desert land, the few inhabitants, + roving Bedouins, offered no danger. The land of the Nile was accessible to + an enemy in one direction only, along the coast of Syria. This even teemed + with difficulties. Transports there could only be managed with the + greatest ingenuity, and, in case of defeat, retreat was almost impossible. + On the other hand, the Egyptian army, helped by all the advantages of a + land irrigated on the canal system, and which could be flooded at will, + had only to act on the defensive to be certain of victory. The country is + perhaps more open to an attack from the sea, but, by a moderately + well-conducted defensive movement, the enemy could be kept to the coast. + Even the landing there is scarcely possible, on account of the natural + difficulties at the mouth of the Nile. The one easy spot—Alexandria—was + so well fortified that an invader had but little chance of success. + </p> + <p> + About the time of Alexander’s death (and to some extent brought about by + this event), civil war broke out in Cyrenaica, in consequence of which the + followers of one party were forced out of the town of Cyrene. These joined + themselves with the exiles of the town of Barca, and together sought help + of foreigners. They placed themselves under the leadership of the Spartan + Thibron, formerly Alexander’s chancellor of the exchequer. Begged by the + exiled Cyrenians to help them, he now directed his forces against Libya, + fought a fierce battle, and took possession of the harbour of Apollonia, + two miles distant from the town. He then besieged the town of Cyrene, and + forced the Cyrenians at last to sue for peace. They were obliged to make a + payment of five hundred talents and to take back the exiles. Messengers + were sent by Thibron to incite the other towns in Cyrenaica to join him + and to help him conquer their neighbour, Libya. Thibron’s followers were + allowed to plunder, and this led to quarrels, desertions, treacherous + acts, and the recruiting of his army from the Peloponnesus. After varying + fortunes of war, in the spring of 322 B. C., some of the Cyrenians fled to + Egypt, and related to Ptolemy what had occurred in Cyrenaica, begging him + to help them back to their homes. The suggestion was welcome to him, for + victory would be easy over these struggling factions. He sent a strong + military and naval force, under Ophelas, the Macedonian, to Cyrenaica in + the summer. When these were seen approaching, those exiles who had found + refuge with Thibron decided to join them. Their plan, however, was + discovered, and they were put to death. The leader of the rabble in Cyrene + (fearful for his own safety, now that the exiles who had fled to Egypt + were returning) made overtures of peace to Thibron, and joined with him to + repulse Ophelas. The latter worked with the utmost caution, sent an army + under Epicides of Olynth against Tancheira, whilst he himself marched + against Cyrene. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/035.jpg" width="100%" alt="035.jpg the DÔm Palm. " /> + </div> + <p> + He met Thibron in a fierce fight. The latter was completely defeated and + fled towards Tancheira, where he hoped to find help, but instead fell into + Epicides’ hands. Thibron was given over to the people of Tancheira for + punishment. He was cruelly scourged, and then dragged to Apollonia, where + he was crucified. Ophelas, however, was not able to conquer the Cyrenians + until Ptolemy himself arrived with fresh troops, overpowered the town and + joined the province to his own satrapy. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of this Greek province was a gain equally for himself and for + the Greeks. He put an end to the horrible anarchy that prevailed there, + and proved himself their saviour as well as their conqueror. His name was + now an honoured one among all the Greeks. When it was rumoured that war + was likely to break out between Ptolemy and the royal party, the + Macedonians flocked to Alexandria, “every man ready to give all and to + sacrifice himself in order to help his friend.” A popular belief of the + day was that, although Ptolemy was known as the son of Lagos, he was in + reality the son of Philip, and indeed much in his manner resembled the + great founder of the Macedonian power. Amongst the successors of + Alexander, not one understood as well as he how to retain and increase the + power which he had won. He recognised, also, from the first, the tendency + of the age: the tendency to split up the kingdom into different states; + and he had made this the basis of his policy. It was under him that the + first state (in the new sense of the word) was founded. He was the leader + of the new movement that soon generated disunity, and to this end he made + a secret contract with Antipatros against the regent Perdiccas. About this + time also misunderstandings between the regent and the rulers in the West + began to take a serious aspect. + </p> + <p> + At a great meeting in Babylon in the summer of the year 323, it was + decided that the body of Alexander was to be taken with great solemnity to + the Temple of Amon, and that the equipping and guidance of the funeral + procession should be entrusted to Arridæus. At the end of the year 323, + the necessary preparations were finished. The gigantic funeral car that + was to carry the kingly bier had been decorated with unparalleled + magnificence. Without waiting for orders from the regent, Arridæus started + with the funeral procession from Babylon. Crowds from far and near filled + the streets, some curious to see the magnificent sight, others eager to + show this last token of respect to the dead king. It was firmly believed + amongst the Macedonians that the country in which Alexander’s body had its + last resting-place would become happy and powerful above all countries. + This prophecy was uttered by the old seer Telmissus soon after the king’s + death. Did Ptolemy have this belief, or did he wish to make use of it? + There were probably other reasons which had caused him to enter into an + understanding with Arridæus, and to arrange with him that he was to start + without orders from the regent. He was afraid that Perdiccas, in order to + add to the solemnity of the procession, would himself accompany the body + with the imperial army to Egypt. Ptolemy felt that his position in the + lands entrusted to his care would be greatly weakened if a higher + authority than himself could appear there with a military force. Arridæus + led the funeral train to Damascus, as had been arranged before with + Ptolemy. It was in vain that Pole-mon (one of Perdiccas’ generals), who + was in the neighbourhood, went to meet him. He was able to obtain no + aspect for the express order of the regent. The funeral procession passed + Damascus on its way to Egypt. Ptolemy accompanied the body with his army + as far as Syria. It was then taken on to Memphis to rest there until it + could be sheltered by that beautiful sepulchre of the kings at Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + Arridæus’ action, in starting without permission, and the defiance of + Polemon’s order, were acts of open revolt against the higher authority of + the kingdom. Perdiccas called all loyal followers to the council of war. + Ptolemy, he said, had defied the order of the kings in his behaviour + concerning the funeral procession; and he had also given shelter to the + exiled satraps of Phrygia. He was prepared for war, which he hoped to + bring about. It was for them (the loyal ones) to uphold the dignity of the + kingdom. They must try to take him unawares, and to overcome them + individually. The question was, if the Egyptians or the Macedonians ought + to be first attacked. In the end, plans were carefully concerted for an + attack on Egypt and the protection of Europe. In the early spring of B.C. + 321, Perdiccas and his colleagues set out for Egypt with the imperial + army, ordering the fleet to follow, and leaving Eumenes with skilled + officers and troops in general command of Asia Minor for the purpose of + guarding the Hellespont. + </p> + <p> + At the Egyptian frontier, Perdiccas summoned the army together, that the + men themselves should give judgment in the case of the satrap of Egypt, in + the same way as in the preceding autumn they had given judgment in the + case of Antigones. He expected a decision which would enable him to finish + what he had already begun. The accusations were that he had refused + obedience to the kings, that he had fought against and overcome the Greeks + of Cyrenaica (who had received freedom from Alexander), and that he had + taken possession of the king’s body, and carried it to Memphis. + </p> + <p> + According to the single account, which tells us of these proceedings, + Ptolemy himself appeared to conduct his own defence before the assembled + warriors. He had good reason for reckoning on the impression his + confidence in them would make upon them, and on the love that he knew the + Macedonians bore towards him. He knew, too, of the increasing dislike of + the imperial regent. His defence was heard with growing approval, and the + army’s judgment was “freedom.” + </p> + <p> + In spite of this the regent kept to the war. The decision of the troops + alienated him still more from them. The war with Egypt was contrary to + their wishes, and they murmured openly. Perdiccas sought to put down the + refractory spirit with a stern military hand, but the remonstrances of his + officers were in vain. He treated the first in the land in an + inconsiderate and despotic manner, removed the most deserving from their + command, and trusted himself alone. This same man, who had climbed the + path to greatness with so much foresight, self-command, energy, and + statesmanship, seemed now, the nearer he grew to the summit of his + ambition, to lose all clearness of sight and moderation, which traits + alone could help him to take this last and dangerous step. He had the + advantage of tried troops, the elephants of Alexander, and the fleet under + the command of his brother-in-law was near the mouth of the Nile; but he + had overstepped the mark. + </p> + <p> + Just at this time, the news reached him from Asia Minor that Eumenes had + conquered Neoptolemas, the governor of Armenia, who had taken the side of + Ptolemy. + </p> + <p> + With all the more hope, Perdiccas went to meet the enemy. He reached + Pelusium undisturbed. It was highly necessary that the army should cross + to the Pelusaic side of the Nile, for there were several secure places + there, which, if allowed to remain in the hands of the enemy, would + endanger the forward movement. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/040.jpg" width="100%" + alt="040.jpg a Silhouette on the Nile " /> + </div> + <p> + There were also plentiful supplies of provisions within the Delta, whilst + the way through the so-called Arabia was sparsely inhabited. + </p> + <p> + If he did not find the Egyptians there, Perdiccas would install himself + within one of the fortresses on that side, and thence conduct operations + against them, and, at the same time, remain in connection with his fleet, + on which he could fall back in case of need. To enable the crossing to be + accomplished as easily as possible, Perdiccas ordered the cleaning out of + an old and filled-in canal, that led up from the Nile. The work was + evidently begun without much thought, for the fact had not been considered + that, at the rising of the Nile, the canal would want a much deeper bed + than the present stream required. The canal had only just been opened up, + when the water rose with unusual force and rapidity; the dam was + completely destroyed, and many workers lost their lives. During the + disturbance, many officers and men left the camp and hurried to Ptolemy. + This was the beginning of the Egyptian war. The desertion of so many + important men made Perdiccas think seriously. He summoned the officers of + the army, spoke to them with much condescension, gave presents to some, + honoured others with promotion, and begged them, for the sake of their + honour and for the cause of their kings, to fight their hardest against + this rebel, and with the order to hold their men in-readiness, he left + them. The army was only told in the evening, at the signal for starting, + where they were to march. Perdiccas feared, on account of the desertion + that was taking place in his army, that his march might be discovered by + the enemy. They marched with great speed through the night, and camped at + last on the side of the river. At daybreak, after the troops had rested, + Perdiccas gave the order to cross. First came the elephants, then the + light infantry, next the storming party with ladders, and lastly, the pick + of the cavalry, who, if the enemy should burst out during the storming, + could easily drive them back. Perdiccas hoped, if he could only get a firm + footing on that side of the river, to annihilate the Egyptian army easily + with his superior force. He was right in feeling that his Macedonian + troops, when face to face with the enemy, would forget their antipathy to + him, and think only of their military honour. When about half the army had + crossed, and just as the elephants were moving towards the fortress, the + enemy were seen hurrying thither with great speed; their trumpet-calls and + war-cries even were heard. They reached the fort before the Macedonians, + and withdrew into the shelter of its walls. Not discouraged by this, the + infantry stormed the fort. Ladders were placed against the walls, the + elephants driven forward, and palisades taken from their backs to attack + the ramparts. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy, in the dress of a Macedonian soldier, stood on the wall + surrounded by a few selected men. He was first in the fight. From where he + stood he pierced with his lance the eyes of the leading elephant, and + stabbed the Indian on its back, and he wounded many and killed numbers of + the storming party. His officers and men fought with the greatest spirit; + the driver of the second elephant was killed and the infantry were driven + back. + </p> + <p> + Perdiccas led new troops to the attack, wishing to take the fortress at + all costs. By word and deed, Ptolemy urged on his men, who fought with + marvellous endurance. The dreadful battle waged the whole day; many were + killed and wounded; evening came on and nothing was decided. Perdiccas + ordered a retreat and returned to his camp. + </p> + <p> + In the middle of the night he again started with his army, hoping that + Ptolemy would stay in the fort with his troops, and that, after a trying + march of some miles up-stream, he (Perdiccas) would be able to cross the + river more easily. At daybreak he found himself opposite one of the many + islands of the Nile; it was large enough for the camp of a great army. In + spite of the difficulties of crossing, he decided to encamp his army + there. The water reached up to the soldiers’ knees, and it was with the + greatest difficulty that they kept their footing against the force of the + current. In order to break this current, Perdiccas ordered the elephants + into the river to stand up-stream to the left of the fording party; he + ordered the horsemen to stand at the other end to help those across that + were driven down by the current. Some had, with great difficulty, managed + to get across; others were still in the stream when it was noticed that + the water was becoming deeper; the heavily armed men sank, and the + elephants and horses stood deeper and deeper in the water. A fearful panic + seized the army. They called out that the enemy had closed in the canals + up-stream, and that the gods had destined bad weather in the upper + provinces, on account of which the river was swollen. Those who understood + saw that the bed of the river had become deepened by the crossing of so + great a cavalcade. It was impossible for the remainder to cross or for + those on the island to return. They were completely cut off and were at + the mercy of the enemy, who were already seen approaching. There was + nothing left but to order them to get back as well as they could; lucky + indeed were those who could swim, and had sufficient strength to bring + them across the broad expanse of water. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/044.jpg" width="100%" + alt="044.jpg Crocodiles Basking in the Sun " /> + </div> + <p> + Many saved themselves in this way. They came without weapons, worn out and + desperate, to the shore; others were drowned or eaten by crocodiles. Some + were carried down-stream, and reached the shore where the enemy stood. Two + thousand men were missing, many officers among them. The camp of the + Egyptians was situated on the other side, and they could be seen helping + the men in the water and burning logs of wood to show honour to the dead. + On this side of the river there was sad silence; each man sought his + comrade, or officer, and sought in vain. Food was scarce, and there was no + means of overcoming this dreadful state of affairs; night came on, and + curses and complaints were heard on all sides. The lives of so many brave + men had been sacrificed for nothing; it was bad enough to lose the “honour + of their arms,” but now, through the stupidity of their leader, their + lives had been lost, and to be swallowed by crocodiles was now the + distinguished death of Macedonian warriors. Many of the officers went to + the tent of the regent, and told him openly that he was the cause of this + calamity. Outside the tent the Macedonians yelled, beside themselves with + rage. About a hundred of the officers, headed by the satrap Python, + refused to share further responsibility, resigned their commissions, and + left the tent. The excitement grew intense. The troops, in ungovernable + rage, entered the regent’s tent and threw themselves upon him. Antigonus + struck the first blow, others followed, and, after a desperate but short + struggle, Perdiccas fell to the ground covered with wounds. + </p> + <p> + Thus died Perdiccas, in the third year of his regency. His great idea, the + unity of the kingdom entrusted to his care, should have made him worthy of + more success had he given himself up to this idea with more + conscientiousness. Unfortunately, with growing power, he became despotic + and unjust. He was not great enough to become the successor of Alexander, + to be another “ruler of the world.” This last step, the one which was to + lead him to his long-coveted goal, led him instead to his death. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy soon heard the news, and the next morning he crossed the river and + came to the camp. He asked to be taken to the kings, presented them and + some of the nobles with gifts; was kind and considerate to all, and was + greeted with great joy. Then he called the troops together and spoke to + them. He told the Macedonians that it was only stern necessity that caused + him to take up arms against his old comrades. No man regretted more than + he the untimely death of so many heroes. Perdiccas was the cause of this + calamity; he had but received his just punishment. Now all enmity was to + be ended. He had saved as many as he could from death in the water, and + the corpses which the river had brought to the shore he had buried with + all honour; and finally he told them that he had given orders for the + immediate alleviation of the want which he knew was being felt in the + camp. His speech was received with loud cheers. He stood there unhurt and + admired before the Macedonians, who but a few hours earlier had been his + bitterest foes. Now they looked upon him as their saviour; they all + acknowledged him as the conqueror, and for the moment he stood in + unequivocal possession of that power for which Perdiccas had worked so + hard, and which he had so much abused. Who was now to be Perdiccas’ + successor, and to manage the kingdom in the name of the kings? With one + voice the people begged Ptolemy to undertake this task. The foresight and + presence of mind of the son of Lagus were not clouded by the allurement of + such an offer gained by his sudden change of fortune. At this supreme + moment he acted with consummate sagacity. He divined that a refusal of the + proffered honour would make him in reality more powerful, although, at the + moment, he would seem to be acting in an unselfish manner. He recommended + to the army, as a favour which he had to bestow, those he thought worthy + of his thanks; they were Python, the Median strategist, who had taken the + first decisive step against Perdiccas; and Arridæus, who, in spite of + Perdiccas’ orders, had taken the body of the king to Egypt. These two were + nominated regents with loud cheers. + </p> + <p> + The Macedonian army, accordingly, chose Python and Arridæus as guardians, + and as rulers with unlimited power over the whole of Alexander’s + conquests; but, though none of the Greek generals who now held Asia Minor, + Syria, Babylonia, Thrace, or Egypt dared to acknowledge it to the + soldiers, yet in reality the power of the guardians was limited to the + little kingdom of Macedonia. With the death of Perdiccas, and the + withdrawal of his army, Phoenicia and Coele-Syria were left unguarded, and + almost without a master. In order that Egypt might take an important part + in the universal policy, Ptolemy felt he must possess Syria, which would + open up the way for him to the countries along the Euphrates and the + Tigris, and also the island of Cyprus, where he would be near the coast of + Asia Minor. He could not yet think of conquering Cyprus, which had an + important fleet. He felt that, if he annexed Syria, either by diplomacy or + by force, the organisation of the kingdom and the territorial division of + power would be changed in a tangible manner. The Egyptian satraps already + possessed some measure of authority, and he could also depend upon the + satrap of Syria joining him. + </p> + <p> + Perdiccas had bestowed this satrapy upon Laomedon, the Amphysolite, who + had taken no part in the great fight between Perdiccas and Ptolemy. + Ptolemy now informed him that he wished to possess his satrapy, but was + ready to compensate him with a sum of money. Laomedon refused this offer + with scorn. Thereupon, an army under Nicanor, one of the “friends” of + Ptolemy, marched into Palestine. Jerusalem was the only place that held + out against the Egyptian army; but Nicanor, says the historian + Agathareides, seeing that on every seventh day the garrison withdrew from + the walls, chose that day for the assault, and thus gained the city. + Without further opposition the Egyptians marched onwards. At last he met + Laomedon, took him prisoner, and brought him back to Egypt. Egyptian + sentries now guarded the strongholds of the country; Egyptian ships took + the towns along the coast. A great number of the Jews were transported to + Alexandria; they received the rights of citizenship there. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/049.jpg" width="100%" alt="049.jpg a Theban Belle " /> + </div> + <p> + Without altering local conditions, Syria gradually came under the sway of + the Egyptian satraps. Laomedon found means of escaping from Egypt; he fled + to Alcetas in Caria, who had just withdrawn himself to the mountainous + regions of Pisida, thence to begin the decisive war against Antigonus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/050.jpg" width="100%" alt="050.jpg Prayer to Isis " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="050-text (4K)" src="images/050-text.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + In the earlier times of Egyptian history, when navigation was less easy, + and when seas separated kingdoms instead of joining them, the Thebaid + enjoyed, under the Koptic kings, the trading wealth which followed the + stream of its great river, the longest piece of inland navigation then + known; but, with the improvement in navigation and ship-building, + countries began to feel their strength in the timber of their forests and + the number of their harbours; and, as timber and sea-coast were equally + unknown in the Thebaid, that country fell as Lower Egypt rose; the wealth + which before centred in Thebes was then found in the ports of the Delta, + where the barges of the Nile met the ships of the Mediterranean. What used + to be Egypt was an inland kingdom, surrounded by the desert; but Egypt + under Ptolemy was country on the sea-coast; and, on the conquest of + Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, he was master of the forests of Lebanon and + Antilibanus, and stretched his coast from Cyrene to Antioch, a distance of + twelve hundred miles. The wise and mild plans which were laid down by + Alexander for the government of Egypt when a province were easily followed + by Ptolemy when it became his own kingdom. The Greek soldiers lived in + their garrisons or in Alexandria under the Macedonian laws, while the + Egyptian laws were administered by their own priests, who were upheld in + all the rights of their order and in their freedom from land-tax. The + temples of Phtah, of Amon-Ra, and the other gods of the country were not + only kept open, but were repaired and even built at the cost of the king; + the religion of the people, and not that of their rulers, was made the + established religion of the state. On the death of the god Apis, the + sacred bull of Memphis, the chief of the animals which were kept and fed + at the cost of the several cities, and who had died of old age soon after + Ptolemy came to Egypt, he spent the sum of fifty talents, or $42,500, on + its funeral; and the priests, who had not forgotten that Cambyses, their + former conqueror, had wounded the Apis of his day with his own sword, must + have been highly pleased with this mark of his care for them. The + burial-place for the bulls is an arched gallery tunnelled into the hill + behind Memphis for more than two thousand feet, with a row of cells on + each side of it. In every cell is a huge granite sarcophagus, within which + were placed the remains of a bull that had once been the Apis of its day, + which, after having for perhaps twenty years received the honours of a + god, was there buried with more than kingly state. The cell was then + walled up, and ornamented on the outside with various tablets in honour of + the deceased animal, which were placed in these dark passages by the piety + of his worshippers. The priests of Thebes were now at liberty to cut out + from their monuments the names of usurping gods, and to restore those that + had been before cut out. They also rebuilt the inner room, or the holy of + holies, in the great temple of Karnak. + </p> + <p> + It had been overthrown by the Persians in wantonness, or in hatred of the + Egyptian religion; and the priests now put upon it the name of Philip + Arridæus, for whom Ptolemy was nominally governing Egypt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/052.jpg" + alt="052.jpg Tombs of the Sacred Bulls " /> + </div> + <p> + The Egyptians, who during the last two centuries had sometimes seen their + temples plundered and their trade crushed by the grasping tyranny of the + Persian satraps, and had at other times been almost as much hurt by their + own vain struggles for freedom, now found themselves in the quiet + enjoyment of good laws, with a prosperity which promised soon to equal + that of the reigns of Necho or Amasis. It is true that they had not + regained their independence and political liberty; that, as compared with + the Greeks, they felt themselves an inferior race, and that they only + enjoyed their civil rights during the pleasure of a Greek autocrat; but + then it is to be remembered that the native rulers with whom Ptolemy was + compared were the kings of Lower Egypt, who, like himself, were surrounded + by Greek mercenaries, and who never rested their power on the broad base + of national pride and love of country; and that nobody could have hoped to + see a Theban king arise to bring back the days of Thûtmosis and Ramses. + Thebes was every day sinking in wealth and strength; and its race of + hereditary soldiers, proud in the recollection of former glory, who had, + after centuries of struggles, been forced to receive laws from Memphis, + perhaps yielded obedience to a Greek conqueror with less pain than they + did formerly to their own vassals of Lower Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy’s government was in form nearly the same in Alexandria as in the + rest of Egypt, but in reality it was wholly different. His sway over the + Egyptians was supported by Greek force, but over the Greeks it rested on + the broad base of public opinion. Every Greek had the privilege of bearing + arms, and of meeting in the gymnasium in public assembly, to explain a + grievance, and petition for its redress. The citizens and the soldiers + were the same body of men; they at the same time held the force, and had + the spirit to use it. But they had no senate, no body of nobles, no + political constitution which might save their freedom in after generations + from the ambitious grasp of the sovereign, or from their own degeneracy. + While claiming to be equal among themselves they were making themselves + slaves; and though at present the government so entirely bore the stamp of + their own will that they might fancy they enjoyed a democracy, yet history + teaches us that the simple paternal form of government never fails to + become sooner or later a cruel tyranny. The building of Alexandria must be + held the master-stroke of policy by which Egypt was kept in obedience. + Here, and afterwards in a few other cities, such as Ptolemais in the + Thebaid and Parembole in Nubia, the Greeks lived without insulting or + troubling the Egyptians, and by their numbers held the country like so + many troops in garrison. It was a wise policy to make no greater change + than necessary in the kingdom, and to leave the Egyptians under their own + laws and magistrates, and in the enjoyment of their own religion; and yet + it was necessary to have the country garrisoned with Greeks, whose + presence in the old cities could not but be extremely galling to the + Egyptians. This was done by means of these new Greek cities, where the + power by which Egypt was governed was stronger by being united, and less + hateful by being out of sight. Seldom or never was so great a monarchy + founded with so little force and so little crime. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:21%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/055.jpg" alt="055.jpg the God Serapis " /> + </div> + <p> + Ptolemy, however, did not attempt the difficult task of uniting the two + races, and of treating the conquered and the conquerors as entitled to the + same privileges. From the time of Necho and Psammetichus, many of the + Greeks who settled in Egypt intermarried with the natives, and very much + laid aside their own habits; and sometimes their offspring, after a + generation or two, became wholly Egyptian. By the Greek laws the children + of these mixed marriages were declared to be barbarians; not Greeks but + Egyptians, and were brought up accordingly. They left the worship of + Jupiter and Juno for that of Isis and Osiris, and perhaps the more readily + for the greater earnestness with which the Egyptian gods were worshipped. + We now trace their descendants by the form of their skulls, even into the + priestly families; and of one hundred mummies covered with hieroglyphics, + taken up from the catacombs near Thebes, about twenty show a European + origin, while of those from the tombs near Memphis, seventy out of every + hundred have lost their Koptic peculiarities. It is easy to foresee that + an important change would have been wrought in the character of the people + and in their political institutions, if the Greek laws had been humane and + wise enough to grant to the children of mixed marriages the privileges, + the education, and thereby the moral feelings of the more favoured parent; + and it is not too much to suppose, if the Greek law of marriage had been + altered by Ptolemy, that within three centuries above half the nation + would have spoken the Greek language, and boasted of its Greek origin. + </p> + <p> + The stimulus given by Ptolemy Soter to the culture of the age has been + already mentioned. The founding of the famous museum and library of + Alexandria may be, perhaps, regarded as the rounding-off of his political + plans for the consolidation of his kingdom. Alexandria became, in fact, + not only a centre of commerce and government, but also the intellectual + capital of the Greeks. But for this supreme importance of the city, it is + doubtful whether the descendants of Ptolemy Lagus could have continued to + rule the Valley of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + In return for the literature which Greece then gave to Egypt, she gained + the knowledge of papyrus, a tall rush which grows wild near the sources of + the Nile, and was then cultivated in the Egyptian marshes. Before that + time books had been written on linen, wax, bark, or the leaves of trees; + and public records on stone, brass, or lead: but the knowledge of papyrus + was felt by all men of letters like the invention of printing in modern + Europe. Books were then known by many for the first time, and very little + else was afterwards used in Greece or Rome; for, when parchment was made + about two centuries later, it was too costly to be used as long as papyrus + was within reach. Copies were multiplied on frail strips of this plant, + and it was found that mere thoughts, when worth preserving, were less + liable to be destroyed by time than temples and palaces of the hardest + stone. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/056b.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="056bth (69K) Manuscript on Papyrus; Hieroglyphics, Thebes" + src="images/056bth.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + While Egypt, under Ptolemy, was thus enjoying the advantages of its + insulated position, and cultivating the arts of peace, the other provinces + were being harassed by the unceasing wars of Alexander’s generals, who + were aiming, like Ptolemy, at raising their own power. Many changes had + taken place among them in the short space of eight years which had passed + since the death of Alexander. Philip Arridæus, in whose name the provinces + had been governed, had been put to death; Antigonus was master of Asia + Minor, with a kingdom more powerful though not so easily guarded as Egypt; + Cassander held Macedonia, and had the care of the young Alexander Ægus, + who was then called the heir to the whole of his father’s wide conquests, + and whose life, like that of Arridæus, was soon to end with his minority; + Lysimachus was trying to form a kingdom in Thrace; and Seleucus had for a + brief period held Babylonia. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy bore no part in the wars which brought about these changes, beyond + being once or twice called upon to send troops to guard his province of + Cole-Syria. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/057.jpg" + alt="057.jpg Alexander Adoring Horus " /> + </div> + <p> + But Antigonus, in his ambitious efforts to stretch his power over all the + provinces, had by force or by treachery driven Seleucus out of Babylon, + and forced him to seek Egypt for safety, where Ptolemy received him with + the kindness and good policy which had before gained so many friends. No + arguments of Seleucus were wanting to persuade Ptolemy that Antigonus was + dreaming of universal conquest, and that his next attack would be upon + Egypt. He therefore sent ambassadors to make treaties of alliance with + Cassander and Lysimachus, who readily joined him against the common enemy. + </p> + <p> + The large fleet and army which Antigonus got together for the invasion of + Egypt proved his opinion of the strength and skill of Ptolemy. All Syria, + except one or two cities, laid down its arms before him on his approach. + But he found that the whole of the fleet had been already removed to the + ports of Egypt, and he ordered Phoenicia to furnish him with eight + thousand shipbuilders and carpenters, to build galleys from the forests of + Lebanon and Antilibanus, and ordered Syria to send four hundred and fifty + thousand medimni, or nearly three millions of bushels of wheat, for the + use of his army within the year. By these means he raised his fleet to two + hundred and forty-three long galleys or ships of war. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy was for a short time called off from the war in Syria by a rising + in Cyrene. The Cyrenians, who clung to their Doric love of freedom, and + were latterly smarting at its loss, had taken arms and were besieging the + Egyptian, or, as they would have called themselves, the Macedonian + garrison, who had shut themselves up in the citadel. He at first sent + messengers to order the Cyrenians to return to their duty; but his orders + were not listened to; the rebels no doubt thought themselves safe, as his + armies seemed more wanted on the eastern frontier; his messengers were put + to death, and the siege of the citadel pushed forward with all possible + speed. On this he sent a large land force, followed by a fleet, in order + to crush the revolt at a single blow; and the ringleaders were brought to + Alexandria in chains. Magas, a son of Queen Berenicê and stepson of + Ptolemy, was then made governor of Cyrene. + </p> + <p> + When this trouble at home was put an end to, Ptolemy crossed over to + Cyprus to punish the kings of the little states on that island for having + joined Antigonus. For now that the fate of empires was to be settled by + naval battles the friendship of Cyprus became very important to the + neighbouring states. The large and safe harbours gave to this island a + great value in the naval warfare between Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. + Alexander had given it as his opinion that the command of the sea went + with the island of Cyprus. When he held Asia Minor he called Cyprus the + key to Egypt; and with still greater reason might Ptolemy, looking from + Egypt, think that island the key to Phoenicia. Accordingly he landed there + with so large a force that he met with no resistance. He added Cyprus to + the rest of his dominions: he banished the kings, and made Nicocreon + governor of the whole island. + </p> + <p> + From Cyprus, Ptolemy landed with his army in Upper Syria, as the northern + part of that country was called, while the part nearer to Palestine was + called Coele-Syria. Here he took the towns of Posideion and Potami-Caron, + and then marching hastily into Asia Minor he took Malms, a city of + Cilicia. Having rewarded his soldiers with the booty there seized, he + again embarked and returned to Alexandria. This inroad seems to have been + meant to draw off the enemy from Coele-Syria; and it had the wished-for + effect, for Demetrius, who commanded the forces of his father Antigonus in + that quarter, marched northward to the relief of Cilicia, but he did not + arrive there till Ptolemy’s fleet was already under sail for its return + journey to Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy, on reaching Alexandria, set his army in motion towards Pelusium, + on its way to Palestine. His forces were eighteen thousand foot and four + thousand horse, part Macedonians, as the Greeks living in Egypt were + always called, and part mercenaries, followed by a crowd of Egyptians, of + whom some were armed for battle, and some were to take care of the + baggage. He had twenty-two thousand Greeks, and was met at Gaza by the + young Demetrius with an army of eleven thousand foot and twenty-three + hundred horse, followed by forty-three elephants and a body of light-armed + barbarians, who, like the Egyptians in the army of Ptolemy, were not + counted. But the youthful courage of Demetrius was no match for the cool + skill and larger army of Ptolemy; the elephants were easily stopped by + iron hurdles, and the Egyptian army, after gaining a complete victory, + entered Gaza, while Demetrius fled to Azotus. Ptolemy, in his victory, + showed a generosity unknown in modern warfare; he not only gave leave to + the conquered army to bury their dead, but sent back the whole of the + royal baggage which had fallen into his hands, and also those personal + friends of Demetrius who were found among the prisoners; that is to say, + all those who wished to depart, as the larger part of these Greek armies + were equally ready to fight on either side. + </p> + <p> + By this victory the whole of Phoenicia was again joined to Egypt, and + Seleucus regained Babylonia. There, by following the example of Ptolemy in + his good treatment of the people, and in leaving them their own laws and + religion, he founded a monarchy, and gave his name to a race of kings + which rivalled even the Lagidæ. He raised up again for a short time the + throne of Nebuchadnezzar. But it was only for a short time. The Chal-dees + and Assyrians now yielded the first rank to the Greeks who had settled + among them; and the Greeks were more numerous in the Syrian portion of his + empire. Accordingly Seleucus built a new capital on the river Orontes, and + named it Antioch after his father. Babylon then yielded the same obedience + to this new Greek city that Memphis paid to Alexandria. Assyria and + Babylonia became subject provinces; and the successors of Seleucus, who + came to be known as Selucids, styled themselves not kings of Babylon but + of Syria. + </p> + <p> + When Antigonus, who was in Phrygia on the other side of his kingdom, heard + that his son Demetrius had been beaten at Gaza, he marched with all his + forces to give battle to Ptolemy. He soon crossed Mount Taurus, the lofty + range which divides Asia Minor from Syria and Mesopotamia, and joined his + camp to that of his son in Upper Syria. But Ptolemy had gone through life + without ever making a hazardous move; not indeed without ever suffering a + loss, but without ever fighting a battle when its loss would have ruined + him, and he did not choose to risk his kingdom against the far larger + forces of Antigonus. Therefore, with the advice of his council of + generals, he levelled the fortifications of Acre, Joppa, Samaria, and + Gaza, and withdrew his forces and treasure into Egypt, leaving the desert + between himself and the army of Antigonus. + </p> + <p> + Antigonus could not safely attempt to march through the desert in the face + of Ptolemy’s army. He had, therefore, first, either to conquer or gain the + friendship of the Nabatæans, a warlike race of Arabs, who held the north + of Arabia; and then he might march by Petra, Mount Sinai, and the coast of + the Red Sea, without being in want of water for his army. The Nabatæans + were the tribe at an earlier time called Edomites. But they lost that name + when they carried it to the southern portion of Judæa, then called Idumæa; + for when the Jews regained Idumæa, they called these Edomites of the + desert Nebaoth or Nabatæans. The Nabatæns professed neutrality between + Antigonus and Ptolemy, the two contending powers; but the mild temper of + Ptolemy had so far gained their friendship that the haughty Antigonus, + though he did not refuse their pledges of peace, secretly made up his mind + to conquer them. Petra, the city of the Nabatæans, is in a narrow valley + between steep overhanging rocks, so difficult of approach that a handful + of men could guard it against the largest army. Not more than two horsemen + can ride abreast through the chasm in the rock by which it is entered from + the east, while the other entrance from the west is down a hillside too + steep for a loaded camel. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/063.jpg" width="100%" + alt="063.jpg on the Coast of The Red Sea " /> + </div> + <p> + The Eastern proverb reminds us that “Water is the chief thing;” and a + large stream within the valley, in addition to the strength of the + fortress, made it a favourite resting-place for caravans, which, whether + they were coming from Tyre or Jerusalem, were forced to pass by this city + in their way to the Incense Country of Arabia Felix, or to the Elanitic + Gulf of the Red Sea, and for other caravans from Egypt to Dedam on the + Persian Gulf. These warlike Arabs seem to have received a toll from the + caravans, and they held their rocky fastness unconquered by the great + nations which surrounded them. Their temples and tombs were cut out of the + live rock, and hence the city was by the Jews named Selah, (the rock), and + by the Greeks named Petra, from which last the country was sometimes + called Arabia Petræa. + </p> + <p> + Antigonus heard that the Nabatæans had left Petra less guarded than usual, + and had gone to a neighbouring fair, probably to meet a caravan from the + south, and to receive spices in exchange for the woollen goods from Tyre. + He therefore sent forward four thousand light-armed foot and six hundred + horse, who overpowered the guard and seized the city. The Arabs, when they + heard of what had happened, returned in the night, surrounded the place, + came upon the Greeks from above, by paths known only to themselves, and + overcame them with such slaughter that, out of the four thousand six + hundred men, only fifty returned to Antigonus to tell the tale. + </p> + <p> + The Nabatæans then sent to Antigonus to complain of this crafty attack + being made upon Petra after they had received from him a promise of + friendship. He endeavoured to put them off their guard by disowning the + acts of his general; he sent them home with promises of peace, but at the + same time sent forward his son Demetrius, with four thousand horse and + four thousand foot, to take revenge upon them, and again seize their city. + But the Arabs were this time upon their guard; the nature of the place was + as unfavourable to the Greek arms and warfare as it was favourable to the + Arabs; and these eight thousand men, the flower of the army, under brave + Demetrius, were unable to force their way through the narrow pass into + this remarkable city. + </p> + <p> + Had Antigonus been master of the sea, he might perhaps have marched + through the desert along the coast of the Mediterranean to Pelusium, with + his fleet to wait upon his army, as Perdiccas had done. But without this, + the only way that he could enter Egypt was through the neighbourhood of + Petra, and then along the same path which the Jews are supposed to have + followed; and the stop thus put upon the invasion of Egypt by this little + city shows us the strength of Ptolemy’s eastern frontier. Antigonus then + led his army northward, leaving the kingdom of Egypt unattacked. + </p> + <p> + This retreat was followed by a treaty of peace between these generals, by + which it was agreed that each should keep the country that he then held; + that Cassan-der should govern Macedonia until Alexander Ægus, the son of + Alexander the Great, should be of age; that Lysimachus should keep Thrace, + Ptolemy Egypt, and Antigonus Asia Minor and Palestine; and each wishing to + be looked upon as the friend of the soldiers by whom his power was upheld, + and the whole of these wide conquests kept in awe, added the very + unnecessary article, that the Greeks living in each of these countries + should be governed according to their own laws. + </p> + <p> + All the provinces held by these generals became more or less Greek + kingdoms, yet in no one did so many Greeks settle as in Lower Egypt. + Though the rest of Egypt was governed by Egyptian laws and judges, the + city of Alexandria was under Macedonian law. It did not form part of the + nome of Hermopolites in which it was built. It scarcely formed a part of + Egypt, but was a Greek state in its neighbourhood, holding the Egyptians + in a state of slavery. In that city no Egyptian could live without feeling + himself of a conquered race. He was not admitted to the privileges of + Macedonian citizenship, while they were at once granted to every Greek, + and soon to every Jew, who would settle there. + </p> + <p> + By the treaty just spoken of, Ptolemy, in the thirteenth year after the + death of Alexander, was left undisputed master of Egypt. During these + years he had not only gained the love of the Egyptians and Alexandrians by + his wise and just government, but had won their respect as a general by + the skill with which he had kept the war at a distance. He had lost and + won battles in Syria, in Asia Minor, in the island of Cyprus, and at sea; + but since Perdiccas marched against him, before he had a force to defend + himself with, no foreign army had drunk the sacred waters of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + It was under the government of Ptolemy that the wonders of Upper Egypt + were first seen by any Greeks who had leisure, a love of knowledge, and + enough of literature, to examine carefully and to describe what they saw. + Loose and highly coloured accounts of the wealth of Thebes had reached + Greece even before the time of Homer, and again through Herodotus and + other travellers in the Delta; but nothing was certainly known of it till + it was visited by Hecatæus of Abdera, who, among other works, wrote a + history of the Hyperborean or northern nations, and also a history, or + rather a description of Egypt, part of which we now read in the pages of + Dio-dorus Siculus. When he travelled in Upper Egypt, Thebes, though still + a populous city, was more thought of by the antiquary than by the + statesman. Its wealth, however, was still great; and when, under the just + government of Ptolemy, it was no longer necessary for the priests to hide + their treasures, it was found that the temples still held the very large + sum of three hundred talents of gold, and two thousand three hundred + talents of silver, or above five million dollars, which had escaped the + plundering hands of the Persian satraps. Many of the Theban tombs, which + are sets of rooms tunnelled into the hills on the Libyan side of the Nile, + had even then been opened to gratify the curiosity of the learned or the + greediness of the conqueror. Forty-seven royal tombs were mentioned in the + records of the priests, of which the entrances had been covered up with + earth, and hidden in the sloping sides of the hills, in the hope that they + might remain undisturbed and unplundered, and might keep safe the embalmed + bodies of the kings till they should rise again at the end of the world; + and seventeen of these had already been found out and broken open. + Hecatæus was told that the other tombs had been before destroyed; and we + owe it, perhaps, to this mistake that they remained unopened for more than + two thousand years longer, to reward the searches of modern travellers, + and to unfold to us the history of their builders. + </p> + <p> + The Memnonium, the great palace of Ramses II., was then standing; and + though it had been plundered by the Persians, the building itself was + unhurt. Its massive walls had scarcely felt the wear of the centuries + which had rolled over them. Hecataaus measured its rooms, its courtyards, + and its avenue of sphinxes; and by his measurements we can now distinguish + its ruins from those of the other palaces of Thebes. One of its rooms, + perhaps after the days of its builder, had been fitted up as a library, + and held the histories and records of the priests; but the golden zodiac, + or circle, on which were engraved the days of the year, with the celestial + bodies seen to rise at sunrise and set at sunset, by which each day was + known, had been taken away by Cambyses. Hecataaus also saw the three other + palace-temples of Thebes, which we now call by the names of the villages + in which they stand, namely, of Luxor, of Karnak, and of Medinet-Habu. But + the Greeks, in their accounts of Egypt, have sadly puzzled us by their + careless alteration of names from similarity of sound. To Miamun Ramses, + they gave the common Greek name Memnon; and the city of Hahiroth they + called Heroopolis, as if it meant the <i>city of heroes</i>. The capital + of Upper Egypt, which was called The City, as a capital is often called, + or in Koptic, <i>Tape or Thabou</i>, they named Thebes, and in their + mythology they confounded it with Thebes in Bootia. The city of the god + Kneph they called Canopus, and said it was so named after the pilot of + Menelaus. The hill of Toorah opposite Memphis they called the Trojan + mountain. One of the oldest cities in Egypt, This, or with the prefix for + city, Abouthis, they called Abydos, and then said that it was colonised by + Milesians from Abydos in Asia. In the same careless way have the Greeks + given us an account of the Egyptian gods. They thought them the same as + their own, though with new faces; and, instead of describing their + qualities, they have in the main contented themselves with translating + their names. + </p> + <p> + If Ptolemy did not make his government as much feared by the half-armed + Ethiopians as it was by the well-disciplined Europeans, it must have been + because the Thebans wished to guard their own frontier rather than because + his troops were always wanted against a more powerful enemy; but the + inroads of the Ethiopians were so far from being checked that the country + to the south of Thebes was unsafe for travellers, and no Greek was able to + reach Syênê and the lower cataracts during his reign. The trade through + Ethiopia was wholly stopped, and the caravans went from Thebes to Cosseir + to meet the ships which brought the goods of Arabia and India from the + opposite coast of the Red Sea. + </p> + <p> + In the wars between Egypt and Asia Minor, in which Palestine had the + misfortune to be the prize struggled for and the debatable land on which + the battles were fought, the Jews were often made to smart under the stern + pride of Antigonus, and to rejoice at the milder temper of Ptolemy. The + Egyptians of the Delta and the Jews had always been friends; and hence, + when Ptolemy promised to treat the Jews with the same kindness as the + Greeks, and more than the Egyptians, and held out all the rights of + Macedonian citizenship to those who would settle in his rising city of + Alexandria, he was followed by crowds of industrious traders, + manufacturers, and men of letters. They chose to live in Egypt in peace + and wealth, rather than to stay in Palestine in the daily fear of having + their houses sacked and burnt at every fresh quarrel between Ptolemy and + Antigonus. In Alexandria, a suburb by the sea, on the east side of the + city, was allotted for their use, which was afterwards included within the + fortifications, and thus made a fifth ward of the Lagid metropolis. + </p> + <p> + No sooner was the peace agreed upon between the four generals, who were + the most powerful kings in the known world, than Cassander, who held + Macedonia, put to death both the Queen Roxana and her son, the young + Alexander Ægus, then thirteen years old, in whose name these generals had + each governed his kingdom with unlimited sway, and who was then of an age + that the soldiers, the givers of all power, were already planning to make + him the real King of Macedonia and of his father’s wide conquests. + </p> + <p> + The Macedonian phalanx, which formed the pride and sinews of every army, + were equally held by their deep-rooted loyalty to the memory of Alexander, + whether they were fighting for Ptolemy or for Antigonus, and equally + thought that they were guarding a province for his heir; and it was + through fear of loosening their hold upon the faithfulness of these their + best troops that Ptolemy and his rivals alike chose to govern their + kingdoms under the unpretending title of lieutenants of the King of + Macedonia. Hence, upon the death of Alexander Ægus, there was a throne, or + at least a state prison, left empty for a new claimant. Polysperchon, an + old general of Alexander’s army, then thought that he saw a way to turn + Cassander out of Macedonia, by the help of Hercules, the natural son of + Alexander by Barce; and, having proclaimed him king, he led him with a + strong army against Cassander. But Polysperchon wanted either courage or + means for what he had undertaken, and he soon yielded to the bribes of + Cassander and put Hercules to death. + </p> + <p> + The cities on the southern coast of Asia Minor yielded to Antigonus + obedience as slight as the ties which held them to one another. The cities + of Pamphylia and Cilicia, in their habits as in their situation, were + nearer the Syrians, and famous for their shipping. They all enjoyed a full + share of the trade and piracy of those seas, and were a tempting prize to + Ptolemy. The treaty of peace between the generals never lessened their + jealousy nor wholly stopped the warfare, and the next year Ptolemy, + finding that his troops could hardly keep their possessions in Cilicia, + carried over an army in person to attack the forces of Antigonus in Lycia. + He landed at Phaselis, the frontier town of Pamphylia, and, having carried + that by storm, he moved westward along the coast of Lycia. He made himself + master of Xanthus, the capital, which was garrisoned by the troops of + Antigonus; and then of Caunus, a strong place on the coast of Caria, with + two citadels, one of which he gained by force and the other by surrender. + He then sailed to the island of Cos, which he gained by the treachery of + Ptolemy, the nephew of Antigonus, who held it for his uncle, but who went + over to the Egyptian king with all his forces. By this success he gained + the whole southern coast of Asia Minor. + </p> + <p> + The brother and two children of Alexander having been in their turns, as + we have seen, murdered by their guardians, Cleopatra, his sister, and + Thessalonica, his niece, were alone left alive of the royal family of + Macedonia. Almost every one of the generals had already courted a marriage + with Cleopatra, which had either been refused by herself or hindered by + his rivals; and lastly Ptolemy, now that by the death of her nephews she + brought kingdoms, or the love of the Macedonian mercenaries, which was + worth more than kingdoms, as her dower, sent to ask her hand in marriage. + This offer was accepted by Cleopatra; but, on her journey from Sardis, the + capital of Lydia, to Egypt, on her way to join her future husband, she was + put to death by Antigonus. The niece was put to death a few years later. + Thus every one who was of the family of Alexander paid the forfeit of life + for that honour, and these two deaths ended the Macedonian dynasty with a + double tragedy. + </p> + <p> + While Ptolemy was busy in helping the Greek cities of Asia to gain their + liberty, Menelaus, his brother and admiral, was almost driven out of + Cyprus by Demetrius. On this Ptolemy got together his fleet, to the number + of one hundred and forty long galleys and two hundred transports, manned + with not less than ten thousand men, and sailed with them to the help of + his brother. This fleet, under the command of Menelaus, was met by + Demetrius with the fleet of Antigonus, consisting of one hundred and + twelve long galleys and a number of transports; and the Egyptian fleet, + which had hitherto been master of the sea, was beaten near the city of + Salamis in Cyprus by the smaller fleet of Demetrius. This was the heaviest + loss that had ever befallen Ptolemy. Eighty long galleys were sunk, and + forty long galleys, with one hundred transports and eight thousand men, + were taken prisoners. He could no longer hope to keep Cyprus, and he + sailed hastily back to Egypt, leaving to Demetrius the garrisons of the + island as his prisoners, all of whom were enrolled in the army of + Antigonus, to the number of sixteen thousand foot and six hundred horse. + </p> + <p> + This naval victory gave Demetrius the means of unburdening his proud mind + of a debt of gratitude to his enemy; and accordingly, remembering what + Ptolemy had done after the battle of Gaza, he sent back to Egypt, unasked + for and unransomed, those prisoners who were of high rank, that is to say, + all those who had any choice about which side they fought for; and among + them were Leontiscus, the son, and Menelaus, the brother, of Ptolemy. + </p> + <p> + Antigonus was overjoyed with the news of his son’s victory. By lessening + the power of Ptolemy, it had done much to smooth his own path to the + sovereignty of Alexander’s empire, which was then left without an heir; + and he immediately took the title of king, and gave the same title to his + son Demetrius. In this he was followed by Ptolemy and the other generals, + but with this difference, that while Antigonus called himself king of all + the provinces, Ptolemy called himself King of Egypt; and while Antigonus + gained Syria and Cyprus, Ptolemy gained the friendship of every other + kingdom and of every free city in Greece; they all looked upon him as + their best ally against Antigonus, the common enemy. + </p> + <p> + The next year Antigonus mustered his forces in Coele-Syria, and got ready + for a second attack upon Egypt. He had more than eighty thousand foot, + accompanied with what was then the usual proportion of cavalry, namely, + eight thousand horse and eighty-three elephants. Demetrius brought with + him from Cyprus the fleet of one hundred and fifty long galleys, and one + hundred transports laden with stores and engines of war. With this fleet, + to which Ptolemy, after his late loss, had no ships that he could oppose, + Antigonus had no need to ask leave of the Arabs of the little city of + Petra to march through their passes; but he led his army straight through + the desert to Pelusium, while the ships of burden kept close to the shore + with the stores. The pride of Antigonus would not let him follow the + advice of the sailors, and wait eight days till the north winds of the + spring equinox had passed; and by this haste many of his ships were + wrecked on the coast, while others were driven into the Nile and fell into + the hands of Ptolemy. Antigonus himself, marching with the land forces, + found all the strong places well guarded by the Egyptian army; and, being + driven back at every point, discouraged by the loss of his ships and by + seeing whole bodies of his troops go over to Ptolemy, he at last took the + advice of his officers and led back his army to Syria, while Ptolemy + returned to Alexandria, to employ those powers of mind in the works of + peace which he had so successfully used in his various wars. + </p> + <p> + Antigonus then turned the weight of his mighty kingdom against the little + island of Rhodes, which, though in sight of the coast of Asia Minor, held + itself independent of him, and in close friendship with Ptolemy. The + Dorian island of Rhodes had from the earliest dawn of history held a high + place among the states of Greece; and in all the arts of civilised life, + in painting, sculpture, letters, and commerce, it had been lately rising + in rank while the other free states had been falling. Its maritime laws + were so highly thought of that they were copied by most other states, and, + being afterwards adopted into the Pandects of Justinian, they have in part + become the law of modern Europe. It was the only state in which Greek + liberty then kept its ground against the great empires of Alexander’s + successors. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="075 (188K)" src="images/075.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + Against this little state Demetrius led two hundred long galleys and one + hundred and seventy transports, with more than forty thousand men. The + Greek world looked on with deep interest while the veterans of Antigonus + were again and again driven back from the walls of the blockaded city by + its brave and virtuous citizens; who, while their houses were burning and + their walls crumbling under the battering-ram, left the statues of + Antigonus and Demetrius standing unhurt in the market-place, saved by + their love of art and the remembrance of former kindness, which, with a + true greatness of mind, they would not let the cruelties of the siege + outweigh. The galleys of Ptolemy, though unable to keep at sea against the + larger fleet of Demetrius, often forced their way into the harbour with + the welcome supplies of grain. Month after month every stratagem and + machine which the ingenuity of Demetrius could invent were tried and + failed; and, after the siege had lasted more than a year, he was glad to + find an excuse for withdrawing his troops; and the Rhodians in their joy + hailed Ptolemy with the title of Soter or <i>saviour</i>. This name he + ever afterwards kept, though by the Greek writers he is more often called + Ptolemy the son of Lagus. If we search the history of the world for a + second instance of so small a state daring to withstand the armies of so + mighty an empire, we shall perhaps not find any one more remarkable than + that of the same island, when, seventeen hundred years afterwards, it + again drew upon itself the eyes of the world, while it beat off the forces + of the Ottoman empire under Mahomet II.; and, standing like a rock in + front of Christendom, it rolled back for years the tide of war, till its + walls were at last crumbled to a heap of ruins by Suleiman the Great, + after a siege of many months. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:26%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/081.jpg" + alt="081.jpg Alexandrian Lady, Attired in Bombyx Silk " /> + </div> + <p> + The next of Ptolemy’s conquests was Coele-Syria; and soon after this the + wars between these successors of Alexander were put an end to by the death + of Antigonus, whose overtowering ambition was among the chief causes of + quarrel. This happened at the great battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, where they + all met, with more than eighty thousand men in each army. Antigonus, King + of Asia Minor, was accompanied by his son Demetrius, and by Pyrrhus, King + of Epirus; and he was defeated by Ptolemy, King of Egypt, Seleucus, King + of Babylon, Lysimachus, King of Thrace, and Cassander, King of Macedonia; + and the old man lost his life fighting bravely. After the battle Demetrius + fled to Cyprus, and yielded to the terms of peace which were imposed on + him by the four allied sovereigns. He sent his friend Pyrrhus as a hostage + to Alexandria; and there this young King of Epirus soon gained the + friendship of Ptolemy and afterwards his stepdaughter in marriage. Ptolemy + was thus left master of the whole of the southern coast of Asia Minor and + Syria, indeed of the whole coast of the eastern end of the Mediterranean, + from the island of Cos on the north to Cyrene on the south. + </p> + <p> + During these formidable wars with Antigonus, Ptolemy had never been + troubled with any serious rising of the conquered Egyptians; and perhaps + the wars may not have been without their use in strengthening his throne. + The first danger to a successful conqueror is from the avarice and + disappointment of his followers, who usually claim the kingdom as their + booty, and who think themselves wronged and their past services forgotten + if any limit is placed to their tyranny over the conquered. But these + foreign wars may have taught the Alexandrians that Ptolemy was not strong + enough to ill-treat the Egyptians, and may thus have saved him from the + indiscretion of his friends and from their reproaches for ingratitude. + </p> + <p> + In the late war, the little Dorian island of Cos on the coast of Asia + Minor fell, as we have seen, under the power of Ptolemy. This island was + remarkable as being the first spot in Europe into which the manufacture of + silk was introduced, which it probably gained when under the power of + Persia before the overthrow of Darius. The luxury of the Egyptian ladies, + who affected to be overheated by any clothing that could conceal their + limbs, had long ago introduced a tight, thin dress which neither our + climate nor notions of modesty would allow, and for this dress, silk, when + it could be obtained, was much valued; and Pamphila of Cos had the glory + of having woven webs so transparent that the Egyptian women were enabled + to display their fair forms yet more openly by means of this clothing. + </p> + <p> + Cos continued always in the power of the Ptolemies, who used it as a royal + fortress, occasionally sending their treasures and their children there as + to a place of safety from Alexandrian rebellion; and there the silk + manufacture flourished in secret for two or three centuries. When it + ceased is unknown, as it was part of the merchants’ craft to endeavour to + keep each branch of trade to themselves, by concealing the channel through + which they obtained their supply of goods, and many of the dresses which + were sold in Rome under the emperors by the name of Coan robes may have + been brought from the East through Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + One of the most valuable gifts which Egypt owed to Ptolemy was its + coinage. Even Thebes, “where treasures were largest in the houses” never + was able to pass gold and silver from hand to hand without the trouble of + weighing, and the doubt as to the fineness of the metal. The Greek + merchants who crowded the markets of Canopus and Alexandria must have + filled Lower Egypt with the coins of the cities from whence they came, all + unlike one another in stamp and weight; but, while every little city or + even colony of Greece had its own coinage, Egypt had as yet very few coins + of its own. We are even doubtful whether we know by sight those coined by + the Persians In the early years of Ptolemy’s government Ptolemy had issued + a very few coins bearing the names of the young kings in whose name he + held the country, but he seems not to have coined any quantity of money + till after he had himself taken the title of king. His coins are of gold, + silver, and bronze, and are in a fine style of Greek workmanship. Those of + gold and silver bear on one side the portrait of the king, without a + beard, having the head bound with the royal diadem, which, unlike the high + priestly crown of the native Egyptian kings, or the modern crown of gold + and precious stones, is a plain riband tied in a bow behind. On the other + side they have the name of Ptolemy Soter, or King Ptolemy, with an eagle + standing upon a thunderbolt, which was only another way of drawing the + eagle and sun, the hieroglyphical characters for the title Pharaoh. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/082.jpg" alt="082.jpg Egyptian Coinage " /> + </div> + <p> + The gold coins of Egypt were probably made in Alexandria. The coins are + not of the same weight as those of Greece; but Ptolemy followed the + Egyptian standard of weight, which was that to which the Jewish shekel was + adjusted, and which was in use in the wealthy cities of Tyre and Sidon and + Beryttus. The drachma weighs fifty-five grains, making the talent of + silver worth about seven hundred and fifty dollars. Ptolemy’s bronze coins + have the head of Serapis or Jupiter in the place of that of the king, as + is also the case with those of his successors; but few of these bronze + pieces bear any marks from which we can learn the reign in which they were + coined. They are of better metal than those of other countries, as the + bronze is free from lead and has more tin in it. The historian, in his + very agreeable labours, should never lose sight of the coins. They teach + us by their workmanship the state of the arts, and by their weight, + number, and purity of metal, the wealth of the country. They also teach + dates, titles, and the places where they were struck; and even in those + cases where they seem to add little to what we learn from other sources, + they are still the living witnesses to which we appeal, to prove the truth + of the authors who have told us more. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:44%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/083.jpg" + alt="083.jpg Coin of Soter, With Jupiter " /> + </div> + <p> + The art of engraving coins did not flourish alone in Alexandria; painters + and sculptors flocked to Egypt to enjoy the favours of Ptolemy. Apelles, + indeed, whose paintings were thought by those who had seen them to surpass + any that had been before painted, or were likely to be painted, had + quarrelled with Ptolemy, who had known him well when he was the friend and + painter of Alexander. Once when he was at Alexandria, somebody wickedly + told him that he was invited to dine at the royal table, and when Ptolemy + asked who it was that had sent his unwelcome guest, Apelles drew the face + of the mischief-maker on the wall, and he was known to all the court by + the likeness. It was, perhaps, at one of these dinners, at which Ptolemy + enjoyed the society of the men of letters, or perhaps when visiting the + philosophers in their schools, that he asked Euclid if he could not show + him a shorter and easier way to the higher truths of mathematics than that + by which he led the pupils in the Museum; and Euclid, as if to remind him + of the royal roads of Persia, which ran by the side of the highroads, but + were kept clear and free for the king’s own use, made him the well-known + answer, that there was no royal road to geometry. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy lived in easy familiarity with the learned men of Alexandria; and + at another of these literary dinners, when Diodorus, the rhetorician, who + was thought to have been the inventor of the Dilemma, was puzzled by a + question put to him by Stilpo, the king in joke said that his name should + be Cronus, a god who had been laughed at in the comedies. Indeed, he was + so teased by Ptolemy for not being able to answer it, that he got up and + left the room. He afterwards wrote a book upon the subject; but the + ridicule was said to have embittered the rest of his life. This was the + person against whom Callimachus, some years later, wrote a bitter epigram, + beginning “Cronus is a wise man.” Diodorus was of the sceptical school of + philosophy, which, though not far removed from the Cyrenaic school, was + never popular in Alexandria. Among other paradoxes he used to deny the + existence of motion. He argued that the motion was not in the place where + the body moved from, nor in the place that the body moved to, and that + accordingly it did not exist at all. Once he met with a violent fall which + put his shoulder out of joint, and he applied to Herophilus, the surgeon, + to set it. Herophilus began by asking him where the fall took place, + whether in the place where the shoulder was, or in the place where it fell + to; but the smarting philosopher begged him to begin by setting his limb, + and they would talk about the existence of motion after the operation. + </p> + <p> + Stilpo was at this time only on a visit to Ptolemy, for he had refused his + offer of money and a professorship in the Museum, and had chosen to remain + at Megara where he was the ornament of his birthplace. He had been + banished from Athens for speaking against their gods, and for saying that + the colossal Minerva was not the daughter of Jupiter, but of Phidias, the + sculptor. His name as a philosopher stood so high that when Demetrius, in + his late wars with Ptolemy, took the city of Megara by storm, the + conqueror bid spare the house of Stilpo, when temple and tower went to the + ground; and when Demetrius gave orders that Stilpo should be repaid for + what he had lost in the siege, the philosopher proudly answered that he + had lost nothing, and that he had no wealth but his learning. + </p> + <p> + The historian Theopompus of Chios then came to Alexandria, and wrote an + account of the wars between the Egyptians and the Persians. It is now + lost, but it contained at least the events from the successful invasion by + Artaxerxes Longimanus till the unsuccessful invasion by Artaxerxes Mnemon. + </p> + <p> + No men of learning in Alexandria were more famous than the physicians. + Erasistratus of Cos had the credit of having once cured Antiochus, + afterwards King of Syria. He was the grandson of Aristotle, and may be + called the father of the science of anatomy: his writings are often quoted + by Dioscorides. Antiochus in his youth had fallen deeply in love with his + young stepmother, and was pining away in silence and despair. Erasistratus + found out the cause of his illness, which was straightway cured by + Seleucus giving up his wife to his own son. This act strongly points out + the changed opinions of the world as to the matrimonial relation; for it + was then thought the father’s best title to the name of Nicator; he had + before conquered his enemies, but he then conquered himself. + </p> + <p> + Erasistratus was the first who thought that a knowledge of anatomy should + be made a part of the healing art. Before his time surgery and medicine + had been deemed one and the same; they had both been studied by the slow + and uncertain steps of experience, unguided by theory. Many a man who had + been ill, whether through disease or wound, and had regained his health, + thought it his duty to Esculapius and to his neighbours to write up in the + temple of the god the nature of his ailings, and the simples to which he + fancied that he owed his cure. By copying these loose but well-meant + inscriptions of medical cases, Hippocrates had, a century earlier, laid + the foundations of the science; but nothing further was added to it till + Erasistratus, setting at nought the prejudices in which he was born, began + dissecting the human body in the schools of Alexandria. There the mixing + together of Greeks and Egyptians had weakened those religious feelings of + respect for the dead which are usually shocked by anatomy; and this study + flourished from the low tone of the morality as much as from the + encouragement which good sense should grant to every search for knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Herophilus lived about the same time with Erasistratus, and was, like him, + famous for his knowledge of the anatomy of man. But so hateful was this + study in the eyes of many, that these anatomists were charged by writers + who ought to have known better, with the cruelty of cutting men open when + alive. They had few followers in the hated use of the dissecting-knife. It + was from their writings that Galen borrowed the anatomical parts of his + work; and thus it was to the dissections of these two great men, helped + indeed by opening the bodies of animals, that the world owed almost the + whole of its knowledge of the anatomy of man, till the fifteenth century, + when surgeons were again bold enough to face the outcry of the mob, and to + study the human body with the knife. + </p> + <p> + Hegesias of Cyrene was an early lecturer on philosophy at Alexandria. His + short and broken sentences are laughed at by Cicero, yet he was so much + listened to, when lecturing against the fear of death, and showing that in + quitting life we leave behind us more pains than pleasures, that he was + stopped by Ptolemy Soter through fear of his causing self-murder among his + hearers. He then wrote a book upon the same subject, for though the state + watched over the public teaching, it took no notice of books; writing had + not yet become the mightiest power on earth. The miseries, however, of + this world, which he so eloquently and feelingly described in his lectures + and writings, did not drive him to put an end to his own life. + </p> + <p> + Philostephanus of Cyrene, the friend of Callimachus, was a naturalist who + wrote upon fishes, and is the first investigator that we hear of who + thought it desirable to limit his studies to one branch of the science of + natural history. + </p> + <p> + But Cyrene did not send all its great men to Alexandria. Plato had studied + mathematics there under Theodorus, and it had a school of its own which + gave its name to the Cyrenaic sect. The founder of this sect was + Aristippus, the pupil of Socrates who had missed the high honour of being + present at his death. He was the first philosopher who took money from his + pupils, and used to say that they valued their lessons more for having to + pay for them; but he was blamed by his brethren for thus lowering the + dignity of the teacher. He died several years before Ptolemy Soter came + into Egypt. The Cyrenaic sect thought happiness, not goodness, was the end + to be aimed at through life, and selfishness, rather than kindness to + others, the right spring of men’s actions. It would hardly be fair to take + their opinions from the mouths of their enemies; and the dialogues of + Socrates, with their founder, as told to us by Xeno-phon, would prove a + lower tone of morality than he is likely to have held. The wish for + happiness and the philosophical love of self, which should lead to + goodness, though a far worse rule of life than the love of goodness for + its own sake, which is the groundwork of religion, was certainly far + better than unguided passion and the love of to-day’s pleasure. But often + as this unsafe rule has been set up for our guidance, there have always + been found many to make use of it in a way not meant by the teacher. The + Cyrenaic sect soon fell into the disrepute to which these principles were + likely to lead it, and wholly ceased when Epicurus taught the same + opinions more philosophically, Anniceris of Cyrene, though a follower of + Aristippus, somewhat improved upon the low-toned philosophy of his master. + He granted that there were many things worth our aim, which could not be + brought within the narrow bounds of what is useful. He did not overlook + friendship, kindness, honouring our parents, and serving our country; and + he thought that a wise man would undertake many labours which would bring + him no return in the things which were alone thought happiness. + </p> + <p> + The chair of philosophy at Cyrene was afterwards filled by Arete, the + daughter of Aristippus; for such were the hindrances in the way of gaining + knowledge, that few could be so well qualified to teach as the + philosopher’s daughter. Books were costly, and reading by no means a cheap + amusement. She was followed, after her death, by her son Aristippus, who, + having been brought up in his mother’s lecture-room, was called, in order + to distinguish him from his grandfather of the same name, Metrodidactus, + or <i>mother-taught</i>. History has not told us whether he took the name + himself in gratitude for the debt which he owed to this learned lady, or + whether it was given him by his pupils; but in either case it was a sure + way of giving to the mother the fame which was due to her for the + education of her son; for no one could fail to ask who was the mother of + Metrodidactus. + </p> + <p> + Theodorus, one of the pupils of Metrodidactus, though at one time banished + from Cyrene, rose to honour under Soter, and was sent by him as ambassador + to Lysimachus, He was called the Atheist by his enemies, and the Divine by + his friends, but we cannot now determine which title he best deserved. It + was then usual to call those atheists who questioned the existence of the + pagan gods; and we must not suppose that all who suffered under that + reproach denied that the world was governed by a ruling providence. The + disbeliever in the false religion of the many is often the only real + believer in a God. Theodorus was of the cold school of philosophy, which + was chiefly followed in Alexandria. It was earthly, lifeless, and + unpoetical, arising from the successful cultivation of the physical + sciences, not enough counteracted by the more ennobling pursuits of poetry + and the fine arts. Hence, while commerce and the arts of production were + carried to higher perfection than at any former time, and science was made + greatly to assist in the supply of our bodily wants, the arts of + civilisation, though by no means neglected, were cultivated without any + lofty aim, or any true knowledge of their dignity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/092.jpg" width="100%" + alt="092.jpg the Chariot of Antiphilus " /> + </div> + <p> + Antiphilus, who was born in Egypt and had studied painting under + Ctesidemus, rose to high rank as a painter in Alexandria. Among his + best-known pictures were the bearded Bacchus, the young Alexander, and + Hip-polytus, or rather his chariot-horses, frightened by the bull. His + boy, blowing up a fire with his mouth, was much praised for the mouth of + the boy, and for the light and shade of the room. His Ptolemy hunting was + also highly thought of. Antiphilus showed a mean jealousy of Apelles, and + accused him of joining in a plot against the king, for which the painter + narrowly escaped punishment; but Ptolemy, finding that the charge was not + true, sent Apelles a gift of one hundred talents to make amends. The angry + feelings of Apelles were by no means cooled by this gift, but they boiled + over in his great picture of Calumny. On the right of the picture sat + Ptolemy, holding out his hand to Calumny, who was coming up to him. On + each side of the king stood a woman who seemed meant for Ignorance and + Suspicion. Calumny was a beautiful maiden, but with angry and deep-rooted + malice in her face: in her left hand was a lighted torch, and with her + right she was dragging along by the hair a young man, who was stretching + forth his hands to heaven, and calling upon the gods to bear witness that + he was guiltless. Before her walked Envy, a pale, hollow-eyed, diseased + man, perhaps a portrait of the accuser; and behind were two women, Craft + and Deceit, who were encouraging and supporting her. At a distance stood + Repentance, in the ragged, black garb of mourning, who was turning away + her face for shame as Truth came up to her. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy Soter was plain in his manners, and scarcely surpassed his own + generals in the costliness of his way of life. He often dined and slept at + the houses of his friends; and his own house had so little of the palace, + that he borrowed dishes and tables of his friends when he asked any number + of them to dine with him in return, saying that it was the part of a king + to enrich others rather than to be rich himself. Before he took the title + of king, he styled himself, and was styled by friendly states, by the + simple name of Ptolemy the Macedonian; and during the whole of his reign + he was as far from being overbearing in his behaviour as from being + kinglike in his dress and household. Once when he wished to laugh at a + boasting antiquary, he asked him, what he knew could not be answered, who + was the father of Peleus; and the other let his wit so far get the better + of his prudence as in return to ask the king, who had perhaps never heard + the name of his own grandfather, if he knew who was the father of Lagus. + But Ptolemy took no further notice of this than to remark that if a king + cannot bear rude answers he ought not to ask rude questions. + </p> + <p> + An answer which Ptolemy once made to a soothsayer might almost be taken as + the proverb which had guided him through life. When his soldiers met with + an anchor in one of their marches, and were disheartened on being told by + the soothsayer that it was a proof that they ought to stop where they then + were, the king restored their courage by remarking, that an anchor was an + omen of safety, not of delay. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/095.jpg" alt="095.jpg Berenice Soter " /> + </div> + <p> + Ptolemy’s first children were by Thais, the noted courtesan, but they were + not thought legitimate. Leontiscus, the eldest, we afterwards hear of + fighting bravely against Demetrius; of the second, named Lagus after his + grandfather, we hear nothing. + </p> + <p> + He then married Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater, by whom he had + several children. The eldest son, Ptolemy, was named Ceraunus, <i>the + Thunderer</i>, and was banished by his father from Alexandria. In his + distress he fled to Seleucus, by whom he was kindly received; but after + the death of Ptolemy Soter he basely plotted against Seleucus and put him + to death. He then defeated in battle Antigonus, the son of Demetrius, and + got possession of Macedonia for a short time. He married his half-sister + Arsinoë, and put her children to death; and was soon afterwards put to + death himself by the Gauls, who were either fighting against him or were + mercenaries in his own army. Another son of Ptolemy and Eurydice was put + to death by Ptolemy Philadelphus, for plotting against his throne, to + which, as the elder brother, he might have thought himself the best + entitled. Their daughter Lysander married Agathocles, the son of + Lysimachus; but when Agathocles was put to death by his father, she fled + to Egypt with her children, and put herself under Ptolemy’s care. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy then, as we have seen, asked in marriage the hand of Cleopatra, + the sister of Alexander; but on her death he married Berenicê, a lady who + had come into Egypt with Eurydice, and had formed part of her household. + She was the widow of a man named Philip; and she had by her first husband + a son named Magas, whom Ptolemy made governor of Cyrene, and a daughter, + Antigone, whom Ptolemy gave in marriage to Pyrrhus when that young king + was living in Alexandria as hostage for Demetrius. + </p> + <p> + Berenicê’s mildness and goodness of heart were useful in softening her + husband’s severity. Once, when Ptolemy was unbending his mind at a game of + dice with her, one of his officers came up to his side, and began to read + over to him a list of criminals who had been condemned to death, with + their crimes, and to ask his pleasure on each. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy continued playing, and gave very little attention to the unhappy + tale; but Berenice’s feelings overcame the softness of her character, and + she took the paper out of the officer’s hand, and would not let him finish + reading it; saying it was very unbecoming in the king to treat the matter + so lightly, as if he thought no more of the loss of a life than the loss + of a throw. + </p> + <p> + With Berenicê Ptolemy spent the rest of his years without anything to + trouble the happiness of his family. He saw their elder son, Ptolemy, whom + we must call by the name which he took late in life, Philadelphus, grow up + everything that he could wish him to be; and, moved alike by his love for + the mother and by the good qualities of the son, he chose him as his + successor on the throne, instead of his eldest son, Ptolemy Ceraunus, who + had shown, by every act in his life, his unfitness for the royal position. + </p> + <p> + His daughter Arsinoë married Lysimachus in his old age, and urged him + against his son, Agathocles, the husband of her own sister. She afterwards + married her half-brother, Ptolemy Ceraunus; and lastly became the wife of + her brother Philadelphus. Argzeus, the youngest son of Ptolemy, was put to + death by Philadelphus on a charge of treason. Of his youngest daughter + Philotera we know nothing, except that her brother Philadelphus afterwards + named a city on the coast of the Red Sea after her. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/098.jpg" alt="098.jpg Nit, Goddess of Sais. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0028" id="linkimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:21%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/099.jpg" alt="099.jpg a Cat Mummy " /> + </div> + <p> + After the last battle with Demetrius, Ptolemy had regained the island of + Cyprus and Cole-Syria, including Judæa; and his throne became stronger as + his life drew to an end. With a wisdom rare in kings and conquerors, he + had never let his ambition pass his means; he never aimed at universal + power; and he was led, both by his kind feelings and wise policy, to + befriend all those states which, like his own, were threatened by that mad + ambition in others. + </p> + <p> + His history of Alexander’s wars is lost, and we therefore cannot judge of + his merits as an author; but we may still point out with pleasure how much + his people gained from his love of letters; though indeed we do not need + the example of Ptolemy to show that learning and philosophy are as much in + place, and find as wide a field of usefulness, in governing a kingdom as + in the employments of the teacher, the lawyer, or the physician, who so + often claim them as their own. + </p> + <p> + His last public act, in the thirty-eighth year of his reign, was ordered + by the same forbearance which had governed every part of his life. Feeling + the weight of years press heavily upon him, that he was less able than + formerly to bear the duties of his office, and wishing to see his son + firmly seated on the throne, he laid aside his diadem and his title, and, + without consulting either the army or the capital, proclaimed Ptolemy, his + son by Berenicê, king, and contented himself with the modest rank of + somatophylax, or satrap, to his successor. He had used his power so justly + that he was not afraid to lay it down; and he has taught us how little of + true greatness there is in rank by showing how much more there is in + resigning it. This is perhaps the most successful instance known of a + king, who had been used to be obeyed by armies and by nations, willingly + giving up his power when he found his bodily strength no longer equal to + it. Ptolemy Soter had the happiness of having a son willing to follow in + the track which he had laid down for him, and of living to see the wisdom + of his own laws proved by the well-being of the kingdom under his son and + successor. + </p> + <p> + But while we are watching the success of Ptolemy’s plans, and the rise of + this Greek monarchy at Alexandria, we cannot help being pained with the + thought that the Kopts of Upper Egypt are forgotten, and asking whether it + would not have been still better to have raised Thebes to the place which + it once held, and to have recalled the days of Ramses, instead of trying + what might seem the hopeless task of planting Greek arts in Africa. But a + review of this history will show that, as far as human forethought can + judge, this could not have been done. A people whose religious opinions + were fixed against all change, like the pillars upon which they were + carved, and whose philosophy had not noticed that men’s minds were made to + move forward, had no choice but to be left behind and trampled on, as + their more active neighbours marched onwards in the path of improvement. + If Thebes had fallen only on the conquest by Cambyses, if the rebellions + against the Persians had been those of Kopts throwing off their chains and + struggling for freedom, we might have hoped to have seen Egypt, on the + fall of Darius, again rise under kings of the blood and language of the + people; and we should have thought the gilded and half-hid chains of the + Ptolemies were little better than the heavy yoke of the Persians. This, + however, is very far from having been the case. We first see the kings of + Lower Egypt guarding their thrones at Saïs by Greek soldiers; and then, + that every struggle of Inarus, of Nectanebo, and of Tachos, against the + Persians, was only made by the courage and arms of Greeks hired in the + Delta by Egyptian gold. During the three hundred years before Alexander + was hailed by Egypt as its deliverer, scarcely once had the Kopts, + trusting to their own courage, stood up in arms against either Persians or + Greeks; and the country was only then con-quered without a battle because + the power and arms were already in the hands of the Greeks; because in the + mixed races of the Delta the Greeks were so far the strongest, though not + the most numerous, that a Greek kingdom rose there with the same ease, and + for the same reasons, that an Arab kingdom rose in the same place nine + centuries later. + </p> + <p> + Moral worth, national pride, love of country, and the better feelings of + clanship are the chief grounds upon which a great people can be raised. + These feelings are closely allied to self-denial, or a willingness on the + part of each man to give up much for the good of the whole. By this, + chiefly, public monuments are built, and citizens stand by one another in + battle; and these feelings were certainly strong in Upper Egypt in the + days of its greatness. But, when the throne was moved to Lower Egypt, when + the kingdom was governed by the kings of Saïs, and even afterwards, when + it was struggling against the Persians, these virtues were wanting, and + they trusted to foreign hirelings in their struggle for freedom. The Delta + was peopled by three races of men, Kopts, Greeks, and Phoenicians, or + Arabs; and even before the sceptre was given to the Greeks by Alexander’s + conquests, we have seen that the Kopts had lost the virtues needed to hold + it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0029" id="linkimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/100.jpg" width="100%" alt="100.jpg Tailpiece " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <a name="linkBimage-0005" + id="linkBimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/101.jpg" width="100%" alt="101.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER III.—PTOLEMY PHILADELPHUS. B.C. 284-246 + </h2> + <p> + We know of few princes who ever mounted a throne with such fair prospects + before them as the second Ptolemy. He was born in Cos, an island on the + coast of Caria, which the Ptolemies kept as a family fortress, safe from + Egyptian rebellion and Alexandrian rudeness, and, while their fleets were + masters of the sea, safe from foreign armies. He had been brought up with + great care, and, being a younger son, was not spoilt by that flattery + which in all courts is so freely offered to the heir. He first studied + letters and philosophy under Philetas of Cos, an author of some elegies + and epigrams now lost; and as he grew up, he found himself surrounded by + all the philosophers and writers with whom his father mixed on the easiest + terms of friendship. During the long reign of Ptolemy Soter the people had + been made happy by wise regulations and good laws, trade had been + flourishing, the cities had greatly prospered, and the fortresses had been + everywhere strengthened. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/102.jpg" + alt="102.jpg Pharos in Old Alexandria " /> + </div> + <p> + The Grecian troops were well trained, their loyalty undoubted, and the + Egyptians were enrolled in a phalanx, armed and disciplined like the + Macedonians. The population of the country was counted at seven millions. + Alexandria, the capital of the kingdom, was not only the largest trading + city in the world, but was one of the most favoured seats of learning. It + surely must have been easy to foresee that the prince, then mounting the + throne, even if but slightly gifted with virtues, would give his name to a + reign which could not be otherwise than remarkable in the history of + Egypt. But Philadelphus, though like his father he was not free from the + vices of his times and of his rank, had more of wisdom than is usually the + lot of kings; and, though we cannot but see that he was only watering the + plants and gathering the fruit where his father had planted, yet we must + at the same time acknowledge that Philadelphus was a successor worthy of + Ptolemy Soter. He may have been in the twenty-third year of his age when + his father gave up to him the cares and honours of royalty. + </p> + <p> + The first act of his reign, or rather the last of his father’s reign, was + the proclamation, or the ceremony, of showing the new king to the troops + and people. All that was dazzling, all that was costly or curious, all + that the wealth of Egypt could buy or the gratitude of the provinces could + give, was brought forth to grace this religious show, which, as we learn + from the sculptures in the old tombs, was copied rather from the triumphs + of Ramses and Thûtmosis than from anything that had been seen in Greece. + </p> + <p> + The procession began with the pomp of Osiris, at the head of which were + the Sileni in scarlet and purple cloaks, who opened the way through the + crowd. Twenty satyrs followed on each side of the road, bearing torches; + and then Victories with golden wings, clothed in skins, each with a golden + staff six cubits long, twined round with ivy. An altar was carried next, + covered with golden ivy-leaves, with a garland of golden vine-leaves tied + with white ribands; and this was followed by a hundred and twenty boys in + scarlet frocks, carrying bowls of crocus, myrrh, and frankincense, which + made the air fragrant with the scent. Then came forty dancing satyrs + crowned with golden ivy-leaves, with their naked bodies stained with gay + colours, each carrying a crown of vine leaves and gold; then two Sileni in + scarlet cloaks and white boots, one having the hat and wand of Mercury and + the other a trumpet; and between them walked a man, six feet high, in + tragic dress and mask, meant for the Year, carrying a golden cornucopia. + He was followed by a tall and beautiful woman, meant for the Lustrum of + five years, carrying in one hand a crown and in the other a palm-branch. + Then came an altar, and a troop of satyrs in gold and scarlet, carrying + golden drinking-cups. + </p> + <p> + Then came Philiscus the poet, the priest of Osiris, with all the servants + of the god; then the Delphic tripods, the prizes which were to be given in + the wrestling matches; that for the boys was nine cubits high, and that + for the men twelve cubits high. Next came a four-wheeled car, fourteen + cubits long and eight wide, drawn along by one hundred and eighty men, on + which was the statue of Osiris, fifteen feet high, pouring wine out of a + golden vase, and having a scarlet frock down to his feet, with a yellow + transparent robe over it, and over all a scarlet cloak. Before the statue + was a large golden bowl, and a tripod with bowls of incense on it. Over + the whole was an awning of ivy and vine leaves; and in the same chariot + were the priests and priestesses of the god. + </p> + <p> + This was followed by a smaller chariot drawn by sixty men, in which was + the statue of Isis in a robe of yellow and gold. Then came a chariot full + of grapes, and another with a large cask of wine, which was poured out on + the road, as the procession moved on, and at which the eager crowd filled + their jugs and drinking-cups. Then came another band of satyrs and Sileni, + and more chariots of wine; then eighty Delphic vases of silver, and + Panathenaic and other vases; and sixteen hundred dancing boys in white + frocks and golden crowns: then a number of beautiful pictures; and a + chariot carrying a grove of trees, out of which flew pigeons and doves, so + tied that they might be easily caught by the crowd. + </p> + <p> + On another chariot, drawn by an elephant, came Osiris, as he returned from + his Indian conquests. He was followed by twenty-four chariots drawn by + elephants, sixty drawn by goats, twelve by some kind of stags, seven by + gazelles, four by wild asses, fifteen by buffaloes, eight by ostriches, + and seven by stags of some other kind. Then came chariots loaded with the + tributes of the conquered nations; men of Ethiopia carrying six hundred + elephants’ teeth; sixty huntsmen leading two thousand four hundred dogs; + and one hundred and fifty men carrying trees, in the branches of which + were tied parrots and other beautiful birds. Next walked the foreign + animals, Ethiopian and Arabian sheep, Brahmin bulls, a white bear, + leopards, panthers, bears, a camelopard, and a rhinoceros; proving to the + wondering crowd the variety and strangeness of the countries that owned + their monarch’s sway. + </p> + <p> + In another chariot was seen Bacchus running away from Juno, and flying to + the altar of Rhea. After that came the statues of Alexander and Ptolemy + Soter crowned with gold and ivy: by the side of Ptolemy stood the statues + of Virtue, of the god Chem, and of the city of Corinth; and he was + followed by female statues of the conquered cities of Ionia, Greece, Asia + Minor, and Persia; and the statues of other gods. Then came crowds of + singers and cymbal-players, and two thousand bulls with gilt horns, + crowns, and breast-plates. Then came Amon-Ra and other gods; and the + statue of Alexander between Victory and the goddess Neith, in a chariot + drawn by elephants: then a number of thrones of ivory and gold; on one was + a golden crown, on another a golden cornucopia, and on the throne of + Ptolemy Soter was a crown worth ten thousand <i>aurei</i>, or nearly + thirty thousand dollars; then three thousand two hundred golden crowns, + twenty golden shields, sixty-four suits of golden armour; and the whole + was closed with forty waggons of silver vessels, twenty of golden vessels, + eighty of costly Eastern scents, and fifty-seven thousand six hundred foot + soldiers, and twenty-three thousand two hundred horse. The procession + began moving by torchlight before day broke in the morning, and the sun + set in the evening before it had all passed on its way. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/106.jpg" width="100%" + alt="106.jpg Bronze Cosmetic Holder " /> + </div> + <p> + It went through the streets of Alexandria to the royal tents on the + outside of the city, where, as in the procession, everything that was + costly in art, or scarce in nature, was brought together in honour of the + day. At the public games, as a kind of tax or coronation money, twenty + golden crowns were given to Ptolemy Soter, twenty-three to Berenice, and + twenty to their son, the new king, beside other costly gifts; and two + thousand two hundred and thirty-nine talents, or one million seven hundred + and fifty thousand dollars, were spent on the amusements of the day. For + the account of this curious procession we are indebted to Callixenes of + Rhodes, who was then travelling in Egypt, and who wrote a history of + Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy Soter lived two years after he had withdrawn himself from the + cares of government; and the weight of his name was not without its use in + adding steadiness to the throne of his successor. Instead of parcelling + out his wide provinces among his sons as so many kingdoms, he had given + them all to one son, and that not the eldest; and on his death the + jealousy of those who had been disinherited and disappointed broke out in + rebellion. + </p> + <p> + It is with peculiar interest that we hear in this reign for the first time + that the bravery and rising power of the Romans had forced themselves into + the notice of Philadelphus. Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus, had been beaten + by the Romans, and driven out of Italy; and the King of Egypt thought it + not beneath him to send an ambassador to the senate, to wish them joy of + their success, and to make a treaty of peace with the republic. The + embassy, as we might suppose, was received in Rome with great joy; and + three ambassadors, two of the proud name of Fabius, with Quintus Ogulnius, + were sent back to seal the treaty. Philadelphus gave them some costly + gifts, probably those usually given to ambassadors; but Rome was then + young, her citizens had not yet made gold the end for which they lived, + and the ambassadors returned the gifts, for they could receive nothing + beyond the thanks of the senate for having done their duty. This treaty + was never broken; and in the war which broke out in the middle of this + reign between Rome and Carthage, usually called the first Punic war, when + the Carthaginians sent to Alexandria to beg for a loan of two thousand + talents, Philadelphus refused it, saying that he would help them against + his enemies, but not against his friends. + </p> + <p> + From that time forward we find Egypt in alliance with Rome. But we also + find that they were day by day changing place with one another: Egypt soon + began to sink, while Rome was rising in power; Egypt soon received help + from her stronger ally, and at last became a province of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + At the time of this embassy, when Greek arts were nearly unknown to the + Romans, the ambassadors must have seen much that was new to them, and much + that was worth copying; and three years afterwards, when one of them, + Quintus Ogulnius, together with Caius Fabius Pictor, were chosen consuls, + they coined silver for the first time in Rome. With them begins the series + of consular denarii, which throws such light on Roman life and history. + </p> + <p> + About the middle of this reign, Berenicê, the mother of the king, died, + and it was most likely then that Philadelphus began to date from the + beginning of his own reign: he had before gone on like his father, dating + from the beginning of his father’s reign. In the year after her death, the + great feast of Osiris, in the month of Mesore, was celebrated at + Alexandria with more than usual pomp by the Queen Arsinoë. Venus, or Isis, + had just raised Berenice to heaven; and Arsinoë, in return, showed her + gratitude by the sums of money spent on the feast of Osiris, or Adonis as + he was sometimes called by the Greeks. Theocritus, who was there, wrote a + poem on the day, and tells us of the crowds in the streets, of the queen’s + gifts to the temple, and of the beautiful tapestries, on which were woven + the figures of the god and goddess breathing as if alive; and he has given + a free translation of the Maneros, the national poem in which the priests + each year consoled the goddess Isis for the death of Osiris, which was + sung through the streets of Alexandria by a Greek girl in the procession. + One of the chief troubles in the reign of Philadelphus was the revolt of + Cyrene. The government of that part of Africa had been entrusted to Magas, + the half-brother of the king, a son of Berenice by her former husband. + Berenice, who had been successful in setting aside Ceraunus to make room + for her son Philadelphus on the throne of Egypt, has even been said to + have favoured the rebellious and ungrateful efforts of her elder son Magas + to make himself King of Cyrene. Magas, without waiting till the large + armies of Egypt were drawn together to crush his little state, marched + hastily towards Alexandria, in the hopes of being joined by some of the + restless thousands of that crowded city. But he was quickly recalled to + Cyrene by the news of the rising of the Marmaridas, the race of Libyan + herdsmen that had been driven back from the coast by the Greek settlers + who founded Cyrene. Philadelphus then led his army along the coast against + the rebels; but he was, in the same way, stopped by the fear of treachery + among his own Gallic mercenaries. With a measured cruelty which the use of + foreign mercenaries could alone have taught him, he led back his army to + the marshes of the Delta, and, entrapping the four thousand distrusted + Gauls* on one of the small islands, he hemmed them in between the water + and the spears of the phalanx, and they all died miserably, by famine, by + drowning, or by the sword. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is not known for certain from what part of the world + these Gauls were recruited. The race known as Gallic was at + one time spread over a wide district from Gallicia in the + East to Gallia in the West. +</pre> + <p> + Magas had married Apime, the daughter of Antiochus Soter, King of Syria; + and he sent to his father-in-law to beg him to march upon Coele-Syria and + Palestine, to call off the army of Philadelphus from Cyrene. But + Philadelphus did not wait for this attack: his armies moved before + Antiochus was ready, and, by a successful inroad upon Syria, he prevented + any relief being sent to Magas. + </p> + <p> + After the war between the brothers had lasted some years, Magas made an + offer of peace, which was to be sealed by betrothing his only child, + Berenicê, to the son of Philadelphus. To this offer Philadelphus yielded; + as by the death of Magas, who was already worn out by luxury and disease, + Cyrene would then fall to his own son. Magas, indeed, died before the + marriage took place; but, notwithstanding the efforts made by his widow to + break the agreement, the treaty was kept, and on this marriage Cyrene + again formed part of the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + The black spot upon the character of Philadelphus, which all the blaze of + science and letters by which he was surrounded can not make us overlook, + is the death of two of his brothers: a son of Eurydice, who might, + perhaps, have thought that he was robbed of the throne of Egypt by his + younger brother, and who was unsuccessful in raising the island of Cyprus + in rebellion; and a younger brother, Argasus, who was also charged with + joining in a plot; both lost their lives by his orders. + </p> + <p> + It was only in the beginning of this reign, after Egypt had been for more + than fifty years under the rule of the Macedonians, that the evils which + often follow conquest were brought to an end. Before this reign no Greek + was ever known to have reached Elephantine and Syênê or Aswan since + Herodotus made his hasty tour in the Thebaid; and during much of the last + reign no part of Upper Egypt was safe for a Greek traveller, if he were + alone, or if he quitted the highroad. The peasants, whose feelings of + hatred we can hardly wonder at, waylaid the stragglers, and Egyptian-like + as the Greeks said, or slave-like as it would be wiser to say, often put + them to death in cold blood. But a long course of good government had at + last quieted the whole country, and left room for further improvements by + Philadelphus. + </p> + <p> + Among other buildings, Philadelphus raised a temple in Alexandria to the + honour of his father and mother, and placed in it their statues, made of + ivory and gold, and ordered that they should be worshipped like the gods + and other kings of the country. He also built a temple to Ceres and + Proserpine, and then the Eleusinian mysteries were taught in Alexandria to + the few who were willing and worthy to be admitted. The southeast quarter + of the city in which this temple stood was called the Eleusinis; and here + the troop of maidens were to be seen carrying the sacred basket through + the streets, and singing hymns in honour of the goddess; while they + charged all profane persons, who met the procession, to keep their eyes + upon the ground, lest they should see the basket and the priestesses, who + were too pure for them to look upon. + </p> + <p> + In this reign was finished the lighthouse on the island of Pharos, as a + guide to ships when entering the harbour of Alexandria by night. The + navigation of the waters of the Red Sea, along which the wind blows hard + from the north for nine months in the year, was found so dangerous by the + little vessels from the south of Arabia, that they always chose the most + southerly port in which they could meet the Egyptian buyers. The merchants + with their bales of goods found a journey on camels through the desert, + where the path is marked only by the skeletons of the animals that have + died upon the route, less costly than a coasting voyage. Hence, when + Philadelphus had made the whole of Upper Egypt to the cataracts at Aswan + (Syênê) as quiet and safe as the Delta, he made a new port on the rocky + coast of the Red Sea, nearly two hundred miles to the south of Cosseir, + and named it Berenicê after his mother. He also built four public inns, or + watering-houses, where the caravans might find water for the camels, and + shelter from the noonday sun, on their twelve days’ journey through the + desert from Koptos on the Nile to this new port. He rebuilt, and at the + same time renamed, the old port of Cosseir, or Ænnum as it was before + called, and named it Philotera after his younger sister. The trade which + thus passed down the Nile from Syênê, from Berenicê, and from Philotera, + paid a toll or duty at the custom-house station of Phylake a little below + Lycopolis on the west bank of the river, where a guard of soldiers was + encamped; and this station gradually grew into a town. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/112.jpg" + alt="112.jpg Rosetta Branch of the Nile " /> + </div> + <p> + Philadelphus also built a city on the sands at the head of the Red Sea, + near where Suez now stands, and named it Arsinoë, after his sister; and he + again opened the canal which Necho II. and Darius had begun, by which + ships were to pass from the Nile to this city on the Red Sea. This canal + began in the Pelusiac branch of the river, a little above Bubastis, and + was carried to the Lower Bitter Lakes in the reign of Darius. From thence + Philadelphus wished to carry it forward to the Red Sea, near the town of + Arsinoë, and moreover cleared it from the sands which soon overwhelmed it + and choked it up whenever it was neglected by the government. But his + undertaking was stopped by the engineers finding the waters of the canal + several feet lower than the level of the Red Sea; and that, if finished, + it would become a salt-water canal, which could neither water the fields + nor give drink to the cities in the valley. He also built a second city of + the name of Berenicê, called the Berenicê Epidires, at the very mouth of + the Red Sea on a point of land where Abyssinia is hardly more than fifteen + miles from the opposite coast of Arabia. This naming of cities after his + mother and sisters was no idle compliment; they probably received the + crown revenues of those cities for their personal maintenance. + </p> + <p> + With a view further to increase the trade with the East, Philadelphus sent + Dionysius on an expedition overland to India, to gain a knowledge of the + country and of its means and wants. He went by the way of the Caspian Sea + through Bactria, in the line of Alexander’s march. He dwelt there, at the + court of the sovereign, soon after the time that Megasthenes was there; + and he wrote a report of what he saw and learned. But it is sad to find, + in our search for what is valuable in the history of past times, that the + information gained on this interesting journey of discovery is wholly + lost. + </p> + <p> + In the number of ports which were then growing into the rank of cities, we + see full proof of the great trade of Egypt at that time; and we may form + some opinion of the profit which was gained from the trade of the Red Sea + from the report of Clitarchus to Alexander, that the people of one of the + islands would give a talent of gold for a horse, so plentiful with them + was gold, and so scarce the useful animals of Europe; and one of the three + towns named after the late queen, on that coast, was known by the name of + the Nubian or Golden Berenicê, from the large supply of gold which was dug + from the mines in the neighbourhood. In latitude 17°, separated from the + Golden Berenicê by one of the forests of Ethiopia, was the new city of + Ptolemais, which, however, was little more than a post from which the + hunting parties went out to catch elephants for the armies of Egypt. + Philadelphus tried to command, to persuade, and to bribe the neighbouring + tribes not to kill these elephants for food, but they refused all treaty + with him; these zealous huntsmen answered that, if he offered them the + kingdom of Egypt with all its wealth, they would not give up the pleasure + of catching and eating elephants. The Ethiopian forests, however, were + able to supply the Egyptian armies with about one elephant for every + thousand men, which was the number then thought best in the Greek military + tactics. Asia had been the only country from which the armies had been + supplied with elephants before Philadelphus brought them from Ethiopia. + </p> + <p> + The temple of Isis among the palm groves in Philæ, a rocky island in the + Nile near the cataracts of Syênê, was begun in this reign, though not + finished till some reigns later. It is still the wonder of travellers, and + by its size and style proves the wealth and good taste of the priests. But + its ornaments are not so simple as those of the older temples; and the + capitals of its columns are varied by the full-blown papyrus flower of + several sizes, its half-opened buds, its closed buds, and its leaves, and + by palm-branches. It seems to have been built on the site of an older + temple which may have ‘been overthrown by the Persians. This island of + Philo is the most beautiful spot in Egypt; where the bend of the river + just above the cataracts forms a quiet lake surrounded on all sides by + fantastic cliffs of red granite. Its name is a corruption from Abu-lakh, + the city of the frontier. This temple was one of the places in which + Osiris was said to be buried. None but priests ever set foot on this + sacred island, and no oath was so binding as that sworn in the name of Him + that lies buried in Philæ. The statues of the goddess in the temple were + all meant for portraits of the queen Arsinoë. The priests who dwelt in the + cells within the courtyards of the temples of which we see the remains in + this temple at Philæ, were there confined for life to the service of the + altar by the double force of religion and the stone walls. They showed + their zeal for their gods by the amount of want which they were able to + endure, and they thought that sitting upon the ground in idleness, with + the knees up to the chin, was one of the first of religious duties. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/116.jpg" width="100%" alt="116.jpg Temple of Philae " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/118.jpg" + alt="118.jpg Anubis, God of the Lower World " /> + </div> + <p> + The Museum of Alexandria held at this time the highest rank among the + Greek schools, whether for poetry, mathematics, astronomy, or medicine, + the four branches into which it was divided. Its library soon held two + hundred thousand rolls of papyrus; which, however, could hardly have been + equal to ten thousand printed volumes. Many of these were bought by + Philadelphus in Athens and Rhodes; and his copy of Aristotle’s works was + bought of the philosopher Nileus, who had been a hearer of that great man, + and afterwards inherited his books through Theophrastus, to whom they had + been left by Aristotle. The books in the museum were of course all Greek; + the Greeks did not study foreign languages, and thought the Egyptian + writings barbarous. + </p> + <p> + At the head of this library had been Demetrius Phalereus, who, after + ruling Athens with great praise, was banished from his country, and fled + to Ptolemy Soter, under whom he consoled himself for the loss of power in + the enjoyment of literary leisure. He was at the same time the most + learned and the most polished of orators. He brought learning from the + closet into the forum; and, by the soft turn which he gave to public + speaking, made that sweet and lovely which had before been grave and + severe. Cicero thought him the great master in the art of speaking, and + seems to have taken him as the model upon which he wished to form his own + style. He wrote upon philosophy, history, government, and poetry; but the + only one of his works which has reached our time is his treatise on + elocution; and the careful thought which he there gives to the choice of + words and to the form of a sentence, and even the parts of a sentence, + shows the value then set upon style. Indeed he seems rather to have + charmed his hearers by the softness of his words than to have roused them + to noble deeds by the strength of his thoughts. He not only advised + Ptolemy Soter what books he should buy, but which he should read, and he + chiefly recommended those on government and policy; and it is alike to the + credit of the king and of the librarian, that he put before him books + which, from their praise of freedom and hatred of tyrants, few persons + would even speak of in the presence of a king. But Demetrius had also been + consulted by Soter about the choice of a successor, and had given his + opinion that the crown ought to be left to his eldest son, and that wars + would arise between his children if it were not so left; hence we can + hardly wonder that, on the death of Soter, Demetrius should have lost his + place at the head of the museum, and been ordered to leave Alexandria. He + died, as courtiers say, in disgrace; and he was buried near Diospolis in + the Busirite nome of the Delta. According to one account he was put to + death by the bite of an asp, in obedience to the new king’s orders, but + this story is not generally credited; although this was not an uncommon + way of inflicting death. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this we find Zenodotus of Ephesus filling the office of + librarian to the museum. He was a poet, who, with others, had been + employed by Soter in the education of his children. He is also known as + the first of those Alexandrian critics who turned their thoughts towards + mending the text of Homer, and to whom we are indebted for the tolerably + correct state of the great poet’s works, which had become faulty through + the carelessness of the copiers. Zenodotus was soon followed by other + critics in this task of editing Homer. But their labours were not approved + of by all; and when Aratus asked Timon which he thought the best edition + of the poet, the philosopher shrewdly answered, “That which has been least + corrected.” + </p> + <p> + At the head of the mathematical school was Euclid; who is, however, less + known to us by what his pupils have said of him than by his own invaluable + work on geometry. This is one of the few of the scientific writings of the + ancients that are still in use. The discoveries of the man of science are + made use of by his successor, and the discoverer perhaps loses part of his + reward when his writings are passed by, after they have served us as a + stepping-stone to mount by. If he wishes his works to live with those of + the poet and orator, he must, like them, cultivate those beauties of style + which are fitted to his matter. Euclid did so; and his Elements have been + for more than two thousand years the model for all writers on geometry. He + begins at the beginning, and leads the learner, step by step, from the + simplest propositions, called axioms, which rest upon metaphysical rather + than mathematical proof, to high geometrical truths. The mind is indeed + sometimes wearied by being made to stop at every single step in the path, + and wishes, with Ptolemy Soter, for a shorter road; but, upon the whole, + Euclid’s clearness has never been equalled. + </p> + <p> + Ctesibus wrote on the theory of hydrostatics, and was the inventor of + several water-engines; an application of mathematics which was much called + for by the artificial irrigation of Egypt. He also invented that useful + instrument, the water-clock, to tell the time after sunset. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/120.jpg" width="100%" + alt="120.jpg at the Head of The Red Sea " /> + </div> + <p> + Among the best known of the men of letters who came to Alexandria to enjoy + the patronage of Philadelphus was Theocritus. Many of his poems are lost; + but his pastoral poems, though too rough for the polished taste of + Quintilian, and perhaps more like nature than we wish any works of + imitative art to be, have always been looked upon as the model of that + kind of poetry. If his shepherds do not speak the language of courtiers, + they have at least a rustic propriety which makes us admire the manners + and thoughts of the peasant. He repaid the bounty of the king in the way + most agreeable to him; he speaks of him as one + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + to freemen kind, + Wise, fond of books and love, of generous mind; + Knows well his friend, but better knows his foe; + Scatters his wealth; when asked he ne’er says No, + But gives as kings should give. + Idyll, xiv. 60. +</pre> + <p> + Theocritus boasted that he would in an undying poem place him in the rank + of the demigods; and, writing with the pyramids and the Memnonium before + his eyes, assured him that generosity towards the poets would do more to + make his name live for ever than any building that he could raise. + </p> + <p> + In a back street of Alexandria, in the part of the city named Eleusinis, + near the temple of Ceres and Proserpine, lived the poet Callimachus, + earning his livelihood by teaching. But the writer of the Hymns could not + long dwell so near the court of Philadelphus unknown and unhonoured. He + was made professor of poetry in the museum, and even now repays the king + and patron for what he then received. He was a man of great industry, and + wrote in prose and in all kinds of verse; but of these only a few hymns + and epigrams have come down to our time. Egypt seems to have been the + birthplace of the mournful elegy, and Callimachus was the chief of the + elegiac poets. He was born at Cyrene; and though, from the language in + which he wrote, his thoughts are mostly Greek, yet he did not forget the + place of his birth. He calls upon Apollo by the name of Carneus, because, + after Sparta and Thera, Cyrene was his chosen seat. He paints Latona, + weary and in pain in the island of Delos, as leaning against a palm-tree, + by the side of the river Inopus, which, sinking into the ground, was to + rise again in Egypt, near the cataracts of Syênê; and, prettily pointing + to Philadelphus, he makes Apollo, yet unborn, ask his mother not to give + birth to him in the island of Cos, because that island was already chosen + as the birthplace of another god, the child of the gods Soteres, who would + be the copy of his father, and under whose diadem both Egypt and the + islands would be proud to be governed by a Macedonian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/123.jpg" width="100%" + alt="123.jpg the Cararact on The Aswan " /> + </div> + <p> + The poet Philastas, who had been the first tutor of Philadelphus, was in + elegy second only to Callimachus; but Quintilian (while advising us about + books, to read much but not many) does not rank him among the few + first-rate poets by whom the student should form his taste; and his works + are now lost. He was small and thin in person, and it was jokingly said of + him that he wore leaden soles to his shoes lest he should be blown away by + the wind. But in losing his poetry, we have perhaps lost the point of the + joke. While these three, Theocritus, Callimachus, and Philastas, were + writing in Alexandria, the museum was certainly the chief seat of the + muses. Athens itself could boast of no such poet but Menander, with whom + Attic literature ended; and him Philadelphus earnestly invited to his + court. He sent a ship to Greece on purpose to fetch him; but neither this + honour nor the promised salary could make him quit his mother country and + the schools of Athens; and, in the time of Pausanias, his tomb was still + visited by the scholar on the road to the Pmeus, and his statue was still + seen in the theatre. + </p> + <p> + Strato, the pupil of Theophrastus, though chiefly known for his writings + on physics, was also a writer on many branches of knowledge. He was one of + the men of learning who had taken part in the education of Phil-adelphus; + and the king showed his gratitude to his teacher by making him a present + of eighty talents, or sixty thousand dollars. He was for eighteen years at + the head of one of the Alexandrian schools. + </p> + <p> + Timocharis, the astronomer, made some of his observations at Alexandria in + the last reign, and continued them through half of this reign. He began a + catalogue of the fixed stars, with their latitudes and their longitudes + measured from the equinoctial point; by the help of which Hipparchus, one + hundred and fifty years afterwards, made the great discovery that the + equinoctial point had moved. He has left an observation of the place of + Venus, on the seventeenth day of the month of Mesore, in the thirteenth + year of this reign, which by the modern tables of the planets is known to + have been on the eighth day of October, B.C. 272; from which we learn that + the first year of Philadelphus ended in October, B.C. 284, and the first + year of Ptolemy Soter ended in October, B.C. 322; thus fixing the + chronology of these reigns with a certainty which leaves nothing to be + wished for. Aris-tillus also made some observations of the same kind at + Alexandria. Few of them have been handed down to us, but they were made + use of by Hipparchus. + </p> + <p> + Aristarchus, the astronomer of Samos, most likely came to Alexandria in + the last reign, as some of his observations were made in the very + beginning of the reign of Philadelphus. He is the first astronomer who is + known to have taken the true view of the solar system. He said that the + sun was the centre round which the earth moved in a circle; and, as if he + had foreseen that even in after ages we should hardly be able to measure + the distance of the fixed stars, he said that the earth’s yearly path bore + no greater proportion to the hollow globe of the heavens in which the + stars were set, than the point without size in the centre of a circle does + to its circumference. But the work in which he proved these great truths, + or perhaps threw out these happy guesses, is lost; and the astronomers who + followed him clung to the old belief that the earth was the centre round + which the sun moved. The only writings of Aristarchus which now remain are + his short work on the distances and magnitude of the sun and moon, in + which the error in his results arises from the want of good observations, + rather than from any mistake in his mathematical principles. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/128.jpg" + alt="128.jpg an Athlete Disporting on a Crocodile " /> + </div> + <p> + Aratus, who was born in Cilicia, is sometimes counted among the pléiades, + or seven stars of Alexandria. His <i>Phenomena</i> is a short astronomical + poem, without life or feeling, which scarcely aims at any of the grace or + flow of poetry. It describes the planets and the constellations one by + one, and tells us what stars are seen in the head, feet, and other parts + of each figure; and then the seasons, and the stars seen at night at each + time of the year. When maps were little known, it must have been of great + use, to learners; and its being in verse made it the more easy to + remember. The value which the ancients set upon this poem is curiously + shown by the number of Latin translations which were made from it. Cicero + in his early youth, before he was known as an orator or philosopher, + perhaps before he himself knew in which path of letters he was soon to + take the lead, translated this poem. The next translation is by Germanicus + Cæsar, whose early death and many good qualities have thrown such a bright + light upon his name. He shone as a general, as an orator, and as an + author; but his Greek comedies, his Latin orations, and his poem on + Augustus are lost, while his translation of Aratus is all that is left to + prove that this high name in literature was not given to him for his + political virtues alone. Lastly Avienus, a writer in the reign of + Diocletian, or perhaps of Theodosius, has left a rugged, unpolished + translation of this much-valued poem. Aratus, the poet of the heavens, + will be read, said Ovid, as long as the sun and moon shall shine. + </p> + <p> + Sosibius was one of the rhetoricians of the museum who lived upon the + bounty of Philadelphus. The king, wishing to laugh at his habit of verbal + criticism, once told his treasurer to refuse his salary, and say that it + had been already paid. Sosibius complained to the king, and the book of + receipts was sent for, in which Philadelphus found the names of Soter, + Sosigines, Bion, and Apollonius, and showing to the critic one syllable of + his name in each of those words, said that putting them together, they + must be taken as the receipt for his salary. Other authors wrote on + lighter matters. Apollodorus Gelous, the physician, addressed to + Philadelphus a volume of advice as to which Greek wines were best fitted + for his royal palate. The Italian and Sicilian were then unknown in Egypt, + and those of the Thebaid were wholly beneath his notice, while the vine + had as yet hardly been planted in the neighbourhood of Alexandria. He + particularly praised the Naspercenite wine from the southern banks of the + Black Sea, the Oretic from the island of Euboea; the OEneatic from Locris; + the Leuca-dian from the island of Leucas; and the Ambraciote from the + kingdom of Epirus. + </p> + <p> + But above all these he placed the Peparethian wine from the island of + Peparethus, a wine which of course did not please the many, as this + experienced taster acknowledges that nobody is likely to have a true + relish for it till after six years’ acquaintance. Such were the Greek + authors who basked in the sunshine of royal favour at Alexandria; who + could have told us, if they had thought it worth their while, all that we + now wish to know of the trade, religion, language, and early history of + Egypt. But they thought that the barbarians were not worth the notice of + men who called themselves Macedonians. Philadelphus, however, thought + otherwise; and by his command Manetho, an Egyptian, wrote in Greek a + history of Egypt, copied from the hieroglyphical writing on the temples, + and he dedicated it to the king. We know it only in the quotations of + Josephus and Julius Africanus, and what we have is little more than a list + of kings’ names. He was a priest of Heliopolis, the great seat of Egyptian + learning. The general correctness of Manetho’s history, which runs back + for nearly two thousand years, is shown by our finding the kings’ names + agree with many Egyptian inscriptions. Manetho owes his reputation to the + merit of being the first who distinguished himself as a writer and critic + upon religion and philosophy, as well as chronology and history, using the + Greek language, but drawing his materials from native sources, especially + the Sacred Books. That he was “skilled in Greek letters”: we learn from + Josephus, who also declares that he contradicted many of Herodotus’ + erroneous statements. Manetho was better suited for the task of writing a + history of Egypt than any of his contemporaries. + </p> + <p> + As an Egyptian he could search out and make use of all the native Egyptian + sources, and, thanks to his knowledge of Greek, he could present them in a + form intelligible to the Hellenes. It must be confessed that he has + occasionally fallen into the error of allowing Greek thoughts and + traditions to slip into his work. The great worth in Manetho’s work lies + in the fact that he relates the history of Egypt based on monumental + sources and charters preserved in the temples. Moreover, he treats quite + impartially the times of the foreign rulers, which the form of the + Egyptian history employed by Diodorus does not mention; but above all, + Manetho gives us a list of Egyptian rulers arranged according to a regular + system. But however important in this respect Manetho’s work may be, it + must not be forgotten what difficulties he had to contend with in the + writing of it, and what unreliable sources lay in these difficulties. He + could not use the sources in the form in which he found them. He was + obliged to re-write them, and he added to them synchronisms and relations + to other peoples which necessarily exposed him to the dangers of colouring + his report correspondingly. + </p> + <p> + But a much greater difficulty consisted in the fact that the chronological + reports of the earlier history were all arranged according to the reigning + years of the rulers, so that Manetho was obliged to construct an era for + his work. Boeckh was the first to discover with certainty the existence + and form of this era. According to his researches, the whole work of + Manetho is based upon Sothicycles of 1460 Julianic years. The Egyptian + year was movable, and did not need the extra day every few years, but the + consequence was that every year remained a quarter of a day behind the + real year. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/131.jpg" width="100%" + alt="131.jpg Modern Sphinx-like Face " /> + </div> + <p> + When 1460-1 years had elapsed this chronological error had mounted to a + whole year, and so the movable year and the fixed year fell together + again. It is this Sothic period which Manetho has employed in his account + of Egyptian history. Besides his history, Manetho has left us a work on + astrology, called <i>Apotelesmatica</i>, or Events, a work of which there + seems no reason to doubt the genuineness. + </p> + <p> + It is a poem in hexameter verse, in good Greek, addressed to King Ptolemy, + in which he calls, not only upon Apollo and the Muse, but, like a true + Egyptian, upon Hermes, from whose darkly worded writings he had gained his + knowledge. He says that the king’s greatness might have been foretold from + the places of Mars and the Sun at the time of his birth, and that his + marriage with his sister Arsinoë arose from the places of Venus and Saturn + at the same time. But while we smile at this being said as the result of + astronomical calculations, we must remember that for centuries afterwards, + almost in our own time, the science of judicial astrology was made a + branch of astronomy, and that the fault lay rather in the age than in the + man; and we have the pain of thinking that, while many of the valuable + writings by Manetho are lost, the copiers and readers of manuscripts have + carefully saved for us this nearly worthless poem on astrology. + </p> + <p> + Petosiris was another writer on astrology and astronomy who was highly + praised by his friend Manetho; and his calculations on the distances of + the sun and planets are quoted by Pliny. His works are lost; but his name + calls for our notice, as he must have been a native Egyptian, and a + priest. Like Manetho, he also wrote on the calculation of nativities; and + the later Greek astrologers, when what they had foretold did not come to + pass, were wont to lay the blame on Petosiris. The priests were believed + to possess these and other supernatural powers; and to help their claims + to be believed many of them practised ventriloquism. + </p> + <p> + Timosthenes, the admiral under Philadelphus, must not be forgotten in this + list of authors; for though his verses to Apollo were little worth notice, + his voyages of discovery, and his work in ten books on harbours, placed + him in the first rank among geographers. Colotes, a pupil and follower of + Epicurus, dedicated to Philadelphus a work of which the very title proves + the nature of his philosophy, and how soon the rules of his master had + fitted themselves to the habits of the sensualist. Its title was “That it + is impossible even to support life according to the philosophical rules of + any but the Epicureans.” It was a good deal read and talked about; and + three hundred years afterwards Plutarch thought it not a waste of time to + write against it at some length. + </p> + <p> + At a time when books were few, and far too dear to be within reach of the + many, and indeed when the number of those who could read must have been + small, other means were of course taken to meet the thirst after + knowledge; and the chief of these were the public readings in the theatre. + This was not overlooked by Phila-delphus, who employed Hegesias to read + Herodotus, and Hermophantus to read Homer, the earliest historian and the + earliest poet, the two authors who had taken deepest root in the minds of + the Greeks. These public readings, which were common throughout Greece and + its colonies, had not a little effect on the authors. They then wrote for + the ear rather than the eye, to be listened to rather than to be read, + which was one among the causes of Greek elegance and simplicity of style. + </p> + <p> + Among others who were brought to Alexandria by the fame of Philadelphus’ + bounty was Zoilus, the grammarian, whose ill-natured criticism on Homer’s + poems had earned for him the name of Homeromastix, or the scourge of + Homer. He read his criticisms to Philadelphus, who was so much displeased + with his carping and unfair manner of finding fault, that he even refused + to relieve him when in distress. The king told him, that while hundreds + had earned a livelihood by pointing out the beauties of the Iliad and + Odyssey in their public readings, surely one person who was so much wiser + might be able to live by pointing out the faults. + </p> + <p> + Timon, a tragic poet, was also one of the visitors to this court; but, as + he was more fond of eating and drinking than of philosophy, we need not + wonder at our knowing nothing of his tragedies, or at his not being made a + professor by Philadelphus. But he took his revenge on the better-fed + philosophers of the court, in a poem in which he calls them literary + fighting-cocks, who were being fattened by the king, and were always + quarrelling in the coops of the museum. + </p> + <p> + The Alexandrian men of science and letters maintained themselves, some few + by fees received from their pupils, others as professors holding salaries + in the museum, and others by civil employments under the government. There + was little to encourage in them the feelings of noble pride or + independence. The first rank in Alexandria was held by the civil and + military servants of the crown, who enjoyed the lucrative employments of + receiving the taxes, hearing the lawsuits by appeal, and repressing + rebellions. With these men the philosophers mixed, not as equals, but + partaking of their wealth and luxuries, and paying their score with wit + and conversation. There were no landholders in the city, as the soil of + the country was owned by Egyptians; and the wealthy trading classes, of + all nations and languages, could bestow little patronage on Greek + learning, and therefore little independence on its professors. + </p> + <p> + Philadelphus was not less fond of paintings and statues than of books; and + he seems to have joined the Achaian league as much for the sake of the + pictures which Aratus, its general, was in the habit of sending to him, as + for political reasons. Aratus, the chief of Sicyon, was an acknowledged + judge of paintings, and Sicyon was then the first school of Greece. The + pieces which he sent to Philadelphus were mostly those of Pamphilus, the + master, and of Melanthius, the fellow-pupil, of Apelles. Pamphilus was + famed for his perspective; and he is said to have received from every + pupil the large sum of ten talents, or seven thousand five hundred + dollars, a year. His best known pieces were, Ulysses in his ship, and the + victory of the Athenians near the town of Phlius. It was through Pamphilus + that, at first in Sicyon, and afterwards throughout all Greece, drawing + was taught to boys as part of a liberal education. Neacles also painted + for Aratus; and we might almost suppose that it was as a gift to the King + of Egypt that he painted his Sea-fight between the Egyptians and the + Persians, in which the painter shows us that it was fought within the + mouth of the Nile by making a crocodile bite at an ass drinking on the + shore. + </p> + <p> + Helena, the daughter of Timon, was a painter of some note at this time, at + Alexandria; but the only piece of hers known to us by name is the Battle + of Issus, which three hundred years afterwards was hung up by Vespasian in + the Temple of Peace at Rome. We must wonder at a woman choosing to paint + the horrors and pains of a battle-piece; but, as we are not told what + point of time was chosen, we may hope that it was after the battle, when + Alexander, in his tent, raised up from their knees the wife and lovely + daughter of Darius, who had been found among the prisoners. As for the + Egyptians, they showed no taste in painting. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/137.jpg" width="100%" + alt="137.jpg Method of Egyptian Draftsmanship " /> + </div> + <p> + Their method of drawing the human figure mathematically by means of + squares, which was not unsuitable in working a statue sixty feet high, + checked all flights of genius; and it afterwards destroyed Greek art, when + the Greek painters were idle enough to use it. We hear but little of the + statues and sculptures made for Philadelphus; but we cannot help remarking + that, while the public places of Athens were filled with the statues of + the great and good men who had deserved well of their country, the statues + which were most common in Alexandria were those of Cline, a favourite + damsel, who filled the office of cup-bearer to the king of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + The favour shown to the Jews by Ptolemy Soter was not withdrawn by his + son. He even bought from his own soldiers and freed from slavery one + hundred and twenty thousand men of that nation, who were scattered over + Egypt. He paid for each, out of the royal treasury, one hundred and twenty + drachmas, or about fifteen dollars, to those of his subjects who held them + either by right of war or by purchase. In fixing the amount of the ransom, + the king would seem to have been guided by his Jewish advisers, as this is + exactly equal to thirty shekels, the sum fixed by the Jewish law as the + price of a slave. The Jews who lived in Lower Egypt, in the enjoyment of + civil and religious liberty, looked upon that country as their home. They + had already a Greek translation of either the whole or some part of their + sacred writings, which had been made for those whose families had been for + so many generations in Egypt that they could not read the language of + their forefathers. But they now hoped, by means of the king’s friendship + and the weight which his wishes must carry with them, to have a Greek + translation of the Bible which should bear the stamp of official + authority. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, to please them, Philadelphus sent Aris-taaus, a man whose + wisdom had gained his friendship, and Andrseus, a captain of the guard, + both of them Greek Jews, with costly gifts to Eleazer, the high priest of + Jerusalem; and asked him to employ learned and fit men to make a Greek + translation of the Bible for the library at Alexandria. Eleazer, so runs + the tradition, named seventy elders to undertake the task, who held their + first sitting on the business at the king’s dinner-table; when Menedemus, + the Socratic philosopher, the pupil of Plato, was also present, who had + been sent to Philadelphus as ambassador from Eubcea. The translators then + divided the work among themselves; and when each had finished his task it + wras laid before a meeting of the seventy, and then published by + authority. Thus was said to have been made the Greek translation of the + Old Testament, which, from the number of the translators, we now call the + Septuagint; but a doubt is thrown upon the whole story by the fables which + have been mingled with it to give authority to the translation. By this + translation the Bible became known for the first time to the Greek + philosophers. We do not indeed hear that they immediately read it or + noticed it, we do not find it quoted till after the spread of + Christianity; but it had a silent effect on their opinions, which we trace + in the new school of Platonists soon afterwards rising in Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + When Aratus of Sicyon first laid a plot to free his country from its + tyrant, who reigned by the help of the King of Macedonia, he sent to + Philadelphus to beg for money. He naturally looked to the King of Egypt + for help when entering upon a struggle against their common rival; but the + king seems to have thought the plans of this young man too wild to be + countenanced. Aratus, however, soon raised Sicyon to a level with the + first states of Greece, and made himself leader of the Achaian league, + under which band and name the Greeks were then struggling for freedom + against Macedonia; and when, by his courage and success, he had shown + himself worthy of the proud name which was afterwards given him, of the + “Last of the Greeks,” Philadelphus, like other patrons, gave him the help + which he less needed. Aratus, as we have seen, bought his friendship with + pictures, the gifts of all others the most welcome; and, when he went to + Egypt, Philadelphus gave him one hundred and fifty talents, or forty-five + thousand dollars, and joined the Achaian league, on the agreement that in + carrying on the war by sea and land they should obey the orders from + Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:46%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/141.jpg" + alt="141.jpg Coin With the Heads of Soter and Philadelphus And Arsinoë " /> + </div> + <p> + The friendship of Philadelphus, indeed, was courted by all the + neighbouring states; the little island of Delos set up its statue to him; + and the cities of Greece vied with one another in doing him honour. The + Athenians named one of the tribes of their city and also one of their + public lecture-rooms by his name; and two hundred years afterwards, when + Cicero and his friend Atticus were learning wisdom and eloquence from the + lips of Antiochus in Athens, it was in the gymnasium of Ptolemy. + </p> + <p> + Philadelphus, when young, had married Arsinoë, the daughter of Lysimachus + of Thrace, by whom he had three children, Ptolemy, who succeeded him, + Lysimachus, and Berenicê; but, having found that his wife was intriguing + with Amyntas, and with his physician Chrysippus of Rhodes, he put these + two to death and banished the Queen Arsinoë to Koptos in the Thebaid. + </p> + <p> + He then took Arsinoë, his own sister, as the partner of his throne. She + had married first the old Lysimachus, King of Thrace, and then Ceraunus, + her half-brother, when he was King of Macedonia. As they were not children + of the same mother, this second marriage was neither illegal nor improper + in Macedonia; but her third marriage with Philadelphus could only be + justified by the laws of Egypt, their adopted country. They were both past + the middle age, and whether Philadelphus looked upon her as his wife or + not, at any rate they had no children. Her own children by Lysimachus had + been put to death by Ceraunus, and she readily adopted those of her + brother with all the kindness of a mother. She was a woman of an enlarged + mind; her husband and her stepchildren alike valued her; and Eratosthenes + showed his opinion of her learning and strong sense by giving the name of + Arsinoë to one of his works, which perhaps a modern writer would have + named Table-talk. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:36%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/142.jpg" + alt="142.jpg Coin With the Heads of Soter, Philadelphus And Berenice " /> + </div> + <p> + This seeming marriage, however, between brother and sister did not escape + blame with the Greeks of Alexandria. The poet Sotades, whose verses were + as licentious as his life, wrote some coarse lines against the queen, for + which he was forced to fly from Egypt, and, being overtaken at sea, he was + wrapped up in lead and thrown overboard. + </p> + <p> + In the Egyptian inscriptions Ptolemy and Arsinoë are always called the + brother-gods; on the coins they are called Adelphi, the brothers; and + afterwards the king took the name of Philadelphus, or sister-loving, by + which he is now usually known. In the first half of his reign Philadelphus + dated his coins from the year that his father came to the throne; and it + was not till the nineteenth year of his reign, soon after the death of his + mother, that he made an era of his own, and dated his coins by the year of + his own reign. The wealth of the country is well shown by the great size + of those most in use, which were, in gold the tetra-stater or piece of + eight drachms, and in silver the tetra-drachma, or piece of four drachms, + while Greece had hardly seen a piece of gold larger than the single + stater. In Alexandrian accounts also the unit of money was the silver + didrachm, and thus double that in use among the merchants of Greece. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:46%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/143.jpg" + alt="143.jpg Coin of ArsinoË, Sister Of Ptolemy Ii. " /> + </div> + <p> + Among the coins is one with the heads of Soter and Philadelphus on the one + side, and the head of Berenicê, the wife of the one and mother of the + other, on the other side. This we may suppose to have been struck during + the first two years of his reign, in the lifetime of his father. Another + bears on one side the heads of Ptolemy Soter and Berenicê, with the title + of “the gods,” and on the other side the heads of Philadelphus and his + wife Arsinoë, with the title of “the brothers.” This was struck after the + death of his parents. A third was struck by the king in honour of his + queen and sister. On the one side is the head of the queen, and on the + other is the name of “Arsinoë, the brother-loving,” with the cornucopia, + or horn of Amalthea, an emblem borrowed by the queens of Egypt from the + goddess Amalthea, the wife of the Libyan Anion. This was struck after his + second marriage. + </p> + <p> + On the death of Arsinoë, Philadelphus built a tomb for her in Alexandria, + called the Arsinoëum, and set up in it an obelisk eighty cubits high, + which had been made by King Nectanebo, but had been left plain, without + carving. + </p> + <p> + Satyrus, the architect, had the charge of moving it. He dug a canal to it + as it lay upon the ground, and moved two heavily laden barges under it. + The burdens were then taken out of the barges, and as they floated higher + they raised the obelisk off the ground. He then found it a task as great + or greater to set it up in its place; and this Greek engineer must surely + have looked back with wonder on the labour and knowledge of mechanics + which must have been used in setting up the obelisks, colossal statues, + and pyramids, which he saw scattered over the country. This obelisk now + ornaments the cathedral of the Popes on the Vatican hill at Rome. Satyrus + wrote a treatise on precious stones, and he also carved on them with great + skill; but his works are known only in the following lines, which were + written by Diodorus on his portrait of Arsinoë cut in crystal: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + E’en Zeuxis had been proud to trace + The lines within this pebble seen; + Satyrus here hath carved the face + Of fair Arsinoë, Egypt’s queen; + But such her beauty, sweetness, grace, + The copy falls far short, I ween. +</pre> + <p> + Two beautiful cameos cut on sardonyx are extant, one with the heads of + Philadelphus and his first wife, Arsinoe, and the other with the heads of + the same king and his second wife, Arsinoë. It is not impossible that one + or both of them may be the work of Satyrus. + </p> + <p> + Philadelphus is also said to have listened to the whimsical proposal of + Dinochares, the architect, to build a room of loadstone in Arsinoë’s tomb, + so that an iron statue of the queen should hang in the air between the + floor and the roof. But the death of the king and of the architect took + place before this was tried. He set up there, however, her statue six feet + high, carved out of a most remarkable block of topaz, which had been + presented to his mother by Philemon, the prefect of the Troglodytic coast + in the last reign. + </p> + <p> + Philadelphus lived in peace with Ergamenes, King of Meroë or Upper + Ethiopia, who, while seeking for a knowledge of philosophy and the arts of + life from his Greek neighbours, seems also to have gained a love of + despotism, and a dislike of that control with which the priests of + Ethiopia and Egypt had always limited the power of their kings. The King + of Meroë had hitherto reigned like Amenôthes or Thutmosis of old, as the + head of the priesthood, supported and controlled by the priestly + aristocracy by which he was surrounded. But he longed for the absolute + power of Philadelphus. Accordingly he surrounded the golden temple with a + chosen body of troops, and put the whole of the priests to death; and from + that time he governed Ethiopia as an autocrat. But, with the loss of their + liberties, the Ethiopians lost the wish to guard the throne; by grasping + at more power, their sovereign lost what he already possessed; and in the + next reign their country was conquered by Egypt. + </p> + <p> + The wars between Philadelphus and his great neighbour, Antiochus Theos, + seem not to have been carried on very actively, though they did not wholly + cease till Philadelphus offered as a bribe his daughter Berenicê, with a + large sum of money under the name of a dower. Antiochus was already + married to Laodice, whom he loved dearly, and by whom he had two children, + Seleucus and Antiochus; but political ambition had deadened the feelings + of his heart, and he agreed to declare this first marriage void and his + two sons illegitimate, and that his children, if any should be born to him + by Berenicê, should inherit the throne of Babylon and the East. + Philadelphus, with an equal want of feeling, and disregarding the + consequences of such a marriage, led his daughter to Pelusium on her + journey to her betrothed husband, and sent with her so large a sum of gold + and silver that he was nicknamed the “dower-giver.” + </p> + <p> + The peace between the two countries lasted as long as Philadelphus lived, + and was strengthened by kindnesses which each did to the other. Ptolemy, + when in Syria, was much struck by the beauty of a statue of Diana, and + begged it of Antiochus as an ornament for Alexandria. But as soon as the + statue reached Egypt, Arsinoë fell dangerously ill, and she dreamed that + the goddess came by night, and told her that the illness was sent to her + for the wrong done to the statue by her husband; and accordingly it was + sent back with many gifts to the temple from which it had been brought. + </p> + <p> + While Berenicê and her husband lived at Antioch, Philadelphus kindly sent + there from time to time water from the sacred Nile for her use, as the + Egyptians believed that none other was so wholesome. Antiochus, when ill, + sent to Alexandria for a physician; and Cleombrotus of Cos accordingly + went, by command of Ptolemy, to Syria. He was successful in curing the + king, and on his return he received from Philadelphus a present of one + hundred talents, or seventy-five thousand dollars, as a fee for his + journey. + </p> + <p> + Philadelphus was a weak frame of body, and had delicate health; and, + though a lover of learning beyond other kings of his time, he also + surpassed them in his unmeasured luxury and love of pleasure. He had many + mistresses, Egyptian as well as Greek, and the names of some of them have + been handed down to us. He often boasted that he had found out the way to + live for ever; but, like other free-livers, he was sometimes, by the gout + in his feet, made to acknowledge that he was only a man, and indeed to + wish that he could change places with the beggar whom he saw from his + palace windows, eating the garbage on the banks of the Nile with an + appetite which he had long wanted. It was during illness that he found + most time for reading, and his mind most open to the truths of philosophy; + and he chiefly wooed the Muses when ill health left him at leisure from + his other courtships. He had a fleet of eight hundred state barges with + gilt prows and poops and scarlet awnings upon the decks, which were used + in the royal processions and religious shows, and which usually lay in + dock at Schedia, on the Canopic River, five and twenty miles from + Alexandria. He was no doubt in part withheld from war by this luxurious + love of ease; but his reign taught the world the new lesson, that an + ambitious monarch may gratify his wish for praise and gain the admiration + of surrounding nations, as much by cultivating the blessed arts of peace + as by plunging his people into the miseries of war. + </p> + <p> + He reigned over Egypt, with the neighbouring parts of Arabia; also over + Libya, Phoenicia, Cole-Syria, part of Ethiopia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Lycia, + Caria, Cyprus, and the isles of the Cyclades. The island of Rhodes and + many of the cities of Greece were bound to him by the closest ties of + friendship, for past help and for the hope of future. The wealthy cities + of Tyre and Sidon did homage to him, as before to his father, by putting + his crowned head upon their coins. The forces of Egypt reached the very + large number of two hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse, two + thousand chariots, four hundred Ethiopian elephants, fifteen hundred ships + of war and one thousand transports. Of this large force, it is not likely + that even one-fourth should have been Greeks; the rest must have been + Egyptians and Syrians, with some Gauls. The body of chariots, though still + forming part of the force furnished for military service by the Theban + tenants of the crown, was of no use against modern science; and the other + Egyptian troops, though now chiefly armed and disciplined like Greeks, + were very much below the Macedonian phalanx in real strength. The galleys + also, though no doubt under the guidance and skill of Greeks and + Phoenicians, were in part manned by Egyptians, whose inland habits wholly + unfitted them for the sea, and whose religious prejudices made them feel + the conscription for the navy as a heavy grievance. + </p> + <p> + These large forces were maintained by a yearly income equally large, of + fourteen thousand eight hundred talents, or twelve million two hundred and + fifty thousand dollars, beside the tax on grain, which was taken in kind, + of a million and a half of artabas, or about five millions of bushels. To + this we may add a mass of gold, silver, and other valuable stores in the + treasury, which were boastfully reckoned at the unheard-of sum of seven + hundred and forty thousand talents, or above five hundred million dollars. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/149.jpg" width="100%" alt="149.jpg a Typical Nile Pilot " /> + </div> + <p> + The trade down the Nile was larger than it had ever been before; the + coasting trade on the Mediterranean was new; the people were rich and + happy; justice was administered to the Egyptians according to their own + laws, and to the Greeks of Alexandria according to the Macedonian laws: + the navy commanded the whole of the eastern half of the Mediterranean; the + schools and library had risen to a great height upon the wise plans of + Ptolemy Soter; in every point of view Alexandria was the chief city in the + world. Athens had no poets or other writers during this century equal in + merit to those who ennobled the museum. Philadelphus, by joining to the + greatness and good government of his father the costly splendour and pomp + of an eastern monarch, so drew the eyes of after ages upon his reign that + his name passed into a proverb: if any work of art was remarkable for its + good taste or costliness, it was called Philadelphian; even history and + chronology were set at nought, and we sometimes find poets of a century + later counted among the Pleiades of Alexandria in the reign of + Philadelphus. It is true that many of these advantages were forced in the + hotbed of royal patronage; that the navy was built in the harbours of + Phoenicia and Asia Minor; and that the men of letters who then drew upon + themselves the eyes of the world were only Greek settlers, whose writings + could have done little to raise the character of the native Kopts. But the + Ptolemies, in raising this building of their own, were not at the same + time crushing another. Their splendid monarchy had not been built on the + ruins of freedom; and even if the Greek settlers in the Delta had formed + themselves into a free state, we can hardly believe that the Egyptians + would have been so well treated as they were by this military despotism. + From the temples which were built or enlarged in Upper Egypt, and from the + beauty of the hieroglyphical inscriptions, we find that even the native + arts were more flourishing than they had ever been since the fall of the + kings of Thebes; and we may almost look upon the Greek conquest as a + blessing to Upper Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Philadelphus, though weak in body, was well suited by his keen-sightedness + and intelligence for the tasks which the state of affairs at that time + demanded from an Egyptian king. He was a diplomat rather than a warrior, + and that was exactly what Egypt needed. + </p> + <p> + A curious anecdote about Ptolemy Philadelphus is related by Niebuhr. He + had reached the zenith of his glory, when suddenly he was attacked by a + species of insanity, consisting of an indescribable fear of death. + Chemical artifices were practised in Egypt from the earliest times; and + hence Ptolemy took every imaginable pains to find the elixir of life; but + it was all in vain, for his strength was rapidly decreasing. Once, like + Louis XI., he was looking from a window of his palace upon the seacoast, + and seriously meditated upon the subject of his longing; it must have been + in winter-time, when the sand, exposed to the rays of the sun, becomes + very warm. He saw some poor boys burying themselves in the warm sand and + screaming with delight, and the aged king began bitterly to cry, seeing + the ragged urchins enjoying their life without any apprehension of losing + it; for he felt that with all his riches he could not purchase that + happiness, and that his end was very near at hand. He died in the + thirty-eighth year of his reign, and perhaps the sixty-first of his age. + He left the kingdom as powerful and more wealthy than when it came to him + from his father; and he had the happiness of having a son who would carry + on, even for the third generation, the wise plans of the first Ptolemy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/153.jpg" width="100%" alt="153.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0002" id="linkB2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV—PTOLEMY EUERGETES, PTOLEMY PHILOPATOR, AND PTOLEMY + </h2> + <p> + EPIPHANES. + </p> + <p> + <i>The struggle for Syria—Decline of the dynasty—Advent of + Roman control.</i> + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy, the eldest son of Philadelphus, succeeded his father on the + throne of Egypt, and after a short time was accorded the name of + Euergetes. The new reign was clouded by dark occurrences, which again + involved Egypt and Syria in war. It has been already related that when + peace was concluded between Antiochus and Philadelphus, the latter gave to + the former his daughter Berenicê in marriage, stipulating that the + offspring of that union should succeed to the Syrian throne, though + Antiochus had, by his wife Laodice, a son, already arrived at the age of + manhood. The repudiated queen murdered her husband, and placed Seleucus on + the vacant throne; who, in order to remove all competition on the part of + Berenicê and her child, made no scruple to deprive them both of life. + Euergetes could not behold such proceedings unmoved. Advancing into Syria + at the head of a powerful army, he took possession of the greater part of + the country, which seems not to have been defended, the majority of the + cities opening their gates at his approach. The important town of Seleucia + Pieria, the seaport of the capital, fell into his hands, in the + neighbourhood of which he was still further gratified with the + apprehension of the cruel Laodice, at whose instigation his sister and + nephew lost their lives. The punishment of this unprincipled woman seems, + however, to have completely satiated his resentment; for, instead of + securing his conquests in Syria, and achieving the entire humiliation of + Seleucus, he led his army on a plundering expedition into the remote + provinces of Asia, whence, on the news of domestic troubles, he returned + to the shores of Africa in triumph, laden with an immense booty, + comprising among other objects all the statues of the Egyptian deities + which had been carried off by Cambyses to Persia or Babylon. These he + restored to their respective temples, an act by which he earned the + greatest popularity among his native Egyptian subjects, who bestowed upon + him, in consequence, the title of Euergetes (Benefactor), by which he is + generally known. He brought back also from this expedition a vast number + of other works of art, for the museums were a passion with the Ptolemies. + The Asiatics might, indeed, have got over these things, but he levied, in + addition, immense contributions from the Asiatics, and is said to have + raised over forty thousand talents. On his march homeward, he laid his + gifts upon the altar in the Temple of Jerusalem, and there returned thanks + to Heaven for his victories. He had been taught to bow the knee to the + crowds of Greek and Egyptian gods; and, as Palestine was part of his + kingdom, it seemed quite natural to add the God of the Jews to the list. + </p> + <p> + Of the insurrection in Egypt, which obliged him to return, we know no + particulars, but Euergetes seems to have become convinced that Egypt was + too small a basis for such an empire. “If he had wished to retain all his + conquests” relates the chronicler, “he would have been obliged to make + Antioch his residence, and this would weaken the ground of his strength. + He, moreover, appears to have been well aware that the conquests had been + made too quickly.” He accordingly divided them, retaining for himself + Syria as far as Euphrates, and the coast districts of Asia Minor and + Thrace, so that he had a complete maritime empire. The remaining + territories he divided into two states: the country beyond the Euphrates + was given, according to St. Jerome, to one Xantippus, who is otherwise + unknown, and Western Asia was left to Antiochus Hierax. It would seem that + after this he never visited those countries again. + </p> + <p> + One of the notable incidents of the war against Syria was an offer of help + to Egypt from the Romans. From the middle of the reign of Philadelphus + till the fifth year of this reign, for twenty-two years, the Romans had + been struggling with the Carthaginians for their very being, in the first + Punic war, which they had just brought to a close, and on hearing of + Ptolemy’s war in Syria, they sent to Egypt with friendly offers of help. + But their ambassadors did not reach Alexandria before peace was made, and + they were sent home with many thanks. The event serves to show the trend + of the aspirations of this now important nation, which was afterwards + destined to engulf the kingdoms of Egypt and Syria alike. + </p> + <p> + After Euergetes had, as he thought, established his authority in Asia, a + party hostile to him came forward to oppose him. The Rhodians, with their + wise policy, who had hitherto given no decided support to either empire, + now stepped forward, setting to other maritime cities the example of + joining that hostile party. The confederates formed a fleet, with the + assistance of which, and supported by a general insurrection of the + Asiatics, who were exasperated against the Egyptians on account of their + rapacity, Seleucus Callinicus rallied again. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/157.jpg" width="100%" alt="157.jpg an Abyssinian Slave " /> + </div> + <p> + He recovered the whole of upper Asia, and for a time he was united with + his brother, Antiochus Hierax. The insurrection in Egypt must have been of + a very serious nature, and Ptolemy, being pressed on all sides, concluded + a truce of ten years with Seleucus on basis of <i>uti possidetis</i>. Both + parties seem to have retained the places which they possessed at the time, + so that all the disadvantage was on the side of the Seleucidæ, for the + fortified town of Seleucia, for example, remained in the hands of the + Egyptians, whereby the capital was placed in a dangerous position. A part + of Cilicia, the whole of Caria, the Ionian cities, the Thracian + Chersonesus, and several Macedonian towns likewise continued to belong to + Egypt. Soon after his re-appearance in Egypt, Euergetes was solicited by + Cleomenes, the King of Sparta, to grant the assistance of his arms in the + struggle which that republic was then supporting with Antigonus, the ruler + of Macedon, and with the members of the Achaian league. But the battle of + Sellasia proved that the aid offered was inadequate. Cleomenes fled to the + banks of the Nile, where he found his august ally reposing under the + successful banners of a numerous army, which he had just led home from the + savage mountains of Ethiopia, whither his love of romantic conquest had + conducted them. He appears to have penetrated into the interior provinces + of Abyssinia, and to have subdued the rude tribes which dwelt on the + shores of the Red Sea, levying on the unfortunate natives the most + oppressive contributions in cattle, gold, perfumes, and other articles + belonging to that valuable merchandise which the Ethiopians and Arabs had + long carried on with their Egyptian neighbours. At Adule, the principal + seaport of Abyssinia, he collected his victorious troops, and made them a + speech on the wonderful exploits which they had achieved under his + auspices, and on the numerous benefits which they had thereby secured to + their native country. The throne on which he sat, composed of white marble + and supported by a slab of porphyry, was consecrated to the god of war, + whom he chose to claim for his father and patron, and that the descendants + of the vanquished Ethiopians might not be ignorant of their obligations to + Ptolemy Euergetes, King of Egypt, he gave orders that his name and + principal triumphs should be inscribed on the votive chair. But not + content with his real conquests, which reached from the Hellespont to the + Euphrates, he added, like Ramsesr that he had conquered Thrace, Persia, + Media, and Bactria. He thus teaches us that monumental inscriptions, + though read with difficulty, do not always tell the truth. This was the + most southerly spot to which the kings of Egypt ever sent an army. But + they kept no hold on the country. Distance had placed it not only beyond + their power, but almost beyond their knowledge; and two hundred years + afterwards, when the geographer Strabo was making inquiries about that + part of Arabia, as it was called, he was told of this monument as set up + by the hero Sesostris, to whom it was usual to give the credit of so many + wonderful works. These inscriptions, it is worthy of remark, are still + preserved, and constitute the only historical account that has reached + these times of the Ethiopian warfare of this Egyptian monarch. About seven + hundred years after the reign of Euergetes, they were first published in + the <i>Topography</i> of Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Grecian monk, by whom + they were copied on the spot. The traveller Bruce, moreover, informs us + that the stone containing the name of Ptolemy Euergetes serves as a + footstool to the throne on which the kings of Abyssinia are crowned to + this day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/160b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="160b.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments from the Fifth Tomb " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:29%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/161.jpg" alt="161.jpg Gate at Karnak " /> + </div> + <p> + Amid the ruins of Ascum, also, the ancient capital of that country, + various fragments of marble have been found bearing the name and title of + the same Egyptian sovereign. This empty fame, however, is the only return + that ever recompensed the toils of Euergetes among the fierce barbarians + of the south. + </p> + <p> + Euergetes, as part of his general policy of conciliating the Egyptians, + enlarged the great temple at Thebes, which is now called the temple of + Karnak, on the walls of which we see him handing an offering to his father + and mother, the brother-gods. In one place he is in a Greek dress, which + is not common on the Ptolemaic buildings, as most of the Greek kings are + carved upon the walls in the dress of the country. The early kings had + often shown their piety to a temple by enlarging the sacred area and + adding a new wall and gateway in front of the former; and this custom + Euergetes followed at Karnak. As these grand stone sculptured gateways + belonged to a wall of unbaked bricks which has long since crumbled to + pieces, they now stand apart like so many triumphal arches. He also added + to the temple at Hibe in the Great Oasis, and began a small temple at + Esne, or Latopolis, where he is drawn upon the walls in the act of + striking down the chiefs of the conquered nations, and is followed by a + tame lion. + </p> + <p> + He built a temple to Osiris at Canopus, on the mouth of the Nile; for, + notwithstanding the large number of Greeks and strangers who had settled + there, the ancient religion was not yet driven out of the Delta; and he + dedicated it to the god in a Greek inscription on a plate of gold, in the + names of himself and Berenicê, whom he called his wife and sister. She is + also called the king’s sister in many of the hieroglyphical inscriptions, + as are many of the other queens of the Ptolemies who were not so related + to their husbands. This custom, though it took its rise in the Egyptian + mythology, must have been strengthened by the marriages of Philadelphus + and some of his successors with their sisters. In the hieroglyphical + inscriptions he is usually called “beloved by Phtah,” the god of Memphis, + an addition to his name which was used by most of his successors. + </p> + <p> + During this century the Greek artists in Egypt, as indeed elsewhere, + adopted in their style an affectation of antiquity, which, unless seen + through, would make us think their statues older than they really are. + They sometimes set a stiff beard upon a face without expression, or + arranged the hair of the head in an old-fashioned manner, and, while + making the drapery fly out in a direction opposed to that of the figure, + gave to it formal zigzag lines, which could only be proper if it were + hanging down in quiet. At other times, while they gave to the human figure + all the truth to which their art had then reached, they yet gave to the + drapery these stiff zigzag forms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/163.jpg" width="100%" alt="163.jpg Ruins of Sais " /> + </div> + <p> + No habit of mind would have been more improving to the Alexandrian + character than a respect for antiquity; but this respect ought to be shown + in a noble rivalry, in trying to surpass those who have gone before them, + and not as in this manner by copying their faults. Hieroglyphics seem to + have flourished in their more ancient style and forms under the generous + patronage of the Ptolemies. In the time of the Egyptian kings of Lower + Egypt, we find new grammatical endings to the nouns, and more letters used + to spell each word than under the kings of Thebes; but, on comparing the + hieroglyphics of the Ptolemies with the others, we find that in these and + some other points they are more like the older writings, under the kings + of Thebes, than the newer, under the kings of Saïs. + </p> + <p> + But, while the Egyptians were flattered, and no doubt raised in moral + worth, by their monarch’s taking up the religious feelings of the country, + and throwing aside some of the Greek habits of his father and grandfather, + Euergetes was sowing the seeds of a greater change than he could himself + have been aware of. It was by Greek arms and arts of war that Egypt then + held its place among nations, and we shall see in the coming reigns that, + while the court became more Asiatic and less European, the army and + government did not retain their former characteristics. + </p> + <p> + Since Coele-Syria and Judæa were by the first Ptolemy made a province of + Egypt, the Jews had lived in unbroken tranquillity, and with very little + loss of freedom. The kings of Egypt had allowed them to govern themselves, + to live under their own laws, and choose their own high priest; but they + required of them the payment to Alexandria of a yearly tribute. Part of + this was the sacred poll-tax of half a shekel, or about sixteen cents for + every male above the age of twenty, which by the Mosaic law they had + previously paid for the service of the Temple. This is called in the + Gospels the Didrachms; though the Alexandrian translators of the Bible, + altering the sum, either through mistake or on purpose, have made it in + the Greek Pentateuch only half a didrachm, or about eight cents. This + yearly tribute from the Temple the high priest of Jerusalem had been + usually allowed to collect and farm; but in the latter end of this reign, + the high priest Onias, a weak and covetous old man, refused to send to + Alexandria the twenty talents, or fifteen thousand dollars, at which it + was then valued. When Euergetes sent Athenion as ambassador to claim it, + and even threatened to send a body of troops to fetch it, still the + tribute was not paid; notwithstanding the fright of the Jews, the priest + would not part with his money. On this, Joseph, the nephew of Onias, set + out for Egypt, to try and turn away the king’s anger. He went to Memphis, + and met Euergetes riding in his chariot with the queen and Athenion, the + ambassador. The king, when he knew him, begged him to get into the chariot + and sit with him; and Joseph made himself so agreeable that he was lodged + in the palace at Memphis, and dined every day at the royal table. While he + was at Memphis, the revenues of the provinces for the coming year were put + up to auction; and the farmers bid eight thousand talents, or six million + dollars, for the taxes of Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Samaria. Joseph then + bid double that sum, and, when he was asked what security he could give, + he playfully said that he was sure that Euergetes and the queen would + willingly become bound for his honesty; and the king was so much pleased + with him that the office was at once given to him, and he held it for + twenty-two years. + </p> + <p> + Among the men of letters who at this time taught in the Alexandrian + schools was Aristophanes, the grammarian, who afterwards held the office + of head of the museum. At one of the public sittings at which the king was + to hear the poems and other writings of the pupils read, and, by the help + of seven men of letters who sat with him as judges, was to give away + honours and rewards to the best authors, one of the chairs was empty, one + of the judges happened not to be there. The king asked who should be + called up to fill his place; and, after thinking over the matter, the six + judges fixed upon Aristophanes, who had made himself known to them by + being seen daily studying in the public library. When the reading was + over, the king, the public, and the six other judges were agreed upon + which was the best piece of writing; but Aristophanes was bold enough to + think otherwise, and he was able, by means of his great reading, to find + the book in the library from which the pupil had copied the greater part + of his work. The king was much struck with this proof of his learning, and + soon afterwards made him keeper of the library which he had already so + well used. Aristophanes followed Zenodotus in his critical efforts to mend + the text of Homer’s poems. He also invented the several marks by which + grammarians now distinguish the length and tone of a syllable and the + breathing of a vowel, that is, the marks for long and short, and the + accents and aspirate. The last two, after his time, were always placed + over Greek words, and are still used in printed books. + </p> + <p> + Eratosthenes of Cyrene, the inventor of astronomical geography, was at + this time the head of the mathematical school. He has the credit for being + the first to calculate the circumference of the earth by means of his + Theory of Shadows. As a poet he wrote a description of the constellations. + He also wrote a history of Egypt, to correct the errors of Manetho. What + most strikes us with wonder and regret is, that of these two writers, + Manetho, an Egyptian priest who wrote in Greek, Eratosthenes, a Greek who + understood something of Egyptian, neither of them took the trouble to lay + open to their readers the peculiarities of the hieroglyphics. Through all + these reigns, the titles and praises of the Ptolemies were carved upon the + temples in the sacred characters. These two histories were translated from + the same inscriptions. We even now read the names of the kings which they + mention carved on the statues and temples; and yet the language of the + hieroglyphics still remained unknown beyond the class of priests; such was + the want of curiosity on the part of the Greek grammarians of Alexandria. + Such, we may add, was their want of respect for the philosophy of the + Egyptians; and we need no stronger proof that the philosophers of the + museum had hitherto borrowed none of the doctrines of the priests. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/169.jpg" width="100%" + alt="169.jpg Gateway of Ptolemy Euergetes at Karnak " /> + </div> + <p> + Lycon of Troas was another settler in Alexandria. He followed Strato at + the head of one of the schools in the museum. He was very successful in + bringing up the young men, who needed, he used to say, modesty and the + love of praise, as a horse needs bridle and spur. His eloquence was so + pleasing that he was wittily called Glycon, or the sweet. Carneades of + Cyrene at the same time held a high place among philosophers; but as he + had removed to Athens, where he was at the head of a school, and was even + sent to Rome as the ambassador of the Athenians, we must not claim the + whole honour of him for the Ptolemies under whom he was born. It is + therefore enough to say of him that, though a follower of Plato, he made + such changes in the opinions of the Academy, by not wholly throwing off + the evidence of the senses, that his school was called the New Academy. + </p> + <p> + Apollonius, who was born at Alexandria, but is commonly called Apollonius + Rhodius because he passed many years of his life at Rhodes, had been, like + Eratosthenes, a hearer of Callimachus. His only work which we now know is + his <i>Argonautics</i>, a poem on the voyage of Jason to Colchis in search + of the golden fleece. It is a regular epic poem, in imitation of Homer; + and, like other imitations, it wants the interest which hangs upon reality + of manners and story in the Iliad. + </p> + <p> + Callimachus showed his dislike of his young rival by hurling against him a + reproachful poem, in which he speaks of him under the name of an Ibis. + This is now lost, but it was copied by Ovid in his poem of the same name; + and from the Roman we can gather something of the dark and learned style + in which Callimachus threw out his biting reproaches. We do not know from + what this quarrel arose, but it seems to have been the cause of Apollonius + leaving Alexandria. He removed to Rhodes, where he taught in the schools + during all the reign of Philopator, till he was recalled by Epiphanes, and + made librarian of the museum in his old age, on the death of Eratosthenes. + </p> + <p> + Lycophron, the tragic writer, lived about this time at Alexandria, and was + one of the seven men of letters sometimes called the Alexandrian Pleiades, + though writers are not agreed upon the names which fill up the list. His + tragedies are all lost, and the only work of his which we now have is the + dark and muddy poem of Alcandra, or Cassandra, of which the lines most + striking to the historian are those in which the prophetess foretells the + coming greatness of Rome; that the children of Æneas will raise the crown + upon their spears, and seize the sceptres of sea and land. Lycophron was + the friend of Menedemus and Aratus; and it is not easy to believe that + these lines were written before the overthrow of Hannibal in Italy, and of + the Greek phalanx at Cynocéphale, or that one who was a man in the reign + of Philadelphus should have foreseen the triumph of the Roman arms. These + words must have been a later addition to the poem, to improve the + prophecy. + </p> + <p> + Conon, one of the greatest of the Alexandrian astronomers, has left no + writings for us to judge of his merits, though they were thought highly + of, and made great use of, by his successors. He worked both as an + observer and an inquirer, mapping out the heavens by his observations, and + collecting the accounts of the eclipses which had been before observed in + Egypt. He was the friend of Archimedes of Syracuse, to whom he sent his + problems, and from whom he received that great geometrician’s writings in + return. + </p> + <p> + Apollonius of Perga came to Alexandria in this reign, to study mathematics + under the pupils of Euclid. He is well known for his work on conic + sections, and he may be called the founder of this study. The Greek + mathematicians sought after knowledge for its own sake, and followed up + those branches of their studies which led to no end that could in the + narrow sense be called useful, with the same zeal that they did other + branches out of which sprung the great practical truths of mechanics, + astronomy, and geography. They found reward enough in the enlargement of + their minds and in the beauty of the truth learnt. Alexandrian science + gained in loftiness of tone what its poetry and philosophy wanted. Thus + the properties of the ellipse, the hyperbola, and the parabola, continued + to be studied by after mathematicians; but no use was made of this + knowledge till nearly two thousand years later, when Kepler crowned the + labours of Apollonius with the great discovery that the paths of the + planets round the sun were conic sections. The Egyptians, however, made + great use of mathematical knowledge, particularly in the irrigation of + their fields; and Archimedes of Syracuse, who came to Alexandria about + this time to study under Conon, did the country a real service by his + invention of the cochlea, or screw-pump. The more distant fields of the + valley of the Nile, rising above the level of the inundation, have to be + watered artificially by pumping out of the canals into ditches at a higher + level. For this work Archimedes proposed a spiral tube, twisting round an + axis, which was to be put in motion either by the hand or by the force of + the stream out of which it was to pump; and this was found so convenient + that it soon became the machine most in use throughout Egypt for + irrigation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:48%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/175.jpg" alt="175.jpg Coin of Ptolemy III. " /> + </div> + <p> + But while we are dazzled by the brilliancy of these clusters of men of + letters and science who graced the court of Alexandria, we must not shut + our eyes to those faults which are always found in works called forth + rather by the fostering warmth of royal pensions than by a love of + knowledge in the people. The well-fed and well-paid philosophers of the + museum were not likely to overtake the mighty men of Athens in its best + days, who had studied and taught without any pension from the government, + without taking any fee from their pupils; who were urged forward towards + excellence by the love of knowledge and of honour; who had no other aim + than that of being useful to their hearers, and looked for no reward + beyond their love and esteem. + </p> + <p> + In oratory Alexandria made no attempts whatever; it is a branch of + literature not likely to flourish under a despotic monarchy. In Athens it + fell with the loss of liberty, and Demetrius Phalereus was the last of the + real Athenian orators. After his time the orations were declamations + written carefully in the study, and coldly spoken in the school for the + instruction of the pupils, and wholly wanting in fire and genius; and the + Alexandrian men of letters forbore to copy Greece in its lifeless + harangues. For the same reasons the Alexandrians were not successful in + history. A species of writing, which a despot requires to be false and + flattering, is little likely to flourish; and hence the only historians of + the museum were chronologists, antiquaries, and writers of travels. The + coins of Euergetes bear the name of “Ptolemy the king,” round the head on + the one side, with no title by which they can be known from the other + kings of the same name. + </p> + <p> + But his portrait is known from his Phoenician coins. In the same way the + coins of his queen have only the name of “Berenicê the queen,” but they + are known from those of the later queens by the beauty of the workmanship, + which soon fell far below that of the first Ptolemies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:48%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/176.jpg" + alt="176.jpg Coin of Berenice, Wife Of Ptolemy III. " /> + </div> + <p> + Euergetes had married his cousin Berenicê, who like the other queens of + Egypt is sometimes called Cleopatra; by her he left two sons, Ptolemy and + Magas, to the eldest of whom he left his kingdom, after a reign of + twenty-five years of unclouded prosperity. Egypt was during this reign at + the very height of its power and wealth. It had seen three kings, who, + though not equally great men, not equally fit to found a monarchy or to + raise the literature of a people, were equally successful in the parts + which they had undertaken. Euergetes left to his son a kingdom perhaps as + large as the world had ever seen under one sceptre; and though many of his + boasted victories were like letters written in the sand, of which the + traces were soon lost, yet he was by far the greatest, and possibly the + wisest, monarch of his day. + </p> + <p> + We may be sure that in these prosperous reigns life and property were + safe, and justice was administered fairly by judges who were independent + of the crown; as even centuries afterwards we find that it was part of a + judge’s oath on taking office, that, if he were ordered by the king to do + what was wrong, he would not obey him. But here the bright pages in the + history of the Ptolemies end. + </p> + <p> + Though trade and agriculture still enriched the country, though arts and + letters did not quit Alexandria, we have from this time forward to mark + the growth only of vice and luxury, and to measure the wisdom of Ptolemy + Soter by the length of time that his laws and institutions were able to + bear up against the misrule and folly of his descendants. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy, the eldest son of Euergetes, inherited the crown of his + forefathers, but none of the great qualities by which they had won and + guarded it. He was then about thirty-four years old. His first act was to + call together his council, and to ask their advice about putting to death + his mother Berenicê and his brother Magas. Their crime was the being too + much liked by the army; and the council was called upon to say whether it + would be safe to have them killed. Cleomenes, the banished King of Sparta, + who was one of the council, alone raised his voice against their murder, + and wisely said that the throne would be still safer if there were more + brothers to stand between the king and the daring hopes of a traitor. The + minister Sosibius, on the other hand, said that the mercenaries could not + be trusted while Magas was alive; but Cleomenes remarked to him, that more + than three thousand of them were Peloponnesians, and that they would + follow him sooner than they would follow Magas. + </p> + <p> + Berenicê and Magas were, however, put to death, but the speech of + Cleomenes was not forgotten. If his popularity with the mercenaries could + secure their allegiance, he could, when he chose, make them rebel; from + that time he was treated rather as a prisoner than as a friend, and by his + well-meaning but incautious observation he lost all chance of being helped + to regain his kingdom. Nothing is known of the death of Euergetes, the + late king, and there is no proof that it was by unfair means. But when his + son began a cruel and wicked reign by putting to death his mother and + brother, and by taking the name of Philopator, or father-loving, the world + seems to have thought that he was the murderer of his father, and had + taken this name to throw a cloak over the deed. By this murder of his + brother, and by the minority both of Antiochus, King of Syria, and of + Philip, King of Macedonia, Philopator found himself safe from enemies + either at home or abroad, and he gave himself up to a life of + thoughtlessness and pleasure. The army and fleet were left to go to ruin, + and the foreign provinces, which had hitherto been looked upon as the + bulwarks of Egypt, were only half-guarded; but the throne rested on the + virtues of his forefathers, and it was not till his death that it was + found to have been undermined by his own follies and vice. + </p> + <p> + Egypt had been governed by kings of more than usual wisdom for above one + hundred years, and was at the very height of its power when Philopator + came to the throne. He found himself master of Ethiopia, Cy-rene, + Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, part of Upper Syria, Cyprus, Rhodes, the cities + along the coast of Asia Minor from Pamphilia to Lysimachia, and the cities + of Ænos and Maronea in Thrace. The unwilling obedience of distant + provinces usually costs more than it is worth; but many of these + possessions across the Mediterranean had put themselves willingly into the + power of his predecessors for the sake of their protection, and they cost + little more than a message to warn off invaders. Egypt was the greatest + naval power in the world, having the command of the sea and the whole of + the coast at the eastern end of the Mediterranean. + </p> + <p> + On the death of Euergetes, the happiness of the people came to an end. The + first trouble arose from the loose and vicious habits of the new king, and + was an attempt made upon his life by Cleomenes, who found the palace in + Alexandria had now become a prison. The Spartan took advantage of the + king’s being at Canopus to escape from his guards, and to raise a riot in + Alexandria; but not being able to gain the citadel, and seeing that + disgrace and death must follow upon his failure, he stabbed himself with + his own dagger. + </p> + <p> + The kingdom of Syria, after being humbled by Ptolemy Euergetes, had risen + lately under the able rule of Antiochus, son of Seleucus Callinicus. He + was a man possessed of abilities of a high order. His energy and courage + soon recovered from Egypt the provinces that Syria had before lost, and + afterwards gained for him the name of Antiochus the Great. He made himself + master of the city of Damascus by a stratagem. Soon after this, Seleucia, + the capital, which had been taken by Euergetes, was retaken by Antiochus, + or rather given up to him by treachery. Theodotus also, the Alexandrian + governor of Coele-Syria, delivered up to him that province; and Antiochus + marched southward, and had taken Tyre and Ptolemaïs before the Egyptian + army could be brought into the field. There he gained forty ships of war, + of which twenty were decked vessels with four banks of oars, and the + others smaller. He then marched towards Egypt, and on his way learned that + Ptolemy was at Memphis. On his arrival at Pelusium he found that the place + was strongly guarded, and that the garrison had opened the flood-gates + from the neighbouring lake, and thereby spoiled the fresh water of all the + neighbourhood; he therefore did not lay siege to that city, but seized + many of the open towns on the east side of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + On this, Philopator roused himself from his idleness, and got together his + forces against the coming danger. His troops consisted of Greeks, + Egyptians, and mercenaries to the total of seventy-three thousand men and + seventy-three elephants, or one elephant to every thousand men, which was + the number usually allowed to the armies about this time. But before this + army reached Pelusium, Antiochus had led back his forces to winter in + Seleucia. The next spring Antiochus again marched towards Egypt with an + army of seventy-two thousand foot, six thousand horse, and one hundred and + two elephants. Philopator led his whole forces to the frontier to oppose + his march, and met the Syrian army near the village of Raphia, the border + town between Egypt and Palestine. Arsinoë, his queen and sister, rode with + him on horseback through the ranks, and called upon the soldiers to fight + for their wives and children. At first the Egyptians seemed in danger of + being beaten. As the armies approached one another, the Ethiopian + elephants trembled at the very smell of the Indian elephants, and shrunk + from engaging with beasts so much larger than themselves. On the charge, + the left wing of each army was routed, as was often the case among the + Greeks, when, from too great a trust in the shield, every soldier kept + moving to the right, and thus left the left wing uncovered. But before the + end of the day the invading army was defeated; and, though some of the + Egyptian officers treacherously left their posts, and carried their troops + over to Antiochus, yet the Syrian army was wholly routed, and Arsinoë + enjoyed the knowledge and the praise of having been the chief cause of her + husband’s success. The king in gratitude sacrificed to the gods the + unusual offering of four elephants. + </p> + <p> + By this victory Philopator regained Coele-Syria, and there he spent three + months; he then made a hasty, and, if we judge his reasons rightly, we + must add, a disgraceful treaty with the enemy, that he might the sooner + get back to his life of ease. Before going home he passed through + Jerusalem, where he gave thanks and sacrificed to the Hebrew god in the + temple of the Jews; and, being struck with the beauty of the building, + asked to be shown into the inner room, in which were kept the ark of the + covenant, Aaron’s rod that budded, and the golden pot of manna, with the + tables of the covenant. The priests told him of their law, by which every + stranger, every Jew, and every priest but the high priest, was forbidden + to pass beyond the second veil; but Philopator roughly answered that he + was not bound by the Jewish laws, and ordered them to lead him into the + holy of holies. + </p> + <p> + The city was thrown into alarm by this unheard-of wickedness; the streets + were filled with men and women in despair; the air was rent with shrieks + and cries, and the priests prayed to Javeh to guard his own temple from + the stain. The king’s mind, however, was not to be changed; the refusal of + the priests only strengthened his wish, and all struggle was useless while + the court of the temple was filled with Greek soldiers. But, says the + Jewish historian, the prayer of the priests was heard; the king fell to + the ground in a fit, like a reed broken by the wind, and was carried out + speechless by his friends and generals. + </p> + <p> + On his return to Egypt, he showed his hatred of the nation by his + treatment of the Jews in Alexandria. He made a law that they should lose + the rank of Macedonians, and be enrolled among the class of Egyptians. He + ordered them to have their bodies marked with pricks, in the form of an + ivy leaf, in honour of Bacchus; and those who refused to have this done + were outlawed, or forbidden to enter the courts of justice. The king + himself had an ivy leaf marked with pricks upon his forehead, from which + he received the nickname of Gallus. This custom of marking the body had + been forbidden in the Levitical law: it was not known among the Kopts, but + must always have been in use among the Lower Egyptians. It was used by the + Arab prisoners of Ramses, and is still practiced among the Egyptian Arabs + of the present day. + </p> + <p> + He also ordered the Jews to sacrifice on the pagan altars, and many of + them were sent up to Alexandria to be punished for rebelling against his + decree. Their resolution, however, or, as their historian asserts, a + miracle from heaven changed the king’s mind. They expected to be trampled + to death in the hippodrome by furious elephants; but after some delay they + were released unhurt. The history of their escape, however, is more + melancholy than the history of their danger. No sooner did the persecution + cease than they turned with Pharisaical cruelty against their weaker + brethren who had yielded to the storm; and they put to death three hundred + of their countrymen, who in the hour of danger had yielded to the threats + of punishment, and complied with the ceremonies required of them. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptians, who, when the Persians were conquered by Alexander, could + neither help nor hinder the Greek army, and who, when they formed part of + the troops under the first Ptolemy, were uncounted and unvalued, had by + this time been armed and disciplined like Greeks; and in the battle of + Raphia the Egyptian phalanx had shown itself not an unworthy rival of the + Macedonians. By this success in war, and by their hatred of their vicious + and cruel king, the Egyptians were now for the first time encouraged to + take arms against the Greek government. The Egyptian phalanx murmured + against their Greek officers, and claimed their right to be under an + Egyptian general. But history has told us nothing more of the rebellion + than that it was successfully put down. The Greeks were still the better + soldiers. The ships built by Philopator were more remarkable for their + unwieldy size, their luxurious and costly furniture, than for their + fitness for war. One was four hundred and twenty feet long and fifty-seven + feet wide, with forty banks of oars. The longest oars were fifty-seven + feet long, and weighted with lead at the handles that they might be the + more easily moved. This huge ship was to be rowed by four thousand rowers, + its sails were to be shifted by four hundred sailors, and three thousand + soldiers were to stand in ranks upon deck. There were seven beaks in + front, by which it was to strike and sink the ships of the enemy. The + royal barge, in which the king and court moved on the quiet waters of the + Nile, was nearly as large as this ship of war. It was three hundred and + thirty feet long, and forty-five feet wide; it was fitted up with + staterooms and private rooms, and was nearly sixty feet high to the top of + the royal awning. A third ship, which even surpassed these in its fittings + and ornaments, was given to Philopator by Hiero, King of Syracuse. It was + built under the care of Archimedes, and its timbers would have made sixty + triremes. Beside baths, and rooms for pleasures of all kinds, it had a + library, and astronomical instruments, not only for navigation, as in + modern ships, but for study, as in an observatory. It was a ship of war, + and had eight towers, from each of which stone’s were to be thrown at the + enemy by six men. Its machines, like modern cannons, could throw stones of + three hundred pounds weight, and arrows of eighteen feet in length. It had + four anchors of wood, and eight of iron. It was called the ship of + Syracuse, but after it had been given to Philopator it was known by the + name of the ship of Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + In the second year of Philopator’s reign the Romans began that long and + doubtful war with Hannibal, called the second Punic war, and in the + twelfth year of this reign they sent ambassadors to renew their treaty of + peace with Egypt. They sent as their gifts robes of purple for Philopator + and Arsinoë, and for Philopator a chair of ivory and gold, which was the + usual gift of the republic to friendly kings. The Alexandrians kept upon + good terms both with the Romans and the Carthaginians during the whole of + the Punic wars. + </p> + <p> + When the city of Rhodes, which had long been joined in close friendship + with Egypt, was shaken by an earthquake, that threw down the colossal + statue of Apollo, together with a large part of the city walls and docks, + Philopator was not behind the other friendly kings and states in his gifts + and help. He sent to his brave allies a large sum of money, with grain, + timber, and hemp. + </p> + <p> + On the birth of his son and heir, in B.C. 209, ambassadors crowded to + Alexandria with gifts and messages of joy. But they were all thrown into + the shade by Hyrcanus, the son of Joseph, who was sent from Jerusalem by + his father, and who brought to the king one hundred boys and one hundred + girls, each carrying a talent of silver. + </p> + <p> + Philopator, soon after the birth of this his only child, employed + Philammon, at the bidding of his mistress, to put to death his queen and + sister Arsinoë, or Eurydice, as she is sometimes called. He had already + forgotten his rank, and his name ennobled by the virtues of three + generations, and had given up his days and nights to vice and riot. He + kept in his pay several fools, or laughing-stocks as they were then + called, who were the chosen companions of his meals; and he was the first + who brought eunuchs into the court of Alexandria. His mistress Agathoclea, + her brother Agathocles, and their mother OEnanthe, held him bound by those + chains which clever, worthless, and selfish favourites throw around the + mind of a weak and debauched king. Agathocles, who never left his side, + was his adviser in matters of business or pleasure, and governed alike the + army, the courts of justice, and the women. Thus was spent a reign of + seventeen years, during which the king had never but once, when he met + Antiochus in battle, roused himself from his life of sloth. + </p> + <p> + The misconduct and vices of Agathocles raised such an outcry against him, + that Philopator, without giving up the pleasure of his favourite’s + company, was forced to take away from him the charge of receiving the + taxes. That high post was then given to Tlepolemus, a young man, whose + strength of body and warlike courage had made him the darling of the + soldiers. Another charge given to Tlepolemus was that of watching over the + supply and price of corn in Alexandria. The wisest statesmen of old + thought it part of a king’s duty to take care that the people were fed, + and seem never to have found out that it would be better done if the + people were left to take care of themselves. They thought it moreover a + piece of wise policy, or at any rate of clever kingcraft, to keep down the + price of food in the capital at the cost of the rest of the kingdom, and + even sometimes to give a monthly fixed measure of corn to each citizen. By + such means as these the crowd of poor and restless citizens, who swell the + mob of every capital, was larger in Alexandria than it otherwise would + have been; and the danger of riot, which it was meant to lessen, was every + year increased. + </p> + <p> + Sosibius had made himself more hated than Agathocles; he had been the + king’s ready tool in all his murders. He had been stained, or at least + reproached, with the murder of Lysimachus, the son of Philadelphus; then + of Magas, the son of Euergetes, and Berenicê, the widow of Euergetes; of + Cleomenes, the Spartan; and lastly, of Arsinoë, the wife of Philopator. + For these crimes Sosibius was forced by the soldiers to give up to + Tlepolemus the king’s ring, or what in modern language would be called the + great seal of the kingdom, the badge of office by which Egypt was + governed; but the world soon saw that a body of luxurious mercenaries were + as little able to choose a wise statesman as the king had been. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/187.jpg" width="100%" alt="187.jpg Temple of Hathor. " /> + </div> + <p> + With all his vices, Philopator had yet inherited the love of letters which + has thrown so bright a light around the whole of the family; and to his + other luxuries he sometimes added that of the society of the learned men + of the museum. When one of the professorships was empty he wrote to + Athens, and invited to Alexandria, Sphærus, who had been the pupil of + Zeno. One day when Sphærus was dining with the king, he said that a wise + man should never guess, but only say what he knows. Philopator, wishing to + tease him, ordered some waxen pomegranates to be handed to him, and when + Sphærus bit one of them he laughed at him for guessing that it was real + fruit. But the stoic answered that there are many cases in which our + actions must be guided by what seems probable. None of the works of + Sphærus have come down to us. Eratosthenes, of whom we have before spoken, + was librarian of the museum during this reign; and Ptolemy, the son of + Agesarchus, then wrote his history of Alexandria, a work now lost. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:46%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/188.jpg" + alt="188.jpg Coin of Ptolemy Philopater " /> + </div> + <p> + The want of moral feeling in Alexandria was poorly supplied by the respect + for talent. Philopator built there a shrine or temple to Homer, in which + he placed a sitting figure of the poet, and round it seven worshippers, + meant for the seven cities which claimed the honour of giving him birth. + Had Homer himself worshipped in such temples, and had his thoughts been + raised by no more lofty views, he would not have left us an Iliad or an + Odyssey. In Upper Egypt there was no such want of religious earnestness; + there the priests placed the name of Philopator upon a small temple near + Medinet-Habu, dedicated to Amon-Ra and the goddess Hâthor; his name is + also seen upon the temple at Karnak, and on the additions to the + sculptures on the temple of Thot at Pselcis in Ethiopia. + </p> + <p> + Some of this king’s coins bear the name of “Ptolemy Philopator,” while + those of the queen have her name, “Arsinoë Philopator,” around the head. + They are of a good style of art. He was also sometimes named Eupator; and + it was under that name that the people of Paphos set up a monument to him + in the temple of Venus. + </p> + <p> + The first three Ptolemies had been loved by their subjects and feared by + their enemies; but Philopator, though his power was still acknowledged + abroad, had by his vices and cruelty made himself hated at home, and had + undermined the foundations of the government. He began his reign like an + Eastern despot; instead of looking to his brother as a friend for help and + strength, he distrusted him as a rival, and had him put to death. He + employed the ministers of his vicious pleasures in the high offices of + government; and instead of philosophers and men of learning, he brought + eunuchs into the palace as the companions of his son. In B.C. 204 he died, + worn out with disease, in the seventeenth year of his reign and about the + fifty-first of his age; and very few lamented his decease. + </p> + <p> + On the death of Philopator his son was only five years old. The minister + Agathocles, who had ruled over the country with unbounded power, + endeavoured, by the help of his sister Agathoclea and the other mistresses + of the late king, to keep his death secret; so that while the women seized + the money and jewels of the palace, he might have time to take such steps + as would secure his own power over the kingdom. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:47%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/189.jpg" + alt="189.jpg Coin of Arsinoe Philopate " /> + </div> + <p> + But the secret could not be long kept, and Agathocles called together the + citizens of Alexandria to tell them of the death of Philopator, and to + show them their young king. + </p> + <p> + He went to the meeting, followed by his sister Agathoclea and the young + Ptolemy, afterwards called Epiphanes. He began his speech, “Ye men of + Macedonia,” as this mixed body of Greeks and Jews was always called. He + wiped his eyes in well-feigned grief, and showed them the new king, who + had been trusted, he said, by his father, to the motherly care of + Agathoclea and to their loyalty. He then accused Tlepolemus of aiming at + the throne, and brought forward a creature of his own to prove the truth + of the charge. But his voice was soon drowned in the loud murmurs of the + citizens; they had smarted too long under his tyranny, and were too well + acquainted with his falsehoods, to listen to anything that he could say + against his rival. Besides, Tlepolemus had the charge of supplying + Alexandria with corn, a duty which was more likely to gain friends than + the pandering to the vices of their hated tyrant. Agathocles soon saw that + his life was in danger, and he left the meeting and returned to the + palace, in doubt whether he should seek for safety in flight, or boldly + seize the power which he was craftily aiming at, and rid himself of his + enemies by their murder. + </p> + <p> + While he was wasting these precious minutes in doubt, the streets were + filled with groups of men, and of boys, who always formed a part of the + mobs of Alexandria. They sullenly but loudly gave vent to their hatred of + the minister; and if they had but found a leader they would have been in + rebellion. In a little while the crowd moved off to the tents of the + Macedonians, to learn their feelings on the matter, and then to the + quarters of the mercenaries, both of which were close to the palace, and + the mixed mob of armed and unarmed men soon told the fatal news, that the + soldiers were as angry as the citizens. But they were still without a + leader; they sent messengers to Tlepolemus, who was not in Alexandria, and + he promised that he would soon be there; but perhaps he no more knew what + to do than his guilty rival. + </p> + <p> + Agathocles, in his doubt, did nothing; he sat down to supper with his + friends, perhaps hoping that the storm might blow over of itself, perhaps + trusting to chance and to the strong walls of the palace. His mother, + OEnanthe, ran to the temple of Ceres and Proserpine, and sat down before + the altar in tears, believing that the sanctuary of the temple would be + her best safeguard; as if the laws of heaven, which had never bound her, + would bind her enemies. It was a festal day, and the women in the temple, + who knew nothing of the storm which had risen in the forum within these + few hours, came forward to comfort her; but she answered them with curses; + she knew that she was hated and would soon be despised, and she added the + savage prayer, that they might have to eat their own children. The riot + did not lessen at sunset. Men, women, and boys were moving through the + streets all night with torches. The crowds were greatest in the stadium + and in the theatre of Bacchus, but most noisy in front of the palace. + Agathocles was awakened by the noise, and in his fright ran to the bedroom + of the young Ptolemy; and, distrusting the palace walls, hid himself, with + his own family, the king, and two or three guards, in the underground + passage which led from the palace to the theatre. + </p> + <p> + The night, however, passed off without any violence; but at daybreak the + murmurs became louder, and the thousands in the palace yard called for the + young king. By that time the Greek soldiers joined the mob, and then the + guards within were no longer to be feared. The gates were soon burst open, + and the palace searched. The mob rushed through the halls and lobbies, + and, learning where the king had fled, hastened to the underground + passage. It was guarded by three doors of iron grating; but, when the + first was beaten in, Aristomenes was sent out to offer terms of surrender. + Agathocles was willing to give up the young king, his misused power, his + ill-gotten wealth and estates; he asked only for his life. But this was + sternly refused, and a shout was raised to kill the messenger; and + Aristomenes, the best of the ministers, whose only fault was the being a + friend of Agathocles, and the having named his little daughter Agathoclea, + would certainly have been killed upon the spot if somebody had not + reminded them that they wanted to send back an answer. + </p> + <p> + Agathocles, seeing that he could hold out no longer, then gave up the + little king, who was set upon a horse, and led away to the stadium amid + the shouts of the crowd. There they seated him on the throne, and, while + he was crying at being surrounded by strange faces, the mob loudly called + for revenge on the guilty ministers. Sosibius, the somatophylax, the son + of the former general of that name, seeing no other way of stopping the + fury of the mob and the child’s sobs, asked him if the enemies of his + mother and of his throne should be given up to the people. The child of + course answered “yes,” without understanding what was meant; and on that + they let Sosibius take him to his own house to be out of the uproar. + Agathocles was soon led out bound, and was stabbed by those who two days + before would have felt honoured by a look from him. Agathoclea and her + sister were then brought out, and lastly OEnanthe, their mother was + dragged away from the altar of Ceres and Proserpine. Some bit them, some + struck them with sticks, some tore their eyes out; her body was torn to + pieces, and her limbs scattered among the crowd; to such lengths of + madness and angry cruelty was the Alexandrian mob sometimes driven. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile some of the women called to mind that Philammon, who had + been employed in the murder of Arsinoë, had within those three days come + to Alexandria, and they made a rush at his house. The doors quickly gave + way before their blows, and he was killed upon the spot by clubs and + stones; his little son was strangled by these raging mothers, and his wife + dragged naked into the street, and there torn to pieces. Thus died + Agathocles and all his family; and the care of the young king then fell to + Sosibius, and to Aristomenes, who had already gained a high character for + wisdom and firmness. + </p> + <p> + While Egypt was thus without a government, Philip of Macedonia and + Antiochus of Syria agreed to divide the foreign provinces between them; + and Antiochus marched against Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. The guardians of + the young Ptolemy sent against him an army under Scopas, the Ætolian, who + was at first successful, but was afterwards beaten by Antiochus at Paneas + in the valley of the Jordan, three and twenty miles above the Lake of + Tiberias, and driven back into Egypt. In these battles the Jews, who had + not forgotten the ill treatment that they had received from Philopator, + joined Antiochus, after having been under the government of Egypt for + exactly one hundred years; and in return Antiochus released Jerusalem from + all taxes for three years, and afterwards from one-third of the taxes. He + also sent a large sum of money for the service of the temple, and released + the elders, priests, scribes, and singing men from all taxes for the + future. + </p> + <p> + The Alexandrian statesmen had latterly shown themselves in their foreign + policy very unworthy pupils of Ptolemy Soter and Philadelphus, who had + both ably trimmed the balance of power between the several successors of + Alexander. But even had they been wiser, they could hardly, before the end + of the second Punic war, have foreseen that the Romans would soon be their + most dangerous enemies. The overthrow of Hannibal, however, might perhaps + have opened their eyes; but it was then too late; Egypt was too weak to + form an alliance with Macedonia or Syria against the Romans. About this + time, also, the Romans sent to Alexandria, to inform the king that they + had conquered Hannibal, and brought to a close the second Punic war, and + to thank him for the friendship of the Egyptians during that long and + doubtful struggle of eighteen years, when so many of their nearer + neighbours had joined the enemy. They begged that if the senate felt + called upon to undertake a war against Philip, who, though no friend to + the Egyptians, had not yet taken arms against them, it might cause no + breach in the friendship between the King of Egypt and the Romans. In + answer to this embassy, the Alexandrians, rushing to their own + destruction, sent to Rome a message, which was meant to place the kingdom + wholly in the hands of the senate. It was to beg them to undertake the + guardianship of the young Ptolemy, and the defence of the kingdom against + Philip and Antiochus during his childhood. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, in return, gave the wished-for answer; they sent ambassadors + to Antiochus and Philip, to order them to make no attack upon Egypt, on + pain of falling under the displeasure of the senate; and they sent Marcus + Lepidus to Alexandria, to accept the offered prize, and to govern the + foreign affairs of the kingdom, under the modest name of tutor to the + young king. This high honour was afterwards mentioned by Lepidus, with + pride, upon the coins struck when he was consul, in the eighteenth year of + this reign. They have the city of Alexandria on the one side, and on the + other the title of “Tutor to the king,” with the figure of the Roman in + his toga, putting the diadem on the head of the young Ptolemy. + </p> + <p> + The haughty orders of the senate at first had very little weight with the + two kings. Antiochus conquered Phoenicia and Coele-Syria; and he was then + met by a second message from the senate, who no longer spoke in the name + of their ward, the young King of Egypt, but ordered him to give up to the + Roman people the states which he had seized, and which belonged, they + said, to the Romans by the right of war. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0031" id="linkBimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/196.jpg" + alt="196.jpg Roman Coin, Issued Under Ptolemy V. " /> + </div> + <p> + On this, Antiochus made peace with Egypt by a treaty, in which he + betrothed his daughter Cleopatra to the young Ptolemy, and added the + disputed provinces of Phoenicia and Ccele-Syria as a dower, which were to + be given up to Egypt when the king was old enough to be married. + </p> + <p> + Philip marched against Athens and the other states of Greece which had + heretofore held themselves independent and in alliance with Egypt; and, + when the Athenian embassy came to Alexandria to beg for the usual help, + Ptolemy’s ministers felt themselves so much in the power of the senate + that they sent to Rome to ask whether they should help their old friends, + the Athenians, against Philip, the common enemy, or whether they should + leave it to the Romans to help them. And these haughty republicans, who + wished all their allies to forget the use of arms, who valued their + friends not for their strength but for their obedience, sent them word + that the senate did not wish them to help the Athenians, and that the + Roman people would take care of their own allies. The Alexandrians looked + upon the proud but unlettered Romans only as friends, as allies, who asked + for no pay, who took no reward, who fought only for ambition and for the + glory of their country. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this, the battle of Cynocephake in Thessaly was fought between + Philip and the Romans, in which the Romans lost only seven hundred men, + while as many as eight thousand Macedonians were left dead upon the field. + This battle, though only between Rome and Macedonia, must not be passed + unnoticed in the history of Egypt, where the troops were armed and + disciplined like Macedonians; as it was the first time that the world had + seen the Macedonian phalanx routed and in flight before any troops not so + armed. + </p> + <p> + The phalanx was a body of spearsmen, in such close array that each man + filled a space of only one square yard. The spear was seven yards long, + and, when held in both hands, its point was five yards in front of the + soldier’s breast. There were sixteen ranks of these men, and, when the + first five ranks lowered their spears, the point of the fifth spear was + one yard in front of the foremost rank. The Romans, on the other hand, + fought in open ranks, with one yard between each, or each man filled a + space of four square yards, and in a charge would have to meet ten + Macedonian spears. But then the Roman soldiers went into battle with much + higher feelings than those of the Greeks. In Rome, arms were trusted only + to the citizens, to those who had a country to love, a home to guard, and + who had some share in making the laws which they were called upon to obey. + But the Greek armies of Macedonia, Egypt, and Syria were made up either of + natives who bowed their necks in slavery, or of mercenaries who made war + their trade and rioted in its lawlessness; both of whom felt that they had + little to gain from victory, and nothing to lose by a change of masters. + Moreover, the warlike skill of the Romans was far greater than any that + had yet been brought against the Greeks. It had lately been improved in + their wars with Hannibal, the great master of that science. They saw that + the phalanx could use its whole strength only on a plain; that a wood, a + bog, a hill, or a river were difficulties which this close body of men + could not always overcome. A charge or a retreat equally lessened its + force; the phalanx was meant to stand the charge of others. The Romans, + therefore, chose their own time and their own ground; they loosened their + ranks and widened their front, avoided the charge, and attacked the Greeks + at the side and in the rear; and the fatal discovery was at last made that + the Macedonian phalanx was not unconquerable, and that closed ranks were + only strong against barbarians. This news must have been heard by every + statesman of Egypt and the East with alarm; the ‘Romans were now their + equals, and were soon to be their masters. + </p> + <p> + But to return to Egypt. It was, as we have seen, a country governed by men + of a foreign race. Neither the poor who tilled the land, nor the rich who + owned the estates, had any share in the government. They had no public + duty except to pay taxes to their Greek masters, who walked among them as + superior beings, marked out for fitness to rule by greater skill in the + arts both of war and peace. The Greeks by their arms, or rather by their + military discipline, had enforced obedience for one hundred and fifty + years; and as they had at the same time checked lawless violence, made + life and property safe, and left industry to enjoy a large share of its + own earnings, this obedience had been for the most part granted to them + willingly. They had even trusted the Egyptians with arms. But none are + able to command unless they are at the same time able to obey. The + Alexandrians were now almost in rebellion against their young king and his + ministers; and the Greek government no longer gave the usual advantages in + return for the obedience which it tyrannically enforced. Confusion + increased each year during the childhood of the fifth Ptolemy, to whom + Alexandrian flattery gave the title of Epiphanes, or The Illustrious. The + Egyptian phalanx had in the last reign shown signs of disobedience, and at + length it broke out in open rebellion. The discontented party strengthened + themselves in the Busirite nome, in the middle of the Delta, and fortified + the city of Lycopolis against the government; and a large supply of arms + and warlike stores which they there got together proved the length of time + that they had been preparing for resistance. The royal troops laid siege + to the city in due form; they surrounded it with mounds and ditches; they + dammed up the bed of the river on each side of it, and, being helped by a + rise in the Nile, which was that year greater than usual, they forced the + rebels to surrender, on the king’s promise that they should be spared. But + Ptolemy was not bound by promises; he was as false and cruel as he was + weak; the rebels were punished; and many of the troubles in his reign + arose from his discontented subjects not being able to rely upon his word. + </p> + <p> + The rich island of Cyprus also, which had been left by Philopator under + the command of Polyerates, showed some signs of wishing to throw off the + Egyptian yoke. But Polyerates was true to his trust; and, though the + king’s ministers were almost too weak either to help the faithful or + punish the treacherous, he not only saved the island for the minor, but, + when he gave up his government to Ptolemy of Megalopolis, he brought to + the royal treasury at Alexandria a large sum from the revenues of his + province. By this faithful conduct he gained great weight in the + Alexandrian councils, till, corrupted by the poisonous habits of the + place, he gave way to luxury and vice. + </p> + <p> + About the same time Scopas, who had lately led back to Alexandria his + Ætolian mercenaries, so far showed signs of discontent and disobedience + that the minister, Aristomenes, began to suspect him of planning + resistance to the government. Scopas was greedy of money; nothing would + satisfy his avarice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/201.jpg" width="100%" + alt="201.jpg the Rosetta Stone (british Museum) " /> + </div> + <p> + The other Greek generals of his rank received while in the Egyptian + service a mina, or ten dollars a day, under the name of mess-money, beyond + the usual military pay; and Scopas claimed and received for his services + the large sum of ten minas, or one hundred and twenty-five dollars, a day + for mess-money. But even this did not content him. Aristomenes observed + that he was collecting his friends for some secret purpose, and in + frequent consultation with them. He therefore summoned him to the king’s + presence, and, being prepared for his refusal, he sent a large force to + fetch him. Fearing that the mercenaries might support their general, + Aristomenes had even ordered out the elephants and prepared for battle. + But, as the blow came upon Scopas unexpectedly, no resistance was made, + and he was brought prisoner to the palace. Aristomenes, however, did not + immediately venture to punish him, but wisely summoned the Ætolian + ambassadors and the chiefs of the mercenaries to his trial, and, as they + made no objection, he then had him poisoned in prison. + </p> + <p> + No sooner was this rebellion crushed than the council took into + consideration the propriety of declaring the king’s minority at an end, as + the best means of re-establishing the royal authority; and they thereupon + determined shortly to celebrate his Anacleteria, or the grand ceremony of + exhibiting him to the people as their monarch, though he wanted some years + of the legal age; and accordingly, in the ninth year of his reign, the + young king was crowned with great pomp at Memphis, the ancient capital of + the kingdom. + </p> + <p> + On this occasion he came to Memphis by barge, in grand state, where he was + met by the priests of Upper and Lower Egypt, and crowned in the temple of + Phtah with the double crown, called Pschent, the crown of the two + provinces. After the ceremony, the priests made the Decree in honour of + the king, which is carved on the stone known by the name of the Rosetta + Stone, in the British Museum. Ptolemy is there styled King of Upper and + Lower Egypt, son of the gods Philopatores, approved by Phtah, to whom Ra + has given victory, a living image of Amon, son of Ra, Ptolemy immortal, + beloved by Phtah, god Epiphanes most gracious. In the date of the decree + we are told the names of the priests of Alexander, of the gods Soteres, of + the gods Adelphi, of the gods Euergetae, of the gods Philopatores, of the + god Epiphanes himself, of Berenicê Euergetis, of Arsinoë Philadelphus, and + of Arsinoë Philopator. The preamble mentions with gratitude the services + of the king, or rather of his wise minister, Aristomenes; and the + enactment orders that the statue of the king shall be worshipped in every + temple of Egypt, and be carried out in the processions with those of the + gods of the country; and lastly, that the decree is to be carved at the + foot of every statue of the king, in sacred, in common, and in Greek + writing. It is to this stone, with its three kinds of letters, and to the + skill and industry of Dr. Thomas Young, and of the French scholar, + Champollion, that we now owe our knowledge of hieroglyphics. The Greeks of + Alexandria, and after them the Romans, who might have learned how to read + this kind of writing if they had wished, seem never to have taken the + trouble: it fell into disuse on the rise of Christianity in Egypt; and it + was left for an Englishman to unravel the hidden meaning after it had been + forgotten for nearly thirteen centuries. + </p> + <p> + The preamble of this decree tells us also that during the minority of the + king the taxes were lessened; the crown debtors were forgiven; those who + were found in prison charged with crimes against the state were released; + the allowance from government for upholding the splendour of the temples + was continued, as was the rent from land belonging to the priests; the + first-fruits, or rather the coronation money, a tax paid by the priests to + the king on the year of his coming to the throne, which was by custom + allowed to be less than what the law ordered, was not increased; the + priests were relieved from the heavy burden of making a yearly voyage to + do homage at Alexandria; there was a stop put to the impressing men for + the navy, which had been felt as a great cruelty by an inland people, + whose habits and religion alike made them hate the sea, and this was a + boon which was the more easily granted, as the navy of Alexandria, which + was built in foreign dockyards and steered by foreign pilots, had very + much fallen off in the reign of Philopator. The duties on linen cloth, + which was the chief manufacture of the kingdom, and, after grain, the + chief article exported, were lessened; the priests, who manufactured linen + for the king’s own use, probably for the clothing of the army, and the + sails for the navy, were not called upon for so large a part of what they + made as before; and the royalties on the other linen manufactories and the + duties on the samples or patterns, both of which seem to have been unpaid + for the whole of the eight years of the minority, were wisely forgiven. + All the temples of Egypt, and that of Apis at Memphis in particular, were + enriched by his gifts; in which pious actions, in grateful remembrance of + their former benefactor, and with a marked slight to Philopator, they said + that he was following the wishes of his grandfather, the god Euergetes. + From this decree we gain some little insight into the means by which the + taxes were raised under the Ptolemies; and we also learn that they were so + new and foreign that they had no Egyptian word by which they could speak + of them, and therefore borrowed the Greek word <i>syntaxes</i>. + </p> + <p> + History gives us many examples of kings who, like Epiphanes, gained great + praise for the mildness and weakness of the government during their + minorities. Aristomenes, the minister, who had governed Egypt for + Epiphanes, fully deserved that trust. While the young king looked up to + him as a father, the country was well governed, and his orders obeyed; + but, as he grew older, his good feelings were weakened by the pleasures + which usually beset youth and royalty. The companions of his vices gained + that power over his mind which Aristomenes lost, and it was not long + before this wise tutor and counsellor was got rid of. The king, weary + perhaps with last night’s debauchery, had one day fallen asleep when he + should have been listening to the speech of a foreign ambassador. + Aristomenes gently shook him and awoke him. His flatterers, when alone + with him, urged him to take this as an affront. If, said they, it was + right to blame the king for falling asleep when worn out with business and + the cares of state, it should have been done in private, and not in the + face of the whole court. So Aristomenes was put to death by being ordered + to drink poison. Epiphanes then lost that love of his people which the + wisdom of the minister had gained for him; and he governed the kingdom + with the cruelty of a tyrant, rather than with the legal power of a king. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/207.jpg" width="100%" alt="207.jpg Outside Rosetta " /> + </div> + <p> + Even Aristonicus, his favourite eunuch, who was of the same age as + himself, and had been brought up as his playfellow, passed him in the + manly virtues of his age, and earned the praise of the country for setting + him a good example, and checking him in his career of vice. + </p> + <p> + In the thirteenth year of his reign (B.C. 192), when the young king + reached the age of eighteen, Antiochus the Great sent his daughter + Cleopatra into Egypt, and the marriage, which had been agreed upon six + years before, was then carried into effect; and the provinces of + Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Judæa, which had been promised as a dower, + were, in form at least, handed over to the generals of Epiphanes. + Cleopatra was a woman of strong mind and enlarged understanding; and + Antiochus hoped that, by means of the power which she would have over the + weaker mind of Epiphanes, he should gain more than he lost by giving up + Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. But she acted the part of a wife and a queen, + and, instead of betraying her husband into the hands of her father, she + was throughout the reign his wisest and best counsellor. + </p> + <p> + Antiochus seems never to have given up his hold upon the provinces which + had been promised as the dower; and the peace between the two countries, + which had been kept during the six years after Cleopatra had been + betrothed, was broken as soon as she was married. The war was still going + on between Antiochus and the Romans; and Epiphanes soon sent to Rome a + thousand pounds weight of gold and twenty thousand pounds of silver, to + help the republic against their common enemy. But the Romans neither hired + mercenaries nor fought as such, the thirst for gold had not yet become the + strongest feeling in the senate, and they sent back the money to + Alexandria with many thanks. + </p> + <p> + In the twentieth year of his reign Epiphanes was troubled by a second + serious rebellion of the Egyptians. Polycrates marched against them at the + head of the Greek troops; and, as he brought with him a superior force, + and the king’s promise of a free pardon to all who should return to their + obedience, the rebels yielded to necessity and laid down their arms. The + leaders of the rebellion, Athinis, Pausiras, Chesuphus, and Irobashtus, + whose Koptic names prove that this was a struggle on the part of the + Egyptians to throw off the Greek yoke, were brought before the king at + Saïs. Epiphanes, in whose youthful heart were joined the cruelty and + cowardice of a tyrant, who had not even shown himself to the army during + the danger, was now eager to act the conqueror; and in spite of the + promises of safety on which these brave Kopts had laid down their arms, he + had them tied to his chariot wheels, and copying the vices of men whose + virtues he could not even understand, like Achilles and Alexander, he + dragged them living round the city walls, and then ordered them to be put + to death. He then led the army to Naucratis, which was the port of Saïs, + and there he embarked on the Nile for Alexandria, and taking with him a + further body of mercenaries, which Aristonicus had just brought from + Greece, he entered the city in triumph. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy of Megalopolis, the new governor of Cyprus, copied his + predecessor, Polycrates, in his wise and careful management. His chief aim + was to keep the province quiet, and his next to collect the taxes. He was + at first distrusted by the Alexandrian council for the large sum of money + which he had got together and kept within his own power; but when he sent + it all home to the empty treasury, they were as much pleased as they were + surprised. + </p> + <p> + Apollonius, whom we have spoken of in the reign of Euergetes, and who had + been teaching at Rhodes during the reign of Philopator, was recalled to + Alexandria in the beginning of this reign, and made librarian of the + museum on the death of Eratosthenes. But he did not long enjoy that + honour. He was already old, and shortly afterwards died at the age of + ninety. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/210.jpg" width="100%" + alt="210.jpg a Desert Road Between Egypt and Syria. " /> + </div> + <p> + The coins of this king are known by the glory or rays of sun which + surround his head, and which agrees with his name, Epiphanes, illustrious, + or as it is written in the hieroglyphics, “light bearing.” On the other + side is the cornucopia between two stars, with the name of “King Ptolemy.” + No temples, and few additions to temples, seem to have been built in Upper + Egypt during this reign, which began and ended in rebellion. We find, + however, a Greek inscription at Philas, of “King Ptolemy and Queen + Cleopatra, gods Epiphanes, and Ptolemy their son, to Asclepius,” a god + whom the Egyptians called Imothph the son of Pthah. + </p> + <p> + Cyprus and Cyrene were nearly all that were left to Egypt of its foreign + provinces. The cities of Greece, which had of their own wish put + themselves under Egypt for help against their nearer neighbours, now + looked to Rome for that help; part of Asia Minor was under Seleu-cus, the + son of Antiochus the Great; Cole-Syria and Phoenicia, which had been given + up to Epiphanes, had been again soon lost; and the Jews, who in all former + wars had sided with the Kings of Egypt, as being not only the stronger but + the milder rulers, now joined Seleucus. The ease with which the + wide-spreading provinces of this once mighty empire fell off from their + allegiance, showed how the whole had been upheld by the warlike skill of + its kings, rather than by a deep-rooted hold in the habits of the people. + Instead of wondering that the handful of Greeks in Alexandria, on whom the + power rested, lost those wide provinces, we should rather wonder that they + were ever able to hold them. + </p> + <p> + After the death of Antiochus the Great, Ptolemy again proposed to enforce + his rights over Ccele-Syria, which he had given up only in the weakness of + his minority; and he is said to have been asked by one of his generals, + how he should be able to pay for the large forces which he’ was getting + together for that purpose; and he playfully answered, that his treasure + was in the number of his friends. But his joke was taken in earnest; they + were afraid of new taxes and fresh levies on their estates; and means were + easily taken to poison him. He died in the twenty-ninth year of his age, + after a reign of twenty-four years; leaving the navy unmanned, the army in + disobedience, the treasury empty, and the whole framework of government + out of order. + </p> + <p> + Just before his death he had sent to the Achaians to offer to send ten + galleys to join their fleet; and Polybius, the historian, to whom we owe + so much of our knowledge of these reigns, although he had not yet reached + the age called for by the Greek law, was sent by the Achaians as one of + the ambassadors, with his father, to return thanks; but before they had + quitted their own country they were stopped by the news of the death of + Epiphanes. + </p> + <p> + Those who took away the life of the king seem to have had no thoughts of + mending the form of government, nor any plan by which they might lessen + the power of his successor. It was only one of those outbreaks of private + vengeance which have often happened in unmixed monarchies, where men are + taught that the only way to check the king’s tyranny is by his murder; and + the little notice that was taken of it by the people proves their want of + public virtue as well as of political wisdom. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/212.jpg" width="100%" alt="212.jpg Tailpiece " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2HCH0001" id="linkC2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> <a name="linkCimage-0004" + id="linkCimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/213.jpg" width="100%" alt="213.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V—PTOLEMY PHILOMETOR AND PTOLEMY EUERGETES II. + </h2> + <p> + <i>The Syrian Invasion: The Jews and the Bible: Relations with Rome: + Literature of the Age.</i> + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of the last reign the Alexandrians had sadly felt the + want of a natural guardian to the young king, and they were now glad to + copy the customs of the conquered Egyptians. Epiphanes had left behind him + two sons, each named Ptolemy, and a daughter named Cleopatra; and the + elder son, though still a child, mounted the throne under the able + guardianship of his mother, Cleopatra, and took the very suitable name of + Philometor, or <i>mother-loving</i>. The mother governed the kingdom for + seven years as regent during the minority of her son. “When Philometor + reached his fourteenth year, the age at which his minority ceased, his + coronation was celebrated with great pomp. Ambassadors from several + foreign states were sent to Egypt to wish the king joy, to do honour to + the day, and to renew the treaties of peace with him: Caius Valerius and + four others were sent from Rome; Apollonius, the son of Mnestheus, was + sent from Judæa; and we may regret with Polybius that he himself was not + able to form part of the embassy then sent from the Achaians, that he + might have seen the costly and curious ceremony, and given us an account + of it. + </p> + <p> + While Cleopatra lived, she had been able to keep her son at peace with her + brother, Antiochus Epiphanes, but upon her death, Leneus and the eunuch + Eulaius, who then had the care of the young king, sought to reconquer + Coele-Syria; and they embroiled the country in a war, at a time when + weakness and decay might have been seen in every part of the army and + navy, and when there was the greatest need of peace. Coele-Syria and + Phoenicia had been given to Ptolemy Epiphanes as his wife’s dower; but, + when Philometor seemed too weak to grasp them, Antiochus denied that his + father had ever made such a treaty, and got ready to march against Egypt, + as the easiest way to guard Coele-Syria. + </p> + <p> + By this time the statesmen of Egypt ought to have learned the mistake in + their foreign policy. By widening their frontier they always weakened it. + They should have fortified the passes between the Red Sea and the + Mediterranean, not cities in Asia. When Antiochus entered Egypt he was met + at Pelusium by the army of Philometor, which he at once routed in a + pitched battle. The whole of Egypt was then in his power; he marched upon + Memphis with a small force, and seized it without having to strike a blow, + helped perhaps by the plea that he was acting on behalf of his nephew, + Ptolemy Philometor, who then fell into his hands. + </p> + <p> + On this, the younger Ptolemy, the brother of Philometor, who was with his + sister Cleopatra in Alexandria, and was about fifteen years old, declared + himself king, and sent ambassadors to Rome to ask for help against + Antiochus; and taking the name of the most popular of his forefathers, he + called himself Euergetes. He is, however, better known in history as + Ptolemy Physcon, or <i>bloated</i>, a nickname which was afterwards given + to him when he had grown fat and unwieldy from the diseases of luxury. + </p> + <p> + Comanus and Cineas were the chief advisers of the young Euergetes; and in + their alarm they proposed to send the foreign ambassadors to meet the + invader on his march from Memphis, and to plead for peace. This task the + ambassadors kindly undertook. There were then in Alexandria two embassies + from the Achaians, one to renew the treaty of peace, and one to settle the + terms of the coming wrestling match. There were there three embassies from + Athens, one with gifts from the city, one about the Panathenaic games, and + one about the celebration of the mysteries. There was also an embassy from + Miletus, and one from Clazomenæ. On the day of their arrival at Memphis, + Antiochus feasted these numerous ambassadors in grand state, and on the + next day gave them an audience. But their arguments for peace carried no + weight with him; and he denied that his father, Antiochus the Great, had + ever given Coele-Syria as a dower with his daughter Cleopatra to + Epiphanes. To gain time he promised the ambassadors that he would give + them an answer as soon as his own ambassadors returned from Alexandria; + and in the meanwhile he carried his army down the Nile to Naucratis, and + thence marched to the capital to begin the siege. + </p> + <p> + Antiochus, however, was defeated in his first assault upon Alexandria, and + finding that he should not soon be able to bring the siege to an end, he + sent off an embassy to Rome with a hundred and fifty talents of gold, + fifty as a present to the senate, and the rest to be divided among the + states of Greece, whose help he might need. At the same time, also, an + embassy from the Rhodians arrived in the port of Alexandria, to attempt to + restore peace to the country of their old allies. Antiochus received the + Rhodian ambassadors in his tent, but would not listen to the long speech + with which they threatened him, and shortly told them that he came as the + friend of his elder nephew, the young Philometor, and if the Alexandrians + wished for peace they should open the gates to their rightful king. + Antiochus was, however, defeated in all his assaults on the city, and he + at last withdrew his army and returned to Syria. He left Euergetes, King + of the Greeks, at Alexandria, and Philometor at Memphis, King of the rest + of Egypt. But he kept Pelusium, where he placed a strong garrison that he + might be able easily to re-enter Egypt whenever he chose. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy Macron, the Alexandrian governor of Cyprus, added to the troubles + of the country by giving up his island to Antiochus. But he met with the + usual fate of traitors, he was badly rewarded; and when he complained of + his treatment, he was called a traitor by the very men who had gained by + his treachery, and he poisoned himself in the bitterness of his grief. + Antiochus, like most invaders, carried off whatever treasure fell into his + hands. Egypt was a sponge which had not lately been squeezed, and his + court and even his own dinner-table then shone with a blaze of silver and + gold unknown in Syria before this inroad into Egypt. + </p> + <p> + By these acts, and by the garrison left in Pelusium, the eyes of + Philometor were opened, and he saw that his uncle had not entered Egypt + for his sake, but to make it a province of Syria, after it had been + weakened by civil war. He therefore wisely forgave his rebellious brother + and sister in Alexandria, and sent offers of peace to them; and it was + agreed that the two Ptolemies should reign together, and turn their forces + against the common enemy. It was most likely at this time, and as a part + of this treaty, that Philometor married his sister Cleopatra. It was + mainly by her advice and persuasion that the quarrel between the two + brothers was for the time healed. On this treaty between the brothers the + year was called the twelfth of Ptolemy Philometor and the first of Ptolemy + Euergetes, and the public deeds of the kingdom were so dated. + </p> + <p> + The next year Antiochus Epiphanes again entered Egypt, claiming the island + of Cyprus and the country round Pelusium as the price of his forbearance; + and, on his marching forward, Memphis a second time opened its gates to + him without a battle. He came down by slow marches towards Alexandria, and + crossed the canal at Leucine, four miles from the city. There he was met + by the Roman ambassadors, who ordered him to quit the country. On his + hesitating, Popilius, who was one of them, drew a circle round him on the + sand with his stick, and told him that, if he crossed that line without + promising to leave Egypt at once, it should be taken as a declaration of + war against Rome. On this threat Antiochus again quitted Egypt, and the + brothers sent ambassadors to Rome to thank the senate for their help, and + to acknowledge that they owed more to the Roman people than they did to + the gods or to their forefathers. + </p> + <p> + The treaty made on this occasion between Philometor and Antiochus was + written by Heraclides Lembus, the son of Serapion, a native of Oxyrynchus, + who wrote on the succession of the philosophers in the several Greek + schools, and other works on philosophy, but whose chief work was a history + named the Lembeutic History. + </p> + <p> + Four years afterwards, in B. c. 164, Antiochus Epiphanes died; and the + Jews of Judæa, who had been for some time struggling for liberty, then + gained a short rest for their unhappy country. Judas Maccabæus had raised + his countrymen in rebellion against the foreigners; he had defeated the + Syrian forces in several battles; and was at last able to purify the + temple and re-establish the service there as of old. He therefore sent to + the Jews of Egypt to ask them to join their Hebrew brethren in celebrating + the feast of tabernacles on that great occasion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0005" id="linkCimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/219.jpg" width="100%" alt="219.jpg Temple of Hermonthis. " /> + </div> + <p> + The unhappy quarrels between the Egyptian kings soon broke out again; and, + as the party of Euergetes was the stronger, Philometor was driven from his + kingdom, and he fled to Rome for safety and for help. He entered the city + privately, and took up his lodgings in the house of one of his own + subjects, a painter of Alexandria. His pride led him to refuse the offers + of better entertainment which were made to him by Demetrius, the nephew of + Antiochus, who, like himself, was hoping to regain his kingdom by the help + of the Romans. The Kings of Egypt and Syria, the two greatest kingdoms in + the world, were at the same time asking to be heard at the bar of the + Roman senate, and were claiming the thrones of their fathers at the hands + of men who could make and unmake kings at their pleasure. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the senate heard that Philometor was in Rome, they lodged him + at the cost of the state in a manner becoming his high rank, and soon sent + him back to Egypt, with orders that Euergetes should reign in Cyrene, and + that the rest of the kingdom should belong to Philometor. This happened in + the seventeenth year of Philometor and the sixth of Euergetes, which was + the last year that was named after the two kings. Cassius Longinus, who + was next year consul at Rome, was most likely among the ambassadors who + replaced Philometor on the throne; for he put the Ptolemaic eagle and + thunderbolt on his coins, as though to claim the sovereignty of Egypt for + the senate. + </p> + <p> + To these orders Euergetes was forced to yield; but the next year he went + himself to Rome to complain to the senate that they had made a very unfair + division of the kingdom, and to beg that they would add the island of + Cyprus to his share. After hearing the ambassadors from Philometor, who + were sent to plead on the other side, the senate granted the prayer of + Euergetes, and sent ambassadors to Cyprus, with orders to hand that island + over to Euergetes, and to make use of the fleets and armies of the + republic if these orders were disobeyed. + </p> + <p> + Euergetes, during his stay in Rome, if we may believe Plutarch, made an + offer of marriage to Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi; but this offer + of a throne could not make the high-minded matron quit her children and + her country. He left Italy with the Roman ambassadors, and, in passing + through Greece, he raised a large body of mercenaries to help him to wrest + Cyprus from his brother, as it would seem that the governor, faithful to + his charge, would not listen to the commands of Rome. But the ambassadors + had been told to conquer Cyprus, if necessary, with the arms of the + republic only, and they therefore made Euergetes disband his levies. They + sailed for Alexandria to enforce their orders upon Philometor, and sent + Euergetes home to Cyrene. Philometor received the Roman ambassadors with + all due honours; he sometimes gave them fair promises, and sometimes put + them off till another day; and tried to spin out the time without saying + either yes or no to the message from the senate. Euergetes sent to + Alexandria to ask if they had gained their point; but though they + threatened to return to Rome if they were not at once obeyed, Philometor, + by his kind treatment and still kinder words, kept them more than forty + days longer at Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + At last the Roman ambassadors left Egypt, and on their way home they went + to Cyrene, to let Euergetes know that his brother had disobeyed the orders + of the senate, and would not give up Cyprus; and Euergetes then sent two + ambassadors to Rome to beg them to revenge their affronted dignity and to + enforce their orders by arms. The senate of course declared the peace with + Egypt at an end, and ordered the ambassadors from Philometor to quit Rome + within five days, and sent their own ambassadors to Cyrene to tell + Euergetes of their decree. + </p> + <p> + But while this was going on, the state of Cyrene had risen in arms against + Euergetes; his vices and cruelty had made him hated, they had gained for + him the nicknames of Kakergetes, or <i>mischief-maker</i>, and Physcon, or + <i>bloated</i>; and while wishing to gain Cyprus he was in danger of + losing his own kingdom. When he marched against the rebels, he was beaten + and wounded, either in the battle or by an attack upon his life + afterwards, and his success was for some time doubtful. When he had at + last put down this rising, he sailed for Rome, to urge his complaints + against Philometor, upon whom he laid the blame of the late rebellion, and + to ask for help. The senate, after hearing both sides, sent a small fleet + with Euergetes, not large enough to put him on the throne of Cyprus, but + gave him, what they had before refused, leave to levy an army of his own, + and to enlist their allies in Greece and Asia as mercenaries under his + standard. + </p> + <p> + The Roman troops seem not to have helped Euergetes; but he landed in + Cyprus with his own mercenaries, and was there met by Philometor, who had + brought over the Egyptian army in person. Euergetes, however, was beaten + in several battles, he was soon forced to shut himself up in the city of + Lapitho, and at last to lay down his arms before his elder brother. + </p> + <p> + If Philometor had upon this put his brother to death, the deed would have + seemed almost blameless after the family murders already related in this + history. But, with a goodness of heart, he a second time forgave his + brother all that had passed, replaced him on the throne of Cyrene, and + promised to give him his daughter in marriage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0006" id="linkCimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/223.jpg" width="100%" + alt="223.jpg Garden Near Heliopolis " /> + </div> + <p> + We are not told whether the firmness and forgiving mildness of Philometor + had turned the Roman senate in his favour, but their troops seemed wanted + in other quarters; at any rate they left off trying to enforce their + decree; Philometor kept Cyprus, and sent Euergetes a yearly gift of grain + from Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + During the wars in Syria between Philometor and Antiochus Epiphanes, at + the beginning of this reign, the Jews were divided into two parties, one + favouring the Egyptians and one the Syrians. At last the Syrian party + drove their enemies out of Jerusalem; and Onias, the high priest, with a + large body of Jews, fled to Egypt. There they were well received by + Philometor, who allowed them to dwell in the neighbourhood of Heliopolis; + and he gave them leave to build a temple and ordain priests for + themselves. Onias built his temple at On or Onion, a city about + twenty-three miles from Memphis, once the capital of the district of + Heliopolis. It was on the site of an old Egyptian temple of the goddess + Pasht, which had fallen into disuse and decay, and was built after the + model of the temple of Jerusalem. Though by the Jewish law there was to be + no second temple, yet Onias defended himself by quoting, as if meant for + his own times, the words of Isaiah, who says that in that day there shall + be an altar to the Lord in the midst of the land of Egypt. The building of + this temple, and the celebrating the Jewish feasts there, as in rivalry to + the temple of Jerusalem, were a never-failing cause of quarrel between the + Hebrew and the Greek Jews. They each altered the words of the Bible to + make it speak their own opinions. The Hebrew Bible now says that the new + temple was in the City of Destruction, and the Greek Bible says that it + was in the City of Righteousness; whereas, from the Arabic version and + some early commentaries, it seems that Isaiah was speaking of the city of + Heliopolis, where there had been of old an altar to the Lord. The leaders + of the Greek party wished the Jews to throw aside the character of + strangers and foreign traders; to be at home and to become owners of the + soil. “Hate not laborious work,” says the son of Sirach; “neither + husbandry, which the Most High hath ordained.” + </p> + <p> + About the same time the Jews brought before Ptolemy, as a judge, their + quarrel with the Samaritans, as to whether, according to the law of Moses, + the temple ought to have been built at Jerusalem, or on the green and + fertile Mount Gerizim, where the Samaritans built their temple, or on the + barren white crags of Mount Ebal, where the Hebrew Bible says that it + should be built; and as to which nation had altered their copies of the + Bible in the twenty-seventh chapter of Deuteronomy and eighth chapter of + Joshua. This dispute had lately been the cause of riots and rebellion. + Ptolemy seems to have decided the question for political reasons, and to + please his own subjects, the Alexandrian Jews; and without listening to + the arguments as to what the law ordered, he was content with the proof + that the temple had stood at Jerusalem for about eight hundred years, and + he put to death the two Samaritan pleaders, who had probably been guilty + of some outrage against the Jews in zeal for Mount Gerizim, and for which + they might then have been on their trial. + </p> + <p> + Onias, the high priest, was much esteemed by Philometor, and bore high + offices in the government; as also did Dositheus, another Jew, who had + been very useful in helping the king to crush a rebellion. Dositheus + called himself a priest and a Levite, though his title to that honour + seems to have been doubted by his countrymen. He had brought with him into + Egypt the book of Esther, written in Greek, which he said had been + translated out of the Hebrew in Jerusalem by Lysimachus. It contained some + additions for which the Hebrew has never been brought forward, and which + are now placed among the uncanonical books in the Apocrypha. + </p> + <p> + Since the Ptolemies had found themselves too weak to hold Ethiopia, they + had placed a body of soldiers on the border of the two countries, to guard + Egypt from the inroads of the enemy. This station, twelve miles to the + south of Syênê, had by degrees grown into a city, and was called + Parembole, or <i>The Camp</i>; and, as most of the soldiers were Greek + mercenaries, it was natural that the temple which Philometor built there + should be dedicated in the Greek language. Of the temples hitherto built + by the Ptolemies, in the Egyptian cities, every one seems to have had the + king’s name and titles, and its dedication to the gods, carved on its + massive portico in hieroglyphics; but this was in a Greek city, and it was + dedicated to Isis and Serapis, on behalf of Philometor and his queen, in a + Greek inscription. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0007" id="linkCimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/227.jpg" width="100%" + alt="227.jpg Temple of Apollonopolis " /> + </div> + <p> + Philometor also built a temple at Antseopolis to Antaeus, a god of whom we + know little, but that he gave his name to the city; and another to Aroëris + at Ombos; and in the same way he carved the dedications on the porticoes + in the Greek language. This custom became common after that time, and + proves both the lessened weight which the native Egyptians bore in the + state, and that the kings had forgotten the wise rules of Ptolemy Soter, + in regard to the religious feelings of the people. They must have been + greatly shocked by this use of foreign writing in the place of the old + characters of the country, which, from having been used in the temples, + even for ages beyond the reach of history, had at last been called sacred. + In the temple at Antoopolis we note a marked change in the style of + building. The screen in front of the great portico is almost removed by + having a doorway made in it between every pair of columns. + </p> + <p> + It is to this reign, also, that we seem to owe the great temple at + Apollinopolis Magna, although it was not finished till one or two reigns + later. It is one of the largest and least ruined of the Egyptian temples. + Its front is formed of two huge square towers, with sloping sides, between + which is the narrow doorway, the only opening in its massive walls. + Through this the worshipper entered a spacious courtyard or cloister, + where he found shade from the sun under a covered walk on either side. In + front is the lofty portico with six large columns, the entrance to the + body of the building. This last is flat-roofed, and far lower than the + grand portico which hid it from the eyes of the crowd in the courtyard. + The staircases in the towers are narrow. The sacred rooms within were + small and dark, with only a glimmering flame here and there before an + altar, except when lighted up with a blaze of lamps on a feast-day. As a + castle it must have had great strength; from the top and loopholes of the + two towers, stones and darts might be hurled at the enemy; and as it was + in the hands of the Egyptians, it is the strongest proof that they were + either not distrusted or not feared by their Greek rulers. The city of + Apollinopolis stands on a grand and lofty situation, overlooking the river + and the valley; and this proud temple, rising over all, can only have been + planned by military skill as a fortress to command the whole. + </p> + <p> + At this time the Greeks in Egypt were beginning to follow the custom of + their Egyptian brethren, to take upon themselves monastic vows, and to + shut themselves up in the temples in religious idleness. But these + foreigners were looked upon with jealousy by the Egyptian monks as + intruders on their endowments, and we meet with a petition addressed to + Philometor by Ptolemy, the son of Glaucias, a monk in the temple of + Serapis at Memphis, who styles himself a Macedonian, complaining that his + cell had been violently entered and himself ill-treated because he was a + Greek; and reminding the king that last year, when the king visited the + Serapium, he had addressed the same petition to him through the bars of + his window. The priests in temples of Egypt were maintained, partly by + their own estates, and partly by the offerings of the pious; and we still + possess a deed of sale made in this reign by the Theban priests, of + one-half of a third of their collections for the dead who had been buried + in Thynabunum, the Libyan suburb of Thebes. This sixth share of the + collections consisted of seven or eight families of slaves; the price of + it was four hundred pieces of brass; the bargain was made in the presence + of sixteen witnesses, whose names are given; and the deed was registered + and signed by a public notary in the city of Thebes. The custom of giving + offerings to the priests for the good of the dead would seem to have been + a cause of some wealth to the temples. It was one among the many Egyptian + customs forbidden by the law of Moses. + </p> + <p> + From this deed of sale we also gain some knowledge of the state of slavery + in Egypt. The names of the slaves and of their fathers are Koptic, and in + some cases borrowed from the names of the gods; hence the slaves were + probably of the same religion, and spoke nearly the same language as their + masters. They sunk into that low state rather by their own want of mind + than by their masters’ power. In each case the slave was joined in the + same lot with his children; and the low price of four hundred pieces of + brass, perhaps about thirty-eight dollars for eight families, or even if + it be meant for the half of eight families, proves that they were of the + nature of serfs, and that the master, either by law or custom, could have + had no power of cruelly overworking them. On the other hand, in the reign + of Philadelphus, the prisoners taken in battle, who might be treated with + greater severity, were ransomed at fifteen dollars each. We see by the + monuments that there were also a few negroes in the same unhappy state of + slavery. They were probably not treated much worse than the lowest class + of those born on the soil, but they were much more valuable. Other slaves + of the Berber race were brought in coasting vessels from Opone on the + incense coast, near to the island of Dioscorides. + </p> + <p> + Aristarchus, who had been the tutor of Euergetes II., and of a son of + Philometor, was one of the ornaments of this reign. He had been a pupil of + Aristophanes, the grammarian, and had then studied under Crates at + Pergamus, the rival school to Alexandria. He died at Cyprus, whither he + probably withdrew on the death of Philometor. He was chiefly known for his + critical writings, in which his opinions of poetry were thought so just + that few dared to disagree with them; and his name soon became proverbial + for a critic. Aristarchus had also the good fortune to be listened to in + his lecture-room by one whose name is far more known than those of his two + royal pupils. Moschus of Syracuse, the pastoral poet, was one of his + hearers; but his fame must not be claimed for Alexandria; he can hardly + have learned from the critic that just taste by which he joined softness + and sweetness to the rude plainness of the Doric muse. Indeed in this he + only followed his young friend Bion, whose death he so beautifully + bewails, and from whose poems he generously owns that he learned so much. + It may be as well to add that the lines in which he says that Theocritus, + who had been dead above one hundred years, joined with him in his sorrow + for the death of Bion are later additions not found in the early + manuscripts of his poems. + </p> + <p> + From our slight acquaintance with Bion’s life, we are left in doubt + whether he accompanied his friend Moschus to the court of Alexandria; but + it is probable that he did. In his beautiful lamentation for the death of + Adonis, we have an imitation of the melancholy chant of the Egyptians, + named <i>maneros</i>, which they sang through the streets in the + procession on the feast of Isis, when the crowd joined in the chorus, “Ah, + hapless Isis, Osiris is no more.” The tale has been a good deal changed by + the Sicilian muse of Bion, but in the boar which killed Adonis, we have + the wicked Typhon as carved on the monuments; we have also the wound in + the thigh, and the consolations of the priests, who every year ended their + mournful song with advising the goddess to reserve her sorrow for another + year, when on the return of the festival the same lament would be again + celebrated. The whole poem has a depth and earnestness of feeling which is + truly Egyptian, but which was very little known in Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + To the Alexandrian grammarians, and more particularly to Aristophanes, + Aristarchus, and their pupil, Ammonius, we are indebted for our present + copies of Homer. These critics acted like modern editors, each publishing + an edition, or rather writing out a copy, which was then re-copied in the + museum as often as called for by the demands of the purchasers of books. + Aristophanes left perhaps only one such copy or edition, while + Aristarchus, in his efforts to correct the text of the great epic poet, + made several such copies. These were in the hands of the later scholiasts, + who appealed to them as their authority, and ventured to make no further + alterations; we therefore now read the Iliad and Odyssey nearly as left by + these Alexandrian critics. They no doubt took some liberties in altering + the spelling and smoothing the lines; and, though we should value most + highly a copy in the rougher form in which it came into their hands, yet, + on the whole, we must be great gainers by their labours. They divided the + Iliad and Odyssey into twenty-four books each, and corrected the faulty + metres; but one of their chief tasks was to set aside, or put a mark + against, those more modern lines which had crept into the ancient poems. + It had been usual to call every old verse Homer’s or Homeric, and these it + was the business of the critic to mark as not genuine. Aristarchus was + jocosely said to have called every line spurious which he did not like; + but everything that we can learn of him leads us to believe that he + executed his task with judgment. From these men sprang the school of + Alexandrian grammarians, who for several centuries continued their minute + and often unprofitable studies in verbal criticism. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0008" id="linkCimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/234.jpg" width="100%" + alt="234.jpg the Apotheosis of Homer " /> + </div> + <p> + These were the palmy days of criticism. Never before or since have critics + held so high a place in literature. The world was called upon to worship + and do honour to the poet, but chiefly that it might admire the skill of + the critic who could name the several sources of his beauties. The critic + now ranked higher than a priest at the foot of Mount Parnassus. Homer was + lifted to the skies that the critic might stand on a raised pedestal among + the Muses. Such seems to be the meaning of the figures on the upper part + of the well-known sculpture called the Apotheosis of Homer. It was made in + this reign; and at the foot Ptolemy and his mother, in the characters of + Time and the World, are crowning the statue of the poet, in the presence + of ten worshippers who represent the literary excellences which shine + forth in his poems. The figures of the Iliad and Odyssey kneel beside his + seat, and the Frogs and Mice creep under his footstool, showing that the + latter mock-heroic poem was already written and called the work of Homer. + </p> + <p> + Other celebrities who flourished under the fifth Ptolemy were Pamphilius, + an Alexandrian physician who wrote on medical plants; Meander, a poet and + physician who studied poisons, and the great Hipparchus, the founder of + mathematical astronomy. Hero, also, in this reign, invented a kind of + primitive steam-engine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0009" id="linkCimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/235.jpg" + alt="235.jpg Hero’s Rotating Steam Engine " /> + </div> + <p> + These men and their contemporaries were in the habit of writing their + scientific observations in the form of poetry, but it was verse without + earnestness and feeling, and such of it as survives is valued not for its + literary qualities or charms of diction, but for the side-lights it throws + upon the manners and education of the age. + </p> + <p> + The portrait of the king is known from those coins which bear the name of + “<i>King Ptolemy the mother-loving god</i>.” The eagle on the other side + of the coins has a phoenix or palm-branch on its wing or by its side, + which may be supposed to mean that they were struck in Phoenicia. We have + not before met with the title of “god,” on the coins of the Ptolemies; + but, as every one of them had been so named in the hieroglyphical + inscriptions, it can scarcely be called new. + </p> + <p> + When Philometor quitted the island of Cyprus after beating his brother in + battle, he left Archias as governor, who entered into a plot to give it up + to Demetrius, King of Syria, for the sum of five hundred talents. But the + plot was found out, and the traitor then put an end to his own life, to + escape from punishment and self-reproach. By this treachery of Demetrius, + Philometor was made his enemy, and he joined Attalus, King of Pergamus, + and Ariarathes, King of Cappadocia, in setting up Alexander Balas as a + pretender to the throne of Syria, who beat Demetrius in battle, and put + him to death. Philometor two years afterwards gave his elder daughter, + Cleopatra, in marriage to Alexander, and led her himself to Ptolemaïs, or + Acre, where the marriage was celebrated with great pomp. + </p> + <p> + But even in Ptolemaïs, the city in which Alexander had been so covered + with favours, Philometor was near falling under the treachery of his new + son-in-law. He learned that a plot had been formed against his life by + Ammonius, and he wrote to Alexander to beg that the traitor might be given + up to justice. But Alexander acknowledged the plot as his own, and refused + to give up his servant. On this, Philometor recalled his daughter, and + turned against Alexander the forces which he had led into Syria to uphold + him. He then sent to the young Demetrius, afterwards called Nicator, the + son of his late enemy, to offer him the throne and wife which he had + lately given to Alexander Balas. Demetrius was equally pleased with the + two offers. Philometor then entered Antioch at the head of his army, and + there he was proclaimed by the citizens King of Asia and Egypt; but with a + forbearance then very uncommon, he called together the council of the + people, and refused the crown, and persuaded them to receive Demetrius as + their king. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0010" id="linkCimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:47%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/237.jpg" alt="237.jpg Coin of Ptolemy V. " /> + </div> + <p> + It is interesting to note that Alexander Balas and Demetrius Nicator each + in his turn acknowledged his debt to the King of Egypt by putting the + Ptolemaic eagle on his coins, and adjusting them to the Egyptian standard + of weight: and in this they were afterwards followed by Antiochus, the son + of Demetrius. The Romans, on the other hand, sometimes used the same eagle + in boast of their power over Egypt; but we cannot be mistaken in what was + meant by these Syrian kings, who none of them, when their coins were + struck, were seated safely on the throne. With them, as with some of the + Greek cities of Asia Minor, the use of the Egyptian eagle on the coins was + an act of homage. + </p> + <p> + Philometor and Demetrius, as soon as the latter was acknowledged king at + Antioch, then marched against Alexander, routed his army, and drove him + into Arabia. But in this battle Philometor’s horse was frightened by the + braying of an elephant, and threw the king into the ranks of the enemy, + and he was taken up covered with wounds. He lay speechless for five days, + and the surgeons then endeavoured to cut out a piece of the broken bone + from his skull. He died under the operation: but not before the head of + Alexander had been brought to him as the proof of his victory. + </p> + <p> + Thus fell Ptolemy Philometor in the forty-second year of his age. His + reign began in trouble; before he reached the years of manhood the country + had been overrun by foreigners, and torn to pieces by civil war; but he + left the kingdom stronger than he found it, a praise which he alone can + share with Ptolemy Soter. He was alike brave and mild; he was the only one + of the race who fell in battle, and the only one whose hands were + unstained with civil blood. At an age and in a country when poison and the + dagger were too often the means by which the king’s authority was upheld, + when goodness was little valued, and when conquests were thought the only + measure of greatness, he spared the life of a brother taken in battle, he + refused the crown of Syria when offered to him; and not only no one of his + friends or kinsmen, but no citizen of Alexandria, was put to death during + the whole of his reign. We find grateful inscriptions to his honour at the + city of Citium in Cyprus, in the island of Therse, and at Methone in + Argolis. + </p> + <p> + Philometor had reigned thirty-five years in all; eleven years alone, + partly while under age, then six years jointly with his brother, Euergetes + II., and eighteen more alone while his brother reigned in Cyrene. He + married his sister Cleopatra, and left her a widow, with two daughters, + each named Cleopatra. The elder daughter we have seen offered to + Euergetes, then married to Alexander Balas, and lastly to Demetrius. The + younger daughter, afterwards known by the name of Cleopatra Cocce, was + still in the care of her mother. He had most likely had three sons. One + perhaps had been the pupil of Aristarchus, and died before his father; as + the little elegy by Antipator of Sidon, which is addressed to the dead + child, on the grief of his father and mother, would seem to be meant for a + son of Philometor. A second son was murdered, and a third lived in Syria. + </p> + <p> + On the death of Philometor, his widow, Cleopatra, and some of the chief + men of Alexandria proclaimed his young son king, most likely under the + name of Ptolemy Eupator; but Euergetes, whose claim was favoured by the + mob, marched from Cyrene to Alexandria to seize the crown of Egypt. Onias + the Jew defended the city for Cleopatra; but a peace was soon made by the + help of Thermus, the Roman ambassador, and on this the gates of Alexandria + were opened. It was agreed that Euergetes should be king, and marry + Cleopatra, his sister and his brother’s widow. We may take it for granted + that one article of the treaty was that her son should reign on the death + of his uncle; but Euergetes, forgetting that he owed his own life to + Philometor, and also disregarding the Romans who were a party to the + treaty, had the boy put to death on the day of the marriage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0011" id="linkCimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:37%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/241.jpg" + alt="241.jpg Temple of Hathor at Philae " /> + </div> + <p> + The Alexandrians, after the vices and murders of former kings, could not + have been much struck by the behaviour of Euergetes towards his family; + but he was not less cruel towards his people. Alexandria, which he had + entered peaceably, was handed over to the unbridled cruelty of the + mercenaries, and blood flowed in every street. The anger of Euergetes fell + more particularly on the Jews for the help which they had given to + Cleopatra, and he threatened them with utter destruction. The threat was + not carried into execution; but such was the Jews’ alarm, that they + celebrated a yearly festival in Alexandria for several hundred years, in + thankfulness for their escape from it. The population of the city, who + looked upon it less as a home than as a place of trade in which they could + follow their callings with the greatest gain, seemed to quit Alexandria as + easily as they had come there under Ptolemy Soter; and Euergetes, who was + afraid that he should soon be left to reign over a wilderness, made new + laws in favour of trade and of strangers who would settle there. + </p> + <p> + In the lifetime of Philometor he had never laid aside his claim to the + throne of Egypt, but had only yielded to the commands of Rome and to his + brother’s forces, and he now numbered the years of his reign from his + former seizing of Alexandria. He had reigned six years with his brother, + and then eighteen years in Cyrene, and he therefore called the first year + of his real reign the twenty-fifth. + </p> + <p> + In the next year he went to Memphis to be crowned; and, while the pomps + and rites were there being performed, his queen and sister bore him a son, + whom, from the place and to please the people, he named Memphites. But his + queen was already in disgrace; and some of those very friends who on his + brother’s death had marched with him against Alexandria were publicly put + to death for speaking ill of his mistress Irene. He soon afterwards put + away his wife and married her younger daughter, his niece, Cleopatra + Cocce. The divorced Cleopatra was allowed to keep her title; and, as she + was the widow of the late king, she held a rank in the state before the + wife of the reigning king. Thus, the small temple of Hâthor in the island + of Philæ was dedicated to the goddess in the name of King Ptolemy and + Queen Cleopatra his sister, and Queen Cleopatra his wife, designated as + the gods Euergetæ. + </p> + <p> + The Roman senate, however, felt its authority slighted by this murder of + the young Eupator, and divorce of Cleopatra, both of whom were living + under its protection. The late ambassador, Thermus, by whose treachery or + folly Euergetes had been enabled to crush his rivals and gain the + sovereign power, was on his return to Rome called to account for his + conduct. Cato the Censor, in one of his great speeches, accused him of + having been seduced from his duty by the love of Egyptian gold, and of + having betrayed the queen to the bribes of Euergetes. In the meanwhile + Scipio Africanus the younger and two other Roman ambassadors were sent by + the senate to see that the kingdom of their ally was peaceably settled. + Euergetes went to meet him with great pomp, and received him with all the + honours due to his rank; and the whole city followed him in crowds through + the streets, eager to catch a sight of the conqueror of Carthage, of the + greatest man who had been seen in Alexandria, of one who by his virtues + and his triumphs had added a new glory even to the name of Scipio. He + brought with him, as his friend and companion (in the case of a modern + ambassador we should say, as his chaplain), the philosopher, Pansetius, + the chief of the Stoics, who had gained a great name for his three books + on the “Duty of Man,” which were afterwards copied by Cicero. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0012" id="linkCimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/242b.jpg" width="100%" alt="242b.jpg " /> + </div> + <p> + Euergetes showed them over the palace and the treasury; but, though the + Romans had already begun to run the down-hill race of luxury, in which the + Egyptians were so far ahead of them, yet Scipio, who held to the old + fashions and plain manners of the republic, was not dazzled by mere gold + and purple. But the trade of Alexandria, the natural harbour, the forest + of masts, and the lighthouse, the only one in the world, surpassed + anything that his well-stored mind had looked for. He went by boat to + Memphis, and saw the rich crops on either bank, and the easy navigation of + the Nile, in which the boats were sailing up the river by the force of the + wind and floating down by the force of the stream. The villages on the + river side were large and thickly set, each in the bosom of its own grove + of palm-trees; and the crowded population was well fed and well clothed. + The Roman statesman saw that nothing was wanting but a good government to + make Egypt what it used to be, the greatest kingdom in the world. + </p> + <p> + Scipio went no higher than Memphis; the buildings of Upper Egypt, the + oldest and the largest in the world, could not draw him to Thebes, a city + whose trade had fallen off, where the deposits of bullion in the temples + had lessened, and whose linen manufacture had moved towards the Delta. Had + this great statesman been a Greek he would perhaps have gone on to this + city, famous alike in history and in poetry; but, as it was, Scipio and + his friends then sailed for Cyprus, Syria, and the other provinces or + kingdoms under the power of Rome, to finish this tour of inspection. + </p> + <p> + For some time past, the Jews, taking advantage of the weakness of Egypt + and Syria, had been struggling to make themselves free; and, at the + beginning of this reign Simon Maccabæus, the high priest, sent an embassy + to Rome, with a shield of gold weighing one thousand <i>minae</i>, as a + present, to get their independence acknowledged by the Romans. On this the + senate made a treaty of alliance with the family of the Maccabees, and, + using the high tone of command to which they had for some time past been + accustomed, they wrote to Euergetes and the King of Syria, ordering them + not to make war upon their friends, the Jews. But in an after decree the + Romans recognise the close friendship and the trading intercourse between + Egypt and Judæa; and when they declared that they would protect the Jews + in their right to levy custom-house duties, they made an exception in + favour of the Egyptian trade. The people of Judæa in these struggles were + glad to forget the jealousy which had separated them from their brethren + in Egypt, and the old quarrel between the Hebrews and the Hellenists; the + Sanhedrim of Jerusalem wrote to the Sanhedrim of Alexandria, telling them + that they were going to keep the Feast of the Tabernacles in solemn + thanksgiving to the Almighty for their deliverance, and begging for the + benefit of their prayers. + </p> + <p> + The Jews, however, of Judæa, on their gaining their former place as a + nation, did not, as before, carry forward the chain of history in their + sacred books. While they had been under the yoke of the Babylonians, the + Persians, and the Syrians, their language had undergone some changes; and + when the Hebrew of the Old Testament was no longer the spoken language, + they perhaps thought it unworthy of them to write in any other. At any + rate, it is to their Greek brethren in Egypt that we are indebted for the + history of the bravery of the Maccabees. Jason of Cyrene wrote the history + of the Maccabees, and of the Jewish wars against Antiochus Epiphanes and + his son, Antiochus Eupator. This work, which was in five books, is lost, + and we now read only the short history which was drawn from it by some + unknown Greek writer, which, with the letter from the Jews of Judaaa to + their brethren of Egypt, forms the second book of Maccabees. + </p> + <p> + In the list of Alexandrian authors, we must not forget to mention Jesus, + the son of Sirach, who came into Egypt in this reign, and translated into + Greek the Hebrew work of his grandfather Jesus, which is named the Book of + Wisdom, or Ecclesiasticus. It is written in imitation of the Proverbs of + Solomon; and though its pithy sayings fall far short of the deep wisdom + and lofty thoughts which crowd every line of that wonderful work, yet it + will always be read with profit and pleasure. In this book we see the + earliest example that we now possess of a Jewish writer borrowing from the + Greek philosophers; though how far the Greek thoughts were part of the + original Hebrew may be doubted, because the work was left unfinished by + Jesus the grandfather, and completed by the Alexandrian translator, his + grandson. Hereafter we shall see the Alexandrian Jews engrafting on the + Jewish theology more and more of the Platonic philosophy, which very well + suited the serious earnestness of their character, and which had a most + remarkable effect in making their writings and opinions more fitted to + spread into the ancient schools. + </p> + <p> + This and other writings of the Alexandrian Jews were by them added to the + list of sacred books which together made their Greek Bible; but they were + never acknowledged at Jerusalem. The Hebrew books of the law and the + prophets were first gathered together by Nehemiah after the return of the + Hebrews from Babylon; but his library had been broken up during the Syrian + wars. These Hebrew books, with some few which had since been written, were + again got together by Judas Maccabaeus; and after his time nothing more + seems to have been added to them, though the Alexandrian Jews continued to + add new books to their Greek Bible, while cultivating the Platonic + philosophy with a success which made a change in their religious opinions. + It was in Alexandria, and very much by the help of the Jews, that Eastern + and Western opinions now met. Each made some change in the other, and, on + the union of the two, Alexandria gave to the world a new form of + philosophy. The vices and cruelty of Euergetes called for more than usual + skill in the minister to keep down the angry feelings of the people. This + skill was found in the general Hierax, who was one of those men whose + popular manners, habits of business, and knowledge of war, make them rise + over every difficulty in times of trouble. On him rested the whole weight + of the government; his wise measures in part made up for the vices of his + master; and, when the treasure of the state had been turned to the king’s + pleasures, and the soldiers were murmuring for want of pay, Hierax brought + forward his own money to quiet the rebellion. But at last the people could + bear their grievances no longer; the soldiers without pay, instead of + guarding the throne, were its greatest enemies, and the mob rose in + Alexandria, set fire to the palace, and Euergetes was forced to leave the + city and withdraw to Cyprus. + </p> + <p> + The Alexandrians, when free from their tyrant, sent for Cleopatra, his + sister and divorced queen, and set her upon the throne. Her son by + Philometor, in whose name she had before claimed the throne, had been put + to death by Euergetes; Memphites, one of her sons by Euergetes, was with + his father in the island of Cyprus; and Euergetes, fearing that his first + wife Cleopatra and her advisers might make use of his son’s name to + strengthen her throne, had the child at once put to death. The birthday of + Cleopatra was at hand, and it was to be celebrated in Alexandria with the + usual pomp; and Euergetes, putting the head, hands, and feet of his son + Memphites into a box, sent it to Alexandria by a messenger, who had orders + to deliver it to Cleopatra in the midst of the feast, when the nobles and + ambassadors were making their accustomed gifts. The grief of Cleopatra was + only equalled by the anger of the Alexandrians, who the more readily armed + themselves under Marsyas to defend the queen against the invasion for + which Euergetes was then making preparations. + </p> + <p> + The queen’s forces shortly marched against the army of Euergetes that was + entering Egypt under the command of Hegelochus; but the Egyptian army was + beaten on the Syrian frontier. Marsyas was sent prisoner to Euergetes; and + the king then showed the only act of mercy which can be mentioned to his + praise, and spared the life of a prisoner whom he thought he could make + use of. Cleopatra then sent to Syria, to her son-in-law Demetrius, to ask + for help, which was at first readily granted, but Demetrius was soon + called home again by a rising in Antioch. But great indeed must be the + cruelty which a people will not bear from their own king rather than call + in a foreign master to relieve them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0013" id="linkCimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/249.jpg" width="100%" alt="249.jpg Obelisk at Heliopolis " /> + </div> + <p> + The return of the hated and revengeful Euergetes was not dreaded so much + by the Alexandrians as the being made a province of Syria. Cleopatra + received no help from Demetrius, but she lost the love of her people by + asking for it, and she was soon forced to fly from Alexandria. She put her + treasures on board a ship, and joined her son Ptolemy and her son-in-law + Demetrius in Syria, while Euergetes regained his throne. As soon as + Euergetes was again master of Egypt, it was his turn to be revenged upon + Demetrius; and he brought forward Zabbineus, a young Egyptian, the son of + Protarchus, a merchant, and sent him into Syria with an army to claim the + throne under the name of Alexander, the adopted son of Antiochus. + Alexander easily conquered and then put to death Demetrius, but, when he + found that he really was King of Syria, he would no longer receive orders + from Egypt; and Euergetes found that the same plots and forces were then + wanted to put down this puppet, which he had before used to set him up. He + began by making peace with his sister Cleopatra, who was again allowed to + return to Egypt; and we find her name joined with those of Euergetes and + his second queen in one of the public acts of the priests. He then sent an + army and his daughter Tryphaena in marriage to Antiochus Grypus, one of + the sons of Demetrius, who gladly received his help, and conquered + Alexander and gained the throne of his father. + </p> + <p> + We possess a curious inscription upon an obelisk that once stood in the + island of Philæ, recording, as one of the grievances that the villagers + smarted under, the necessity of finding supplies for the troops on their + marches, and also for all the government messengers and public servants, + or those who claimed to travel as such. The cost of this grievance was + probably greater at Philæ than in other places, because the traveller was + there stopped in his voyage by the cataracts on the Nile, and he had to be + supplied with labourers to carry his luggage where the navigation was + interrupted. Accordingly the priests at Philæ petitioned the king that + their temple might be relieved from this heavy and vexatious charge, which + they said lessened their power of rightly performing their appointed + sacrifices; and they further begged to be allowed to set up a monument to + record the grant which they hoped for. Euergetes granted the priests’ + prayer, and accordingly they set up a small obelisk; and the petition and + the king’s answer were carved on the base of this monument. + </p> + <p> + The gold mines near the Nubian or Golden Berenicê, though not so rich as + they used to be, were worked with full activity by the unhappy prisoners, + criminals, and slaves, who were there condemned to labour in gangs under + the lash of their taskmasters. Men and women alike, even old men and + children, each at such work as his overstretched strength was equal to, + were imprisoned in these caverns tunnelled under the sea or into the side + of the mountain; and there by torchlight they suffered the cruel tortures + of their overseers without having power to make their groans heard above + ground. No lot upon earth could be more wretched than that of these + unhappy men; to all of them death would have been thought a boon. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0014" id="linkCimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:33%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/254.jpg" alt="254.jpg Nilometer at Rhodha " /> + </div> + <p> + The survey of the coast of the Red Sea, which was undertaken in this or + the last reign, did not reach beyond the northern half of that sea. It was + made by Agatharcides, who, when the philosopher Heracleides Lembus filled + the office of secretary to the government under Philometor, had been his + scribe and reader. Agatharcides gives a curious account of the half-savage + people on these coasts, and of the more remarkable animals and products of + the country. He was a most judicious historian, and gave a better guess + than many at the true cause of why there was most water in the Nile in the + dry est season of the year; which was a subject of never-ceasing inquiry + with the travellers and writers on physics. Thaïes said that its waters + were held back at its mouths by the Etesian winds, which blow from the + north during the summer months; and Democritus of Abdera said that these + winds carried heavy rain-clouds to Ethiopia; whereas the north winds do + not begin to blow till the Nile has risen, and the river has returned to + its usual size before the winds cease. Anaxagoras, who was followed by + Euripides, the poet, thought that the large supply of water came from the + melting of snow in Ethiopia. Ephorus thought that there were deep springs + in the river’s bed, which gushed forth with greater force in summer than + in winter. Herodotus and OEnopides both thought that the river was in its + natural state when the country was overflowed; and the former said that + its waters were lessened in winter by the attraction of the sun, then over + Southern Ethiopia; and the latter said that, as the earth grew cool, the + waters were sucked into its pores. The sources of the Nile were hidden by + the barbarism of the tribes on its banks; but by this time travellers had + reached the region of tropical rains; and Agatharcides said that the + overflow in Egypt arose from the rains in Upper Ethiopia. But the + Abyssinian rains begin to fall at midsummer, too late to cause the + inundation in Egypt; and therefore the truth seemed after all to lie with + the priests of Memphis, who said the Nile rises on the other side of the + equator, and the rain falling in what was winter on that side of the globe + made the Nile overflow in the Egyptian summer. + </p> + <p> + From the very earliest times, says Ebers, the Pharaohs had understood the + necessity of measuring exactly the amount or deficiency of the inundations + of the Nile, and Nilometers are preserved which were erected high up the + river in Nubia by kings of the Old Empire, by princes, that is to say, who + reigned before the invasion of the Hyksos. Herodotus tells us that the + river must rise sixteen ells for the inundation to be considered a + favourable one. If it remained below this mark, the higher fields failed + in obtaining a due supply of water, and a dearth was the result. If it + greatly exceeded it, it broke down the dykes, damaged the villages, and + had not retired into its bed by the time for sowing the seed. Thus the + peasant, who could expect no rain, and was threatened neither by frosts + nor storms, could have his prospects of a good or bad harvest read off by + the priests with perfect certainty by the scale of the Nilometer, and not + by the servants of the divinities only, but by the officers of the realm, + who calculated the amount of taxes to be paid to them in proportion to the + rising of the river. + </p> + <p> + The standard was protected by the magic power of unapproachable sanctity, + and the husbandman has been strictly interdicted from the earliest time to + this very day from casting a glance at it during the time when the river + is rising; for what sovereign could bear to disclose without reserve the + decrees of Providence as to the most important of his rights, that of + estimating the amount of taxes to be imposed? In the time of the Pharaohs + it was the priesthood that declared to the king and to the people their + estimate of the inundations, and at the present day, the sheik, who is + sworn to secrecy, is under the control of the police of Cairo, and has his + own Nilometer, the zero point of which is said to be somewhat below that + of the ancient standard. The engineers of the French expedition first + detected the fraud, by means of which the government endeavoured every + year to secure the full amount of taxes. + </p> + <p> + When the Nile has reached a height of a little over fifteen old Arabic + ells, it exceeds its lowest level by more than eight ells, and has reached + the height requisite to enable it to irrigate the highest fields. This + happy event is announced to the people, who await it with breathless + anxiety, and the opening of the dykes may be proceeded with. A festival to + celebrate this occasion has been held from the remotest times. At the + present time customs prevail which can, it is alleged, be traced by direct + descent to the times of the Pharaohs, and yet during the dominion of + Christianity in Egypt, and later again under sovereigns governing a nation + wholly converted to Islam, the old worship of the Nile, with all its + splendour, its display, and its strange ceremonies, was extirpated with + the utmost rigour. But some portion of every discarded religion becomes + merged in the new one that has supplanted it as a fresh form of + superstition, and thus we discover from a Christian document dating from + the sixth century, that the rising of the Nile “in its time” was no longer + attributed to Osiris, but to a certain Saint Orion, and, as the priest of + antiquity taught that a tear of Isis led to the overflowing of the Nile, + so we hear the Egyptians of the present day say that “a divine tear” has + fallen into the stream and caused the flood. + </p> + <p> + The trade of the Egyptians had given them very little knowledge of + geography. Indeed the whole trade of the ancients was carried on by buying + goods from their nearest neighbours on one side, and selling them to those + on the other side of them. Long voyages were unknown; and, though the + trading wealth of Egypt had mainly arisen from carrying the merchandise of + India and Arabia Felix from the ports on the Red Sea to the ports on the + Mediterranean, the Egyptians seem to have gained no knowledge of the + countries from which these goods came. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0015" id="linkCimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/255.jpg" width="100%" alt="255.jpg Suk El Saleh, Cairo " /> + </div> + <p> + They bought them of the Arab traders, who came to Cosseir and the + Troglodytic Berenicê from the opposite coast; the Arabs had probably + bought them from the caravans that had carried them across the desert from + the Persian Gulf; and that these land journeys across the desert were both + easier and cheaper than a coasting voyage, we have before learned, from + Phila-delphus thinking it worth while to build watering and resting-houses + in the desert between Koptos and Berenicê, to save the voyage between + Berenicê and Cosseir. India seems to have been only known to the Greeks as + a country that by sea was to be reached by the way of the Euphrates and + the Persian Gulf; and though Scylax had, by the orders of Darius, dropped + down the river Indus, coasted Arabia, and thence reached the Red Sea, this + voyage was either forgotten or disbelieved, and in the time of the + Ptolemies it seems probable that nobody thought that India could be + reached by sea from Egypt. Arrian indeed thought that the difficulty of + carrying water in their small ships, with large crews of rowers, was alone + great enough to stop a voyage of such a length along a desert coast that + could not supply them with fresh water. + </p> + <p> + The long voyages of Solomon and Necho had been limited to coasting Africa; + the voyage of Alexander the Great had been from the Indus to the Persian + Gulf; hence it was that the court of Euergetes was startled by the strange + news that the Arabian guards on the coast of the Red Sea had found a man + in a boat by himself, who could not speak Koptic, but who they afterwards + found was an Indian, who had sailed straight from India, and had lost his + shipmates. He was willing to show any one the route by which he had + sailed; and Eudoxus of Cyzicus in Asia Minor came to Alexandria to + persuade Euergetes to give him the command of a vessel for this voyage of + discovery. A vessel was given him; and, though he was but badly fitted + out, he reached a country, which he called India, by sea, and brought back + a cargo of spices and precious stones. He wrote an account of the coasts + which he visited, and it was made use of by Pliny. But it is more than + probable the unknown country called India, which Eudoxus visited, was on + the west coast of Africa. Abyssinia was often called India by the + ancients. + </p> + <p> + In these attempts at maritime discovery, and efforts after a cheaper means + of obtaining the Indian products, the Greek sailors of Euergetes made a + settlement in the island of Dioscorides, now called Socotara, in the + Indian Ocean, forty leagues eastward of the coast of Africa; and there + they met the trading vessels from India and Ceylon. This little island + continued a Greek colony for upwards of seven centuries, and Greek was the + only language spoken there till it fell under the Arabs in the twilight of + history, when all the European possessions in Africa were overthrown. But + the art of navigation was so far unknown that but little use was made of + this voyage; the goods of India, which were all costly and of small + weight, were still for the most part carried across the desert on camels’ + backs, and we may remark that at a later period hardly more than twenty + small vessels ever went to India in one year during the reigns of the + Ptolemies, and that it was not till Egypt was a province of Rome that the + trade-winds across the Arabian Sea were found out by Hippalus, a pilot in + the Indian trade. The voyage was little known in the time of Pliny; even + the learned Propertius seems to have thought that silk was a product of + Arabia; and Palmyra and Petra, the two chief cities in the desert, whose + whole wealth rested and whose very being hung upon their being + watering-places for these caravans, were still wealthy cities in the + second century of our era, when the voyage by the Arabian Sea became for + the first time easier and cheaper than the journeys across the desert. + </p> + <p> + Euergetes had been a pupil of Aristobolus, a learned Jew, a writer of the + peripatetic sect of philosophers, one who had made his learning respected + by the pagans from his success in cultivating their philosophy; and also + of Aristarchus, the grammarian, the editor of Homer; and, though the king + had given himself up to the lowest pleasures, yet he held with his crown + that love of letters and of learning which had ennobled his forefathers. + He was himself an author, and wrote, like Ptolemy Soter, his Memorabilia, + or an account of what he had seen most remarkable in his lifetime. We may + suppose that his writings were not of a very high order; they were quoted + by Athengeus, who wrote in the reign of Marcus Aurelius; but we learn + little else from them than the names of the mistresses of Ptolemy + Philadelphus, and that a flock of pheasants was kept in the palace of + Alexandria. He also wrote a commentary on Homer, of which we know nothing. + When busy upon literature, he would allow his companions to argue with him + till midnight on a point of history or a verse of poetry; but not one of + them ever uttered a word against his tyranny, or argued in favour of a + less cruel treatment of his enemies. + </p> + <p> + In this reign the schools of Alexandria, though not holding the rank which + they had gained under Philadelphus, were still highly thought of. The king + still gave public salaries to the professors; and Panaretus, who had been + a pupil of the philosopher Arcesilaus, received the very large sum of + twelve talents, or ten thousand dollars a year. Sositheus and his rival, + the younger Homer, the tragic poets of this reign, have even been called + two of the Pleiades of Alexandria; but that was a title given to many + authors of very different times, and to some of very little merit. Such + indeed was the want of merit among the poets of Alexandria that many of + their names would have been unknown to posterity had they not been saved + in the pages of the critics and grammarians, and pieced together by the + skill of nineteenth century investigators. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0016" id="linkCimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/260.jpg" width="100%" alt="260.jpg Temple of Kom Ombo. " /> + </div> + <p> + But, unfortunately, the larger number of the men of letters had in the + late wars taken part with Philome-tor against the cruel and luxurious + Euergetes. Hence, when the streets of Alexandria were flowing with the + blood of those whom he called his enemies, crowds of learned men left + Egypt, and were driven to earn a livelihood by teaching in the cities to + which they then fled. They were all Greeks, and few of them had been born + in Alexandria. They had been brought there by the wealth of the country + and the favour of the sovereign; and they now withdrew when these + advantages were taken away from them. The isles and coasts of the + Mediterranean were so filled with grammarians, philosophers, geometers, + musicians, schoolmasters, painters, and physicians from Alexandria that + the cruelty of Euergetes II., like the taking of Constantinople by the + Turks, may be said to have spread learning by the ill-treatment of its + professors. + </p> + <p> + The city which was then rising highest in arts and letters was Pergamus in + Asia Minor, which, under Eumenes and Attalus, was almost taking the place + which Alexandria had before held. Its library already held two hundred + thousand volumes, and raised a jealousy in the mind of Euergetes. Not + content with buying books and adding to the size of his own library, he + wished to lessen the libraries of his rivals; and, nettled at the number + of volumes which Eumenes had got together at Pergamus, he made a law, + forbidding the export of the Egyptian papyrus on which they were written. + On this the copiers employed by Eumenes wrote their books upon sheepskins, + which were called <i>charta pergamena</i>, or parchment, from the name of + the city in which they were written. Thus our own two words, parchment + from <i>Pergamus</i>, and paper from <i>papyrus</i>, remain as monuments + of the rivalry in book-collecting between the two kings. + </p> + <p> + Euergetes was so bloated with disease that his body was nearly six feet + round, and he was made weak and slothful by this weight of flesh. He + walked with a crutch, and wore a loose robe like a woman’s, which reached + to his feet and hands. He gave himself up very much to eating and + drinking, and on the year that he was chosen priest of Apollo by the + Cyrenians, he showed his pleasure at the honour by a memorable feast which + he gave in a costly manner to all those who had before filled that office. + He had reigned six years with his brother, then eighteen years in Cyrene, + and lastly twenty-nine years after the death of his brother, and he died + in the fifty-fourth year of his reign, and perhaps the sixty-ninth of his + age. He left a widow, Cleopatra Cocce; two sons, Ptolemy and Ptolemy + Alexander; and three daughters, Cleopatra, married to her elder brother; + Tryphsena, married to Antiochus Grypus; and Selene unmarried; and also a + natural son, Ptolemy Apion, to whom by will he left the kingdom of Cyrene; + while he left the kingdom of Egypt to his widow and one of his sons, + giving her the power of choosing which should be her colleague. The first + Euergetes earned and deserved the name, which was sadly disgraced by the + second; but such was the fame of Egypt’s greatness that the titles of its + kings were copied in nearly every Greek kingdom. We meet with the + flattering names of Soter, Philadelphus, Euergetes, and the rest, on the + coins of Syria, Parthia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Pon-tus, Bactria, and + Bithynia; while that of Euergetes, <i>the benefactor</i>, was at last used + as another name for a tyrant. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkC2HCH0002" id="linkC2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI—THE GROWTH OF ROMAN INFLUENCE IN EGYPT + </h2> + <p> + <i>The weakness of the Ptolemies: Egypt bequeathed to Rome: Pompey, Cæsar, + and Antony befriend Egypt.</i> + </p> + <p> + On the death of Ptolemy Euergetes II., his widow, Cleopatra Cocce, would + have chosen her younger son, Ptolemy Alexander, then a child, for her + partner on the throne, most likely because it would have been longer in + the course of years before he would have claimed his share of power; but + she was forced, by a threatened rising of the Alexandrians, to make her + elder son king. Before, however, she would do this she made a treaty with + him, which would strongly prove, if anything were still wanting, the vice + and meanness of the Egyptian court. It was, that, although married to his + sister Cleopatra, of whom he was very fond, he should put her away, and + marry his younger sister Selene; because the mother hoped that Selene + would be false to her husband’s cause, and weaken his party in the state + by her treachery. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy took the name of Soter II., though he is more often called + Lathyrus, from a stain upon his face in the form of an ivy-leaf, pricked + into his skin in honour of Osiris. He was also called Philometor; and we + learn from an inscription on a temple at Apollinopolis Parva, that both + these names formed part of the style in which the public acts ran in this + reign; it is dedicated by “the Queen Cleopatra and King Ptolemy, gods + Philometores, Soteres, and his children,” without mentioning his wife. + Here, as in Persia and Judaaa, the king’s mother often held rank above his + wife. The name of Philometor was given to him by his mother, because, + though he had reached the years of manhood, she wished to act as his + guardian; but her unkindness to him was so remarkable that historians have + thought that it was a nickname. The mother and the son were jointly styled + sovereigns of Egypt; but they lived apart, and in distrust of one another, + each surrounded by personal friends; while Cleopatra’s stronger mind and + greater skill in kingcraft gained for her the larger share of power, and + the effective control of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Cleopatra, the daughter, put away by her husband at the command of her + mother, soon made a treaty of marriage with Antiochus Cyzicenus, the + friend of her late husband, who was struggling for the throne of Syria + with his brother, Antiochus Grypus, the husband of her sister Tryphaana; + and on her way to Syria she stopped at Cyprus, where she raised a large + army and took it with her as her dower, to help her new husband against + his brother and her sister. + </p> + <p> + With this addition to his army Cyzicenus thought his forces equal to those + of his brother; he marched against him and gave him battle. But he was + beaten, and he fled with his wife Cleopatra; and they shut themselves up + in the city of Antioch. Grypus and Tryphaana then laid siege to the city, + and the astute Tryphaana soon took her revenge on her sister for coming + into Syria to marry the brother and rival of her husband. The city was + taken; and Tryphaana ordered her sister to be torn from the temple into + which she had fled, and to be put to death. In vain Grypus urged that he + did not wish his victory to be stained by the death of a sister; that + Cleopatra was by marriage his sister as well as hers; that she was the + aunt of their children; and that the gods would punish them if they + dragged her from the altar. But Tryphaana was merciless and unmoved; she + gave her own orders to the soldiers, and Cleopatra was killed as she clung + with her arms to the statue of the goddess. This cruelty, however, was + soon overtaken by punishment: in the next battle Cyzicenus was the + conqueror, and he put Tryphaana to death, to quiet, as was said, the ghost + of her murdered sister. + </p> + <p> + In the third year of her reign Cleopatra Cocce gave the island of Cyprus + to her younger son, Alexander, as an independent kingdom, thinking that he + would be of more use to her there, in upholding her power against his + brother Lathyrus, than he could be at Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + In the last reign Eudoxus had been entrusted by Euergetes with a vessel + and a cargo for a trading voyage of discovery towards India; and in this + reign he was again sent by Cleopatra down the Red Sea to trade with the + unknown countries in the east. How far he went may be doubted, but he + brought back with him from the coast of Africa the prow of a ship + ornamented with a horse’s head, the usual figurehead of the Carthaginian + ships. This he showed to the Alexandrian pilots, who knew it as belonging + to one of the Phoenician ships of Cadiz or Gibraltar. Eudoxus justly + argued that this prow proved that it was possible to sail round Africa and + to reach India by sea from Alexandria. The government, however, would not + fit him out for a third voyage; but his reasons were strong enough to lead + many to join him, and others to help him with money, and he thereby fitted + out three vessels on this attempt to sail round Africa by the westward + voyage. He passed the Pillars of Hercules, or Straits of Gibraltar, and + then turned southward. He even reached that part of Africa where the coast + turns eastward. Here he was stopped by his ships wanting repair. The only + knowledge that he brought back for us is, that the natives of that western + coast were of nearly the same race as the Ethiopians on the eastern coast. + He was able to sail only part of the way back, and he reached Mauritania + with difficulty by land. He thence returned home, where he met with the + fate not unusual to early travellers. His whole story was doubted; and the + geographers at home did not believe that he had ever visited the countries + that he attempted to describe. + </p> + <p> + The people of Lower Egypt were, as we have seen, of several races; and, as + each of the surrounding nations was in its turn powerful, that race of men + was uppermost in Lower Egypt. Before the fall of Thebes the Kopts ruled in + the Delta; when the free states of Greece held the first rank in the + world, even before the time of Alexander’s conquests, the Greeks of Lower + Egypt were masters of their fellow-countrymen; and now that Judæa, under + the bravery of the Maccabees, had gained among nations a rank far higher + than what its size entitled it to, the Egyptian Jews found that they had + in the same way gained weight in Alexandria. Cleopatra had given the + command of her army to two Jews, Chelcias and Ananias, the sons of Onias, + the priest of Heliopolis; and hence, when the civil war broke out between + the Jews and Samaritans, Cleopatra helped the Jews, and perhaps for that + reason Lathyrus helped the Samaritans. He sent six thousand men to his + friend, Antiochus Cyzicenus, to be led against the Jews, but this force + was beaten by the two sons of Hyrcanus, the high priest. + </p> + <p> + By this act Lathyrus must have lost the good-will of the Jews of Lower + Egypt, and hence Cleopatra again ventured to choose her own partner on the + throne. She raised a riot in Alexandria against him, in the tenth year of + their reign, on his putting to death some of her friends, or more likely, + as Pausanias says, by showing to the people some of her eunuchs covered + with blood, who she said were wounded by him; and she forced him to fly + from Egypt. She took from him his wife, Selene, whom she had before thrust + upon him, and who had borne him two children; and she allowed him to + withdraw to the kingdom of Cyprus, from which place she recalled her + favourite son, Alexander, to reign with her in Egypt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0017" id="linkCimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/268.jpg" width="100%" + alt="268.jpg Temple Portico at Contra-latopoli " /> + </div> + <p> + During these years the building was going forward of the beautiful temple + at the city, afterwards named by the Romans Contra-Latopolis, on the other + side of the Nile from Latopolis or Esne. Little now remains of it but its + massive portico, upheld by two rows of four columns each, having the globe + with outstretched wings carved on the overhanging eaves. The earliest + names found among the hieroglyphics with which its walls are covered are + those of Cleopatra Cocce and her son, Ptolemy Soter, while the latest name + is that of the Emperor Commodus. Even under Cleopatra Cocce, who was + nearly the worst of the family, the building of these great temples did + not cease. + </p> + <p> + The two sons were so far puppets in the hands of their clever mother, that + on the recall of Alexander no change was seen in the government beyond + that of the names which were placed at the head of the public acts. The + former year was called the tenth of Cleopatra and Ptolemy Soter, and this + year was called the eleventh of Cleopatra and eighth of Ptolemy Alexander; + as Alexander counted his years from the time when he was sent with the + title of king to Cyprus. As he was, like his brother, under the guidance + of his mother, he was like him in the hieroglyphical inscriptions called + <i>mother-loving</i>. + </p> + <p> + While the kingdoms of Egypt and Syria were alike weakened by civil wars + and by the vices of their kings, Judæa, as we have seen, had risen under + the wise government of the Maccabees to the rank of an independent state; + and latterly Aristobulus, the eldest son of Hyr-canus, and afterwards + Alexander Jannseus, his second son, had made themselves kings. But Gaza, + Ptolemaïs, and some other cities, bravely refused to part with their + liberty, and sent to Lathyrus, then King of Cyprus, for help. This was + not, however, done without many misgivings; for some were wise enough to + see that, if Lathyrus helped them, Cleopatra would, on the other hand, + help their king, Jannasus; and when Lathyrus landed at Sicaminos with + thirty thousand men, the citizens of Ptolemaïs refused even to listen to a + message from him. + </p> + <p> + The city of Gaza then eagerly sent for the help which the city of + Ptolemaïs refused. Lathyrus drove back Jannasus, and marched upon Asochis, + a city of Galilee, where he scaled the walls on the Sabbath Day, and took + ten thousand prisoners and a large booty. He then sat down before the city + of Saphoris, but left it on hearing that Jannasus was marching against him + on the other side of the Jordan, at the head of a force larger than his + own. He crossed the river in face of the Jewish army, and routed it with + great slaughter. The Jewish historian adds, that between thirty and fifty + thousand men were slain upon the field of battle, and that the women and + children of the neighbouring villages were cruelly put to death. + </p> + <p> + Cleopatra now began to fear that her son Lathyrus would soon make himself + too powerful, if not checked in his career of success, and that he might + be able to march upon Egypt. She therefore mustered her forces, and put + them under the command of Chelcias and Ananias, her Jewish generals. She + sent her treasure, her will, and the children of Alexander, to the island + of Cos, as a place of safety, and then marched with the army into + Palestine, having sent forward her son Alexander with the fleet. By this + movement Lathyrus was unable to keep his ground in Coele-Syria, and he + took the bold step of marching towards Egypt. But he was quickly followed + by Chelcias, and his army was routed, though Chelcias lost his life in the + battle. Cleopatra, after taking Ptolemaïs, sent part of her army to help + that which had been led by Chelcias; and Lathyrus was forced to shut + himself up in Gaza. Soon after this the campaign ended, by Lathyrus + returning to Cyprus, and Cleopatra to Egypt. + </p> + <p> + On this success, Cleopatra was advised to seize upon the throne of + Jannseus, and again to add to Egypt the provinces of Palestine and + Coele-Syria, which had so long made part of the kingdom of her + forefathers. She yielded, however, to the reasons of her general Ananias, + for the Jews of Lower Egypt were too strong to be treated with slight. It + was by the help of the Jews that Cleopatra had driven her son Lathyrus out + of Egypt; they formed a large part of the Egyptian armies, which were no + longer even commanded by Greeks; and it must have been by these clear and + unanswerable reasons that Ananias was able to turn the queen from the + thoughts of this conquest, and to renew the league between Egypt and + Judæa. + </p> + <p> + Cleopatra, however, was still afraid that Lathyrus would be helped by his + friend Antiochus Cyzicenus to conquer Egypt, and she therefore kept up the + quarrel between the brothers by again sending troops to help Antiochus + Grypus; and lastly, she gave him in marriage her daughter Selene, whom she + had before forced upon Lathyrus. She then sent an army against Cyprus; and + Lathyrus was beaten and forced to fly from the island. + </p> + <p> + In the middle of this reign died Ptolemy Apion, King of Cyrene. He was the + half-brother of Lathyrus and Alexander, and, having been made King of + Cyrene by his father Euergetes II., he had there reigned quietly for + twenty years. Being between Egypt and Carthage, then called the Roman + province of Africa, and having no army which he could lead against the + Roman legions, he had placed himself under the guardianship of Rome; he + had bought a truce during his lifetime, by making the Roman people his + heirs in his will, so that on his death they were to have his kingdom. + Cyrene had been part of Egypt for above two hundred years, and was usually + governed by a younger son or brother of the king. But on the death of + Ptolemy Apion, the Roman senate, who had latterly been grasping at + everything within their reach, claimed his kingdom as their inheritance, + and in the flattering language of their decree by which the country was + enslaved, they declared Cyrene free. From that time forward it was + practically a province of Rome. + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy Alexander, who had been a mere tool in the hands of his mother, + was at last tired of his gilded chains; but he saw no means of throwing + them off, or of gaining that power in the state which his birth and title, + and the age which he had then reached, ought to have given him. The army + was in favour of his mother, and an unsuccessful effort would certainly + have been punished with death; so he took perhaps the only path open to + him: he left Egypt by stealth, and chose rather to quit his throne and + palace than to live surrounded by the creatures of his mother and in daily + fear for his life. Cleopatra might well doubt whether she could keep her + throne against both her sons, and she therefore sent messengers with fair + promises to Alexander, to ask him to return to Egypt. But he knew his + mother too well ever again to trust himself in her hands; and while she + was taking steps to have him put to death on his return, he formed a plot + against her life by letters. In this double game Alexander had the + advantage of his mother; her character was so well known that he needed + not to be told of what was going on; while she perhaps thought that the + son whom she had so long ruled as a child would not dare to act as a man. + Alexander’s plot was of the two the best laid, and on his reaching Egypt + his mother was put to death. + </p> + <p> + But Alexander did not long enjoy the fruits of his murder. The next year + the Alexandrians rose against him in a fury. He was hated not so much + perhaps for the murder of his mother as for the cruelties which he had + been guilty of, or at least had to bear the blame of, while he reigned + with her. His own soldiers turned against him, and he was forced to seek + his safety by flying on board a vessel in the harbour, and he left Egypt + with his wife and daughter. He was followed by a fleet under the command + of Tyrrhus, but he reached Myrse, a city of Lycia, in safety; and + afterwards, in crossing over to Cyprus, he was met by an Egyptian fleet + under Chaereas, and killed in battle. + </p> + <p> + Though others may have been guilty of more crimes, Alexander had perhaps + the fewest good qualities of any of the family of the Lagidaa. During his + idle reign of twenty years, in which the crimes ought in fairness to be + laid chiefly to his mother, he was wholly given up to the lowest and worst + of pleasures, by which his mind and body were alike ruined. He was so + bloated with vice and disease that he seldom walked without crutches; but + at his feasts he could leap from his raised couch and dance with naked + feet upon the floor with the companions of his vices. He was blinded by + flattery, ruined by debauchery, and hated by the people. + </p> + <p> + His coins are not easily known from those of the other kings, which also + bore the name of “Ptolemy the king” round the eagle. Some of the coins of + his mother have the same words round the eagle on the one side, while on + the other is her head, with a helmet formed like the head of an elephant, + or her head with the name of “Queen Cleopatra” There are other coins with + the usual head of Jupiter, and with two eagles to point out the joint + sovereignty of herself and son. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0018" id="linkCimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:36%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/274.jpg" + alt="274.jpg Coin of Cleopatra and Alexander " /> + </div> + <p> + Few buildings or parts of buildings mark the reign of Ptolemy Alexander; + but his name is not wholly unknown among the sculptures of Upper Egypt. On + the walls of the temple of Apollinopolis Magna he is represented as making + an offering to the god Horus. There the Egyptian artist has carved a + portrait of this Greek king, whom he perhaps had never seen, clothed in a + dress which he never wore, and worshipping a god whom he may have hardly + known by name. + </p> + <p> + History has not told us who was the first wife of Alexander, but he left a + son by her named after himself Ptolemy Alexander, whom we have seen sent + by his grandmother for safety to the island of Cos, the fortress of the + family, and a daughter whom he carried with him in his flight to Lycia. + His second wife was Cleopatra Berenicê, the daughter of his brother + Lathyrus, by whom he had no children, and who is called in the + hieroglyphics his queen and sister. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0019" id="linkCimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/275.jpg" + alt="275.jpg Coin of Cleopatra and Alexander, With Eagles " /> + </div> + <p> + On the flight of Alexander, the Alexandrians sent an embassy to Cyprus to + bring back Soter II., or Lathyrus, as he is called; and he entered Egypt + without any opposition. He had reigned ten years with his mother, and then + eighteen years by himself in Cyprus; and during those years of banishment + had shown a wisdom and good behaviour which must have won the esteem of + the Alexandrians, when compared with his younger brother Alexander. He had + held his ground against the fleets and armies of his mother, but either + through weakness or good feeling had never invaded Egypt. + </p> + <p> + His reign is remarkable for the rebellion and ruin of the once powerful + city of Thebes. It had long been falling in trade and in wealth, and had + lost its superiority in arms; but its temples, like so many citadels, its + obelisks, its colossal statues, and the tombs of its great kings still + remained, and with them the memory of its glory then gone by. + </p> + <p> + The hieroglyphics on the walls still recounted to its fallen priests and + nobles the provinces in Europe, Asia, and Africa which they once governed, + and the weight of gold, silver, and corn which these provinces sent as a + yearly tribute. The paintings and sculptures showed the men of all nations + and of all colours, from the Tatar of the north to the Negro of the south, + who had graced the triumphs of their kings: and with these proud trophies + before their eyes they had been bending under the yoke of Euergetes II. + and Cleopatra Cocce for about fifty years. So small a measure of justice + has usually been given to a conquered people by their rulers, that their + highest hopes have risen to nothing more than an escape from excess of + tyranny. If life, property, female honour, national and religious feelings + have not been constantly and wantonly outraged, lesser evils have been + patiently endured. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0020" id="linkCimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:53%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/276.jpg" + alt="276.jpg the Memnonium at Thebes " /> + </div> + <p> + Political servitude, heavy taxes, daily ill-treatment, and occasional + cruelty the Thebans had borne for two centuries and a half under their + Greek masters, as no less the lot of humanity than poverty, disease, and + death. But under the government of Cleopatra Cocce the measure of their + injuries overflowed, and taking advantage of the revolutions in + Alexandria, a large part of Upper Egypt rose in rebellion. + </p> + <p> + We can therefore hardly wonder that when Lathyrus landed in Egypt, and + tried to recall the troubled cities to quiet government and good order, + Thebes should have refused to obey. The spirit of the warriors who + followed Ramses to the shores of the Black Sea was not quite dead. For + three years the brave Kopts, entrenched within their temples, every one of + which was a castle, withstood his armies; but the bows, the hatchets, and + the chariots could do little against Greek arms; while the overthrow of + the massive temple walls, and the utter ruin of the city, prove how slowly + they yielded to greater skill and numbers, and mark the conqueror’s + distrust lest the temples should be again so made use of. Perhaps the only + time before when Thebes had been stormed after a long siege was when it + first fell under the Persians; and the ruin which marked the footsteps of + Cambyses had never been wholly repaired. But the wanton cruelty of the + foreigners did little mischief, when compared with the unpitying and + unforgiving distrust of the native conquerors. The temples of Tentyra, + Apollinopolis, Latopolis, and Philæ show that the massive Egyptian + buildings, when let alone, can withstand the wear of time for thousands of + years; but the harder hand of man works much faster, and the wide acres of + Theban ruins prove alike the greatness of the city and the force with + which it was overthrown; and this is the last time that Egyptian Thebes is + met with in the pages of history. + </p> + <p> + The traveller, whose means and leisure have allowed him to reach the spot, + now counts the Arab villages which have been built within the city’s + bounds, and perhaps pitches his tent in the open space in the middle of + them. But the ruined temples still stand to call forth his wonder. They + have seen the whole portion of time of which history keeps the reckoning + roll before them; they have seen kingdoms and nations rise and fall: + Babylonians, Assyrians, Hebrews, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. They have + seen the childhood of all that we call ancient; and they still seem likely + to stand, to tell their tale to those who will hereafter call us ancients. + After this rebellion, Lathyrus reigned in quiet, and was even able to be + of use to his Greek allies; and the Athenians, in gratitude, set up + statues of bronze to him and Berenicê, his daughter. + </p> + <p> + During this reign, the Romans were carrying on a war with Mithridates, + King of Pontus, in Asia Minor; and Sulla, who was then at the head of the + republic, sent Lucullus, the soldier, the scholar, and the philosopher, as + ambassador to Alexandria, to ask for help against the enemy. The Egyptian + fleet moved out of harbour to meet him, a pomp which the kings of Egypt + had before kept for themselves alone. Lathyrus received him on shore with + the greatest respect, lodged him in the palace, and invited him to his own + table, an honour which no foreigner had enjoyed since the kings of Egypt + had thrown aside the plain manners of the first Ptolemies. Lucullus had + brought with him the philosopher Antiochus of Athens, who had been the + pupil of Philo, and they found time to enjoy the society of Dion, the + academic philosopher, who was then teaching at Alexandria; and there they + might have been seen with Heraclitus of Tyre, talking together about the + changes which were creeping into the Platonic philosophy, and about the + two newest works of Philo, which had just come to Alexandria. Antiochus + could not read them without showing his anger: such sceptical opinions had + never before been heard of in the Academy; but they knew the handwriting + of Philo, they were certainly his. Selius and Tetrilius, who were there, + had heard him teach the same opinions at Rome, whither he had fled, and + where he was then teaching Cicero. The next day, the matter was again + talked over with Lucullus, Heraclitus, Aristus of Athens, Ariston, and + Dion; and it ended in Antiochus writing a book, which he named Sosus, + against those new opinions of his old master, against the new Academy, and + in behalf of the old Academy. + </p> + <p> + Lathyrus understood the principles of the balance of power and his own + interest too well to help the Romans to crush Mithridates, and he wisely + wished not to quarrel with either. He therefore at once made up his mind + not to grant the fleet which Lucullus had been sent to ask for. It had + been usual for the kings of Egypt to pay the expenses of the Roman + ambassadors while living in Alexandria; and Lathyrus offered four times + the usual allowance to Lucullus, beside eighty talents of silver. + Lucullus, however, would take nothing beyond his expenses, and returned + the gifts, which were meant as a civil refusal of the fleet; and, having + failed in his embassy, he sailed hastily for Cyprus, leaving the wonders + of Egypt unvisited. Lathyrus sent a fleet of honour to accompany him on + his voyage, and gave him his portrait cut in an emerald. Mithridates was + soon afterwards conquered by the Romans; and it was only by skilful + embassies and well-timed bribes that Lathyrus was able to keep off the + punishment which seemed to await him for having thus disobeyed the orders + of Sulla. Egypt was then the only kingdom, to the west of Persia, that had + not yet bowed its neck under the Roman yoke. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Lathyrus are not easily or certainly known from those of the + other Ptolemies; but those of his second wife bear her head on the one + side, with the name of “Queen Selene,” and on the other side the eagle, + with the name of “King Ptolemy.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0021" id="linkCimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:36%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/280.jpg" + alt="280.jpg Coin of Ptolemy Lathyrus and Selene. " /> + </div> + <p> + He had before reigned ten years with his mother, and after his brother’s + death he reigned six years and a half more, but, as he counted the years + that he had reigned in Cyprus, he died in the thirty-seventh year of his + reign. He left a daughter named Berenicê, and two natural sons, each named + Ptolemy, one of whom reigned in Cyprus, and the other, nicknamed Auletes, + <i>the piper</i>, afterwards gained the throne of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + On the death of Lathyrus, or Ptolemy Soter II., his daughter Cleopatra + Berenicê, the widow of Ptolemy Alexander, mounted the throne of Egypt in + B.C. 80; but it was also claimed by her stepson, the young Alexander, who + was then living in Rome. Alexander had been sent to the island of Cos, as + a place of safety, when his grandmother Cleopatra Cocce followed her army + into Coele-Syria. But, as the Egyptians had lost the command of the sea, + the royal treasure in Cos was no longer out of danger, and the island was + soon afterwards taken by Mithridates, King of Pontus, who had conquered + Asia Minor. Among the treasures in that island the Alexandrians lost one + of the sacred relics of the kingdom, the chlamys or war-cloak which had + belonged to Alexander the Great, and which they had kept with religious + care as the safeguard of the empire. It then fell into the hands of + Mithridates, and on his overthrow it became the prize of Pompey, who wore + it in his triumph at the end of the Mithridatic war. With this chlamys, as + had always been foretold by the believers in wonders, Egypt lost its rank + among nations, and the command of the world passed to the Romans, who now + possessed this time-worn symbol of sovereignty. + </p> + <p> + Alexander also at that time fell into the hands of Mithridates; but he + afterwards escaped, and reached the army of Sulla, under whose care he + lived for some time in Rome. The Alexandrian prince hoped to gain the + throne of his father by means of the friendship of one who could make and + unmake kings at his pleasure; and Sulla might have thought that the wealth + of Egypt would be at his command by means of his young friend. To these + reasons Alexander added the bribe which was then becoming common with the + princes who held their thrones by the help of Rome, he made a will, in + which he named the Roman people as his heirs; and the senate then took + care that the kingdom of Egypt should be a part of the wealth which was + afterwards to be theirs by inheritance. After Berenicê, his stepmother, + had been queen about six months, they sent him to Alexandria, with orders + that he should be received as king; and, to soften the harshness of this + command, he was told to marry Berenicê, and reign jointly with her. + </p> + <p> + The orders of Sulla, the Roman dictator, were of course obeyed; and the + young Alexander landed at Alexandria, as King of Egypt and the friend of + Rome. He married Berenicê; and on the nineteenth day of his reign, with a + cruelty unfortunately too common in this history, he put her to death. The + marriage had been forced upon him by the Romans, who ordered all the + political affairs of the kingdom; but, as they took no part in the civil + or criminal affairs, he seems to have been at liberty to murder his wife. + But Alexander was hated by the people as a king thrust upon them by + foreign arms; and Berenicê, whatever they might have before thought of + her, was regretted as the queen of their choice. Hence his crime met with + its reward. His own guards immediately rose upon him; they dragged him + from the palace to the gymnasium, and there put him to death. + </p> + <p> + Though the Romans had already seized the smaller kingdom of Cyrene under + the will of Ptolemy Apion, they could not agree among themselves upon the + wholesale robbery of taking Egypt under the will which Alexander had made + in their favour. They seized, however, a paltry sum of money which he had + left at Tyre as a place of safety; and it was a matter of debate for many + years afterwards in Rome, whether they should not claim the kingdom of + Egypt. But the nobles of Rome, who sold their patronage to kings for sums + equal to the revenues of provinces, would have lost much by handing the + kingdom over to the senate. Hence the Egyptian monarchy was left standing + for two reigns longer. + </p> + <p> + On the death of Ptolemy Alexander, the Alexandrians might easily have + changed their weak and wicked rulers, and formed a government for + themselves, if they had known how. The legitimate male line of the + Ptolemies came to an end on the death of the young Alexander II. The two + natural sons of Soter II. were then the next in succession; and, as there + was no other claimant, the crown fell to the elder. He was young, perhaps + even a minor under the age of fourteen. His claims had been wholly + overlooked at the death of his father; for though by the Egyptian law + every son was held to be equally legitimate, it was not so by the + Macedonian law. He took the name of Neus Dionysus, or the young Osiris, as + we find it written in the hieroglyphics, though he is usually called + Auletes, <i>the piper</i>; a name afterwards given him because he was more + proud of his skill in playing on the flute than of his very slender + knowledge of the art of governing. + </p> + <p> + It was in this reign that the historian Diodorus Siculus travelled in + Egypt, and wrote his account of the manners and religion of the people. + What he tells us of the early Egyptian history is of little value when + compared with the history by Manetho, who was a native of the country and + could read the hieroglyphic records, or even with that by Herodotus; but + nevertheless he deserves great praise, and our warmest thanks, for being + nearly the first Greek writer when Egyptian learning could no longer be + thought valuable; when the religion, though looked down upon, might at any + rate be studied with ease—for being nearly the first writer who + thought the manners of this ancient people, after they had almost passed + off the page of history, worth the notice of a philosopher. + </p> + <p> + Diodorus never quotes Manetho, but follows Herodotus in making one great + hero for the chief actions of antiquity, whom he calls Sesoosis or + Sesonchosis. To him he assigns every great work of which the author was + unknown, the canals in the Delta, the statue of Amenhôthes III., the + obelisks of Ramses II., the distant navigation under Necho, the mounds and + trenches dug against Assyrian and Persian invasion, and even the great + ship of Ptolemy Philopator; and not knowing that Southern Arabia and even + Ethiopia had by the Alexandrians been sometimes called India, he says that + this hero conquered even India beyond the Ganges. On the other hand, the + fabulous conquest of the great serpent, the enemy of the human race, which + we see sculptured on the sarcophagus of Oimenepthah, he describes as an + historic fact of the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He tells us how this + huge beast, forty-five feet long, was beaten down by troops of archers, + slingers, and cavalry, and brought alive in a net to Alexandria, where + Eve’s old enemy was shown in a cage for the amusement of the curious + citizens. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0022" id="linkCimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:46%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/287.jpg" + alt="287.jpg Horus on the Crocodiles. Bulak Museum. " /> + </div> + <p> + Memphis was then a great city; in its crowded streets, its palaces and + temples, it was second only to Alexandria. A little to the west stood the + pyramids, which were thought one of the seven wonders of the world. Their + broad bases, sloping sides, and solid masonry had withstood the weather + for ages; and their huge unwieldy stones were a less easy quarry for after + builders than the live rock when nearer to the river’s side. The priests + of Memphis knew the names of the kings who, one after the other, had built + a new portico to their great temple of Phtah; but as to when or by whom + the pyramids were built, they had perhaps less knowledge than the present + day historian. The modern Egyptologist, with his patient investigation, + assigns the largest of these three pyramids to Khûfûi or Kheops, a famous + ruler of the fourth dynasty, and the others were erected by his immediate + successors. The temple of Phtah, and every other building of Memphis, is + now gone, and near the spot stands the great city of Cairo, whose mosques + and minarets have been quarried of its ruins, but the pyramids still + stand, after fifty-six centuries of broken and changing history, unbroken + and unchanged. They have outlived any portion of time that their builders + could have dreamed of, but their worn surface no longer declares to us + their builders’ names and history. Their sloping sides, formed to + withstand attacks, have not saved the inscriptions which they once held; + and the builders, in thus overlooking the reed which was growing in their + marshes, the papyrus, to which the great minds of Greece afterwards + trusted their undying names, have only taught us how much safer it would + have been, in their wish to be thought of and talked of in after ages, to + have leaned upon the poet and historian. + </p> + <p> + The beautiful temples of Dendera and Latopolis, which were raised by the + untiring industry of ages and finished, under the Roman emperors, were + begun about this reign. Though some of the temples of Lower Egypt had + fallen into decay; and though the throne was then tottering to its fall, + the priests in Upper Egypt were still building for immortality. The + religion of the Kopts was still flourishing. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptian’s opinion of the creation was the growth of his own river’s + bank. The thoughtful man, who saw the Nile every year lay a body of solid + manure upon his field, was able to measure against the walls of the old + temples that the ground was slowly but certainly rising. An increase of + the earth was being brought about by the river. Hence he readily believed + that the world itself had of old been formed out of water, and by means of + water. The philosophers were nearly of the same opinion. They held that + matter was itself eternal, like the other gods, and that our world, in the + beginning, before it took any shape upon itself, was like thin mud, or a + mass of water containing all things that were afterwards to be brought + forth out of it. When the water had by its divine will separated itself + from the earth, then the great Ra, the sun, sent down his quickening heat, + and plants and animals came forth out of the wet-land, as the insects are + spawned out of the fields, before the eyes of the husbandman, every autumn + after the Nile’s overflow has retreated. The crafty priests of the Nile + declared that they had themselves visited and dwelt in the caverns beneath + the river, where these treasures, while yet unshaped, were kept in store + and waiting to come into being. + </p> + <p> + And on the days sacred to the Nile, boys, the children of priestly + families, were every year dedicated to the blue river-god that they might + spend their youth in monastic retirement, and as it was said in these + caverns beneath his waves. These early Egyptian myths seem to have + influenced the compilers of the Hebrew Scriptures. The author of the book + of Genesis tells us that the Hebrew God formed the earth and its + inhabitants by dividing the land from the water, and then commanding them + both to bring forth living creatures; and again one of the Psalmists says + that his substance, while yet imperfect, was by the Creator curiously + wrought in the lowest depths of the earth. The Hebrew writer, however, + never thinks that any part of the creation was its own creator. But in the + Egyptian philosophy sunshine and the river Nile are themselves the divine + agents; and hence fire and water received divine honours, as the two + purest of the elements; and every day when the temple of Serapis in + Alexandria was opened, the singer standing on the steps of the portico + sprinkled water over the marble floor while he held forth the fire to the + people; and though he and most of his hearers were Greeks, he called upon + the god in the Egyptian language. + </p> + <p> + The inner walls of the temples glittered with gold and silver and amber, + and sparkled with gems from Ethiopia and India; and the recesses were + veiled with rich curtains. The costliness was often in striking contrast + with the chief inmate, much to the surprise of the Greek traveller, who, + having leave to examine a temple, had entered the sacred rooms, and asked + to be shown the image of the god for whose sake it was built. One of the + priests in waiting then approached with a solemn look, chanting a hymn, + and pulling aside the veil allowed him to peep in at a snake, a crocodile, + or a cat, or some other beast, fitter to inhabit a bog or cavern than to + lie on a purple cushion in a stately palace. The funerals of the sacred + animals were celebrated with great pomp, particularly that of the bull + Apis; and at a cost, in one case, of one hundred talents, or eighty-five + thousand dollars, which was double what Ptolemy Soter, in his wish to + please his new subjects, spent upon the Apis of his day. After the funeral + the priests looked for a calf with the right spots, and when they had + found one they fattened it for forty days, and brought it to Memphis in a + boat under a golden awning, and lodged it safely in the temple. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0023" id="linkCimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/289.jpg" width="100%" + alt="289.jpg Religious Procession on the Nile " /> + </div> + <p> + The religious feelings of the Egyptians were much warmer and stronger than + those of the Greeks or Romans; they have often been accused of eating one + another, but never of eating a sacred animal. Once a year the people of + Memphis celebrated the birthday of Apis with great pomp and expense, and + one of the chief ceremonies on the occasion was the throwing a golden dish + into the Nile. During the week that these rejoicings lasted, while the + sacred river was appeased by gifts, the crocodile was thought to lose its + fierceness, its teeth were harmless, and it never attempted to bite; and + it was not till six o’clock on the eighth day that this animal again + became an object of fear to those whose occupations brought them to the + banks of the Nile. Once a year also the statues of the gods were removed + from their pedestals and placed in barges, and thus carried in solemn + procession along the Nile, and only brought back to the temples after some + days. It was supposed that the gods were passing these days on a visit to + the righteous Ethiopians. + </p> + <p> + The cat was at all times one of the animals held most sacred by the + Egyptians. In the earliest and latest times we find the statues of their + goddesses with cats’ heads. The cats of Alexandria were looked upon as so + many images of Neith or the Minerva of Saïs, a goddess worshipped both by + Greeks and Egyptians; and it passed into a proverb with the Greeks, when + they spoke of any two things being unlike, to say that they were as much + like one another as a cat was to Minerva. It is to Alexandria also that we + trace the story of a cat turned into a lady to please a prince who had + fallen in love with it. The lady, however, when dressed in her bridal + robes, could not help scampering about the room after a mouse seen upon + the floor; and when Plutarch was in Egypt it had already become a proverb, + that any one in too much finery was as awkward as a cat in a + crocus-coloured robe. + </p> + <p> + So deeply rooted in the minds of the Egyptians was the worship of these + animals that, when a Roman soldier had killed a cat unawares, though the + Romans were masters of the country, the people rose against him in a fury. + In vain the king sent a message to quiet the mob, to let them know that + the cat was killed by accident; and, though the fear of Rome would most + likely have saved a Roman soldier unharmed whatever other crime he might + have been guilty of, in this case nothing would quiet the people but his + death, and he was killed before the eyes of Diodorus, the historian. One + nation rises above another not so much from its greater strength or skill + in arms as from its higher aim and stronger wish for power. The Egyptians, + we see, had not lost their courage, and when the occasion called them out + they showed a fearlessness not unworthy of their Theban forefathers; on + seeing a dead cat in the streets they rose against the king’s orders and + the power of Rome; had they thought their own freedom or their country’s + greatness as much worth fighting for, they could perhaps have gained them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0024" id="linkCimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/291.jpg" width="100%" + alt="291.jpg Egyptian Funeral Ceremonies " /> + </div> + <p> + But the Egyptians had no civil laws or rights that they cared about; they + had nothing left that they valued but their religion, and this the Romans + took good care not to meddle with. Had the Romans made war upon the + priests and temples, as the Persians had done, they would perhaps in the + same way have been driven out of Egypt: but they never shocked the + religious feelings of the people, and even after Egypt had become a Roman + province, when the beautiful temples of Esne, Dendera, and other cities, + were dedicated in the names of the Roman emperors, they seldom copied the + example of Philometor, and put Greek, much less Roman, writing on the + portico, but continued to let the walls be covered with hieroglyphical + inscriptions. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptians, when rich enough to pay for it, still had the bodies of + their friends embalmed at their death, and made into mummies; though the + priests, to save part of the cost, often put the mummy of a man just dead + into a mummy-case which had been made and used in the reign of a Thûtmosis + or an Amenhôthes. They thought that every man at his death took upon + himself the character of Osiris, that the nurses who laid out the dead + body represented the goddesses Isis and Nepthys, while the man who made + the mummy was supposed to be the god Anubis. When the embalming was + finished, it was part of the funeral to bring the dead man to trial for + what he had done when living, and thus to determine whether he was + entitled to an honourable burial. The mummy was ferried across the lake + belonging to the temple, and taken before the judge Osiris. A pair of + scales was brought forth by the dog-headed Anubis and the hawk-headed + Horus; and with this they weighed the past life of the deceased. The + judge, with the advice of a jury of forty-two, then pronounced the solemn + verdict, which was written down by the ibis-headed Thot. But human nature + is the same in all ages and in all countries, and, whatever might have + been the past life of the dead, the judge, not to hurt the feelings of the + friends, always declared that he was “a righteous and a good man:” and, + notwithstanding the show of truth in the trial, it passed into a proverb + to say of a wicked man, that he was too bad to be praised even at his + funeral. This custom of embalming was thought right by all; but from + examining the mummies that have come down to us, it would seem to have + been very much confined to the priestly families, and seldom used in the + case of children. The mummies, however, were highly valued by the + survivors of the family, and when from poverty any man was driven to + borrow money, the mummies were thought good security by the lender, and + taken as such for the loan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0025" id="linkCimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/293.jpg" width="100%" + alt="293.jpg Mummy, Mummy-cases, and Casket " /> + </div> + <p> + The mummy-cases indeed could be sold for a large sum, as when made of wood + they were covered with painting, and sometimes in part gilt, and often + three in number, one enclosing the other. The stone mummy-cases were yet + more valuable, as they were either of white alabaster or hard black + basalt, beautifully polished, in either case carved with hieroglyphics, + and modelled to the shape of the body like the inner wooden cases. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to note here that the pigment known to modern art by the + name of mummy is, in many cases, actually prepared from the bituminous + substances preserved within the wrappings of the ancient mummies. The + grinding up of mummies imported from Thebes or Memphis for the purpose of + enabling the twentieth century painter to paint the golden tresses of + contemporary belles is of course not very extensively carried on, for one + mummy will make several thousand tubes of paint, but the practice exists, + and of late has been protested against both in England and France. + </p> + <p> + Though the old laws of Egypt must very much have fallen into disuse during + the reigns of the latter Ptolemies, they had at least been left unchanged; + and they teach us that the shadow of freedom may be seen, as in Rome under + the Cæsars, and in Florence under the Medici, long after the substance has + been lost. In quarrels between man and man, the thirty judges, from the + cities of Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis, were still guided by the eight + books of the law. The king, the priests, and the soldiers were the only + landholders in the country, while the herdsmen, husbandmen, and + handicraftsmen were thought of lower caste. Though the armies of Egypt + were for the most part filled with Greek mercenaries, and the landholders + of the order of soldiers could then have had as little to do with arms as + knights and esquires have in our days, yet they still boasted of the + wisdom of their laws, by which arms were only to be trusted to men who had + a stake in the country worth fighting for. The old manners had long since + passed away. The priests alone obeyed the old marriage law, that a man + should have only one wife. Other men, when rich enough, married several. + All children were held equally legitimate, whatever woman was the mother. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0026" id="linkCimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/295.jpg" width="100%" + alt="295.jpg Development of Egyptian Caricature " /> + </div> + <p> + It is to these latter reigns of the Ptolemies, when high feeling was sadly + wanting in all classes of society, when literature and art were alike in a + very low state, that we may place the rise of caricature in Egypt. We find + drawings made on papyrus to scoff at what the nation used to hold sacred. + The sculptures on the walls of the temples are copied in little; and cats, + dogs, and monkeys are there placed in the attitudes of the gods and kings + of old. In one picture we have the mice attacking a castle defended by the + cats, copied from a battle-scene of Ramses II. fighting against the + Ethiopians. In another the king on his throne as a dog, with a second dog + behind him as a fan-bearer, is receiving the sacred offerings from a cat. + In a third the king and queen are seen playing at chess or checkers in the + form of a lion playing with a unicorn or horned ass. + </p> + <p> + We may form some opinion of the wealth of Egypt in its more prosperous + times when we learn from Cicero that in this reign, when the Romans had + good means of knowing, the revenues of the country amounted to twelve + thousand five hundred talents, or ten million dollars; just one-half of + which wras paid by the port of Alexandria. This was at a time when the + foreign trade had, through the faults of the government, sunk down to its + lowest ebb; when not more than twenty ships sailed each year from the Red + Sea to India; when the free population of the kingdom had so far fallen + off that it was not more than three millions, which was only half of what + it had been in the reign of Ptolemy Soter, though Alexandria alone still + held three hundred thousand persons. + </p> + <p> + But, though much of the trade of the country was lost, though many of the + royal works had ceased, though the manufacture of the finer linen had left + the country, the digging in the gold mines, the favourite source of wealth + to a despot, never ceased. Night and day in the mines near the Golden + Berenicê did slaves, criminals, and prisoners of war work without pause, + chained together in gangs, and guarded by soldiers, who were carefully + chosen for their not being able to speak the language of these unhappy + workmen. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0027" id="linkCimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/297.jpg" width="100%" alt="297.jpg the Mines of Maghara " /> + </div> + <p> + The rock which held the gold was broken up into small pieces; when hard it + was first made brittle in the fire; the broken stone was then washed to + separate the waste from the heavier grains which held the gold; and, + lastly, the valuable parts when separated were kept heated in a furnace + for five days, at the end of which time the pure gold was found melted + into a button at the bottom. But the mines were nearly worn out; and the + value of the gold was a very small part of the thirty-five million dollars + which they are said to have yielded every year in the reign of Ramses II. + </p> + <p> + As Auletes felt himself hardly safe upon the throne, his first wish was to + get himself acknowledged as king by the Roman senate. For this end he sent + to Rome a large sum of money to buy the votes of the senators, and he + borrowed a further sum of Rabirius Posthumus, one of the richest farmers + of the Roman taxes, which he spent on the same object. But though the + Romans never tried to turn him out of his kingdom, he did not get the + wished-for decree before he went to Rome in the twenty-fourth year of his + reign. But we know nothing of the first years of his reign. A nation must + be in a very demoralised state when its history disproves the saying, that + the people are happy while their annals are short. There was more virtue + and happiness, and perhaps even less bloodshed, with the stir of mind + while Ptolemy Soter was at war with Antigonus than during this dull, + un-warlike, and vicious time. The king gave himself up to his natural bent + for pleasure and debauchery. At times when virtue is uncopied and + unrewarded it is usually praised and let alone; but in this reign sobriety + was a crime in the eyes of the king, a quiet behaviour was thought a + reproach against his irregularities. The Platonic philosopher Demetrius + was in danger of being put to death because it was told to the king that + he never drank wine, and had been seen at the feast of Bacchus in his + usual dress, while every other man was in the dress of a woman. But the + philosopher was allowed to disprove the charge of sobriety, or at least to + make amends for his fault; and, on the king sending for him the next day, + he made himself drunk publicly in the sight of all the court, and danced + with cymbals in a loose dress of Tarentine gauze. But so few are the deeds + worth mentioning in the falling state that we are pleased even to be told + that, in the one hundred and seventy-eighth Olympiad, Strato of Alexandria + conquered in the Olympic games and was crowned in the same day for + wrestling, and for <i>pancratium</i>, or wrestling and boxing joined, + these sports being considered among the most honourable in which athletes + could contend. + </p> + <p> + In the thirteenth year of this reign (B.C. 68), when the war against the + pirates called for the whole naval force of Rome, Pompey sent a fleet + under Lentulus Marcellinus to clear the coast and creeks of Egypt from + these robbers. The Egyptian government was too weak to guard its own + trade; and Lentulus in his consulship put the Ptolemaic eagle and + thunderbolt on his coins, to show that he had exercised an act of + sovereignty. Three years later, we again meet with the eagle and + thunderbolt on the consular coins of Aurelius Cotta; and we learn from + Cicero that in that year it was found necessary to send a fleet to + Alexandria to enforce the orders of the senate. + </p> + <p> + We next find the Roman senate debating whether they should not seize the + kingdom as their inheritance under the wall of Ptolemy Alexander II., but, + moved by the bribes of Auletes, and perhaps by other reasons which we are + not told, they forbore to grasp the prize. In this difficulty Auletes was + helped by the great Pompey, to whom he had sent an embassy with a golden + crown wrorth four thousand pieces of gold, which met him at Damascus on + his Syrian campaign. He then formed a secret treaty with Mithridates, King + of Pontus, who was engaged in warfare with the Romans, their common enemy. + Auletes was now a widower with six young children, and Mithridates had two + daughters; and accordingly it was agreed that one daughter should be + married to Auletes, and the other to his brother, the King of Cyprus. But + the ruin and death of Mithridates broke off the marriages; and Auletes was + able to conceal from the Romans that he had ever formed an alliance with + their enemy. + </p> + <p> + In the year which was made famous by the consulship of Cicero, Jerusalem + was taken by the Roman army under Pompey; and Judæa, which had enjoyed a + shortlived freedom of less than one hundred years under the Maccabees, was + then put under a Roman governor. The fortifications of the temple were + destroyed. This was felt by the Jews of Lower Egypt as a heavy blow, and + from this time their sufferings in that country began. While their + brethren had been lords of Judæa, they had held up their heads with the + Greeks in Alexandria, but upon the fall of Jerusalem they sunk down to the + rank of the Egyptians. They thought worse of themselves, and they were + thought worse of by others. The Egyptian Jews were very closely allied to + the people of the Delta. Though they had been again and again warned by + their prophets not to mix with the Egyptians, they seem not to have + listened to the warning. They were in many religious points less strict + than their brethren in Judæa. The living in Egypt, the building a second + temple, and the using a Greek Bible, were all breaches, if not of the law, + at least of the tradition. They surrounded their synagogues with sacred + groves, which were clearly forbidden by Moses. Though they were not guilty + of worshipping images, yet they did not think it wrong to have portraits + and statues of themselves. In their dislike of pork, in their washings, + and in other Eastern customs, they were like the Egyptians; and hence the + Greeks, who thought them both barbarians, very grudgingly yielded to them + the privileges of choosing their own magistrates, of having their own + courts of justice, and the other rights of citizenship which the policy of + the Ptolemies had granted. The Jews, on the other hand, in whose eyes + religion was everything, saw the Greeks and Egyptians worshipping the same + gods and the same sacred animals, and felt themselves as far above the + Greeks in those branches of philosophy which arise out of religion as they + were below them in that rank which is gained by success in war. Hence it + was with many heartburnings, and not without struggles which shed blood in + the streets of Alexandria, that they found themselves, in the years which + ushered in the Christian era, sinking down to the level of the Egyptians, + and losing one by one the rights of Macedonian citizenship. + </p> + <p> + During these years Auletes had been losing his friends and weakening his + government, and, at last, when he refused to quarrel with the senate about + the island of Cyprus, the Egyptians rose against him in arms, and he was + forced to fly from Alexandria. He took ship for Rome, and in his way there + he met Cato, who was at Rhodes on his voyage to Cyprus. He sent to Cato to + let him know that he was in the city, and that he wished to see him. But + the Roman sent word back that he was unwell, and that if the king wanted + to speak to him he must come himself. This was not a time for Auletes to + quarrel with a senator, when he was on his way to Rome to beg for help + against his subjects; so he was forced to go to Cato’s lodgings, who did + not even rise from his seat when the king entered the room. But this + treatment was not quite new to Auletes; in his flight from Alexandria, in + disguise and without a servant, he had had to eat brown bread in the + cottage of a peasant; and he now learned how much more irksome it was to + wait upon the pleasure of a Roman senator. Cato gave him the best advice; + that, instead of going to Rome, where he would find that all the wealth of + Egypt would be thought a bribe too small for the greediness of the + senators whose votes he wanted, he would do better to return to + Alexandria, and make peace with his rebellious subjects. Auletes, however, + went on to Italy, and he arrived at Rome in the twenty-fourth year of his + reign; and in the three years that he spent there in courting and bribing + the senators, he learned the truth of Cato’s statements, and the value of + his advice. + </p> + <p> + His brother Ptolemy, who was reigning in Cyprus, was not even so well + treated. The Romans passed a law making that wealthy island a Roman + province, no doubt upon the plea of the will of Alexander II. and the + king’s illegitimacy; and they sent Cato, rather against his will, to turn + Ptolemy out of his kingdom. Ptolemy gave up the island without Cato being + called upon to use force, and in return the Romans made him high priest in + the temple of the Paphian Venus; but he soon put himself to death by + poison. Canidius Crassus, who had been employed by Cato in this affair, + may have had some fighting at sea with the Egyptians, as on one of his + coins we see on one side a crocodile, and on the other the prow of a ship, + as if he had beaten the Egyptian fleet in the mouth of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + On the flight of their king, the rebellious Alexandrians set on the throne + the two eldest of his daughters, Cleopatra Tryphaena and Berenicê, and + sent an embassy, at the head of which was Dion, the academic philosopher, + to plead their cause at Rome against the king. But the gold of Auletes had + already gained the senate; and Cicero spoke, on his behalf, one of his + great speeches, now unfortunately lost, in which he rebutted the charge + that Auletes was at all to be blamed for the death of Alexander, whom he + thought justly killed by his guards for the murder of his queen and + kinswoman. Cæsar, whose year of consulship was then drawing to an end, + took his part warmly; and Auletes became in debt to him in the sum of + seventeen million drachmas, or nearly two and a half million dollars, + either for money lent to bribe the senators, or for bonds then given to + Cæsar instead of money. By these means Auletes got his title acknowledged; + the door of the senate was shut against the Alexandrian ambassadors; and + the philosopher Dion, the head of the embassy, was poisoned in Rome by the + slaves of his friend Lucceius, in whose house he was dwelling. But + nevertheless, Auletes was not able to get an army sent to help him against + his rebellious subjects and his daughters; nor was Cæsar able to get from + the senate, for the employment of his proconsular year, the task of + replacing Auletes on the throne. + </p> + <p> + This high employment was then sought for both by Lentulus and by Pompey. + The senate at first leaned in favour of the former; and he would perhaps + have gained it if the Roman creditors of Auletes, who were already + trembling for their money, had not bribed openly in favour of Pompey, as + the more powerful of the two. On Pompey, therefore, the choice of the + senate at last fell. Pompey then took Auletes into his house, as his + friend and guest, and would have got orders to lead him back into his + kingdom at the head of a Roman army had not the tribunes of the people, + fearing any addition to Pompey’s great power, had recourse to their usual + state-engine, the Sibylline books; and the pontifex, at their bidding, + publicly declared that it was written in those sacred pages that the King + of Egypt should have the friendship of Rome, but should not be helped with + an army. + </p> + <p> + But though Lentulus and Pompey were each strong enough to stop the other + from having this high command, Auletes was not without hopes that some + Roman general would be led, by the promise of money, and by the honour, to + undertake his cause, though it would be against the laws of Rome to do so + without orders from the senate. Cicero then took him under his protection, + and carried him in a litter of state to his villa at Baiæ, and wrote to + Lentulus, the proconsul of Cilicia and Cyprus, strongly urging him to + snatch the glory of replacing Auletes on the throne, and of being the + patron of the King of Egypt. But Lentulus seems not to have chosen to run + the risk of so far breaking the laws of his country. + </p> + <p> + Auletes then went, with pressing letters from Pompey, to Gabinius, the + proconsul of Syria, and offered him the large bribe of ten thousand + talents, or seven and a half million dollars, if he would lead the Roman + army into Egypt, and replace him on the throne. Most of the officers were + against this undertaking; but the letters of Pompey, the advice of Mark + Antony, the master of the horse, and perhaps the greatness of the bribe, + outweighed those cautious opinions. + </p> + <p> + While Auletes had been thus pleading his cause at Rome and with the army, + Cleopatra Tryphæna, the elder of the two queens, had died; and, as no one + of the other children of Auletes was old enough to be joined with Berenicê + on the throne, the Alexandrians sent to Syria for Seleucus, the son of + Antiochus Grypus and of Selene, the sister of Lathyrus, to come to Egypt + and marry Berenicê. He was low-minded in all his pleasures and tastes, and + got the nickname of <i>Cybiosactes</i>, the scullion. He was even said to + have stolen the golden sarcophagus in which the body of Alexander was + buried; and was so much disliked by his young wife that she had him + strangled on the fifth day after their marriage. Berenicê then married + Archelaus, a son of Mithridates Eupator, King of Pontus; and she had + reigned one year with her sister and two years with her husbands when the + Roman army brought back her father, Ptolemy Auletes, into Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Gabinius, on marching, gave out as an excuse for quitting the province + entrusted to him by the senate, that it was in self-defence; and that + Syria was in danger from the Egyptian fleet commanded by Archelaus. He was + accompanied by a Jewish army under the command of Antipator, sent by + Hyrcanus, whom the Romans had just made governor of Judæa. Mark Antony was + sent forward with the horse, and routed the Egyptian army near Pelusium, + and then entered the city with Auletes. The king, in the cruelty of his + revenge, wished to put the citizens to the sword, and was only stopped by + Antony’s forbidding it. The Egyptian army was at this time in the lowest + state of discipline; it was the only place where the sovereign was not + despotic. The soldiers, who prized the lawlessness of their trade even + more than its pay, were a cause of fear only to their fellow-citizens. + When Archelaus led them out against the Romans, and ordered them to throw + up a trench around their camp, they refused to obey; they said that + ditch-making was not work for soldiers, but that it ought to be done at + the cost of the state. Hence, when on this first success Gabinius followed + with the body of the army, he easily conquered the rest of the country and + put to death Berenicê and Archelaus. He then led back the army into his + province of Syria, but left behind him a body of troops under Lucius + Septimius to guard the throne of Auletes and to check the risings of the + Alexandrians. + </p> + <p> + Gabinius had refused to undertake this affair, which was the more + dangerous because against the laws of Rome, unless the large bribe were + first paid down in money. He would take no promises; and Auletes, who in + his banishment had no money at his command, had to borrow it of some one + who would listen to his large promises of after payment. He found this + person in Rabirius Posthumus, who had before lent him money, and who saw + that it would be all lost unless Auletes regained the throne. Rabirius + therefore lent him all he was worth, and borrowed the rest from his + friends; and as soon as Auletes was on the throne, he went to Alexandria + to claim his money and his reward. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0028" id="linkCimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/309.jpg" width="100%" + alt="309.jpg Vocal Statue of Memnon " /> + </div> + <p> + While Auletes still stood in need of Roman help, and saw the advantage of + keeping faith with his foreign creditors, Rabirius was allowed to hold the + office of royal <i>dioecetes</i>, or paymaster-general, which was one of + great state and profit, and one by which he could in time have repaid + himself his loan. He wore a royal robe; the taxes of Alexandria went + through his hands; he was indeed master of the city. But when the king + felt safe on his throne, he sent away his troublesome creditor, who + returned to Rome with the loss of his money, to stand his trial as a state + criminal for having lent it. Rabirius had been for a time mortgagee in + possession of the revenues of Egypt; and Auletes had felt more indebted + for his crown to a Roman citizen than to the senate. But in the dealings + of Rome with foreign kings, these evils had often before arisen, and at + last been made criminal; and while Gabinius was tried for treason, <i>de + majestate</i>, for leading his army out of his province, Rabirius was + tried, under the <i>Lex Julia de pecuniis repetundis</i>, for lending + money and taking office under Auletes. + </p> + <p> + One of the last acts of Gabinius in Syria was to change the form of the + Jewish government into an aristocracy, leaving Hyrcanus as the high + priest. The Jews thereon began to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, that had + been thrown down by Pompey. Among the prisoners sent to Rome by Gabinius + was Timagenes, the son of the king’s banker, who probably lost his liberty + as a hostage on Ptolemy’s failure to repay the loan. But he was afterwards + ransomed from slavery by a son of Sulla, and he remained at Rome teaching + Greek eloquence in the schools, and writing his numerous works. + </p> + <p> + The climate of Egypt is hardly suited to Europeans, and perhaps at no time + did the births in the Greek families equal the deaths. That part of the + population was kept up by newcomers; and latterly the Romans had been + coming over to share in the plunder that was there scattered among the + ruling class. For some time past Alexandria had been a favourite place of + settlement for such Romans as either through their fault or their + misfortune were forced to leave their homes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0029" id="linkCimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/312.jpg" width="100%" alt="312.jpg the Sphinx " /> + </div> + <p> + All who were banished for their crimes or who went away to escape from + trial, all runaway slaves, all ruined debtors, found a place of safety in + Alexandria; and by enrolling themselves in the Egyptian army they joined + in bonds of fellowship with thousands like themselves, who made it a point + of honour to screen one another from being overtaken by justice or + reclaimed by their masters. With such men as these, together with some + bands of robbers from Syria and Cilicia, had the ranks of the Egyptian + army latterly been recruited. These were now joined by a number of + soldiers and officers from the army of Gabinius, who liked the Egyptian + high pay and lawlessness better than the strict discipline of the Romans. + As, in this mixed body of men, the more regular courage and greater skill + in war was found among the Romans, they were chiefly chosen as officers, + and the whole had something of the form of a Roman army. These soldiers in + Alexandria were above all law and discipline. + </p> + <p> + The laws were everywhere badly enforced, crimes passed unpunished, and + property became unsafe. Robberies were carried on openly, and the only + hope of recovering what was stolen was by buying it back from the thief. + In many cases, whole villages lived upon plunder, and for that purpose + formed themselves into a society, and put themselves under the orders of a + chief; and, when any merchant or husbandman was robbed, he applied to this + chief, who usually restored to him the stolen property on payment of + one-fourth of its value. + </p> + <p> + As the country fell off in wealth, power, and population, the schools of + Alexandria fell off in learning, and we meet with few authors whose names + can brighten the pages of this reign. Apollonius of Citium, indeed, who + had studied surgery and anatomy at Alexandria under Zopyrus, when he + returned to Cyprus, wrote a treatise on the joints of the body, and + dedicated his work to Ptolemy, king of that island. The work is still + remaining in manuscript. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0030" id="linkCimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/314.jpg" width="100%" alt="314.jpg " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0031" id="linkCimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/314b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="314b.jpg Bearers of Evil Tidings " /> + </div> + <p> + Beside his name of Neus Dionysus, the king is in the hieroglyphics + sometimes called Philopator and Philadelphus; and in a Greek inscription + on a statue at Philae he is called by the three names, Neus Dionysus, + Philopator, Philadelphus. The coins which are usually thought to be his + are in a worse style of art than those of the kings before him. He died in + B.C. 51, in the twenty-ninth year of his reign, leaving four children, + namely, Cleopatra, Arsinoë, and two Ptolemies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0032" id="linkCimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/315.jpg" width="100%" alt="315.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkC2HCH0003" id="linkC2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII—CLEOPATRA AND HER BROTHERS + </h2> + <p> + <i>Pompey, Cæsar, and Antony in Egypt—Cleopatra’s extravagance and + intrigues—Octavianus annexes Egypt—Retrospect.</i> + </p> + <p> + Ptolemy Neus Dionysus had by his will left his kingdom to Cleopatra and + Ptolemy, his elder daughter and elder son, who, agreeably to the custom of + the country, were to marry one another and reign with equal power. He had + sent one copy of his will to Rome, to be lodged in the public treasury, + and in it he called upon the Roman people, by all the gods and by the + treaties by which they were bound, to see that it was obeyed. He had also + begged them to undertake the guardianship of his son. The senate voted + Pompey tutor to the young king, or governor of Egypt; and the Alexandrians + in the third year of his reign sent sixty ships of war to help the great + Pompey in his struggle against Julius Cæsar for the chief power in Rome. + But Pompey’s power was by that time drawing to an end, and the votes of + the senate could give no strength to the weak: hence the eunuch Pothinus, + who had the care of the elder Ptolemy, was governor of Egypt, and his + first act was to declare his young pupil king, and to set at nought the + will of Auletes, by which Cleopatra was joined with him on the throne. + </p> + <p> + Cleopatra fled into Syria, and, with a manly spirit which showed what she + was afterwards to be, raised an army and marched back to the borders of + Egypt, to claim her rights by force of arms. It was in the fourth year of + her reign, when the Egyptian troops were moved to Pelusium to meet her, + and the two armies were within a few leagues of one another, that Pompey, + who had been the friend of Auletes when the king wanted a friend, landed + on the shores of Egypt in distress, and almost alone. His army had just + been beaten at Pharsalia, and he was flying from Cæsar, and he hoped to + receive from the son the kindness which he had shown to the father. But + gratitude is a virtue little known in palaces, and Ptolemy had been + cradled in princely selfishness. In this civil war between Pompey and + Cæsar, the Alexandrians would have been glad to be the friends of both, + but that was now out of the question; Pompey’s coming made it necessary + for them to choose which they should join, and Ptolemy’s council, like + cowards, only wished to side with the strong. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0033" id="linkCimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/317.jpg" width="100%" + alt="317.jpg Pillar of Pompey at Alexandria " /> + </div> + <p> + Pothinus the eunuch, Achilles the general, who was a native Egyptian, and + Theodotus of Chios, who was the prince’s tutor in rhetoric, were the men + by whom the fate of this great Roman was decided. “By putting him to + death,” said Theodotus, “you will oblige Cæsar, and have nothing to fear + from Pompey;” and he added with a smile, “Dead men do not bite.” So + Achilles and Lucius Septimius, the head of the Roman troops in the + Egyptian army, were sent down to the seaside to welcome him, to receive + him as a friend, and to murder him. They handed him out of his galley into + their boat, and put him to death on his landing. They then cut off from + his lifeless trunk the head which had been three times crowned with + laurels in the capitol; and in that disfigured state the young Ptolemy saw + for the first time, and without regret, the face of his father’s best + friend. + </p> + <p> + When Cæsar, following the track of Pompey, arrived in the roadstead of + Alexandria, all was already over. With deep agitation he turned away when + the murderer brought to his ship the head of the man who had been his + son-in-law and for long years his colleague in rule, and to get whom alive + into his power he had come to Egypt. The dagger of the rash assassin + precluded an answer to the question, how Cæsar would have dealt with the + captive Pompey; but, while the human sympathy which still found a place in + the great soul of Cæsar, side by side with ambition, enjoined that he + should spare his former friend, his interest also required that he should + annihilate Pompey otherwise than by the executioner. Pompey had been for + twenty years the acknowledged ruler of Rome; a dominion so deeply rooted + does not end with the ruler’s death. The death of Pompey did not break up + the Pompeians, but gave to them instead of an aged, incapable, and + worn-out chief, in his sons Gnacus and Sextus, two leaders, both of whom + were young and active, and the second of them of decided capacity. To the + newly founded hereditary monarchy, hereditary pretendership attached + itself at once like a parasite, and it was very doubtful whether by this + change of persons Cæsar did not lose more than he gained. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile in Egypt Cæsar had now nothing further to do, and the Romans and + Egyptians expected that he would immediately set sail and apply himself to + the subjugation of Africa, and to the huge task of organisation which + awaited him after the victory. But Cæsar, faithful to his custom—wherever + he found himself in the wide Empire—of finally regulating matters at + once and in person, and firmly convinced that no resistance was to be + expected either from the Roman garrison or from the court; being, + moreover, in urgent pecuniary embarrassment, landed in Alexandria with the + two amalgamated legions accompanying him to the number of thirty-two + hundred men and eight hundred Celtic and German cavalry, took up his + quarters in the royal palace, and proceeded to collect the necessary sums + of money and to regulate the Egyptian succession, without allowing himself + to be disturbed by the saucy remark of Pothinus that Cæsar should not for + such petty matters neglect his own so important affairs. In his dealings + with the Egyptians he was just and even indulgent. Although the aid which + they had given to Pompey justified the imposing of a war contribution, the + exhausted land was spared from this; and, while the arrears of the sums + stipulated for in B.C. 59, and since then only about half paid, were + remitted, there was required merely a final payment of ten million denarii + (two million dollars). The belligerent brother and sister were enjoined + immediately to suspend hostilities, and were invited to have their dispute + investigated and decided before the arbiter. They submitted; the royal boy + was already in the palace and Cleopatra also presented herself there. + Cæsar adjudged the kingdom of Egypt, agreeably to the testament of + Auletes, to the intermarried brother and sister Cleopatra and Ptolomoreus + Dionysus, and further gave unasked the kingdom of Cyprus—cancelling + the earlier act of annexation—as the appanage of the second-born of + Egypt to the younger children of Auletes, Arsinoë and Ptolemy the younger. + But a storm was secretly preparing. Alexandria was a cosmopolitan city as + well as Rome, hardly inferior to the Italian capital in the number of its + inhabitants, far superior to it in stirring commercial spirit, in skill of + handicraft, in taste for science and art: in the citizens there was a + lively sense of their own national importance, and, if there was no + political sentiment, there was at any rate a turbulent spirit, which + induced them to indulge in their street riots regularly and heartily. We + may conceive their feeling when they saw the Roman general ruling in the + palace of the Lagids, and their kings accepting the award of his tribunal. + Pothinus and the boy-king, both, as may be conceived, very dissatisfied at + once with the peremptory requisition of all debts and with the + intervention in the throne-dispute which could only issue, as it did, in + the favour of Cleopatra, sent—in order to pacify the Roman demands—the + treasures of the temple and the gold plate of the king with intentional + ostentation to be melted at the mint; with increasing indignation the + Egyptians—who were pious even to superstition, and who rejoiced in + the world-renowned magnificence of their court as if it were a possession + of their own—beheld the bare walls of their temples and the wooden + cups on the table of their king. The Roman army of occupation also, which + had been essentially denationalised by its long abode in Egypt and the + many intermarriages between the soldiers and Egyptian women, and which + moreover numbered a multitude of the old soldiers of Pompey and runaway + Italian criminals and slaves in its ranks, was indignant at Cæsar, by + whose orders it had been obliged to suspend its action on the Syrian + frontier, and at his handful of haughty legionaries. The tumult even at + the landing, when the multitude saw the Roman axes carried into the old + palace, and the numerous instances in which his soldiers were assassinated + in the city, had taught Cæsar the immense danger in which he was placed + with his small force in presence of the exasperated multitude. But it was + difficult to return on account of the northwest winds prevailing at this + season of#the year, and the attempt of embarkation might easily become a + signal for the outbreak of the insurrection; besides, it was not the + nature of Cæsar to take his departure without having accomplished his + work. He accordingly ordered up at once reinforcements from Asia, and + meanwhile, till these arrived, made a show of the utmost self-possession. + Never was there greater gaiety in his camp than during this rest at + Alexandria, and while the beautiful and clever Cleopatra was not sparing + of her charms in general and least of all towards her judge, Cæsar also + appeared among all his victories to value most those won over beautiful + women. It was a merry prelude to graver scenes. Under the leadership of + Achilles and, as was afterwards proved, by the secret orders of the king + and his guardian, the Roman army of occupation stationed in Egypt appeared + unexpectedly in Alexandria, and, as soon as the citizens saw that it had + come to attack Cæsar, they made common cause with the soldiers. + </p> + <p> + With a presence of mind, which in some measure justifies his + foolhardiness, Cæsar hastily collected his scattered men; seized the + persons of the king and his ministers; entrenched himself in the royal + residence and adjoining theatre; and gave orders, as there was no time to + place in safety the war-fleet stationed in the principal harbour + immediately in front of the theatre, that it should be set on fire and + that Pharos, the island with the light-tower commanding the harbour, + should be occupied by means of boats. Thus at least a restricted position + for defence was secured, and the way was kept open to procure supplies and + reinforcements. At the same time orders were issued to the commandant of + Asia Minor as well as to the nearest subject countries, the Syrians and + the Nabatæans, the Cretans and the Rhodians, to send men and ships in all + haste to Egypt. The insurrection, at the head of which the Princess + Arsinoë and her confidant, the eunuch Ganymedes, had placed themselves, + meanwhile had free course in all Egypt and in the greater part of the + capital. In the streets of the latter there was daily fighting, but + without success either on the part of Cæsar in gaining freer scope and + breaking through to the fresh water lake of Mariut which lay behind the + town, where he could have provided himself with water and forage; or on + the part of the Alexandrians in acquiring superiority in besieging and + depriving them of all drinking water; for, when the Nile canals in Cæsar’s + part of the town had been spoiled by the introduction of salt water, + drinkable water was unexpectedly found in wells dug on the beach. + </p> + <p> + As Cæsar was not to be overcome from the landward side, the exertions of + the besiegers were directed to destroy his fleet and cut him off from the + sea, by which supplies reached him. The island with the lighthouse and the + mole by which this was connected with the mainland divided the harbour + into a western and an eastern half, which were in communication with each + other through two arch-openings in the mole. Cæsar commanded the island + and the east harbour, while the mole and the west harbour were in + possession of the citizens; and, as the Alexandrian fleet was burnt, his + vessels sailed in and out without hindrance. The Alexandrians, after + having vainly attempted to introduce fire-ships from the western into the + eastern harbour, equipped with the remnant of their arsenal a small + squadron, and with this blocked up the way of Cæsar’s vessels, when these + were towing in a fleet of transports with a legion that had arrived from + Asia Minor; but the excellent Rhodian mariners of Cæsar mastered the + enemy. Not long afterwards, however, the citizens captured the + lighthouse-island, and from that point totally closed the narrow and rocky + mouth of the east harbour for larger ships; so that Cæsar’s fleet was + compelled to take its station in the open roads before the east harbour, + and his communication with the sea hung only on a weak thread. Cæsar’s + fleet, attacked in that roadstead repeatedly by the superior naval force + of the enemy, could neither shun the unequal strife, since the loss of the + lighthouse-island closed the inner harbour against it, nor yet withdraw, + for the loss of the roadstead would have debarred Cæsar wholly from the + sea. Though the brave legionaries, supported by the dexterity of the + Rhodian sailors, had always hitherto decided these conflicts in favour of + the Romans, the Alexandrians renewed and augmented their naval armaments + with unwearied perseverance; the besieged had to fight as often as it + pleased the besiegers, and, if the former should be on a signal occasion + vanquished, Cæsar would be totally hemmed in and probably lost. + </p> + <p> + It was absolutely necessary to make an attempt to recover the + lighthouse-island. The double attack, which was made by boats from the + side of the harbour and by the war-vessels from the seaboard, in reality + brought not only the island but also the lower part of the mole into his + power; it was only at the second arch-opening of the mole that Cæsar + ordered the attack to be stopped, and the mole to be there closed towards + the city by a transverse wall. But while a violent conflict arose here + round the entrenchers, the Roman troops left the lower part of the mole + adjoining the island bare of defenders; a division of Egyptians landed + there unexpectedly, attacked in the rear the Roman soldiers and sailors + crowded together on the mole of the transverse wall, and drove the whole + mass in wild confusion into the sea. A part were taken on board by the + Roman ships; but more were drowned. Some four hundred soldiers and a still + greater number of men belonging to the fleet were sacrificed on this day; + the general himself, who had shared the fate of his men, had been obliged + to seek refuge in his ship, and, when this sank from having been + overloaded with men, he had to save himself by swimming to another. But, + severe as was the loss suffered, it was amply compensated by the recovery + of the lighthouse-island, which along with the mole as far as the first + arch-opening remained in the hands of Cæsar. + </p> + <p> + At length the longed-for relief arrived, Mithridates of Pergamus, an able + warrior of the school of Mithridates Eupator, whose natural son he claimed + to be, brought up by land from Syria a motley army,—the Ituræans of + the prince of the Libanus, the Bedouins of Jamblichus, son of + Sampsiceramus, the Jews under the minister Antipater, and the contingents + generally of the petty chiefs and communities of Cilicia and Syria. From + Pelusium, which Mithridates had the fortune to occupy on the day of his + arrival, he took the great road towards Memphis, with the view of avoiding + the intersected ground of the Delta and crossing the Nile before its + division; during which movement his troops received manifold support from + the Jewish peasants who were settled in this part of Egypt. The Egyptians, + with the young king Ptolemy now at their head, whom Cæsar had released to + his people in the vain hope of allaying the insurrection by his means, + despatched an army to the Nile, to detain Mithridates on its farther bank. + The army fell in with the enemy even beyond Memphis at the so-called Jews’ + camp, between Onion and Heliopolis; nevertheless Mithridates, trained in + the Roman fashion of manoeuvring and encamping, amidst successful + conflicts gained the opposite bank at Memphis. Cæsar, on the other hand, + as soon as he obtained news of the arrival of the relieving army, conveyed + a part of his troops in ships to the end of the lake of Morea to the west + of Alexandria, and marched round this lake and down the Nile to meet + Mithridates advancing up the river. + </p> + <p> + The junction took place without the enemy attempting to hinder it. Cæsar + then marched into the Delta, whither the king had retreated, overthrew, + notwithstanding the deeply cut canal in their front, the Egyptian vanguard + at the first onset, and immediately stormed the Egyptian camp itself. It + lay at the foot of a rising ground between the Nile—from which only + a narrow path separated it—and marshes difficult of access. Cæsar + caused the camp to be assailed simultaneously from the front and from the + flank on the path along the Nile; and during this assault ordered a third + detachment to ascend unseen the heights of the camp. The victory was + complete; the camp was taken, and those of the Egyptians who did not fall + beneath the sword of the enemy were drowned in the attempt to escape to + the fleet on the Nile. With one of the boats, which sank overladen with + men, the young king also disappeared in the waters of his native stream. + Immediately after the battle Cæsar advanced at the head of his cavalry + from the land side straight into the portion of the capital occupied by + the Egyptians. In mourning attire, with the images of their gods in their + hands, the enemy received him and sued for peace; and his troops, when + they saw him return as victor from the side opposite to that by which he + had set forth, welcomed him with boundless joy. The fate of the town, + which had ventured to thwart the plans of the master of the world and had + brought him within a hair’s-breadth of destruction, lay in Cæsar’s hands; + but he was too much of a ruler to be sensitive, and dealt with the + Alexandrians as with the Massiliots. Cæsar—pointing to their city + severely devastated and deprived of its granaries, of its world-renowned + library, and of other important public buildings on the occasion of the + burning of the fleet—exhorted the inhabitants in future earnestly to + cultivate the arts of peace alone, and to heal the wounds inflicted on + themselves; for the rest, he contented himself with granting to the Jews + settled in Alexandria the same rights which the Greek population of the + city enjoyed, and with placing in Alexandria instead of the previous Roman + army of occupation—which nominally at least obeyed the kings of + Egypt, a Roman garrison—two of the legions besieged there, and a + third which afterwards arrived from Syria—under a commander + nominated by himself. For this position of trust a man was purposely + selected whose birth made it impossible for him to abuse it—Rufio, + an able soldier, but the son of a freed man. Cleopatra and her younger + brother Ptolemy obtained the sovereignty of Egypt under the supremacy of + Rome; the Princess Arsinoë was carried off to Italy, that she might not + serve once more as a pretext for insurrections to the Egyptians, who were + after the Oriental fashion quite as much devoted to their dynasty as they + were indifferent towards the individual dynasts; and Cyprus became again a + part of the Roman province of Cilicia. Cæsar’s love for Cleopatra, who had + just borne him a son named Cæsarion, was not so strong as his ambition; + and after having been above a year in Egypt he left her to govern the + kingdom in her own name, but on his behalf; and sailed for Italy, taking + with him the sixth legion. While engaged in this warfare in Alexandria, + Cæsar had been appointed dictator in Rome, where his power was exercised + by Mark Antony, his master of the horse; and for above six months he had + not written one letter home, as though ashamed to write about the foolish + difficulty he had entangled himself in, until he had got out of it. + </p> + <p> + On reaching Rome Cæsar amused the people and himself with a grand + triumphal show, in which, among the other prisoners of war, the Princess + Arsinoë followed his car in chains; and, among the works of art and nature + which were got together to prove to the gazing crowd the greatness of his + conquests, was that remarkable African animal the camelopard, then for the + first time seen in Rome. In one chariot was a statue of the Nile god; and + in another the Pharos lighthouse on fire, with painted flames. Nor was + this the last of Cæsar’s triumphs, for soon afterwards Cleopatra, and her + brother Ptolemy, then twelve years old, who was called her husband, came + to Rome as his guests, and dwelt for some time with him in his house. + </p> + <p> + The history of Egypt, at this time, is almost lost in that of Rome. Within + five years of Cæsar’s landing in Alexandria, and finding that by the death + of Pompey he was master of the world, he paid his own life as the forfeit + for crushing his country’s liberty. The Queen of Egypt, with her infant + son Cæsarion about four years old, was then in Rome, living with Cæsar in + his villa on the farther side of the Tiber. On Cæsar’s death her first + wish was to get the child acknowledged by the Roman senate as her + colleague on the throne of Egypt, and as a friend of the Roman people. + With this view she applied to Cicero for help, making him an offer of some + books or works of art; but he was offended at her haughtiness and refused + her gifts. Besides, she was more likely to thwart than to help the cause + for which he was struggling. He was alarmed at hearing that she was soon + to give birth to another child. He did not want any more Cæsars. He hoped + she would miscarry, as he wished she had before miscarried. So he bluntly + refused to undertake her cause. On this she thought herself unsafe in + Rome, she fled privately, and reached Egypt in safety with Cæsarion; but + we hear of no second child by Julius. The Romans were now the masters of + Egypt, and Cleopatra could hardly hope to reign but by the help of one of + the great generals who were struggling for the sovereignty of the + republic. Among these was the young Sextus Pompeius, whose large fleet + made him for a time master of Sicily and of the sea; and he was said to + have been admitted by the Queen of Egypt as a lover. But he was able to be + of but little use to her in return for her favours, as his fleet was soon + defeated by Octavianus. + </p> + <p> + Cæsar had left behind him, in the neighbourhood of Alexandria, a large + body of Roman troops, in the pay and nominally under the orders of + Cleopatra, but in reality to keep Egypt in obedience. There they lived as + if above all Egyptian law or Roman discipline, indulging in the vices of + that luxurious capital. When some of them in a riot, in the year 45 B.C., + killed two sons of Bibulus the consul, Cleopatra was either afraid or + unable to punish the murderers; the most she could do was to get them sent + in chains into Syria to the grieving father, who with true greatness of + mind sent them back to the Egyptian legions, saying that it was for the + senate to punish them, not for him. + </p> + <p> + While Ptolemy her second husband was a boy and could claim no share of the + government, he was allowed to live with all the outward show of royalty, + but as soon as he reached the age of fifteen, in B.C. 44, at which he + might call himself her equal and would soon be her master, Cleopatra had + him put to death. She had then reigned four years with her elder brother + and four years with her younger brother, and from that time forward she + reigned alone, calling her child by Cæsar her colleague on the throne. + </p> + <p> + At a time when vice and luxury claimed the thoughts of all who were not + busy in the civil wars, we cannot hope to find the fruits of genius in + Alexandria; but the mathematics are plants of a hardy growth, and are not + choked so easily as poetry and history. Sosigenes was then the first + astronomer in Egypt, and Julius Cæsar was guided by his advice in setting + right the Roman Calendar. He was a careful and painstaking mathematician, + and, after fixing the length of the year at three hundred and sixty-five + days and a quarter, he three times changed the beginning of the year, in + his doubts as to the day on which the equinox fell; for the astronomer + could then only make two observations in a year with a view to learn the + time of the equinox, by seeing when the sun shone in the plane of the + equator. Photinus the mathematician wrote both on arithmetic and geometry, + and was usually thought the author of a mathematical work published in the + name of the queen, called the Canon of Cleopatra. + </p> + <p> + Didymus was another of the writers that we hear of at that time. He was a + man of great industry, both in reading and writing; but when we are told + that he wrote three thousand five hundred volumes, or rolls, it rather + teaches us that a great many rolls of papyrus would be wanted to make a + modern book, than what number of books he wrote. These writings were + mostly on verbal criticism, and all have long since perished except some + notes or scholia on the Hiad and Odyssey which bear his name, and are + still printed in some editions of Homer. + </p> + <p> + Dioscorides, the physician of Cleopatra, has left a work on herbs and + minerals, and on their uses in medicine; also on poisons and poisonous + bites. To these he has added a list of prescriptions. His works have been + much read in all ages, and have only been set aside by the discoveries of + the last few centuries. Serapion, another physician, was perhaps of this + reign. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0034" id="linkCimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/333.jpg" width="100%" alt="333.jpg Ruins of Hermonthis " /> + </div> + <p> + He followed medicine rather than surgery; and, while trusting chiefly to + his experience gained in clinical or bedside practice, was laughed at by + the surgeons as an empiric. + </p> + <p> + The small temple at Hermonthis, near Thebes, seems to have been built in + this reign, and it is dedicated to Mandoo, or the sun, in the name of + Cleopatra and Cassation. It is unlike the older Egyptian temples in being + much less of a fortress; for what in them is a strongly walled courtyard, + with towers to guard the narrow doorway, is here a small space between two + double rows of columns, wholly open, without walls, while the roofed + building is the same as in the older temples. Near it is a small pool, + seventy feet square, with stone sides, which was used in the funerals and + other religious rites. + </p> + <p> + The murder of Cæsar did not raise the character of the Romans, or make + them more fit for self-government. It was followed by the well-known civil + war; and when, by the battle of Philippi and the death of Brutus and + Cassius, his party was again uppermost, the Romans willingly bowed their + necks to his adopted son Octavianus, and his friend Mark Antony. + </p> + <p> + It is not easy to determine which side Cleopatra meant to take in the war + between Antony and the murderers of Cæsar; she did not openly declare + herself, and she probably waited to join that which fortune favoured. + Allienus had been sent to her by Dolobella to ask for such troops as she + could spare to help Antony, and he led a little army of four Roman legions + out of Egypt into Syria; but when there he added them to the force which + Cassius had assembled against Antony. Whether he acted through treachery + to the queen or by her orders is doubtful, for Cassius felt more gratitude + to Allienus than to Cleopatra. Serapion also, the Egyptian governor of + Cyprus, joined what was then the stronger side, and sent all the ships + that he had in his ports to the assistance of Cassius. Cleopatra herself + was getting ready another large fleet, but since the war was over, and + Brutus and Cassius dead before it sailed, she said it was meant to help + Octavianus and Antony. Thus, by the acts of her generals and her own + hesitation, Cleopatra fairly laid herself open to the reproach of + ingratitude to her late friend Cæsar, or at least of thinking that the + interests of his son Cæsarion were opposed to those of his nephew + Octavianus; and accordingly, as Antony was passing through Cilicia with + his army, he sent orders to her to come from Egypt and meet him at Tarsus, + to answer the charge of having helped Brutus and Cassius in the late + military campaign. + </p> + <p> + Dellius, the bearer of the message, showed that he understood the meaning + of it, by beginning himself to pay court to her as his queen. He advised + her to go, like Juno in the Iliad, “tricked in her best attire,” and told + her that she had nothing to fear from the kind and gallant Antony. On this + she sailed for Cilicia laden with money and treasures for presents, full + of trust in her beauty and power of pleasing. She had won the heart of + Cæsar when, though younger, she was less skilled in the arts of love, and + she was still only twenty-five years old; and, carrying with her such + gifts and treasures as became her rank, she entered the river Cydnus with + the Egyptian fleet in a magnificent galley. The stern was covered with + gold; the sails were of scarlet cloth: and the silver oars beat time to + the music of flutes and harps. The queen, dressed like Venus, lay under an + awning embroidered with gold, while pretty dimpled boys, like Cupids, + stood on each side of the sofa fanning her. Her maidens, dressed like + sea-nymphs and graces, handled the silken tackle and steered the vessel. + As she approached the town of Tarsus the winds wafted the perfumes and the + scent of the burning incense to the shores, which were lined with crowds + who had come out to see her land; and Antony, who was seated on the + tribunal waiting to receive her, found himself left alone. + </p> + <p> + Tarsus on the river Cydnus was situated at the foot of the wooded slopes + of Mount Taurus, and it guarded the great pass in that range between the + Phrygian tribes and the Phoenician tribes. It was a city half-Greek and + half-Asiatic, and had from the earliest days been famed for ship-building + and commerce. Mount Taurus supplied it with timber, and around the mouth + of its river, as it widens into a quiet lake, were the ancient dockyards + which had made the ships of Tarshish proverbial with the Hebrew writers. + Its merchants, enriched by industry and enlightened by foreign trade, had + ornamented their city with public buildings, and established a school of + Greek learning. Its philosophers, however, were more known as travelling + teachers than as scholars. No learned men came to Tarsus; but it sent + forth its rhetoricians in its own ships, who spread themselves as teachers + over the neighbouring coasts. In Rome there were more professors of + rhetoric, oratory, and poetry from Tarsus than from Alexandria or Athens. + Athenodorus Cordylion, the stoic, taught Cato; Athenodorus, the son of + Sandon, taught Cæsar; Nestor a little later taught the young Marcellus; + while Demetrius was one of the first men of learning who sailed to the + distant island of Britain. This school, in the next generation, sent forth + the apostle Paul, who taught Christianity throughout the same coasts. + </p> + <p> + Tarsus was now to be amused by the costly follies and extravagances of + Cleopatra. As an initial display, soon after landing, she invited Antony + and his generals to a dinner, at which the whole of the dishes placed + before them were of gold, set with precious stones, and the room and the + twelve couches were ornamented with purple and gold. On his praising the + splendour of the sight, as passing anything he had before seen, she said + it was a trifle, and begged that he would take the whole of it as a gift + from her. The next day he again dined with her, and brought a larger + number of his friends and generals, and was of course startled to see a + costliness which made that of the day before seem nothing; and she again + gave him the whole of the gold upon the table, and gave to each of his + friends the couch upon which he sat. + </p> + <p> + These costly and delicate dinners were continued every day; and one + evening, when Antony playfully blamed her wastefulness, and said that it + was not possible to fare in a more costly manner, she told him that the + dinner of the next day should cost ten thousand ses-tertia, or three + hundred thousand dollars. This he would not believe, and laid her a wager + that she would fail in her promise. When the day came the dinner was as + grand and dainty as those of the former days; but when Antony called upon + her to count up the cost of the meats and wines, she said that she did not + reckon them, but that she should herself soon eat and drink the ten + thousand sestertia. She wore in her ears two pearls, the largest known in + the world, which, like the diamonds of European kings, had come to her + with her crown and kingdom, and were together valued at that large sum. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0035" id="linkCimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:50%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/338.jpg" + alt="338.jpg Egyptian Picture of Cleopatra " /> + </div> + <p> + On the servants removing the meats, they set before her a glass of + vinegar, and she took one of these earrings from her ear and dropped it + into the glass, and when dissolved drank it off. Plancus, one of the + guests, who had been made judge of the wager, snatched the other from the + queen’s ear, and saved it from being drunk up like the first, and then + declared that Antony had lost his bet. The pearl which was saved was + afterwards cut in two and made into a pair of earrings for the statue of + Venus in the Pantheon at Rome; and the fame of the wager may be said to + have made the two half pearls at least as valuable as the two whole ones. + </p> + <p> + The beauty, sweetness, and gaiety of this young queen, joined to her great + powers of mind, which were all turned to the art of pleasing, had quite + overcome Antony; he had sent for her as her master, but he was now her + slave. Her playful wit was delightful; her voice was as an instrument of + many strings; she spoke readily to every ambassador in his own language; + and was said to be the only sovereign of Egypt who could understand the + languages of all her subjects: Greek, Egyptian, Ethiopie, Troglodytic, + Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac. With these charms, at the age of + five-and-twenty, the luxurious Antony could deny her nothing. The first + favour which she asked of her lover equals any cruelty that we have met + with in this history: it was, that he would have her sister Arsinoë put to + death. Cæsar had spared her life, after his triumph, through love of + Cleopatra; but he was mistaken in the heart of his mistress; she would + have been then better pleased at Arsinoe’s death; and Antony, at her + bidding, had her murdered in the temple of Diana, at Ephesus. + </p> + <p> + Though Fulvia, the faithful wife of Antony, could scarcely keep together + his party at Rome against the power of Octavianus, his colleague in the + triumvirate, and though Labienus, with the Parthian legions, was ready to + march into Syria against him, yet he was so entangled in the artful nets + of Cleopatra, that she led him captive to Alexandria; and there the old + warrior fell into every idle amusement, and offered up at the shrine of + pleasure one of the greatest of sacrifices, the sacrifice of his time. The + lovers visited each other every day, and the waste of their entertainments + passed belief. Philotas, a physician who was following his studies at + Alexandria, told Plutarch’s grandfather that he was once invited to see + Antony’s dinner cooked, and among other meats were eight wild boars + roasting whole; and the cook explained to him that, though there were only + twelve guests, yet as each dish had to be roasted to a single turn of the + spit, and Antony did not know at what hour he should dine, it was + necessary to cook at least eight dinners. But the most costly of the + luxuries then used in Egypt were the scents and the ointments. Gold, + silver, and jewels, as Pliny remarks, will pass to a man’s heirs, even + clothes will last a few months or weeks, but scents fly off and are lost + at the first moment that they are admired; and yet ointments, like the + attar of roses, which melted and gave out their scent, and passed into air + when placed upon the back of the hand, as the coolest part of the body, + were sold for four hundred denarii the pound. But the ointment was not + meant to be used quite so wastefully. It was usually sealed up in small + alabaster jars, which were made in the town of Alabastron, on the east of + the Nile, and thence received their name. These were long in shape, + without a foot, and had a narrow mouth. They were meant never to be + opened, but to let the scent escape slowly and sparingly through the + porous stone. In these Egyptian jars scented ointment was carried by trade + to the banks of the Tigris and to the shores of the Mediterranean. + </p> + <p> + The tenth and eleventh years of the queen’s reign were marked by a famine + through the land, caused by the Nile’s not rising to the wished-for height + and by the want of the usual overflow; and an inscription which was + written both in the Greek and Egyptian languages declares the gratitude of + the Theban priests and elders and citizens to Callimachus, the prefect of + the Theban taxes, who did what he could to lessen the sufferings in that + city. The citizens of Alexandria on those years received from the + government a smaller gift of corn than usual, and the Jews then felt their + altered rank in the state. They were told that they were not citizens, and + accordingly received no portion whatever out of the public granaries, but + were left like the Egyptians to take care of themselves. From this time + forward there was an unceasing quarrel between Greeks and Jews in the city + of Alexandria. + </p> + <p> + Cleopatra, who held her power at the pleasure of the Roman legions, spared + no pains to please Antony. She had borne him first a son named Ptolemy, + and then a son and daughter, twins, Alexander Helius and Cleopatra Selene, + or <i>Sun</i> and <i>Moon</i>. She gamed, she drank, she hunted, she + reviewed the troops with him, and, to humour his coarser tastes, she + followed him, in his midnight rambles through the city, in the dress of a + servant; and nothing that youth, beauty, wealth, and elegance could do to + throw a cloak over the grossness of vice and crime was forgotten by her. + The biographer thought it waste of time to mention all Cleopatra’s arts + and Antony’s follies, but the story of his fishing was not to be + forgotten. One day, when sitting in the boat with her, he caught but + little, and was vexed at her seeing his want of success. So he ordered one + of his men to dive into the water and put upon his hook a fish which had + been before taken. Cleopatra, however, saw what was being done, and + quietly took the hint for a joke of her own. The next day she brought a + larger number of friends to see the fishing, and, when Antony let down his + line, she ordered one of her divers to put on the hook a salted fish. The + line was then drawn up and the fish landed amid no little mirth of their + friends; and Cleopatra playfully consoled him, saying: “Well, general, you + may leave fishing to us petty princes of Pharos and Canopus; your game is + cities, provinces, and kingdoms.” + </p> + <p> + Antony’s eldest son by Fulvia came to Alexandria at this time, and lived + in the same princely style with his father. Philotas the physician lived + in his service, and one day at supper when Philotas silenced a tiresome + talker with a foolish sophism the young Antony gave him as a reward the + whole sideboard of plate. But in the middle of this gaiety and feasting + Antony was recalled to Europe by letters which told him that his wife and + brother had been driven out of Rome by Octavianus. Before, however, he + reached Rome his wife Fulvia was dead; and, wishing to strengthen his + party, he at once married Octavia, the sister of Octavianus and widow of + Marcellus. + </p> + <p> + In that year Herod passed through Egypt on his way to Rome to claim Judæa + as his kingdom. He came through Arabia to Pelusium, and thence he sailed + to Alexandria. Cleopatra, who wanted his services, gave him honourable + entertainment in her capital, and made him great offers in order to + persuade him to take the command of her army. But the Jewish prince saw + that a kingdom was to be gained by offering his services to Antony and + Octavianus; and he went on to Rome. There through the friendship of Antony + he was declared King of Judæa by the senate. He then returned to Syria to + collect an army and to win the kingdom which had been granted to him; and + by the help of Sosius, Antony’s lieutenant, he had conquered Jerusalem + when the war broke out between Antony and Octavianus. + </p> + <p> + In the next year (B.C. 38) Antony was himself in Syria, carrying on the + war which ended with the battle of Actium; and he sent to Alexandria to + beg Cleopatra to join him there. On her coming, he made her perhaps the + largest gift which lover ever gave to his mistress: he gave her the wide + provinces of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Cyprus, part of Cilicia, part of + Judæa, and part of Arabia Nabataea. These large gifts only made her ask + for more, and she begged him to put to death Herod, King of Judæa, and + Malichus, King of Arabia Nabataea, the former of whom had advised Antony + to break through the disgraceful ties which bound him to Cleopatra, as the + only means of saving himself from being crushed by the rising power of + Octavianus. She asked to have the whole of Arabia and Judæa given to her. + But Antony had not so far forgotten himself as to yield to these commands; + and he only gave her the balsam country around Jericho, and a rent-charge + of two hundred talents, or one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, a year, + on the revenues of Judæa. On receiving this large addition to her kingdom, + and perhaps in honour of Antony, who had then lost all power in Italy but + was the real king of Egypt and its Greek provinces, Cleopatra began to + count the years of her reign afresh: what was really the sixteenth of her + reign, and had been called the sixteenth of Ptolemy, her elder brother, + she called the first of her own reign, and she reckoned them in the same + way till her death. Cleopatra had accompanied Antony on his expedition + against Armenia, as far as the river Euphrates, and returned through + Damascus to Judæa. There she was politely received by her enemy Herod, who + was too much in fear of Antony to take his revenge on her. She farmed out + to him the revenues of her parts of Arabia and Judæa, and was accompanied + by him on her way towards Egypt. But after wondering at the wasteful + feasts and gifts, in which pearls and provinces were alike trifled with, + we are reminded that even Cleopatra was of the family of the Lagido, and + that she was well aware how much the library of the museum had added to + the glory of Alexandria. It had been burnt by the Roman troops under + Cæsar, and, to make amends for this, Antony gave her the large library of + the city of Pergamus, by which Eumenes and Attalus had hoped to raise a + school that should equal the museum of Alexandria. Cleopatra placed these + two hundred thousand volumes in the temple of Serapis; and Alexandria + again held the largest library in the world; while Pergamus ceased to be a + place of learning. By the help of this new library, the city still kept + its trade in books and its high rank as a school of letters; and, when the + once proud kingdom of Egypt was a province of Rome, and when almost every + trace of the monarchy was lost, and half a century afterwards Philo, the + Jewish philosopher of Alexandria, asked, “Where are now the Ptolemies?” + the historian could have found an answer by pointing to the mathematical + schools and the library of the Serapeum. + </p> + <p> + But to return to our history. When Antony left Cleopatra, he marched + against the Parthians, and on his return he again entered Alexandria in + triumph, leading Artavasdes, King of Armenia, chained behind his chariot + as he rode in procession through the city. He soon afterwards made known + his plans for the government of Egypt and the provinces. He called + together the Alexandrians in the Gymnasium, and, seating himself and + Cleopatra on two golden thrones, he declared her son Cæsarion her + colleague, and that they should hold Egypt, Cyprus, Africa, and + Coele-Syria. To her sons by himself he gave the title of kings the + children of kings; and to Alexander, though still a child, he gave Armenia + and Media, with Parthia when it should be conquered; and to Ptolemy he + gave Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra wore the sacred robe of + Isis, and took the title of the New Isis, while the young Alexander wore a + Median dress with turban and tiara, and the little Ptolemy a long cloak + and slippers, with a bonnet encircled by a diadem, like the successors of + Alexander. Antony himself wore an Eastern scimetar by his side, and a + royal diadem round Ins head, as being not less a sovereign than Cleopatra. + To Cleopatra he then gave the whole of his Parthian booty, and his + prisoner Tigranes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0036" id="linkCimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/346.jpg" + alt="346.jpg Coin of Cleopatra and Anthony " /> + </div> + <p> + But notwithstanding Antony’s love for Cleopatra, her falsehood and cruelty + were such that when his power in Rome fell he could no longer trust her. + He even feared that she might have him poisoned, and would not eat or + drink in her palace without having the food first tasted herself. But she + had no such thoughts, and only laughed at him for his distrust. One day to + prove her power, and at the same time her good faith, she had the flowers + with which he was to be crowned, as he reclined at her dinner-table, + dipped in deadly poison. Antony dined with these round his head, while she + wore a crown of fresh flowers. During the dinner Cleopatra playfully took + off her garland and dipped it in her cup to flavour the wine, and Antony + did the same with his poisoned flowers, steeping them in his own cup of + wine. He even raised it to his lips to drink, when she hastily caught hold + of his hand. “Now,” said she, “I am the enemy against whom you have + latterly been so careful. If I could have endured to live without you, + that draught would have given me the opportunity.” She then ordered the + wine to be taken to one of the condemned criminals, and sent Antony out to + see that the man died on drinking it. + </p> + <p> + On the early coins of Cleopatra we see her head on the one side and the + eagle or the cornucopia on the other side, with the name of “<i>Queen + Cleopatra</i>.” After she had borne Antony children, we find the words + round their heads, “<i>Of Antony, on the conquest of Armenia;” “Of + Cleopatra the queen, and of the kings the children of kings</i>.” On the + later coins we find the head of Antony joined with hers, as king and + queen, and he is styled “<i>the emperor</i>” and she “<i>the young goddess</i>.” + Cleopatra was perhaps the last Greek sovereign that bore the title of god. + Nor did it seem unsuitable to her, so common had the Greeks of Asia and + Egypt made that epithet, by giving it to their kings, and even to their + kings’ families and favourites. But the use of the word made no change in + their religious opinions; they never for a moment supposed that the + persons whom they so styled had any share in the creation and government + of the world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0037" id="linkCimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/347.jpg" width="100%" + alt="347.jpg Later Coin of Cleopatra and Antony. " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="348 (36K)" src="images/348.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + The death of Julius Cæsar and afterwards of Brutus and Cassius had left + Antony with the chief sway in the Roman world; but his life of pleasure in + Egypt had done much to forfeit it; and Octavianus, afterwards called + Augustus, had been for some time rising in power against him. His party, + however, was still strong enough in Rome to choose for consul his friend + Soslus, who put the head of Antony on one side of his coins, and the + Egyptian eagle and thunderbolt on the other. Soon afterwards Antony was + himself chosen as consul elect for the coming year, and he then struck his + last coins in Egypt. The rude copper coins have on one side the name of “<i>The + queen, the young goddess</i>,” and on the other side of “<i>Antony, Consul + a third time</i>.” But he never was consul for the third time; before the + day of entering on the office he was made an enemy of Rome by the senate. + Octavianus, however, would not declare war against him, but declared war + against Cleopatra, or rather, as he said, against Mardion her slave, Iris + her waiting-woman, and Charmion, another favourite woman; for these had + the chief management of Antony’s affairs. + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of the year B.C. 31, which was to end with the battle of + Actium, Octavianus held Italy, Gaul, Spain, and Carthage, with an army of + eighty thousand foot, twelve thousand horse, and a fleet of two hundred + and fifty ships: Antony held Egypt, Ethiopia, and Cyrene, with one hundred + thousand foot, twelve thousand horse, and five hundred ships; he was + followed by the kings of Africa, Upper Cilicia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, + Commagene, and Thrace; and he received help from the kings of Pontus, + Arabia, Judæa, Lycaonia, Galatia, and Media. Thus Octavianus held Rome, + with its western provinces and hardy legions, while Antony held the Greek + kingdom of Ptolemy Phila-delphus. Cleopatra was confident of success and + as boastful as she was confident. Her most solemn manner of promising was: + “As surely as I shall issue my decrees from the Roman Capitol.” But the + mind of Antony was ruined by his life of pleasure. He carried her with him + into battle, at once his strength and his weakness, and he was beaten at + sea by Octavianus, on the coast of Epirus, near Actium. This battle, which + sealed the fate of Antony, of Egypt, and of Rome, would never have been + spoken of in history if he had then had the courage to join his land + forces; but he sailed away in a fright with Cleopatra, leaving an army + larger than that of Octavianus, which would not believe that he was gone. + They landed at Parastonium in Libya, where he remained in the desert with + Aristocrates the rhetorician and one or two other friends, and sent + Cleopatra forward to Alexandria. There she talked of carrying her ships + across the isthmus to the head of the Red Sea, along the canal from + Bubastis to the Bitter Lakes, and thence flying to some unknown land from + the power of the conqueror. Antony soon however followed her, but not to + join in society. He locked himself up in his despair in a small fortress + by the side of the harbour, which he named his Timonium, after Timon, the + Athenian philosopher who forsook the society of men. When the news, + however, arrived that his land forces had joined Octavianus, and his + allies had deserted him, he came out of his Timonium and joined the queen. + </p> + <p> + In Alexandria, Antony and Cleopatra only so far regained their courage as + to forget their losses, and to plunge into the same round of costly feasts + and shows that they had amused themselves with before their fall; but, + while they were wasting these few weeks in pleasure, Octavianus was moving + his fleet and army upon Egypt. + </p> + <p> + When he landed on the coast, Egypt held three millions of people; he might + have been met by three hundred thousand men able to bear arms. As for + money, which has sometimes been called the sinews of war, though there + might have been none in the treasury, yet it could not have been wanting + in Alexandria. But the Egyptians, like the ass in the fable, had nothing + to fear from a change of masters; they could hardly be kicked and cuffed + worse than they had been; and, though they themselves were the prize + struggled for, they looked on with the idle stare of a bystander. Some few + of the garrisons made a show of holding out; but, as Antony had left the + whole of his army in Greece when he fled away after the battle of Actium, + he had lost all chance of safety. + </p> + <p> + When Pelusium was taken, it was said by some that Seleucus the commander + had given it up by Cleopatra’s orders; but the queen, to justify herself, + put the wife and children of Seleucus into the hands of Antony to be + punished if he thought fit. When Octavianus arrived in front of Alexandria + he encamped not far from the hippodrome, a few miles from the Canopic or + eastern gate. On this Antony made a brisk sally, and, routing the Roman + cavalry, returned to the city in triumph. On his way to the palace he met + Cleopatra, whom he kissed, armed as he was, and recommended to her favour + a brave soldier who had done good service in the battle. She gave the man + a cuirass and helmet of gold; but he saw that Antony’s cause was ruined; + his new-gotten treasure made him selfish, and he went over to the enemy’s + camp that very night. The next morning Antony ordered out his forces, both + on land and sea, to engage with those of Octavianus; but he was betrayed + by his generals: his fleet and cavalry deserted him without a blow being + struck; and his infantry, easily routed, retreated into the city. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0038" id="linkCimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:44%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/351.jpg" + alt="351.jpg Greek Picture of Cleopatra " /> + </div> + <p> + Cleopatra had never acted justly towards her Jewish subjects; and, during + a late famine, had denied to them their share of the wheat distributed out + of the public granaries to the citizens of Alexandria. The Jews in return + showed no loyalty to Cleopatra, nor regret at her enemy’s success; and on + this defeat of her troops her rage fell upon them. She made a boast of her + cruelty towards them, and thought if she could have killed all the Jews + with her own hand she should have been repaid for the loss of the city. On + the other hand, Antony thought that he had been betrayed by Cleopatra, as + she had received many messengers from Octavianus. To avoid his anger, + therefore, she fled to a monument which she had built near the temple of + Isis, and in which she had before placed her treasure, her gold, silver, + emeralds, pearls, ebony, ivory, and cinnamon, together with a large + quantity of flax and a number of torches, as though to burn herself and + her wealth in one flame. Here she retired with two of her women, and + secured herself with bars and bolts, and sent word to Antony that she was + dead. Antony, when he heard it, believing that she had killed herself, and + wishing not to be outdone in courage by a woman, plunged his sword into + his breast. But the wound was not fatal, and when Cleopatra heard of it + she sent to beg that he would come to her. Accordingly his servants + carried him to the door of her monument. But the queen, in fear of + treachery, would not suffer the door to be opened; but she let a cord down + from the window, and she with her two women drew him up. Nothing could be + more affecting than the sight to all who were near; Antony covered with + blood, in the agonies of death, stretching out his hands to Cleopatra, and + she straining every nerve and every feature of her face with the effort + she was making. He was at last lifted in at the window, but died soon + afterwards. By this time the city was in the power of Octavianus; he had + not found it necessary to storm the walls, for Antony’s troops had all + joined him, and he sent in Gallus to endeavour to take Cleopatra alive. + This he succeeded in doing by drawing her into conversation at the door of + her monument, while three men scaled the window and snatched out of her + hand the dagger with which she would have stabbed herself. + </p> + <p> + Octavianus, henceforth called Augustus, began by promising his soldiers + two hundred and fifty drachmas each as prize money, for not being allowed + to plunder Alexandria. He soon afterwards entered the city, not on + horseback armed at the head of his victorious legions, but on foot, + leaning on the arm of the philosopher Arius; and, as he wished to be + thought as great a lover of learning as of mercy, he gave out that he + spared the place to the prayers of his Alexandrian friend. He called the + Greek citizens together in the gymnasium, and, mounting the tribunal, + promised that they should not be hurt. Cleopatra’s three children by + Antony, who had not the misfortune to be of the same blood with the + conqueror, were kindly treated and taken care of; while Cæsarion, her son + by Julius Cæsar, who was betrayed by his tutor Rhodon while flying towards + Ethiopia, was put to death as a rival. The flatterers of the conqueror + would of course say that Cæsarion was not the son of Julius, but of + Ptolemy, the elder of the two boys who had been called Cleopatra’s + husbands. The feelings of humanity might have answered that, if he was not + the only son of the uncle to whom Octavianus owed everything, he was at + least helpless and friendless, and that he never could trouble the + undisputed master of the world; but Augustus, with the heartless cruelty + which murdered Cicero, and the cold caution which marked his character + through life, listening to the remark of Arius, that there ought not to be + two Cæsars, had him at once put to death. + </p> + <p> + Augustus gave orders that Cleopatra should be carefully guarded lest she + should put an end to her own life; he wished to carry her with him to Rome + as the ornament of his triumph. He paid her a visit of condolence and + consolation. He promised her she should receive honourable treatment. He + allowed her to bury Antony. He threatened that her children should be + punished if she hurt herself; but she deceived her guards and put herself + to death, either by poison, or, as was more commonly thought, by the bite + of an asp brought to her in a basket of fruit. She was thirty-nine years + of age, having reigned twenty-two years, of which the last seven were in + conjunction with Antony; and she was buried in his tomb with all regal + splendour. + </p> + <p> + The death of Cleopatra was hailed at Rome as a relief from a sad disgrace + by others besides the flatterers of the conqueror. When governed by Julius + Cæsar, and afterwards by Antony, the Romans sometimes fancied they were + receiving orders from the barbarian queen to whom their master was a + slave. When Antony was in arms against his countrymen, they were not + without alarm at Cleopatra’s boast that she would yet make her power felt + in the Capitol; and many feared that even when Antony was overthrown the + conqueror might himself be willing to wear her chains. But the prudent + Augustus was in no danger of being dazzled by beauty. He saw clearly all + that was within his reach; he did not want her help to the sovereignty of + Egypt; and from the day that he entered the empty palace in Alexandria, + his reign began as sole master of Rome and its dependent provinces. + </p> + <p> + While we have in this history been looking at the Romans from afar, and + only seen their dealings with foreign kings, we have been able to note + some of the changes in their manners nearly as well as if we had stood in + the Forum. When Epiphanes, Philometor, and Euergetes II. owed their crowns + to Roman help, Rome gained nothing but thanks, and that weight in their + councils which is fairly due to usefulness: the senate asked for no + tribute, and the citizens took no bribes. But with the growth of power + came the love of conquest and of its spoils. Macedonia was conquered in + what might be called self-defence; in the reign of Cleopatra Cocce, Cyrene + was won by fraud, and Cyprus was then seized without a plea. The senators + were even more eager for bribes than the senate for provinces. The nobles + who governed these wide provinces grew too powerful for the senate, and + found that they could heap up ill-gotten wealth faster by patronising + kings than by conquering them; and the Egyptian monarchy was left to stand + in the reigns of Auletes and Cleopatra, because the Romans were still more + greedy than when they seized Cyrene and Cyprus. And, lastly, when the + Romans were worn out by quarrels and the want of a steady government, and + were ready to obey any master who could put a stop to civil bloodshed, + they made Octavianus autocrat of Rome; he then gained for himself whatever + he seized in the name of the republic, and he at once put an end to the + Egyptian monarchy. + </p> + <p> + Thus fell the family of the Ptolemies, a family that had perhaps done more + for arts and letters than any that can be pointed out in history. Like + other kings who have bought the praises of poets, orators, and historians, + they may have misled the talents which they wished to guide, and have + smothered the fire which they seemed to foster; but, in rewarding the + industry of the mathematicians and anatomists, of the critics, + commentators, and compilers, they seem to have been highly successful. It + is true that Alexandria never sent forth works with the high tone of + philosophy, the lofty moral aim and the pure taste which mark the writings + of Greece in its best ages, and which ennoble the mind and mend the heart; + but it was the school to which the world long looked for knowledge in all + those sciences which help the body and improve the arts of life, and which + are sometimes called useful knowledge. Though great and good actions may + not have been unknown in Alexandria, so few valued them that none took the + trouble to record them. The well-paid writers never wrote the lives of the + Ptolemies. The muse of history had no seat in the museum, but it was + almost the birthplace of anatomy, geometry, conic sections, geography, + astronomy, and hydrostatics. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0039" id="linkCimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/357.jpg" width="100%" + alt="357.jpg Grand Column at Karnak " /> + </div> + <p> + If we retrace the steps by which this Græco-Egyptian monarchy rose and + fell, we shall see that virtue and vice, wisdom and folly, care and + thoughtlessness, were for the most part followed by the rewards which to + us seem natural. The Egyptian gold which first tempted the Greeks into the + country, and then helped their energies to raise the monarchy, afterwards + undermined those same energies, and became one of the principal causes of + its final overthrow. + </p> + <p> + In Ptolemy Soter we see plain manners, careful plans, untiring activity, + and a wise choice of friends. By him talents were highly paid wherever + they were found; no service left unrewarded; the people trusted and taught + the use of arms; their love gained by wise laws and even-handed justice; + docks, harbours, and fortresses built, schools opened; and by these means + a great monarchy founded. Ptolemy was eager to fill the ranks of his + armies with soldiers, and his new city with traders. Instead of trying to + govern against the will of the people, to thwart or overlook their wishes + and feelings, his utmost aim was to guide them, and to make Alexandria a + more agreeable place of settlement than the cities of Asia Minor and + Syria, for the thousands who were then pouring out of Greece on the check + given to its trading industry by the overthrow of its freedom. Though + every thinking man might have seen that the new government, when it gained + shape and strength, would be a military despotism; yet his Greek subjects + must have felt, while it was weak and resting on their good-will rather + than on their habits, that they were enjoying many of the blessings of + freedom. Had they then claimed a share in the government, they would most + likely have gained it, and thereby they would have handed down those + blessings to their children. + </p> + <p> + Before the death of Ptolemy Soter, the habits of the people had so closely + entwined themselves round the throne, that Philadelphus was able to take + the kingdom and the whole of its wide provinces at the hands of his father + as a family estate. He did nothing to mar his father’s wise plans, which + then ripened into fruit-bearing. Trade crowded the harbours and markets, + learning filled the schools, conquests rewarded the discipline of the + fleets and armies; power, wealth, and splendour followed in due order. The + blaze thus cast around the throne would by many kings have been made to + stand in the place of justice and mildness, but under Philadelphus it only + threw a light upon his good government. He was acknowledged both at home + and abroad to be the first king of his age; Greece and its philosophers + looked up to him as a friend and patron; and though as a man he must take + rank far below his father, by whose wisdom the eminence on which he stood + was raised, yet in all the gold and glitter of a king Philadelphus was the + greatest of his family. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0040" id="linkCimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:41%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/362.jpg" alt="362.jpg Cleopatra’s Needle. " /> + </div> + <p> + The Egyptians had been treated with kindness by both of these Greek kings. + As far as they had been able or willing to copy the arts of Greece they + had been raised to a level with the Macedonians. The Egyptian worship and + temples had been upheld, as if in obedience to the oft-repeated answer of + the Delphic oracle, that the gods should everywhere be worshipped + according to the laws of the country. But Euergetes was much more of an + Egyptian, and while he was bringing back the ancient splendour to the + temples, the priests must have regained something of their former rank. + But they had no hold on the minds of the soldiers. Had the mercenaries, + upon whom the power of the king rested, been worshippers in the Egyptian + temples, the priests might, as in the earlier times, like a body of + nobles, have checked his power when too great, and at other times upheld + it. But it was not so; and upon the whole, little seems to have been + gained by the court becoming more Egyptian, while the army must have lost + something of its Greek discipline and plainness of manners. + </p> + <p> + But in the next reign the fruits of this change were seen to be most + unfortunate. Philopator was an Eastern despot, surrounded by eunuchs, and + drowned in pleasures. The country was governed by his women and vicious + favourites. The army, which at the beginning of his reign amounted to + seventy-three thousand men, beside the garrisons, was at first weakened by + rebellion, and before the end of his reign it fell to pieces. Nothing, + however, happened to prove his weakness to surrounding nations; Egypt was + still the greatest of kingdoms, though Rome on the conquest of Carthage, + and Syria under Antiochus the Great, were fast gaining ground upon it; but + he left to his infant son a throne shaken to the very foundations. + </p> + <p> + The ministers of Epiphanes, the infant autocrat, found the government + without a head and without an army, the treasury without money, and the + people without virtue or courage; and they placed the kingdom under the + hands of the Romans to save it from being shared between the kings of + Syria and Macedonia. Thus passed the first five reigns, the first one + hundred and fifty years, the first half of the three centuries that the + kingdom of the Ptolemies lasted. It was then rotten at the core with vice + and luxury. Its population was lessening, its trade falling off, its + treasury empty, its revenue too small for the wasteful expenses of the + government; but, nevertheless, in the eyes of surrounding nations, its + trade and wealth seemed boundless. + </p> + <p> + Taste, genius, and poetry had passed away; but mathematics, surgery, and + grammar still graced the museum. The decline of art is shown upon the + coins, and even in the shape of the letters upon the coins. On those of + Cleopatra the engraver followed the fashion of the penman; the S is + written like our C, the E has a round back, and the long O is formed like + an M reversed. + </p> + <p> + During the reigns of the later Ptolemies the kingdom was under the shield, + but also under the sceptre of Rome. Its kings sent to Rome for help, + sometimes against their enemies, and sometimes against their subjects; + sometimes they humbly asked the senate for advice, and at other times were + able respectfully to disobey the Roman orders. One by one the senate + seized the provinces; Coele-Syria, the coast of Asia Minor, Cyrene, and + the island of Cyprus; and lastly, though the Ptolemies still reigned, they + were counted among the clients of the Roman patrician, to whom they looked + up for patronage. From this low state Egypt could scarcely be said to fall + when it became a part of the great empire of Augustus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0041" id="linkCimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/364.jpg" + alt="364.jpg Graeco-egyptian Column " /> + </div> + <p> + During the reigns of the Ptolemies, the sculpture, the style of building, + the religion, the writing, and the language of the Kopts in the Thebaid + were nearly the same as when their own kings were reigning in Thebes, with + even fewer changes than usually creep in through time. They had all become + less simple; and though it would be difficult, and would want a volume by + itself to trace these changes, and to show when they came into use, yet a + few of them may be pointed out. The change of fashion must needs be slower + in buildings which are only raised by the untiring labour of years, and + which when built stand for ages; but in the later temples we find less + strength as fortresses, few obelisks or sphinxes, and no colossal statues; + we no longer meet with vast caves or pyramids. The columns in a temple + have several new patterns. The capitals which used to be copied from the + papyrus plant are now formed of lotus flowers, or palm branches. In some + cases, with a sad want of taste, the weight of the roof rests on the weak + head of a woman. The buildings, however, of the Ptolemies are such that, + before the hieroglyphics on them had been read by Doctor Young, nobody had + ever guessed that they were later than the time of Cambyses, while three + or four pillars at Alexandria were almost the only proof that the country + had ever been held by Greeks. + </p> + <p> + In the religion we find many new gods or old gods in new dresses. Hapimou, + the Nile, now pours water out of a jar like a Greek river god. The moon, + which before ornamented the heads of gods, is now a goddess under the name + of Ioh. The favourite Isis had appeared in so many characters that she is + called the goddess with ten thousand names. + </p> + <p> + The gods had also changed their rank; Phtah and Serapis now held the chief + place. Strange change had also taken place in the names of men and cities. + In the place of Petisis, Petamun, Psammo, and Serapion, we find men named + Eudoxus, Hermophantus, and Poly crates; while of the cities, Oshmoonayn is + called Hermopolis; Esne, Latopolis; Chemmis, Panopolis; and Thebes, + Diospolis; and Ptolemais, Phylace, Parembole, and others had sprung into + being. Many new characters crept into the hieroglyphics, as the + camelopard, the mummy lying on a couch, the ships with sails, and the + chariot with horses; there were more words spelled with letters, the + groups were more crowded, and the titles of the kings within the ovals + became much longer. + </p> + <p> + With the papyrus, which was becoming common about the time of the Persian + invasion, we find the running hand, the enchorial or common writing, as it + was called, coming into use, in which there were few symbols, and most of + the words were spelt with letters. Each letter was of the easy sloping + form, which came from its being made with a reed or pen, instead of the + stiff form of the hieroglyphics, which were mostly cut in stone. But there + is a want of neatness, which has thrown a difficulty over them, and has + made these writings less easy to read than the hieroglyphics. + </p> + <p> + When the country fell into the hands of Augustus, the Kopts were in a much + lower state than when conquered by Alexander. Of the old moral worth and + purity of manners very little remained. All respect for women was lost; + and, when men degrade those who should be their helps towards excellence, + they degrade themselves also. Not a small part of the nation was sunk in + vice. They had been slaves for three hundred years, sometimes trusted and + well-treated, but more often trampled on and ground down with taxes and + cruelty. They had never held up their heads as freemen, or felt themselves + lords of their own soil; they had fallen off in numbers, in wealth, and in + knowledge; nothing was left to them but their religion, their temples, + their hieroglyphics, and the painful remembrance of their faded glories. + </p> + <p> + END OF VOL. X. <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt From 330 B.C. To The +Present Time, Volume 10 (of 12), by S. 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