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diff --git a/17326-h/17326-h.htm b/17326-h/17326-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cc77f18 --- /dev/null +++ b/17326-h/17326-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,14174 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 6 + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, +Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 6 (of 12), by G. Maspero + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 6 (of 12) + +Author: G. Maspero + +Editor: A.H. Sayce + +Translator: M.L. McClure + +Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17326] +Last Updated: September 7, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + +Character set: ISO-8859-1 + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> <a name="image-0001" id="image-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/spines.jpg" alt="Spines" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="image-0002" id="image-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA + </h1> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of + Queen’s College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at + the College of France + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford + </h3> + <h4> + Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt + Exploration Fund + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Volume VI. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="image-0003" id="image-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="frontispiece (143K)" src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="image-0004" id="image-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" alt="Titlepage " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="image-0005" id="image-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/001.jpg" alt="001.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="002 (41K)" src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <h3> + <i>THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE—(continued)</i> + </h3> + <p> + <i>RAMSES III.: MANNERS AND CUSTOMS—POPULATION—THE + PREDOMINANCE OF AMON AND HIS HIGH PRIESTS.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The Theban necropolis: mummies—The funeral of a rich Theban: the + procession of the offerings and the funerary furniture, the crossing of + the Nile, the tomb, the farewell to the dead, the sacrifice, the coffins, + the repast of the dead, the song of the Harper—The common ditch—The + living inhabitants of the necropolis: draughtsmen, sculptors, painters—The + bas-reliefs of the temples and the tombs, wooden statuettes, the smelting + of metals, bronze—The religions of the necropolis: the immorality + and want of discipline among the people: workmen s strikes.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Amon and the beliefs concerning him: his kingdom over the living and + the dead, the soul’s destiny according to the teaching of Amon—Khonsû + and his temple; the temple of Amon at Karnak, its revenue, its priesthood—The + growing influence of the high priests of Amon under the sons of Ramses + III.: Hamsesnaklûti, Amenôthes; the violation of the royal burying-places—Hrihor + and the last of the Ramses, Smendês and the accession to power of the + XXIst dynasty: the division of Egypt into two States—The + priest-kings of Amon masters of Thebes under the suzerainty of the Tanite + Pharaohs—The close of the Theban empire.</i> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I—THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE—(continued) + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#B2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II—THE RISE OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#C2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III—THE HEBREWS AND THE PHILISTINES—DAMASCUS + </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0001"> Spines </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0002"> Cover </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0003"> Frontispiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0004"> Titlepage </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0005"> 001.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0006"> 003.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0007"> 004.jpg the Theban Cemeteries </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0008"> 005.jpg the Necropolis of SheÎkh and El-qurneh + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0009"> 007.jpg Head of a Theban Mummy </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0010"> 008.jpg the Manufacture and Painting of The + Cartonnage </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0011"> 009.jpg Wrapping of the Mummy, Under The + Direction Of The “Man of the Roll” </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0012"> 012.jpg the Funeral of Harmhabi </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0013"> 013.jpg the Funeral of HabmhabÎ </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0014"> 014.jpg the Boat Carrying The Mummy </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0015"> 015.jpg the Boats Containing The Female Weepers + and The People of the Household </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0016"> 016.jpg the Boats Containing The Friends and The + Funerary Furniture </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0017"> 017.jpg a Corner of the Theban Necropolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0018"> 018.jpg Painting in the Fifth Tomb of The Kings + to The Right </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0019"> 019.jpg the Farewell to The Mummy, and The Double + Received by the Goddess </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0020"> 021.jpg Niche in the Tomb of Menna </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0021"> 023a.jpg Coffin-lid </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0022"> 023b.jpg Coffin-lid </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0023"> 024.jpg the Mummy Factory </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0024"> 025.jpg the Paraphernalia of a Mummy Of The XXth + to The Xxiind Dynasties </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0025"> 026.jpg the Funeral Repast—music and + Dancing </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0026"> 027.jpg the Coffin of The Favourite Gazelle Of + IsÎmkhobiu </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0027"> 029.jpg One of the Harpers Of The Tomb Of Ramses + III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0028"> 032.jpg Paintings at the End of The Hall Of The + Fifth The Tomb </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0029"> 033.jpg Amenothes III. At Luxor </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0030"> 035.jpg KhÂmhaÎt </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0031"> 026.jpg Sketch of a Female Acrobat </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0032"> Bas-relief of Seti I., Showing Corrections Made + by The Sculptor </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0033"> 040.jpg the Kneeling Scribe at Turin </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0034"> 041a.jpg Young Girl in the Turing Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0034"> 041b.jpg the Lady Nehai </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0036"> 043a.jpg a Soldier </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0037"> 043b.jpg Statue in the Turin Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0038"> 045.jpg Funerary Casket in the Turin Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0039"> 046.jpg Shrine in the Turin Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0040"> 046b.jpg the Lady Taksûhît </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0042"> 048.jpg the Swallow-goddess from The Theban + Necropolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0043"> 049.jpg the Goddess MabÎtsakbo </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0044"> 060.jpg Decorated Wrappings of a Mummy </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0045"> 062.jpg One of the Mysterious Books Of Amon </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0046"> 066.jpg the Entrance to a Royal Tomb </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0047"> 066b.jpg One of the Hours Of The Night </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0048"> 074.jpg KhonsÛ* and Temple of KhonsÛ**. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0049"> 075.jpg the Temple of KhonsÛ at Karnak </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0050"> 077.jpg the Court of The Temple Of KhonsÛ </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0051"> 078.jpg the Colonnade Built by ThÛtmosis III </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0052"> 081.jpg the Temple of Amon at Karnak </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0053"> 082.jpg the Two Stele-pillars at Karnak </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0054"> 089.jpg Ramses IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0055"> 091.jpg Hrihor </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0056"> 093.jpg Zodphtahaufonkhi, Royal Son of Ramses + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#image-0057"> 095.jpg Tailpiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0005"> 097.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0006"> 098.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0007"> 099.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0008"> 101.jpg the Tree Growing on The Tomb of Osiris + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0009"> 104.jpg the Phoenician Horus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0010"> 105.jpg the Phoenician Thot </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0011"> 106.jpg One of the Most Ancient Phoenician + Inscriptions </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0012"> 107.jpg Table of Alphabets </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0013"> 109.jpg Rashuf on his Lion </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0014"> 110.jpg a Phoenician God in his Egyptian Shrine + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0015"> 111.jpg AmenÔthes I. Seizing a Lion </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0016"> 112.jpg a Phoenician Mastaba at Arvad </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0017"> 113.jpg Two of the Tombs at Arvad </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0018"> 115.jpg the Kabr-hiram Near Tyre </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0019"> 117.jpg Egyptian Treatment of the Cow on a + Phoenician Bowl </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0020"> 118.jpg the King and his Double on a Phoenician + Bowl </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0021"> 128.jpg AzÂz—one of This Tumuli on the + Ancient Hittite Plain </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0022"> 143.jpg the 1st Assyrian Empire—map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0023"> 145.jpg the Volcanic Cone of KÔkab </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0024"> 149.jpg Ishtar As a Warrior Bringing Prisoners + to A Conquering King </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0025"> 152.jpg a Village in the Mountain Districts of + The Old AssÆan Kingdom </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0026"> 155.jpg the Sabre of Ramman-nirari </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0027"> 163.jpg Table </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0028"> 172.jpg the Dove-goddess </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0029"> 173.jpg an Assyrian </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0030"> 178.jpg a Lion-hunt </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0031"> 179.jpg Lion Transfixed by an Arrow </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0032"> 180.jpg Paintings of Chairs </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0033"> 181.jpg a Ubus Hunt </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0034"> 182.jpg Libation Poured over the Lions on The + Return From The Chase </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0035"> 183.jpg Two Assyrian Archers </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0036"> 184.jpg an Assyrian War-chariot Charging the Foe + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0037"> 185a.jpg Harness of the Horses </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0038"> 185b.jpg Pikeman </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0039"> 188.jpg Crossing a River in Boats and on + Inflated Skins </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0040"> 189.jpg Making a Bridge for the Passage of The + Chariots </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0041"> 190.jpg the King’s Chariot Crossing a Bridge + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0042"> 191.jpg the Assyrian Infantry Crossing The + Mountains </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0043"> 193.jpg the King Crossing a Mountain in his + Chariot </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0044"> 194.jpg an Assyrian Camp </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0045"> 196.jpg a Fortified Town </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0046"> 198.jpg the Bringing of Heads After a Battle + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0047"> 200.jpg the King Lets Fly Arrows at a Besieged + Town </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0048"> 201.jpg Assyrian Sappers </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0049"> 202.jpg a Town Taken by Scaling </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0050"> 203.jpg Tortures Inflicted on Prisoners </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0051"> 204.jpg a Convoy of Prisoners and Captives After + The Taking of a Town </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0052"> 205.jpg Convoy of Prisoners Bound in Various + Ways </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0053"> 216.jpg General View of the Ruins Of Euyuk </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0054"> 217.jpg the Sphinx on The Right of Euyuk </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0055"> 218.jpg Two Blocks Covered With Bas-reliefs in + the Euyuk Palace </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0056"> 219.jpg Mystic Scene at Euyuk </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0057"> 220.jpg an Asiatic Goddess </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0058"> 221.jpg the Asiatic Inscription of + Kolitolu-yaÎla </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0059"> 222.jpg Double Scend of Offerings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0060"> 223.jpg the Bas-relief of Ibriz </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0061"> 230.jpg Sacrifice Offered Before the Royal Stele + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0062"> 231.jpg Portions of the Sacrificial Victims + Thrown Into The Water </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0063"> 233.jpg the Stele at Sebenneh-su </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0064"> 235.jpg Transport of Building Materials by Water + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0065"> 236.jpg Rare Animals Brought Back As Trophies by + The King </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0066"> 237.jpg Monkey Brought Back As Tribute </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0067"> 239.jpg Merodach-nadin-akhi </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0068"> 242.jpg Table of Kings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0069"> 248.jpg Lion at Makash </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Bimage-0070"> 250.jpg Tailpiece </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0005"> 251.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0006"> 252.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0007"> 253.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0008"> 259.jpg the Amorite Astarte </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0009"> 261.jpg the Valley of The Jabbok, Near to Its + Confluence With the Jordan </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0010"> 263.jpg One of the Mounds Of ÂÎn Es-sultÂn, The + Ancient Jericho </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0011"> 264.jpg the Jordan in The Neighbourhood of + Jericho </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0012"> 265.jpg One of the Wells Of Beersheba </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0013"> 268.jpg Map of Palestine in Time Of the Judges + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0014"> 272.jpg Moabite Warrior </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0015"> 275.jpg Tell </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0016"> 278.jpg Mount Tabor </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0017"> 288.jpg Mount Gerizim, With a View of Nablus + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0018"> 289.jpg the Town of Ascalon </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0019"> 292.jpg a Zakkala </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0020"> 294.jpg a Procession of Philistine Captives At + Medinet-habu </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0021"> 297.jpg a Philistine Ship of War </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0022"> 301.jpg Tell Es-safieh, the Gath of The + Philistines </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0023"> 304.jpg the Hill of Shiloh, Seen from The + North-east </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0024"> 314.jpg the Wady Suweinit </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0025"> 319.jpg a Phoenician Soldier </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0026"> 324.jpg AÎd-el-ra, the Site of The Ancient + Adullam </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0027"> 326.jpg the Desert of Judah </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0028"> 330.jpg the Hill of Bethshan, Seen from The East + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0029"> 346.jpg Mouse of Metal </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0030"> 353.jpg the Hebrew Kingdom </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0031"> 354.jpg the Site of Rabbath-amon, Seen from The + West </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0032"> 370.jpg Map of Tyre Subsequent to Hiram </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0033"> 371.jpg the Breakwater of The Egyptian Harbour + at Tyre </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0034"> 372.jpg One of Solomon’s Reservoirs Near + Jerusalem </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0035"> 374.jpg Some of the Stone Course Of Solomon’s + Temple At Jerusalem </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0036"> 377.jpg an Upright of a Door at Lachish </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0037"> 384.jpg King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0038"> 387.jpg a Jewish Captive </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0039"> 391.jpg the Mound and Plain of Bethel. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0040"> 393.jpg Table of Kings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0041"> 397.jpg Table of Kings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0042"> 401.jpg the Mummies of Queen MÂkerÎ and Her + Child </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0043"> 402.jpg Table </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0044"> 404.jpg the Two Niles of Tanis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0045"> 410.jpg a Troop of Libyans Hunting </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0046"> 413.jpg Nsitanibashiru </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0047"> 419.jpg Amon Presenting to Sheshonq the List of + The Cities Captured in Israel and Judah </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#Cimage-0048"> 432.jpg the Hill of Samaria </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="image-0006" id="image-0006"></a> + <!-- IMG --> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/003.jpg" alt="003.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I—THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE—(continued) + </h2> + <p> + <i>Ramses III.: Manners and Customs—Population—The + predominance of Amon and his high priests.</i> + </p> + <p> + Opposite the Thebes of the living, Khafîtnîbûs, the Thebes of the dead, + had gone on increasing in a remarkably rapid manner. It continued to + extend in the south-western direction from the heroic period of the + XVIIIth dynasty onwards, and all the eminence and valleys were gradually + appropriated one after the other for burying-places. At the time of which + I am speaking, this region formed an actual town, or rather a chain of + villages, each of which was grouped round some building constructed by one + or other of the Pharaohs as a funerary chapel. Towards the north, opposite + Karnak, they clustered at Drah-abu’l-Neggah around pyramids of the first + Theban monarchs, at Qurneh around the mausolæ of Ramses I. and Seti I., + and at Sheikh Abd el-Qurneh they lay near the Amenopheum and the + Pamonkaniqîmît, or Ramesseum built by Ramses II. Towards the south they + diminished in number, tombs and monuments becoming fewer and appearing at + wider intervals; the Migdol of Ramses III. formed an isolated suburb, that + of Azamît, at Medinet-Habu; the chapel of Isis, constructed by Amenôthes, + son of Hapû, formed a rallying-point for the huts of the hamlet of Karka;* + and in the far distance, in a wild gorge at the extreme limit of human + habitations, the queens of the Ramesside line slept their last sleep. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The village of Karka or Kaka was identified by Brugsch + with the hamlet of Deîr el-Medineh: the founder of the + temple was none other than Amenôthes, who was minister under + Amenôthes III. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0007" id="image-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/004.jpg" alt="004.jpg the Theban Cemeteries " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Each of these temples had around it its enclosing wall of dried brick, and + the collection of buildings within this boundary formed the Khîrû, or + retreat of some one of the Theban Pharaohs, which, in the official + language of the time, was designated the “august Khîrû of millions of + years.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0008" id="image-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/005.jpg" + alt="005.jpg the Necropolis of SheÎkh and El-qurneh " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + A sort of fortified structure, which was built into one of the corners, + served as a place of deposit for the treasure and archives, and could be + used as a prison if occasion required.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This was the hliatmû, the dungeon, frequently mentioned in + the documents bearing upon the necropolis. +</pre> + <p> + The remaining buildings consisted of storehouses, stables, and houses for + the priests and other officials. In some cases the storehouses were + constructed on a regular plan which the architect had fitted in with that + of the temple. Their ruins at the back and sides of the Ramesseum form a + double row of vaults, extending from the foot of the hills to the border + of the cultivated lands. Stone recesses on the roof furnished shelter for + the watchmen.* The outermost of the village huts stood among the nearest + tombs. The population which had been gathered together there was of a + peculiar character, and we can gather but a feeble idea of its nature from + the surroundings of the cemeteries in our own great cities. Death + required, in fact, far more attendants among the ancient Egyptians than + with us. The first service was that of mummification, which necessitated + numbers of workers for its accomplishment. Some of the workshops of the + embalmers have been discovered from time to time at Sheikh Abd el-Qurneh + and Deîr el-Baharî, but we are still in ignorance as to their + arrangements, and as to the exact nature of the materials which they + employed. A considerable superficial space was required, for the + manipulations of the embalmers occupied usually from sixty to eighty days, + and if we suppose that the average deaths at Thebes amounted to fifteen or + twenty in the twenty-four hours, they would have to provide at the same + time for the various degrees of saturation of some twelve to fifteen + hundred bodies at the least.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The discovery of quantities of ostraca in the ruins of + these chambers shows that they served partly for cellars. + + ** I have formed my estimate of fifteen to twenty deaths per + day from the mortality of Cairo during the French + occupation. This is given by R. Desgenettes, in the + <i>Description de l’Egypte</i>, but only approximately, as many + deaths, especially of females, must have been concealed from + the authorities; I have, however, made an average from the + totals, and applied the rate of mortality thus obtained to + ancient Thebes. The same result follows from calculations + based on more recent figures, obtained before the great + hygienic changes introduced into Cairo by Ismail Pacha, i.e. + from August 1, 1858, to July 31, 1859, and from May 24, + 1865, to May 16, 1866, and for the two years from April 2, + 1869, to March 21, 1870, and from April 2, 1870, to March + 21, 1871. +</pre> + <p> + Each of the corpses,moreover, necessitated the employment of at least half + a dozen workmen to wash it, cut it open, soak it, dry it, and apply the + usual bandages before placing the amulets upon the canonically prescribed + places, and using the conventional prayers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0009" id="image-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/007.jpg" alt="007.jpg Head of a Theban Mummy " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + There was fastened to the breast, immediately below the neck, a stone or + green porcelain scarab, containing an inscription which was to be + efficacious in preventing the heart, “his heart which came to him from his + mother, his heart from the time he was upon the earth,” from rising up and + witnessing against the dead man before the tribunal of Osiris.* There were + placed on his fingers gold or enamelled rings, as talismans to secure for + him the true voice.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The manipulations and prayers were prescribed in the “Book + of Embalming.” + + ** The prescribed gold ring was often replaced by one of + blue or green enamel. +</pre> + <p> + The body becomes at last little more than a skeleton, with a covering of + yellow skin which accentuates the anatomical, details, but the head, on + the other hand, still preserves, where the operations have been properly + conducted, its natural form. The cheeks have fallen in slightly, the lips + and the fleshy parts of the nose have become thinner and more drawn than + during life, but the general expression of the face remains unaltered. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0010" id="image-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/008.jpg" + alt="008.jpg the Manufacture and Painting of The Cartonnage " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Rosellini. +</pre> + <p> + A mask of pitch was placed over the visage to preserve it, above which was + adjusted first a piece of linen and then a series of bands impregnated + with resin, which increased the size of the head to twofold its ordinary + bulk. The trunk and limbs were bound round with a first covering of some + pliable soft stuff, warm to the touch. Coarsely powdered natron was + scattered here and there over the body as an additional preservative. + Packets placed between the legs, the arms and the hips, and in the + eviscerated abdomen, contained the heart, spleen, the dried brain, the + hair, and the cuttings of the beard and nails. In those days the hair had + a special magical virtue: by burning it while uttering certain + incantations, one might acquire an almost limitless power over the person + to whom it had belonged. The ernbalmers, therefore, took care to place + with the mummy such portions of the hair as they had been obliged to cut + off, so as to remove them out of the way of the perverse ingenuity of the + sorcerers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0011" id="image-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/009.jpg" + alt="009.jpg Wrapping of the Mummy, Under The Direction Of The ‘man of the Roll’ " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Rosellini. +</pre> + <p> + Over the first covering of the mummy already alluded to, there was + sometimes placed a strip of papyrus or a long piece of linen, upon which + the scribe had transcribed selections—both text and pictures—from + “The Book of the going forth by Day:” in such cases the roll containing + the whole work was placed between the legs. The body was further wrapped + in several bandages, then in a second piece of stuff, then in more bands, + the whole being finally covered with a shroud of coarse canvas and a red + linen winding-sheet, sewn together at the back, and kept in place by + transverse bands disposed at intervals from head to foot. The son of the + deceased and a “man of the roll” were present at this lugubrious toilet, + and recited at the application of each piece a prayer, in which its object + was defined and its duration secured. Every Egyptian was supposed to be + acquainted with the formulas, from having learned them during his + lifetime, by which he was to have restored to him the use of his limbs, + and be protected from the dangers of the world beyond. These were repeated + to the dead person, however, for greater security, during the process of + embalming, and the son of the deceased, or the master of the ceremonies, + took care to whisper to the mummy the most mysterious parts, which no + living ear might hear with impunity. The wrappings having been completed, + the deceased person became aware of his equipment, and enjoyed all the + privileges of the “instructed and fortified Manes.” He felt himself, both + mummy and double, now ready for the tomb. + </p> + <p> + Egyptian funerals were not like those to which we are accustomed—mute + ceremonies, in which sorrow is barely expressed by a furtive tear: noise, + sobbings, and wild gestures were their necessary concomitants. Not only + was it customary to hire weeping women, who tore their hair, filled the + air with their lamentations, and simulated by skilful actions the depths + of despair, but the relatives and friends themselves did not shrink from + making an outward show of their grief, nor from disturbing the equanimity + of the passers-by by the immoderate expressions of their sorrow. One after + another they raised their voices, and uttered some expression appropriate + to the occasion: “To the West, the dwelling of Osiris, to the West, thou + who wast the best of men, and who always hated guile.” And the hired + weepers answered in chorus: “O chief,* as thou goest to the West, the gods + themselves lament.” The funeral <i>cortege</i> started in the morning from + the house of mourning, and proceeded at a slow pace to the Nile, amid the + clamours of the mourners. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The “chief” is one of the names of Osiris, and is applied + naturally to the dead person, who has become an Osiris by + virtue of the embalming. +</pre> + <p> + The route was cleared by a number of slaves and retainers. First came + those who carried cakes and flowers in their hands, followed by others + bearing jars full of water, bottles of liqueurs, and phials of perfumes; + then came those who carried painted boxes intended for the provisions of + the dead man, and for containing the Ushabtiu, or “Respondents.” The + succeeding group bore the usual furniture required by the deceased to set + up house again, coffers for linen, folding and arm chairs, state-beds, and + sometimes even a caparisoned chariot with its quivers. Then came a groom + conducting two of his late master’s favourite horses, who, having + accompanied the funeral to the tomb, were brought back to their stable. + Another detachment, more numerous than the others combined, now filed + past, bearing the effects of the mummy; first the vessels for the + libations, then the cases for the Canopic jars, then the Canopic jars + themselves, the mask of the deceased, coloured half in gold and half in + blue, arms, sceptres, military batons, necklaces, scarabs, vultures with + encircling wings worn on the breast at festival-times, chains, + “Respondents,” and the human-headed sparrow-hawk, the emblem of the soul. + Many of these objects were of wood plated with gold, others of the same + material simply gilt, and others of solid gold, and thus calculated to + excite the cupidity of the crowd. Offerings came next, then a noisy + company of female weepers; then a slave, who sprinkled at every instant + some milk upon the ground as if to lay the dust; then a master of the + ceremonies, who, the panther skin upon his shoulder, asperged the crowd + with perfumed water; and behind him comes the hearse. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0012" id="image-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/012.jpg" alt="012.jpg the Funeral of Harmhabi " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after a coloured print in Wilkinson. + The cut on the following page joins this on the right. +</pre> + <p> + The latter, according to custom, was made in the form of a boat—representing + the bark of Osiris, with his ark, and two guardians, Isis and Nephthys—and + was placed upon a sledge, which was drawn by a team of oxen and a relay of + fellahîn. The sides of the ark were, as a rule, formed of movable wooden + panels, decorated with pictures and inscriptions; sometimes, however, but + more rarely, the panels were replaced by a covering of embroidered stuff + or of soft leather. In the latter case the decoration was singularly rich, + the figures and hieroglyphs being cut out with a knife, and the spaces + thus left filled in with pieces of coloured leather, which gave the whole + an appearance of brilliant mosaic-work.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * One of these coverings was found in the hiding-place at + Deîr el-Baharî; it had belonged to the Princess Isîmkhobiû, + whose mummy is now at Gîzeh. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0013" id="image-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/013.jpg" alt="013.jpg the Funeral of HabmhabÎ " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the coloured print in + Wilkinson. The left side of this design fits on to the right + of the preceding cut. +</pre> + <p> + In place of a boat, a shrine of painted wood, also mounted upon a sledge, + was frequently used. When the ceremony was over, this was left, together + with the coffin, in the tomb.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I found in the tomb of Sonnozmû two of these sledges with + the superstructure in the form of a temple. They are now in + the Gîzeh Museum. +</pre> + <p> + The wife and children walked as close to the bier as possible, and were + followed by the friends of the deceased, dressed in long linen garments,* + each of them bearing a wand. The ox-driver, while goading his beasts, + cried out to them: “To the West, ye oxen who draw the hearse, to the West! + Your master comes behind you!” “To the West,” the friends repeated; “the + excellent man lives no longer who loved truth so dearly and hated + lying!”** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ** The whole of this description is taken from the pictures + representing the interment of a certain Harmhabî, who died + at Thebes in the time of Thfitmosis IV. + + * These expressions are taken from the inscriptions on the + tomb of Rai +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0014" id="image-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/014.jpg" alt="014.jpg the Boat Carrying The Mummy " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from pictures in the tomb of + Nofirhotpû at Thebes. +</pre> + <p> + This lamentation is neither remarkable for its originality nor for its + depth of feeling. Sorrow was expressed on such occasions in prescribed + formulas of always the same import, custom soon enabling each individual + to compose for himself a repertory of monotonous exclamations of + condolence, of which the prayer, “To the West!” formed the basis, relieved + at intervals by some fresh epithet. The nearest relatives of the deceased, + however, would find some more sincere expressions of grief, and some more + touching appeals with which to break in upon the commonplaces of the + conventional theme. On reaching the bank of the Nile the funeral cortege + proceeded to embark.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The description of this second part of the funeral + arrangements is taken from the tomb of Harmhabî, and + especially from that of Nofirhotpû. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0015" id="image-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/015.jpg" + alt="015.jpg the Boats Containing The Female Weepers and The People of the Household " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from paintings on the tomb of + Nofirhotpû at Thebes. +</pre> + <p> + They blended with their inarticulate cries, and the usual protestations + and formulas, an eulogy upon the deceased and his virtues, allusions to + his disposition and deeds, mention of the offices and honours he had + obtained, and reflections on the uncertainty of human life—the whole + forming the melancholy dirge which each generation intoned over its + predecessor, while waiting itself for the same office to be said over it + in its turn. + </p> + <p> + The bearers of offerings, friends, and slaves passed over on hired barges, + whose cabins, covered externally with embroidered stuffs of several + colours, or with <i>applique</i> leather, looked like the pedestals of a + monument: crammed together on the boats, they stood upright with their + faces turned towards the funeral bark. The latter was supposed to + represent the Noshemît, the mysterious skiff of Abydos, which had been + used in the obsequies of Osiris of yore. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0016" id="image-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/016.jpg" + alt="016.jpg the Boats Containing The Friends and The Funerary Furniture " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from paintings on the tomb of + Nofirhotpû at Thebes. +</pre> + <p> + It was elegant, light, and slender in shape, and ornamented at bow and + stern with a lotus-flower of metal, which bent back its head gracefully, + as if bowed down by its own weight. A temple-shaped shrine stood in the + middle of the boat, adorned with bouquets of flowers and with green + palm-branches. The female members of the family of the deceased, crouched + beside the shrine, poured forth lamentations, while two priestesses, + representing respectively Isis and Nephthys, took up positions behind to + protect the body. The boat containing the female mourners having taken the + funeral barge in tow, the entire flotilla pushed out into the stream. This + was the solemn moment of the ceremony—the moment in which the + deceased, torn away from his earthly city, was about to set out upon that + voyage from which there is no return. The crowds assembled on the banks of + the river hailed the dead with their parting prayers: “Mayest thou reach + in peace the West from Thebes! In peace, in peace towards Abydos, mayest + thou descend in peace towards Abydos, towards the sea of the West!” + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0017" id="image-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/017.jpg" alt="017.jpg a Corner of the Theban Necropolis " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a stele in the Gîzeh Museum. +</pre> + <p> + This crossing of the Nile was of special significance in regard to the + future of the soul of the deceased: it represented his pilgrimage towards + Abydos, to the “Mouth of the Cleft” which gave him access to the other + world, and it was for this reason that the name of Abydos is associated + with that of Thebes in the exclamations of the crowd. The voices of the + friends replied frequently and mournfully: “To the West, to the West, the + land of the justified! The place which thou lovedst weeps and is + desolate!” Then the female mourners took up the refrain, saying: “In + peace, in peace, to the West! O honourable one, go in peace! If it please + God, when the day of Eternity shall shine, we shall see thee, for behold + thou goest to the land which mingles all men together!” The widow then + adds her note to the concert of lamentations: “O my brother, O my husband, + O my beloved, rest, remain in thy place, do not depart from the + terrestrial spot where thou art! Alas, thou goest away to the ferry-boat + in order to cross the stream! O sailors, do not hurry, leave him; you, you + will return to your homes, but he, he is going away to the land of + Eternity! O Osirian bark, why hast thou come to take away from me him who + has left me!” The sailors were, of course, deaf to her appeals, and the + mummy pursued its undisturbed course towards the last stage of its + mysterious voyage. + </p> + <p> + The majority of the tombs—those which were distributed over the + plain or on the nearest spurs of the hill—were constructed on the + lines of those brick-built pyramids erected on mastabas which were very + common during the early Theban dynasties. The relative proportions of the + parts alone were modified: the mastaba, which had gradually been reduced + to an insignificant base, had now recovered its original height, while the + pyramid had correspondingly decreased, and was much reduced in size. The + chapel was constructed within the building, and the mummy-pit was sunk to + a varying depth below. The tombs ranged along the mountain-side were, on + the other hand, rock-cut, and similar to those at el-Bersheh and + Beni-Hasan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0018" id="image-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/017b.jpg" + alt="017b.jpg Painting in the Fifth Tomb of The Kings to The Right " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The heads of wealthy families or the nobility naturally did not leave to + the last moment the construction of a sepulchre worthy of their rank and + fortune. They prided themselves on having “finished their house which is + in the funeral valley when the morning for the hiding away of their body + should come.” Access to these tombs was by too steep and difficult a path + to allow of oxen being employed for the transport of the mummy: the + friends or slaves of the deceased were, therefore, obliged to raise the + sarcophagus on their shoulders and bear it as best they could to the door + of the tomb. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0019" id="image-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/019.jpg" + alt="019.jpg the Farewell to The Mummy, and The Double Received by the Goddess " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the paintings in the Theban + tombs. +</pre> + <p> + The mummy was then placed in an upright position on a heap of sand, with + its back to the wall and facing the assistants, like the master of some + new villa who, having been accompanied by his friends to see him take + possession, turns for a moment on the threshold to take leave of them + before entering. A sacrifice, an offering, a prayer, and a fresh outburst + of grief ensued; the mourners redoubled their cries and threw themselves + upon the ground, the relatives decked the mummy with flowers and pressed + it to their bared bosoms, kissing it upon the breast and knees. “I am thy + sister, O great one! forsake me not! Is it indeed thy will that I should + leave thee? If I go away, thou shalt be here alone, and is there any one + who will be with thee to follow thee? O thou who lovedst to jest with me, + thou art now silent, thou speakest not!” Whereupon the mourners again + broke out in chorus: “Lamentation, lamentation! Make, make, make, make + lamentation without ceasing as loud as can be made. O good traveller, who + takest thy way towards the land of Eternity, thou hast been torn from us! + O thou who hadst so many around thee, thou art now in the land which + bringest isolation! Thou who lovedst to stretch thy limbs in walking, art + now fettered, bound, swathed! Thou who hadst fine stuffs in abundance, art + laid in the linen of yesterday!” Calm in the midst of the tumult, the + priest stood and offered the incense and libation with the accustomed + words: “To thy double, Osiris Nofirhotpû, whose voice before the great god + is true!” This was the signal of departure, and the mummy, carried by two + men, disappeared within the tomb: the darkness of the other world had laid + hold of it, never to let it go again. + </p> + <p> + The chapel was usually divided into two chambers: one, which was of + greater width than length, ran parallel to the façade; the other, which + was longer than it was wide, stood at right angles with the former, + exactly opposite to the entrance. The decoration of these chambers took + its inspiration from the scheme which prevailed in the time of the + Memphite dynasties, but besides the usual scenes of agricultural labour, + hunting, and sacrifice, there were introduced episodes from the public + life of the deceased, and particularly the minute portrayal of the + ceremonies connected with his burial. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0020" id="image-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/021.jpg" alt="021.jpg Niche in the Tomb of Menna " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger. +</pre> + <p> + These pictorial biographies are always accompanied by detailed explanatory + inscriptions; every individual endeavoured thus to show to the Osirian + judges the rank he had enjoyed here upon earth, and to obtain in the + fields of lalû the place which he claimed to be his due. + </p> + <p> + The stele was to be found at the far end of the second chamber; it was + often let in to a niche in the form of a round-headed doorway, or else it + was replaced by a group of statues, either detached or sculptured in the + rock itself, representing the occupant, his wives and children, who took + the place of the supporters of the double, formerly always hidden within + the serdab. The ceremony of the “Opening of the Mouth” took place in front + of the niche on the day of burial, at the moment when the deceased, having + completed his terrestrial course, entered his new home and took possession + of it for all eternity. The object of this ceremony was, as we know, to + counteract the effects of the embalming, and to restore activity to the + organs of the body whose functions had been suspended by death. The “man + of the roll” and his assistants, aided by the priests, who represented the + “children of Horus,” once more raised the mummy into an upright position + upon a heap of sand in the middle of the chapel, and celebrated in his + behalf the divine mystery instituted by Horus for Osiris. They purified it + both by ordinary and by red water, by the incense of the south and by the + alum of the north, in the same manner as that in which the statues of the + gods were purified at the beginning of the temple sacrifices; they then + set to work to awake the deceased from his sleep: they loosened his shroud + and called back the double who had escaped from the body at the moment of + the death-agony, and restored to him the use of his arms and legs. As soon + as the sacrificial slaughterers had despatched the bull of the south, and + cut it in pieces, the priest seized the bleeding haunch, and raised it to + the lips of the mask as if to invite it to eat; but the lips still + remained closed, and refused to perform their office. The priest then + touched them with several iron instruments hafted on wooden handles, which + were supposed to possess the power of unsealing them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0021" id="image-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/023a.jpg" alt="023a.jpg Coffin-lid " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher- +Gudin, from a +photograph by +M. de Mertens. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + <a name="image-0022" id="image-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/023b.jpg" alt="023b.jpg Coffin-lid " /> + </div> + <p> + The “opening” once effected, the double became free, and the + tomb-paintings from thenceforward ceasing to depict the mummy, represented + the double only. They portrayed it “under the form which he had on this + earth,” wearing the civil garb, and fulfilling his ordinary functions. The + corpse was regarded as merely the larva, to be maintained in its integrity + in order to ensure survival; but it could be relegated without fear to the + depths of the bare and naked tomb, there to remain until the end of time, + if it pleased the gods to preserve it from robbers or archaeologists. At + the period of the first Theban empire the coffins were rectangular wooden + chests, made on the models of the limestone and granite sarcophagi, and + covered with prayers taken from the various sacred writings, especially + from the “Book of the Dead”; during the second Theban empire, they were + modified into an actual sheath for the body, following more or less the + contour of the human figure. This external model of the deceased covered + his remains, and his figure in relief served as a lid to the coffin. The + head was covered with the full-dress wig, a tippet of white cambrio half + veiled the bosom, the petticoat fell in folds about the limbs, the feet + were shod with sandals, the arms were outstretched or were folded over the + breast, and the hands clasped various objects—either the <i>crux + ansata</i>, the buckle of the belt, the <i>tat</i>, or a garland of + flowers. Sometimes, on the contrary, the coffin was merely a conventional + reproduction of the human form. The two feet and legs were joined + together, and the modelling of the knee, calf, thigh, and stomach was only + slightly indicated in the wood. Towards the close of the XVIIIth dynasty + it was the fashion for wealthy persons to have two coffins, one fitting + inside the other, painted black or white. From the XXth dynasty onwards + they were coated with a yellowish varnish, and so covered with + inscriptions and mystic signs that each coffin was a tomb in miniature, + and could well have done duty as such, and thus meet all the needs of the + soul.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The first to summarise the characteristics of the coffins + and sarcophagi of the second Theban period was Mariette, but + he places the use of the yellow-varnished coffins too late, + viz. during the XXIInd dynasty. Examples of them have since + been found which incontestably belong to the XXth. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0023" id="image-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/024.jpg" alt="024.jpg the Mummy Factory " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Later still, during the XXIst and XXIInd dynasties, these two, or even + three coffins, were enclosed in a rectangular sarcophagus of thick wood, + which, surmounted by a semicircular lid, was decorated with pictures and + hallowed by prayers: four sparrow-hawks, perched on the uprights at the + corners, watched at the four cardinal points, and protected the body, + enabling the soul at the same time to move freely within the four houses + of which the world was composed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0024" id="image-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/025.jpg" + alt="025.jpg the Paraphernalia of a Mummy Of The Xxth to The Xxiind Dynasties " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Mariette. +</pre> + <p> + The workmen, after having deposited the mummy in its resting-place, piled + upon the floor of the tomb the canopio jars, the caskets, the provisions, + the furniture, the bed, and the stools and chairs; the Usha-btiu occupied + compartments in their allotted boxes, and sometimes there would be laid + beside them the mummy of a favourite animal—a monkey, a dog of some + rare breed, or a pet gazelle, whose coffins were shaped to their + respective outlines, the better to place before the deceased the + presentment of the living animal. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0025" id="image-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/026.jpg" + alt="026.jpg the Funeral Repast--music and Dancing " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a fragment in the British + Museum. The scene representing the funeral repast and its + accompanying dances occurs frequently in the Theban tombs. +</pre> + <p> + A few of the principal objects were broken or damaged, in the belief that, + by thus destroying them, their doubles would go forth and accompany the + human double, and render him their accustomed services during the whole of + his posthumous existence; a charm pronounced over them bound them + indissolubly to his person, and constrained them to obey his will. This + done, the priest muttered a final prayer, and the masons walled up the + doorway. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0026" id="image-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/027.jpg" + alt="027.jpg the Coffin of The Favourite Gazelle Of IsÎmkhobiu " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch- + Bey. +</pre> + <p> + The funeral feast now took place with its customary songs and dances. The + <i>almehs</i> addressed the guests and exhorted them to make good use of + the passing hour: “Be happy for one day! for when you enter your tombs you + will rest there eternally throughout the length of every day!” + </p> + <p> + Immediately after the repast the friends departed from the tomb, and the + last link which connected the dead with our world was then broken. The + sacred harper was called upon to raise the farewell hymn:* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The harper is often represented performing this last + office. In the tomb of Nofirhotpû, and in many others, the + daughters or the relatives of the deceased accompany or even + replace the harper; in this case they belonged to a priestly + family, and fulfilled the duties of the “Female Singers” of + Amon or some other god. +</pre> + <p> + “O instructed mummies, ennead of the gods of the coffin, who listen to the + praises of this dead man, and who daily extol the virtues of this + instructed mummy, who is living eternally like a god, ruling in Amentît, + ye also who shall live in the memory of posterity, all ye who shall come + and read these hymns inscribed, according to the rites, within the tombs, + repeat: ‘The greatness of the under-world, what is it? The annihilation of + the tomb, why is it?’ It is to conform to the image of the land of + Eternity, the true country where there is no strife and where violence is + held in abhorrence, where none attacks his neighbour, and where none among + our generations who rest within it is rebellious, from the time when your + race first existed, to the moment when it shall become a multitude of + multitudes, all going the same way; for instead of remaining in this land + of Egypt, there is not one but shall leave it, and there is said to all + who are here below, from the moment of their waking to life: ‘Go, prosper + safe and sound, to reach the tomb at length, a chief among the blessed, + and ever mindful in thy heart of the day when thou must lie down on the + funeral bed!’” The ancient song of Antûf, modified in the course of + centuries, was still that which expressed most forcibly the melancholy + thought paramount in the minds of the friends assembled to perform the + last rites. “The impassibility of the chief* is, in truth, the best of + fates!” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Osiris is here designated by the word “chief,” as I have + already pointed out. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0027" id="image-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/029.jpg" + alt="029.jpg One of the Harpers Of The Tomb Of Ramses Iii. " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken Byjnsinger in + 1881. +</pre> + <p> + “Since the times of the god bodies are created merely to pass away, and + young generations take their place: Râ rises in the morning, Tûmû lies + down to rest in the land of the evening, all males generate, the females + conceive, every nose inhales the air from the morning of their birth to + the day when they go to their place! Be happy then for one day, O man!—May + there ever be perfumes and scents for thy nostrils, garlands and + lotus-flowers for thy shoulders and for the neck of thy beloved sister* + who sits beside thee! Let there be singing and music before thee, and, + forgetting all thy sorrows, think only of pleasure until the day when thou + must enter the country of Marîtsakro, the silent goddess, though all the + same the heart of the son who loves thee will not cease to beat! Be happy + for one day, O man!—I have heard related what befell our ancestors; + their walls are destroyed, their place is no more, they are as those who + have ceased to live from the time of the god! The walls of thy tomb are + strong, thou hast planted trees at the edge of thy pond, thy soul reposes + beneath them and drinks the water; follow that which seemeth good to thee + as long as thou art on earth, and give bread to him who is without land, + that thou mayest be well spoken of for evermore. Think upon the gods who + have lived long ago: their meat offerings fall in pieces as if they had + been torn by a panther, their loaves are defiled with dust, their statues + no longer stand upright within the temple of Râ, their followers beg for + alms! Be happy for one day!” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Marriages between brothers and sisters in Egypt rendered + this word “sister” the most natural appellation. +</pre> + <p> + Those gone before thee “have had their hour of joy,” and they have put off + sadness “which shortens the moments until the day when hearts are + destroyed!—Be mindful, therefore, of the day when thou shalt be + taken to the country where all men are mingled: none has ever taken + thither his goods with him, and no one can ever return from it!” The grave + did not, however, mingle all men as impartially as the poet would have us + believe. The poor and insignificant had merely a place in the common pit, + which was situated in the centre of the Assassîf,* one of the richest + funerary quarters of Thebes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There is really only one complete description of a + cemetery of the poor, namely, that given by A. Rhind. + Mariette caused extensive excavations to be made by Gabet + and Vassalli, 1859-1862, in the Assassif, near the spot + worked by Rhind, and the objects found are now in the Gîzeh + Museum, but the accounts of the work are among his + unpublished papers, vassalli assures me that he sometimes + found the mummies piled one on another to the depth of sixty + bodies, and even then he did not reach the lowest of the + pile. The hurried excavations which I made in 1882 and 1884, + appeared to confirm these statements of Rhind and Vassalli. +</pre> + <p> + Yawning trenches stood ever open there, ready to receive their prey; the + rites were hurriedly performed, and the grave-diggers covered the mummies + of the day’s burial with a little sand, out of which we receive them + intact, sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups of twos or threes, showing + that they had not even been placed in regular layers. Some are wrapped + only in bandages of coarse linen, and have been consigned without further + covering to the soil, while others have been bound round with palm-leaves + laid side by side, so as to form a sort of primitive basket. The class + above the poorest people were buried in rough-hewn wooden boxes, smaller + at the feet than towards the head, and devoid of any inscription or + painting. Many have been placed in any coffin that came to hand, with a + total indifference as to suitability of size; others lie in a badly made + bier, made up of the fragments of one or more older biers. None of them + possessed any funerary furniture, except the tools of his trade, a thin + pair of leather shoes, sandals of cardboard or plaited reeds, rings of + terra-cotta or bronze, bracelets or necklets of a single row of blue + beads, statuettes of divinities, mystic eyes, scarabs, and, above all, + cords tied round the neck, arms, limbs, or waist, to keep off, by their + mystic knots, all malign influences. + </p> + <p> + The whole population of the necropolis made their living out of the dead. + This was true of all ranks of society, headed by the sacerdotal colleges + of the royal chapels,* and followed by the priestly bodies, to whom was + entrusted the care of the tombs in the various sections, but the most + influential of whom confined their attentions to the old burying-ground, + “Isît-mâît,” the True Place.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We find on several monuments the names of persons + belonging to these sacerdotal bodies, priests of Ahmosis I., + priests of Thûtmosis I., of Thût-mosis II., of Amenôthes + II., and of Seti I. + + ** The persons connected with the “True Place” were for a + long time considered as magistrates, and the “True Place” as + a tribunal. +</pre> + <p> + It was their duty to keep up the monuments of the kings, and also of + private individuals, to clean the tombs, to visit the funerary chambers, + to note the condition of their occupants, and, if necessary, repair the + damage done by time, and to provide on certain days the offerings + prescribed by custom, or by clauses in the contract drawn up between the + family of the deceased and the religious authorities. The titles of these + officials indicated how humble was their position in relation to the + deified ancestors in whose service they were employed; they called + themselves the “Servants of the True Place,” and their chiefs the + “Superiors of the Servants,” but all the while they were people of + considerable importance, being rich, well educated, and respected in their + own quarter of the town. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0028" id="image-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/031.jpg" + alt="031.jpg Paintings at the End of The Hall Of The Fifth The Tomb " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + They professed to have a special devotion for Amenôthes I. and his mother, + Nofrîtari, who, after five or six centuries of continuous homage, had come + to be considered as the patrons of Khafîtnîbûs, but this devotion was not + to the depreciation of other sovereigns. It is true that the officials + were not always clear as to the identity of the royal remains of which + they had the care, and they were known to have changed one of their queens + or princesses into a king or some royal prince.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Thus Queen Ahhotpû I., whom the “servant” Anhûrkhâû knew + to be a woman, is transformed into a King Ahhotpû in the + tomb of Khâbokhnît. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0029" id="image-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/033.jpg" alt="Amenothes III. At Luxor " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Gayet. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + They were surrounded by a whole host of lesser functionaries—bricklayers, + masons, labourers, exorcists, scribes (who wrote out pious formulae for + poor people, or copied the “Books of the going forth by day” for the + mummies), weavers, cabinet-makers, and goldsmiths. The sculptors and the + painters were grouped into guilds;* many of them spent their days in the + tombs they were decorating, while others had their workshops above-ground, + probably very like those of our modern monumental masons. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We gather this from the inscriptions which give us the + various titles of the sculptors, draughtsmen, or workmen, + but I have been unable to make out the respective positions + held by these different persons. +</pre> + <p> + They kept at the disposal of their needy customers an assortment of + ready-made statues and stelæ, votive tablets to Osiris, Anubis, and other + Theban gods and goddesses, singly or combined. The name of the deceased + and the enumeration of the members of his family were left blank, and were + inserted after purchase in the spaces reserved for the purpose.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I succeeded in collecting at the Boulak Museum a + considerable number of these unfinished statues and stelæ, + coming from the workshops of the necropolis. +</pre> + <p> + These artisans made the greater part of their livelihood by means of these + epitaphs, and the majority thought only of selling as many of them as they + could; some few, however, devoted themselves to work of a higher kind. + Sculpture had reached a high degree of development under the Thûtmoses and + the Ramses, and the art of depicting scenes in bas-relief had been brought + to a perfection hitherto unknown. This will be easily seen by comparing + the pictures in the old mastabas, such as those of Ti or Phtahhotpû, with + the finest parts of the temples of Qurneh, Abydos, Karnak, Deîr el-Baharî, + or with the scenes in the tombs of Seti I. and Ramses II., or those of + private individuals such as Hûi. The modelling is firm and refined, + showing a skill in the use of the chisel and an elegance of outline which + have never been surpassed: the Amenôthes III. of Luxor and the Khâmhâît of + Sheikh Abd el-Qurneh might serve for models in our own schools of the + highest types which Egyptian art could produce at its best in this + particular branch. The drawing is freer than in earlier examples, the + action is more natural, the composition more studied, and the perspective + less wild. We feel that the artist handled his subject <i>con amore</i>. + He spared no trouble in sketching out his designs and in making studies + from nature, and, as papyrus was expensive, he drew rough drafts, or made + notes of his impressions on the flat chips of limestone with which the + workshops were strewn. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0030" id="image-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/035.jpg" alt="035.jpg KhÂmhaÎt " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by M. de Mertens. +</pre> + <p> + Nothing at that date could rival these sketches for boldness of conception + and freedom in execution, whether it were in the portrayal of the majestic + gait of a king or the agility of an acrobat. Of the latter we have an + example in the Turin Museum. The girl is nude, with the exception of a + tightly fitting belt about her hips, and she is throwing herself backwards + with so natural a motion, that we are almost tempted to expect her to turn + a somersault and fall once more into position with her heels together. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0031" id="image-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/036.jpg" alt="036.jpg Sketch of a Female Acrobat " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Petrie. +</pre> + <p> + The unfinished figures on the tomb of Seti I. shows with what a steady + hand the clever draughtsman could sketch out his subjects. The head from + the nape of the neck round to the throat is described by a single line, + and the contour of the shoulders is marked by another. The form of the + body is traced by two undulating lines, while the arms and legs are + respectively outlined by two others. The articles of apparel and + ornaments, sketched rapidly at first, had to be gone over again by the + sculptor, who worked out the smallest details. One might almost count the + tresses of the hair, while the folds of the dress and the enamels of the + girdle and bracelets are minutely chiselled. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0032" id="image-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/037.jpg" + alt="Bas-relief of Seti I., Showing Corrections Made by The Sculptor " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from photographs by Insinger and + Daniel Héron. +</pre> + <p> + When the draughtsman had finished his picture from the sketch which he had + made, or when he had enlarged it from a smaller drawing, the master of the + studio would go over it again, marking here and there in red the defective + points, to which the sculptor gave his attention when working the subject + out on the wall. If he happened to make a mistake in executing it, he + corrected it as well as he was able by filling up with stucco or hard + cement the portions to be remodelled, and by starting to work again upon + the fresh surface. This cement has fallen out in some cases, and reveals + to our eyes to-day the marks of the underlying chiselling. There are, for + example, two profiles of Seti I. on one of the bas-reliefs of the + hypostyle hall at Karnak, one faintly outlined, and the other standing + fully out from the surface of the stone. The sense of the picturesque was + making itself felt, and artists were no longer to be excused for + neglecting architectural details, the configuration of the country, the + drawing of rare plants, and, in fact, all those accessories which had been + previously omitted altogether or merely indicated. The necessity of + covering such vast surfaces as the pylons offered had accustomed them to + arrange the various scenes of one and the same action in a more natural + and intimate connexion than their predecessors could possibly have done. + In these scenes the Pharaoh naturally played the chief part, but in place + of choosing for treatment merely one or other important action of the + monarch calculated to exhibit his courage, the artist endeavoured to + portray all the successive incidents in his campaigns, in the same manner + as the early Italian painters were accustomed to depict, one after the + other, and on the same canvas, all the events of the same legend. The + details of these gigantic compositions may sometimes appear childish to + us, and we may frequently be at a loss in determining the relations of the + parts, yet the whole is full of movement, and, although mutilated, gives + us even yet the impression which would have been made upon us by the + turmoil of a battle in those distant days. + </p> + <p> + The sculptor of statues for a long time past was not a whit less skilful + than the artist who executed bas-reliefs. The sculptor was doubtless often + obliged to give enormous proportions to the figure of the king, to prevent + his being overshadowed by the mass of buildings among which the statue was + to appear; but this necessity of exaggerating the human form did not + destroy in the artist that sense of proportion and that skilful handling + of the chisel which are so strikingly displayed in the sitting scribe or + in the princess at Meîdûm; it merely trained him to mark out deftly the + principal lines, and to calculate the volume and dimensions of these + gigantic granite figures of some fifty to sixty-five feet high, with as + great confidence and skill as he would have employed upon any statue of + ordinary dimensions which might be entrusted to him. The colossal statues + at Abu-Simbel and Thebes still witness to the incomparable skill of the + Theban sculptors in the difficult art of imagining and executing + superhuman types. The decadence of Egyptian art did not begin until the + time of Ramses III., but its downward progress was rapid, and the statues + of the Ramesside period are of little or no artistic value. The form of + these figures is poor, the technique crude, and the expression of the + faces mean and commonplace. They betray the hand of a mechanical workman + who, while still in the possession of the instruments of his trade, can + infuse no new life into the traditions of the schools, nor break away from + them altogether. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0033" id="image-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/040.jpg" alt="040.jpg the Kneeling Scribe at Turin " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie; the + scribe bears upon his right shoulder, perhaps tattooed, the + human image of the god Amon-Râ, whose animal emblem he + embraces. +</pre> + <p> + We must look, not to the royal studios, but to the workshops connected + with the necropolis, if we want to find statues of half life-size + displaying intelligent workmanship, all of which we might be tempted to + refer to the XVIIIth dynasty if the inscriptions upon them did not fix + their date some two or three centuries later. An example of them may be + seen at Turin in the kneeling scribe embracing a ram-headed altar: the + face is youthful, and has an expression at once so gentle and intelligent + that we are constrained to overlook the imperfections in the bust and legs + of the figure. Specimens of this kind are not numerous, and their rarity + is easily accounted for. The multitude of priests, soldiers, workmen, and + small middle-class people who made up the bulk of the Theban population + had aspirations for a luxury little commensurate with their means, and the + tombs of such people are, therefore, full of objects which simulate a + character they do not possess, and are deceptive to the eye: such were the + statuettes made of wood, substituted from economical motives instead of + the limestone or sandstone statues usually provided as supporters for the + “double.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0034" id="image-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/041.jpg" + alt="041a.jpg Young Girl in the Turin Museum and the Lady Nehai " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Petrie. + + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by M. de Mertens. + Enamelled eyes, according to a common custom, were inserted + in the sockets, but have disappeared. +</pre> + <p> + The funerary sculptors had acquired a perfect mastery of the kind of art + needed for people of small means, and we find among the medley of + commonplace objects which encumber the tomb they decorated, examples of + artistic works of undoubted excellence, such as the ladies Naî and Tûî now + in the Louvre, the lady Nehaî now at Berlin, and the naked child at Turin. + The lady Tûî in her lifetime had been one of the singing-women of Amon. + She is clad in a tight-fitting robe, which accentuates the contour of the + breasts and hips without coarseness: her right arm falls gracefully + alongside her body, while her left, bent across her chest, thrusts into + her bosom a kind of magic whip, which was the sign of her profession. The + artist was not able to avoid a certain heaviness in the treatment of her + hair, and the careful execution of the whole work was not without a degree + of harshness, but by dint of scraping and polishing the wood he succeeded + in softening the outline, and removing from the figure every sharp point. + The lady Nehaî is smarter and more graceful, in her close-fitting garment + and her mantle thrown over the left elbow; and the artist has given her a + more alert pose and resolute air than we find in the stiff carriage of her + contemporary Tûî. The little girl in the Turin Museum is a looser work, + but where could one find a better example of the lithe delicacy of the + young Egyptian maiden of eight or ten years old? We may see her + counterpart to-day among the young Nubian girls of the cataract, before + they are obliged to wear clothes; there is the same thin chest, the same + undeveloped hips, the same meagre thighs, and the same demeanour, at once + innocent and audacious. Other statuettes represent matrons, some in tight + garments, and with their hair closely confined, others without any garment + whatever. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0036" id="image-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/043a.jpg" alt="043a.jpg a Soldier " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by M. de Mertens. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + <a name="image-0037" id="image-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/043b.jpg" + alt="043b.jpg Statue in the Turin Museum " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Petrie. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The Turin example is that of a lady who seems proud of her large + ear-rings, and brings one of them into prominence, either to show it off + or to satisfy herself that the jewel becomes her: her head is + square-shaped, the shoulders narrow, the chest puny, the pose of the arm + stiff and awkward, but the eyes have such a joyful openness, and her smile + such a self-satisfied expression, that one readily over looks the other + defects of the statue. In this collection of miniature figures examples of + men are not wanting, and there are instances of old soldiers, officials, + guardians of temples, and priests proudly executing their office in their + distinctive panther skins. Three individuals in the Gîzeh were + contemporaries, or almost so, of the young girl of the Turin Museum. They + are dressed in rich costumes, to which they have, doubtless, a just claim; + for one of them, Hori, surnamed Râ, rejoiced in the favour of the Pharaoh, + and must therefore have exercised some court function. They seem to step + forth with a measured pace and firm demeanour, the body well thrown back + and the head erect, their faces displaying something of cruelty and + cunning. An officer, whose retirement from service is now spent in the + Louvre, is dressed in a semi-civil costume, with a light wig, a closely + fitting smock-frock with shirt-sleeves, and a loin-cloth tied tightly + round the hips and descending halfway down the thigh, to which is applied + a piece of stuff kilted lengthwise, projecting in front. A colleague of + his, now in the Berlin Museum, still maintains possession of his official + baton, and is arrayed in his striped petticoat, his bracelets and gorget + of gold. A priest in the Louvre holds before him, grasped by both hands, + the insignia of Amon-Ra—a ram’s head, surmounted by the solar disk, + and inserted on the top of a thick handle; another, who has been relegated + to Turin, appears to be placed between two long staves, each surmounted by + an idol, and, to judge from his attitude, seems to have no small idea of + his own beauty and importance. The Egyptians were an observant people and + inclined to satire, and I have a shrewd suspicion that the sculptors, in + giving to such statuettes this character of childlike vanity, yielded to + the temptation to be merry at the expense of their model. + </p> + <p> + The smelters and engravers in metal occupied in relation to the sculptors + a somewhat exalted position. Bronze had for a long time been employed in + funerary furniture, and <i>ushabtiu</i> (respondents),* amulets, and + images of the gods, as well as of mortals, were cast in this metal. Many + of these tiny figures form charming examples of enamel-work, and are + distinguished not only by the gracefulness of the, modelling, but also by + the brilliance of the superimposed glaze; but the majority of them were + purely commercial articles, manufactured by the hundred from the same + models, and possibly cast, for centuries, from the same moulds for the + edification of the devout and of pilgrims. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Bronze <i>respondents</i> are somewhat rare, and most of those + which are to be found among the dealers are counterfeit. The + Gîzeh Museum possesses two examples at least of indisputable + authenticity; both of these belong to the XXth dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0038" id="image-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/045.jpg" + alt="045.jpg Funerary Casket in the Turing Museum " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0039" id="image-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/046.jpg" alt="046.jpg Shrine in the Turin Museum " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Lanzone. +</pre> + <p> + We ought not, therefore, to be surprised if they are lacking in + originality; they are no more to be distinguished from each other than the + hundreds of coloured statuettes which one may find on the stalls of modern + dealers in religious statuary. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0040" id="image-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/047.jpg" alt="047.jpg the Lady Taksûhît " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + From a bronze in the Museum at Athens +</pre> + <p> + Here and there among the multitude we may light upon examples showing a + marked individuality: the statuette of the lady Takûshit, which now forms + one of the ornaments of the museum at Athens, is an instance. She stands + erect, one foot in advance, her right arm hanging at her side, her left + pressed against her bosom; she is arrayed in a short dress embroidered + over with religious scenes, and wears upon her ankles and wrists rings of + value. A wig with stiff-looking locks, regularly arranged in rows, covers + her head. The details of the drapery and the ornaments are incised on the + surface of the bronze, and heightened with a thread of silver. The face is + evidently a portrait, and is that apparently of a woman of mature age, but + the body, according to the tradition of the Egyptian schools of art, is + that of a young girl, lithe, firm, and elastic. The alloy contains gold, + and the warm and softened lights reflected from it blend most happily and + harmoniously with the white lines of the designs. The joiners occupied, + after the workers in bronze, an important position in relation to the + necropolis, and the greater part of the furniture which they executed for + the mummies of persons of high rank was remarkable for its painting and + carpentry-work. Some articles of their manufacture were intended for + religious use—such as those shrines, mounted upon sledges, on which + the image of the god was placed, to whom prayers were made for the + deceased; others served for the household needs of the mummy, and, to + distinguish these, there are to be seen upon their sides religious and + funereal pictures, offerings to the two deceased parents, sacrifices to a + god or goddess, and incidents in the Osirian life. The funerary beds + consisted, like those intended for the living, of a rectangular framework, + placed upon four feet of equal height, although there are rare examples in + which the supports are so arranged as to give a gentle slope to the + structure. The fancy which actuated the joiner in making such beds + supposed that two benevolent lions had, of their own free will, stretched + out their bodies to form the two sides of the couch, the muzzles + constituting the pillow, while the tails were curled up under the feet of + the sleeper. Many of the heads given to the lions are so noble and + expressive, that they will well bear comparison with the granite statues + of these animals which Amenôthes III. dedicated in his temple at Soleb. + The other trades depended upon the proportion of their members to the rest + of the community for the estimation in which they were held. The masons, + stone-cutters, and common labourers furnished the most important + contingent; among these ought also to be reckoned the royal servants—of + whose functions we should have been at a loss to guess the importance, if + contemporary documents had not made it clear—fishermen, hunters, + laundresses, wood-cutters, gardeners, and water-carriers.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Cailliaud ostracon, which contains a receipt given to + some fishermen, was found near Sheikh Abd el-Qurneh, and + consequently belonged to the fishermen of the necropolis. + There is a question as to the water-carriers of the Khirû in + the hieratic registers of Turin, also as to the washers of + clothes, wood-cutters, gardeners and workers in the + vineyard. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0042" id="image-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/048.jpg" + alt="048.jpg the Swallow-goddess from The Theban Necropolis " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Lanzone. +</pre> + <p> + Without reckoning the constant libations needed for the gods and the + deceased, the workshops required a large quantity of drinking water for + the men engaged in them. In every gang of workmen, even in the present + day, two or three men are set apart to provide drinking-water for the + rest; in some arid places, indeed, at a distance from the river, such as + the Valley of the Kings, as many water-carriers are required as there are + workmen. To the trades just mentioned must be added the low-caste crowd + depending oh the burials of the rich, the acrobats, female mourners, + dancers and musicians. The majority of the female corporations were + distinguished by the infamous character of their manners, and prostitution + among them had come to be associated with the service of the god.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The heroine of the erotic papyrus of Turin bears the title + of “Singing-woman of Amon,” and the illustrations indicate + her profession so clearly and so expressively, that no + details of her sayings and doings are wanting. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0043" id="image-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/049.jpg" + alt="049.jpg the Goddess MabÎtsakbo " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph by +Lanzone. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + There was no education for all this mass of people, and their religion was + of a meagre character. They worshipped the official deities, Amon, Mût, + Isis, and Hâthor, and such deceased Pharaohs as Amenôthes I. and + Nofrîtari, but they had also their own Pantheon, in which animals + predominated—such as the goose of Amon, and his ram Pa-rahaninofir, + the good player on the horn, the hippopotamus, the cat, the chicken, the + swallow, and especially reptiles. Death was personified by a great viper, + the queen of the West, known by the name Marîtsakro, the friend of + silence. Three heads, or the single head of a woman, attached to the one + body, were assigned to it. It was supposed to dwell in the mountain + opposite Karnak, which fact gave to it, as well as to the necropolis + itself, the two epithets of Khafîtnîbûs and Ta-tahnît, that is, The + Summit.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The abundance of the monuments of Marîtsakro found at + Sheikh Abd el-Gurneh, inclines me to believe that her + sanctuary was situated in the neighbourhood of the temple of + Uazmosû, but there was also on the top of the hill another + sanctuary which would equally satisfy the name Ta-tahnît. +</pre> + <p> + Its chapel was situated at the foot of the hill of Sheikh Abd el-Qurneh, + but its sacred serpents crawled and wriggled through the necropolis, + working miracles and effecting the cure of the most dangerous maladies. + The faithful were accustomed to dedicate to them, in payment of their + vows, stelas, or slabs of roughly hewn stone, with inscriptions which + witnessed to a deep gratitude. “Hearken! I, from the time of my appearance + on earth, I was a ‘Servant of the True Place,’ Nofirâbû, a stupid ignorant + person, who knew not good from evil, and I committed sin against The + Summit. She punished me, and I was in her hand day and night. I lay + groaning on my couch like a woman in childbed, and I made supplication to + the air, but it did not come to me, for I was hunted down by The Summit of + the West, the brave one among all the gods and all the goddesses of the + city; so I would say to all the miserable sinners among the people of the + necropolis: ‘Give heed to The Summit, for there is a lion in The Summit, + and she strikes as strikes a spell-casting Lion, and she pursues him who + sins against her! ‘I invoked then my mistress, and I felt that she flew to + me like a pleasant breeze; she placed herself upon me, and this made me + recognise her hand, and appeased she returned to me, and she delivered me + from suffering, for she is my life, The Summit of the West, when she is + appeased, and she ought to be invoked!’” There were many sinners, we may + believe, among that ignorant and superstitious population, but the + governors of Thebes did not put their confidence in the local deities + alone to keep them within bounds, and to prevent their evil deeds; + commissioners, with the help of a detachment of Mazaîû, were an additional + means of conducting them into the right way. They had, in this respect, a + hard work to accomplish, for every day brought with it its contingent of + crimes, which they had to follow up, and secure the punishment of the + authors. Nsisûamon came to inform them that the workman Nakhtummaût and + his companions had stolen into his house, and robbed him of three large + loaves, eight cakes, and some pastry; they had also drunk a jar of beer, + and poured out from pure malice the oil which they could not carry away + with them. Panîbi had met the wife of a comrade alone near an + out-of-the-way tomb, and had taken advantage of her notwithstanding her + cries; this, moreover, was not the first offence of the culprit, for + several young girls had previously been victims of his brutality, and had + not ventured up to this time to complain of him on account of the terror + with which he inspired the neighbourhood. Crimes against the dead were + always common; every penniless fellow knew what quantities of gold and + jewels had been entombed with the departed, and these treasures, scattered + around them at only a few feet from the surface of the ground, presented + to them a constant temptation to which they often succumbed. Some were not + disposed to have accomplices, while others associated together, and, + having purchased at a serious cost the connivance of the custodians, set + boldly to work on tombs both recent and ancient. Not content with stealing + the funerary furniture, which they disposed of to the undertakers, they + stripped the mummies also, and smashed the bodies in their efforts to + secure the jewels; then, putting the remains together again, they + rearranged the mummies afresh so cleverly that they can no longer be + distinguished by their outward appearance from the originals, and the + first wrappings must be removed before the fraud can be discovered. From + time to time one of these rogues would allow himself to be taken for the + purpose of denouncing his comrades, and avenging himself for the injustice + of which he was the victim in the division of the spoil; he was laid hold + of by the Mazaîû, and brought before the tribunal of justice. The lands + situated on the left bank of the Nile belonged partly to the king and + partly to the god Amon, and any infraction of the law in regard to the + necropolis was almost certain to come within the jurisdiction of one or + other of them. The commission appointed, therefore, to determine the + damage done in any case, included in many instances the high priest or his + delegates, as well as the officers of the Pharaoh. The office of this + commission was to examine into the state of the tombs, to interrogate the + witnesses and the accused, applying the torture if necessary: when they + had got at the facts, the tribunal of the notables condemned to impalement + some half a dozen of the poor wretches, and caused some score of others to + be whipped.* But, when two or three months had elapsed, the remembrance of + the punishment began to die away, and the depredations began afresh. The + low rate of wages occasioned, at fixed periods, outbursts of discontent + and trouble which ended in actual disturbances. The rations allowed to + each workman, and given to him at the beginning of each month, would + possibly have been sufficient for himself and his family, but, owing to + the usual lack of foresight in the Egyptian, they were often consumed long + before the time fixed, and the pinch soon began to be felt. The workmen, + demoralised by their involuntary abstinence, were not slow to turn to the + overseer; “We are perishing of hunger, and there are still eighteen days + before the next month.” The latter was prodigal of fair speeches, but as + his words were rarely accompanied by deeds, the workmen would not listen + to him; they stopped work, left the workshop in turbulent crowds, ran with + noisy demonstrations to some public place to hold a meeting—perhaps + the nearest monument, at the gate of the temple of Thûtmosis III.,** + behind the chapel of Mînephtah,*** or in the court of that of Seti I. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is how I translate a fairly common expression, which + means literally, “to be put on the wood.” Spiegelberg sees in + this only a method of administering torture. + + ** Perhaps the chapel of Uazmôsû, or possibly the free space + before the temple of Deîr el-Baharî. + + *** The site of this chapel was discovered by Prof. Petrie + in the spring of 1896. It had previously been supposed to be + a temple of Amenôthes III. +</pre> + <p> + Their overseers followed them; the police commissioners of the locality, + the Mazaîû, and the scribes mingled with them and addressed themselves to + some of the leaders with whom they might be acquainted. But these would + not at first give them a hearing. “We will not return,” they would say to + the peacemakers; “make it clear to your superiors down below there.” It + must have been manifest that from their point of view their complaints + were well founded, and the official, who afterwards gave an account of the + affair to the authorities, was persuaded of this. “We went to hear them, + and they spoke true words to us.” For the most part these strikes had no + other consequence than a prolonged stoppage of work, until the + distribution of rations at the beginning of the next month gave the + malcontents courage to return to their tasks. Attempts were made to + prevent the recurrence of these troubles by changing the method and time + of payments. These were reduced to an interval of fifteen days, and at + length, indeed, to one of eight. The result was very much the same as + before: the workman, paid more frequently, did not on that account become + more prudent, and the hours of labour lost did not decrease. The + individual man, if he had had nobody to consider but himself, might have + put up with the hardships of his situation, but there were almost always + wife and children or sisters concerned, who clamoured for bread in their + hunger, and all the while the storehouses of the temples or those of the + state close by were filled to overflowing with durrah, barley, and wheat.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Khonsu, for example, excites his comrades to pillage the + storehouses of the gate. +</pre> + <p> + The temptation to break open the doors and to help themselves in the + present necessity must have been keenly felt. Some bold spirits among the + strikers, having set out together, scaled the two or three boundary walls + by which the granaries were protected, but having reached this position + their hearts, failed them, and they contented themselves with sending to + the chief custodian an eloquent pleader, to lay before him their very + humble request: “We are come, urged by famine, urged by thirst, having no + more linen, no more oil, no more fish, no more vegetables. Send to + Pharaoh, our master, send to the king, our lord, that he may provide us + with the necessaries of life.” If one of them, with less self-restraint, + was so carried away as to let drop an oath, which was a capital offence, + saying, “By Amon! by the sovereign, whose anger is death!” if he asked to + be taken before a magistrate in order that he might reiterate there his + complaint, the others interceded for him, and begged that he might escape + the punishment fixed by the law for blasphemy; the scribe, good fellow as + he was, closed his ears to the oath, and, if it were in his power, made a + beginning of satisfying their demands by drawing upon the excess of past + months to such an extent as would pacify them for some days, and by paying + them a supplemental wage in the name of the Pharaoh. They cried out + loudly: “Shall there not be served out to us corn in excess of that which + has been distributed to us; if not we will not stir from this spot?” + </p> + <p> + At length the end of the month arrived, and they all appeared together + before the magistrates, when they said: “Let the scribe, Khâmoîsît, who is + accountable, be sent for!” He was thereupon brought before the notables of + the town, and they said to him: “See to the corn which thou hast received, + and give some of it to the people of the necropolis.” Pmontunîboîsît was + then sent for, and “rations of wheat were given to us daily.” Famine was + not caused only by the thriftlessness of the multitude: administrators of + all ranks did not hesitate to appropriate, each one according to his + position, a portion of the means entrusted to them for the maintenance of + their subordinates, and the latter often received only instalments of what + was due to them. The culprits often escaped from their difficulties by + either laying hold of half a dozen of their brawling victims, or by + yielding to them a proportion of their ill-gotten gains, before a rumour + of the outbreak could reach head-quarters. It happened from time to time, + however, when the complaints against them were either too serious or too + frequent, that they were deprived of their functions, cited before the + tribunals, and condemned. What took place at Thebes was repeated with some + variations in each of the other large cities. Corruption, theft, and + extortion had prevailed among the officials from time immemorial, and the + most active kings alone were able to repress these abuses, or confine them + within narrow limits; as soon as discipline became relaxed, however, they + began to appear again, and we have no more convincing proof of the state + of decadence into which Thebes had fallen towards the middle of the XXth + dynasty, than the audacity of the crimes committed in the necropolis + during the reigns of the successors of Ramses III. + </p> + <p> + The priesthood of Amon alone displayed any vigour and enjoyed any + prosperity in the general decline. After the victory of the god over the + heretic kings no one dared to dispute his supremacy, and the Ramessides + displayed a devout humility before him and his ministers. Henceforward he + became united to Râ in a definite manner, and his authority not only + extended over the whole of the land of Egypt, but over all the countries + also which were brought within her influence; so that while Pharaoh + continued to be the greatest of kings, Pharaoh’s god held a position of + undivided supremacy among the deities. He was the chief of the two + Bnneads, the Heliopolitan and the Hermopolitan, and displayed for the + latter a special affection; for the vague character of its eight secondary + deities only served to accentuate the position of the ninth and principal + divinity with whose primacy that of Amon was identified. It was more easy + to attribute to Amon the entire work of creation when Shû, Sibû, Osiris, + and Sit had been excluded—the deities whom the theologians of + Heliopolis had been accustomed to associate with the demiurge; and in the + hymns which they sang at his solemn festivals they did not hesitate to + ascribe to him all the acts which the priests of former times had assigned + to the Ennead collectively. “He made earth, silver, gold,—the true + lapis at his good pleasure.—He brought forth the herbs for the + cattle, the plants upon which men live.—He made to live the fish of + the river,—the birds which hover in the air,—giving air to + those which are in the egg.—He animates the insects,—he makes + to live the small birds, the reptiles, and the gnats as well.—He + provides food for the rat in his hole,—supports the bird upon the + branch.—May he be blessed for all this, he who is alone, but with + many hands.” “Men spring from his two eyes,” and quickly do they lose + their breath while acclaiming him—Egyptians and Libyans, Negroes and + Asiatics: “Hail to thee!” they all say; “praise to thee because thou + dwellest amongst us!—Obeisances before thee because thou createst + us!”—“Thou art blessed by every living thing,—thou hast + worshippers in every place,—in the highest of the heavens, in all + the breadth of the earth,—in the depths of the seas.—The gods + bow before thy Majesty,—magnifying the souls which form them,—rejoicing + at meeting those who have begotten them,—they say to thee: ‘Go in + peace,—father of the fathers of all the gods,—who suspended + the heaven, levelled the earth;—creator of beings, maker of things,—sovereign + king, chief of the gods,—we adore thy souls, because thou hast made + us,—we lavish offerings upon thee, because thou hast given us birth,—we + shower benedictions upon thee, because thou dwellest among us.’” We have + here the same ideas as those which predominate in the hymns addressed to + Atonû,* and in the prayers directed to Phtah, the Nile, Shû, and the + Sun-god of Heliopolis at the same period. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Breasted points out the decisive influence exercised by + the solar hymns of Amenôthes IV. on the development of the + solar ideas contained in the hymns to Amon put forth or re- + edited in the XXIIIrd dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + The idea of a single god, lord and maker of all things, continued to + prevail more and more throughout Egypt—not, indeed, among the lower + classes who persisted in the worship of their genii and their animals, but + among the royal family, the priests, the nobles, and people of culture. + The latter believed that the Sun-god had at length absorbed all the + various beings who had been manifested in the feudal divinities: these, in + fact, had surrendered their original characteristics in order to become + forms of the Sun, Amon as well as the others—and the new belief + displayed itself in magnifying the solar deity, but the solar deity united + with the Theban Amon, that is, Amon-Râ. The omnipotence of this one god + did not, however, exclude a belief in the existence of his compeers; the + theologians thought all the while that the beings to whom ancient + generations had accorded a complete independence in respect of their + rivals were nothing more than emanations from one supreme being. If local + pride forced them to apply to this single deity the designation + customarily used in their city—Phtah at Memphis, Anhûri-Shû at + Thinis, Khnûmû in the neighbourhood of the first cataract—they were + quite willing to allow, at the same time, that these appellations were but + various masks for one face. Phtah, Hâpi, Khnûmû, Râ,—all the gods, + in fact,—were blended with each other, and formed but one deity—a + unique existence, multiple in his names, and mighty according to the + importance of the city in which he was worshipped. Hence Amon, lord of the + capital and patron of the dynasty, having more partisans, enjoyed more + respect, and, in a word, felt himself possessed of more claims to be the + sole god of Egypt than his brethren, who could not claim so many + worshippers. He did not at the outset arrogate to himself the same empire + over the dead as he exercised over the living; he had delegated his + functions in this respect to a goddess, Marîtsakro, for whom the poorer + inhabitants of the left bank entertained a persistent devotion. She was a + kind of Isis or hospitable Hathor, whose subjects in the other world + adapted themselves to the nebulous and dreary existence provided for their + disembodied “doubles.” The Osirian and solar doctrines were afterwards + blended together in this local mythology, and from the XIth dynasty + onwards the Theban nobility had adopted, along with the ceremonies in use + in the Memphite period, the Heliopolitan beliefs concerning the wanderings + of the soul in the west, its embarkation on the solar ship, and its + resting-places in the fields of Ialû. The rock-tombs of the XVIIIth + dynasty demonstrate that the Thebans had then no different concept of + their life beyond the world from that entertained by the inhabitants of + the most ancient cities: they ascribed to that existence the same + inconsistent medley of contradictory ideas, from which each one might + select what pleased him best—either repose in a well-provisioned + tomb, or a dwelling close to Osiris in the middle of a calm and agreeable + paradise, or voyages with Râ around the world.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Pyramid texts are found for the most part in the tombs + of Nofirû and Harhôtpû; the texts of the Book of the Dead + are met with on the Theban coffins of the same period. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0044" id="image-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/060.jpg" alt="060.jpg Decorated Wrappings of a Mummy " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The fusion of Râ and Amon, and the predominance of the solar idea which + arose from it, forced the theologians to examine more closely these + inconsistent notions, and to eliminate from them anything which might be + out of harmony with the new views. The devout servant of Amon, desirous of + keeping in constant touch with his god both here and in the other would, + could not imagine a happier future for his soul than in its going forth in + the fulness of light by day, and taking refuge by night on the very bark + which carried the object of his worship through the thick darkness of, + Hades. To this end he endeavoured to collect the formulae which would + enable him to attain to this supreme happiness, and also inform him + concerning the hidden mysteries of that obscure half of the world in which + the sun dwelt between daylight and daylight, teaching him also how to make + friends and supporters of the benevolent genii, and how to avoid or defeat + the monsters whom he would encounter. The best known of the books relating + to these mysteries contained a geographical description of the future + world as it was described by the Theban priests towards the end of the + Ramesside period; it was, in fact, an itinerary in which was depicted each + separate region of the underworld, with its gates, buildings, and + inhabitants.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The monumental text of this book is found sculptured on a + certain number of the tombs of the Theban kings. It was + first translated into English by Birch, then into French by + Dévéria, and by Maspero. +</pre> + <p> + The account of it given by the Egyptian theologians did not exhibit much + inventive genius. They had started with the theory that the sun, after + setting exactly west of Thebes, rose again due east of the city, and they + therefore placed in the dark hemisphere all the regions of the universe + which lay to the north of those two points of the compass. The first stage + of the sun’s journey, after disappearing below the horizon, coincided with + the period of twilight; the orb travelled along the open sky, diminishing + the brightness of his fires as he climbed northward, and did not actually + enter the underworld till he reached Abydos, close to the spot where, at + the “Mouth of the Cleft,” the souls of the faithful awaited him. As soon + as he had received them into his boat, he plunged into the tunnel which + there pierces the mountains, and the cities through which he first passed + between Abydos and the Fayûm were known as the Osirian fiefs. He continued + his journey through them for the space of two hours, receiving the homage + of the inhabitants, and putting such of the shades on shore as were + predestined by their special devotion for the Osiris of Abydos and his + associates, Horus and Anubis, to establish themselves in this territory. + Beyond Heracleopolis, he entered the domains of the Memphite gods, the + “land of Sokaris,” and this probably was the most perilous moment of his + journey. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0045" id="image-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/062.jpg" + alt="062.jpg One of the Mysterious Books Of Amon " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The feudatories of Phtah were gathered together in grottoes, connected by + a labyrinth of narrow passages through which even the most fully initiated + were scarcely able to find their way; the luminous boat, instead of + venturing within these catacombs, passed above them by mysterious tracks. + The crew were unable to catch a glimpse of the sovereign through whose + realm they journeyed, and they in like manner were invisible to him; he + could only hear the voices of the divine sailors, and he answered them + from the depth of the darkness. Two hours were spent in this obscure + passage, after which navigation became easier as the vessel entered the + nomes subject to the Osirises of the Delta: four consecutive hours of + sailing brought the bark from the province in which the four principal + bodies of the god slept to that in which his four souls kept watch, and, + as it passed, it illuminated the eight circles reserved for men and kings + who worshipped the god of Mendes. From the tenth hour onwards it directed + its course due south, and passed through the Aûgàrît, the place of fire + and abysmal waters to which the Heliopolitans consigned the souls of the + impious; then finally quitting the tunnel, it soared up in the east with + the first blush of dawn. Each of the ordinary dead was landed at that + particular hour of the twelve, which belonged to the god of his choice or + of his native town. Left to dwell there they suffered no absolute torment, + but languished in the darkness in a kind of painful torpor, from which + condition the approach of the bark alone was able to rouse them. They + hailed its daily coming with acclamations, and felt new life during the + hour in which its rays fell on them, breaking out into lamentations as the + bark passed away and the light disappeared with it. The souls who were + devotees of the sun escaped this melancholy existence; they escorted the + god, reduced though he was to a mummied corpse, on his nightly cruise, and + were piloted by him safe and sound to meet the first streaks of the new + day. As the boat issued from the mountain in the morning between the two + trees which flanked the gate of the east, these souls had their choice of + several ways of spending the day on which they were about to enter. They + might join their risen god in his course through the hours of light, and + assist him in combating Apophis and his accomplices, plunging again at + night into Hades without having even for a moment quitted his side. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0046" id="image-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/066.jpg" alt="066.jpg the Entrance to a Royal Tomb " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph, by Beato, of the + tomb of Ramses IV. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0047" id="image-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/067.jpg" alt="067.jpg One of the Hours Of The Night " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + They might, on the other hand, leave him and once more enter the world of + the living, settling themselves where they would, but always by preference + in the tombs where their bodies awaited them, and where they could enjoy + the wealth which had been accumulated there: they might walk within their + garden, and sit beneath the trees they had planted; they could enjoy the + open air beside the pond they had dug, and breathe the gentle north breeze + on its banks after the midday heat, until the time when the returning + evening obliged them to repair once more to Abydos, and re-embark with the + god in order to pass the anxious vigils of the night under his protection. + Thus from the earliest period of Egyptian history the life beyond the tomb + was an eclectic one, made up of a series of earthly enjoyments combined + together. + </p> + <p> + The Pharaohs had enrolled themselves instinctively among the most ardent + votaries of this complex doctrine. Their relationship to the sun made its + adoption a duty, and its profession was originally, perhaps, one of the + privileges of their position. Râ invited them on board because they were + his children, subsequently extending this favour to those whom they should + deem worthy to be associated with them, and thus become companions of the + ancient deceased kings of Upper and Lower Egypt.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is apparently what we gather from the picture + inserted in chapter xvii. of the “Book of the Dead,” where + we see the kings of Upper and Lower Egypt guiding the divine + bark and the deceased with them. +</pre> + <p> + The idea which the Egyptians thus formed of the other world, and of the + life of the initiated within it, reacted gradually on their concept of the + tomb and of its befitting decoration. They began to consider the entrances + to the pyramid, and its internal passages and chambers, as a conventional + representation of the gates, passages, and halls of Hades itself; when the + pyramid passed out of fashion, and they had replaced it by a tomb cut in + the rock in one or other of the branches of the Bab el-Moluk valley, the + plan of construction which they chose was an exact copy of that employed + by the Memphites and earlier Thebans, and they hollowed out for themselves + in the mountain-side a burying-place on the same lines as those formerly + employed within the pyramidal structure. The relative positions of the + tunnelled tombs along the valley were not determined by any order of rank + or of succession to the throne; each Pharaoh after Ramses I. set to work + on that part of the rock where the character of the stone favoured his + purpose, and displayed so little respect for his predecessors, that the + workmen, after having tunnelled a gallery, were often obliged to abandon + it altogether, or to change the direction of their excavations so as to + avoid piercing a neighbouring tomb. The architect’s design was usually a + mere project which could be modified at will, and, which he did not feel + bound to carry out with fidelity; the actual measurements of the tomb of + Ramses IV. are almost everywhere at variance with the numbers and + arrangement of the working drawing of it which has been preserved to us in + a papyrus. The general disposition of the royal tombs, however, is far + from being complicated; we have at the entrance the rectangular door, + usually surmounted by the sun, represented by a yellow disk, before which + the sovereign kneels with his hands raised in the posture of adoration; + this gave access to a passage sloping gently downwards, and broken here + and there by a level landing and steps, leading to a first chamber of + varying amplitude, at the further end of which a second passage opened + which descended to one or more apartments, the last of which, contained + the coffin. The oldest rock-tombs present some noteworthy exceptions to + this plan, particularly those of Seti I. and Ramses III.; but from the + time of Ramses IV., there is no difference to be remarked in them except + in the degree of finish of the wall-paintings or in the length of the + passages. The shortest of the latter extends some fifty-two feet into the + rock, while the longest never exceeds three hundred and ninety feet. The + same artifices which had been used by the pyramid-builders to defeat the + designs of robbers—false mummy-pits, painted and sculptured walls + built across passages, stairs concealed under a movable stone in the + corner of a chamber—were also employed by the Theban engineers. The + decoration of the walls was suggested, as in earlier times, by the needs + of the royal soul, with this difference—that the Thebans set + themselves to render visible to his eyes by paintings that which the + Memphites had been content to present to his intelligence in writing, so + that the Pharaoh could now see what his ancestors had been able merely to + read on the walls of their tombs. Where the inscribed texts in the + burial-chamber of Unas state that Unas, incarnate in the Sun, and thus + representing Osiris, sails over the waters on high or glides into the + Elysian fields, the sculptured or painted scenes in the interior of the + Theban catacombs display to the eye Ramses occupying the place of the god + in the solar bark and in the fields of laid. Where the walls of Unas bear + only the prayers recited over the mummy for the opening of his mouth, for + the restoration of the use of his limbs, for his clothing, perfuming, and + nourishment, we see depicted on those of Seti I. or Ramses IV. the mummies + of these kings and the statues of their doubles in the hands of the + priests, who are portrayed in the performance of these various offices. + The starry ceilings of the pyramids reproduce the aspect of the sky, but + without giving the names of the stars: on the ceilings of some of the + Ramesside rock-tombs, on the other hand, the constellations are + represented, each with its proper figure, while astronomical tables give + the position of the heavenly bodies at intervals of fifteen days, so that + the soul could tell at a glance into what region of the firmament the + course of the bark would bring him each night. In the earlier Ramesside + tombs, under Seti I. and Ramses II., the execution of these subjects shows + evidence of a care and skill which are quite marvellous, and both figures + and hieroglyphics betray the hand of accomplished artists. But in the tomb + of Ramses III. the work has already begun to show signs of inferiority, + and the majority of the scenes are coloured in a very summary fashion; a + raw yellow predominates, and the tones of the reds and blues remind us of + a child’s first efforts at painting. This decline is even more marked + under the succeeding Ramessides; the drawing has deteriorated, the tints + have become more and more crude, and the latest paintings seem but a + lamentable caricature of the earlier ones. + </p> + <p> + The courtiers and all those connected with the worship of Amon-Râ—priests, + prophets, singers, and functionaries connected with the necropolis—shared + the same belief with regard to the future world as their sovereign, and + they carried their faith in the sun’s power to the point of identifying + themselves with him after death, and of substituting the name of Râ for + that of Osiris; they either did not venture, however, to go further than + this, or were unable to introduce into their tombs all that we find in the + Bab el-Moluk. They confined themselves to writing briefly on their own + coffins, or confiding to the mummies of their fellow-believers, in + addition to the “Book of the Dead,” a copy of the “Book of knowing what + there is in Hades,” or of some other mystic writing which was in harmony + with their creed. Hastily prepared copies of these were sold by + unscrupulous scribes, often badly written and almost always incomplete, in + which were hurriedly set down haphazard the episodes of the course of the + sun with explanatory illustrations. The representations of the gods in + them are but little better than caricatures, the text is full of faults + and scarcely decipherable, and it is at times difficult to recognize the + correspondence of the scenes and prayers with those in the royal tombs. + Although Amon had become the supreme god, at least for this class of the + initiated, he was by no means the sole deity worshipped by the Egyptians: + the other divinities previously associated with him still held their own + beside him, or were further defined and invested with a more decided + personality. The goddess regarded as his partner was at first represented + as childless, in spite of the name of Maût or Mût—the mother—by + which she was invoked, and Amon was supposed to have adopted Montû, the + god of Hermonthis, in order to complete his triad. Montû, however, + formerly the sovereign of the Theban plain, and lord over Amon himself, + was of too exalted a rank to play the inferior part of a divine son. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0048" id="image-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/074.jpg" alt="074.jpg KhonsÛ* and Temple of KhonsÛ**. " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bronze statuette in the + Gizeh Museum. + + ** Drawn by Thuillier: A is the pylon, B the court, C the + hypostyle hall, E the passage isolating the sanctuary, D the + sanctuary, F the opisthodomos with its usual chambers. +</pre> + <p> + The priests were, therefore, obliged to fall back upon a personage of + lesser importance, named Khonsû, who up to that period had been relegated + to an obscure position in the celestial hierarchy. How they came to + identify him with the moon, and subsequently with Osiris and Thot, is as + yet unexplained,* but the assimilation had taken place before the XIXth + dynasty drew to its close. Khonsû, thus honoured, soon became a favourite + deity with both the people and the upper classes, at first merely + supplementing Montû, but finally supplanting him in the third place of the + Triad. From the time of Sesostris onwards, Theban dogma acknowledged him + alone side by side with Amon-Râ and Mût the divine mother. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is possible that this assimilation originated in the + fact that Khonsû is derived from the verb “khonsû,” to + navigate: Khonsû would thus have been he who crossed the + heavens in his bark—that is, the moon-god. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0049" id="image-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/075.jpg" alt="075.jpg the Temple of KhonsÛ at Karnak " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + It was now incumbent on the Pharaoh to erect to this newly made favourite + a temple whose size and magnificence should be worthy of the rank to which + his votaries had exalted him. To this end, Ramses III. chose a suitable + site to the south of the hypostyle hall of Karnak, close to a corner of + the enclosing wall, and there laid the foundations of a temple which his + successors took nearly a century to finish.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The proof that the temple was founded by Ramses III. is + furnished by the inscriptions of the sanctuary and the + surrounding chambers. +</pre> + <p> + Its proportions are by no means perfect, the sculpture is wanting in + refinement, the painting is coarse, and the masonry was so faulty, that it + was found necessary in several places to cover it with a coat of stucco + before the bas-reliefs could be carved on the walls; yet, in spite of all + this, its general arrangement is so fine, that it may well be regarded, in + preference to other more graceful or magnificent buildings, as the typical + temple of the Theban period. It is divided into two parts, separated from + each other by a solid wall. In the centre of the smaller of these is + placed the Holy of Holies, which opens at both ends into a passage ten + feet in width, isolating it from the surrounding buildings. To the right + and left of the sanctuary are dark chambers, and behind it is a hall + supported by four columns, into which open seven small apartments. This + formed the dwelling-place of the god and his compeers. The sanctuary + communicates, by means of two doors placed in the southern wall, with a + hypostyle hall of greater width than depth, divided by its pillars into a + nave and two aisles. The four columns of the nave are twenty-three feet in + height, and have bell-shaped capitals, while those of the aisles, two on + either side, are eighteen feet high, and are crowned with lotiform + capitals. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0050" id="image-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/077.jpg" alt="077.jpg the Court of The Temple Of KhonsÛ " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + The roof of the nave was thus five feet higher than those of the aisles, + and in the clear storey thus formed, stone gratings, similar to those in + the temple of Amon, admitted light to the building. The courtyard, + surrounded by a fine colonnade of two rows of columns, was square, and was + entered by four side posterns in addition to the open gateway at the end + placed between two quadrangular towers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0051" id="image-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/078.jpg" + alt="078.jpg the Colonnade Built by ThÛtmosis Iii " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and + Daniel Héron. +</pre> + <p> + This pylon measures 104 feet in length, and is 32 feet 6 inches wide, by + 58 feet high. It contains no internal chambers, but merely a narrow + staircase which leads to the top of the doorway, and thence to the summit + of the towers. Four long angular grooves run up the façade of the towers + to a height of about twenty feet from the ground, and are in the same line + with a similar number of square holes which pierce the thickness of the + building higher up. In these grooves were placed Venetian masts, made of + poles spliced together and held in their place by means of hooks and + wooden stays which projected from the four holes; these masts were to + carry at their tops pennons of various colours. Such was the temple of + Khonsû, and the majority of the great Theban buildings—at Luxor, + Qurneh, and Bamesseum, or Medinet-Uabu—were constructed on similar + lines. Even in their half-ruined condition there is something oppressive + and uncanny in their appearance. The gods loved to shroud themselves in + mystery, and, therefore, the plan of the building was so arranged as to + render the transition almost imperceptible from the blinding sunlight + outside to the darkness of their retreat within. In the courtyard, we are + still surrounded by vast spaces to which air and light have free access. + The hypostyle hall, however, is pervaded by an appropriate twilight, the + sanctuary is veiled in still deeper darkness, while in the chambers beyond + reigns an almost perpetual night. The effect produced by this gradation of + obscurity was intensified by constructional artifices. The different parts + of the building are not all on the same ground-level, the pavement rising + as the sanctuary is approached, and the rise is concealed by a few steps + placed at intervals. The difference of level in the temple of Khonsû is + not more than five feet three inches, but it is combined with a still more + considerable lowering of the height of the roof. From the pylon to the + wall at the further end the height decreases as we go on; the peristyle is + more lofty than the hypostyle hall, this again is higher than the + sanctuary and the hall of columns, and the chamber beyond it drops still + further in altitude.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is “the law of progressive diminution of heights” of + Perrot-Chipiez. +</pre> + <p> + Karnak is an exception to this rule; this temple had in the course of + centuries undergone so many restorations and additions, that it formed a + collection of buildings rather than a single edifice. It might have been + regarded, as early as the close of the Theban empire, as a kind of museum, + in which every century and every period of art, from the XIIth dynasty + downwards, had left its distinctive mark.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A on the plan denotes the XIIth dynasty temple; B is the + great hypostyle hall of Seti I. and Ramses II.; C the temple + of Ramses III. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0052" id="image-0052"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/081.jpg" alt="081.jpg the Temple of Amon at Karnak " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + All the resources of architecture had been brought into requisition during + this period to vary, at the will of each sovereign, the arrangement and + the general effect of the component parts. Columns with sixteen sides + stand in the vicinity of square pillars, and lotiform capitals alternate + with those of the bell-shape; attempts were even made to introduce new + types altogether. The architect who built at the back of the sanctuary + what is now known as the colonnade of Thûtmosis III., attempted to invert + the bell-shaped capital; the bell was turned downwards, and the neck + attached to the plinth, while the mouth rested on the top of the shaft. + This awkward arrangement did not meet with favour, for we find it nowhere + repeated; other artists, however, with better taste, sought at this time + to apply the flowers symbolical of Upper and Lower Egypt to the + decorations of the shafts. In front of the sanctuary of Karnak two pillars + are still standing which have on them in relief representations + respectively of the fullblown lotus and the papyrus. A building composed + of so many incongruous elements required frequent restoration—a wall + which had been undermined by water needed strengthening, a pylon + displaying cracks claimed attention, some unsafe colonnade, or a colossus + which had been injured by the fall of a cornice, required shoring up—so + that no sooner had the corvée for repairs completed their work in one + part, than they had to begin again elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0053" id="image-0053"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/082.jpg" alt="082.jpg the Two Stele-pillars at Karnak " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + The revenues of Amon must, indeed, have been enormous to have borne the + continual drain occasioned by restoration, and the resources of the god + would soon have been exhausted had not foreign wars continued to furnish + him during several centuries with all or more than he needed. + </p> + <p> + The gods had suffered severely in the troublous times which had followed + the reign of Seti II., and it required all the generosity of Ramses III. + to compensate them for the losses they had sustained during the anarchy + under Arisû. The spoil taken from the Libyans, from the Peoples of the + Sea, and from the Hittites had flowed into the sacred treasuries, while + the able administration of the sovereign had done the rest, so that on the + accession of Ramses IV. the temples were in a more prosperous state than + ever.* They held as their own property 169 towns, nine of which were in + Syria and Ethiopia; they possessed 113,433 slaves of both sexes, 493,386 + head of cattle, 1,071,780 arurse of land, 514 vineyards and orchards, 88 + barks and sea-going vessels, 336 kilograms of gold both in ingots and + wrought, 2,993,964 grammes of silver, besides quantities of copper and + precious stones, and hundreds of storehouses in which they kept corn, oil, + wine, honey, and preserved meats—the produce of their domains. Two + examples will suffice to show the extent of this latter item: the live + geese reached the number of 680,714, and the salt or smoked fish that of + 494,800.** Amon claimed the giant share of this enormous total, and + three-fourths of it or more were reserved for his use, namely—-86,486 + slaves, 421,362 head of cattle, 898,168 <i>arurse</i> of cornland, 433 + vineyards and orchards, and 56 Egyptian towns. The nine foreign towns all + belonged to him, and one of them contained the temple in which he was + worshipped by the Syrians whenever they came to pay their tribute to the + king’s representatives: it was but just that his patrimony should surpass + that of his compeers, since the conquering Pharaohs owed their success to + him, who, without the co-operation of the other feudal deities, had + lavished victories upon them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The donations of Ramses III., or rather the total of the + donations made to the gods by the predecessors of that + Pharaoh, and confirmed and augmented by him, are enumerated + at length in the <i>Great Harris Papyrus</i>. + + ** An abridgement of these donations occupies seven large + plates in the <i>Great Harris Papyrus</i>. +</pre> + <p> + His domain was at least five times more considerable than that of Râ of + Heliopolis, and ten times greater than that of the Memphite Phtah, and yet + of old, in the earlier times of history, Râ and Phtah were reckoned the + wealthiest of the Egyptian gods. It is easy to understand the influence + which a god thus endowed with the goods of this world exercised over men + in an age when the national wars had the same consequences for the + immortals as for their worshippers, and when the defeat of a people was + regarded as a proof of the inferiority of its patron gods. The most + victorious divinity became necessarily the wealthiest, before whom all + other deities bowed, and whom they, as well as their subjects, were + obliged to serve. + </p> + <p> + So powerful a god as Amon had but few obstacles to surmount before + becoming the national deity; indeed, he was practically the foremost of + the gods during the Ramesside period, and was generally acknowledged as + Egypt’s representative by all foreign nations.* His priests shared in the + prestige he enjoyed, and their influence in state affairs increased + proportionately with his power. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * From the XVIIIth dynasty, at least, the first prophet of + Amon had taken the precedence of the high priests of + Heliopolis and Memphis, as is proved by the position he + occupies in the Egyptian hierarchy in the <i>Hood Papyrus</i>. +</pre> + <p> + The chief of their hierarchy, however, did not bear the high titles which + in ancient times distinguished those of Memphis and Heliopolis; he was + content with the humble appellation of first prophet of Amon. He had for + several generations been nominated by the sovereign, but he was generally + chosen from the families attached hereditarily or otherwise to the temple + of Karnak, and must previously have passed through every grade of the + priestly hierarchy. Those who aspired to this honour had to graduate as + “divine fathers;” this was the first step in the initiation, and one at + which many were content to remain, but the more ambitious or favoured + advanced by successive stages to the dignity of third, and then of second, + prophet before attaining to the highest rank.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * What we know on this subject has been brought to light + mainly by the inscriptions on the statue of Baûkûni-Khonsû + at Munich, published and commented on by Dévéria, and by + Lauth. The cursus honorum of Ramâ shows us that he was first + third, then second prophet of Amon, before being raised to + the pontificate in the reign of Mînephtah. +</pre> + <p> + The Pharaohs of the XIXth dynasty jealously supervised the promotions made + in the Theban temples, and saw that none was elected except him who was + devoted to their interests—such as, for example, Baûkûni-khonsû and + Unnofri under Ramses II. Baûkûni-khonsû distinguished himself by his + administrative qualities; if he did not actually make the plans for the + hypostyle hall at Karnak, he appears at least to have superintended its + execution and decoration. He finished the great pylon, erected the + obelisks and gateways, built the <i>bari</i> or vessel of the god, and + found a further field for his activity on the opposite bank of the Nile, + where he helped to complete both the chapel at Qurneh and also the + Ramesseum. Ramses II. had always been able to make his authority felt by + the high priests who succeeded Baûkûni-khonsû, but the Pharaohs who + followed him did not hold the reins with such a strong hand. As early as + the reigns of Mînephtah and Seti II. the first prophets, Raî and Ramâ, + claimed the right of building at Karnak for their own purposes, and + inscribed on the walls long inscriptions in which their own panegyrics + took precedence of that of the sovereign; they even aspired to a religious + hegemony, and declared themselves to be the “chief of all the prophets of + the gods of the South and North.” We do not know what became of them + during the usurpation of Arisû, but Nakhtû-ramses, son of Miribastît, who + filled the office during the reign of Ramses III., revived these ambitious + projects as soon as the state of Egypt appeared to favour them. The king, + however pious he might be, was not inclined to yield up any of his + authority, even though it were to the earthly delegate of the divinity + whom he reverenced before all others; the sons of the Pharaoh were, + however, more accommodating, and Nakhtû-ramses played his part so well + that he succeeded in obtaining from them the reversion of the high + priesthood for his son Amenôthes. The priestly office, from having been + elective, was by this stroke suddenly made hereditary in the family. The + kings preserved, it is true, the privilege of confirming the new + appointment, and the nominee was not considered properly qualified until + he had received his investiture from the sovereign.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is proved by the Maunier stele, now in the Louvre; it + is there related how the high priest Manakh-pirrî received + his investiture from the Tanite king. +</pre> + <p> + Practically the Pharaohs lost the power of choosing one among the sons of + the deceased pontiff; they were forced to enthrone the eldest of his + survivors, and legalise his accession by their approbation, even when they + would have preferred another. It was thus that a dynasty of vassal High + Priests came to be established at Thebes side by side with the royal + dynasty of the Pharaohs. + </p> + <p> + The new priestly dynasty was not long in making its power felt in Thebes. + Nakhtû-ramses and Amenôthes lived to a great age—from the reign of + Ramses III. to that of Ramses X., at the least; they witnessed the + accession of nine successive Pharaohs, and the unusual length of their + pontificates no doubt increased the already extraordinary prestige which + they enjoyed throughout the length and breadth of Egypt. It seemed as if + the god delighted to prolong the lives of his representatives beyond the + ordinary limits, while shortening those of the temporal sovereigns. When + the reigns of the Pharaohs began once more to reach their normal length, + the authority of Amenôthes had become so firmly established that no human + power could withstand it, and the later Ramessides were merely a set of + puppet kings who were ruled by him and his successors. Not only was there + a cessation of foreign expeditions, but the Delta, Memphis, and Ethiopia + were alike neglected, and the only activity displayed by these Pharaohs, + as far as we can gather from their monuments, was confined to the service + of Amon and Khonsû at Thebes. The lack of energy and independence in these + sovereigns may not, however, be altogether attributable to their + feebleness of character; it is possible that they would gladly have + entered on a career of conquest had they possessed the means. It is always + a perilous matter to allow the resources of a country to fall into the + hands of a priesthood, and to place its military forces at the same time + in the hands of the chief religious authority. The warrior Pharaohs had + always had at their disposal the spoils obtained from foreign nations to + make up the deficit which their constant gifts to the temples were making + in the treasury. The sons of Ramses III., on the other hand, had suspended + all military efforts, without, however, lessening their lavish gifts to + the gods, and they must, in the absence of the spoils of war, have drawn + to a considerable extent upon the ordinary resources of the country; their + successors therefore found the treasury impoverished, and they would have + been entirely at a loss for money had they attempted to renew the + campaigns or continue the architectural work of their forefathers. The + priests of Amon had not as yet suffered materially from this diminution of + revenue, for they possessed property throughout the length and breadth of + Egypt, but they were obliged to restrict their expenditure, and employ the + sums formerly used for the enlarging of the temples on the maintenance of + their own body. Meanwhile public works had been almost everywhere + suspended; administrative discipline became relaxed, and disturbances, + with which the police were unable to cope, were increasing in all the + important towns. Nothing is more indicative of the state to which Egypt + was reduced, under the combined influence of the priesthood and the + Ramessides, than the thefts and pillaging of which the Theban necropolis + was then the daily scene. The robbers no longer confined themselves to + plundering the tombs of private persons; they attacked the royal + burying-places, and their depredations were carried on for years before + they were discovered. In the reign of Ramses IX., an inquiry, set on foot + by Amenôthes, revealed the fact that the tomb of Sovkûmsaûf I. and his + wife, Queen Nûbk-hâs, had been rifled, that those of Amenôthes I. and of + Antuf IV. had been entered by tunnelling, and that some dozen other royal + tombs in the cemetery of Drah abu’l Neggah were threatened.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The principal part of this inquiry constitutes the <i>Abbott + Papyrus</i>, acquired and published by the British Museum, + first examined and made the subject of study by Birch, + translated simultaneously into French by Maspero and by + Chabas, into German by Lauth and by Erman. Other papyri + relate to the same or similar occurrences, such as the Salt + and Amherst Papyri published by Chabas, and also the + Liverpool Papyri, of which we possess merely scattered + notices in the writings of Goodwin, and particularly in + those of Spiegelberg. +</pre> + <p> + The severe means taken to suppress the evil were not, however, successful; + the pillagings soon began afresh, and the reigns of the last three + Ramessides between the robbers and the authorities, were marked by a + struggle in which the latter did not always come off triumphant. + </p> + <p> + A system of repeated inspections secured the valley of Biban el-Moluk from + marauders,* but elsewhere the measures of defence employed were + unavailing, and the necropolis was given over to pillage, although both + Amenôthes and Hrihor had used every effort to protect it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Graffiti which are evidences of these inspections have + been drawn on the walls of several royal tombs by the + inspectors. Others have been found on several of the coffins + discovered at Deîr el-Baharî, e.g. on those of Seti I. and + Ramses II.; the most ancient belong to the pontificate of + Hrihor, others belong to the XXIst dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="image-0054" id="image-0054"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/089.jpg" alt="089.jpg Ramses IX. " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from Lepsius. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Hrihor appears to have succeeded immediately after Amenôthes, and his + accession to the pontificate gave his family a still more exalted position + in the country. As his wife Nozmit was of royal blood, he assumed titles + and functions to which his father and grandfather had made no claim. He + became the “Royal Son” of Ethiopia and commander-in-chief of the national + and foreign troops; he engraved his name upon the monuments he decorated, + side by side with that of Ramses XII.; in short, he possessed all the + characteristics of a Pharaoh except the crown and the royal protocol. A + century scarcely had elapsed since the abdication of Ramses III., and now + Thebes and the whole of Egypt owned two masters: one the embodiment of the + ancient line, but a mere nominal king; the other the representative of + Amon, and the actual ruler of the country. + </p> + <p> + What then happened when the last Ramses who bore the kingly title was + gathered to his fathers? The royal lists record the accession after his + death of a new dynasty of Tanitic origin, whose founder was Nsbindidi or + Smendes; but, on the other hand, we gather from the Theban monuments that + the crown was seized by Hrihor, who reigned over the southern provinces + contemporaneously with Smendes. Hrihor boldly assumed as prenomen his + title of “First Prophet of Amon,” and his authority was acknowledged by + Ethiopia, over which he was viceroy, as well as by the nomes forming the + temporal domain of the high priests. The latter had acquired gradually, + either by marriage or inheritance, fresh territory for the god, in the + lands of the princes of Nekhabît, Kop-tos, Akhmîm, and Abydos, besides the + domains of some half-dozen feudal houses who, from force of circumstances, + had become sacerdotal families; the extinction of the direct line of + Ramessides now secured the High Priests the possession of Thebes itself, + and of all the lands within the southern provinces which were the appanage + of the crown. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0055" id="image-0055"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/091.jpg" alt="091.jpg Hrihor " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from Champollion. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + They thus, in one way or another, became the exclusive masters of the + southern half of the Nile valley, from Elephantine to Siut; beyond Siut + also they had managed to acquire suzerainty over the town of Khobît, and + the territory belonging to it formed an isolated border province in the + midst of the independent baronies.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The extent of the principality of Thebes under the high + priests has been determined by means of the sacerdotal + titles of the Theban princesses. +</pre> + <p> + The representative of the dynasty reigning at Tanis held the remainder of + Egypt from Shit to the Mediterranean—the half belonging to the + Memphite Phtah and the Helio-politan Râ, as opposed to that assigned to + Anion. The origin of this Tanite sovereign is uncertain, but it would + appear that he was of more exalted rank than his rival in the south. The + official chronicling of events was marked by the years of his reign, and + the chief acts of the government were carried out in his name even in the + Thebaid.* Repeated inundations had caused the ruin of part of the temple + of Karnak, and it was by the order and under the auspices of this prince + that all the resources of the country were employed to accomplish the + much-needed restoration.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have pointed out that the years of the reign mentioned + in the inscriptions of the high priests and the kings of the + sacerdotal line must be attributed to their suzerains, the + kings of Tanis. Hrihor alone seems to have been an + exception, since to him are attributed the dates inscribed + in the name of the King Siamon: M. Daressy, however, will + not admit this, and asserts that this Siamon was a Tanite + sovereign who must not be identified with Hrihor, and must + be placed at least two or three generations later than the + last of the Ramessides. + + ** The real name Nsbindidi and the first monument of the + Manethonian Smendes were discovered in the quarries of + Dababîeh, opposite Gebelên. +</pre> + <p> + It would have been impossible for him to have exercised any authority over + so rich and powerful a personage as Hrihor had he not possessed rights to + the crown, before which even the high priests of Amon were obliged to bow, + and hence it has been supposed that he was a descendant of Ramses II. The + descendants of this sovereign were doubtless divided into at least two + branches, one of which had just become extinct, leaving no nearer heir + than Hrihor, while another, of which there were many ramifications, had + settled in the Delta. The majority of these descendants had become mingled + with the general population, and had sunk to the condition of private + individuals; they had, however, carefully preserved the tradition of their + origin, and added proudly to their name the qualification of royal son of + Ramses. They were degenerate scions of the Ramessides, and had neither the + features nor the energy of their ancestor. One of them, Zodphta-haûfônkhi, + whose mummy was found at Deîr el-Baharî, appears to have been tall and + vigorous, but the head lacks the haughty refinement which characterizes + those of Seti I. and Ramses II., and the features are heavy and coarse, + having a vulgar, commonplace expression. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0056" id="image-0056"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/093.jpg" + alt="093.jpg Zodphtahaufonkhi, Royal Son of Ramses " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from the photograph +by Insinger. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + It seems probable that one branch of the family, endowed with greater + capability than the rest, was settled at Tanis, where Sesostris had, as we + have seen, resided for many years; Smendes was the first of this branch to + ascend the throne. The remembrance of his remote ancestor, Ramses IL, + which was still treasured up in the city he had completely rebuilt, as + well as in the Delta into which he had infused new life, was doubtless of + no small service in securing the crown for his descendant, when, the line + of the Theban kings having come to an end, the Tanites put in their claim + to the succession. We are unable to discover if war broke out between the + two competitors, or if they arrived at an agreement without a struggle; + but, at all events, we may assume that, having divided Egypt between them, + neither of them felt himself strong enough to overcome his rival, and + contented himself with the possession of half the empire, since he could + not possess it in its entirety. We may fairly believe that Smendes had the + greater right to the throne, and, above all, the more efficient army of + the two, since, had it been otherwise, Hrihor would never have consented + to yield him the priority. + </p> + <p> + The unity of Egypt was, to outward appearances, preserved, through the + nominal possession by Smendes of the suzerainty; but, as a matter of fact, + it had ceased to exist, and the fiction of the two kingdoms had become a + reality for the first time within the range of history. Henceforward there + were two Egypts, governed by different constitutions and from widely + remote centres. Theban Egypt was, before all things, a community + recognizing a theocratic government, in which the kingly office was merged + in that of the high priest. Separated from Asia by the length of the + Delta, it turned its attention, like the Pharaohs of the VIth and XIIth + dynasties, to Ethiopia, and owing to its distance from the Mediterranean, + and from the new civilization developed on its shores, it became more and + more isolated, till at length it was reduced to a purely African state. + Northern Egypt, on the contrary, maintained contact with European and + Asiatic nations; it took an interest in their future, it borrowed from + them to a certain extent whatever struck it as being useful or beautiful, + and when the occasion presented itself, it acted in concert with + Mediterranean powers. There was an almost constant struggle between these + two divisions of the empire, at times breaking out into an open rupture, + to end as often in a temporary re-establishment of unity. At one time + Ethiopia would succeed in annexing Egypt, and again Egypt would seize some + part of Ethiopia; but the settlement of affairs was never final, and the + conflicting elements, brought with difficulty into harmony, relapsed into + their usual condition at the end of a few years. A kingdom thus divided + against itself could never succeed in maintaining its authority over those + provinces which, even in the heyday of its power, had proved impatient of + its yoke. + </p> + <p> + Asia was associated henceforward in the minds of the Egyptians with + painful memories of thwarted ambitions, rather than as offering a field + for present conquest. They were pursued by the memories of their former + triumphs, and the very monuments of their cities recalled what they were + anxious to forget. Wherever they looked within their towns they + encountered the representation of some Asiatic scene; they read the names + of the cities of Syria on the walls of their temples; they saw depicted on + them its princes and its armies, whose defeat was recorded by the + inscriptions as well as the tribute which they had been forced to pay. The + sense of their own weakness prevented the Egyptians from passing from + useless regrets to action; when, however, one or other of the Pharaohs + felt sufficiently secure on the throne to carry his troops far afield, he + was always attracted to Syria, and crossed her frontiers, often, alas! + merely to encounter defeat. + </p> + <p> + <a name="image-0057" id="image-0057"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/096.jpg" alt="096.jpg Tailpiece " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="Bimage-0005" id="Bimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/097.jpg" alt="097.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0006" id="Bimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/098.jpg" alt="098.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <i>THE RISE OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>PHOENICIA AND THE NORTHERN NATIONS AFTER THE DEATH OP RAMSES III.—THE + FIRST ASSYRIAN EMPIRE: TIGLATH-PILESUR I.—THE ARAMÆANS AND THE + KHÂTI.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The continuance of Egyptian influence over Syrian civilization after + the death of Ramses III.—Egyptian myths in Phoenicia: Osiris and + Isis at Byblos—Horus, Thot, and the origin of the Egyptian alphabet—The + tombs at Arvad and the Kabr-Hiram; Egyptian designs in Phoenician glass + and goldsmiths’work—Commerce with Egypt, the withdrawal of + Phoenician colonies in the Ægean Sea and the Achæans in Cyprus; maritime + expeditions in the Western Mediterranean.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Northern Syria: the decadence of the Hittites and the steady growth of + the Aramæan tribes—The decline of the Babylonian empire under the + Cossæan kings, and its relations with Egypt: Assuruballit, Bammdn-nirdri + I. and the first Assyrian conquests—Assyria, its climate, provinces, + and cities: the god Assur and his Ishtar—The wars against Chaldæa: + Shalmaneser I., Tulculi-ninip I., and the taking of Babylon—Belchadrezzar + and the last of the Cosssæans.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The dynasty of Pashê: Nebuchadrezzar I., his disputes with Elam, his + defeat by Assurrîshishî—The legend of the first Assyrian empire, + Ninos and Semiramis—The Assyrians and their political constitution: + the limmu, the king and his divine character, his hunting and his wars—The + Assyrian army: the infantry and chariotry, the crossing of rivers, mode of + marching in the plains and in the mountain districts—Camps, battles, + sieges; cruelty shown to the vanquished, the destruction of towns and the + removal of the inhabitants, the ephemeral character of the Assyrian + conquests.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Tiglath pileser I.: Ms campaign against the Mushhu, his conquest of + Kurhhi and of the regions of the Zab—The petty Asiatic kingdoms and + their civilization: art and writing in the old Hittite states—Tiglath-pileser + I. in Nairi and in Syria: his triumphal stele at Sebbeneh-Su—His + buildings, his hunts, his conquest of Babylon—Merodach-nadin-akhi + and the close of the Pashê dynasty—Assur-belkala and Samsi-rammân + III.: the decline of Assyria—Syria without a foreign rider: the + incapacity of the Khdti to give unity to the country.</i> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="B2HCH0001" id="B2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="Bimage-0007" id="Bimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/099.jpg" alt="099.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER II—THE RISE OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE + </h2> + <p> + <i>Phoenicia and the northern nations after the death of Ramses III.—The + first Assyrian empire: Tiglath-pileser I.—The Aramoans and the + Khâti.</i> + </p> + <p> + The cessation of Egyptian authority over countries in which it had so long + prevailed did not at once do away with the deep impression which it had + made upon their constitution and customs. While the nobles and citizens of + Thebes were adopting the imported worship of Baal and Astartê, and were + introducing into the spoken and written language words borrowed from + Semitic speech, the Syrians, on the other hand, were not unreceptive of + the influence of their conquerors. They had applied themselves zealously + to the study of Egyptian arts, industry and religion, and had borrowed + from these as much, at least, as they had lent to the dwellers on the + Nile. The ancient Babylonian foundation of their civilization was not, + indeed, seriously modified, but it was covered over, so to speak, with an + African veneer which varied in depth according to the locality.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Most of the views put forth in this part of the chapter + are based on posterior and not contemporary data. The most + ancient monuments which give evidence of it show it in such + a complete state that we may fairly ascribe it to some + centuries earlier; that is, to the time when Egypt still + ruled in Syria, the period of the XIXth and even the XVIIIth + dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + Phoenicia especially assumed and retained this foreign exterior. Its + merchants, accustomed to establish themselves for lengthened periods in + the principal trade-centres on the Nile, had become imbued therein with + something of the religious ideas and customs of the land, and on returning + to their own country had imported these with them and propagated them in + their neighbourhood. They were not content with other household utensils, + furniture, and jewellery than those to which they had been accustomed on + the Nile, and even the Phonician gods seemed to be subject to this + appropriating mania, for they came to be recognised in the indigenous + deities of the Said and the Delta. There was, at the outset, no trait in + the character of Baalat by which she could be assimilated to Isis or + Hathor: she was fierce, warlike, and licentious, and wept for her lover, + while the Egyptian goddesses were accustomed to shed tears for their + husbands only. It was this element of a common grief, however, which + served to associate the Phonician and Egyptian goddesses, and to produce + at length a strange blending of their persons and the legends concerning + them; the lady of Byblos ended in becoming an Isis or a Hathor,* and in + playing the part assigned to the latter in the Osirian drama. + </p> + <p> + * The assimilation must have been ancient, since the Egyptians of the + Theban dynasties already accepted Baalat as the Hathor of Byblos. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0008" id="Bimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/101.jpg" + alt="101.jpg the Tree Growing on The Tomb of Osiris " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from Prisse d’Avennes +</pre> + </div> + <p> + This may have been occasioned by her city having maintained closer + relationships than the southern towns with Bûto and Mendes, or by her + priests having come to recognise a fundamental agreement between their + theology and that of Egypt. In any case, it was at Byblos that the most + marked and numerous, as well as the most ancient, examples of borrowing + from the religions of the Nile were to be found. The theologians of Byblos + imagined that the coffin of Osiris, after it had been thrown into the sea + by Typhon, had been thrown up on the land somewhere near their city at the + foot of a tamarisk, and that this tree, in its rapid growth, had gradually + enfolded within its trunk the body and its case. King Malkander cut it + down in order to use it as a support for the roof of his palace: a + marvellous perfume rising from it filled the apartments, and it was not + long before the prodigy was bruited abroad. Isis, who was travelling + through the world in quest of her husband, heard of it, and at once + realised its meaning: clad in rags and weeping, she sat down by the well + whither the women of Byblos were accustomed to come every morning and + evening to draw water, and, being interrogated by them, refused to reply; + but when the maids of Queen Astartê* approached in their turn, they were + received by the goddess in the most amiable manner—Isis deigning + even to plait their hair, and to communicate to them the odour of myrrh + with which she herself was impregnated. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Astartê is the name taken by the queen in the Phoenician + version: the Egyptian counterpart of the same narrative + substituted for it Nemanous or Saôsis; that is to say, the + two principal forms of Hathor—the Hermopolitan Nahmâûît and + the Heliopolitan lûsasît. It would appear from the presence + of these names that there must have been in Egypt two + versions at least of the Phoenician adventures of Isis—the + one of Hermopolitan and the other of Heliopolitan origin. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0009" id="Bimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/104.jpg" alt="104.jpg the Phoenician Horus " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from an intaglio engraved in +Cesnola. The Phoenician +figures of Horus and Thot +which I have reproduced +were pointed out to me by +my friend Clermont-Ganneau. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0010" id="Bimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/105.jpg" alt="105.jpg the Phoenician Thot " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +after an intaglio +engraved in M. de Vogué. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Their mistress came to see the stranger who had thus treated her servants, + took her into her service, and confided to her the care of her lately born + son. Isis became attached to the child, adopted it for her own, after the + Egyptian manner, by inserting her finger in its mouth; and having passed + it through the fire during the night in order to consume away slowly + anything of a perishable nature in its body, metamorphosed herself into a + swallow, and flew around the miraculous pillar uttering plaintive cries. + Astartê came upon her once while she was bathing the child in the flame, + and broke by her shrieks of fright the charm of immortality. Isis was only + able to reassure her by revealing her name and the object of her presence + there. She opened the mysterious tree-trunk, anointed it with essences, + and wrapping it in precious cloths, transmitted it to the priests of + Byblos, who deposited it respectfully in their temple: she put the coffin + which it contained on board ship, and brought it, after many adventures, + into Egypt. Another tradition asserts, however, that Osiris never found + his way back to his country: he was buried at Byblos, this tradition + maintained, and it was in his honour that the festivals attributed by the + vulgar to the young Adonis were really celebrated. A marvellous fact + seemed to support this view. Every year a head of papyrus, thrown into the + sea at some unknown point of the Delta, was carried for six days along the + Syrian coast, buffeted by wind and waves, and on the seventh was thrown up + at Byblos, where the priests received it and exhibited it solemnly to the + people.* The details of these different stories are not in every case very + ancient, but the first fact in them carries us back to the time when + Byblos had accepted the sovereignty of the Theban dynasties, and was + maintaining daily commercial and political relations with the inhabitants + of the Nile valley.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the later Roman period it was letters announcing the + resurrection of Adonis-Osiris that the Alexandrian women + cast into the sea, and these were carried by the current as + far as Byblos. See on this subject the commentaries of Cyril + of Alexandra and Procopius of Gaza on chap, xviii. of + Isaiah. + + ** It is worthy of note that Philo gives to the divinity + with the Egyptian name Taautos the part in the ancient + history of Phoenicia of having edited the mystic writings + put in order by Sanchoniathon at a very early epoch. +</pre> + <p> + The city proclaimed Horus to be a great god.* El-Kronos allied himself + with Osiris as well as with Adonis; Isis and Baalat became blended + together at their first encounter, and the respective peoples made an + exchange of their deities with the same light-heartedness as they + displayed in trafficking with the products of their soil or their + industry. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is confirmed by one of the names inscribed on the Tel + el-Amarna tablets as being that of a governor of Byblos + under Amenôthes IV. This name was read Rabimur, Anrabimur, + or Ilrabimur, and finally Ilurabihur: the meaning of it is, + “Muru is the great god,” or “Horus is the great god.” Muru is + the name which we find in an appellation of a Hittite king, + Maurusaru, “Mauru is king.” On an Aramoan cylinder in the + British Museum, representing a god in Assyrian dress + fighting with two griffins, there is the inscription + “Horkhu,” Harmakhis. +</pre> + <p> + After Osiris, the Ibis Thot was the most important among the deities who + had emigrated to Asia. He was too closely connected with the Osirian cycle + to be forgotten by the Phoenicians after they had adopted his companions. + We are ignorant of the particular divinity with whom he was identified, or + would be the more readily associated from some similarity in the + pronunciation of his name: we know only that he still preserved in his new + country all the power of his voice and all the subtilty of his mind. He + occupied there also the position of scribe and enchanter, as he had done + at Thebes, Memphis, Thinis, and before the chief of each Heliopolitan + Ennead. He became the usual adviser of El-Kronos at Byblos, as he had been + of Osiris and Horus; he composed charms for him, and formulae which + increased the warlike zeal of his partisans; he prescribed the form and + insignia of the god and of his attendant deities, and came finally to be + considered as the inventor of letters.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The part of counsellor which Thot played in connexion with + the god of Byblos was described at some length in the + writings attributed to Sankhoniathon. +</pre> + <p> + The epoch, indeed, in which he became a naturalised Phoenician coincides + approximately with a fundamental revolution in the art of writing—that + in which a simple and rapid stenography was substituted for the + complicated and tedious systems with which the empires of the ancient + world had been content from their origin. Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Arvad, had + employed up to this period the most intricate of these systems. Like most + of the civilized nations of Western Asia, they had conducted their + diplomatic and commercial correspondence in the cuneiform character + impressed upon clay tablets. Their kings had had recourse to a Babylonian + model for communicating to the Amenôthes Pharaohs the expression of their + wishes or their loyalty; we now behold them, after an interval of four + hundred years and more*—during which we have no examples of their + monuments—possessed of a short and commodious script, without the + encumbrance of ideograms, determinatives, polyphony and syllabic sounds, + such as had fettered the Egyptian and Chaldæan scribes, in spite of their + cleverness in dealing with them. Phonetic articulations were ultimately + resolved into twenty-two sounds, to each of which a special sign was + attached, which collectively took the place of the hundreds or thousands + of signs formerly required. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The inscription on the bronze cup dedicated to the Baal of + the Lebanon, goes back probably to the time of Hiram I., say + the Xth century before our era; the reasons advanced by + Winckler for dating it in the time of Hiram II. have not + been fully accepted up to the present. By placing the + introduction of the alphabet somewhere between Amenôthes IV. + in the XVth and Hiram I. in the Xth century before our era, + and by taking the middle date between them, say the + accession of the XXIs’dynasty towards the year 1100 B.C. for + its invention or adoption, we cannot go far wrong one way or + the other. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0011" id="Bimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/106.jpg" + alt="106.jpg One of the Most Ancient Phoenician Inscriptions " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Paucher-Gudin, from a heliogravure. This is the cup + of the Baal of the Lebanon. +</pre> + <p> + This was an alphabet, the first in point of time, but so ingenious and so + pliable that the majority of ancient and modern nations have found it able + to supply all their needs—Greeks and Europeans of the western + Mediterranean on the one hand, and Semites of all kinds, Persians and + Hindus on the other. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0012" id="Bimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/107.jpg" alt="107.jpg Table of Alphabets " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + It must have originated between the end of the XVIIIth and the beginning + of the XXIst dynasties, and the existence of Pharaonic rule in Phoenicia + during this period has led more than one modern scholar to assume that it + developed under Egyptian influence.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The hypothesis of an Egyptian origin, suggested casually + by Champollion, has been ably dealt with by E. de Rougé. E. + de Rougé derives the alphabet from the Hieratic, and his + identifications have been accepted by Lauth, by Brugsch, by + P. Lenormant, and by Isaac Taylor. Halévy would take it from + the Egyptian hieroglyphics directly without the intervention + of the Hieratic. The Egyptian origin, strongly contested of + late, has been accepted by the majority of scholars. +</pre> + <p> + Some affirm that it is traceable directly to the hieroglyphs, while others + seek for some intermediary in the shape of a cursive script, and find this + in the Hieratic writing, which contains, they maintain, prototypes of all + the Phoenician letters. Tables have been drawn up, showing at a glance the + resemblances and differences which appear respectively to justify or + condemn their hypothesis. Perhaps the analogies would be more evident and + more numerous if we were in possession of inscriptions going back nearer + to the date of origin. As it is, the divergencies are sufficiently + striking to lead some scholars to seek the prototype of the alphabet + elsewhere—either in Babylon, in Asia Minor, or even in Crete, among + those barbarous hieroglyphs which are attributed to the primitive + inhabitants of the island. It is no easy matter to get at the truth amid + these conflicting theories. Two points only are indisputable; first, the + almost unanimous agreement among writers of classical times in ascribing + the first alphabet to the Phoenicians; and second, the Phonician origin of + the Greek, and afterwards of the Latin alphabet which we employ to-day. + </p> + <p> + To return to the religion of the Phoenicians: the foreign deities were not + content with obtaining a high place in the estimation of priests and + people; they acquired such authority over the native gods that they + persuaded them to metamorphose themselves almost completely into Egyptian + divinities. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0013" id="Bimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/109.jpg" alt="109.jpg Rashuf on his Lion " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph +reproduced in +Clermont-Ganneau. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + One finds among the majority of them the emblems commonly used in the + Pharaonic temples, sceptres with heads of animals, head-dress like the + Pschent, the <i>crux ansata</i>, the solar disk, and the winged scarab. + The lady of Byblos placed the cow’s horns upon her head from the moment + she became identified with Hathor.* The Baal of the neighbouring Arvad—probably + a form of Bashuf—was still represented as standing upright on his + lion in order to traverse the high places: but while, in the monument + which has preserved the figure of the god, both lion and mountain are + given according to Chaldæan tradition, he himself, as the illustration + shows, is dressed after the manner of Egypt, in the striped and plaited + loin-cloth, wears a large necklace on his neck and bracelets on his arms, + and bears upon his head the white mitre with its double plume and the + Egyptian uraaus.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * She is represented as Hathor on the stele of Iéhav-melek, + King of Byblos, during the Persian period. + + ** This monument, which belonged to the Péretié collection, + was found near Amrîth, at the place called Nahr-Abrek. The + dress and bearing are so like those of the Rashuf + represented on Egyptian monuments, that I have no hesitation + in regarding this as a representation of that god. +</pre> + <p> + He brandishes in one hand the weapon of the victor, and is on the point of + despatching with it a lion, which he has seized by the tail with the + other, after the model of the Pharaonic hunters, Amenôthes I. and + Thûtmosis III. The lunar disk floating above his head lends to him, it is + true, a Phonician character, but the winged sun of Heliopolis hovering + above the disk leaves no doubt as to his Egyptian antecedents.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Phonician symbol represents the crescent moon holding + the darkened portion in its arms, like the symbol reserved + in Egypt for the lunar gods. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0014" id="Bimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <img alt="110 (42K)" src="images/110.jpg" /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Renan. +</pre> + <p> + The worship, too, offered to these metamorphosed gods was as much changed + as the deities themselves; the altars assumed something of the Egyptian + form, and the tabernacles were turned into shrines, which were decorated + at the top with a concave groove, or with a frieze made up of repetitions + of the uraeus. Egyptian fashions had influenced the better classes so far + as to change even their mode of dealing with the dead, of which we find in + not a few places clear evidence. Travellers arriving in Egypt at that + period must have been as much astonished as the tourist of to-day by the + monuments which the Egyptians erected for their dead. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0015" id="Bimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/111.jpg" alt="111.jpg AmenÔthes I. Seizing a Lion " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin. This monument was in the Louvre + Museum. Analogous figures of gods or kings holding a lion by + the tail are found on various monuments of the Theban + dynasties. +</pre> + <p> + The pyramids which met their gaze, as soon as they had reached the apex of + the Delta, must have far surpassed their ideas of them, no matter how + frequently they may have been told about them, and they must have been at + a loss to know why such a number of stones should have been brought + together to cover a single corpse. At the foot of these colossal + monuments, lying like a pack of hounds asleep around their master, the + mastabas of the early dynasties were ranged, half buried under the sand, + but still visible, and still visited on certain days by the descendants of + their inhabitants, or by priests charged with the duty of keeping them up. + Chapels of more recent generations extended as a sort of screen before the + ancient tombs, affording examples of the two archaic types combined—the + mastaba more or less curtailed in its proportions, and the pyramid with a + more or less acute point. The majority of these monuments are no longer in + existence, and only one of them has come down to us intact—that + which Amenôthes III. erected in the Serapeum at Memphis in honour of an + Apis which had died in his reign. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0016" id="Bimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/112.jpg" alt="112.jpg a Phoenician Mastaba at Arvad " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the restoration by Thobois, as + given in Renan. The cuttings made in the lower stonework + appear to be traces of unfinished steps. The pyramid at the + top is no longer in existence, but its remains are scattered + about the foot of the monument, and furnished M. Thobois + with the means of reconstructing with exactness the original + form. +</pre> + <p> + Phoenicians visiting the Nile valley must have carried back with them to + their native country a remembrance of this kind of burying-place, and have + suggested it to their architects as a model. One of the cemeteries at + Arvad contains a splendid specimen of this imported design.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Pietschmann thinks that the monument is not older than the + Greek epoch, and it must be admitted that the cornice is not + such as we usually meet with in Egypt in Theban times; + nevertheless, the very marked resemblance to the Theban + mastaba shows that it must have been directly connected with + the Egyptian type which prevailed from the XVIIIth to the + XXth dynasties. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0017" id="Bimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/113.jpg" alt="113.jpg Two of the Tombs at Arvad " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a water-colour by Thobois, + reproduced in Renan. +</pre> + <p> + It is a square tower some thirty-six feet high; the six lower courses + consist of blocks, each some sixteen and a half feet long, joined to each + other without mortar. The two lowest courses project so as to form a kind + of pedestal for the building. The cornice at the top consists of a deep + moulding, surmounted by a broad flat band, above which rises the pyramid, + which attains a height of nearly thirty feet. It is impossible to deny + that it is constructed on a foreign model; it is not a slavish imitation, + however, but rather an adaptation upon a rational plan to the conditions + of its new home. Its foundations rest on nothing but a mixture of soil and + sand impregnated with water, and if vaults had been constructed beneath + this, as in Egypt, the body placed there would soon have corrupted away, + owing to the infiltration of moisture. The dead bodies were, therefore, + placed within the structure above ground, in chambers corresponding to the + Egyptian chapel, which were superimposed the one upon the other. The first + storey would furnish space for three bodies, and the second would contain + twelve, for which as many niches were provided. In the same cemetery we + find examples of tombs which the architect has constructed, not after an + Egyptian, but a Chaldæan model. A round tower is here substituted for the + square structure and a cupola for the pyramid, while the cornice is + represented by crenellated markings. The only Egyptian feature about it is + the four lions, which seem to support the whole edifice upon their backs.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The fellahîn in the neighbourhood call these two monuments + the Meghazîl or “distaffs.” + </pre> + <p> + Arvad was, among Phoenician cities, the nearest neighbour to the kingdoms + on the Euphrates, and was thus the first to experience either the brunt of + an attack or the propagation of fashions and ideas from these countries. + In the more southerly region, in the country about Tyre, there are fewer + indications of Babylonian influence, and such examples of burying-places + for the ruling classes as the Kabr-Hiram and other similar tombs + correspond with the mixed mastaba of the Theban period. We have the same + rectangular base, but the chapel and its crowning pyramid are represented + by the sarcophagus itself with its rigid cover. The work is of an + unfinished character, and carelessly wrought, but there is a charming + simplicity about its lines and a harmony in its proportions which betray + an Egyptian influence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0018" id="Bimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/115.jpg" alt="115.jpg the Kabr-hiram Near Tyre " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a sketch by Thobois, reproduced by + Renan. +</pre> + <p> + The spirit of imitation which we find in the religion and architecture of + Phoenicia is no less displayed in the minor arts, such as goldsmiths’work, + sculpture in ivory, engraving on gems, and glass-making. The forms, + designs, and colours are all rather those of Egypt than of Chaldæa. The + many-hued glass objects, turned out by the manufacturers of the Said in + millions, furnished at one time valuable cargoes for the Phoenicians; they + learned at length to cast and colour copies of these at home, and imitated + their Egyptian models so successfully that classical antiquity was often + deceived by them.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Glass manufacture was carried to such a degree of + perfection among the Phoenicians, that many ancient authors + attributed to them the invention of glass. +</pre> + <p> + Their engravers, while still continuing to employ cones and cylinders of + Babylonian form, borrowed the scarab type also, and made use of it on the + bezils of rings, the pendants of necklaces, and on a kind of bracelet used + partly for ornament and partly as a protective amulet. The influence of + the Egyptian model did not extend, however, amongst the masses, and we + find, therefore, no evidence of it in the case of common objects, such as + those of coarse sand or glazed earthenware. Egyptian scarab forms were + thus confined to the rich, and the material upon which they are found is + generally some costly gem, such as cut and polished agate, onyx, + haematite, and lapis-lazuli. The goldsmiths did not slavishly copy the + golden and silver bowls which were imported from the Delta; they took + their inspiration from the principles displayed in the ornamentation of + these objects, but they treated the subjects after their own manner, + grouping them afresh and blending them with new designs. The intrinsic + value of the metal upon which these artistic conceptions had been + impressed led to their destruction, and among the examples which have come + down to us I know of no object which can be traced to the period of the + Egyptian conquest. It was Theban art for the most part which furnished the + Phoenicians with their designs. These included the lotus, the papyrus, the + cow standing in a thicket and suckling her calf, the sacred bark, and the + king threatening with his uplifted arm the crowd of conquered foes who lie + prostrate before him. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0019" id="Bimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/117.jpg" + alt="117.jpg Egyptian Treatment of the Cow on a Phoenician Bowl " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Grifi. +</pre> + <p> + The king’s double often accompanied him on some of the original objects, + impassive and armed with the banner bearing the name of Horus. The + Phoenician artist modified this figure, which in its original form did not + satisfy his ideas of human nature, by transforming it into a protective + genius, who looks with approval on the exploits of his <i>protégé</i>, and + gathers together the corpses of those he has slain. Once these designs had + become current among the goldsmiths, they continued to be supplied for a + long period, without much modification, to the markets of the Eastern and + Western worlds. Indeed, it was natural that they should have taken a + stereotyped form, when we consider that the Phoenicians who employed them + held continuous commercial relations with the country whence they had come—a + country of which, too, they recognised the supremacy. Egypt in the + Ramesside period was, as we have seen, distinguished for the highest + development of every branch of industry; it had also a population which + imported and exported more raw material and more manufactured products + than any other. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0020" id="Bimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/118.jpg" + alt="118.jpg the King and his Double on a Phoenician Bowl " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a sketch by Longpérier. +</pre> + <p> + The small nation which acted as a commercial intermediary between Egypt + and the rest of the world had in this traffic a steady source of profit, + and even in providing Egypt with a single article—for example, + bronze, or the tin necessary for its preparation—could realise + enormous profits. The people of Tyre and Sidon had been very careful not + to alienate the good will of such rich customers, and as long as the + representatives of the Pharaoh held sway in Syria, they had shown + themselves, if not thoroughly trustworthy vassals, at least less turbulent + than their neighbours of Arvad and Qodshû. Even when the feebleness and + impotence of the successors of Ramses III. relieved them from the + obligation of further tribute, they displayed towards their old masters + such deference that they obtained as great freedom of trade with the ports + of the Delta as they had enjoyed in the past. They maintained with these + ports the same relations as in the days of their dependence, and their + ships sailed up the river as far as Memphis, and even higher, while the + Egyptian galleys continued to coast the littoral of Syria. An official + report addressed to Hrihor by one of the ministers of the Theban Amon, + indicates at one and the same time the manner in which these voyages were + accomplished, and the dangers to which their crews were exposed. Hrihor, + who was still high priest, was in need of foreign timber to complete some + work he had in hand, probably the repair of the sacred barks, and + commanded the official above mentioned to proceed by sea to Byblos, to + King Zikarbâl,* in order to purchase cedars of Lebanon. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the name which classical tradition ascribed to the + first husband of Dido, the founder of Carthage—Sicharbas, + Sichaeus, Acerbas. +</pre> + <p> + The messenger started from Tanis, coasted along Kharu, and put into the + harbour of Dor, which then belonged to the Zakkala: while he was + revictualling his ship, one of the sailors ran away with the cash-box. The + local ruler, Badilu, expressed at first his sympathy at this misfortune, + and gave his help to capture the robber; then unaccountably changing his + mind he threw the messenger into prison, who had accordingly to send to + Egypt to procure fresh funds for his liberation and the accomplishment of + his mission. Having arrived at Byblos, nothing occurred there worthy of + record. The wood having at length been cut and put on board, the ship set + sail homewards. Driven by contrary winds, the vessel was thrown upon the + coast of Alasia, where the crew were graciously received by the Queen + Khatiba. We have evidence everywhere, it may be stated, as to the friendly + disposition displayed, either with or without the promptings of interest, + towards the representative of the Theban pontiff. Had he been ill-used, + the Phoenicians living on Egyptian territory would have been made to + suffer for it. + </p> + <p> + Navigators had to take additional precautions, owing to the presence of + Ægean or Asiatic pirates on the routes followed by the mercantile marine, + which rendered their voyages dangerous and sometimes interrupted them + altogether. The Syrian coast-line was exposed to these marauders quite as + much as the African had been during the sixty or eighty years which + followed the death of Ramses II.; the seamen of the north—Achæans + and Tyrseni, Lycians and Shardanians—had pillaged it on many + occasions, and in the invasion which followed these attacks it experienced + as little mercy as Naharaim, the Khâti, and the region of the Amorites. + The fleets which carried the Philistines, the Zakkala, and their allies + had devastated the whole coast before they encountered the Egyptian ships + of Ramses III. near Magadîl, to the south of Carmel. Arvad as well as Zahi + had succumbed to the violence of their attack, and if the cities of + Byblos, Berytus, Sidon, and Tyre had escaped, their suburbs had been + subjected to the ravages of the foe.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See, for this invasion, vol. v. pp. 305-311, of the + present work. +</pre> + <p> + Peace followed the double victory of the Egyptians, and commerce on the + Mediterranean resumed once more its wonted ways, but only in those regions + where the authority of the Pharaoh and the fear of his vengeance were + effective influences. Beyond this sphere there were continual warfare, + piracy, migrations of barbaric hordes, and disturbances of all kinds, + among which, if a stranger ventured, it was at the almost certain risk of + losing his life or liberty. The area of undisturbed seas became more and + more contracted in proportion as the memory of past defeats faded away. + Cyprus was not comprised within it, and the Ægeans, who were restrained by + the fear of Egypt from venturing into any region under her survey, + perpetually flocked thither in numerous bodies. The Achæans, too, took up + their abode on this island at an early date—about the time when some + of their bands were infesting Libya, and offering their help to the + enemies of the Pharaoh. They began their encroachments on the northern + side of the island—the least rich, it is true, but the nearest to + Cilicia, and the easiest to hold against the attacks of their rivals. The + disaster of Piriu had no doubt dashed their hopes of finding a settlement + in Egypt: they never returned thither any more, and the current of + emigration which had momentarily inclined towards the south, now set + steadily towards the east, where the large island of Cyprus offered an + unprotected and more profitable field of adventure. We know not how far + they penetrated into its forests and its interior. The natives began, at + length, under their influence, to despise the customs and mode of + existence with which they had been previously contented: they acquired a + taste for pottery rudely decorated after the Mycenean manner, for + jewellery, and for the bronze swords which they had seen in the hands of + the invaders. The Phoenicians, in order to maintain their ground against + the intruders, had to strengthen their ancient posts or found others—such + as Carpasia, Gerynia, and Lapathos on the Achæan coast itself, Tamassos + near the copper-mines, and a new town, Qart-hadashât, which is perhaps + only the ancient Citium under a new name.* They thus added to their + earlier possessions on the island regions on its northern side, while the + rest either fell gradually into the hands of Hellenic adventurers, or + continued in the possession of the native populations. Cyprus served + henceforward as an advance-post against the attacks of Western nations, + and the Phoenicians must have been thankful for the good fortune which had + made them see the wisdom of fortifying it. But what became of their + possessions lying outside Cyprus? They retained several of them on the + southern coasts of Asia Minor, and Rhodes remained faithful to them, as + well as Thasos, enabling them to overlook the two extremities of the + Archipelago;** but, owing to the movements of the People of the Sea and + the political development of the Mycenean states, they had to give up the + stations and harbours of refuge which they held in the other islands or on + the continent. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is mentioned in the inscription of Baal of Lebanon, and + in the Assyrian inscriptions of the VII century B.C. + + * This would appear to be the case, as far as Rhodes is + concerned, from the traditions which ascribed the final + expulsion of the Phoenicians to a Doric invasion from Argos. + The somewhat legendary accounts of the state of affairs + after the Hellenic conquest are in the fragments of Ergias + and Polyzelos. +</pre> + <p> + They still continued, however, to pay visits to these localities—sometimes + in the guise of merchants and at others as raiders, according to their + ancient custom. They went from port to port as of old, exposing their + wares in the market-places, pillaging the farms and villages, carrying + into captivity the women and children whom they could entice on board, or + whom they might find defenceless on the strand; but they attempted all + this with more risk than formerly, and with less success. The inhabitants + of the coast were possessed of fully manned ships, similar in form to + those of the Philistines or the Zakkala, which, at the first sight of the + Phoenicians, set out in pursuit of them, or, following the example set by + their foe, lay in wait for them behind some headland, and retaliated upon + them for their cruelty. Piracy in the Archipelago was practised as a + matter of course, and there was no islander who did not give himself up to + it when the opportunity offered, to return to his honest occupations after + a successful venture. Some kings seem to have risen up here and there who + found this state of affairs intolerable, and endeavoured to remedy it by + every means within their power: they followed on the heels of the corsairs + and adventurers, whatever might be their country; they followed them up to + their harbours of refuge, and became an effective police force in all + parts of the sea where they were able to carry their flag. The memory of + such exploits was preserved in the tradition of the Cretan empire which + Minos had constituted, and which extended its protection over a portion of + continental Greece. + </p> + <p> + If the Phoenicians had had to deal only with the piratical expeditions of + the peoples of the coast or with the jealous watchfulness of the rulers of + the sea, they might have endured the evil, but they had now to put up, in + addition, with rivalry in the artistic and industrial products of which + they had long had the monopoly. The spread of art had at length led to the + establishment of local centres of production everywhere, which bade fair + to vie with those of Phoenicia. On the continent and in the Cyclades there + were produced statuettes, intaglios, jewels, vases, weapons, and textile + fabrics which rivalled those of the East, and were probably much cheaper. + The merchants of Tyre and Sidon could still find a market, however, for + manufactures requiring great technical skill or displaying superior taste—such + as gold or silver bowls, engraved or decorated with figures in outline—but + they had to face a serious falling off in their sales of ordinary goods. + To extend their commerce they had to seek new and less critical markets, + where the bales of their wares, of which the Ægean population was becoming + weary, would lose none of their attractions. We do not know at what date + they ventured to sail into the mysterious region of the Hesperides, nor by + what route they first reached it. It is possible that they passed from + Crete to Cythera, and from this to the Ionian Islands and to the point of + Calabria, on the other side of the straits of Otranto, whence they were + able to make their way gradually to Sicily.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ed. Meyer thinks that the extension of Phoenician commerce + to the Western Mediterranean goes back to the XVIIIth + dynasty, or, at the latest, the XVth century before our era. + Without laying undue stress on this view, I am inclined to + ascribe with him, until we get further knowledge, the + colonisation of the West to the period immediately following + the movements of the People of the Sea and the diminution of + Phoenician trade in the Grecian Archipelago. Exploring + voyages had been made before this, but the founding of + colonies was not earlier than this epoch. +</pre> + <p> + Did the fame of their discovery, we may ask, spread so rapidly in the East + as to excite there the cupidity and envy of their rivals? However this may + have been, the People of the Sea, after repeated checks in Africa and + Syria, and feeling more than ever the pressure of the northern tribes + encroaching on them, set out towards the west, following the route pursued + by the Phoenicians. The traditions current among them and collected + afterwards by the Greek historians give an account, mingled with many + fabulous details, of the causes which led to their migrations and of the + vicissitudes which they experienced in the course of them. Daedalus having + taken flight from Crete to Sicily, Minos, who had followed in his steps, + took possession of the greater part of the island with his Eteocretes. + Iolaos was the leader of Pelasgic bands, whom he conducted first into + Libya and finally to Sardinia. It came also to pass that in the days of + Atys, son of Manes, a famine broke out and raged throughout Lydia: the + king, unable to provide food for his people, had them numbered, and + decided by lot which of the two halves of the population should expatriate + themselves under the leadership of his son Tyrsenos. Those-who were thus + fated to leave their country assembled at Smyrna, constructed ships there, + and having embarked on board of them what was necessary, set sail in quest + of a new home. After a long and devious voyage, they at length disembarked + in the country of the Umbrians, where they built cities, and became a + prosperous people under the name of Tyrseni, being thus called after their + leader Tyrsenos.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus, whence all the information of other classical + writers is directly or indirectly taken. Most modern + historians reject this tradition. I see no reason for my own + part why they should do so, at least in the present state of + our knowledge. The Etrurians of the historical period were + the result of a fusion of several different elements, and + there is nothing against the view that the Tursha—one of + these elements—should have come from Asia Minor, as + Herodotus says. Properly understood, the tradition seems + well founded, and the details may have been added + afterwards, either by the Lydians themselves, or by the + Greek historians who collected the Lydian traditions. +</pre> + <p> + The remaining portions of the nations who had taken part in the attack on + Egypt—of which several tribes had been planted by Ramses III. in the + Shephelah, from Gaza to Carmel—proceeded in a series of successive + detachments from Asia Minor and the Ægean Sea to the coasts of Italy and + of the large islands; the Tursha into that region which was known + afterwards as Etruria, the Shardana into Sardinia, the Zakkala into + Sicily, and along with the latter some Pulasati, whose memory is still + preserved on the northern slope of Etna. Fate thus brought the Phonician + emigrants once more into close contact with their traditional enemies, and + the hostility which they experienced in their new settlements from the + latter was among the influences which determined their further migration + from Italy proper, and from the region occupied by the Ligurians between + the Arno and the Ebro. They had already probably reached Sardinia and + Corsica, but the majority of their ships had sailed to the southward, and + having touched at Malta, Gozo, and the small islands between Sicily and + the Syrtes, had followed the coast-line of Africa, until at length they + reached the straits of Gribraltar and the southern shores of Spain. No + traces remain of their explorations, or of their early establishments in + the western Mediterranean, as the towns which they are thought—with + good reason in most instances—to have founded there belong to a much + later date. Every permanent settlement, however, is preceded by a period + of exploration and research, which may last for only a few years or be + prolonged to as many centuries. I am within the mark, I think, in assuming + that Phonician adventurers, or possibly even the regular trading ships of + Tyre and Sidon, had established relations with the semi-barbarous chiefs + of Botica as early as the XIIth century before our era, that is, at the + time when the power of Thebes was fading away under the weak rule of the + pontiffs of Amon and the Tanite Pharaohs. + </p> + <p> + The Phoenicians were too much absorbed in their commercial pursuits to + aspire to the inheritance which Egypt was letting slip through her + fingers. Their numbers were not more than sufficient to supply men for + their ships, and they were often obliged to have recourse to their allies + or to mercenary tribes—the Leleges or Carians—in order to + provide crews for their vessels or garrisons for their trading posts; it + was impossible, therefore, for them to think of raising armies fit to + conquer or keep in check the rulers on the Orontes or in Naharaim. They + left this to the races of the interior—the Amorites and Hittites—and + to their restless ambition. The Hittite power, however, had never + recovered from the terrible blow inflicted on it at the time of the + Asianic invasion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0021" id="Bimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/128.jpg" + alt="128.jpg AzÂz--one of This Tumuli on the Ancient Hittite Plain " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by M. Barthélémy. +</pre> + <p> + The confederacy of feudal chiefs, which had been brought momentarily + together by Sapalulu and his successors, was shattered by the violence of + the shock, and the elements of which it was composed were engaged + henceforward in struggles with each other. At this time the entire plain + between the Amanus and the Euphrates was covered with rich cities, of + which the sites are represented to-day by only a few wretched villages or + by heaps of ruins. Arabian and Byzantine remains sometimes crown the + summit of the latter, but as soon as we reach the lower strata we find in + more or less abundance the ruins of buildings of the Greek or Persian + period, and beneath these those belonging to a still earlier time. The + history of Syria lies buried in such sites, and is waiting only for a + patient and wealthy explorer to bring it to light.* The Khâti proper were + settled to the south of the Taurus in the basin of the Sajur, but they + were divided into several petty states, of which that which possessed + Carchemish was the most important, and exercised a practical hegemony over + the others. Its chiefs alone had the right to call themselves kings of the + Khâti. The Patinu, who were their immediate neighbours on the west, + stretched right up to the Mediterranean above the plains of Naharairn and + beyond the Orontes; they had absorbed, it would seem, the provinces of the + ancient Alasia. Aramaeans occupied the region to the south of the Patinu + between the two Lebanon ranges, embracing the districts of Hamath and + Qobah.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The results of the excavations at Zinjirli are evidence of + what historical material we may hope to find in these + tumuli. See the account of the earlier results in P. von + Luschan, <i>Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli</i>, 1893. + + ** The Aramaeans are mentioned by Tiglath-pileser I. as + situated between the Balikh, the Euphrates, and the Sajur. +</pre> + <p> + The valleys of the Amanus and the southern slopes of the Taurus included + within them some half-dozen badly defined principalities—Samalla on + the Kara-Su,* Gurgum** around Marqasi, the Qui*** and Khilakku**** in the + classical Cilicia, and the Kasku^ and Kummukh^^ in a bend of the Euphrates + to the north and north-east of the Khâti. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The country of Samalla, in Egyptian Samalûa, extended + around the Tell of Zinjirli, at the foot of the Amanus, in + the valley of Marash of the Arab historians. + + ** The name has been read Gamgumu, Gaugum, and connected by + Tom-kins with the Egyptian Augama, which he reads Gagama, in + the lists of Thûtmosis III. The Aramaean inscription on the + statue of King Panammu shows that it must be read Gurgumu, + and Sachau has identified this new name with that of Jurjum, + which was the name by which the province of the Amanus, + lying between Baias and the lake of Antioch, was known in + the Byzantine period; the ancient Gurgum stretches further + towards the north, around the town of Marqasi, which Tomkins + and Sachau have identified with Marash. + + *** The site of the country of Qui was determined by + Schrader; it was that part of the Cilician plain which + stretches from the Amanus to the mountains of the Kêtis, and + takes in the great town of Tarsus. F. Lenor-mant has pointed + out that this country is mentioned twice in the Scriptures + (1 <i>Kings</i> x, 28 and 2 <i>Chron</i>. i. 16), in the time of + Solomon. The designation of the country, transformed into + the appellation of an eponymous god, is found in the name + Qauîsaru, “Qauî is king.” + + **** Khilakku, the name of which is possibly the same as the + Egyptian Khalakka, is the Cilicia Trachsea of classical + geographers. + + ^ The country of Kashku, which has been connected with + Kashkisha, which takes the place of Karkisha in an Egyptian + text, was still a dependency of the Hittites in the time of + Tiglath-pileser. It was in the neighbourhood of the Urumu, + whose capital seems to have been Urum, the Ourima of + Ptolemy, near the bend of the Euphrates between Sumeîsat and + Birejik; it extended into the Commagene of classical times, + on the borders of Melitene and the Tubal. + + ^^ Kummukh lay on both sides of the Euphrates and of the + Upper Tigris; it became gradually restricted, until at + length it was conterminous with the Commagene of classical + geographers. +</pre> + <p> + The ancient Mitanni to the east of Carchemish, which was so active in the + time of the later Amenôthes, had now ceased to exist, and there was but a + vague remembrance of its farmer prowess. It had foundered probably in the + great cataclysm which engulfed the Hittite empire, although its name + appears inscribed once more among those of the vassals of Egypt on the + triumphal lists of Ramses III. Its chief tribes had probably migrated + towards the regions which were afterwards described by the Greek + geographers as the home of the Matieni on the Halys and in the + neighbourhood of Lake Urmiah. Aramaean kingdoms, of which the greatest was + that of Bit-Adîni,* had succeeded them, and bordered the Euphrates on each + side as far as the Chalus and Balikh respectively; the ancient Harran + belonged also to them, and their frontier stretched as far as Hamath, and + to that of the Patinu on the Orontes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The province of Bît-Adîni was specially that part of the + country which lay between the Euphrates and the Balikh, but + it extended also to other Syrian provinces between the + Euphrates and the Aprie. +</pre> + <p> + It was, as we have seen, a complete breaking up of the old nationalities, + and we have evidence also of a similar disintegration in the countries to + the north of the Taurus, in the direction of the Black Sea. Of the mighty + Khâti with whom Thûtmosis III. had come into contact, there was no + apparent trace: either the tribes of which they were composed had migrated + towards the south, or those who had never left their native mountains had + entered into new combinations and lost even the remembrance of their name. + The Milidu, Tabal (Tubal), and Mushku (Meshech) stretched behind each + other from east to west on the confines of the Tokhma-Su, and still + further away other cities of less importance contended for the possession + of the Upper Saros and the middle region of the Halys. These peoples, at + once poor and warlike, had been attracted, like the Hittites of some + centuries previous, by the riches accumulated in the strongholds of Syria. + Eevolutions must have been frequent in these regions, but our knowledge of + them is more a matter of conjecture than of actual evidence. Towards the + year 1170 B.C. the Mushku swooped down on Kummukh, and made themselves its + masters; then pursuing their good fortune, they took from the Assyrians + the two provinces, Alzi and Purukuzzi, which lay not far from the sources + of the Tigris and the Balikh.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The <i>Annals of Tiglath-pileser I</i>. place their invasion + fifty years before the beginning of his reign. Ed. Meyer saw + a connexion between this and the invasion of the People of + the Sea, which took place under Ramses III. I think that the + invasion of the Mushku was a purely local affair, and had + nothing in common with the general catastrophe occasioned by + the movement of the Asiatic armies. +</pre> + <p> + A little later the Kashku, together with some Aramaeans, broke into + Shubarti, then subject to Assyria, and took possession of a part of it. + The majority of these invasions had, however, no permanent result: they + never issued in the establishment of an empire like that of the Khâti, + capable by its homogeneity of offering a serious resistance to the march + of a conqueror from the south. To sum up the condition of affairs: if a + redistribution of races had brought about a change in Northern Syria, + their want of cohesion was no less marked than in the time of the Egyptian + wars; the first enemy to make an attack upon the frontier of one or other + of these tribes was sure of victory, and, if he persevered in his efforts, + could make himself master of as much territory as he might choose. The + Pharaohs had succeeded in welding together their African possessions, and + their part in the drama of conquest had been played long ago; but the + cities of the Tigris and the Lower Euphrates—Nineveh and + Babylon-were ready to enter the lists as soon as they felt themselves + strong enough to revive their ancient traditions of foreign conquest. + </p> + <p> + The successors of Agumkakrimê were not more fortunate than he had been in + attempting to raise Babylon once more to the foremost rank; their want of + power, their discord, the insubordination and sedition that existed among + their Cossæan troops, and the almost periodic returns of the Theban + generals to the banks of the Euphrates, sometimes even to those of the + Balikh and the Khabur, all seemed to conspire to aggravate the helpless + state into which Babylon had sunk since the close of the dynasty of + Uruazagga. Elam was pressing upon her eastern, and Assyria on her northern + frontier, and their kings not only harassed her with persistent malignity, + but, by virtue of their alliances by marriage with her sovereigns, took + advantage of every occasion to interfere both in domestic and state + affairs; they would espouse the cause of some pretender during a revolt, + they would assume the guardianship of such of their relatives as were left + widows or minors, and, when the occasion presented itself, they took + possession of the throne of Bel, or bestowed it on one of their creatures. + Assyria particularly seemed to regard Babylon with a deadly hatred. The + capitals of the two countries were not more than some one hundred and + eighty-five miles apart, the intervening district being a flat and + monotonous alluvial plain, unbroken by any feature which could serve as a + natural frontier. The line of demarcation usually followed one of the many + canals in the narrow strip of land between the Euphrates and the Tigris; + it then crossed the latter, and was formed by one of the rivers draining + the Iranian table-land,—either the Upper Zab, the Radanu, the + Turnat, or some of their ramifications in the spurs of the mountain + ranges. Each of the two states strove by every means in its power to + stretch its boundary to the farthest limits, and to keep it there at all + hazards. This narrow area was the scene of continual war, either between + the armies of the two states or those of partisans, suspended from time to + time by an elaborate treaty which was supposed to settle all difficulties, + but, as a matter of fact, satisfied no one, and left both parties + discontented with their lot and jealous of each other. The concessions + made were never of sufficient importance to enable the conqueror to crush + his rival and regain for himself the ancient domain of Khammurabi; his + losses, on the other hand, were often considerable enough to paralyse his + forces, and prevent him from extending his border in any other direction. + When the Egyptians seized on Naharaim, Assyria and Babylon each adopted at + the outset a different attitude towards the conquerors. Assyria, which + never laid any permanent claims to the seaboard provinces of the + Mediterranean, was not disposed to resent their occupation by Egypt, and + desired only to make sure of their support or their neutrality. The + sovereign then ruling Assyria, but of whose name we have no record, + hastened to congratulate Thûtmosis III. on his victory at Megiddo, and + sent him presents of precious vases, slaves, lapis-lazuli, chariots and + horses, all of which the Egyptian conqueror regarded as so much tribute. + Babylon, on the other hand, did not take action so promptly as Assyria; it + was only towards the latter years of Thûtmosis that its king, Karaîndash, + being hard pressed by the Assyrian Assurbelnishishu, at length decided to + make a treaty with the intruder.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We have no direct testimony in support of this hypothesis, + but several important considerations give it probability. As + no tribute from Babylon is mentioned in the <i>Annals of + Thûtmosis III</i>., we must place the beginning of the + relations between Egypt and Chaldæa at a later date. On the + other hand, Burnaburiash II., in a letter written to + Amenôthes III., cites Karaîndash as the first of <i>his + fathers,</i> who had established friendly relations with <i>the + fathers</i> of the Pharaoh, a fact which obliges us to place + the interchange of presents before the time of Amenôthes + III.: as the reigns of Amenôthes II. and of Thûtmosis IV. + were both short, it is probable that these relations began + in the latter years of Thûtmosis III. +</pre> + <p> + The remoteness of Egypt from the Babylonian frontier no doubt relieved + Karaîndash from any apprehension of an actual invasion by the Pharaohs; + but there was the possibility of their subsidising some nearer enemy, and + also of forbidding Babylonish caravans to enter Egyptian provinces, and + thus crippling Chaldæan commerce. Friendly relations, when once + established, soon necessitated a constant interchange of embassies and + letters between the Nile and the Euphrates. As a matter of fact, the + Babylonian king could never reconcile himself to the idea that Syria had + passed out of his hands. While pretending to warn the Pharaoh of Syrian + plots against him,* the Babylonians were employing at the same time secret + agents, to go from city to city and stir up discontent at Egyptian rule, + praising the while the great Cosssean king and his armies, and inciting to + revolt by promises of help never meant to be fulfilled. Assyria, whose + very existence would have been endangered by the re-establishment of a + Babylonian empire, never missed an opportunity of denouncing these + intrigues at head-quarters: they warned the royal messengers and governors + of them, and were constantly contrasting the frankness and honesty of + their own dealings with the duplicity of their rival. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This was done by Kurigalzu I., according to a letter + addressed by his son Burnaburiash to Amenôthes IV. +</pre> + <p> + This state of affairs lasted for more than half a century, during which + time both courts strove to ingratiate themselves in the favour of the + Pharaoh, each intriguing for the exclusion of the other, by exchanging + presents with him, by congratulations on his accession, by imploring gifts + of wrought or unwrought gold, and by offering him the most beautiful women + of their family for his harem. The son of Karaîndash, whose name still + remains to be discovered, bestowed one of his daughters on the young + Amenôthes III.: Kallimasin, the sovereign who succeeded him, also sent + successively two princesses to the same Pharaoh. But the underlying + bitterness and hatred would break through the veneer of polite formula and + protestations when the petitioner received, as the result of his advances, + objects of inconsiderable value such as a lord might distribute to his + vassals, or when he was refused a princess of solar blood, or even an + Egyptian bride of some feudal house; at such times, however, an ironical + or haughty epistle from Thebes would recall him to a sense of his own + inferiority. + </p> + <p> + As a fact, the lot of the Cossæan sovereigns does not appear to have been + a happy one, in spite of the variety and pomposity of the titles which + they continued to assume. They enjoyed but short lives, and we know that + at least three or four of them—Kallimasin, Burnaburiash I., and + Kurigalzu I. ascended the throne in succession during the forty years that + Amenôthes III. ruled over Egypt and Syria.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The copy we possess of the Royal Canon of Babylon is + mutilated at this point, and the original documents are not + sufficiently complete to fill the gap. About two or three + names are missing after that of Agumkakrimê, and the reigns + must have been very short, if indeed, as I think, Agumka- + krimî and Karaîndash were both contemporaries of the earlier + Pharaohs bearing the name of Thûtmosis. The order of the + names which have come down to us is not indisputably + established. The following order appears to me to be the + most probable at present:— + + Karaîndash. Kallimasin. Burnaburiash I. Kurigalzu I. + Burnaburiash II. Karakhardash. Kadashmankiiarbê I. + Nazibugas II.. Kurigalzu II. Nazimaruttasii. Kadashmanturgu. + + This is, with a slight exception, the classification adopted + by Winckler, and that of Hilprecht differs from it only in + the intercalation of Kudurturgu and Shagaraktiburiash + between Burnaburiash II. and Karakhardash. +</pre> + <p> + Perhaps the rapidity of this succession may have arisen from some internal + revolution or from family disturbances. The Chaldæans of the old stock + reluctantly rendered obedience to these Cosssean kings, and, if we may + judge from the name, one at least of these ephemeral sovereigns, + Kallimasin, appears to have been a Semite, who owed his position among the + Cossoan princes to some fortunate chance. A few rare inscriptions stamped + on bricks, one or two letters or documents of private interest, and some + minor objects from widely distant spots, have enabled us to ascertain the + sites upon which these sovereigns erected buildings; Karaîndash restored + the temple of Nana at Uruk, Burnaburiash and Kurigalzu added to that of + Shamash at Larsam, and Kurigalzu took in hand that of Sin at Uru. We also + possess a record of some of their acts in the fragments of a document, + which a Mnevite scribe of the time of Assurbanipal had compiled, or rather + jumbled together,* from certain Babylonian chronicles dealing with the + wars against Assyria and Elam, with public treaties, marriages, and family + quarrels. We learn from this, for example, that Burnaburiash I. renewed + with Buzurassur the conventions drawn up between Karaîndash and + Assurbelnishishu. These friendly relations were maintained, apparently, + under Kurigalzu I. and Assur-nadin-akhi, the son of Buzurassur;** if + Kurigalzu built or restored the fortress, long called after him + Dur-Kurigalzu,*** at one of the fords of the Narmalka, it was probably as + a precautionary measure rather than because of any immediate danger. The + relations between the two powers became somewhat strained when + Burnaburiash II. and Assuruballît had respectively succeeded to Kurigalzu + and Assur-nadin-akhi; **** this did not, however, lead to hostilities, and + the subsequent betrothal of Karakhardash, son of Burnaburiash II., to + Mubauîtatseruâ, daughter of Assuruballît, tended to restore matters to + their former condition. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is what is generally called the “Synchronous + History,” the principal remains of which were discovered and + published by H. Rawlinson. It is a very unskilful + complication, in which Winckler has discovered several + blunders. + + ** Assur-nadin-akhi I. is mentioned in a Tel el-Amarna + tablet as being the father of Assuruballît. + + *** This is the present Akerkuf, as is proved by the + discovery of bricks bearing the name of Kurigalzu; but + perhaps what I have attributed to Kurigalzu I. must be + referred to the second king of that name. + + **** We infer this from the way in which Burnaburiash speaks + of the Assyrians in the correspondence with Amenôthes IV. +</pre> + <p> + The good will between the two countries became still more pronounced when + Kadashmankharbê succeeded his father Karakhardash. The Cossæan soldiery + had taken umbrage at his successor and had revolted, assassinated + Kadashmankharbê, and proclaimed king in his stead a man of obscure origin + named Nazibùgash. Assuruballît, without a moment’s hesitation, took the + side of his new relatives; he crossed the frontier, killed Nazibugash, and + restored the throne to his sister’s child, Kurigalzu II., the younger. The + young king, who was still a minor at his accession, appears to have met + with no serious difficulties; at any rate, none were raised by his + Assyrian cousins, Belnirârî I. and his successor Budîlu.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The <i>Synchronous History</i> erroneously places the events of + the reign of Rammân-nirâri in that of Belnirârî. The order + of succession of Buzurassur, Assuruballît, Belnirârî, and + Budîlu, has been established by the bricks of Kalah-Shergât. +</pre> + <p> + Towards the close of his reign, however, revolts broke out, and it was + only by sustained efforts that he was able to restore order in Babylon, + Sippara, and the Country of the Sea. While the king was in the midst of + these difficulties, the Elamites took advantage of his troubles to steal + from him a portion of his territory, and their king, Khurbatila, + challenged him to meet his army near Dur-Dungi. Kurigalzu accepted the + challenge, gained a decisive victory, took his adversary prisoner, and + released him only on receiving as ransom a province beyond the Tigris; he + even entered Susa, and, from among other trophies of past wars, resumed + possession of an agate tablet belonging to Dungi, which the veteran + Kudurnakhunta had stolen from the temple of Nipur nearly a thousand years + previously. This victory was followed by the congratulations of most of + his neighbours, with the exception of Bammân-nirâri II., who had succeeded + Budîlu in Assyria, and probably felt some jealousy or uneasiness at the + news. He attacked the Cossæans, and overthrew them at Sugagi, on the banks + of the Salsallât; their losses were considerable, and Kurigalzu could only + obtain peace by the cession to Assyria of a strip of territory the entire + length of the north-west frontier, from the confines of the Shubari + country, near the sources of the Khabur, to the suburbs of Babylon itself. + Nearly the whole of Mesopotamia thus changed hands at one stroke, but + Babylon had still more serious losses to suffer. Nazimaruttash, who + attempted to wipe out the disaster sustained by his father Kurigalzu, + experienced two crushing defeats, one at Kar-Ishtar and the other near + Akarsallu, and the treaty which he subsequently signed was even more + humiliating for his country than the preceding one. All that part of the + Babylonian domain which lay nearest to Nineveh was ceded to the Assyrians, + from Pilaski on the right bank of the Tigris to the province of Lulumê in + the Zagros mountains. It would appear that the Cossæan tribes who had + remained in their native country, took advantage of these troublous times + to sever all connection with their fellow-countrymen established in the + cities of the plain; for we find them henceforward carrying on a petty + warfare for their own profit, and leading an entirely independent life. + The descendants of Gandish, deprived of territories in the north, repulsed + in the east, and threatened in the south by the nations of the Persian + Gulf, never recovered their former ascendency, and their authority slowly + declined during the century which followed these events. Their downfall + brought about the decadence of the cities over which they had held sway; + and the supremacy which Babylon had exercised for a thousand years over + the countries of the Euphrates passed into the hands of the Assyrian + kings. + </p> + <p> + Assyria itself was but a poor and insignificant country when compared with + her rival. It occupied, on each side of the middle course of the Tigris, + the territory lying between the 35th and 37th parallels of latitude.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are approximately the limits of the first Assyrian + empire, as given by the monuments; from the Persian epoch + onwards, the name was applied to the whole course of the + Tigris as far as the mountain district. The ancient + orthography of the name is Aushâr. +</pre> + <p> + It was bounded on the east by the hills and mountain ranges running + parallel to the Zagros Chain—Gebel Guar, Gebel Gara, + Zerguizavân-dagh, and Baravân-dagh, with their rounded monotonous + limestone ridges, scored by watercourses and destitute of any kind of + trees. On the north it was hemmed in by the spurs of the Masios, and + bounded on the east by an undefined line running from Mount Masios to the + slopes of Singar, and from these again to the Chaldæan plain; to the south + the frontier followed the configuration of the table-land and the curve of + the low cliffs, which in prehistoric times had marked the limits of the + Persian Gulf; from here the boundary was formed on the left side of the + Tigris by one of its tributaries, either the Lower Zab or the Badanu. The + territory thus enclosed formed a compact and healthy district: it was free + from extremes of temperature arising from height or latitude, and the + relative character and fertility of its soil depended on the absence or + presence of rivers. The eastern part of Assyria was well watered by the + streams and torrents which drained the Iranian plateau and the lower + mountain chains which ran parallel to it. The beds of these rivers are + channelled so deeply in the alluvial soil, that it is necessary to stand + on the very edge of their banks to catch a sight of their silent and rapid + waters; and it is only in the spring or early summer, when they are + swollen by the rains and melting snow, that they spread over the adjacent + country. As soon as the inundation is over, a vegetation of the intensest + green springs up, and in a few days the fields and meadows are covered + with a luxuriant and fragrant carpet of verdure. This brilliant growth is, + however, short-lived, for the heat of the sun dries it up as quickly as it + appears, and even the corn itself is in danger of being burnt up before + reaching maturity. To obviate such a disaster, the Assyrians had + constructed a network of canals and ditches, traces of which are in many + places still visible, while a host of <i>shadufs</i> placed along their + banks facilitated irrigation in the dry seasons. The provinces supplied + with water in this manner enjoyed a fertility which passed into a proverb, + and was well known among the ancients; they yielded crops of cereals which + rivalled those of Babylonia, and included among their produce wheat, + barley, millet, and sesame. But few olive trees were cultivated, and the + dates were of inferior quality; indeed, in the Greek period, these fruits + were only used for fattening pigs and domestic animals. The orchards + contained the pistachio, the apple, the pomegranate, the apricot, the + vine, the almond, and the fig, and, in addition to the essences common to + both Syria and Egypt, the country produced cédrats of a delicious scent + which were supposed to be an antidote to all kinds of poisons. Assyria was + not well wooded, except in the higher valleys, where willows and poplars + bordered the rivers, and sycamores, beeches, limes, and plane trees + abounded, besides several varieties of pines and oaks, including a dwarf + species of the latter, from whose branches manna was obtained. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0022" id="Bimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/143.jpg" alt="143.jpg the 1st Assyrian Empire--map " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + This is a saccharine substance, which is deposited in small lumps, and is + found in greater abundance during wet years and especially on foggy days. + When fresh, it has an agreeable taste and is pleasant to eat; but as it + will not keep in its natural state, the women prepare it for exportation + by dissolving it in boiling water, and evaporating it to a sweetish paste, + which has more or less purgative, qualities. The aspect of the country + changes after crossing the Tigris westward. The slopes of Mount Masios are + everywhere furrowed with streams, which feed the Khabur and its principal + affluent, the Kharmis;* woods become more frequent, and the valleys green + and shady. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Kharmis is the Mygdonios of Greek geographers, the + Hirmâs of the Arabs; the latter name may be derived from + Kharmis, or it may be that it merely presents a fortuitous + resemblance to it. +</pre> + <p> + The plains extending southwards, however, contain, like those of the + Euphrates, beds of gypsum in the sub-soil, which render the water running + through them brackish, and prevent the growth of vegetation. The effects + of volcanic action are evident on the surface of these great steppes; + blocks of basalt pierce through the soil, and near the embouchure of the + Kharmis, a cone, composed of a mass of lava, cinders, and scorial, known + as the Tell-Kôkab, rises abruptly to a height of 325 feet. The mountain + chain of Singar, which here reaches its western termination, is composed + of a long ridge of soft white limestone, and seems to have been suddenly + thrown up in one of the last geological upheavals which affected this part + of the country: in some places it resembles a perpendicular wall, while in + others it recedes in natural terraces which present the appearance of a + gigantic flight of steps. The summit is often wooded, and the spurs + covered with vineyards and fields, which flourish vigorously in the + vicinity of streams; when these fail, however, the table-land resumes its + desolate aspect, and stretches in bare and sandy undulations to the + horizon, broken only where it is crossed by the Thartar, the sole river in + this region which is not liable to be dried up, and whose banks may be + traced by the scanty line of vegetation which it nourishes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0023" id="Bimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/145.jpg" alt="145.jpg the Volcanic Cone of KÔkab " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the cut in Layard. +</pre> + <p> + In a country thus unequally favoured by nature, the towns are necessarily + distributed in a seemingly arbitrary fashion. Most of them are situated on + the left bank of the Tigris, where the fertile nature of the soil enables + it to support a dense population. They were all flourishing centres of + population, and were in close proximity to each other, at all events + during the centuries of Assyrian hegemony.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We find, for example, in the inscription of Bavian, a long + enumeration of towns and villages situated almost within the + suburbs of Nineveh, on the banks of the Khôser. +</pre> + <p> + Three of them soon eclipsed their rivals in political and religious + importance; these were Kalakh and Nina on the Tigris, and Arbaîlu, lying + beyond the Upper Zab, in the broken plain which is a continuation + eastwards of the first spurs of the Zagros.* On the right bank, however, + we find merely some dozen cities and towns, scattered about in places + where there was a supply of water sufficient to enable the inhabitants to + cultivate the soil; as, for example, Assur on the banks of the Tigris + itself, Singara near the sources of the Thartar, and Nazibina near those + of the Kharmis, at the foot of the Masios. These cities were not all under + the rule of one sovereign when Thûtmosis III. appeared in Syria, for the + Egyptian monuments mention, besides the kingdom of Assyria, that of + Singara** and Araphka in the upper basin of the Zab.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name of Arbeles is written in a form which appears to + signify “the town of the four gods.” + + ** This kingdom of Singara is mentioned in the Egyptian + lists of Thûtmosis III. Schrader was doubtful as to its + existence, but one of its kings is mentioned in a letter + from the King of Alasia to Amenôthes IV.; according to + Niebuhr, the state of which Singara was the capital must + have been identical, at all events at one period, with the + Mitanni of the Egyptian texts. + + *** The Arapakha of the Egyptian monuments has been + identified with the Arrapakhitis of the Greeks. +</pre> + <p> + Assyria, however, had already asserted her supremacy over this corner of + Asia, and the remaining princes, even if they were not mere vicegerents + depending on her king, were not strong enough in wealth and extent of + territory to hold their own against her, since she was undisputed mistress + of Assur, Arbeles, Kalakh, and Nineveh, the most important cities of the + plain. Assur covered a considerable area, and the rectangular outline + formed by the remains of its walls is still discernible on the surface of + the soil. Within the circuit of the city rose a mound, which the ancient + builders had transformed, by the addition of masses of brickwork, into a + nearly square platform, surmounted by the usual palace, temple, and + ziggurat; it was enclosed within a wall of squared stone, the battlements + of which remain to the present day.* The whole pile was known as the + “Ekharsagkurkurra,” or the “House of the terrestrial mountain,” the + sanctuary in whose decoration all the ancient sovereigns had vied with one + another, including Samsirammân I. and Irishum, who were merely vicegerents + dependent upon Babylon. It was dedicated to Anshar, that duplicate of Anu + who had led the armies of heaven in the struggle with Tiâmat; the name + Anshar, softened into Aushar, and subsequently into Ashshur, was first + applied to the town and then to the whole country.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ainsworth states the circumference of the principal mound + of Kalah-Shergât to be 4685 yards, which would make it one + of the most extensive ruins in the whole country. + + ** Another name of the town in later times was Palbêki, “the + town of the old empire,” “the ancient capital,” or Shauru. + Many Assyriologists believe that the name Ashur, anciently + written Aushâr, signified “the plain at the edge of the + water”; and that it must have been applied to the town + before being applied to the country and the god. Others, on + the contrary, think, with more reason, that it was the god + who gave his name to the town and the country; they make a + point of the very ancient play of words, which in Assyria + itself attributed the meaning “good god” to the word Ashur. + Jensen was the first to state that Ashur was the god Anshâr + of the account of the creation. +</pre> + <p> + The god himself was a deity of light, usually represented under the form + of an armed man, wearing the tiara and having the lower half of his body + concealed by a feathered disk. He was supposed to hover continually over + the world, hurling fiery darts at the enemies of his people, and + protecting his kingly worshippers under the shadow of his wings. Their + wars were his wars, and he was with them in the thick of the attack, + placing himself in the front rank with the soldiery,* so that when he + gained the victory, the bulk of the spoil—precious metals, gleanings + of the battle-field, slaves and productive lands—fell to his share. + The gods of the vanquished enemy, moreover, were, like their princes, + forced to render him homage. In the person of the king he took their + statues prisoners, and shut them up in his sanctuary; sometimes he would + engrave his name upon their figures and send them back to their respective + temples, where the sight of them would remind their worshippers of his own + omnipotence.** The goddess associated with him as his wife had given her + name, Nina, to Nineveh,*** and was, as the companion of the Chaldæan Bel, + styled the divine lady Belit; she was, in fact, a chaste and warlike + Ishtar, who led the armies into battle with a boldness characteristic of + her father.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In one of the pictures, for instance, representing the + assault of a town, we see a small figure of the god, hurling + darts against the enemy. The inscriptions also state that + the peoples “are alarmed and quit their cities <i>before the + arms of Assur, the powerful one</i>.” + + ** As, for instance, the statues of the gods taken from the + Arabs in the time of Esarhaddon. Tiglath-pileser I. had + carried away twenty-five statues of gods taken from the + peoples of Kurkhi and Kummukh, and had placed them in the + temples of Beltis, Ishtar, Anu, and Rammân; he mentions + other foreign divinities who had been similarly treated. + + *** The ideogram of the name of the goddess Nina serves to + write the name of the town Nineveh. The name itself has been + interpreted by Schrader as “station, habitation,” in the + Semitic languages, and by Fr. Delitzsch “repose of the god,” + an interpretation which Delitzsch himself repudiated later + on. It is probable that the town, which, like Assur, was a + Chaldæan colony, derived its name from the goddess to whom + it was dedicated, and whose temple existed there as early as + the time of the vicegerent Samsirammân. + + **** Belit is called by Tiglath-pileser I. “the great spouse + beloved of Assur,” but Belit, “the lady,” is here merely an + epithet used for Ishtar: the Assyrian Ishtar, Ishtar of + Assur, Ishtar of Nineveh, or rather—especially from the + time of the Sargonids—Ishtar of Arbeles, is almost always a + fierce and warlike Ishtar, the “lady of combat, who directs + battles,” “whose heart incites her to the combat and the + struggle.” Sayce thinks that the union of Ishtar and Assur + is of a more recent date. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0024" id="Bimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/149.jpg" + alt="149.jpg Ishtar As a Warrior Bringing Prisoners to A Conquering King " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from squeezes brought back by M. do + Morgan. +</pre> + <p> + These two divinities formed an abstract and solitary pair, around whom + neither story nor myth appears to have gathered, and who never became the + centre of any complex belief. Assur seems to have had no parentage + assigned to him, no statue erected to him, and he was not associated with + the crowd of other divinities; on the contrary, he was called their lord, + their “peerless king,” and, as a proof of his supreme sovereignty over + them, his name was inscribed at the head of their lists, before those of + the triads constituted by the Chaldæan priests—even before those of + Anu, Bel, and Ba. The city of Assur, which had been the first to tender + him allegiance for many years, took precedence of all the rest, in spite + of the drawbacks with which it had to contend. Placed at the very edge of + the Mesopotamian desert, it was exposed to the dry and burning winds which + swept over the plains, so that by the end of the spring the heat rendered + it almost intolerable as a residence. The Tigris, moreover, ran behind it, + thus leaving it exposed to the attacks of the Babylonian armies, + unprotected as it was by any natural fosse or rampart. The nature of the + frontier was such as to afford it no safeguard; indeed, it had, on the + contrary, to protect its frontier. Nineveh, on the other hand, was + entrenched behind the Tigris and the Zab, and was thus secure from any + sudden attack. Northerly and easterly winds prevailed during the summer, + and the coolness of the night rendered the heat during the day more + bearable. It became the custom for the kings and vicegerents to pass the + most trying months of the year at Nineveh, taking up their abode close to + the temple of Nina, the Assyrian Ishtar, but they did not venture to make + it their habitual residence, and consequently Assur remained the official + capital and chief sanctuary of the empire. Here its rulers concentrated + their treasures, their archives, their administrative offices, and the + chief staff of the army; from this town they set out on their expeditions + against the Cossæans of Babylon or the mountaineers of the districts + beyond the Tigris, and it was in this temple that they dedicated to the + god the tenth of the spoil on their return from a successful campaign.* + </p> + <p> + * The majority of scholars now admit that the town of Nina, mentioned by + Gudea and the vicegerents of Telloh, was a quarter of, or neighbouring + borough of, Lagash, and had nothing in common with Nineveh, in spite of + Hommel’s assumption to the contrary. + </p> + <p> + The struggle with Chaldæa, indeed, occupied the greater part of their + energies, though it did not absorb all their resources, and often left + them times of respite, of which they availed themselves to extend their + domain to the north and east. We cannot yet tell which of the Assyrian + sovereigns added the nearest provinces of the Upper Tigris to his realm; + but when the names of these districts appear-in history, they are already + in a state of submission and vassalage, and their principal towns are + governed by Assyrian officers in the same manner as those of Singara and + Nisibe. Assuruballît, the conqueror of the Cossæans, had succeeded in + establishing his authority over the turbulent hordes of Shubari which + occupied the neighbourhood of the Masios, between the Khabur and the + Balîkh, and extended perhaps as far as the Euphrates; at any rate, he was + considered by posterity as the actual founder of the Assyrian empire in + these districts.* Belnirâri had directed his efforts in another direction, + and had conquered the petty kingdoms established on the slopes of the + Iranian table-land, around the sources of the two Zabs, and those of the + Badanu and the Turnât.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is called, in an inscription of his great-grandson, + Rammân-nirâri L, the powerful king “who reduced to servitude + the forces of the vast country of Shubari, and who enlarged + the territory and limits “of Assur. + + ** The inscription of Rammân-nirâri I. styles him the prince + “who crushes the army of the Cossæans, he whose hand + unnerves the enemy, and who enlarges the territory and its + limits.” The Cossæans mentioned in this passage are usually + taken to be the Cossæan kings of Babylon, and not the + mountain tribes. +</pre> + <p> + Like Susiana, this part of the country was divided up into parallel + valleys, separated from each other by broken ridges of limestone, and + watered by the tributaries of the Tigris or their affluents. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0025" id="Bimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/152.jpg" + alt="152.jpg a Village in the Mountain Districts of The Old AssÆan Kingdom " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a drawing by Père Durand. +</pre> + <p> + It was thickly strewn with walled towns and villages; the latter, perched + upon the precipitous mountain summits, and surrounded by deep ravines, + owed their security solely to their position, and, indeed, needed no + fortification. The country abounded in woods and pastures, interspersed + with cornlands; access to it was gained by one or two passes on the + eastern side, which thus permitted caravans or armies to reach the + districts lying between the Erythræan and Caspian Seas. The tribes who + inhabited it had been brought early under Chaldæan civilization, and had + adopted the cuneiform script; such of their monuments as are still extant + resemble the bas-reliefs and inscriptions of Assyria.* It is not always + easy to determine the precise locality occupied by these various peoples; + the Guti were situated near the upper courses of the Turnât and the + Badanu, in the vicinity of the Kashshu;** the Lulumê had settled in the + neighbourhood of the Batîr, to the north of the defiles of Zohab;*** the + Namar separated the Lulumê from Elam, and were situated half in the plain + and half in the mountain, while the Arapkha occupied, both banks of the + Great Zab. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Pinches has published an inscription of a king of Khani, + named Tukultimir, son of Ilushaba, written in + Chaldeo-Assyrian, and found in the temple of Shamash at + Sippara, where the personage himself had dedicated it. + Winckler gives another inscription of a king of the Guti, + which is also in Semitic and in cuneiform character. + + ** The name is written sometimes Quti, at others Guti, which + induced Pognon to believe that they were two different + peoples: the territory occupied by this nation must have + been originally to the east of the Lesser Zab, in the upper + basins of the Adhem and the Diyaleh. Oppert proposes to + recognise in these Guti “the ancestors of the Goths, who, + fifteen hundred years ago, pushed forward to the Russia of + the present day: we find,” (he adds), “in this passage and in + others, some of which go back to the third millennium before + the Christian era, the earliest mention of the Germanic + races.” + + *** The people of Lulumô-Lullubi have been pointed out as + living to the east of the Lesser Zab by Schrader; their + exact position, together with that of Mount Padîr-Batîr in + whose neighbourhood they were, has been determined by Père + Scheil. +</pre> + <p> + Budîlu carried his arms against these tribes, and obtained successes over + the Turuki and the Nigimkhi, the princes of the Guti and the Shuti, as + well as over the Akhlamî and the Iauri.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Shutu or Shuti, who are always found in connection + with the Guti, appear to have been the inhabitants of the + lower mountain slopes which separate the basin of the Tigris + with the regions of Elam, to the south of Turnât. The + Akhlamê were neighbours of the Shuti and the Guti; they were + settled partly in the Mesopotamian plain and partly in the + neighbourhood of Turnât. The territory of the Iauri is not + known; the Turuki and the Nigimkhi were probably situated + somewhere to the east of the Great Zab: in the same way that + Oppert connects the Goths with the Guti, so Hommel sees in + the Turuki the Turks of a very early date. +</pre> + <p> + The chiefs of the Lulumê had long resisted the attacks of their + neighbours, and one of them, Anu-banini, had engraved on the rocks + overhanging the road not far from the village of Seripul, a bas-relief + celebrating his own victories. He figures on it in full armour, wearing a + turban on his head, and treading underfoot a fallen foe, while Ishtar of + Arbeles leads towards him a long file of naked captives, bound ready for + sacrifice. The resistance of the Lulumê was, however, finally overcome by + Rammân-nirâri, the son of Budilû; he strengthened the suzerainty gained by + his predecessor over the Guti, the Cossæans, and the Shubarti, and he + employed the spoil taken from them in beautifying the temple of Assur. He + had occasion to spend some time in the regions of the Upper Tigris, + warring against the Shubari, and a fine bronze sabre belonging to him has + been found near Diarbekîr, among the ruins of the ancient Amidi, where, no + doubt, he had left it as an offering in one of the temples. He was + succeeded by Shalmânuâsharîd,* better known to us as Shalmaneser I., one + of the most powerful sovereigns of this heroic age of Assyrian history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0026" id="Bimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/155.jpg" + alt="155.jpg the Sabre of Ramman-nirari " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher-Gudin, +from the +sketch +published +in the +<i>Transactions</i> +of the Bibl. +Arch. Soc. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + His reign seems to have been one continuous war against the various races + then in a state of ferment on the frontiers of his kingdom. He appears in + the main to have met with success, and in a few years had doubled the + extent of his dominions.* His most formidable attacks were directed + against the Aramaeans** of Mount Masios, whose numerous tribes had + advanced on one side till they had crossed the Tigris, while on the other + they had pushed beyond the river Balîkh, and had probably reached the + Euphrates.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Shalmânu-âsharîd, or Shulmânu-âsharîd, signifies “the god + Shulmânu (Shalmânu) is prince,” as Pinches was the first to + point out. + + ** Some of the details of these campaigns have been + preserved on the much-mutilated obelisk of Assur-nazir-pal. + This was a compilation taken from the Annals of Assyria to + celebrate the important acts of the king’s ancestors. The + events recorded in the third column were at first attributed + to the reign of Tiglath-pileser I.; Fr. Delitzsch was the + first to recognise that they could be referred to the reign + of this Shalmaneser, and his opinion is now admitted by most + of the Assyriologists who have studied the question. + + *** The identity of the Arami (written also Armaya, Arumi, + Arimi) with the Aramoans, admitted by the earlier Kammin- + nikâbi Assyriologists. +</pre> + <p> + He captured their towns one after another, razed their fortresses, smote + the agricultural districts with fire and sword, and then turned upon the + various peoples who had espoused their cause—the Kirkhu, the Euri, + the Kharrîn,* and the Muzri, who inhabited the territory between the + basins of the two great rivers;** once, indeed, he even crossed the + Euphrates and ventured within the country of Khanigalbat, a feat which his + ancestors had never even attempted.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The people of the country of Kilkhi, or Kirkhi, the + Kurkhi, occupied the region between the Tigris at Diarbekîr + and the mountains overlooking the lake of Urumiah. The + position of the Ruri is not known, but it is certain that on + one side they joined the Aramaeans, and that they were in + the neighbourhood of Tushkhân. Kharrân is the Harrân of the + Balikh, mentioned in vol. iv. pp. 37, 38 of the present + work. + + ** The name of Muzri frequently occurs, and in various + positions, among the countries mentioned by the Assyrian + conquerors; the frequency of its occurrence is easily + explained if we are to regard it as a purely Assyrian term + used to designate the military confines or marches of the + kingdom at different epochs of its history. The Muzri here + in question is the borderland situated in the vicinity of + Cilicia, probably the Sophene and the Gumathene of classical + geographers. Winckler appears to me to exaggerate their + importance when he says they were spread over the whole of + Northern Syria as early as the time of Shalmaneser I. + + *** Khanigalbat is the name of the province in which Milid + was placed. +</pre> + <p> + He was recalled by a revolt which had broken out in the scattered cities + of the district of Dur-Kurigalzu; he crushed the rising in spite of the + help which Kadash-manburiash, King of Babylon, had given to the rebels, + and was soon successful in subduing the princes of Lulumê. These were not + the raids of a day’s duration, undertaken, without any regard to the + future, merely from love of rapine or adventure. Shalmaneser desired to + bring the regions which he annexed permanently under the authority of + Assyria, and to this end he established military colonies in suitable + places, most of which were kept up long after his death.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * More than five centuries after the time of Shalmaneser I., + Assurnazir-pal makes mention, in his <i>Annals</i>, of one of + these colonies, established in the country of Diarbekîr at + Khabzilukha (or Khabzidipkha), near to the town of Damdamua. +</pre> + <p> + He seems to have directed the internal affairs of his kingdom with the + same firmness and energy which he displayed in his military expeditions. + It was no light matter for the sovereign to decide on a change in the seat + of government; he ran the risk of offending, not merely his subjects, but + the god who presided over the destinies of the State, and neither his + throne nor his life would have been safe had he failed in his attempt. + Shalmaneser, however, did not hesitate to make the change, once he was + fully convinced of the drawbacks presented by Assur as a capital. True, he + beautified the city, restored its temples, and permitted it to retain all + its privileges and titles; but having done so, he migrated with his court + to the town of Kalakh, where his descendants continued to reside for + several centuries. His son Tukulti-ninip made himself master of Babylon, + and was the first of his race who was able to claim the title of King of + Sumir and Akkad. The Cossæans were still suffering from their defeat at + the hands of Bammân-nirâri. Four of their princes had followed + Nazimaruttash on the throne in rapid succession—Kadashmanturgu, + Kadashmanburiash, who was attacked by Shalmaneser, a certain Isammeti + whose name has been mutilated, and lastly, Shagaraktiburiash: Bibeiasdu, + son of this latter, was in power at the moment when Tukulti-ninip ascended + the throne. War broke out between the two monarchs, but dragged on without + any marked advantage on one side or the other, till at length the conflict + was temporarily suspended by a treaty similar to others which had been + signed in the course of the previous two or three centuries.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The passage from the <i>Synchronous History</i>, republished by + Winckler, contains the termination of the mutilated name of + a Babylonian king... <i>ashu</i>, which, originally left + undecided by Winckler, has been restored “Bibeiashu” by + Hilprecht, in the light of monuments discovered at Nipur, an + emendation which has since then been accepted by Winckler. + Winckler, on his part, has restored the passage on the + assumption that the name of the King of Assyria engaged + against Bibeiashu was Tukulti-ninip; then, combining this + fragment with that in the <i>Pinches Chronicle</i>, which deals + with the taking of Babylon, he argues that Bibeiashu was the + king dethroned by Tukulti-ninip. An examination of the + dates, in so far as they are at present known to us from the + various documents, seems to me to render this arrangement + inadmissible. The <i>Pinches Chronicle</i> practically tells us + that Tukulti-ninip reigned over Babylon for <i>seven years</i>, + when the Chaldæans revolted, and named Rammânshumusur king. + Now, the Babylonian Canon gives us the following reigns for + this epoch: Bibeiashu <i>8 years</i>, Belnadînshumu <i>1 year 6 + months</i>, Kadashmankharbe <i>1 year 6 months</i>, Rammânnadînshumu + <i>6 years</i>, Rammânshumusur <i>30 years,</i> or <i>9 years</i> between + the end of the reign of Bibeiashu and the beginning of that + of Rammânshumusur, instead of the <i>7 years</i> given us by the + <i>Pinches Chronicle</i> for the length of the reign of Tukulti- + ninip at Babylon. If we reckon, as the only documents known + require us to do, seven years from the beginning of the + reign of Rammânshumusur to the date of the taking of + Babylon, we are forced to admit that this took place in the + reign of Kadashmankharbe IL, and, consequently, that the + passage in the <i>Synchronous History</i>, in which mention is + made of Bibeiashu, must be interpreted as I have done in the + text, by the hypothesis of a war prior to that in which + Babylon fell, which was followed by a treaty between this + prince and the King of Assyria. +</pre> + <p> + The peace thus concluded might have lasted longer but for an unforeseen + catastrophe which placed Babylon almost at the mercy of her rival. The + Blamites had never abandoned their efforts to press in every conceivable + way their claim to the Sebbeneh-su, the supremacy, which, prior to + Kbammurabi, had been exercised by their ancestors over the whole of + Mesopotamia; they swooped down on Karduniash with an impetuosity like that + of the Assyrians, and probably with the same alternations of success and + defeat. Their king, Kidinkhutrutash, unexpectedly attacked Belnadînshumu, + son of Bibeiashu, appeared suddenly under the walls of Nipur and forced + the defences of Durîlu and Étimgarka-lamma: Belnadînshumu disappeared in + the struggle after a reign of eighteen months. Tukulti-ninip left + Belna-dînshumu’s successor, Kadashmankharbe II., no time to recover from + this disaster; he attacked him in turn, carried Babylon by main force, and + put a number of the inhabitants to the sword. He looted the palace and the + temples, dragged the statue of Merodach from its sanctuary and carried it + off into Assyria, together with the badges of supreme power; then, after + appointing governors of his own in the various towns, he returned to + Kalakh, laden with booty; he led captive with him several members of the + royal family—among others, Bammânshumusur, the lawful successor of + Bibeiashu. + </p> + <p> + This first conquest of Chaldæa did not, however, produce any lasting + results. The fall of Babylon did not necessarily involve the subjection of + the whole country, and the cities of the south showed a bold front to the + foreign intruder, and remained faithful to Kadashmankharbe; on the death + of the latter, some months after his defeat, they hailed as king a certain + Bammânshumnadîn, who by some means or other had made his escape from + captivity. Bammânshumnadîn proved himself a better man than his + predecessors; when Kidinkhutrutash, never dreaming, apparently, that he + would meet with any serious resistance, came to claim his share of the + spoil, he defeated him near Ishin, drove him out of the districts recently + occupied by the Elamites, and so effectually retrieved his fortunes in + this direction, that he was able to concentrate his whole attention on + what was going on in the north. The effects of his victory soon became + apparent: the nobles of Akkad and Karduniash declined to pay homage to + their Assyrian governors, and, ousting them from the offices to which they + had been appointed, restored Babylon to the independence which it had lost + seven years previously. Tukulti-ninip paid dearly for his incapacity to + retain his conquests: his son Assurnazirpal I. conspired with the + principal officers, deposed him from the throne, and confined him in the + fortified palace of Kar-Tukulti-ninip, which he had built not far from + Kalakh, where he soon after contrived his assassination. About this time + Rammânshumnadîn disappears, and we can only suppose that the disasters of + these last years had practically annihilated the Cossæan dynasty, for + Rammânshu-musur, who was a prisoner in Assyria, was chosen as his + successor. The monuments tell us nothing definite of the troubles which + next befell the two kingdoms: we seem to gather, however, that Assyria + became the scene of civil wars, and that the sons of Tukulti-ninip fought + for the crown among themselves. Tukultiassurbel, who gained the upper hand + at the end of six years, set Raminân-shumusur at liberty, probably with + the view of purchasing the support of the Chaldæans, but he did not + succeed in restoring his country to the position it had held under + Shalmaneser and Tukulti-ninip I. The history of Assyria presents a greater + number of violent contrasts and extreme vicissitudes than that of any + other Eastern people in the earliest times. No sooner had the Assyrians + arrived, thanks to the ceaseless efforts of five or six generations, at + the very summit of their ambition, than some incompetent, or perhaps + merely unfortunate, king appeared on the scene, and lost in a few years + all the ground which had been gained at the cost of such tremendous + exertions: then the subject races would rebel, the neighbouring peoples + would pluck up courage and reconquer the provinces which they had + surrendered, till the dismembered empire gradually shrank back to its + original dimensions. As the fortunes of Babylon rose, those of Nineveh + suffered a corresponding depression: Babylon soon became so powerful that + Eammânshumusur was able to adopt a patronising tone in his relations with + Assur-nirâri I. and Nabodaînâni, the descendants of Tukultiassurbel, who + at one time shared the throne together.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All that we know of these two kings is contained in the + copy, executed in the time of Assurbanipal, of a letter + addressed to them by Eammânshumusur. They have been placed, + at one time or another, either at the beginning of Assyrian + history before Assurbelnishishu, or after Tigiath-pileser + I., about the XIth or Xth, or even the VIIIth century before + our era. It has since been discovered that the + Rammânshumusur who wrote this letter was the successor of + Tukulti-ninip I. in Chaldæa. +</pre> + <p> + This period of subjection and humiliation did not last long. Belkudurusur, + who appears on the throne not long after Assurnirâri and his partner, + resumed military operations against the Cossæans, but cautiously at first; + and though he fell in the decisive engagement, yet Bammân-shumusur + perished with him, and the two states were thus simultaneously left + rulerless. Milishikhu succeeded Bammânshumusur, and Ninipahalesharra + filled the place of Belkudurusur; the disastrous invasion of Assyria by + the Chaldæans, and their subsequent retreat, at length led to an + armistice, which, while it afforded evidence of the indisputable + superiority of Milishikhu, proved no less plainly the independence of his + rival. Mero-dachabaliddina I. replaced Milishikhu, Zamâniashu-middin + followed Merodachabaliddina: Assurdân I., son of Ninipahalesharra, broke + the treaty, captured the towns of Zabân, Irrîa, and Akarsallu, and + succeeded in retaining them. The advantage thus gained was but a slight + one, for these provinces lying between the two Zabs had long been subject + to Assyria, and had been wrested from her since the days of Tukulti-ninip: + however, it broke the run of ill luck which seemed to have pursued her so + relentlessly, and opened the way for more important victories. This was + the last Cossæan war; at any rate, the last of which we find any mention + in history: Bel-nadînshumu II. reigned three years after Zamâmashu-middin, + but when he died there was no man of his family whom the priests could + invite to lay hold of the hand of Merodach, and his dynasty ended with + him. It included thirty-six kings, and had lasted five hundred and + seventy-six years and six months.* + </p> + <p> + * The following is a list of some of the kings of this dynasty according + to the canon discovered by Pinches. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0027" id="Bimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/163.jpg" alt="163.jpg Table " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + It had enjoyed its moments of triumph, and at one time had almost seemed + destined to conquer the whole of Asia; but it appears to have invariably + failed just as it was on the point of reaching the goal, and it became + completely exhausted by its victories at the end of every two or three + generations. It had triumphed over Elam, and yet Elam remained a constant + peril on its right. It had triumphed over Assyria, yet Assyria, after + driving it back to the regions of the Upper Tigris, threatened to bar the + road to the Mediterranean by means of its Masian colonies: were they once + to succeed in this attempt, what hope would there be left to those who + ruled in Babylon of ever after re-establishing the traditional empire of + the ancient Sargon and Khammurabi? The new dynasty sprang from a town in + Pashê, the geographical position of which is not known. It was of + Babylonian origin, and its members placed, at the be ginning of their + protocols, formula which were intended to indicate, in the clearest + possible manner, the source from which they sprang: they declared + themselves to be scions of Babylon, its vicegerents, and supreme masters. + The names of the first two we do not know: the third, Nebuchadrezzar, + shows himself to have been one of the most remarkable men of all those who + flourished during this troubled era. At no time, perhaps, had Chaldæa been + in a more abject state, or assailed by more active foes. The Elamite had + just succeeded in wresting from her Namar, the region from whence the bulk + of her chariot-horses were obtained, and this success had laid the + provinces on the left bank of the Tigris open to their attacks. They had + even crossed the river, pillaged Babylon, and carried away the statue of + Bel and that of a goddess named Eria, the patroness of Khussi: “Merodach, + sore angered, held himself aloof from the country of Akkad;” the kings + could no longer “take his hands” on their coming to the throne, and were + obliged to reign without proper investiture in consequence of their + failure to fulfil the rite required by religious laws.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The <i>Donation to Shamud and Shamaî</i> informs us that + Nebuchadrezzar “took the hands of Bel” as soon as he + regained possession of the statue. The copy we possess of + the Royal Canon. Nebuchadrezzar I.‘s place in the series + has, therefore, been the subject of much controversy. + Several Assyriologists were from the first inclined to place + him in the first or second rank, some being in favour of the + first, others preferring the second; Dolitzsch put him into + the fifth place, and Winckler, without pronouncing + definitely on the position to be assigned him, thought he + must come in about half-way down the dynasty. Hilprecht, on + taking up the questions, adduced reasons for supposing him + to have been the founder of the dynasty, and his conclusions + have been adopted by Oppert; they have been disputed by + Tiele, who wishes to put the king back to fourth or fifth in + order, and by Winckler, who places him fourth or fifth. It + is difficult, however, to accept Hilprecht’s hypothesis, + plausible though it is, so long as Assyriologists who have + seen the original tablet agree in declaring that the name of + the first king began with the sign of <i>Merodach</i> and not + with that of <i>Nebo</i>, as it ought to do, were this prince + really our Nebuchadrezzar. +</pre> + <p> + Nebuchadrezzar arose “in Babylon,—roaring like a lion, even as + Bammân roareth,—and his chosen nobles, roared like lions with him.—To + Merodach, lord of Babylon, rose his prayer:—‘How long, for me, shall + there be sighing and groaning?—How long, for my land, weeping and + mourning?—How long, for my countries, cries of grief and tears? Till + what time, O lord of Babylon, wilt thou remain in hostile regions?—Let + thy heart be softened, and make Babylon joyful,—and let thy face be + turned toward Eshaggil which thou lovest!’” Merodach gave ear to the + plaint of his servant: he answered him graciously and promised his aid. + Namar, united as it had been with Chaldæa for centuries, did not readily + become accustomed to its new masters. The greater part of the land + belonged to a Semitic and Cossæan feudality, the heads of which, while + admitting their suzerain’s right to exact military service from them, + refused to acknowledge any further duty towards him. The kings of Susa + declined to recognise their privileges: they subjected them to a poll-tax, + levied the usual imposts on their estates, and forced them to maintain at + their own expense the troops quartered on them for the purpose of + guaranteeing their obedience.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Shamuà and Shamaî “fled in like manner towards Karduniash, + before the King of Elam;” it would seem that Rittimerodach + had entered into secret negotiations with Nebuchadrezzar, + though this is nowhere explicitly stated in the text. +</pre> + <p> + Several of the nobles abandoned everything rather than submit to such + tyranny, and took refuge with Nebuchadrezzar: others entered into secret + negotiations with him, and promised to support him if he came to their + help with an armed force. He took them at their word, and invaded Namar + without warning in the month of Tamuz, while the summer was at its height, + at a season in which the Elamites never even dreamt he would take the + field. The heat was intense, water was not to be got, and the army + suffered terribly from thirst during its forced march of over a hundred + miles across a parched-up country. One of the malcontents, Eittimerodach, + lord of Bitkarziabku, joined Nebuchadrezzar with all the men he could + assemble, and together they penetrated as far as Ulaî. The King of Elam, + taken by surprise, made no attempt to check their progress, but collected + his vassals and awaited their attack on the banks of the river in front of + Susa. Once “the fire of the combat had been lighted between the opposing + forces, the face of the sun grew dark, the tempest broke forth, the + whirlwind raged, and in this whirlwind of the struggle none of the + characters could distinguish the face of his neighbour.” Nebuchadrezzar, + cut off from his own men, was about to surrender or be killed, when + Eittimerodach flew to his rescue and brought him off safely. In the end + the Chaldæans gained the upper hand.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * <i>Donation to Rittimerodach,</i> col. i. 11. 12-43. The + description of the battle as given in this document is + generally taken to be merely symbolical, and I have followed + the current usage. But if we bear in mind that the text lays + emphasis on the drought and severity of the season, we are + tempted to agree with Pinches and Budge that its statements + should be taken literally. The affair may have been begun in + a cloud of dust, and have ended in a downpour of rain so + heavy as to partly blind the combatants. The king was + probably drawn away from his men in the confusion; it was + probably then that he was in danger of being made prisoner, + and that Rittimerodach, suddenly coming up, delivered him + from the foes who surrounded him. +</pre> + <p> + The Elamites renounced their claims to the possession of Namar, and + restored the statues of the gods: Nebuchadrezzar “at once laid hold of the + hands of Bel,” and thus legalised his accession to the throne. Other + expeditions against the peoples of Lulurne and against the Cossæans + restored his supremacy in the regions of the north-east, and a campaign + along the banks of the Euphrates opened out the road to Syria. He rewarded + generously those who had accompanied him on his raid against Elam. After + issuing regulations intended to maintain the purity of the breed of horses + for which Namar was celebrated, he reinstated in their possessions Shamuâ + and his son Shamaî, the descendants of one of the priestly families of the + province, granting them in addition certain domains near Upi, at the mouth + of the Turnât. He confirmed Rittimerodach in possession of all his + property, and reinvested him with all the privileges of which the King of + Elam had deprived him. From that time forward the domain of Bitkarziabku + was free of the tithe on corn, oxen, and sheep; it was no longer liable to + provide horses and mares for the exchequer, or to afford free passage to + troops in time of peace; the royal jurisdiction ceased on the boundary of + the fief, the seignorial jurisdiction alone extended over the inhabitants + and their property. Chaldæan prefects ruled in Namar, at Khalman, and at + the foot of the Zagros, and Nebuchadrezzar no longer found any to oppose + him save the King of Assyria. + </p> + <p> + The long reign of Assurdân in Assyria does not seem to have been + distinguished by any event of importance either good or bad: it is true he + won several towns on the south-east from the Babylonians, but then he lost + several others on the north-west to the Mushku,* and the loss on the one + side fully balanced the advantage gained on the other. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Hommel has proved, by a very simple calculation, that + Assurdân must have been the king in whose reign the Mushku + made the inroad into the basin of the Upper Tigris and of + the Balikh, which is mentioned in the <i>Annals of Tiglath- + pileser I.</i> These <i>Annals</i> are our authority for stating + that Assurdân was on the throne for a long period, though + the exact length of his reign is not known. +</pre> + <p> + His son Mutakkilnusku lived in Assur at peace,* but his grandson, + Assurîshishî, was a mighty king, conqueror of a score of countries, and + the terror of all rebels: he scattered the hordes of the Akhlamê and broke + up their forces; then Ninip, the champion of the gods, permitted him to + crush the Lulumê and the G-uti in their valleys and on their mountains + covered with forests. He made his way up to the frontiers of Elam,** and + his encroachments on territories claimed by Babylon stirred up the anger + of the Chaldæans against him; Nebuchadrezzar made ready to dispute their + ownership with him. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * <i>Annals of Tiglath-pileser I</i>. Mutakkilnusku himself has + only left us one inscription, in which he declares that he + had built a palace in the city of Assyria. + + ** Smith discovered certain fragments of Annals, which he + attributed to Assurîshishî. The longest of these tell of a + campaign against Elam. Lotz attributed them to Tiglath- + pileser I., and is supported in this by most Assyriologists + of the day. +</pre> + <p> + The earlier engagements went against the Assyrians; they were driven back + in disorder, but the victor lost time before one of their strongholds, + and, winter coming on before he could take it, he burnt his engines of + war, set fire to his camp, and returned home. Next year, a rapid march + carried him right under the walls of Assur; then Assurîshishî came to the + rescue, totally routed his opponent, captured forty of his chariots, and + drove him flying across the frontier. The war died out of itself, its end + being marked by no treaty: each side kept its traditional position and + supremacy over the tribes inhabiting the basins of the Turnât and Eadanu. + The same names reappear in line after line of these mutilated Annals, and + the same definite enumerations of rebellious tribes who have been humbled + or punished. These kings of the plain, both Ninevite and Babylonian, were + continually raiding the country up and down for centuries without ever + arriving at any decisive result, and a detailed account of their various + campaigns would be as tedious reading as that of the ceaseless struggle + between the Latins and Sabines which fills the opening pages of Roman + history. Posterity soon grew weary of them, and, misled by the splendid + position which Assyria attained when at the zenith of its glory, set + itself to fabricate splendid antecedents for the majestic empire + established by the latter dynasties. The legend ran that, at the dawn of + time, a chief named Ninos had reduced to subjection one after the other—Babylonia, + Media, Armenia, and all the provinces between the Indies and the + Mediterranean. He built a capital for himself on the banks of the Tigris, + in the form of a parallelogram, measuring a hundred and fifty stadia in + length, ninety stadia in width; altogether, the walls were four hundred + and eighty stadia in circumference. In addition to the Assyrians who + formed the bulk of the population, he attracted many foreigners to + Nineveh, so that in a few years it became the most flourishing town in the + whole world. An inroad of the tribes of the Oxus interrupted his labours; + Ninos repulsed the invasion, and, driving the barbarians back into + Bactria, laid siege to it; here, in the tent of one of his captains, he + came upon Semiramis, a woman whose past was shrouded in mystery. She was + said to be the daughter of an ordinary mortal by a goddess, the Ascalonian + Derketô. Exposed immediately after her birth, she was found and adopted by + a shepherd named Simas, and later on her beauty aroused the passion of + Oannes, governor of Syria. Ninos, amazed at the courage displayed by her + on more than one occasion, carried her off, made her his favourite wife, + and finally met his death at her hands. No sooner did she become queen, + than she founded Babylon on a far more extensive scale than that of + Nineveh. Its walls were three hundred and sixty stadia in length, with two + hundred and fifty lofty towers, placed here and there on its circuit, the + roadway round the top of the ramparts being wide enough for six chariots + to drive abreast. She made a kind of harbour in the Euphrates, threw a + bridge across it, and built quays one hundred and sixty stadia in length + along its course; in the midst of the town she raised a temple to Bel. + This great work was scarcely finished when disturbances broke out in + Media; these she promptly repressed, and set out on a tour of inspection + through the whole of her provinces, with a view to preventing the + recurrence of similar outbreaks by her presence. Wherever she went she + left records of her passage behind her, cutting her way through mountains, + quarrying a pathway through the solid rock, making broad highways for + herself, bringing rebellious tribes beneath her yoke, and raising tumuli + to mark the tombs of such of her satraps as fell beneath the blows of the + enemy. She built Ecbatana in Media, Semiramocarta on Lake Van in Armenia, + and Tarsus in Cilicia; then, having reached the confines of Syria, she + crossed the isthmus, and conquered Egypt and Ethiopia. The far-famed + wealth of India recalled her from the banks of the Nile to those of the + Euphrates, <i>en route</i> for the remote east, but at this point her good + fortune forsook her: she was defeated by King Stratobates, and returned to + her own dominions, never again to leave them. She had set up triumphal + stelae on the boundaries of the habitable globe, in the very midst of + Scythia, not far from the Iaxartes, where, centuries afterwards, Alexander + of Macedon read the panegyric of herself which she had caused to be + engraved there. “Nature,” she writes, “gave me the body of a woman, but my + deeds have put me on a level with the greatest of men. I ruled over the + dominion of Ninos, which extends eastwards to the river Hinaman, + southwards to the countries of Incense and Myrrh, and northwards as far as + the Sacaa and Sogdiani. Before my time no Assyrian had ever set eyes on + the sea: I have seen four oceans to which no mariner has ever sailed, so + far remote are they. I have made rivers to flow where I would have them, + in the places where they were needed; thus did I render fertile the barren + soil by watering it with my rivers. I raised up impregnable fortresses, + and cut roadways through the solid rock with the pick. I opened a way for + the wheels of my chariots in places to which even the feet of wild beasts + had never penetrated. And, amidst all these labours, I yet found time for + my pleasures and for the society of my friends.” On discovering that her + son Ninyas was plotting her assassination, she at once abdicated in his + favour, in order to save him from committing a crime, and then transformed + herself into a dove; this last incident betrays the goddess to us. Ninos + and Semiramis are purely mythical, and their mighty deeds, like those + ascribed to Ishtar and Gilgames, must be placed in the same category as + those other fables with which the Babylonian legends strive to fill up the + blank of the prehistoric period.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The legend of Ninos and Semiramis is taken from Diodorus + Siculus, who reproduces, often word for word, the version of + Ctesias. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0028" id="Bimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/172.jpg" alt="172.jpg the Dove-goddess " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the sketch published in Longpérier. +</pre> + <p> + The real facts were, as we know, far less brilliant and less extravagant + than those supplied by popular imagination. It would be a mistake, + however, to neglect or despise them on account of their tedious monotony + and the insignificance of the characters who appear on the stage. It was + by dint of fighting her neighbours again and again, without a single day’s + respite, that Rome succeeded in forging the weapons with which she was to + conquer the world; and any one who, repelled by their tedious sameness, + neglected to follow the history of her early struggles, would find great + difficulty in understanding how it came about that a city which had taken + centuries to subjugate her immediate neighbours should afterwards overcome + all the states on the Mediterranean seaboard with such magnificent ease. + In much the same way the ceaseless struggles of Assyria with the + Chaldaeans, and with the mountain tribes of the Zagros Chain, were + unconsciously preparing her for those lightning-like campaigns in which + she afterwards overthrew all the civilized nations of the Bast one after + another. It was only at the cost of unparalleled exertions that she + succeeded in solidly welding together the various provinces within her + borders, and in kneading (so to speak) the many and diverse elements of + her vast population into one compact mass, containing in itself all that + was needful for its support, and able to bear the strain of war for + several years at time without giving way, and rich enough in men and + horses to provide the material for an effective army without excessive + impoverishment of her trade or agriculture. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0029" id="Bimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/173.jpg" alt="173.jpg an Assyrian " /> + <p> + Drawn by Boudier, from a painted bas-relief given in Layard. + </p> + </div> + <p> + The race came of an old Semitic strain, somewhat crude as yet, and almost + entirely free from that repeated admixture of foreign elements which had + marred the purity of the Babylonian stock. The monuments show us a type + similar in many respects to that which we find to-day on the slopes of + Singar, or in the valleys to the east of Mossul. + </p> + <p> + The figures on the monuments are tall and straight, broad-shouldered and + wide in the hips, the arms well developed, the legs robust, with good + substantial feet. The swell of the muscles on the naked limbs is perhaps + exaggerated, but this very exaggeration of the modelling suggests the + vigour of the model; it is a heavier, more rustic type than the Egyptian, + promising greater strength and power of resistance, and in so far an + indisputable superiority in the great game of war. The head is somewhat + small, the forehead low and flat, the eyebrows heavy, the eye of a bold + almond shape, with heavy lids, the nose aquiline, and full at the tip, + with wide nostrils terminating in a hard, well-defined curve; the lips are + thick and full, the chin bony, while the face is framed by the coarse dark + wavy hair and beard, which fell in curly masses over the nape of the neck + and the breast. The expression of the face is rarely of an amiable and + smiling type, such as we find in the statues of the Theban period or in + those of the Memphite empire, nor, as a matter of fact, did the Assyrian + pride himself on the gentleness of his manners: he did not overflow with + love for his fellow-man, as the Egyptian made a pretence of doing; on the + contrary, he was stiff-necked and proud, without pity for others or for + himself, hot-tempered and quarrelsome like his cousins of Chaldæa, but + less turbulent and more capable of strict discipline. It mattered not + whether he had come into the world in one of the wretched cabins of a + fellah village, or in the palace of one of the great nobles; he was a born + soldier, and his whole education tended to develop in him the first + qualities of the soldier—temperance, patience, energy, and + unquestioning obedience: he was enrolled in an army which was always on a + war footing, commanded by the god Assur, and under Assur, by the king, the + vicegerent and representative of the god. His life was shut in by the same + network of legal restrictions which confined that of the Babylonians, and + all its more important events had to be recorded on tablets of clay; the + wording of contracts, the formalities of marriage or adoption, the status + of bond and free, the rites of the dead and funeral ceremonies, had either + remained identical with those in use during the earliest years of the + cities of the Lower Euphrates, or differed from them only in their less + important details. The royal and municipal governments levied the same + taxes, used the same procedure, employed the same magistrates, and the + grades of their hierarchy were the same, with one exception. After the + king, the highest office was filled by a soldier, the <i>tartan</i> who + saw to the recruiting of the troops, and led them in time of war, or took + command of the staff-corps whenever the sovereign himself deigned to + appear on the scene of action.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We can determine the rank occupied, by the <i>tartanu</i> at + court by the positions they occupy in the lists of eponymous + <i>limmu</i>: they invariably come next after the king—a fact + which was noticed many years ago. +</pre> + <p> + The more influential of these functionaries bore, in addition to their + other titles, one of a special nature, which, for the space of one year, + made its holder the most conspicuous man in the country; they became <i>limmu</i>, + and throughout their term of office their names appeared on all official + documents. The Chaldæans distinguished the various years of each reign by + a reference to some event which had taken place in each; the Assyrians + named them after the <i>limmu</i>.* The king was the <i>ex-officio limmu</i> + for the year following that of his accession, then after him the <i>tartan</i>, + then the ministers and governors of provinces and cities in an order which + varied little from reign to reign. The names of the <i>limmu</i>, entered + in registers and tabulated—just as, later on, were those of the + Greek archons and Roman consuls—furnished the annalists with a rigid + chronological system, under which the facts of history might be arranged + with certainty.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to Delitzsch, the term <i>limu,</i> or <i>limmu</i>, meant + at first any given period, then later more especially the + year during which a magistrate filled his office; in the + opinion of most other Assyriologists it referred to the + magistrate himself as eponymous archon. + + ** The first list of <i>limmu</i> was discovered by H. Rawlinson. + The portions which have been preserved extend from the year + 893 to the year 666 B.C. without a break. In the periods + previous and subsequent to this we have only names scattered + here and there which it has not been possible to classify: + the earliest <i>limmu</i> known at present flourished under + Rammân-nirâri I., and was named Mukhurilâni. Three different + versions of the canon have como down to us. In the most + important one the names of the eponymous officials are + written one after another without titles or any mention of + important events; in the other two, the titles of each + personage, and any important occurrences which took place + during his year of office, are entered after the name. +</pre> + <p> + The king still retained the sacerdotal attributes with which Cossæan + monarchs had been invested from the earliest times, but contact with the + Egyptians had modified the popular conception of his personality. His + subjects were no longer satisfied to regard him merely as a man superior + to his fellow-men; they had come to discover something of the divine + nature in him, and sometimes identified him—not with Assur, the + master of all things, who occupied a position too high above the pale of + ordinary humanity—but with one of the demi-gods of the second rank, + Shamash, the Sun, the deity whom the Pharaohs pretended to represent in + flesh and blood here below. His courtiers, therefore, went as far as to + call him “Sun” when they addressed him, and he himself adopted this title + in his inscriptions.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Nebuchadrezzar I. of Babylon assumes the title of <i>Shamash + mati-shu</i>, the “Sun of his country,” and Hilprecht rightly + sees in this expression a trace of Egyptian influences; + later on, Assurnazirpal, King of Assyria similarly describes + himself as <i>Shamshu kishshat nishi</i>, the “Sun of all + mankind.” Tiele is of opinion that these expressions do not + necessarily point to any theory of the actual incarnation of + the god, as was the case in Egypt, but that they may be mere + rhetorical figures. +</pre> + <p> + Formerly he had only attained this apotheosis after death, later on he was + permitted to aspire to it during his lifetime. The Chaldæans adopted the + same attitude, and in both countries the royal authority shone with the + borrowed lustre of divine omnipotence. With these exceptions life at court + remained very much the same as it had been; at Nineveh, as at Babylon, we + find harems filled with foreign princesses, who had either been carried + off as hostages from the country of a defeated enemy, or amicably obtained + from their parents. In time of war, the command of the troops and the + dangers of the battle-field; in time of peace, a host of religious + ceremonies and judicial or administrative duties, left but little leisure + to the sovereign who desired to perform conscientiously all that was + required of him. His chief amusement lay in the hunting of wild beasts: + the majority of the princes who reigned over Assyria had a better right + than even Amenôthes III. himself to boast of the hundreds of lions which + they had slain. They set out on these hunting expeditions with quite a + small army of charioteers and infantry, and were often away several days + at a time, provided urgent business did not require their presence in the + palace. They started their quarry with the help of large dogs, and + followed it over hill and dale till they got within bowshot: if it was but + slightly wounded and turned on them, they gave it the finishing stroke + with their lances without dismounting. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0030" id="Bimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/178.jpg" alt="178.jpg a Lion-hunt " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a bas-relief in the British Museum. +</pre> + <p> + Occasionally, however, they were obliged to follow their prey into places + where horses could not easily penetrate; then a hand-to-hand conflict was + inevitable. The lion would rise on its hind quarters and endeavour to lay + its pursuer low with a stroke of its mighty paw, but only to fall pierced + to the heart by his lance or sword. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0031" id="Bimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/179.jpg" alt="179.jpg Lion Transfixed by an Arrow " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a bas-relief in the British Museum. +</pre> + <p> + This kind of encounter demanded great presence of mind and steadiness of + hand; the Assyrians were, therefore, trained to it from their youth up, + and no hunter was permitted to engage in these terrible encounters without + long preliminary practice. Seeing the lion as they did so frequently, and + at such close quarters, they came to know it quite as well as the + Egyptians, and their sculptors reproduce it with a realism and technical + skill which have been rarely equalled in modern times. But while the + Theban artist generally represents it in an attitude of repose, the + Assyrians prefer to show it in violent action in all the various attitudes + which it assumes during a struggle, either crouching as it prepares to + spring, or fully extended in the act of leaping; sometimes it rears into + an upright position, with arched back, gaping jaws, and claws protruded, + ready to bite or strike its foe; at others it writhes under a + spear-thrust, or rolls over and over in its dying agonies. In one + instance, an arrow has pierced the skull of a male lion, crashing through + the frontal bone a little above the left eyebrow, and protrudes obliquely + to the right between his teeth: under the shock of the blow he has risen + on his hind legs, with contorted spine, and beats the air with his fore + paws, his head thrown back as though to free himself of the fatal shaft. + Not far from him the lioness lies stretched out upon its back in the + rigidity of death. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0032" id="Bimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/180.jpg" alt="180.jpg Paintings of Chairs " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The “rimu,” or urus, was, perhaps, even a more formidable animal to + encounter than any of the <i>felido</i>, owing to the irresistible fury of + his attack. No one would dare, except in a case of dire necessity, to meet + him on foot. The loose flowing robes which the king and the nobles never + put aside—not even in such perilous pastimes as these—were ill + fitted for the quick movements required to avoid the attack of such an + animal, and those who were unlucky enough to quit their chariot ran a + terrible risk of being gored or trodden underfoot in the encounter. It was + the custom, therefore, to attack the beast by arrows, and to keep it at a + distance. If the animal were able to come up with its pursuer, the latter + endeavoured to seize it by the horn at the moment when it lowered its + head, and to drive his dagger into its neck. If the blow were adroitly + given it severed the spinal cord, and the beast fell in a heap as if + struck by lightning. A victory over such animals was an occasion for + rejoicing, and solemn thanks were offered to Assur and Ishtar, the patrons + of the chase, at the usual evening sacrifice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0033" id="Bimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/181.jpg" alt="181.jpg a Ubus Hunt " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a bas-relief in the British Museum. +</pre> + <p> + The slain beasts, whether lion or urus, were arranged in a row before the + altar, while the king, accompanied by his flabella, and umbrella-bearers, + stood alongside them, holding his bow in his left hand. While the singers + intoned the hymn of thanksgiving to the accompaniment of the harp, the + monarch took the bowl of sacred wine, touched his lips with it, and then + poured a portion of the contents on the heads of the victims. A detailed + account of each hunting exploit was preserved for posterity either in + inscriptions or on bas-reliefs.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the <i>Annals of Tiglath-pileser I.</i> the king counts the + number of his victims: 4 urus, 10 male elephants, 120 lions + slain in single combat on foot, 800 lions killed by arrows + let fly from his chariot. In the <i>Annals of Assurnazirpal,</i> + the king boasts of having slain 30 elephants, 250 urus, and + 370 lions. +</pre> + <p> + The chase was in those days of great service to the rural population; the + kings also considered it to be one of the duties attached to their office, + and on a level with their obligation to make war on neighbouring nations + devoted by the will of Assur to defeat and destruction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0034" id="Bimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/182.jpg" + alt="182.jpg Libation Poured over the Lions on The Return From The Chase " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Hommel. + </p> + <p> + The army charged to carry out the will of the god had not yet acquired the + homogeneity and efficiency which it afterwards attained, yet it had been + for some time one of the most formidable in the world, and even the + Egyptians themselves, in spite of their long experience in military + matters, could not put into the field such a proud array of effective + troops. We do not know how this army was recruited, but the bulk of it was + made up of native levies, to which foreign auxiliaries were added in + numbers varying with the times.* A permanent nucleus of troops was always + in garrison in the capital under the “tartan,” or placed in the principal + towns at the disposal of the governors.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We have no bas-relief representing the armies of Tiglath- + pileser I. Everything in the description which follows is + taken from the monuments of Assurnazirpal and Shalmaneser + II., revised as far as possible by the inscriptions of + Tiglath-pileser; the armament of both infantry and chariotry + must have been practically the same in the two periods. + + ** This is based on the account given in the Obelisk of + Shalmaneser, where the king, for example, after having + gathered his soldiers together at Kalakh [Calah], put at + their head Dainassur the artan, “the master of his + innumerable troops.” + </pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0035" id="Bimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/183.jpg" alt="183.jpg Two Assyrian Archers " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin. +</pre> + <p> + The contingents which came to be enrolled at these centres on the first + rumour of war may have been taken from among the feudal militia, as was + the custom in the Nile valley, or the whole population may have had to + render personal military service, each receiving while with the colours a + certain daily pay. The nobles and feudal lords were accustomed to call + their own people together, and either placed themselves at their head or + commissioned an officer to act in their behalf.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The assembling of foot-soldiers and chariots is often + described at the beginning of each campaign; the <i>Donation + of Bittimerodach</i> brings before us a great feudal lord, who + leads his contingent to the King of Chaldæa, and anything + which took place among the Babylonians had its counterpart + among the Assyrians. Sometimes the king had need of all the + contingents, and then it was said he “assembled the + country.” Auxiliaries are mentioned, for example, in the + <i>Annals of Assurnazirpal</i>, col. iii. 11. 58-77, where the + king, in his passage, rallies one after the other the troops + of Bît-Bakhiâni, of Azalli, of Bît-Adini, of Garganish, and + of the Patinu. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0036" id="Bimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/184.jpg" + alt="184.jpg an Assyrian War-chariot Charging the Foe " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Mansell. +</pre> + <p> + These recruits were subjected to the training necessary for their calling + by exercises similar to those of the Egyptians, but of a rougher sort and + better adapted to the cumbrous character of their equipment. The + blacksmith’s art had made such progress among the Assyrians since the + times of Thûtmosis III. and Ramses IL, that both the character and the + materials of the armour were entirely changed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0037" id="Bimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/185a.jpg" alt="185a.jpg Harness of the Horses " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from G. Rawlinson. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0038" id="Bimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/185b.jpg" alt="185b.jpg Pikeman " /> + </div> + <p> + While the Egyptian of old entered into the contest almost naked, and + without other defence than a padded cap, a light shield, and a leather + apron, the Assyrian of the new age set out for war almost cased in metal. + The pikemen and archers of whom the infantry of the line was composed wore + a copper or iron helmet, conical in form, and having cheek-pieces covering + the ears; they were clad in a sort of leathern shirt covered with plates + or imbricated scales of metal, which protected the body and the upper part + of the arm; a quilted and padded loin-cloth came over the haunches, while + close-fitting trousers, and buskins laced up in the front, completed their + attire. The pikemen were armed with a lance six feet long, a cutlass or + short sword passed through the girdle, and an enormous shield, sometimes + round and convex, sometimes arched at the top and square at the bottom. + The bowmen did not encumber themselves with a buckler, but carried, in + addition to the bow and quiver, a poignard or mace. The light infantry + consisted of pikemen and archers—each of whom wore a crested helmet + and a round shield of wicker-work—of slingers and club-bearers, as + well as of men armed with the two-bladed battle-axe. The chariots were + heavier and larger than those of the Egyptians. They had high, strongly + made wheels with eight spokes, and the body of the vehicle rested directly + on the axle; the panels were of solid wood, sometimes covered with + embossed or carved metal, but frequently painted; they were further + decorated sometimes with gold, silver, or ivory mountings, and with + precious stones. The pole, which was long and heavy, ended in a boss of + carved wood or incised metal, representing a flower, a rosette, the muzzle + of a lion, or a horse’s head. It was attached to the axle under the floor + of the vehicle, and as it had to bear a great strain, it was not only + fixed to this point by leather thongs such as were employed in Egypt, but + also bound to the front of the chariot by a crossbar shaped like a + spindle, and covered with embroidered stuff—an arrangement which + prevented its becoming detached when driving at full speed. A pair of + horses were harnessed to it, and a third was attached to them on the right + side for the use of a supplementary warrior, who could take the place of + his comrade in case of accident, or if he were wounded. The trappings were + very simple; but sometimes there was added to these a thickly padded + caparison, of which the various parts were fitted to the horse by tags so + as to cover the upper part of his head, his neck, back, and breast. The + usual complement of charioteers was two to each vehicle, as in Egypt, but + sometimes, as among the Khâti, there were three—one on the left to + direct the horses, a warrior, and an attendant who protected the other two + with his shield; on some occasions a fourth was added as an extra + assistant. The equipment of the charioteers was like that of the infantry, + and consisted of a jacket with imbricated scales of metal, bow and arrows, + and a lance or javelin. A standard which served as a rallying-point for + the chariots in the battle was set up on the front part of each vehicle, + between the driver and the warrior; it bore at the top a disk supported on + the heads of two bulls, or by two complete representations of these + animals, and a standing figure of Assur letting fly his arrows. The + chariotry formed, as in most countries of that time, the picked troops of + the service, in which the princes and great lords were proud to be + enrolled. Upon it depended for the most part the issue of the conflict, + and the position assigned to it was in the van, the king or + commander-in-chief reserving to himself the privilege of conducting the + charge in person. It was already, however, in a state of decadence, both + as regards the number of units composing it and its methods of + manoeuvring; the infantry, on the other hand, had increased in numbers, + and under the guidance of abler generals tended to become the most + trustworthy force in Assyrian campaigns.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Tiglath-pileser is seen, for instance, setting out on a + campaign in a mountainous country with only thirty chariots. +</pre> + <p> + Notwithstanding the weight of his equipment, the Assyrian foot-soldier was + as agile as the Egyptian, but he had to fight usually in a much more + difficult region than that in which the Pharaoh’s troops were accustomed + to manouvre. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0039" id="Bimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/188.jpg" + alt="188.jpg Crossing a River in Boats and on Inflated Skins " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Layard. +</pre> + <p> + The theatre of war was not like Syria, with its fertile and almost + unbroken plains furrowed by streams which offered little obstruction to + troops throughout the year, but a land of marshes, arid and rocky deserts, + mighty rivers, capable, in one of their sudden floods, of arresting + progress for days, and of jeopardising the success of a campaign;* violent + and ice-cold torrents, rugged mountains whose summits rose into “points + like daggers,” and whose passes could be held against a host of invaders + by a handful of resolute men.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Sennacherib was obliged to arrest his march against Elam, + owing to his inability to cross the torrents swollen by the + rain; a similar contretemps must have met Assurbanipal on + the banks of the Ididi. + + ** The Assyrian monarchs dwell with pleasure on the + difficulties of the country which they have to overcome. +</pre> + <p> + Bands of daring skirmishers, consisting of archers, slingers, and pikemen, + cleared the way for the mass of infantry marching in columns, and for the + chariots, in the midst of which the king and his household took up their + station; the baggage followed, together with the prisoners and their + escorts.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Assurbanipal relates, for instance, that he put under his + escort a tribe which had surrendered themselves as + prisoners. +</pre> + <p> + If they came to a river where there was neither ford nor bridge, they were + not long in effecting a passage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0040" id="Bimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/189.jpg" + alt="189.jpg Making a Bridge for the Passage of The Chariots " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief on the bronze + gates of Balawât. +</pre> + <p> + Each soldier was provided with a skin, which, having inflated it by the + strength of his lungs and closed the aperture, he embraced in his arms and + cast himself into the stream. Partly by floating and partly by swimming, a + whole regiment could soon reach the other side. The chariots could not be + carried over so easily. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0041" id="Bimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/190.jpg" + alt="190.jpg the King’s Chariot Crossing a Bridge " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the bas-reliefs on the + bronze gates of Balawât. +</pre> + <p> + If the bed of the river was not very wide, and the current not too + violent, a narrow bridge was constructed, or rather an improvised dyke of + large stones and rude gabions filled with clay, over which was spread a + layer of branches and earth, supplying a sufficiently broad passage for a + single chariot, of which the horses were led across at walking pace.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Flying bridges, <i>tîturâti</i>, were mentioned as far back as + the time of Tiglath-pileser I. +</pre> + <p> + But when the distance between the banks was too great, and the stream too + violent to allow of this mode of procedure, boats were requisitioned from + the neighbourhood, on which men and chariots were embarked, while the + horses, attended by grooms, or attached by their bridles to the flotilla, + swam across the river.* If the troops had to pass through a mountainous + district intersected by ravines and covered by forests, and thus + impracticable on ordinary occasions for a large body of men, the + advance-guard were employed in cutting a passage through the trees with + the axe, and, if necessary, in making with the pick pathways or rough-hewn + steps similar to those met with in the Lebanon on the Phoenician coast.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It was in this manner that Tiglath-pileser I. crossed the + Euphrates on his way to the attack of Carchemish. + + ** Tiglath-pileser I. speaks on several occasions, and not + without pride, of the roads that he had made for himself + with bronze hatchets through the forests and over the + mountains. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0042" id="Bimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/191.jpg" + alt="191.jpg the Assyrian Infantry Crossing The Mountains " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief on the bronze gates of Balawât. + </p> + <p> + The troops advanced in narrow columns, sometimes even in single file, + along these improvised roads, always on the alert lest they should be + taken at a disadvantage by an enemy concealed in the thickets. In case of + attack, the foot-soldiers had each to think of himself, and endeavour to + give as many blows as he received; but the charioteers, encumbered by + their vehicles and the horses, found it no easy matter to extricate + themselves from the danger. Once the chariots had entered into the forest + region, the driver descended from his vehicle, and led the horses by the + head, while the warrior and his assistant were not slow to follow his + example, in order to give some relief to the animals by tugging at the + wheels. The king alone did not dismount, more out of respect for his + dignity than from indifference to the strain upon the animals; for, in + spite of careful leading, he had to submit to a rough shaking from the + inequalities of this rugged soil; sometimes he had too much of this, and + it is related of him in his annals that he had crossed the mountains on + foot like an ordinary mortal.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The same fact is found in the accounts of every + expedition, but more importance is attached to it as we + approach the end of the Ninevite empire, when the kings were + not so well able to endure hardship. Sennacherib mentions it + on several occasions, with a certain amount of self-pity for + the fatigue he had undergone, but with a real pride in his + own endurance. +</pre> + <p> + A halt was made every evening, either at some village, whose inhabitants + were obliged to provide food and lodging, or, in default of this, on some + site which they could fortify by a hastily thrown up rampart of earth. If + they were obliged to remain in any place for a length of time, a regular + encircling wall was constructed, not square or rectangular like those of + the Egyptians, but round or oval.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The oval inclines towards a square form, with rounded + corners, on the bas-reliefs of the bronze gates of + Shalmaneser II. at Balawât. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0043" id="Bimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/193.jpg" + alt="193.jpg the King Crossing a Mountain in his Chariot " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Mansell, taken in the + British Museum. +</pre> + <p> + It was made of dried brick, and provided with towers like an ancient city; + indeed, many of these entrenched camps survived the occasion of their + formation, and became small fortified towns or castles, whence a permanent + garrison could command the neighbouring country. The interior was divided + into four equal parts by two roads, intersecting each other at right + angles. The royal tents, with their walls of felt or brown linen, + resembled an actual palace, which could be moved from place to place; they + were surrounded with less pretentious buildings reserved for the king’s + household, and the stables. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0044" id="Bimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/194.jpg" alt="194.jpg an Assyrian Camp " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from Layard. +</pre> + <p> + The tent-poles at the angles of these habitations were plated with metal, + and terminated at their upper extremities in figures of goats and other + animals made of the same material. The tents of the soldiers, were conical + in form, and each was maintained in its position by a forked pole placed + inside. They contained the ordinary requirements of the peasant—-bed + and head-rest, table with legs like those of a gazelle, stools and + folding-chairs; the household utensils and the provisions hung from the + forks of the support. The monuments, which usually give few details of + humble life, are remarkable for their complete reproductions of the daily + scenes in the camp. We see on them, the soldier making his bed, grinding + corn, dressing the carcase of a sheep, which he had just killed, or + pouring out wine; the pot boiling on the fire is watched by the vigilant + eye of a trooper or of a woman, while those not actively employed are + grouped together in twos and threes, eating, drinking, and chatting. A + certain number of priests and soothsayers accompanied the army, but they + did not bring the statues of their gods with them, the only emblems of the + divinities seen in battle being the two royal ensigns, one representing + Assur as lord of the territory, borne on a single bull and bending his + bow, while the other depicted him standing on two bulls as King of + Assyria.* An altar smoked before the chariot on which these two standards + were planted, and every night and morning the prince and his nobles laid + offerings upon it, and recited prayers before it for the well-being of the + army. + </p> + <p> + Military tactics had not made much progress since the time of the great + Egyptian invasions. The Assyrian generals set out in haste from Nineveh or + Assur in the hope of surprising their enemy, and they often succeeded in + penetrating into the very heart of his country before he had time to + mobilise or concentrate his forces. The work of subduing him was performed + piecemeal; they devastated his fields, robbed his orchards, and, marching + all through the night,** they would arrive with such suddenness before one + or other of his towns, that he would have no time to organise a defence. + Most of their campaigns were mere forced marches across plains and + mountains, without regular sieges or pitched battles. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is possible that each of these standards corresponded + to some dignity of the sovereign; the first belonged to him, + inasmuch as he was <i>shar kishshati,</i> “king of the regions,” + and the other, by virtue of his office, of <i>shar Ashshur</i>, + “King of Assyria.” + + ** Assurnazirpal mentions several night marches, which + enabled him to reach the heart of the enemy’s country. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0045" id="Bimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/196.jpg" alt="196.jpg a Fortified Town " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Mansell. The + inhabitants of the town who have been taken prisoners, are + leaving it with their cattle under the conduct of Assyrian + soldiers. +</pre> + <p> + Should the enemy, however, seek an engagement, and the men be drawn up in + line to meet him, the action would be opened by archers and light troops + armed with slings, who would be followed by the chariotry and heavy + infantry for close attack; a reserve of veterans would await around the + commanding-general the crucial moment of the engagement, when they would + charge in a body among the combatants, and decide the victory by sheer + strength of arm.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Tiglath-pileser I. mentions a pitched battle against the + Muskhu, who numbered 20,000 men; and another against + Kiliteshub, King of Kummukh, in his first campaign. In one + of the following campaigns he overcame the people of Saraush + and those of Maruttash, and also 6000 Sugi; later on he + defeated 23 allied kings of Naîri, and took from them 120 + chariots and 20,000 people of Kumanu. The other wars are + little more than raids, during which he encountered merely + those who were incapable of offering him any resistance. +</pre> + <p> + The pursuit of the enemy was never carried to any considerable distance, + for the men were needed to collect the spoil, despatch the wounded, and + carry off the trophies of war. Such of the prisoners as it was deemed + useful or politic to spare were stationed in a safe place under a guard of + sentries. The remainder were condemned to death as they were brought in, + and their execution took place without delay; they were made to kneel + down, with their backs to the soldiery, their heads bowed, and their hands + resting on a flat stone or a billet of wood, in which position they were + despatched with clubs. The scribes, standing before their tent doors, + registered the number of heads cut off; each soldier, bringing his quota + and throwing it upon the heap, gave in his name and the number of his + company, and then withdrew in the hope of receiving a reward proportionate + to the number of his victims.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The details of this bringing of heads are known to us by + representations of a later period. The allusions contained + in the <i>Annals of Tiglath-pileser I</i>. show that the custom + was in full force under the early Assyrian conquerors. +</pre> + <p> + When the king happened to accompany the army, he always presided at this + scene, and distributed largesse to those who had shown most bravery; in + his absence he required that the heads of the enemy’s chiefs should be + sent to him, in order that they might be exposed to his subjects on the + gates of his capital. Sieges were lengthy and arduous undertakings. In the + case of towns situated on the plain, the site was usually chosen so as to + be protected by canals, or an arm of a river on two or three sides, thus + leaving one side only without a natural defence, which the inhabitants + endeavoured to make up for by means of double or treble ramparts.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The town of Tela had three containing walls, that of + Shingisha had four, and that of Pitura two. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0046" id="Bimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/198.jpg" + alt="198.jpg the Bringing of Heads After a Battle " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Layard. +</pre> + <p> + These fortifications must have resembled those of the Syrian towns; the + walls were broad at the base, and, to prevent scaling, rose to a height of + some thirty or forty feet: there were towers at intervals of a bowshot, + from which the archers could seriously disconcert parties making attacks + against any intervening points in the curtain wall; the massive gates were + covered with raw hides, or were plated with metal to resist assaults by + fire and axe, while, as soon as hostilities commenced, the defence was + further completed by wooden scaffolding. Places thus fortified, however, + at times fell almost without an attempt at resistance; the inhabitants, + having descended into the lowlands to rescue their crops from the + Assyrians, would be disbanded, and, while endeavouring to take refuge + within their ramparts, would be pursued by the enemy, who would gain + admittance with them in the general disorder. If the town did not fall + into their hands by some stroke of good fortune, they would at once + attempt, by an immediate assault, to terrify the garrison into laying down + their arms.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Assurnazirpal, in this fashion, took the town of Pitura in + two days, in spite of its strong double ramparts. +</pre> + <p> + The archers and slingers led the attack by advancing in couples till they + were within the prescribed distance from the walls, one of the two taking + careful aim, while the other sheltered his comrade behind his round-topped + shield. The king himself would sometimes alight from his chariot and let + fly his arrows in the front rank of the archers, while a handful of + resolute men would rush against the gates of the town and attempt either + to break them down or set them alight with torches. Another party, armed + with stout helmets and quilted jerkins, which rendered them almost + invulnerable to the shower of arrows or stones poured on them by the + besieged, would attempt to undermine the walls by means of levers and + pick-axes, and while thus engaged would be protected by mantelets fixed to + the face of the walls, resembling in shape the shields of the archers. + Often bodies of men would approach the suburbs of the city and endeavour + to obtain access to the ramparts from the roofs of the houses in close + proximity to the walls. If, however, they could gain admittance by none of + these means, and time was of no consideration, they would resign + themselves to a lengthy siege, and the blockade would commence by a + systematic desolation of the surrounding country, in which the villages + scattered over the plain would be burnt, the vines torn up, and all trees + cut down. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0047" id="Bimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/200.jpg" + alt="200.jpg the King Lets Fly Arrows at a Besieged Town " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Layard. +</pre> + <p> + The Assyrians waged war with a brutality which the Egyptians would never + have tolerated. Unlike the Pharaohs, their kings were not content to + imprison or put to death the principal instigators of a revolt, but their + wrath would fall upon the entire population. As long as a town resisted + the efforts of their besieging force, all its inhabitants bearing arms who + fell into their hands were subjected to the most cruel tortures; they were + cut to pieces or impaled alive on stakes, which were planted in the ground + just in front of the lines, so that the besieged should enjoy a full view + of the sufferings of their comrades. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0048" id="Bimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/201.jpg" alt="201.jpg Assyrian Sappers " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Layard. +</pre> + <p> + Even during the course of a short siege this line of stakes would be + prolonged till it formed a bloody pale between the two contending armies. + This horrible spectacle had at least the effect of shaking the courage of + the besieged, and of hastening the end of hostilities. When at length the + town yielded to the enemy, it was often razed to the ground, and salt was + strewn upon its ruins, while the unfortunate inhabitants were either + massacred or transplanted <i>en masse</i> elsewhere. If the bulk of the + population were spared and condemned to exile, the wealthy and noble were + shown no clemency; they were thrown from, the top of the city towers, + their ears and noses were cut off, their hands and feet were amputated, or + they and their children were roasted over a slow fire, or flayed alive, or + decapitated, and their heads piled up in a heap. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0049" id="Bimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/202.jpg" alt="202.jpg a Town Taken by Scaling " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the bas-reliefs of the + bronze gate at Balawât. The two soldiers who represent the + Assyrian army carry their shields before them; flames appear + above the ramparts, showing that the conquerors have burnt + the town. +</pre> + <p> + The victorious sovereigns appear to have taken a pride in the ingenuity + with which they varied these means of torture, and dwell with complacency + on the recital of their cruelties. “I constructed a pillar at the gate of + the city,” is the boast of one of them; “I then flayed the chief men, and + covered the post with their skins; I suspended their dead bodies from this + same pillar, I impaled others on the summit of the pillar, and I ranged + others on stakes around the pillar.” + </p> + <p> + Two or three executions of this kind usually sufficed to demoralise the + enemy. The remaining inhabitants assembled: terrified by the majesty of + Assur, and as it were blinded by the brightness of his countenance, they + sunk down at the knees of the victor and embraced his feet.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the very expressions used in the Assyrian texts: + “The terror of my strength overthrew them, they feared the + combat, and they embraced my feet;” and again: “The + brightness of Assur, my lord, overturned them.” This latter + image is explained by the presence over the king of the + winged figure of Assur directing the battle. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0050" id="Bimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/203.jpg" alt="203.jpg Tortures Inflicted on Prisoners " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the bas-reliefs of the + bronze gates of Balawât; on the right the town is seen in + flames, and on the walls on either side hangs a row of + heads, one above another. +</pre> + <p> + The peace secured at the price of their freedom left them merely with + their lives and such of their goods as could not be removed from the soil. + The scribes thereupon surrounded the spoil seized by the soldiery and drew + up a detailed inventory of the prisoners and their property: everything + worth carrying away to Assyria was promptly registered, and despatched to + the capital. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0051" id="Bimage-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/204.jpg" + alt="204.jpg a Convoy of Prisoners and Captives After The Taking of a Town " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher Gudin, from Layard. +</pre> + <p> + The contents of the royal palace led the way; it comprised the silver, + gold, and copper of the vanquished prince, his caldrons, dishes and cups + of brass, the women of his harem, the maidens of his household, his + furniture and stuffs, horses and chariots, together with his men and women + servants. The enemy’s gods, like his kings, were despoiled of their + possessions, and poor and rich suffered alike. The choicest of their + troops were incorporated into the Assyrian regiments, and helped to fill + the gaps which war had made in the ranks;* the peasantry and townsfolk + were sold as slaves, or were despatched with their families to till the + domains of the king in some Assyrian village.* Tiglath-pileser I. in this + manner incorporated 120 chariots of the Kashki and the Urumi into the + Assyrian chariotry. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0052" id="Bimage-0052"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/205.jpg" + alt="205.jpg Convoy of Prisoners Bound in Various Ways " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief of one of the + gates of Balawât. +</pre> + <p> + The monuments often depict the exodus of these unfortunate wretches. They + were represented as proceeding on their way in the charge of a few + foot-soldiers—each of the men carrying, without any sign of labour, + a bag of provisions, while the women bear their young children on their + shoulders or in their arms: herds of cows and flocks of goats and sheep + follow, chariots drawn by mules bringing up the rear with the baggage. + While the crowd of non-combatants were conducted in irregular columns + without manacles or chains, the veteran troops and the young men capable + of bearing arms were usually bound together, and sometimes were further + secured by a wooden collar placed on their necks. Many perished on the way + from want or fatigue, but such as were fortunate enough to reach the end + of the journey were rewarded with a small portion of land and a dwelling, + becoming henceforward identified with the indigenous inhabitants of the + country. Assyrians were planted as colonists in the subjugated towns, and + served to maintain there the authority of the conqueror. The condition of + the latter resembled to a great extent that of the old Egyptian vassals in + Phoenicia or Southern Syria. They were allowed to retain their national + constitution, rites, and even their sovereigns; when, for instance, after + some rebellion, one of these princes had been impaled or decapitated, his + successor was always chosen from among the members of his own family, + usually one of his sons, who was enthroned almost before his father had + ceased to breathe. He was obliged to humiliate his own gods before Assur, + to pay a yearly tribute, to render succour in case of necessity to the + commanders of neighbouring garrisons, to send his troops when required to + swell the royal army, to give his sons or brothers as hostages, and to + deliver up his own sisters and daughters, or those of his nobles, for the + harem or the domestic service of the conqueror. The unfortunate prince + soon resigned himself to this state of servitude; he would collect around + him and reorganise his scattered subjects, restore them to their cities, + rebuild their walls, replant the wasted orchards, and sow the devastated + fields. A few years of relative peace and tranquillity, during which he + strove to be forgotten by his conqueror, restored prosperity to his + country; the population increased with extraordinary rapidity, and new + generations arose who, unconscious of the disasters suffered by their + predecessors, had, but one aim, that of recovering their independence. We + must, however, beware of thinking that the defeat of these tribes was as + crushing or their desolation as terrible as the testimony of the + inscriptions would lead us to suppose. The rulers of Nineveh were but too + apt to relate that this or that country had been conquered and its people + destroyed, when the Assyrian army had remained merely a week or a + fortnight within its territory, had burnt some half-dozen fortified towns, + and taken two or three thousand prisoners.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * For example, Tiglath-pileser I. conquers the Kummukli in + the first year of his reign, burning, destroying, and + depopulating the towns, and massacring “the remainder of the + Kummukh” who had taken refuge in the mountains, after which, + in his second campaign, he again pillages, burns, destroys, + and depopulates the towns, and again massacres the remainder + of the inhabitants hiding in the mountains. He makes the + same statements with regard to most of the other countries + and peoples conquered by him, but we find them reappearing + with renewed vigour on the scene, soon after their supposed + destruction. +</pre> + <p> + If we were to accept implicitly all that is recorded of the Assyrian + exploits in Naîri or the Taurus, we should be led to believe that for at + least half a century the valleys of the Upper Tigris and Middle Euphrates + were transformed into a desert; each time, however, that they are + subsequently mentioned on the occasion of some fresh expedition, they + appear once more covered with thriving cities and a vigorous population, + whose generals offer an obstinate resistance to the invaders. We are, + therefore, forced to admit that the majority of these expeditions must be + regarded as mere raids. The population, disconcerted by a sudden attack, + would take refuge in the woods or on the mountains, carrying with them + their gods, whom they thus preserved from captivity, together with a + portion of their treasures and cattle; but no sooner had the invader + retired, than they descended once more into the plain and returned to + their usual occupations. The Assyrian victories thus rarely produced the + decisive results which are claimed for them; they almost always left the + conquered people with sufficient energy and resources to enable them to + resume the conflict after a brief interval, and the supremacy which the + suzerain claimed as a result of his conquests was of the most ephemeral + nature. A revolt would suffice to shake it, while a victory would be + almost certain to destroy it, and once more reduce the empire to the + limits of Assyria proper. + </p> + <p> + Tukultiabalesharra, familiar to us under the name of Tiglath-pileser,* is + the first of the great warrior-kings of Assyria to stand out before us + with any definite individuality. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Tiglath-pileser is one of the transcriptions given in the + LXX. for the Hebrew version of the name: it signifies, “The + child of Esharra is my strength.” By “the child of Esharra” + the Assyrians, like the Chaldæans, understood the child of + Ninib. +</pre> + <p> + We find him, in the interval between two skirmishes, engaged in hunting + lions or in the pursuit of other wild beasts, and we see him lavishing + offerings on the gods and enriching their temples with the spoils of his + victories; these, however, were not the normal occupations of this + sovereign, for peace with him was merely an interlude in a reign of + conflict. He led all his expeditions in person, undeterred by any + consideration of fatigue or danger, and scarcely had he returned from one + arduous campaign, than he proceeded to sketch the plan of that for the + following year; in short, he reigned only to wage war. His father, + Assurîshishi, had bequeathed him not only a prosperous kingdom, but a + well-organised army, which he placed in the field without delay. During + the fifty years since the Mushku, descending through the gorges of the + Taurus, had invaded the Alzi and the Puru-kuzzi, Assyria had not only lost + possession of all the countries bordering the left bank of the Euphrates, + but the whole of Kummukh had withdrawn its allegiance from her, and had + ceased to pay tribute. Tiglath-pileser had ascended the throne only a few + weeks ere he quitted Assur, marched rapidly across Eastern Mesopotamia by + the usual route, through Singar and Nisib, and climbing the chain of the + Kashiara, near Mardîn, bore down into the very heart of Kummukh, where + twenty thousand Mushku, under the command of five kings, resolutely + awaited him. He repulsed them in the very first engagement, and pursued + them hotly over hill and vale, pillaging the fields, and encircling the + towns with trophies of human heads taken from the prisoners who had fallen + into his hands; the survivors, to the number of six thousand, laid down + their arms, and were despatched to Assyria.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The king, starting from Assur, must have followed the + route through Sindjar, Nisib, Mardîn, and Diarbekîr—a road + used later by the Romans, and still in existence at the + present day. As he did not penetrate that year as far as the + provinces of Alzi and Purukuzzi, he must have halted at the + commencement of the mountain district, and have beaten the + allies in the plain of Kuru-tchaî, before Diarbekîr, in the + neighbourhood of the Tigris. +</pre> + <p> + The Kummukh contingents, however, had been separated in the rout from the + Mushku, and had taken refuge beyond the Euphrates, near to the fortress of + Shirisha, where they imagined themselves in safety behind a rampart of + mountains and forests. Tiglath-pileser managed, by cutting a road for his + foot-soldiers and chariots, to reach their retreat: he stormed the place + without apparent difficulty, massacred the defenders, and then turning + upon the inhabitants of Kurkhi,* who were on their way to reinforce the + besieged, drove their soldiers into the Nâmi, whose waters carried the + corpses down to the Tigris. One of their princes, Kilite-shub, son of + Kaliteshub-Sarupi, had been made prisoner during the action. + Tiglath-pileser sent him, together with his wives, children, treasures, + and gods,** to share the captivity of the Mushku; then retracing his + steps, he crossed over to the right bank of the Tigris, and attacked the + stronghold of Urrakhinas which crowned the summit of Panâri. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The country of the Kurkhi appears to have included at this + period the provinces lying between the Sebbeneh-Su and the + mountains of Djudî, probably a portion of the Sophene, the + Anzanone and the Gordyenc of classical authors. + + ** The vanquished must have crossed the Tigris below + Diarbekîr and have taken refuge beyond Mayafarrikîn, so that + Shirisha must be sought for between the Silvan-dagh and the + Ak-dagh, in the basin of the Batman-tchai, the present Nâmi. +</pre> + <p> + The people, terror-stricken by the fate of their neighbours, seized their + idols and hid themselves within the thickets like a flock of birds. Their + chief, Shaditeshub, son of Khâtusaru,* ventured from out of his + hiding-place to meet the Assyrian conqueror, and prostrated himself at his + feet. He delivered over his sons and the males of his family as hostages, + and yielded up all his possessions in gold and copper, together with a + hundred and twenty slaves and cattle of all kinds; Tiglath-pileser + thereupon permitted him to keep his principality under the suzerainty of + Assyria, and such of his allies as followed his example obtained a similar + concession. The king consecrated the tenth of the spoil thus received to + the use of his god Assur and also to Rammân;** but before returning to his + capital, he suddenly resolved to make an expedition into the almost + impenetrable regions which separated him from Lake Van. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name of this chief’s father has always been read + Khâtukhi: it is a form of the name Khâtusaru borne by the + Hittite king in the time of Ramses II. + + ** The site of Urrakhinas—read by Winckler Urartinas—is + very uncertain: the town was situated in a territory which + could belong equally well to the Kummukh or to the Kurkhi, + and the mention of the crossing of the Tigris seems to + indicate that it was on the right bank of the river, + probably in the mountain group of Tur-Abdîn. +</pre> + <p> + This district was, even more than at the present day, a confused labyrinth + of wooded mountain ranges, through which the Eastern Tigris and its + affluents poured their rapid waters in tortuous curves. As hitherto no + army had succeeded in making its way through this territory with + sufficient speed to surprise the fortified villages and scattered clans + inhabiting the valleys and mountain slopes, Tiglath-pileser selected from + his force a small troop of light infantry and thirty chariots, with which + he struck into the forests; but, on reaching the Aruma, he was forced to + abandon his chariotry and proceed with the foot-soldiers only. The + Mildîsh, terrified by his sudden appearance, fell an easy prey to the + invader; the king scattered the troops hastily collected to oppose him, + set fire to a few fortresses, seized the peasantry and their flocks, and + demanded hostages and the usual tribute as a condition of peace.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Mildîsh of our inscription is to be identified with + the country of Mount Umildîsh, mentioned by Sargon of + Assyria. +</pre> + <p> + In his first campaign he thus reduced the upper and eastern half of + Kummukh, namely, the part extending to the north of the Tigris, while in + the following campaign he turned his attention to the regions bounded by + the Euphrates and by the western spurs of the Kashiari. The Alzi and the + Purukuzzi had been disconcerted by his victories, and had yielded him + their allegiance almost without a struggle. To the southward, the Kashku + and the Urumi, who had, to the number of four thousand, migrated from + among the Khâti and compelled the towns of the Shubarti to break their + alliance with the Ninevite kings, now made no attempt at resistance; they + laid down their arms and yielded at discretion, giving up their goods and + their hundred and twenty war-chariots, and resigning themselves to the + task of colonising a distant corner of Assyria. Other provinces, however, + were not so easily dealt with; the inhabitants entrenched themselves + within their wild valleys, from whence they had to be ousted by sheer + force; in the end they always had to yield, and to undertake to pay an + annual tribute. The Assyrian empire thus regained on this side the + countries which Shalmaneser I. had lost, owing to the absorption of his + energies and interests in the events which were taking place in Chaldæa. + </p> + <p> + In his third campaign Tiglath-pileser succeeded in bringing about the + pacification of the border provinces which shut in the basin of the Tigris + to the north and east. The Kurkhi did not consider themselves conquered by + the check they had received at the Nâmi; several of their tribes were + stirring in Kharia, on the highlands above the Arzania, and their + restlessness threatened to infect such of their neighbours as had already + submitted themselves to the Assyrian yoke. “My master Assur commanded me + to attack their proud summits, which no king has ever visited. I assembled + my chariots and my foot-soldiers, and I passed between the Idni and the + Ala, by a difficult country, across cloud-capped mountains whose peaks + were as the point of a dagger, and unfavourable to the progress of my + chariots; I therefore left my chariots in reserve, and I climbed these + steep mountains. The community of the Kurkhi assembled its numerous + troops, and in order to give me battle they entrenched themselves upon the + Azubtagish; on the slopes of the mountain, an incommodious position, I + came into conflict with them, and I vanquished them.” This lesson cost + them twenty-five towns, situated at the feet of the Aîa, the Shuîra, the + Idni, the Shizu, the Silgu, and the Arzanabiu*—all twenty-five being + burnt to the ground. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The site of Kharia must be sought for probably between the + sources of the Tigris and the Batman-tchaî. +</pre> + <p> + The dread of a similar fate impelled the neighbouring inhabitants of + Adaush to beg for a truce, which was granted to them;* but the people of + Saraush and of Ammaush, who “from all time had never known what it was to + obey,” were cut to pieces, and their survivors incorporated into the + empire—a like fate overtaking the Isua and the Daria, who inhabited + Khoatras.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to the context, the Adaush ought to be between + the Kharia and the Saraush; possibly between the Batman- + tchaî and the Bohtân-tchaî, in the neighbourhood of Mildîsh. + + ** As Tiglath-pileser was forced to cross Mount Aruma in + order to reach the Ammaush and the Saraush, these two + countries, together with Isua and Daria, cannot be far from + Mildîsh; Isua is, indeed, mentioned as near to Anzitene in + an inscription of Shalmaneser II., which obliges us to place + it somewhere near the sources of the Batman-tchaî. The + position of Muraddash and Saradaush is indirectly pointed + out by the mention of the Lower Zab and the Lulumê; the name + of Saradaush is perhaps preserved in that of Surtash, borne + by the valley through which runs one of the tributaries of + the Lower Zab. +</pre> + <p> + Beyond this, again, on the banks of the Lesser Zab and the confines of + Lulumô, the principalities of Muraddash and of Saradaush refused to come + to terms. Tiglath-pileser broke their lines within sight of Muraddash, and + entered the town with the fugitives in the confusion which ensued; this + took place about the fourth hour of the day. The success was so prompt and + complete, that the king was inclined to attribute it to the help of + Rammân, and he made an offering to the temple of this god at Assur of all + the copper, whether wrought or in ore, which was found among the spoil of + the vanquished. He was recalled almost immediately after this victory by a + sedition among the Kurkhi near the sources of the Tigris. One of their + tribes, known as the Sugi, who had not as yet suffered from the invaders, + had concentrated round their standards contingents from some half-dozen + cities, and the united force was, to the number of six thousand, drawn up + on Mount Khirikhâ. Tiglath-pileser was again victorious, and took from + them twenty-five statues of their gods, which he despatched to Assyria to + be distributed among the sanctuaries of Belît at Assur, of Anu, Bammân, + and of Ishtar. Winter obliged him to suspend operations. When he again + resumed them at the beginning of his third year, both the Kummukh and the + Kurkhi were so peaceably settled that he was able to carry his expeditions + without fear of danger further north, into the regions of the Upper + Euphrates between the Halys and Lake Van, a district then known as Naîri. + He marched diagonally across the plain of Diarbekîr, penetrated through + dense forests, climbed sixteen mountain ridges one after the other by + paths hitherto considered impracticable, and finally crossed the Euphrates + by improvised bridges, this being, as far as we know, the first time that + an Assyrian monarch had ventured into the very heart of those countries + which had formerly constituted the Hittite empire. + </p> + <p> + He found them occupied by rude and warlike tribes, who derived + considerable wealth from working the mines, and possessed each their own + special sanctuary, the ruins of which still appear above ground, and + invite the attention of the explorer. Their fortresses must have all more + or less resembled that city of the Pterians which flourished for so many + ages just at the bend of the Halys;* its site is still marked by a mound + rising to some thirty feet above the plain, resembling the platforms on + which the Chaldæan temples were always built—a few walls of burnt + brick, and within an enclosure, among the débris of rudely built houses, + the ruins of some temples and palaces consisting of large irregular blocks + of stone. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The remains of the palace of the city of the Pterians, the + present Euyuk, are probably later than the reign of Tiglath- + pileser, and may be attributed to the Xth or IXth century + before our era; they, however, probably give a very fair + idea of what the towns of the Cappadocian region were like + at the time of the first Assyrian invasions. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0053" id="Bimage-0053"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/216.jpg" alt="216.jpg General View of the Ruins Of Euyuk " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0054" id="Bimage-0054"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/217.jpg" alt="217.jpg the Sphinx on The Right of Euyuk " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + Two colossal sphinxes guard the gateway of the principal edifice, and + their presence proves with certainty how predominant was Egyptian + influence even at this considerable distance from the banks of the Nile. + They are not the ordinary sphinxes, with a human head surmounting the body + of a lion couchant on its stone pedestal; but, like the Assyrian bulls, + they are standing, and, to judge from the Hathorian locks which fall on + each side of their countenances, they must have been intended to represent + a protecting goddess rather than a male deity. A remarkable emblem is + carved on the side of the upright to which their bodies are attached; it + is none other than the double-headed eagle, the prototype of which is not + infrequently found at Telloh in Lower Chaldæa, among remains dating from + the time of the kings and vicegerents of Lagash. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0055" id="Bimage-0055"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/218.jpg" + alt="218.jpg Two Blocks Covered With Bas-reliefs in the Euyuk Palace " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + The court or hall to which this gate gave access was decorated with + bas-reliefs, which exhibit a glaring imitation of Babylonian art; we can + still see on these the king, vested in his long flowing robes, praying + before an altar, while further on is a procession of dignitaries following + a troop of rams led by a priest to be sacrificed; another scene represents + two individuals in the attitude of worship, wearing short loin-cloths, and + climbing a ladder whose upper end has an uncertain termination, while a + third person applies his hands to his mouth in the performance of some + mysterious ceremony; beyond these are priests and priestesses moving in + solemn file as if in the measured tread of some sacred dance, while in one + corner we find the figure of a woman, probably a goddess, seated, holding + in one hand a flower, perhaps the full-blown lotus, and in the other a cup + from which she is about to drink. The costume of all these figures is that + which Chaldæan fashion had imposed upon the whole of Western Asia, and + consisted of the long heavy robe, falling from the shoulders to the feet, + drawn in at the waist by a girdle; but it is to be noted that both sexes + are shod with the turned-up shoes of the Hittites, and that the women wear + high peaked caps. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0056" id="Bimage-0056"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/219.jpg" alt="219.jpg Mystic Scene at Euyuk " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0057" id="Bimage-0057"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/220.jpg" alt="220.jpg an Asiatic Goddess " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The composition of the scenes is rude, the drawing incorrect, and the + general technique reminds us rather of the low reliefs of the Memphite or + Theban sculptors than of the high projection characteristic of the artists + of the Lower Euphrates. These slabs of sculptured stone formed a facing at + the base of the now crumbling brick walls, the upper surface of which was + covered with rough plastering. Here and there a few inscriptions reveal + the name, titles, and parentage of some once celebrated personage, and + mention the god in whose honour he had achieved the work. + </p> + <p> + The characters in which these inscriptions are written are not, as a rule, + incised in the stone, but are cut in relief upon its surface, and if some + few of them may remind us of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, the majority are + totally unlike them, both in form and execution. A careful examination of + them reveals a medley of human and animal outlines, geometrical figures, + and objects of daily use, which all doubtless corresponded to some letter + or syllable, but to which we have as yet no trustworthy key. This system + of writing is one of a whole group of Asiatic scripts, specimens of which + are common in this part of the world from Crete to the banks of the + Euphrates and Orontes. It is thought that the Khâti must have already + adopted it before their advent to power, and that it was they who + propagated it in Northern Syria. It did not take the place of the + cuneiform syllabary for ordinary purposes of daily life owing to its + clumsiness and complex character, but its use was reserved for monumental + inscriptions of a royal or religious kind, where it could be suitably + employed as a framework to scenes or single figures. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0058" id="Bimage-0058"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/221.jpg" + alt="221.jpg the Asiatic Inscription of Kolitolu-yaÎla " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Hogarth. +</pre> + <p> + It, however, never presented the same graceful appearance and arrangement + as was exhibited in the Egyptian hieroglyphs, the signs placed side by + side being out of proportion with each other so as to destroy the general + harmony of the lines, and it must be regarded as a script still in process + of formation and not yet emerged from infancy. Every square yard of soil + turned up among the ruins of the houses of Euyuk yields vestiges of tools, + coarse pottery, terra-cotta and bronze statuettes of men and animals, and + other objects of a not very high civilization. The few articles of luxury + discovered, whether in furniture or utensils, were not indigenous + products, but were imported for the most part from Chaldæa, Syria, + Phoenicia, and perhaps from Egypt; some objects, indeed, came from the + coast-towns of the Ægean, thus showing that Western influence was already + in contact with the traditions of the East. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0059" id="Bimage-0059"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/222.jpg" alt="222.jpg Double Scend of Offerings " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Paucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Hogarth. It + will be remarked that both altars are in the form of a + female without a head, but draped in the Assyrian robe. +</pre> + <p> + All the various races settled between the Halys and the Orontes were more + or less imbued with this foreign civilization, and their monuments, though + not nearly so numerous as those of the Pharaohs and Ninevite kings, bear, + nevertheless, an equally striking evidence of its power. Examples of it + have been pointed out in a score of different places in the valleys of the + Taurus and on the plains of Cappadocia, in bas-reliefs, steke, seals, and + intaglios, several of which must be nearly contemporaneous with the first + Assyrian conquest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0060" id="Bimage-0060"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/223.jpg" alt="223.jpg the Bas-relief of Ibriz " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Hogarth. +</pre> + <p> + One instance of it appears on the rocks at Ibriz, where a king stands in a + devout attitude before a jovial giant whose hands are full of grapes and + wheat-ears, while in another bas-relief near Frakhtîn we have a double + scene of sacrifice. The rock-carving at Ibriz is, perhaps, of all the + relics of a forgotten world, that which impresses the spectator most + favourably. The concept of the scene is peculiarly naïve; indeed, the two + figures are clumsily brought together, though each of them, when examined + separately, is remarkable for its style and execution. The king has a + dignified bearing in spite of his large head, round eyes, and the + unskilful way in which his arms are set on his body. The figure of the god + is not standing firmly on both feet, but the sculptor has managed to + invest him with an air of grandeur and an expression of vigour and <i>bonhomie,</i> + which reminds us of certain types of the Greek Hercules. + </p> + <p> + Tiglath-pileser was probably attracted to Asia Minor as much by + considerations of mercantile interest as by the love of conquest or desire + for spoil. It would, indeed, have been an incomparable gain for him had he + been able, if not to seize the mines themselves, at least to come into + such close proximity to them that he would be able to monopolise their + entire output, and at the same time to lay hands on the great commercial + highway to the trade centres of the west. The eastern terminus of this + route lay already within his domains, namely, that which led to Assur by + way of Amid, Nisibe, Singar, and the valley of the Upper Tigris; he was + now desirous of acquiring that portion of it which wound its way from the + fords of the Euphrates at Malatîyeh to the crossing of the Halys. The + changes which had just taken place in Kummukh and Nairi had fully aroused + the numerous petty sovereigns of the neighbourhood. The bonds which kept + them together had not been completely severed at the downfall of the + Hittite empire, and a certain sense of unity still lingered among them in + spite of their continual feuds; they constituted, in fact, a sort of loose + confederation, whose members never failed to help one another when they + were threatened by a common enemy. As soon as the news of an Assyrian + invasion reached them, they at once put aside their-mutual quarrels and + combined to oppose the invader with their united forces. Tiglath-pileser + had, therefore, scarcely crossed the Euphrates before he was attacked on + his right flank by twenty-three petty kings of Naîri,* while sixty other + chiefs from the same neighbourhood bore down upon him in front. He + overcame the first detachment of the confederates, though not without a + sharp struggle; he carried carnage into their ranks, “as it were the + whirlwind of Eammân,” and seized a hundred and twenty of the enemy’s + chariots. The sixty chiefs, whose domains extended as far as the “Upper + Sea,” ** were disconcerted by the news of the disaster, and of their own + accord laid down their arms, or offered but a feeble resistance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The text of the Annals of the Xth year give thirty instead + of twenty-three; in the course of five or six years the + numbers have already become exaggerated. + + ** The site of the “Upper Sea” has furnished material for + much discussion. Some believe it to be the Caspian Sea or + the Black Sea, others take it to be Lake Van, while some + think it to be the Mediterranean, and more particularly the + Gulf of Issus between Syria and Cilicia. At the present day + several scholars have returned to the theory which makes it + the Black Sea. +</pre> + <p> + Tiglath-pileser presented some of them in chains to the god Shamash; he + extorted an oath of vassalage from them, forced them to give up their + children as hostages, and laid a tax upon them <i>en masse</i> of 1200 + stallions and 2000 bulls, after which he permitted them to return to their + respective towns. He had, however, singled out from among them to grace + his own triumph, Sini of Dayana, the only chief among them who had offered + him an obstinate resistance; but even he was granted his liberty after he + had been carried captive to Assur, and made to kneel before the gods of + Assyria.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Dayani, which is mentioned in the Annals of Shalmaneser + II., has been placed on the banks of the Murad-su by + Schrader, and more particularly in the neighbourhood of + Melasgerd by Sayce; Delattre has shown that it was the last + and most westerly of twenty-three kingdoms conquered by + Tiglath-pileser I., and that it was consequently enclosed + between the Murad-su and the Euphrates proper. +</pre> + <p> + Before returning to the capital, Tiglath-pileser attacked Khanigalbat, and + appeared before Milidia: as the town attempted no defence, he spared it, + and contented himself with levying a small contribution upon its + inhabitants. This expedition was rather of the nature of a reconnaissance + than a conquest, but it helped to convince the king of the difficulty of + establishing any permanent suzerainty over the country. The Asiatic + peoples were quick to bow before a sudden attack; but no sooner had the + conqueror departed, than those who had sworn him eternal fealty sought + only how best to break their oaths. The tribes in immediate proximity to + those provinces which had been long subject to the Assyrian rule, were + intimidated into showing some respect for a power which existed so close + to their own borders. But those further removed from the seat of + government felt a certain security in their distance from it, and were + tempted to revert to the state of independence they had enjoyed before the + conquest; so that unless the sovereign, by a fresh campaign, promptly made + them realise that their disaffection would not remain unpunished, they + soon forgot their feudatory condition and the duties which it entailed. + </p> + <p> + Three years of merciless conflict with obstinate and warlike mountain + tribes had severely tried the Assyrian army, if it had not worn out the + sovereign; the survivors of so many battles were in sore need of a + well-merited repose, the gaps left by death had to be filled, and both + infantry and chariotry needed the re-modelling of their corps. The fourth + year of the king’s reign, therefore, was employed almost entirely in this + work of reorganisation; we find only the record of a raid of a few weeks + against the Akhlamî and other nomadic Aramæans situated beyond the + Mesopotamian steppes. The Assyrians spread over the district between the + frontiers of Sukhi and the fords of Carchemish for a whole day, killing + all who resisted, sacking the villages and laying hands on slaves and + cattle. The fugitives escaped over the Euphrates, vainly hoping that they + would be secure in the very heart of the Khâti. Tiglath-pileser, however, + crossed the river on rafts supported on skins, and gave the provinces of + Mount Bishri over to fire and sword:* six walled towns opened their gates + to him without having ventured to strike a blow, and he quitted the + country laden with spoil before the kings of the surrounding cities had + had time to recover from their alarm. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The country of Bishri was situated, as the <i>Annals</i> point + out, in the immediate neighbourhood of Carchemish. The name + is preserved in that of Tell Basher still borne by the + ruins, and a modern village on the banks of the Sajur. The + Gebel Bishri to which Hommel alludes is too far to the south + to correspond to the description given in the inscription of + Tiglath-pileser. +</pre> + <p> + This expedition was for Tiglath-pileser merely an interlude between two + more serious campaigns; and with the beginning of his fifth year he + reappeared in the provinces of the Upper Euphrates to complete his + conquest of them. He began by attacking and devastating Musri, which lay + close to the territory of Milid. While thus occupied he was harassed by + bands of Kumani; he turned upon them, overcame them, and imprisoned the + remainder of them in the fortress of Arini, at the foot of Mount Aisa, + where he forced them to kiss his feet. His victory over them, however, did + not disconcert their neighbours. The bulk of the Kumani, whose troops had + scarcely suffered in the engagement, fortified themselves on Mount Tala, + to the number of twenty thousand; the king carried the heights by assault, + and hotly pursued the fugitives as far as the range of Kharusa before + Musri, where the fortress of Khunusa afforded them a retreat behind its + triple walls of brick. The king, nothing daunted, broke his way through + them one after another, demolished the ramparts, razed the houses, and + strewed the ruins with salt; he then constructed a chapel of brick as a + sort of trophy, and dedicated within it what was known as a copper + thunderbolt, being an image of the missile which Eammân, the god of + thunder, brandished in the face of his enemies. An inscription engraved on + the object recorded the destruction of Khunusa, and threatened with every + divine malediction the individual, whether an Assyrian or a stranger, who + should dare to rebuild the city. This victory terrified the Kumani, and + their capital, Kibshuna, opened its gates to the royal troops at the first + summons. Tiglath-pileser completely destroyed the town, but granted the + inhabitants their lives on condition of their paying tribute; he chose + from among them, however, three hundred families who had shown him the + most inveterate hostility, and sent them as exiles into Assyria.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The country of the Kumani or Kammanu is really the + district of Comana in Cataonia, and not the Comana Pontica + or the Khammanene on the banks of the Halys. Delattre thinks + that Tiglath-pileser penetrated into this region by the + Jihun, and consequently seeks to identify the names of towns + and mountains, e.g. Mount Ilamuni with Jaur-dagh, the + Kharusa with Shorsh-dagh, and the Tala with the Kermes-dagh; + but it is difficult to believe that, if the king took this + route, he would not mention the town of Marqasi-Marash, + which lay at the very foot of the Jaur-dagh, and would have + stopped his passage. It is more probable that the Assyrians, + starting from Melitene, which they had just subdued, would + have followed the route which skirts the northern slope of + the Taurus by Albistan; the scene of the conflict in this + case would probably have been the mountainous district of + Zeitûn. +</pre> + <p> + With this victory the first half of his reign drew to its close; in five + years Tiglath-pileser had subjugated forty-two peoples and their princes + within an area extending from the banks of the Lower Zab to the plains of + the Khâti, and as far as the shores of the Western Seas. He revisited more + than once these western and northern regions in which he had gained his + early triumphs. The reconnaissance which he had made around Carchemish had + revealed to him the great wealth of the Syrian table-land, and that a + second raid in that direction could be made more profitable than ten + successful campaigns in Naîri or upon the banks of the Zab. He therefore + marched his battalions thither, this time to remain for more than a few + days. He made his way through the whole breadth of the country, pushed + forward up the valley of the Orontes, crossed the Lebanon, and emerged + above the coast of the Mediterranean in the vicinity of Arvad. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0061" id="Bimage-0061"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/230.jpg" + alt="230.jpg Sacrifice Offered Before the Royal Stele " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the bas-reliefs on the + bronze gates of Balawât. +</pre> + <p> + This is the first time for many centuries that an Oriental sovereign had + penetrated so far west; and his contemporaries must have been obliged to + look back to the almost fabulous ages of Sargon of Agadê or of Khammurabi, + to find in the long lists of the dynasties of the Euphrates any record of + a sovereign who had planted his standards on the shores of the Sea of the + Setting Sun.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *This is the name given by the Assyrians to the + Mediterranean. +</pre> + <p> + Tiglath-pileser embarked on its waters, made a cruise into the open, and + killed a porpoise, but we have no record of any battles fought, nor do we + know how he was received by the Phoenician towns. He pushed on, it is + thought, as far as the Nahr el-Kelb, and the sight of the hieroglyphic + inscriptions which Ramses had caused to be cut there three centuries + previously aroused his emulation. Assyrian conquerors rarely quitted the + scene of their exploits without leaving behind them some permanent + memorial of their presence. A sculptor having hastily smoothed the surface + of a rock, cut out on it a figure of the king, to which was usually added + a commemorative inscription. In front of this stele was erected an altar, + upon which sacrifices were made, and if the monument was placed near a + stream or the seashore, the soldiers were accustomed to cast portions of + the victims into the water in order to propitiate the river-deities. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0062" id="Bimage-0062"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/231.jpg" + alt="231.jpg Portions of the Sacrificial Victims Thrown Into The Water " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the bas-reliefs on the + bronze gates of Balawât. +</pre> + <p> + One of the half-effaced Assyrian stelæ adjoining those of the Egyptian + conqueror is attributed to Tiglath-pileser.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *Boscawen thinks that we may attribute to Tiglath-pileser I. + the oldest of the Assyrian stelæ at Nahr el-Kelb; no + positive information has as yet confirmed this hypothesis, + which is in other respects very probable. +</pre> + <p> + It was on his return, perhaps, from this campaign that he planted colonies + at Pitru on the right, and at Mutkînu on the left bank of the Euphrates, + in order to maintain a watch over Carchemish, and the more important fords + connecting Mesopotamia with the plains of the Apriê and the Orontes.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The existence of these colonies is known only from an + inscription of Shalmaneser II. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0063" id="Bimage-0063"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/233.jpg" + alt="233.jpg the Stele at Sebenneh-su " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a sketch by +P. Taylor, in +G. Rawlinson. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The news of Tiglath-pileser’s expedition was not long in reaching the + Delta, and the Egyptian monarch then reigning at Tanis was thus made + acquainted with the fact that there had arisen in Syria a new power before + which his own was not unlikely to give way. In former times such news + would have led to a war between the two states, but the time had gone by + when Egypt was prompt to take up arms at the slightest encroachment on her + Asiatic provinces. Her influence at this time was owing merely to her + former renown, and her authority beyond the isthmus was purely + traditional. The Tanite Pharaoh had come to accept with resignation the + change in the fortunes of Egypt, and he therefore contented himself with + forwarding to the Assyrian conqueror, by one of the Syrian coasting + vessels, a present of some rare wild beasts and a few crocodiles. In olden + times Assyria had welcomed the arrival of Thûtmosis III. on the Euphrates + by making him presents, which the Theban monarch regarded in the light of + tribute: the case was now reversed, the Egyptian Pharaoh taking the + position formerly occupied by the Assyrian monarch. Tiglath-pileser + graciously accepted this unexpected homage, but the turbulent condition of + the northern tribes prevented his improving the occasion by an advance + into Phoenicia and the land of Canaan. Naîri occupied his attention on two + separate occasions at least; on the second of these he encamped in the + neighbourhood of the source of the river Subnat. This stream, had for a + long period issued from a deep grotto, where in ancient times a god was + supposed to dwell. The conqueror was lavish in religious offerings here, + and caused a bas-relief to be engraved on the entrance in remembrance of + his victories. + </p> + <p> + He is here represented as standing upright, the tiara on his brow, and his + right arm extended as if in the act of worship, while his left, the elbow + brought up to his side, holds a club. The inscription appended to the + figure tells, with an eloquence all the more effective from its brevity, + how, “with the aid of Assur, Shamash, and Eammân, the great gods, my + lords, I, Tiglath-pileser, King of Assyria, son of Assurîshishî, King of + Assyria, son of Mutakkilnusku, King of Assyria, conqueror from the great + sea, the Mediterranean, to the great sea of Naîri, I went for the third + time to Naîri.” + </p> + <p> + The gods who had so signally favoured the monarch received the greater + part of the spoils which he had secured in his campaigns. The majority of + the temples of Assyria, which were founded at a time when its city was + nothing more than a provincial capital owing allegiance to Babylon, were + either, it would appear, falling to ruins from age, or presented a sorry + exterior, utterly out of keeping with the magnitude of its recent wealth. + The king set to work to enlarge or restore the temples of Ishtar, Martu, + and the ancient Bel;* he then proceeded to rebuild, from the foundations + to the summit, that of Anu and Bammân, which the vicegerent Samsirammân, + son of Ismidagan, had constructed seven hundred and one years previously. + This temple was the principal sanctuary of the city, because it was the + residence of the chief of the gods, Assur, under his appellation of Anu.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * “Bel the ancient,” or possibly “the ancient master,” + appears to have been one of the names of Anu, who is + naturally in this connexion the same as Assur. + + ** This was the great temple of which the ruins still exist. +</pre> + <p> + The soil was cleared away down to the bed-rock, upon which an enormous + substructure, consisting of fifty courses of bricks, was laid, and above + this were erected two lofty ziggurâts, whose tile-covered surfaces shone + like the rising sun in their brightness; the completion of the whole was + commemorated by a magnificent festival. The special chapel of Bammân and + his treasury, dating from the time of the same Samsirammân who had raised + the temple of Anu, were also rebuilt on a more important scale.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The British Museum possesses bricks bearing the name of + Tiglath-pileser I., brought from this temple, as is shown by + the inscription on their sides. +</pre> + <p> + These works were actively carried on notwithstanding the fact that war was + raging on the frontier; however preoccupied he might be with warlike + projects, Tiglath-pileser never neglected the temples, and set to work to + collect from every side materials for their completion and adornment. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0064" id="Bimage-0064"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/235.jpg" + alt="235.jpg Transport of Building Materials by Water " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief on the bronze + doors at Balawât. +</pre> + <p> + He brought, for example, from Naîri such marble and hard stone as might be + needed for sculptural purposes, together with the beams of cedar and + cypress required by his carpenters. The mountains of Singar and of the Zab + furnished the royal architects with building stone for ordinary uses, and + for those facing slabs of bluish gypsum on which the bas-reliefs of the + king’s exploits were carved; the blocks ready squared were brought down + the affluents of the Tigris on rafts or in boats, and thus arrived at + their destination without land transport. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0065" id="Bimage-0065"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/236.jpg" + alt="236.jpg Rare Animals Brought Back As Trophies by The King " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the cast in the Louvre. The + original is in the British Museum. +</pre> + <p> + The kings of Assyria, like the Pharaohs, had always had a passion for rare + trees and strange animals; as soon as they entered a country, they + inquired what natural curiosities it contained, and they would send back + to their own land whatever specimens of them could be procured. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0066" id="Bimage-0066"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/237.jpg" alt="237.jpg Monkey Brought Back As Tribute " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the bas-relief in Layard. +</pre> + <p> + The triumphal <i>cortege</i> which accompanied the monarch on his return + after each campaign comprised not only prisoners and spoil of a useful + sort, but curiosities from all the conquered districts, as, for instance, + animals of unusual form or habits, rhinoceroses and crocodiles,* and if + some monkey of a rare species had been taken in the sack of a town, it + also would find a place in the procession, either held in a leash or + perched on the shoulders of its keeper. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A crocodile sent as a present by the King of Egypt is + mentioned in the <i>Inscription of the Broken Obelisk</i>. The + animal is called <i>namsukha</i>, which is the Egyptian <i>msuhu</i> + with the plural article <i>na.</i> +</pre> + <p> + The campaigns of the monarch were thus almost always of a double nature, + comprising not merely a conflict with men, but a continual pursuit of wild + beasts. Tiglath-pileser, “in the service of Ninib, had killed four great + specimens of the male urus in the desert of Mitanni, near to the town of + Arazîki, opposite to the countries of the Khâti;* he killed them with his + powerful bow, his dagger of iron, his pointed lance, and he brought back + their skins and horns to his city of Assur. He secured ten strong male + elephants, in the territory of Harrân and upon the banks of the Khabur, + and he took four of them alive: he brought back their skins and their + tusks, together with the living elephants, to his city of Assur.” He + killed moreover, doubtless also in the service of Ninib, a hundred and + twenty lions, which he attacked on foot, despatching eight hundred more + with arrows from his chariot,** all within the short space of five years, + and we may well ask what must have been the sum total, if the complete + record for his whole reign were extant. We possess, unfortunately, no + annals of the later years of this monarch; we have reason to believe that + he undertook several fresh expeditions into Nairi,*** and a mutilated + tablet records some details of troubles with Elam in the Xth year of his + reign. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The town of Arazîki has been identified with the Eragiza + (Eraziga) of Ptolemy; the Eraziga of Ptolemy was on the + right bank of the Euphrates, while the text of Tiglath- + pileser appears to place Arazîki on the left bank. + + ** The account of the hunts in the <i>Annals</i> is supplemented + by the information furnished in the first column of the + “Broken Obelisk.” The monument is of the time of Assur-nazir- + pal, but the first column contains an abstract from an + account of an anonymous hunt, which a comparison of numbers + and names leads us to attribute to Tiglath-pileser I.; some + Assyri-ologists, however, attribute it to Assur-nazir-pal. + + * The inscription of Sebbeneh-Su was erected at the time of + the third expedition into Naîri, and the <i>Annals</i> give only + one; the other two expeditions must, therefore, be + subsequent to the Vth year of his reign. +</pre> + <p> + We gather that he attacked a whole series of strongholds, some of whose + names have a Cossæan ring about them, such as Madkiu, Sudrun, Ubrukhundu, + Sakama, Shuria, Khirishtu, and Andaria. His advance in this direction must + have considerably provoked the Chaldæans, and, indeed, it was not long + before actual hostilities broke out between the two nations. The first + engagement took place in the valley of the Lower Zab, in the province of + Arzukhina, without any decisive result, but in the following year fortune + favoured the Assyrians, for Dur-kurigalzu, both Sipparas, Babylon, and Upi + opened their gates to them, while Akar-sallu, the Akhlamê, and the whole + of Sukhi as far as Eapîki tendered their submission to + Tiglath-achuch-sawh-akhl-pileser. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0067" id="Bimage-0067"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/239.jpg" alt="239.jpg Merodach-nadin-akhi " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from the heliogravure +in Pr. Lenormant. The +original is in the +British Museum. It is +one of the boundary +stones which were set +up in a corner of a +field to mark its +legal limit. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + Merodach-nadin-akhi, who was at this time reigning in Chaldæa, was like + his ancestor Nebuchadrezzar I., a brave and warlike sovereign: he appears + at first to have given way under the blow thus dealt him, and to have + acknowledged the suzerainty of his rival, who thereupon assumed the title + of Lord of the four Houses of the World, and united under a single empire + the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. But this state of things lasted + for a few years only; Merodach-nadin-akhi once more took courage, and, + supported by the Chaldæan nobility, succeeded in expelling the intruders + from Sumir and Akkad. The Assyrians, however, did not allow themselves to + be driven out without a struggle, but fortune turned against them; they + were beaten, and the conqueror inflicted on the Assyrian gods the + humiliation to which they had so often subjected those of other nations. + He took the statues of Eammân and Shala from Ekallati, carried them to + Babylon, and triumphantly set them up within the temple of Bel. There they + remained in captivity for 418 years.* Tiglath-pileser did not long survive + this disaster, for he died about the year 1100 B.C.,** and two of his sons + succeeded him on the throne. The elder, Assur-belkala,*** had neither + sufficient energy nor resources to resume the offensive, and remained a + passive spectator of the revolutions which distracted Babylon. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We know this fact from the inscription of Bavian, in which + Sennacherib boasts of having brought back these statues to + Assyria after they had been 418 years in the possession of + the enemy. I have followed the commonly received opinion, + which places the defeat of Tiglath-pileser after the taking + of Babylon; others think that it preceded the decisive + victory of the Assyrians. It is improbable that, if the loss + of the statues preceded the decisive victory, the Assyrian + conquerors should have left their gods prisoners in a + Babylonian temple, and should not have brought them back + immediately to Ekallati. + + ** The death of Tiglath-pileser must have followed quickly + on the victory of Babylon; the contents of the inscription + of Bavian permit us to fix the taking of Ekallati by the + Chaldæans about the year 1108-1106 B.C. We shall not be far + wrong in supposing Tiglath-pileser to have reigned six or + eight years after his defeat. + + *** I followed the usually received classification. It is, + however, possible that we must reverse the order of the + sovereigns. +</pre> + <p> + Merodach-nadin-akhi had been followed by his son Merodach-shapîk-zîrîm,* + but this prince was soon dethroned by the people, and Bammân-abaliddîn, a + man of base extraction, seized the crown. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name of the Babylonian king has been variously read + Merodach-shapîk-zirat, Merodach-shapîk-kullat, Merodach- + shapîk-zirmâti and Merodach-shapîk-zîrîm. +</pre> + <p> + Assur-belkala not only extended to this usurper the friendly relations he + had kept up with the legitimate sovereign, but he asked for the hand of + his daughter in marriage, and the rich dowry which she brought her husband + no doubt contributed to the continuation of his pacific policy. He appears + also to have kept possession of all the parts of Mesopotamia and Kammukh + conquered by his father, and it is possible that he may have penetrated + beyond the Euphrates. His brother, Samsi-rammân III., does not appear to + have left any more definite mark upon history than Assur-belkala; he + decorated the temples built by his predecessors, but beyond this we have + no certain record of his achievements. We know nothing of the kings who + followed him, their names even having been lost, but about a century and a + half after Tiglath-pileser, a certain Assurirba seems to have crossed + Northern Syria, and following in the footsteps of his great ancestor, to + have penetrated as far as the Mediterranean: on the rocks of Mount Amanus, + facing the sea, he left a triumphal inscription in which he set forth the + mighty deeds he had accomplished. This is merely a gleam out of the murky + night which envelops his history, and the testimony of one of his + descendants informs us that his good fortune soon forsook him: the + Aramaeans wrested from him the fortresses of Pitru and Mutkînu, which + commanded both banks of the Euphrates near Carchemish. Nor did the + retrograde movement slaken after his time: Assyria slowly wasted away down + to the end of the Xth century, and but for the simultaneous decadence of + the Chaldaeans, its downfall would have been complete. But neither + Rammân-abaliddîn nor his successor was able to take advantage of its + weakness; discord and want of energy soon brought about their own ruin. + The dynasty of Pashê disappeared towards the middle of the Xth century, + and a family belonging to the “Countries of the Sea” took its place: it + had continued for about one hundred and thirty-two years, and had produced + eleven kings.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is no easy matter to draw up an exact list of this + dynasty, and Hilprecht’s attempt to do so contains more than + one doubtful name. The following list is very imperfect and + doubtful, but the best that our present knowledge enables us + to put forward. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0068" id="Bimage-0068"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/242.jpg" alt="242.jpg Table of Kings " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <img alt="242b (37K)" src="images/242b.jpg" /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + What were the causes of this depression, from which Babylon suffered at + almost regular intervals, as though stricken with some periodic malady? + The main reason soon becomes apparent if we consider the nature of the + country and the material conditions of its existence. Chaldæa was neither + extensive enough nor sufficiently populous to afford a solid basis for the + ambition of her princes. Since nearly every man capable of bearing arms + was enrolled in the army, the Chaktean kings had no difficulty in raising, + at a moment’s notice, a force which could be employed to repel an + invasion, or make a sudden attack on some distant territory; it was in + schemes which required prolonged and sustained effort that they felt the + drawbacks of their position. In that age of hand-to-hand combats, the + mortality in battle was very high, forced marches through forests and + across mountains entailed a heavy loss of men, and three or four + consecutive campaigns against a stubborn foe soon reduced an army to a + condition of dangerous weakness. Recruits might be obtained to fill the + earlier vacancies in the ranks, but they soon grew fewer and fewer if time + was not given for recovery after the opening victories in the struggle, + and the supply eventually ceased if operations were carried on beyond a + certain period. + </p> + <p> + The total duration of the dynasty was, according to the Royal Canon, 72 + years 6 months. Peiser has shown that this is a mistake, and he proposes + to correct it to 132 years 6 months, and this is accepted by most + Assyri-ologists. + </p> + <p> + A reign which began brilliantly often came to an impotent conclusion, + owing to the king having failed to economise his reserves; and the + generations which followed, compelled to adopt a strictly defensive + attitude, vegetated in a sort of anaemic condition, until the birth-rate + had brought the proportion of males up to a figure sufficiently high to + provide the material for a fresh army. When Nebuchadrezzar made war upon + Assurîshishî, he was still weak from the losses he had incurred during the + campaign against Elam, and could not conduct his attack with the same + vigour as had gained him victory on the banks of the Ulaî; in the first + year he only secured a few indecisive advantages, and in the second he + succumbed. Merodach-nadin-akhi was suffering from the reverses sustained + by his predecessors when Tiglath-pileser provoked him to war, and though + he succeeded in giving a good account of an adversary who was himself + exhausted by dearly bought successes, he left to his descendants a kingdom + which had been drained of its last drop of blood. The same reason which + explains the decadence of Babylon shows us the cause of the periodic + eclipses undergone by Assyria after each outburst of her warlike spirit. + She, too, had to pay the penalty of an ambition which was out of all + proportion to her resources. The mighty deeds of Shalmaneser and + Tukulti-ninip were, as a natural consequence, followed by a state of + complete prostration under Tukultiassurbel and Assurnîrarî: the country + was now forced to pay for the glories of Assurîshishî and of + Tiglath-pileser by falling into an inglorious state of languor and + depression. Its kings, conscious that their rule must be necessarily + precarious as long as they did not possess a larger stock of recruits to + fall back on, set their wits to work to provide by various methods a more + adequate reserve. While on one hand they installed native Assyrians in the + more suitable towns of conquered countries, on the other they imported + whole hordes of alien prisoners chosen for their strength and courage, and + settled them down in districts by the banks of the Tigris and the Zab. We + do not know what Eammânirâni and Shalmaneser may have done in this way, + but Tiglath-pileser undoubtedly introduced thousands of the Mushku, the + Urumseans, the people of Kummukh and Naîri, and his example was followed + by all those of his successors whose history has come down to us. One + might have expected that such an invasion of foreigners, still smarting + under the sense of defeat, might have brought with it an element of + discontent or rebellion; far from it, they accepted their exile as a + judgment of the gods, which the gods alone had a right to reverse, and did + their best to mitigate the hardness of their lot by rendering unhesitating + obedience to their masters. Their grandchildren, born in the midst of + Assyrians, became Assyrians themselves, and if they did not entirely + divest themselves of every trace of their origin, at any rate became so + closely identified with the country of their adoption, that it was + difficult to distinguish them from the native race. The Assyrians who were + sent out to colonise recently acquired provinces were at times exposed to + serious risks. Now and then, instead of absorbing the natives among whom + they lived, they were absorbed by them, which meant a loss of so much + fighting strength to the mother country; even under the most favourable + conditions a considerable time must have passed before they could succeed + in assimilating to themselves the races amongst whom they lived. At last, + however, a day would dawn when the process of incorporation was + accomplished, and Assyria, having increased her area and resources + twofold, found herself ready to endure to the end the strain of conquest. + In the interval, she suffered from a scarcity of fighting men, due to the + losses incurred in her victories, and must have congratulated herself that + her traditional foe was not in a position to take advantage of this fact. + </p> + <p> + The first wave of the Assyrian invasion had barely touched Syria; it had + swept hurriedly over the regions in the north, and then flowed southwards + to return no more, so that the northern races were able to resume the + wonted tenor of their lives. For centuries after this their condition + underwent no change; there was the same repetition of dissension and + intrigue, the same endless succession of alliances and battles without any + signal advantage on either side. The Hittites still held Northern Syria: + Carchemish was their capital, and more than one town in its vicinity + preserved the tradition of their dress, their language, their arts, and + their culture in full vigour. The Greek legends tell us vaguely of some + sort of Cilician empire which is said to have brought the eastern and + central provinces of Asia Minor into subjection about ten centuries before + our era.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Solinus, relying on the indirect evidence of Hecatseus of + Miletus, tells us that Cilicia extended not only to the + countries afterwards known as Cataonia, Commagene, and + Syria, but also included Lydia, Media, Armenia, Pamphylia, + and Cappadocia; the conquests of the Assyrian kings must + have greatly reduced its area. I am of opinion that the + tradition preserved by Hecatous referred both to the + kingdom of Sapalulu and to that of the monarchs of this + second epoch. +</pre> + <p> + Is there any serious foundation for such a belief, and must we assume that + there existed at this time and in this part of the world a kingdom similar + to that of Sapalulu? Assyria was recruiting its forces, Chaldæa was kept + inactive by its helplessness, Egypt slumbered by the banks of its river, + there was no actor of the first rank to fill the stage; now was the + opportunity for a second-rate performer to come on the scene and play such + a part as his abilities permitted. The Cilician conquest, if this be + indeed the date at which it took place, had the boards to itself for a + hundred years after the defeat of Assurirba. The time was too short to + admit of its striking deep root in the country. Its leaders and men were, + moreover, closely related to the Syrian Hittites; the language they spoke + was, if not precisely the Hittite, at any rate a dialect of it; their + customs were similar, if, perhaps, somewhat less refined, as is often the + case with mountain races, when compared with the peoples of the plain. We + are tempted to conclude that some of the monuments found south of the + Taurus were their handiwork, or, at any rate, date from their time. For + instance, the ruined palace at Sinjirli, the lower portions of which are + ornamented with pictures similar to those at Pteria, representing + processions of animals, some real, others fantastic, men armed with lances + or bending the bow, and processions of priests or officials. Then there is + the great lion at Marash, which stands erect, with menacing head, its + snarling lips exposing the teeth; its body is seamed with the long lines + of an inscription in the Asiatic character, in imitation of those with + which the bulls in the Assyrian palaces are covered. These Cilicians gave + an impulse to the civilization of the Khâti which they sorely needed, for + the Semitic races, whom they had kept in subjection for centuries, now + pressed them hard on all the territory over which they had formerly + reigned, and were striving to drive them back into the hills. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0069" id="Bimage-0069"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/248.jpg" alt="248.jpg Lion at Makash " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph of the cast shown at the + Paris Exhibition of 1889. +</pre> + <p> + The Aramæans in particular gave them a great deal of trouble. The states + on the banks of the Euphrates had found them awkward neighbours; was this + the moment chosen by the Pukudu, the Eutu, the Gambulu, and a dozen other + Aramaean tribes, for a stealthy march across the frontier of Elam, between + Durilu and the coast? The tribes from which, soon after, the Kaldi nation + was formed, were marauding round Eridu, Uru, and Larsa, and may have + already begun to lay the foundations of their supremacy over Babylon: it + is, indeed, an open question whether those princes of the Countries of the + Sea who succeeded the Pashê dynasty did not come from the stock of the + Kaldi Aramaeans. While they were thus consolidating on the south-east, the + bulk of the nation continued to ascend northwards, and rejoined its + outposts in the central region of the Euphrates, which extends from the + Tigris to the Khabur, from the Khabur to the Balîkh and the Apriê. They + had already come into frequent conflict with most of the victorious + Assyrian kings, from Eammânirâri down to Tiglath-pileser; the weakness of + Assyria and Chaldæa gave them their opportunity, and they took full + advantage of it. They soon became masters of the whole of Mesopotamia; a + part of the table-land extending from Carchemish to Mount Amanus fell into + their hands, their activity was still greater in the basin of the Orontes, + and their advanced guard, coming into collision with the Amorites near the + sources of the Litany, began gradually to drive farther and farther + southwards all that remained of the races which had shown so bold a front + to the Egyptian troops. Here was an almost entirely new element, gradually + eliminating from the scene of the struggle other elements which had grown + old through centuries of war, and while this transformation was taking + place in Northern and Central, a similar revolution was effecting a no + less surprising metamorphosis in Southern Syria. There, too, newer races + had gradually come to displace the nations over which the dynasties of + Thûtmosis and Ramses had once held sway. The Hebrews on the east, the + Philistines and their allies on the south-west, were about to undertake + the conquest of the Kharu and its cities. As yet their strength was + inadequate, their temperament undecided, their system of government + imperfect; but they brought with them the quality of youth, and energies + which, rightly guided, would assure the nation which first found out how + to take advantage of them, supremacy over all its rivals, and the strength + necessary for consolidating the whole country into a single kingdom. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Bimage-0070" id="Bimage-0070"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/250.jpg" alt="250.jpg Tailpiece " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> <a name="Cimage-0005" id="Cimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/251.jpg" alt="251.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0006" id="Cimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/252.jpg" alt="252.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <i>THE HEBREWS AND THE PHILISTINES—DAMASCUS</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>THE ISRAELITES IN THE LAND OF CANAAN: THE JUDGES—THE PHILISTINES + AND THE HEBREW KINGDOM—SAUL, DAVID, SOLOMON, THE DEFECTION OF THE + TEN TRIBES—THE XXIst EGYPTIAN DYNASTY—SHESHONQ OR SHISHAK + DAMASCUS.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The Hebrews in the desert: their families, clans, and tribes—The + Amorites and the Hebrews on the left bank of the Jordan—The conquest + of Canaan and the native reaction against the Hebrews—The judges, + Ehud, Deborah, Jerubbaal or Gideon and the Manassite supremacy; Abimelech, + Jephihdh.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The Philistines, their political organisation, their army and fleet—Judah, + Dan, and the story of Samson—Benjamin on the Philistine frontier—Eli + and the ark of the covenant—The Philistine dominion over Israel; + Samuel, Saul, the Benjamite monarchy—David, his retreat to the + desert of Judah and his sojourn at Zilclag—The battle of Gilboa and + the death of Saul—The struggle between Ish-bosheth and David—David + sole king, and the final defeat of the Philistines—Jerusalem becomes + the capital; the removal of the ark—Wars with the peoples of the + East—Absalom’s rebellion; the coronation of Solomon.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Solomon’s government and his buildings—Phoenician colonisation in + Spain: Hiram I. and the enlargement of Tyre—The voyages to Ophir and + Tarshish—The palace at Jerusalem, the temple and its dedication: the + priesthood and prophets—The death of Solomon; the schism of the ten + tribes and the division of the Hebrew kingdom.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The XXIst Egyptian dynasty: the Theban high priests and the Tanite + Pharaohs—The Libyan mercenaries and their predominance in the state: + the origin of the XXIInd (Bubastite) dynasty—Sheshonq I. as king and + his son Aûpûti as high priest of Amon; the hiding-place at Deîr el-Baharî—Sheshonq’s + expedition against Jerusalem.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The two Hebrew “kingdoms”; the fidelity of Judah to the descendants of + Solomon, and the repeated changes of dynasty in Israel—Asa and + Baasha—The kingdom of Damascus and its origin—Bezon, + Tabrimmon, Benhadad I.—Omri and the foundation of Samaria: Ahab and + the Tyrian alliance—The successors of Hiram I. at Tyre: Ithobaal I.—The + prophets, their struggle against Phonician idolatry, the story of Elijah—The + wars between Israel and Damascus up to the time of the Assyrian invasion.</i> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="C2HCH0001" id="C2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="Cimage-0007" id="Cimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/253.jpg" alt="253.jpg Page Image " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER III—THE HEBREWS AND THE PHILISTINES—DAMASCUS + </h2> + <p> + <i>The Israelites in the land of Canaan: the judges—The Philistines + and the Hebrew kingdom—Saul, David, Solomon, the defection of the + ten tribes—the XXIst Egyptian dynasty—Sheshonq—Damascus.</i> + </p> + <p> + After reaching Kadesh-barnea, the Israelites in their wanderings had come + into contact with various Bedawin tribes—Kenites, Jerahmelites, + Edomites, and Midianites, with whom they had in turn fought or allied + themselves, according to the exigencies of their pastoral life. Continual + skirmishes had taught them the art of war, their numbers had rapidly + increased, and with this increase came a consciousness of their own + strength, so that, after a lapse of two or three generations, they may be + said to have constituted a considerable nation. Its component elements + were not, however, firmly welded together; they consisted of an indefinite + number of clans, which were again subdivided into several families. Each + of these families had its chief or “ruler,” to whom it rendered absolute + obedience, while the united chiefs formed an assembly of elders who + administered justice when required, and settled any differences which + arose among their respective followers. The clans in their turn were + grouped into tribes,* according to certain affinities which they mutually + recognised, or which may have been fostered by daily intercourse on a + common soil, but the ties which bound them together at this period were of + the most slender character. It needed some special event, such as a + projected migration in search of fresh pasturage, or an expedition against + a turbulent neighbour, or a threatened invasion by some stranger, to rouse + the whole tribe to corporate action; at such times they would elect a + “nasi,” or ruler, the duration of whose functions ceased with the + emergency which had called him into office.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The tribe was designated by two words signifying “staff” or + “branch.” + + ** The word <i>nasi,</i> first applied to the chiefs of the + tribes (<i>Exod.</i> xxxiv. 31; <i>Lev</i>. iv. 22; <i>Numb</i>. ii. 3), + became, after the captivity, the title of the chiefs of + Israel, who could not be called <i>kings</i> owing to the foreign + suzerainty (<i>Esdras</i> i. 8). +</pre> + <p> + Both clans and tribes were designated by the name of some ancestor from + whom they claimed to be descended, and who appears in some cases to have + been a god for whom they had a special devotion; some writers have + believed that this was also the origin of the names given to several of + the tribes, such as Gad, “Good Fortune,” or of the totems of the hyena and + the dog, in Arabic and Hebrew, “Simeon” and “Caleb.” * Gad, Simeon, and + Caleb were severally the ancestors of the families who ranged themselves + under their respective names, and the eponymous heroes of all the tribes + were held to have been brethren, sons of one father, and under the + protection of one God. He was known as the Jahveh with whom Abraham of old + had made a solemn covenant; His dwelling-place was Mount Sinai or Mount + Seîr, and He revealed Himself in the storm;** His voice was as the thunder + “which shaketh the wilderness,” His breath was as “a consuming fire,” and + He was decked with light “as with a garment.” When His anger was aroused, + He withheld the dew and rain from watering the earth; but when His wrath + was appeased, the heavens again poured their fruitful showers upon the + fields.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Simeon is derived by some from a word which at times + denotes a hyena, at others a cross between a dog and a + hyena, according to Arab lexicography. With regard to Caleb, + Renan prefers a different interpretation; it is supposed to + be a shortened form of Kalbel, and “Dog of El” is a strong + expression to denote the devotion of a tribe to its patron + god. + + ** Cf. the graphic description of the signs which + accompanied the manifestations of Jahveh in the <i>Song of + Deborah (Judges</i> v. 4, 5), and also in 1 <i>Kings</i> xix. 11-13. + + *** See 1 <i>Kings</i> xvii., xviii., where the conflict between + Elijah and the prophets of Baal for the obtaining of rain is + described. +</pre> + <p> + He is described as being a “jealous God,” brooking no rival, and “visiting + the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth + generation.” We hear of His having been adored under the figure of a + “calf,” * and of His Spirit inspiring His prophets, as well as of the + anointed stones which were dedicated in His honour. The common ancestor of + the nation was acknowledged to have been Jacob, who, by his wrestling with + God, had obtained the name of Israel; the people were divided + theoretically into as many tribes as he had sons, but the number twelve to + which they were limited does not entirely correspond with all that we know + up to the present time of these “children of Israel.” Some of the tribes + appear never to have had any political existence, as for example that of + Levi,** or they were merged at an early date into some fellow-tribe, as in + the case of Reuben with Gad;*** others, such as Ephraim, Manasseh, + Benjamin, and Judah, apparently did not attain their normal development + until a much later date. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The most common of these animal forms was that of a calf + or bull (Exod. xxxii.; Deut. ix. 21; and in the kingly + period, 1 Kings xii. 28-30; 2 Kings x. 29); we are not told + the form of the image of Micah the Ephraimite (Judges xviii. + 14, 17, 18, 20, 30, 31). + + ** Levi appears to have suffered dispersion after the events + of which there are two separate accounts combined in Gen. + xxxiv. In conjunction with Simeon, he appears to have + revenged the violation of his sister Dinah by a massacre of + the Shechemites, and the dispersion alluded to in Jacob’s + blessing (Gen. xlix. 5-7) is mentioned as consequent on this + act of barbarism. + + *** In the IXth century Mesha of Moab does not mention the + Reubenites, and speaks of the Gadites only as inhabiting the + territory formerly occupied by them. Tradition attributed + the misfortunes of the tribe to the crime of its chief in + his seduction of Bilhah, his father’s concubine (Gen. xlix. + 3, 4; cf. xxxv. 22) +</pre> + <p> + The Jewish chroniclers attempted by various combinations to prove that the + sacred number of tribes was the correct one. At times they included Levi + in the list, in which case Joseph was reckoned as one;* while on other + occasions Levi or Simeon was omitted, when for Joseph would be substituted + his two sons Ephraim and Manasseh.** In addition to this, the tribes were + very unequal in size: Ephraim, Gad, and Manasseh comprised many powerful + and wealthy families; Dan, on the contrary, contained so few, that it was + sometimes reckoned as a mere clan. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As, for instance, in Jacob’s blessing (Gen. xlix. 5-7) and + in the enumeration of the patriarch’s sons at the time of + his journey to Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 9-26). + + ** Numb. i. 20, et seq., where the descendants of Levi are + not included among the twelve, and Deut. xxxiii. 6-25, where + Simeon is omitted from among the tribes blessed by Moses + before his death. +</pre> + <p> + The tribal organisation had not reached its full development at the time + of the sojourn in the desert. The tribes of Joseph and Judah, who + subsequently played such important parts, were at that period not held in + any particular estimation; Reuben, on the other hand, exercised a sort of + right of priority over the rest.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This conclusion is drawn from the position of eldest son + given to him in all the genealogies enumerating the children + of Jacob. Stade, on the contrary, is inclined to believe + that this place of honour was granted to him on account of + the smallness of his family, to prevent any jealousy arising + between the more powerful tribes, such as Ephraim and Judah + (<i>Ges. des Vollces Isr.</i>, vol. i. pp. 151, 152). +</pre> + <p> + The territory which they occupied soon became insufficient to support + their numbers, and they sought to exchange it for a wider area, such as + was offered by the neighbouring provinces of Southern Syria. Pharaoh at + this time exercised no authority over this region, and they were, + therefore, no longer in fear of opposition from his troops; the latter had + been recalled to Egypt, and it is doubtful even whether he retained + possession of the Shephelah by means of his Zakkala and Philistine + colonies; the Hebrews, at any rate, had nothing to fear from him so long + as they respected Gaza and Ascalon. They began by attempting to possess + themselves of the provinces around Hebron, in the direction of the Dead + Sea, and we read that, before entering them, they sent out spies to + reconnoitre and report on the country.* Its population had undergone + considerable modifications since the Israelites had quitted Goshen. The + Amorites, who had seriously suffered from the incursions of Asiatic + hordes, and had been constantly harassed by the attacks of the Aramæans, + had abandoned the positions they had formerly occupied on the banks of the + Orontes and the Litany, and had moved southwards, driving the Canaanites + before them; their advance was accelerated as the resistance opposed to + their hordes became lessened under the successors of Ramses III., until at + length all opposition was withdrawn. They had possessed themselves of the + regions about the Lake of Genesareth, the mountain district to the south + of Tabor, the middle valley of the Jordan, and, pressing towards the + territory east of that river, had attacked the cities scattered over the + undulating table-land. This district had not been often subjected to + incursions of Egyptian troops, and yet its inhabitants had been more + impressed by Egyptian influence than many others. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0008" id="Cimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/259.jpg" alt="259.jpg the Amorite Astarte " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Paucher-Gudin, from the squeezes and sketches + published in the <i>Zeitschrift ties Palcistina-Vereins</i>. +</pre> + <p> + Whereas, in the north and west, cuneiform writing was almost entirely + used, attempts had been made here to adapt the hieroglyphs to the native + language. + </p> + <p> + The only one of their monuments which has been preserved is a rudely + carved bas-relief in black basalt, representing a two-horned Astarte, + before whom stands a king in adoration; the sovereign is Ramses II., and + the inscriptions accompanying the figures contain a religious formula + together with a name borrowed from one of the local dialects.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *This is the “Stone of Job” discovered by Strahmacher. The + inscription appears to give the name of a goddess, Agana- + Zaphon, the second part of which recalls the name of Baal- + Zephon. +</pre> + <p> + The Amorites were everywhere victorious, but our information is confined + to this bare fact; soon after their victory, however, we find the + territory they had invaded divided into two kingdoms: in the north that of + Bashan, which comprised, besides the Haurân, the plain watered by the + Yarrnuk; and to the south that of Heshbon, containing the district lying + around the Arnon, and the Jabbok to the east of the Dead Sea.* They seem + to have made the same rapid progress in the country between the Jordan and + the Mediterranean as elsewhere. They had subdued some of the small + Canaanite states, entered into friendly relation with others, and + penetrated gradually as far south as the borders of Sinai, while we find + them establishing petty kings among the hill-country of Shechem around + Hebron, on the confines of the Negeb, and the Shephelah.** When the Hebrew + tribes ventured to push forward in a direct line northwards, they came + into collision with the advance posts of the Amorite population, and + suffered a severe defeat under the walls of Hormah.*** The check thus + received, however, did not discourage them. As a direct course was closed + to them, they turned to the right, and followed, first the southern and + then the eastern shores of the Red Sea, till they reached the frontier of + Gilead.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The extension of the Amorite power in this direction is + proved by the facts relating to the kingdoms of Sihon and Og + Gent. i. 4, ii. 24-37, iii. 1-1.7. + + ** For the Amorite occupation of the Negeb and the hill- + country of Judah, cf. Numb. xiii. 29; Bent. i. 7, 19-46; + Josh. x. 5, 6, 12, xi. 3; for their presence in the + Shephelah, cf. Judges i. 34-36. + + *** See the long account in Numb, xiii., xiv., which + terminates with the mention of the defeat of the Israelites + at Hormah; and cf. Bent. i. 19-46. + + **** The itinerary given in Numb. xx. 22-29, xxxi., xxxiii. + 37-49, and repeated in Bent, ii., brings the Israelites as + far as Ezion-geber, in such a manner as to avoid the + Midianites and the Moabites. The friendly welcome accorded + to them in the regions situated to the east of the Dead Sea, + has been accounted for either by an alliance made with Moab + and Ammon against their common enemy, the Amorites, or by + the fact that Ammon and Moab did not as yet occupy those + regions; the inhabitants in that case would have been + Edomites and Midianites, who were in continual warfare with + each other. +</pre> + <p> + There again they were confronted by the Amorites, but in lesser numbers, + and not so securely entrenched within their fortresses as their + fellow-countrymen in the Negeb, so that the Israelites were able to + overthrow the kingdoms of Heshbon and Bashan.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * War against Sihon, King of Heshbon (Numb. xxi. 21-31; + Beut. ii. 26-37), and against Og, King of Bashan (Numb. xxi. + 32-35; Beut. iii. 1-13). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0009" id="Cimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/261.jpg" + alt="261.jpg the Valley of The Jabbok, Near to Its Confluence With the Jordan " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 336 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> +</pre> + <p> + Gad received as its inheritance nearly the whole of the territory lying + between the Jabbok and the Yarmuk, in the neighbourhood of the ancient + native sanctuaries of Penuel, Mahanaim, and Succoth, associated with the + memory of Jacob.* Reuben settled in the vicinity, and both tribes remained + there isolated from the rest. From this time forward they took but a + slight interest in the affairs of their brethren: when the latter demanded + their succour, “Gilead abode beyond Jordan,” and “by the watercourses of + Reuben there were great resolves at heart,” but without any consequent + action.** It was not merely due to indifference on their part; their + resources were fully taxed in defending themselves against the Aramæans + and Bedawins, and from the attacks of Moab and Ammon. Gad, continually + threatened, struggled for centuries without being discouraged, but Reuben + lost heart,*** and soon declined in power, till at length he became merely + a name in the memory of his brethren. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Gad did not possess the districts between the Jabbok and + the Arnon till the time of the early kings, and retained + them only till about the reign of Jehu, as we gather from + the inscription of Mesa. + + ** These are the very expressions used by the author of the + <i>Song of Deborah</i> in Judges v. 16, 17. + + *** The recollection of these raids by Reuben against the + Beduin of the Syrian desert is traceable in 1 Citron, v. 10, + 18-22. +</pre> + <p> + Two tribes having been thus provided for, the bulk of the Israelites + sought to cross the Jordan without further delay, and establish themselves + as best they might in the very heart of the Canaanites. The sacred + writings speak of their taking possession of the country by a methodic + campaign, undertaken by command of and under the visible protection of + Jahveh* Moses had led them from Egypt to Kadesh, and from Kadesh to the + land of Gilead; he had seen the promised land from the summit of Mount + Nebo, but he had not entered it, and after his death, Joshua, son of Nun, + became their leader, brought them across Jordan dryshod, not far from its + mouth, and laid siege to Jericho. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The history of the conquest is to be found in the <i>Book of + Joshua.</i> +</pre> + <p> + The walls of the city fell of themselves at the blowing of the brazen + trumpets,* and its capture entailed that of three neighbouring towns, Aï, + Bethel, and Shechem. Shechem served as a rallying-place for the + conquerors; Joshua took up his residence there, and built on the summit of + Mount Ebal an altar of stone, on which he engraved the principal tenets of + the divine Law.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Josh, i.-vi. + + ** Josh, vii., viii. Mount Ebal is the present Gebel + Sulemiyeh. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0010" id="Cimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/263.jpg" + alt="263.jpg One of the Mounds Of ÂÎn Es-sultÂn, The Ancient Jericho " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph brought back by Lortet. +</pre> + <p> + The sudden intrusion of a new element naturally alarmed the worshippers of + the surrounding local deities; they at once put a truce to their petty + discords, and united in arms against the strangers. At the instigation of + Adoni-zedeck, King of Jerusalem, the Canaanites collected their forces in + the south; but they were routed not far from Gibeon, and their chiefs + killed or mutilated.* The Amorites in the north, who had assembled round + Jabin, King of Hazor, met with no better success; they were defeated at + the waters of Merom, Hazor was burnt, and Galilee delivered to fire and + sword.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Josh. x. The same war is given rather differently in + Judges i. 1-9, where the king is called Adoni-bezek. + + ** Josh. xi. As another Jabin appears in the history of + Deborah, it has +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0011" id="Cimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/264.jpg" + alt="264.jpg the Jordan in The Neighbourhood of Jericho " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in Lortet. +</pre> + <p> + The country having been thus to a certain extent cleared, Joshua set about + dividing the spoil, and assigned to each tribe his allotted portion of + territory.* Such, in its main outlines, is the account given by the Hebrew + chroniclers; but, if closely examined, it would appear that the Israelites + did not act throughout with that unity of purpose and energy which they + [the Hebrew chroniclers] were pleased to imagine. They did not gain + possession of the land all at once, but established themselves in it + gradually by detachments, some settling at the fords of Jericho,** others + more to the north, and in the central valley of the Jordan as far up as + She-chem.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The lot given to each tribe is described in Josh, xiii.- + xxi. It has been maintained by some critics that there is a + double rôle assigned to one and the same person, only that + some maintain that the Jabin of Josh. xi. has been + transferred to the time of the Judges, while others make out + that the Jabin of Deborah was carried back to the time of + the conquest. + + ** Renan thinks that the principal crossing must have taken + place opposite Jericho, as is apparent from the account in + Josh, ii., iii. + + *** Carl Niebuhr believes that he has discovered the exact + spot at the ford of Admah, near Succoth. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0012" id="Cimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/265.jpg" alt="265.jpg One of the Wells Of Beersheba " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in Lortet. +</pre> + <p> + The latter at once came into contact with a population having a higher + civilization than themselves, and well equipped for a vigorous resistance; + the walled towns which had defied the veterans of the Pharaohs had not + much to fear from the bands of undisciplined Israelites wandering in their + neighbourhood. Properly speaking, there were no pitched battles between + them, but rather a succession of raids or skirmishes, in which several + citadels would successively fall into the hands of the invaders. Many of + these strongholds, harassed by repeated attacks, would prefer to come to + terms with the enemy, and would cede or sell them some portion of their + territory; others would open their gates freely to the strangers, and + their inhabitants would ally themselves by intermarriage with the Hebrews. + Judah and the remaining descendants of Simeon and Levi established + themselves in the south; Levi comprised but a small number of families, + and made no important settlements; whereas Judah took possession of nearly + the whole of the mountain district separating the Shephelah from the + western shores of the Dead Sea, while Simeon made its abode close by on + the borders of the desert around the wells of Beersheba.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Wellhausen has remarked that the lot of Levi must not be + separated from that of Simeon, and, as the remnant of Simeon + allied themselves with Judah, that of Levi also must have + shared the patrimony of Judah. +</pre> + <p> + The descendants of Rachel and her handmaid received as their inheritance + the regions situated more to the centre of the country, the house of + Joseph taking the best domains for its branches of Ephraim and Manasseh. + Ephraim received some of the old Canaanite sanctuaries, such as Ramah, + Bethel, and Shiloh, and it was at the latter spot that they deposited the + ark of the covenant. Manasseh settled to the north of Ephraim, in the + hills and valleys of the Carmel group, and to Benjamin were assigned the + heights which overlook the plain of Jericho. Four of the less important + tribes, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Zebulon, ventured as far north as + the borders of Tyre and Sidon, behind the Phoenician littoral, but were + prevented by the Canaanites and Amorites from spreading over the plain, + and had to confine themselves to the mountains. All the fortresses + commanding the passes of Tabor and Carmel, Megiddo, Taanach, Ibleam, + Jezreel, Endor, and Bethshan remained inviolate, and formed as it were an + impassable barrier-line between the Hebrews of Galilee and their brethren + of Ephraim. The Danites were long before they found a resting-place; they + attempted to insert themselves to the north of Judah, between Ajalon and + Joppa, but were so harassed by the Amorites, that they had to content + themselves with the precarious tenure of a few towns such as Zora, + Shaalbîn, and Eshdol. The foreign peoples of the Shephelah and the + Canaanite cities almost all preserved their autonomy; the Israelites had + no chance against them wherever they had sufficient space to put into the + field large bodies of infantry or to use their iron-bound chariots. + Finding it therefore impossible to overcome them, the tribes were forced + to remain cut off from each other in three isolated groups of unequal + extent which they were powerless to connect: in the centre were Joseph, + Benjamin, and Dan; in the south, Judah, Levi, and Simeon; while Issachar, + Asher, Naphtali, and Zebulon lay to the north. + </p> + <p> + The period following the occupation of Canaan constituted the heroic age + of the Hebrews. The sacred writings agree in showing that the ties which + bound the twelve tribes together were speedily dissolved, while their + fidelity and obedience to God were relaxed with the growth of the young + generations to whom Moses or Joshua were merely names. The conquerors + “dwelt among the Canaanites: the Hittite, and the Amorite, and the + Perizzite, and the Hivite, and the Jebusite: and they took their daughters + to be their wives, and gave their own daughters to their sons, and served + their gods. And the children of Israel did that which was evil in the + sight of the Lord their God, and served the Baalim and the Asheroth.” * + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0013" id="Cimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/268.jpg"><img + alt="268.jpg Map of Palestine in Time Of the Judges" src="images/268th.jpg" /></a> + <br /> [Click on image to enlarge to full-size] + </p> + <p> + When they had once abandoned their ancient faith, political unity was not + long preserved. War broke out between one tribe and another; the stronger + allowed the weaker to be oppressed by the heathen, and were themselves + often powerless to retain their independence. In spite of the thousands of + men among them, all able to bear arms, they fell an easy prey to the first + comer; the Amorites, the Ammonites, the Moabites, and the Philistines, all + oppressed them in turn, and repaid with usury the ills which Joshua had + inflicted on the Canaanites. “Whithersoever they went out, the hand of the + Lord was against them for evil, as the Lord had spoken, and as the Lord + had sworn unto them: and they were sore distressed. And the Lord raised up + judges, which saved them out of the hand of those that spoiled them. And + yet they hearkened not unto their judges, for they went a-whoring after + other gods, and bowed themselves down unto them: they turned aside quickly + out of the way wherein their fathers walked obeying the commandments of + the Lord; but they did not so. And when the Lord raised them up judges, + then the Lord was with the judge, and saved them out of the hand of their + enemies all the days of the judge: for it repented the Lord because of + their groaning by reason of them that oppressed them and vexed them. But + it came to pass, when the judge was dead, that they turned back, and dealt + more corruptly than their fathers, in following other gods to serve them, + and to bow down unto them; they ceased not from their doings, nor from + their stubborn way.” * The history of this period lacks the unity and + precision with which we are at first tempted to credit it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Judges ii. 15-19. +</pre> + <p> + The Israelites, when transplanted into the promised land, did not + immediately lose the nomadic habits they had acquired in the desert. They + retained the customs and prejudices they had inherited from their fathers, + and for many years treated the peasantry, whose fields they had + devastated, with the same disdain that the Bedawin of our own day, living + in the saddle, lance in hand, shows towards the fellahîn who till the soil + and bend patiently over the plough. The clans, as of old, were impatient + of all regular authority; each tribe tended towards an isolated autonomy, + a state of affairs which merited reprisals from the natives and encouraged + hatred of the intruders, and it was only when the Canaanite oppression + became unendurable that those who suffered most from it united themselves + to make a common effort, and rallied for a moment round the chief who was + ready to lead them. Many of these liberators must have acquired an + ephemeral popularity, and then have sunk into oblivion together with the + two or three generations who had known them; those whose memory remained + green among their kinsmen were known by posterity as the judges of + Israel.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The word “judges,” which has been adopted to designate + these rulers, is somewhat misleading, as it suggests the + idea of an organized civil magistracy. The word “shophet,” + the same that we meet with in classical times under the form + <i>suffetes</i>, had indeed that sense, but its primary meaning + denotes a man invested with an absolute authority, regular + or otherwise; it would be better translated <i>chief, prince, + captain</i>. +</pre> + <p> + These judges were not magistrates invested with official powers and + approved by the whole nation, or rulers of a highly organised republic, + chosen directly by God or by those inspired by Him. They were merely local + chiefs, heroes to their own immediate tribe, well known in their + particular surroundings, but often despised by those only at a short + distance from them. Some of them have left only a name behind them, such + as Shamgar, Ibzan, Tola, Elon, and Abdon; indeed, some scholars have + thrown doubts on the personality of a few of them, as, for instance, Jair, + whom they affirm to have personified a Gileadite clan, and Othnîel, who is + said to represent one of the Kenite families associated with the children + of Israel.* Others, again, have come down to us through an atmosphere of + popular tradition, the elements of which modern criticism has tried in + vain to analyse. Of such unsettled and turbulent times we cannot expect an + uninterrupted history:** some salient episodes alone remain, spread over a + period of nearly two centuries, and from these we can gather some idea of + the progress made by the Israelites, and observe their stages of + transition from a cluster of semi-barbarous hordes to a settled nation + ripe for monarchy. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name Tola occurs as that of one of the clans of + Issachar (Gen. xlvi. 13; Numb. xxvi. 23); Elon was one of + the clans of Zebulon (Gen. xlvi. 14; Numb. xxvi. 26) + + ** Renan, however, believes that the judges “formed an + almost continuous line, and that there merely lacks a + descent from father to son to make of them an actual + dynasty.” The chronology of the <i>Book of Judges</i> appears to + cover more than four centuries, from Othnîel to Samson, but + this computation cannot be relied on, as “forty + years” represents an indefinite space of time. We must + probably limit this early period of Hebrew history to about + a century and a half, from cir. 1200 to 1050 B.C. +</pre> + <p> + The first of these episodes deals merely with a part, and that the least + important, of the tribes settled in Central Canaan.* The destruction of + the Amorite kingdoms of Heshbon and Bashan had been as profitable to the + kinsmen of the Israelites, Ammon and Moab, as it had been to the + Israelites themselves. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The episode of Othnîel and Cushan-rishathaim, placed at + the beginning of the history of this period (Judges iii. 8- + 11), is, by general consent, regarded as resting on a + worthless tradition. +</pre> + <p> + The Moabites had followed in the wake of the Hebrews through all the + surrounding regions of the Dead Sea; they had pushed on from the banks of + the Arnon to those of the Jabbok, and at the time of the Judges were no + longer content with harassing merely Reuben and Gad. + </p> + <p> + They were a fine race of warlike, well-armed Beda-wins. Jericho had fallen + into their hands, and their King Eglon had successfully scoured the entire + hill-country of Ephraim,* so that those who wished to escape being + pillaged had to safeguard themselves by the payment of an annual tribute. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The text seems to infer (Judges iii. 13-15) that, after + having taken the Oily of Palm Trees, i.e. Jericho (Deut. + xxxiv. 3; 2 Ghron. xxviii. 15), Eglon had made it his + residence, which makes the story incomprehensible from a + geographical point of view. But all difficulties would + disappear if we agreed to admit that in ver. 15 the name of + the capital of Eglon has dropped out. +</pre> + <p> + Ehud the Left-handed concealed under his garments a keen dagger, and + joined himself to the Benjamite deputies who were to carry their dues to + the Moabite sovereign. The money having been paid, the deputies turned + homewards, but when they reached the cromlech of Gilgal,* and were safe + beyond the reach of the enemy, Ehud retraced his steps, and presenting + himself before the palace of Eglon in the attitude of a prophet, announced + that he had a secret errand to the king, who thereupon commanded silence, + and ordered his servants to leave him with the divine messenger in his + summer parlour. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The cromlech at Gilgal was composed of twelve stones, + which, we are told, were erected by Joshua as a remembrance + of the crossing of the Jordan (Josh. iv. 19-24). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0014" id="Cimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/272.jpg" alt="272.jpg Moabite Warrior " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from the original in +the Louvre. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + “And Ehud said, I have a message from God unto thee. And he arose out of + his seat. And Ehud put forth his left hand, and took the sword from his + right thigh, and thrust it into his belly: and the haft also went in after + the blade; and the fat closed upon the blade, for he drew not the sword + out of his belly; and it came out behind.” Then Ehud locked the doors and + escaped. “Now when he was gone out, his servants came; and they saw, and, + behold, the doors of the parlour were locked; and they said, Surely he + covereth his feet in his summer chamber.” But by the time they had forced + an entrance, Ehud had reached Gilgal and was in safety. He at once + assembled the clans of Benjamin, occupied the fords of the Jordan, + massacred the bands of Moabites scattered over the plain of Jericho, and + blocked the routes by which the invaders attempted to reach the + hill-country of Ephraim. Almost at the same time the tribes in Galilee had + a narrow escape from a still more formidable enemy.* They had for some + time been under the Amorite yoke, and the sacred writings represent them + at this juncture as oppressed either by Sisera of Harosheth-ha-Goyîm or by + a second Jabin, who was able to bring nine hundred chariots of iron into + the field.** At length the prophetess Deborah of Issachar sent to Barak of + Kadesh a command to assemble his people, together with those of Zebulon, + in the name of the Lord;*** she herself led the contingents of Issachar, + Ephraim, and Machir to meet him at the foot of Tabor, where the united + host is stated to have comprised forty thousand men. Sisera,**** who + commanded the Canaanite force, attacked the Israelite army between Taanach + and Megiddo in that plain of Kishon which had often served as a + battle-field during the Egyptian campaigns. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The text tells us that, after the time of Ehud, the land + had rest eighty years (Judges iii. 30). This, again, is one + of those numbers which represent an indefinite space of + time. + + ** It has been maintained that two versions are here blended + together in the text, one in which the principal part is + played by Sisera, the other in which it is attributed to + Jabin. The episode of Deborah and Barak (Judges iv., v.) + comprises a narrative in prose (chap, iv.), and the song + (chap, v.) attributed to Deborah. The prose account probably + is derived from the song. The differences in the two + accounts may be explained as having arisen partly from an + imperfect understanding of the poetic text, and partly from + one having come down from some other source. + + *** Some critics suppose that the prose narrative (Judges + iv. 5) has confounded the prophetess Deborah, wife of + Lapidoth, with Deborah, nurse of Rachel, who was buried near + Bethel, under the “Oak of Weeping” (Gen. xxxv. 8), and + consequently place it between Rama and Bethel, in the hill- + country of Ephraim. + + **** In the prose narrative (Judges iv. 2-7) Sisera is + stated to have been the general of Jabin: there is nothing + incompatible in this statement with the royal dignity + elsewhere attributed to Sisera. Harosheth-ha-Goyîm has been + identified with the present village of El-Haretîyeh, on the + right bank of the Kishon. +</pre> + <p> + It would appear that heavy rains had swelled the streams, and thus + prevented the chariots from rendering their expected service in the + engagement; at all events, the Amorites were routed, and Sisera escaped + with the survivors towards Hazor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0015" id="Cimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/275.jpg" alt="275.jpg Tell " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph in Lortet. +</pre> + <p> + The people of Meroz facilitated his retreat, but a Kenite named Jael, the + wife of Heber, traitorously killed him with a blow from a hammer while he + was in the act of drinking.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Meroz is the present Marus, between the Lake of Huleh and + Safed. I have followed the account given in the song (Judges + v. 24-27). According to the prose version (iv. 17-22), Jael + slew Sisera while he was asleep with a tent-pin, which she + drove into his temple. [The text of Judges v. 24-27 does not + seem to warrant the view that he was slain “in the act of + drinking,” nor does it seem to conflict with Judges iv. 11.- + -Tr.] +</pre> + <p> + This exploit was commemorated in a song, the composition of which is + attributed to Deborah and Barak: “For that the leaders took the lead in + Israel, for that the people offered themselves willingly, bless ye the + Lord. Hear, O ye kings, give ear, O ye princes; I, even I, will sing unto + the Lord; I will sing praise to the Lord, the God of Israel.” * The poet + then dwells on the sufferings of the people, but tells how Deborah and + Barak were raised up, and enumerates the tribes who took part in the + conflict as well as those who turned a deaf ear to the appeal. “Then came + down a remnant of the nobles and the people.... Out of Ephraim came down + they whose root is in Amalek:—out of Machir came down governors,—and + out of Zebulon they that handle the marshal’s staff.—And the princes + of Issachar were with Deborah—as was Issachar so was Barak,—into + the valley they rushed forth at his feet.**—By the watercourses of + Reuben—there were great resolves of heart.—Why satest thou + among the sheepfolds,—to hear the pipings for the flocks?—At + the watercourses of Reuben—there were great searchings of heart—Gilead + abode beyond Jordan:—and Dan, why did he remain in ships?—Asher + sat still at the haven of the sea—and abode by his creeks.—Zebulon + was a people that jeoparded their lives unto the death,—and Naphtali + upon the high places of the field.—The kings came and fought;—then + fought the kings of Canaan.—In Taanach by the waters of Megiddo:—they + took no gain of money.—They fought from heaven,—the stars in + their courses fought against Sisera.—The river of Kishon swept them + away,—that ancient river, the river Kishon.—O my soul, march + on with strength.—Then did the horsehoofs stamp—by reason of + the pransings, the pransings of their strong ones.” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Judges v. 2, 3 (R.V.). + + ** The text of the song (Judges v. 14) contains an allusion + to Benjamin, which is considered by many critics to be an + interpolation. It gives a mistaken reading, “<i>Issachar</i> with + Barak;” Issachar having been already mentioned with Deborah, + probably Zébulon should be inserted in the text. +</pre> + <p> + Sisera flies, and the poet follows him in fancy, as if he feared to see + him escape from vengeance. He curses the people of Meroz in passing, + “because they came not to the help of the Lord.” He addresses Jael and + blesses her, describing the manner in which the chief fell at her feet, + and then proceeds to show how, at the very time of Sisera’s death, his + people were awaiting the messenger who should bring the news of his + victory; “through the window she looked forth and cried—the mother + of Sisera cried through the lattice—‘Why is his chariot so long in + coming?—Why tarry the wheels of his chariot?’—Her wise ladies + answered her,—yea, she returned answer to herself,—‘Have they + not found, have they not divided the spoil?—A damsel, two damsels to + every man;—to Sisera a spoil of divers colours,—a spoil of + divers colours of embroidery on both sides, on the necks of the spoil?—So + let all Thine enemies perish, O Lord:—but let them that love Him be + as the sun when he goeth forth in his might.’” + </p> + <p> + It was the first time, as far as we know, that several of the Israelite + tribes combined together for common action after their sojourn in the + desert of Kadesh-barnea, and the success which followed from their united + efforts ought, one would think, to have encouraged them to maintain such a + union, but it fell out otherwise; the desire for freedom of action and + independence was too strong among them to permit of the continuance of the + coalition. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0016" id="Cimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/278.jpg" alt="278.jpg Mount Tabor " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. C. Alluaud + of Limoges. +</pre> + <p> + Manasseh, restricted in its development by the neighbouring Canaanite + tribes, was forced to seek a more congenial neighbourhood to the east of + the Jordan—not close to Gad, in the land of Gilead, but to the north + of the Yarmuk and its northern affluents in the vast region extending to + the mountains of the Haurân. The families of Machir and Jair migrated one + after the other to the east of the Lake of Gennesaret, while that of Nobah + proceeded as far as the brook of Kanah, and thus formed in this direction + the extreme outpost of the children of Israel: these families did not form + themselves into new tribes, for they were mindful of their affiliation to + Manasseh, and continued beyond the river to regard themselves still as his + children.* The prosperity of Ephraim and Manasseh, and the daring nature + of their exploits, could not fail to draw upon them the antagonism and + jealousy of the people on their borders. The Midianites were accustomed + almost every year to pass through the region beyond the Jordan which the + house of Joseph had recently colonised. Assembling in the springtime at + the junction of the Yarmuk with the Jordan, they crossed the latter river, + and, spreading over the plains of Mount Tabor, destroyed the growing + crops, raided the villages, and pushed, sometimes, their skirmishing + parties over hill and dale as far as Gaza.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Manasseh was said to have been established beyond the + Jordan at the time that Gad and Reuben were in possession of + the land of Gilead (Numb, xxxii. 33, 39-42, xxxiv. 14, 15; + Dent. iii. 13-15; Josh. xiii. 8, 29-32, xxii.). Earlier + traditions placed this event in the period which followed + the conquest of Canaan by Joshua. It is not certain that all + the families which constituted the half-tribe of Manasseh + took their origin from Manasseh: one of them, for example, + that of Jair, was regarded as having originated partly from + Judah (1 Chron. ii. 21-24). + + ** Judges vi. 2-6. The inference that they dare not beat + wheat in the open follows from ver. 11, where it is said + that “Gideon was beating out wheat in his winepress to hide + it from the Midianites.” + </pre> + <p> + A perpetual terror reigned wherever they were accustomed to pass*: no one + dared beat out wheat or barley in the open air, or lead his herds to + pasture far from his home, except under dire necessity; and even on such + occasions the inhabitants would, on the slightest alarm, abandon their + possessions to take refuge in caves or in strongholds on the mountains.1 + During one of these incursions two of their sheikhs encountered some men + of noble mien in the vicinity of Tabor, and massacred them without + compunction.** The latter were people of Ophrah,*** brethren of a certain + Jerubbaal (Gideon) who was head of the powerful family of Abiezer.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The history of the Midianite oppression (Judges vi.-viii.) + seems to be from two different sources; the second (Judges + viii. 4-21), which is also the shortest, is considered by + some to represent the more ancient tradition. The double + name of the hero, Gideon-Jerubbaal, has led some to assign + its elements respectively to Gideon, judge of the western + portion of Manasseh, and Jerubbaal, judge of the eastern + Manasseh, and to the consequent fusion of the two men in + one. + + ** This is an assumption which follows reasonably from + Judges viii. 18, 19. + + *** The site of the Ophrah of Abiezer is not known for + certain, but it would seem from the narrative that it was in + the neighbourhood of Shechem. + + **** The position of Gideon-Jerubbaal as head of the house + of Abiezer follows clearly from the narrative; if he is + represented in the first part of the account as a man of + humble origin (Judges vi. 15, 16), it was to exalt the power + of Jahveh, who was accustomed to choose His instruments from + amongst the lowly. The name Jerubbaal (1 Sam. xii. 11:2 Sam. + xi. 21, where the name is transformed into Jerubbesheth, as + Ishbaal and Meribbaal are into Ishbosheth and Mephibosheth + respectively), in which “Baal” seems to some not to + represent the Canaanite God, but the title Lord as applied + to Jahveh, was supposed to mean “Baal fights against him,” + and was, therefore, offensive to the orthodox. Kuenen + thought it meant “Lord, fight for him!” Renan read it + Yarebaal, from the Vulgate form Jerobaal, and translated “He + who fears Baal.” Gideon signifies “He who overthrows” in the + battle. +</pre> + <p> + Assembling all his people at the call of the trumpet, Jerubbaal chose from + among them three hundred of the strongest, with whom he came down + unexpectedly upon the raiders, put them to flight in the plain of Jezreel, + and followed them beyond the Jordan. Having crossed the river, “faint and + yet pursuing,” he approached the men of Succoth, and asked them for bread + for himself and his three hundred followers. Their fear of the marauders, + however, was so great that the people refused to give him any help, and he + had no better success with the people of Penuel whom he encountered a + little further on. He did not stop to compel them to accede to his wishes, + but swore to inflict an exemplary punishment upon them on his return. The + Midianites continued their retreat, in the mean time, “by the way of them + that dwelt in tents on the east of Nobah and Jogbehah,” but Jerubbaal came + up with them near Karkâr, and discomfited the host. He took vengeance upon + the two peoples who had refused to give him bread, and having thus + fulfilled his vow, he began to question his prisoners, the two chiefs: + “What manner of men were they whom ye slew at Tabor?” “As thou art, so + were they; each one resembled the children of a king.” “And he said, They + were my brethren, the sons of my mother: as the Lord liveth, if ye had + saved them alive, I would not slay you. And he said unto Jether his + firstborn, Up, and slay them. But the youth drew not his sword: for he + feared, because he was yet a youth.” True Bedawins as they were, the + chiefs’ pride revolted at the idea of their being handed over for + execution to a child, and they cried to Jerubbaal: “Rise thou, and fall + upon us: for as the man is, so is his strength.” From this victory rose + the first monarchy among the Israelites. The Midianites, owing to their + marauding habits and the amount of tribute which they were accustomed to + secure for escorting caravans, were possessed of a considerable quantity + of gold, which they lavished on the decoration of their persons: their + chiefs were clad in purple mantles, their warriors were loaded with + necklaces, bracelets, rings, and ear-rings, and their camels also were not + behind their masters in the brilliance of their caparison. The booty which + Gideon secured was, therefore, considerable, and, as we learn from the + narrative, excited the envy of the Ephraimites, who said: “Why hast thou + served us thus, that thou calledst us not, when thou wentest to fight with + Midian?” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Judges viii. 1-3. +</pre> + <p> + The spoil from the golden ear-rings alone amounted to one thousand seven + hundred shekels, as we learn from the narrative, and this treasure in the + hands of Jerubbaal was not left unemployed, but was made, doubtless, to + contribute something to the prestige he had already acquired: the men of + Israel, whom he had just saved from their foes, expressed their gratitude + by offering the crown to him and his successors. The mode of life of the + Hebrews had been much changed after they had taken up their abode in the + mountains of Canaan. The tent had given place to the house, and, like + their Canaanite neighbours, they had given themselves up to agricultural + pursuits. This change of habits, in bringing about a greater abundance of + the necessaries of life than they had been accustomed to, had begotten + aspirations which threw into relief the inadequacy of the social + organisation, and of the form of government with which they had previously + been content. In the case of a horde of nomads, defeat or exile would be + of little moment. Should they be obliged by a turn in their affairs to + leave their usual haunts, a few days or often a few hours would suffice to + enable them to collect their effects together, and set out without + trouble, and almost without regret, in search of a new and more favoured + home. But with a cultivator of the ground the case would be different: the + farm, clearings, and homestead upon which he had spent such arduous and + continued labour; the olive trees and vines which had supplied him with + oil and wine—everything, in fact, upon which he depended for a + livelihood, or which was dependent upon him, would bind him to the soil, + and expose his property to disasters likely to be as keenly felt as wounds + inflicted on his person. He would feel the need, therefore, of laws to + secure to him in time of peace the quiet possession of his wealth, of an + army to protect it in time of war, and of a ruler to cause, on the one + hand, the laws to be respected, and to become the leader, on the other, of + the military forces. Jerubbaal is said to have, in the first instance, + refused the crown, but everything goes to prove that he afterwards + virtually accepted it. He became, it is true, only a petty king, whose + sovereignty was limited to Manasseh, a part of Ephraim, and a few towns, + such as Succoth and Penuel, beyond the Jordan. The Canaanite city of + Shechem also paid him homage. Like all great chiefs, he had also numerous + wives, and he recognised as the national Deity the God to whom he owed his + victories. + </p> + <p> + Out of the spoil taken from the Midianites he formed and set up at Ophrah + an ephod, which became, as we learn, “a snare unto him and unto his + house,” but he had also erected under a terebinth tree a stone altar to + Jahveh-Shalom (“Jehovah is peace”).* This sanctuary, with its altar and + ephod, soon acquired great celebrity, and centuries after its foundation + it was the object of many pilgrimages from a distance. + </p> + <p> + Jerubbaal was the father by his Israelite wives of seventy children, and, + by a Canaanite woman whom he had taken as a concubine at Shechem, of one + son, called Abimelech.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The <i>Book of Judges</i> separates the altar from the ephod, + placing the erection of the former at the time of the + vocation of Gideon (vi. 11-31) and that of the ephod after + the victory (viii. 24-27). The sanctuary of Ophrah was + possibly in existence before the time of Jerubbaal, and the + sanctity of the place may have determined his selection of + the spot for placing the altar and ephod there. + + ** Judges viii. 30, 31. +</pre> + <p> + The succession to the throne would naturally have fallen to one of the + seventy, but before this could be arranged, Abimelech “went to Shechem + unto his mother’s brethren, and spake with them, and with all the family + of the house of his mother’s father, saying, Speak, I pray you, in the + ears of all the men of Shechem, Whether is better for you, that all the + sons of Jerubbaal, which are threescore and ten persons, rule over you, or + that one rule over you? remember also that I am your bone and your flesh.” + This advice was well received; it flattered the vanity of the people to + think that the new king was to be one of themselves; “their hearts + inclined to follow Abimelech; for they said, He is our brother. And they + gave him threescore and ten pieces of silver out of the house of + Baal-berith (the Lord of the Covenant), wherewith Abimelech hired vain and + light fellows, which followed him.... He slew his brethren the sons of + Jerubbaal, being threescore and ten persons, upon one stone.” The massacre + having been effected, “all the men of Shechem assembled themselves + together, and all the house of Millo,* and made Abimelech king, by the oak + of the pillar which was in Shechem.” ** He dwelt at Ophrah, in the + residence, and near the sanctuary, of his father, and from thence governed + the territories constituting the little kingdom of Manasseh, levying + tribute upon the vassal villages, and exacting probably tolls from + caravans passing through his domain. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The word “Millo” is a generic term, meaning citadel or + stronghold of the city: there was a Millo in every important + town, Jerusalem included. + + ** The “oak of the pillar” was a sacred tree overshadowing + probably a <i>cippus</i>: it may have been the tree mentioned in + Gen. xxxv. 4, under which Jacob buried the strange gods; or + that referred to in Josh. xxiv. 26, under which Joshua set + up a stone commemorative of the establishment of the law. + Jotham, the youngest son of Gideon, escaped the massacre. As + soon as he heard of the election of Abimelech, he ascended + Mount Gerizim, and gave out from there the fable of the + trees, applying it to the circumstances of the time, and + then fled. Some critics think that this fable—which is + confessedly old—was inserted in the text at a time when + prophetical ideas prevailed and monarchy was not yet + accepted. +</pre> + <p> + This condition of things lasted for three years, and then the Shechemites, + who had shown themselves so pleased at the idea of having “one of their + brethren” as sovereign, found it irksome to pay the taxes levied upon them + by him, as if they were in no way related to him. The presence among them + of a certain Zebul, the officer and representative of Abimelech, + restrained them at first from breaking out into rebellion, but they + returned soon to their ancient predatory ways, and demanded ransom for the + travellers they might capture even when the latter were in possession of + the king’s safe conduct. This was not only an insult to their lord, but a + serious blow to his treasury: the merchants who found themselves no longer + protected by his guarantee employed elsewhere the sums which would have + come into his hands. The king concealed his anger, however; he was not + inclined to adopt premature measures, for the place was a strong one, and + defeat would seriously weaken his prestige. The people of Shechem, on + their part, did not risk an open rupture for fear of the consequences. + Gaal, son of Ebed,* a soldier of fortune and of Israelitish blood, arrived + upon the scene, attended by his followers: he managed to gain the + confidence of the people of Shechem, who celebrated under his protection + the feast of the Vintage. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name Ebed (“slave,” “servant”) is assumed to have been + substituted in the Massorotic text for the original name + Jobaal, because of the element Baal in the latter word, + which was regarded as that of the strange god, and would + thus have the sacrilegious meaning “Jahveh is Baal.” The term + of contempt, Ebed, was, according to this view, thus used to + replace it. +</pre> + <p> + On this occasion their merrymaking was disturbed by the presence among + them of the officer charged with collecting the tithes, and Gaal did not + lose the opportunity of stimulating their ire by his ironical speeches: + “Who is Abimelech, and who is Shechem, that we should serve him? is not he + the son of Jerubbaal? and Zebul his officer? serve ye the men of Hamor the + father of Shechem: but why should we serve him? And would to God this + people were under my hand! then would I remove Abimelech. And he said to + Abimelech, Increase thine army, and come out.” Zebul promptly gave + information of this to his master, and invited him to come by night and + lie in ambush in the vicinity of the town, “that in the morning, as soon + as the sun is up, thou shalt rise early, and set upon the city: and, + behold, when he and the people that is with him come out against thee, + thou mayest do to them as thou shalt find occasion.” It turned out as he + foresaw; the inhabitants of Shechem went out in order to take part in the + gathering in of the vintage, while Gaal posted his men at the entering in + of the gate of the city. As he looked towards the hills he thought he saw + an unusual movement among the trees, and, turning round, said to Zebul, + who was close by, “Behold, there come people down from the tops of the + mountains. And Zebul said unto him, Thou seest the shadow of the mountains + as if they were men.” A moment after he looked in another direction, “and + spake again and said, See, there come people down by the middle of the + land, and one company cometh by the way of the terebinth of the augurs.” + Zebul, seeing the affair turn out so well, threw off the mask, and replied + railingly, “Where is now thy mouth, wherewith thou saidst, Who is + Abimelech, that we should serve him? is not this the people that thou hast + despised? go out, I pray, now, and fight with him.” The King of Manasseh + had no difficulty in defeating his adversary, but arresting the pursuit at + the gates of the city, he withdrew to the neighbouring village of Arumah.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is now el-Ormeh, i.e.Kharbet el-Eurmah, to the south- + west of Nablus. +</pre> + <p> + He trusted that the inhabitants, who had taken no part in the affair, + would believe that his wrath had been appeased by the defeat of Gaal; and + so, in fact, it turned out: they dismissed their unfortunate champion, and + on the morrow returned to their labours as if nothing had occurred. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0017" id="Cimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/288.jpg" + alt="288.jpg Mount Gerizim, With a View of Nablus " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph reproduced by the Duc de + Luynes. +</pre> + <p> + Abimelech had arranged his Abiezerites in three divisions: one of which + made for the gates, while the other two fell upon the scattered labourers + in the vineyards. Abimelech then fought against the city and took it, but + the chief citizens had taken refuge in “the hold of the house of + El-berith.” “Abimelech gat him up to Mount Zalmon, he and all the people + that were with him; and Abimelech took an axe in his hand, and cut down a + bough from the trees, and took it up, and laid it on his shoulder: and he + said unto the people that were with him, What ye have seen me do, make + haste, and do as I have done. And all the people likewise cut down every + man his bough, and followed Abimelech, and put them to the hold, and set + the hold on fire upon them; so that all the men of the tower of Shechem + died also, about a thousand men and women.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0018" id="Cimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/289.jpg" alt="289.jpg the Town of Ascalon " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a bas-relief in the Ramesseum. + This is a portion of the picture representing the capture of + Ascalon by Ramses II. +</pre> + <p> + This summary vengeance did not, however, prevent other rebellions. Thebez + imitated Shechem, and came nigh suffering the same penalty.* The king + besieged the city and took it, and was about to burn with fire the tower + in which all the people of the city had taken refuge, when a woman threw a + millstone down upon his head “and brake his skull.” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Thebez, now Tubas, the north-east of Nablus. +</pre> + <p> + The narrative tells us that, feeling himself mortally wounded, he called + his armour-bearer to him, and said, “Draw thy sword, and kill me, that men + say not of me, A woman slew him.” His monarchy ceased with him, and the + ancient chronicler recognises in the catastrophe a just punishment for the + atrocious crime he had committed in slaying his half-brothers, the seventy + children of Jerubbaal.* His fall may be regarded also as the natural issue + of his peculiar position: the resources upon which he relied were + inadequate to secure to him a supremacy in Israel. Manasseh, now deprived + of a chief, and given up to internal dissensions, became still further + enfeebled, and an easy prey to its rivals. The divine writings record in + several places the success attained by the central tribes in their + conflict with their enemies. They describe how a certain Jephthah + distinguished himself in freeing Gilead from the Ammonites.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Judges ix. 23, 24. “And God sent an evil spirit between + Abimelech and the men of Shechem; and the men of Shechem + dealt treacherously with Abimelech: that the violence done + to the threescore and ten sons of Jerubbaal might come, and + that their blood might be laid upon Abimelech their brother, + which slew them, and upon the men of Shechem, which + strengthened his hands to slay his brethren.” + + ** The story of Jephthah is contained in chaps, xi., xii. 1- + 7, of the <i>Book of Judges</i>. The passage (xi. 12-29) is + regarded by some, owing to its faint echo of certain + portions of Numb, xx., xxi., to be an interpolation. + Jephthah is said to have had Gilead for his father and a + harlot for his mother. Various views have been put forward + as to the account of his victories over the Midianites, some + seeing in it, as well as in the origin of the four + days’feast in honour of Jephthah’s daughter, insertions of a + later date. +</pre> + <p> + But his triumph led to the loss of his daughter, whom he sacrificed in + order to fulfil a vow he had made to Jahveh before the battle.* These + were, however, comparatively unimportant episodes in the general history + of the Hebrew race. Bedawins from the East, sheikhs of the Midianites, + Moabites, and Ammonites—all these marauding peoples of the frontier + whose incursions are put on record—gave them continual trouble, and + rendered their existence so miserable that they were unable to develop + their institutions and attain the permanent freedom after which they + aimed. But their real dangers—the risk of perishing altogether, or + of falling back into a condition of servitude—did not arise from any + of these quarters, but from the Philistines. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There are two views as to the nature of the sacrifice of + Jephthah’s daughter. Some think she was vowed to perpetual + virginity, while others consider that she was actually + sacrificed. +</pre> + <p> + By a decree of Pharaoh, a new country had been assigned to the remnants of + each of the maritime peoples: the towns nearest to Egypt, lying between + Raphia and Joppa, were given over to the Philistines, and the forest + region and the coast to the north of the Philistines, as far as the + Phoenician stations of Dor and Carmel,* were appropriated to the Zakkala. + The latter was a military colony, and was chiefly distributed among the + five fortresses which commanded the Shephelah. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We are indebted to the <i>Papyrus Golenischeff</i> for the + mention of the position of the Zakkala at the beginning of + the XXIst dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0019" id="Cimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/292.jpg" alt="292.jpg a Zakkala " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a “squeeze.” + </pre> + </div> + <p> + Gaza and Ashdod were separated from the Mediterranean by a line of + sand-dunes, and had nothing in the nature of a sheltered port—nothing, + in fact, but a “maiuma,” or open roadstead, with a few dwellings and + storehouses arranged along the beach on which their boats were drawn up. + Ascalon was built on the sea, and its harbour, although well enough suited + for the small craft of the ancients, could not have been entered by the + most insignificant of our modern ships. The Philistines had here their + naval arsenal, where their fleets were fitted out for scouring the + Egyptian waters as a marine police, or for piratical expeditions on their + own account, when the occasion served, along the coasts of Phoenicia. + Ekron and Gath kept watch over the eastern side of the plain at the points + where it was most exposed to the attacks of the people of the hills—the + Canaanites in the first instance, and afterwards the Hebrews. These + foreign warriors soon changed their mode of life in contact with the + indigenous inhabitants; daily intercourse, followed up by marriages with + the daughters of the land, led to the substitution of the language, + manners, and religion of the environing race for those of their mother + country. The Zakkala, who were not numerous, it is true, lost everything, + even to their name, and it was all that the Philistines could do to + preserve their own. At the end of one or two generations, the “colts” of + Palestine could only speak the Canaanite tongue, in which a few words of + the old Hellenic <i>patois</i> still continued to survive. Their gods were + henceforward those of the towns in which they resided, such as Marna and + Dagon and Gaza,* Dagon at Ashdod,** Baalzebub at Ekron,*** and Derketô in + Ascalon;**** and their mode of worship, with its mingled bloody and + obscene rites, followed that of the country. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Marna, “our lord,” is mentioned alongside Baalzephon in a + list of strange gods worshipped at Memphis in the XIXth + dynasty. The worship of Dagon at Gaza is mentioned in the + story of Samson (Judges xvi. 21-30). + + ** The temple and statue of Dagon are mentioned in the + account of the events following the taking of the ark in 1 + Sam. v. 1-7. It is, perhaps, to him that 1 Chron. x. 10 + refers, in relating how the Philistines hung up Saul’s arms + in the house of their gods, although 1 Sam. xxxi. 10 calls + the place the “house of the Ashtoreth.” + + *** Baalzebub was the god of Ekron (2 Kings i. 2-6), and his + name was doubtfully translated “Lord of Flies.” The + discovery of the name of the town Zebub on the Tell el- + Amarna tablets shows that it means the “Baal of Zebub.” + Zebub was situated in the Philistine plains, not far from + Ekron. Halévy thinks it may have been a suburb of that town. + + **** The worship of Derketô or Atergatis at Ascalon is + witnessed to by the classical writers. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0020" id="Cimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/294.jpg" + alt="294.jpg a Procession of Philistine Captives At Medinet-habu " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger. +</pre> + <p> + Two things belonging to their past history they still retained—a + clear remembrance of their far-off origin, and that warlike temperament + which had enabled them to fight their way through many obstacles from the + shores of the Ægean to the frontiers of Egypt. They could recall their + island of Caphtor,* and their neighbours in their new home were accustomed + to bestow upon them the designation of Cretans, of which they themselves + were not a little proud.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Jer. xlvii. 4 calls them “the remnant of the isle of + Caphtor;” Amos (ix. 7) knew that the Lord had brought “the + Philistines from Caphtor;” and in Dent. ii. 23 it is related + how “the Caphtorim which came forth out of Caphtor destroyed + the Avvim, which dwelt in villages as far as Gaza, and dwelt + in their stead.” Classical tradition falls in with the sacred + record, and ascribes a Cretan origin to the Philistines; it + is suggested, therefore, that in Gen. x. 14 the names + Casluhim and Caphtorim should be transposed, to bring the + verse into harmony with history and other parts of + Scripture. + + ** In an episode in the life of David (1 Sam. xxx. 14), + there is mention of the “south of the Cherethites,” which + some have made to mean Cretans—that is to say, the region + to the south of the Philistines, alongside the territory of + Judah, and to the “south of Caleb.” Ezelc. xx. 16 also + mentions in juxtaposition with the Philistines the + Cherethites, and “the remnant of the sea-coast,” as objects + of God’s vengeance for the many evils they had inflicted on + Israel. By the Cherethims here, and the Cherethites in Zoph. + ii. 5, the Cretans are by some thought to be meant, which + would account for their association with the Philistines. +</pre> + <p> + Gaza enjoyed among them a kind of hegemony, alike on account of its + strategic position and its favourable situation for commerce, but this + supremacy was of very precarious character, and brought with it no right + whatever to meddle in the internal affairs of other members of the + confederacy. Each of the latter had a chief of its own, a Seren,* and the + office of this chief was hereditary in one case at least—Gath, for + instance, where there existed a larger Canaanite element than elsewhere, + and was there identified with that of “melek,” ** or king. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The <i>sarnê plishtîm</i> figure in the narrative of the last + Philistine campaign against Saul (1 Sam. xxix. 2-4, 7, 9). + Their number, five, is expressly mentioned in 1 Sam. vi. 4, + 16-18, as well as the names of the towns over which they + ruled. + + ** Achish was King of Gath (1 Sam. xxi. 10, 12, xxvii. 2), + and probably Maoch before him. +</pre> + <p> + The five Sarnîm assembled in council to deliberate upon common interests, + and to offer sacrifices in the name of the Pentapolis. These chiefs were + respectively free to make alliances, or to take the field on their own + account, but in matters of common importance they acted together, and took + their places each at the head of his own contingent.* Their armies were + made up of regiments of skilled archers and of pikemen, to whom were added + a body of charioteers made up of the princes and the nobles of the nation. + The armour for all alike was the coat of scale mail and the helmet of + brass; their weapons consisted of the two-edged battle-axe, the bow, the + lance, and a large and heavy sword of bronze or iron.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Achish, for example, King of Gath, makes war alone against + the pillaging tribes, owing to the intervention of David and + his men, without being called to account by the other + princes (1 Sam. xxvii. 2-12, xxviii. 1, 2), but as soon as + an affair of moment is in contemplation—such as the war + against Saul—they demand the dismissal of David, and Achish + is obliged to submit to his colleagues acting together (1 + Sam. xxix.). + + ** Philistine archers are mentioned in the battle of Gilboa + (1 Sam. xxxi. 3) as well as chariots (2 Sam. i. 6). The + horsemen mentioned in the same connexion are regarded by + some critics as an interpolation, because they cannot bring + themselves to think that the Philistines had cavalry corps + in the Xth century B.C. The Philistine arms are described at + length in the duel between David and Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 5 + -7, 38, 39). They are in some respects like those of the + Homeric heroes. +</pre> + <p> + Their war tactics were probably similar to those of the Egyptians, who + were unrivalled in military operations at this period throughout the whole + East. Under able leadership, and in positions favourable for the + operations of their chariots, the Philistines had nothing to fear from the + forces which any of their foes could bring up against them. As to their + maritime history, it is certain that in the earliest period, at least, of + their sojourn in Syria, as well as in that before their capture by Ramses + III., they were successful in sea-fights, but the memory of only one of + their expeditions has come down to us: a squadron of theirs having sailed + forth from Ascalon somewhere towards the end of the XIIth dynasty,* + succeeded in destroying the Sidonian fleet, and pillaging Sidon itself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * <i>Justinus</i>, xviii. 3, § 5. The memory of this has been + preserved, owing to the disputes about precedence which + raged in the Greek period between the Phoenician towns. The + destruction of Sidon must have allowed Tyre to develop and + take the first place. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0021" id="Cimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/297.jpg" alt="297.jpg a Philistine Ship of War " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + But however vigorously they may have plied the occupation of Corsairs at + the outset of their career, there was, it would appear, a rapid falling + off in their maritime prowess; it was on land, and as soldiers, that they + displayed their bravery and gained their fame. Their geographical + position, indeed, on the direct and almost only route for caravans passing + between Asia and Africa, must have contributed to their success. The + number of such caravans was considerable, for although Egypt had ceased to + be a conquering nation on account of her feebleness at home, she was still + one of the great centres of production, and the most important market of + the East. A very great part of her trade with foreign countries was + carried on through the mouths of the Nile, and of this commerce the + Phoenicians had made themselves masters; the remainder followed the + land-routes, and passed continually through the territory of the + Philistines. These people were in possession of the tract of land which + lay between the Mediterranean and the beginning of the southern desert, + forming as it were a narrow passage, into which all the roads leading from + the Nile to the Euphrates necessarily converged. The chief of these routes + was that which crossed Mount Carmel, near Megiddo, and passed up the + valleys of the Litâny and the Orontes. This was met at intervals by other + secondary roads, such as that which came from Damascus by way of Tabor and + the plain of Jezreel, or those which, starting out from the highland of + Gilead, led through the fords of the Lower Jordan to Ekron and Gath + respectively. The Philistines charged themselves, after the example and at + the instigation of the Egyptians, with the maintenance of the great trunk + road which was in their hands, and also with securing safe transit along + it, as far as they could post their troops, for those who confided + themselves to their care. In exchange for these good offices they exacted + the same tolls which had been levied by the Canaanites before them. + </p> + <p> + In their efforts to put down brigandage, they had been brought into + contact with some of the Hebrew clans after the latter had taken + possession of Canaan. Judah, in its home among the mountains of the Dead + Sea, had become acquainted with the diverse races which were found there, + and consequently there had been frequent intermarriages between the + Hebrews and these peoples. Some critics have argued from this that the + chronicler had this fact in his mind when he assigned a Canaanite wife, + Shuah, to the father of the tribe himself. He relates how Judah, having + separated from his brethren, “turned in to a certain Adullamite, whose + name was Hiram,” and that here he became acquainted with Shuah, by whom he + had three sons. With Tamar, the widow of the eldest of the latter, he had + accidental intercourse, and two children, Perez and Zerah, the ancestors + of numerous families, were born of that union.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Gen. xxxviii., where there is a detailed account of + Judah’s unions. +</pre> + <p> + Edomites, Arabs, and Midianites were associated with this semi-Canaanite + stock—for example, Kain, Caleb, Othniel, Kenaz, Shobal, Ephah, and + Jerahmeel, but the Kenites took the first place among them, and played an + important part in the history of the conquest of Canaan. It is related how + one of their subdivisions, of which Caleb was the eponymous hero, had + driven from Hebron the three sons of Anak—Sheshai, Ahiman, and + Talmai—and had then promised his daughter Achsah in marriage to him + who should capture Debir; this turned out to be his youngest brother + Othniel, who captured the city, and at the same time obtained a wife. + Hobab, another Kenite, who is represented to have been the brother-in-law + of Moses, occupied a position to the south of Arad, in Idumsean + territory.* These heterogeneous elements existed alongside each other for + a long time without intermingling; they combined, however, now and again + to act against a common foe, for we know that the people of Judah aided + the tribe of Simeon in the reduction of the city of Zephath;** but they + followed an independent course for the most part, and their isolation + prevented their obtaining, for a lengthened period, any extension of + territory. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The father-in-law of Moses is called Jethro in Exod. iii. + 1, iv. 19, but Raguel in Exod. ii. 18-22. Hobab is the son + of Raguel, Numb. x. 29. + + ** Judges i. 17, where Zephath is the better reading, and + not Arad, as has been suggested. +</pre> + <p> + They failed, as at first, in their attempts to subjugate the province of + Arad, and in their efforts to capture the fortresses which guarded the + caravan routes between Ashdod and the mouth of the Jordan. It is related, + however, that they overthrew Adoni-bezek, King of the Jebusites, and that + they had dealt with him as he was accustomed to deal with his prisoners. + “And Adoni-bezek said, Threescore and ten kings, having their thumbs and + their great toes cut off, gathered their meat under my table: as I have + done, so God hath requited me.” Although Adoni-bezek had been overthrown, + Jerusalem still remained independent, as did also Gibeon. Beeroth, + Kirjath-Jearim, Ajalon, Gezer, and the cities of the plain, for the + Israelites could not drive out the inhabitants of the valley, because they + had chariots of iron, with which the Hebrew foot-soldiers found it + difficult to deal.* This independent and isolated group was not at first, + however, a subject of anxiety to the masters of the coast, and there is + but a bare reference to the exploits of a certain Shamgar, son of Anath, + who “smote of the Philistines six hundred men with an ox-goad.” ** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Josh. ix. 3-27 for an explanation of how these people + were allowed afterwards to remain in a subordinate capacity + among the children of Israel. + + ** Judges iii. 31; cf. also Judges v. 6, in which Shamgar is + mentioned in the song of Deborah. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0022" id="Cimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/301.jpg" + alt="301.jpg Tell Es-safieh, the Gath of The Philistines " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 265 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> +</pre> + <p> + These cities had also to reckon with Ephraim, and the tribes which had + thrown in their lot with her. Dan had cast his eyes upon the northern + districts of the Shephelah—which were dependent upon Ekron or Gath—and + also upon the semi-Phoenician port of Joppa; but these tribes did not + succeed in taking possession of those districts, although they had + harassed them from time to time by raids in which the children of Israel + did not always come off victorious. One of their chiefs—Samson—had + a great reputation among them for his bravery and bodily strength. But the + details of his real prowess had been forgotten at an early period. The + episodes which have been preserved deal with some of his exploits against + the Philistines, and there is a certain humour in the chronicler’s account + of the weapons which he employed: “with the jawbone of an ass have I + smitten a thousand men;” he burned up their harvest also by letting go + three hundred foxes, with torches attached to their tails, among the + standing corn of the Philistines. Various events in his career are + subsequently narrated; such as his adventure in the house of the harlot at + Gaza, when he carried off the gate of the city and the gate-posts “to the + top of the mountain that is before Hebron.” By Delilah’s treachery he was + finally delivered over to his enemies, who, having put out his eyes, + condemned him to grind in the prison-house. On the occasion of a great + festival in honour of Dagon, he was brought into the temple to amuse his + captors, but while they were making merry at his expense, he took hold of + the two pillars against which he was resting, and bowing “himself with all + his might,” overturned them, “and the house fell upon the lords, and upon + all the people that were therein.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Some learned critics considered Samson to have been a sort + of solar deity. +</pre> + <p> + The tribe of Dan at length became weary of these unprofitable struggles, + and determined to seek out another and more easily defensible settlement. + They sent out five emissaries, therefore, to look out for a new home. + While these were passing through the mountains they called upon a certain + Michah in the hill-country of Ephraim and lodged there. Here they took + counsel of a Levite whom Michah had made his priest, and, in answer to the + question whether their journey would be prosperous, he told them to “Go in + peace: before the Lord is the way wherein ye go.” Their search turned out + successful, for they discovered near the sources of the Jordan the town of + Laish, whose people, like the Zidonians, dwelt in security, fearing no + trouble. On the report of the emissaries, Dan decided to emigrate: the + warriors set out to the number of six hundred, carried off by the way the + ephod of Micah and the Levite who served before it, and succeeded in + capturing Laish, to which they gave the name of their tribe. “They there + set up for themselves the ephod: and Jonathan, the son of Gershom, the son + of Moses, he and his sons were priests to the tribe of the Danites until + the day of the captivity of the land.” * The tribe of Dan displayed in this + advanced post of peril the bravery it had shown on the frontiers of the + Shephelah, and showed itself the most bellicose of the tribes of Israel. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The history of this migration, which is given summarily in + Josh. xix. 47, is, as it now stands, a blending of two + accounts. The presence of a descendant of Moses as a priest + in this local sanctuary probably offended the religious + scruples of a copyist, who substituted Manasseh for Moses + (Judges xviii. 30), but the correction was not generally + accepted. [The R.V. reads “Moses” where the authorised text + has “Manasseh.”—Tr.] +</pre> + <p> + It bore out well its character—“Dan is a lion’s whelp that leapeth + forth from Bashan” on the Hermon;* “a serpent in the way, an adder in the + path, that biteth the horse’s heels, so that his rider falleth + backward.” ** The new position they had taken up enabled them to protect + Galilee for centuries against the incursions of the Aramaeans. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the Blessing of Moses (Dent, xxxiii. 22). + + ** These are the words used in the Blessing of Jacob (Gen. + xlix. 17). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0023" id="Cimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/304.jpg" + alt="304.jpg the Hill of Shiloh, Seen from The North-east " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 100 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> +</pre> + <p> + Their departure, however, left the descendants of Joseph unprotected, with + Benjamin as their only bulwark. Benjamin, like Dan, was one of the tribes + which contained scarcely more than two or three clans, but compensated for + the smallness of their numbers by their energy and tenacity of character: + lying to the south of Ephraim, they had developed into a breed of hardy + adventurers, skilled in handling the bow and sling, accustomed from + childhood to use both hands indifferently, and always ready to set out on + any expedition, not only against the Canaanites, but, if need be, against + their own kinsfolk.* They had consequently aroused the hatred of both + friend and foe, and we read that the remaining tribes at length decreed + their destruction; a massacre ensued, from which six hundred Benjamites + only escaped to continue the race.** Their territory adjoined on the south + that of Jerusalem, the fortress of the Jebusites, and on the west the + powerful confederation of which Gibeon was the head. It comprised some + half-dozen towns—Ramah, Anathoth, Michmash, and Nob, and thus + commanded both sides of the passes leading from the Shephelah into the + valley of the Jordan. The Benjamites were in the habit of descending + suddenly upon merchants who were making their way to or returning from + Gilead, and of robbing them of their wares; sometimes they would make a + raid upon the environs of Ekron and Gath, “like a wolf that ravineth:” + realising the prediction of Jacob, “in the morning he shall devour the + prey, and at even he shall divide the spoil.” *** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Benjamin signifies, properly speaking, “the Southern.” + + ** Story of the Lévite of Ephraim (Judges xix.-xxi.). The + groundwork of it contains only one historical element. The + story of the Lévite is considered by some critics to be of a + later date than the rest of the text. + + *** He is thus characterised in the Blessing of Jacob (Gen. + xlix. 27). VOL. VI. X +</pre> + <p> + The Philistines never failed to make reprisals after each raid, and the + Benjamites were no match for their heavily armed battalions; but the + labyrinth of ravines and narrow gorges into which the Philistines had to + penetrate to meet their enemy was a favourable region for guerilla + warfare, in which they were no match for their opponents. Peace was never + of long duration on this ill-defined borderland, and neither intercourse + between one village and another, alliances, nor intermarriage between the + two peoples had the effect of interrupting hostilities; even when a truce + was made at one locality, the feud would be kept up at other points of + contact. All details of this conflict have been lost, and we merely know + that it terminated in the defeat of the house of Joseph, a number of whom + were enslaved. The ancient sanctuary of Shiloh still continued to be the + sacred town of the Hebrews, as it had been under the Canaanites, and the + people of Ephraim kept there the ark of Jahveh-Sabaoth, “the Lord of + Hosts.” * It was a chest of wood, similar in shape to the shrine which + surmounted the sacred barks of the Egyptian divinities, but instead of a + prophesying statue, it contained two stones on which, according to the + belief of a later age, the law had been engraved.** Yearly festivals were + celebrated before it, and it was consulted as an oracle by all the + Israelites. Eli, the priest to whose care it was at this time consigned, + had earned universal respect by the austerity of his life and by his skill + in interpreting the divine oracles.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * At the very opening of the <i>First Book of Samuel</i> (i. 3), + Shiloh is mentioned as being the sanctuary of <i>Jahveh- + Sabaoth</i>, Jahveh the Lord of hosts. The tradition preserved + in Josh, xviii. 1, removes the date of its establishment as + far back as the earliest times of the Israelite conquest. + + ** The idea that the Tables of the Law were enclosed in the + Ark is frequently expressed in Exodus and in subsequent + books of the Hexateuch. + + *** The history of Eli extends over chaps, i.-iv. of the + <i>First Book of Samuel</i>; it is incorporated with that of + Samuel, and treats only of the events which accompanied the + destruction of the sanctuary of Shiloh by the Philistines. +</pre> + <p> + His two sons, on the contrary, took advantage of his extreme age to annoy + those who came up to worship, and they were even accused of improper + behaviour towards the women who “served at the door of” the tabernacle. + They appropriated to themselves a larger portion of the victims than they + were entitled to, extracting from the caldron the meat offerings of the + faithful after the sacrifice was over by means of flesh-hooks. Their + misdeeds were such, that “men abhorred the offering of the Lord,” and yet + the reverence for the ark was so great in the minds of the people, that + they continued to have recourse to it on every occasion of national + danger.* The people of Ephraim and Benjamin having been defeated once + between Eben-ezer and Aphek, bore the ark in state to the battle-field, + that its presence might inspire them with confidence. The Philistines were + alarmed at its advent, and exclaimed, “God is come into the camp. Woe unto + us! Who shall deliver us out of the hand of these mighty gods?... Be + strong, and quit yourselves like men, O ye Philistines, that ye be not + servants unto the Hebrews, as they have been to you.” ** In response to + this appeal, their troops fought so boldly that they once more gained a + victory. “And there ran a man of Benjamin out of the army, and came to + Shiloh the same day with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head. + And when he came, lo, Eli sat upon his seat by the wayside watching: for + his heart trembled for the ark of God. And when the man came into the + city, and told it, all the city cried out. And when Eli heard the noise of + the crying, he said, What meaneth the noise of this tumult? And the man + hasted, and came and told Eli. Now Eli was ninety and eight years old; and + his eyes were set, that he could not see. And the man said unto Eli, I am + he that came out of the army, and I fled to-day out of the army. And he + said, How went the matter, my son? And he that brought the tidings + answered and said, Israel is fled before the Philistines, and there hath + been also a great slaughter among the people, and thy two sons also, + Hophni and Phineas, are dead, and the ark of God is taken. And it came to + pass, when he made mention of the ark of God, that he fell from off his + seat backward by the side of the gate, and his neck brake, and he died: + for he was an old man, and heavy.” *** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Sam. iv. 12-18. + + ** This is not mentioned in the sacred books; but certain + reasons for believing this destruction to have taken place + are given by Stade. + + *** The Philistine garrison at Geba (Gibeah) is mentioned in + 1 Sam. xiii. 3, i. +</pre> + <p> + The defeat of Eben-ezer completed, at least for a time, the overthrow of + the tribes of Central Canaan. The Philistines destroyed the sanctuary of + Shiloh, and placed a garrison at Gibeah to keep the Benjamites in + subjection, and to command the route of the Jordan;* it would even appear + that they pushed their advance-posts beyond Carmel in order to keep in + touch with the independent Canaanite cities such as Megiddo, Taanach, and + Bethshan, and to ensure a free use of the various routes leading in the + direction of Damascus, Tyre, and Coele-Syria.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * After the victory at Gilboa, the Philistines exposed the + dead bodies of Saul and his sons upon the walls of Bethshan + (1 Sam. xxxi. 10, 12), which they would not have been able + to do had the inhabitants not been allies or vassals. + Friendly relations with Bethshan entailed almost as a matter + of course some similar understanding with the cities of the + plain of Jezreel. + + ** 1 Sam. vii. 16, 17. These verses represent, as a matter + of fact, all that we know of Samuel anterior to his + relations with Saul. This account seems to represent him as + exercising merely a restricted influence over the territory + of Benjamin and the south of Ephraim. It was not until the + prophetic period that, together with Eli, he was made to + figure as Judge of all Israel. +</pre> + <p> + The Philistine power continued dominant for at least half a century. The + Hebrew chroniclers, scandalised at the prosperity of the heathen, did + their best to abridge the time of the Philistine dominion, and + interspersed it with Israelitish victories. Just at this time, however, + there lived a man who was able to inspire them with fresh hope. He was a + priest of Bamah, Samuel, the son of Elkanah, who had acquired the + reputation of being a just and wise judge in the towns of Bethel, Gilgal, + and Mizpah; “and he judged Israel in all those places, and his return was + to Bamah, for there was his house... and he built there an altar unto the + Lord.” To this man the whole Israelite nation attributed with pride the + deliverance of their race. The sacred writings relate how his mother, the + pious Hannah, had obtained his birth from Jahveh after years of + childlessness, and had forthwith devoted him to the service of God. She + had sent him to Shiloh at the age of three years, and there, clothed in a + linen tunic and in a little robe which his mother made for him herself, he + ministered before God in the presence of Eli. One night it happened, when + the latter was asleep in his place, “and the lamp of God was not yet gone + out, and Samuel was laid down to sleep in the temple of the Lord, where + the ark of God was, that the Lord called Samuel: and he said, Here am I. + And he ran unto Eli, and said, Here am I; for thou calledst me. And he + said, I called thee not; lie down again.” Twice again the voice was heard, + and at length Eli perceived that it was God who had called the child, and + he bade him reply: “Speak, Lord; for Thy servant heareth.” From + thenceforward Jahveh was “with him, and did let none of his words fall to + the ground. And all Israel from Dan even to Beersheba knew that Samuel was + established to be a prophet of the Lord.” Twenty years after the sad death + of his master, Samuel felt that the moment had come to throw off the + Philistine yoke; he exhorted the people to put away their false gods, and + he assembled them at Mizpah to absolve them from their sins. The + Philistines, suspicious of this concourse, which boded ill for the + maintenance of their authority, arose against him. “And when the children + of Israel heard it, they were afraid of the Philistines. And Samuel took a + sucking lamb, and offered it for a whole burnt offering unto the Lord: and + Samuel cried unto the Lord for Israel, and the Lord answered him.” The + Philistines, demoralised by the thunderstorm which ensued, were overcome + on the very spot where they had triumphed over the sons of Eli, and fled + in disorder to their own country. “Then Samuel took a stone, and set it + between Mizpah and Shen, and called the name of it Eben-ezer (the Stone of + Help), saying, Hitherto hath the Lord helped us.” He next attacked the + Tyrians and the Amorites, and won back from them all the territory they + had conquered.* One passage, in which Samuel is not mentioned, tells us + how heavily the Philistine yoke had weighed upon the people, and explains + their long patience by the fact that their enemies had taken away all + their weapons. “Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of + Israel: for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords or + spears;” and whoever needed to buy or repair the most ordinary + agricultural implements was forced to address himself to the Philistine + blacksmiths.** The very extremity of the evil worked its own cure. The + fear of the Midian-ites had already been the occasion of the ephemeral + rule of Jerubbaal and Abimelech; the Philistine tyranny forced first the + tribes of Central and then those of Southern Canaan to unite under the + leadership of one man. In face of so redoubtable an enemy and so grave a + peril a greater effort was required, and the result was proportionate to + their increased activity. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This manner of retaliating against the Philistines for the + disaster they had formerly inflicted on Israel, is supposed + by some critics to be an addition of a later date, either + belonging to the time of the prophets, or to the period when + the Jews, without any king or settled government, rallied at + Mizpah. According to these scholars, 1 Sam. vii. 2-14 forms + part of a biography, written at a time when the foundation + of the Benjamite monarchy had not as yet been attributed to + Saul. + + ** 1 Sam. xiii. 20, 21. +</pre> + <p> + The Manassite rule extended at most over two or three clans, but that of + Saul and David embraced the Israelite nation.* Benjamin at that time + reckoned among its most powerful chiefs a man of ancient and noble family—Saul, + the son of Kish—who possessed extensive flocks and considerable + property, and was noted for his personal beauty, for “there was not among + the children of Israel a goodlier person than he: from his shoulders and + upward he was higher than any of the people.” ** He had already reached + mature manhood, and had several children, the eldest of whom, Jonathan, + was well known as a skilful and brave soldier, while Saul’s reputation was + such that his kinsmen beyond Jordan had recourse to his aid as to a hero + whose presence would secure victory. The Ammonites had laid siege to + Jabesh-Gilead, and the town was on the point of surrendering; Saul came to + their help, forced the enemy to raise the siege, and inflicted such a + severe lesson upon them, that during the whole of his lifetime they did + not again attempt hostilities. He was soon after proclaimed king by the + Benjamites, as Jerubbaal had been raised to authority by the Manassites on + the morrow of his victory.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The beginning of Saul’s reign, up to his meeting with + David, will be found in 1 Sam. viii.-xv. We can distinguish + the remains of at least two ancient narratives, which the + writer of the Book of Samuel has put together in order to + form a complete and continuous account. As elsewhere in this + work, I have confined myself to accepting the results at + which criticism has arrived, without entering into detailed + discussions which do not come within the domain of history. + + ** 1 Sam. ix. 2. In one account he is represented as quite a + young man, whose father is still in the prime of life (1 + Sam. ix.), but this cannot refer to the time of the + Philistine war, where we find him accompanied, at the very + outset of his reign, by his son, who is already skilled in + the use of weapons. + + *** 1 Sam. xi. According to the text of the Septuagint, the + war against the Ammonites broke out a month after Saul had + been secretly anointed by Samuel; his popular proclamation + did not take place till after the return from the campaign. +</pre> + <p> + We learn from the sacred writings that Samuel’s influence had helped to + bring about these events. It had been shown him by the divine voice that + Saul was to be the chosen ruler, and he had anointed him and set him + before the people as their appointed lord; the scene of this must have + been either Mizpah or Gilgal.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * One narrative appears to represent him as being only the + priest or local prophet of Hamah, and depicts him as + favourable to the establishment of the monarchy (1 Sam. ix. + 1-27, x. 1-16); the other, however, admits that he was + “judge” of all Israel, and implies that he was hostile to the + choice of a king (1 Sam. viii. 1-22, x. 17, 27, xii. 1-25) +</pre> + <p> + The accession of a sovereign who possessed the allegiance of all Israel + could not fail to arouse the vigilance of their Philistine oppressors; + Jonathan, however, anticipated their attack and captured Gibeah. The five + kings at once despatched an army to revenge this loss; the main body + occupied Michmash, almost opposite to the stronghold taken from them, + while three bands of soldiers were dispersed over the country, ravaging as + they went, with orders to attack Saul in the rear. The latter had only six + hundred men, with whom he scarcely dared to face so large a force; besides + which, he was separated from the enemy by the Wady Suweinît, here narrowed + almost into a gorge between two precipitous rocks, and through which no + body of troops could penetrate without running the risk of exposing + themselves in single file to the enemy. Jonathan, however, resolved to + attempt a surprise in broad daylight, accompanied only by his + armour-bearer. “There was a rocky crag on the one side, and a rooky crag + on the other side: and the name of the one was Bozez (the Shining), and + the name of the other Seneh (the Acacia). The one crag rose up on the + north in front of Michmash, and the other on the south in front of Geba + (Gribeah).” The two descended the side of the gorge, on the top of which + they were encamped, and prepared openly to climb the opposite side. The + Philistine sentries imagined they were deserters, and said as they + approached: “Behold, the Hebrews come forth out of the holes where they + had hid themselves. And the men of the garrison answered Jonathan and his + armour-bearer, and said, Come up to us, and we will show you a thing. And + Jonathan said unto his armour-bearer, Come up after me: for the Lord hath + delivered them into the hand of Israel. And Jonathan climbed up upon his + hands and upon his feet, and his armour-bearer after him: and they fell + before Jonathan; and his armour-bearer slew them after him. And that first + slaughter that Jonathan and his armour-bearer made, was about twenty men, + within as it were half a furrow’s length in an acre of land.” From + Gribeah, where Saul’s troops were in ignorance of what was passing, the + Benjamite sentinels could distinguish a tumult. Saul guessed that a + surprise had taken place, and marched upon the enemy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0024" id="Cimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/314.jpg" alt="314.jpg the Wady Suweinit " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 402 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund</i>. +</pre> + <p> + The Philistines were ousted from their position, and pursued hotly beyond + Bethel as far as Ajalon.* This constituted the actual birthday of the + Israelite monarchy. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The account of these events, separated by the parts + relating to the biography of Samuel (1 Sam. xiii. 76-15a, + thought by some to be of a later date), and of the breaking + by Jonathan of the fast enjoined by Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 23- + 45), covers 1 Sam. xiii. 3-7a, 156-23, xiv. 1-22, 46. The + details appear to be strictly historical; the number of the + Philistines, however, seems to be exaggerated; “30,000 + chariots, and 6000 horsemen, and people as the sand which is + on the sea-shore in multitude “(1 Sam. xiii. 5). +</pre> + <p> + Gilead, the whole house of Joseph—Ephraim and Manasseh—and + Benjamin formed its nucleus, and were Saul’s strongest supporters. We do + not know how far his influence extended northwards; it probably stopped + short at the neighbourhood of Mount Tabor, and the Galileans either + refused to submit to his authority, or acknowledged it merely in theory. + In the south the clans of Judah and Simeon were not long in rallying round + him, and their neighbours the Kenites, with Caleb and Jerahmeel, soon + followed their example. These southerners, however, appear to have been + somewhat half-hearted in their allegiance to the Benjamite king: it was + not enough to have gained their adhesion—a stronger tie was needed + to attach them to the rest of the nation. Saul endeavoured to get rid of + the line of Canaanite cities which isolated them from Ephraim, but he + failed in the effort, we know not from what cause, and his attempt + produced no other result than to arouse against him the hatred of the + Gibeonite inhabitants.* He did his best to watch over the security of his + new subjects, and protected them against the Amalekites, who were + constantly harassing them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The fact is made known to us by an accidental mention of + it in 2 Sam. xxi. 1-11. The motive which induced Saul to + take arms against the Gibeonites is immediately apparent + when we realise the position occupied by Gideon between + Judah and the tribes of Central Canaan. +</pre> + <p> + Their king, Agag, happening to fall into his hands, he killed him, and + destroyed several of their nomad bands, thus inspiring the remainder with + a salutary terror.* Subsequent tradition credited him with victories + gained over all the enemies of Israel—over Moab, Edom, and even the + Aramaeans of Zobah—it endowed him even with the projects and + conquests of David. At any rate, the constant incursions of the + Philistines could not have left him much time for fighting in the north + and east of his domains. Their defeat at Gibeah was by no means a decisive + one, and they quickly recovered from the blow; the conflict with them + lasted to the end of Saul’s lifetime, and during the whole of this period + he never lost an opportunity of increasing his army.** + </p> + <p> + The monarchy was as yet in a very rudimentary state, without either the + pomp or accessories usually associated with royalty in the ancient + kingdoms of the East. Saul, as King of Israel, led much the same sort of + life as when he was merely a Benjamite chief. He preferred to reside at + Gibeah, in the house of his forefathers, with no further resources than + those yielded by the domain inherited from his ancestors, together with + the spoil taken in battle.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The part taken by Samuel in the narrative of Saul’s war + against the Amalekites (1 Sam. xv.) is thought by some + critics to have been introduced with a view of exalting the + prophet’s office at the expense of the king and the + monarchy. They regard 1 Sam. xiv. 48 as being the sole + historic ground of the narrative. + + ** 1 Sam. xiv. 47. We may admit his successful skirmishes + with Moab, but some writers maintain that the defeat of the + Edomites and Aramaeans is a mere anticipation, and consider + that the passage is only a reflection of 2 Sam. viii. 8, and + reproduces the list of the wars of David, with the exception + of the expedition against Damascus. + + *** Gibeah is nowhere expressly mentioned as being the + capital of Saul, but the name Gibeah of Saul which it bore + shows that it must have been the royal residence; the names + of the towns mentioned in the account of Saul’s pursuit of + David—Naioth, Eamah, and Nob—are all near to Gibeah. It + was also at Gibeah that the Gibeonites slew seven of the + sons and grandsons of Saul (2 Sam. xxi. 6-9), no doubt to + bring ignominy on the family of the first king in the very + place in which they had governed. +</pre> + <p> + All that he had, in addition to his former surroundings, were a priesthood + attached to the court, and a small army entirely at his own disposal. + Ahijah, a descendant of Eli, sacrificed for the king when the latter did + not himself officiate; he fulfilled the office of chaplain to him in time + of war, and was the mouthpiece of the divine oracles when these were + consulted as to the propitious moment for attacking the enemy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0025" id="Cimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/319.jpg" alt="319.jpg a Phoenician Soldier " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher- +Gudin, from the +bronze original +in the Louvre. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The army consisted of a nucleus of Benjamites, recruited from the king’s + clan, with the addition of any adventurers, whether Israelites or + strangers, who were attracted to enlist under a popular military chief.* + It comprised archers, slingers, and bands of heavily armed infantry, after + the fashion of the Phoenician, bearing pikes. We can gam some idea of + their appearance and equipment from the bronze statuettes of an almost + contemporary period, which show us the Phoenician foot-soldiers or the + barbarian mercenaries in the pay of the Phoenician cities: they wear the + horizontally striped loin-cloth of the Syrians, leaving the arms and legs + entirely bare, and the head is protected by a pointed or conical helmet. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ahijah (1 Sam. xiv. 3), son of Ahitub, great-grandson of + Eli, appears to be the same as Ahimelech, son of Ahitub, who + subsequently helped David (1 Sam. xxi. 1-10), and was + massacred by order of Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 9-19). The scribe + must have been shocked by the name Melech—that of the god + Milik [Moloch]—and must have substituted Jah or Jahveh. +</pre> + <p> + Saul possessed none of the iron-bound chariots which always accompanied + the Qanaanite infantry; these heavy vehicles would have been entirely out + of place in the mountain districts, which were the usual field of + operations for the Israelite force.* We are unable to ascertain whether + the king’s soldiers received any regular pay, but we know that the spoil + was divided between the prince and his men, each according to his rank and + in proportion to the valour he had displayed.** In cases of necessity, the + whole of the tribes were assembled, and a selection was made of all those + capable of bearing arms. This militia, composed mainly of a pastoral + peasantry in the prime of life, capable of heroic efforts, was + nevertheless ill-disciplined, liable to sudden panics, and prone to become + disbanded on the slightest reverse.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * With regard to the use of the bow among Saul’s soldiers, + cf. 1 Sam. xx. 18-42, where we find the curious scene of the + meeting of David and Jonathan, when the latter came out of + Gibeah on the pretext of practising with bow and arrows. The + accoutrement of the Hebrews is given in the passage where + Saul lends his armour to David before meeting with Goliath + (1 Sam. xvii. 38, 39). + + ** Cf. the quarrel which took place between the soldiers of + David about the spoil taken from the Amalekites, and the + manner in which the strife was decided by David (1 Sam. xxx. + 21-25) + + *** Saul, for instance, assembles the people and makes a + selection to attack the Philistines (1 Sam. xiii. 2, 4, 7) + against the Ammonites (1 Sam. xi. 7, 8) and against the + Amalekites (1 Sam. xv. 4). +</pre> + <p> + Saul had the supreme command of the whole; the members of his own family + served as lieutenants under him, including his son Jonathan, to whom he + owed some of his most brilliant victories, together with his cousin Abner, + the <i>sar-zaba</i>, who led the royal guard.* Among the men of + distinguished valour who had taken service under Saul, he soon singled out + David, son of Jesse, a native of Bethlehem of Judah.** David was the first + Judæan hero, the typical king who served as a model to all subsequent + monarchs. His elevation, like that of Saul, is traced to Samuel. The old + prophet had repaired to Bethlehem ostensibly to offer a sacrifice, and + after examining all the children of Jesse, he chose the youngest, and + “anointed him in the midst of his brethren: and the spirit of the Lord + came mightily upon David.” *** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xiv. 50, 51. There is no record of the part played + by Abner during Saul’s lifetime: he begins to figure in the + narrative after the battle at Gilboa under the double reign + of Ish-bosheth and David. + + ** The name of David is a shortened form of Davdo, Dodo, + “the favourite of Him,” i.e. God. + + *** The intervention of the prophet occupies 1 Sam. xvi. 1- + 13. Some critics have imagined that this passage was + interpolated at a later date, and reflects the events which + are narrated in chap. x. They say it was to show that Saul + was not alone in enjoying consecration by the prophet, and + hence all doubt would be set at rest as to whether David was + actually that “neighbour of thine, that is better than + thou,” mentioned in 1 Sam. xv. 28. +</pre> + <p> + His introduction at the court of Saul is variously accounted for. + According to one narrative, Saul, being possessed by an evil spirit, fell + at times into a profound melancholy, from which he could be aroused only + by the playing of a harp. On learning that David was skilled in this + instrument, he begged Jesse to send him his son, and the lad soon won the + king’s affection. As often as the illness came upon him, David took his + harp, and “Saul was refreshed, and the evil spirit departed from him.” * + Another account relates that he entered on his soldierly career by killing + with his sling Goliath of Gath,** who had challenged the bravest + Israelites to combat; though elsewhere the death of Goliath is attributed + to Elhanan of Bethlehem,*** one of the “mighty men of valour,” who + specially distinguished himself in the wars against the Philistines. David + had, however, no need to take to himself the brave deeds of others; at + Ephes-dammîm, in company with Eleazar, the son of Dodai, and Shammah, the + son of Agu, he had posted himself in a field of lentils, and the three + warriors had kept the Philistines at bay till their discomfited Israelite + comrades had had time to rally.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xvi. 14-23. This narrative is directly connected + with 1 Sam. xiv. 52, where we are told that when “Saul saw + any strong man, or any valiant man, he took him unto him.” + + ** 1 Sam. xvii., xviii. 1-5. According to some writers, this + second version, the best known of the two, is a development + at a later period of the tradition preserved in 2 Sam. xxi. + 19, where the victory of Elhanan over Goliath is recorded. + + *** 2 Sam. xxi. 19, where the duel of Goliath and Elhanan is + placed in the reign of David, during the combat at Gob. Some + critics think that the writer of Chronicles, recognising the + difficulty presented by this passage, changed the epithet + Bethlehemite, which qualified the name of Elhanan, into + Lahmi, the name of Goliath’s brother (1 Citron, xx. 5). Say + ce thought to get over the difficulty by supposing that + Elhanan was David’s first name; but Elhanan is the son of + Jair, and not the son of Jesse. + + **** The combat of Paz-Dammîm or Ephes-Dammîm is mentioned + in 1 Sam. xvii. 1; the exploit of David and his two + comrades, 2 Sam: xxiii. 9-12 (cf. 1 Chron. xi, 12-14, which + slightly varies from 2 Sam. xxiii. 9-12). +</pre> + <p> + Saul entrusted him with several difficult undertakings, in all of which he + acquitted himself with honour. On his return from one of them, the women + of the villages came out to meet him, singing and dancing to the sound of + timbrels, the refrain of their song being: “Saul hath slain his thousands, + and David his ten thousands.” The king concealed the jealousy which this + simple expression of joy excited within him, but it found vent at the next + outbreak of his illness, and he attempted to kill David with a spear, + though soon after he endeavoured to make amends for his action by giving + him his second daughter Michal in marriage.* This did not prevent the king + from again attempting David’s life, either in a real or simulated fit of + madness; but not being successful, he despatched a body of men to waylay + him. According to one account it was Michal who helped her husband to + escape,** while another attributes the saving of his life to Jonathan. + This prince had already brought about one reconciliation between his + father and David, and had spared no pains to reinstall him in the royal + favour, but his efforts merely aroused the king’s suspicion against + himself. Saul imagined that a conspiracy existed for the purpose of + dethroning him, and of replacing him by his son; Jonathan, knowing that + his life also was threatened, at length renounced the attempt, and David + and his followers withdrew from court. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The account of the first disagreement between Saul and + David, and with regard to the marriage of David with Michal, + is given in 1 Sam. xviii. 6-16, 20-29, and presents every + appearance of authenticity. Verses 17-19, mentioning a + project of union between David and Saul’s eldest daughter, + Merab, has at some time been interpolated; it is not given + in the LXX., either because it was not in the Hebrew version + they had before them, or because they suppressed it owing to + the motive appearing to them insufficient. + + ** 1 Sam. xix. 11-17. Many critics regard this passage as an + interpolation. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0026" id="Cimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/324.jpg" + alt="324.jpg AÎd-el-ra, the Site of The Ancient Adullam " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 430 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> +</pre> + <p> + He was hospitably received by a descendant of Eli,* Ahimelech the priest, + at Nob, and wandered about in the neighbourhood of Adullam, hiding himself + in the wooded valleys of Khereth, in the heart of Judah. He retained the + sympathies of many of the Benjamites, more than one of whom doubted + whether it would not be to their advantage to transfer their allegiance + from their aged king to this more youthful hero. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xxi. 8, 9 adds that he took as a weapon the sword + of Goliath which was laid up in the sanctuary at Nob. +</pre> + <p> + Saul got news of their defection, and one day when he was sitting, spear + in hand, under the tamarisk at Gibeah, he indignantly upbraided his + servants, and pointed out to them the folly of their plans. “Hear, now, ye + Benjamites; will the son of Jesse give every one of you fields and + vineyards? will he make you all captains of thousands and captains of + hundreds?” Ahimelech was selected as the victim of the king’s anger: + denounced by Doeg, Saul’s steward, he was put to death, and all his + family, with the exception of Abiathar, one of his sons, perished with + him.* As soon as it became known that David held the hill-country, a crowd + of adventurous spirits flocked to place themselves under his leadership, + anticipating, no doubt, that spoil would not be lacking with so brave a + chief, and he soon found himself at the head of a small army, with + Abiathar as priest, and the ephod, rescued from Nob, in his possession.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xix.-xxii., where, according to some critics, two + contradictory versions have been blended together at a late + period. The most probable version is given in 1 Sam, xix. 8- + 10 [11-18a], xxi. 1-7 [8-10], xxii., and is that which I + have followed by preference; the other version, according to + these writers, attributes too important a rôle to Jonathan, + and relates at length the efforts he made to reconcile his + father and his friend (1 Sam. xviii. 30, xix. 1-7, xx.). It + is thought, from the confusion apparent in this part of the + narrative, that a record of the real motives which provoked + a rupture between the king and his son-in-law has not been + preserved. + + ** 1 Sam. xxii. 20-23, xxiii. 6. For the use of the ephod by + Abiathar for oracular purposes, cf. 1 Sam. xxiii. 9-12, xxx. + 7, 8; the inquiry in 1 Sam. xxiii. 2-4 probably belongs to + the same series, although neither Abiathar nor the ephod is + mentioned. +</pre> + <p> + The country was favourable for their operations; it was a perfect + labyrinth of deep ravines, communicating with each other by narrow passes + or by paths winding along the edges of precipices. Isolated rocks, + accessible only by rugged ascents, defied assault, while extensive caves + offered a safe hiding-place to those who were familiar with their + windings. One day the little band descended to the rescue of Keilah, which + they succeeded in wresting from the Philistines, but no sooner did they + learn that Saul was on his way to meet them than they took refuge in the + south of Judah, in the neighbourhood of Ziph and Maôn, between the + mountains and the Dead Sea.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xxiii. 1-13; an episode acknowledged to be + historical by nearly-all modern critics. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0027" id="Cimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/326.jpg" alt="326.jpg the Desert of Judah " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudior, from photograph No. 197 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> The heights visible in the distance are + the mountains of Moab, beyond the Dead Sea. +</pre> + <p> + Saul already irritated by his rival’s successes, was still more galled by + being always on the point of capturing him, and yet always seeing him slip + from his grasp. On one afternoon, when the king had retired into a cave + for his siesta, he found himself at the mercy of his adversary; the + latter, however, respected the sleep of his royal master, and contented + himself with cutting a piece off his mantle.* On another occasion David, + in company with Abishai and Ahimelech the Hittite, took a lance and a + pitcher of water from the king’s bedside.** The inhabitants of the country + were not all equally loyal to David’s cause; those of Ziph, whose meagre + resources were taxed to support his followers, plotted to deliver him up + to the king,*** while Nabal of Maôn roughly refused him food. Abigail + atoned for her husband’s churlishness by a speedy submission; she + collected a supply of provisions, and brought it herself to the wanderers. + David was as much disarmed by her tact as by her beauty, and when she was + left a widow he married her. This union insured the support of the + Calebite clan, the most powerful in that part of the country, and policy + as well as gratitude no doubt suggested the alliance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam, xxiv. Thought by some writers to be of much later + date. + + ** 1 Sam. xxvi. 4-25. +</pre> + <p> + Skirmishes were not as frequent between the king’s troops and the outlaws + as we might at first be inclined to believe, but if at times there was a + truce to hostilities, they never actually ceased, and the position became + intolerable. Encamped between his kinsman and the Philistines, David found + himself unable to resist either party except by making friends with the + other. An incursion of the Philistines near Maôn saved David from the + king, but when Saul had repulsed it, David had no choice but to throw + himself into the arms of Achish, King of Gath, of whom he craved + permission to settle as his vassal at Ziklag, on condition of David’s + defending the frontier against the Bedawin.* + </p> + <p> + * 1 Sam. xxvii. The earlier part of this chapter (vers. 1-6) is strictly + historical. Some critics take vers. 8-12 to be of later date, and pretend + that they were inserted to show the cleverness of David, and to deride the + credulity of the King of Gath. + </p> + <p> + Saul did not deem it advisable to try and dislodge him from this retreat. + Peace having been re-established in Judah, the king turned northward and + occupied the heights which bound the plain of Jezreel to the east; it is + possible that he contemplated pushing further afield, and rallying round + him those northern tribes who had hitherto never acknowledged his + authority. He may, on the other hand, have desired merely to lay hands on + the Syrian highways, and divert to his own profit the resources brought by + the caravans which plied along them. The Philistines, who had been nearly + ruined by the loss of the right to demand toll of these merchants, + assembled the contingents of their five principalities, among them being + the Hebrews of David, who formed the personal guard of Achish. The four + other princes objected to the presence of these strangers in their midst, + and forced Achish to dismiss them. David returned to Ziklag, to find ruin + and desolation everywhere. The Amalekites had taken advantage of the + departure of the Hebrews to revenge themselves once for all for David’s + former raids on them, and they had burnt the town, carrying off the women + and flocks. David at once set out on their track, overtook them just + beyond the torrent of Besor, and rescued from them, not only his own + belongings, but all the booty they had collected by the way in the + southern provinces of Caleb, in Judah, and in the Cherethite plain. + </p> + <p> + He distributed part of this spoil among those cities of Judah which had + shown hospitality to himself and his men, for instance, to Jattir, Aroer, + Eshtemoa, Hormah, and Hebron.* While he thus kept up friendly relations + with those who might otherwise have been tempted to forget him, Saul was + making his last supreme effort against the Philistines, but only ito meet + with failure. He had been successful in repulsing them as long as he kept + to the mountain districts, where the courage of his troops made up for + their lack of numbers and the inferiority of their arms; but he was + imprudent enough to take up a position on the hillsides of Gilboa, whose + gentle slopes offered no hindrances to the operations of the heavy + Philistine battalions. They attacked the Israelites from the Shunem side, + and swept all before them. Jonathan perished in the conflict, together + with his two brothers, Malchi-shua and Abinadab; Saul, who was wounded by + an arrow, begged his armour-bearer to take his life, but, on his + persistently refusing, the king killed himself with his own sword. The + victorious Philistines cut off his head and those of his sons, and placed + their armour in the temple of Ashtoreth,** while their bodies, thus + despoiled, were hung up outside the walls of Bethshan, whose Canaanite + inhabitants had made common cause with the Philistines against Israel. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xxviii. 1, 2, xxix., xxx. The torrent of Besor is + the present Wady Esh-Sheriah, which runs to the south of + Gaza. + + ** The text of 1 Sam. xxxi. 10 says, in a vague manner, “in + the house of the Ashtaroth” (in the plural), which is + corrected, somewhat arbitrarily, in 1 Chron. x. 10 iato “in + the house of Dagon” (B.V.); it is possible that it was the + temple at Gaza, Gaza being the chief of the Philistine + towns. +</pre> + <p> + The people of Jabesh-Gilead, who had never forgotten how Saul had saved + them from the Ammonites, hearing the news, marched all night, rescued the + mutilated remains, and brought them back to their own town, where they + burned them, and buried the charred bones under a tamarisk, fasting + meanwhile seven days as a sign of mourning.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xxxi. It would seem that there were two narratives + describing this war: in one, the Philistines encamped at + Shunem, and Saul occupied Mount Gilboa (1 Sam. xxviii. 4); + in the other, the Philistines encamped at Aphek, and the + Israelites “by the fountain which is in Jezreel” (1 Sam. + xxix. 1). The first of these accounts is connected with the + episode of the witch of Endor, the second with the sending + away of David by Achish. The final catastrophe is in both + narratives placed on Mount Gilboa and Stade has endeavoured + to reconcile the two accounts by admitting that the battle + was fought between Aphek and “the fountain,” but that the + final scene took place on the slopes of Gilboa. There are + even two versions of the battle, one in 1 Sam. xxxi. and the + other in 2 Sam. i. 6-10, where Saul does not kill himself, + but begs an Amalekite to slay him; many critics reject the + second version. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0028" id="Cimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/330.jpg" + alt="330.jpg the Hill of Bethshan, Seen from The East " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 79 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> +</pre> + <p> + David afterwards disinterred these relics, and laid them in the + burying-place of the family of Kish at Zela, in Benjamin. The tragic end + of their king made a profound impression on the people. We read that, + before entering on his last battle, Saul was given over to gloomy + forebodings: he had sought counsel of Jahveh, but God “answered him not, + neither by dreams, nor by Urim, nor by prophets.” The aged Samuel had + passed away at Ramah, and had apparently never seen the king after the + flight of David;* Saul now bethought himself of the prophet in his + despair, and sought to recall him from the tomb to obtain his counsel. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xxv. 1, repeated 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, with a mention + of the measures taken by Saul against the wizards and + fortune-tellers. +</pre> + <p> + The king had banished from the land all wizards and fortune-tellers, but + his servants brought him word that at Endor there still remained a woman + who could call up the dead. Saul disguised himself, and, accompanied by + two of his retainers, went to find her; he succeeded in overcoming her + fear of punishment, and persuaded her to make the evocation. “Whom shall I + bring up unto thee?”—“Bring up Samuel.”—And when the woman saw + Samuel, she cried with a loud voice, saying, “Why hast thou deceived me, + for thou art Saul?” And the king said unto her, “Be not afraid, for what + sawest thou?”—“I saw gods ascending out of the earth.”—“What + form is he of?”—“An old man cometh up, and he is covered with a + mantle.” Saul immediately recognised Samuel, and prostrated himself with + his face to the ground before him. The prophet, as inflexible after death + as in his lifetime, had no words of comfort for the God-forsaken man who + had troubled his repose. “The Lord hath rent the kingdom out of thine + hand, and given it to thy neighbour, even to David, because thou obeyedst + not the voice of the Lord,... and tomorrow shalt thou and thy sons be with + me. The Lord also shall deliver the host of Israel into the hands of the + Philistines.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. xxviii. 5-25. There is no reason why this scene + should not be historical; it was natural that Saul, like + many an ancient general in similar circumstances, should + seek to know the future by means of the occult sciences then + in vogue. Some critics think that certain details of the + evocation—as, for instance, the words attributed to Samuel + —are of a later date. +</pre> + <p> + We learn, also, how David, at Ziklag, on hearing the news of the disaster, + had broken into weeping, and had composed a lament, full of beauty, known + as the “Song of the Bow,” which the people of Judah committed to memory in + their childhood. “Thy glory, O Israel, is slain upon thy high places! How + are the mighty fallen! Tell it not in Gath, publish it not in the streets + of Ashkelon; lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice, lest the + daughters of the uncircumcised triumph! Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there + be no dew nor rain upon you, neither fields of offerings: for there the + shield of the mighty was vilely cast away, the shield of Saul, not + anointed with oil! From the blood of the slain, from the fat of the + mighty, the bow of Jonathan turned not back, the sword of Saul returned + not empty. Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and + in death they were not divided.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 2 Sam. i. 17-27 (R.V.). This elegy is described as a + quotation from Jasher, the “Book of the Upright.” Many modern + writers attribute its authorship to David himself; others + reject this view; all agree in regarding it as extremely + ancient. The title, “Song of the Bow,” is based on the + possibly corrupt text of ver. 18. +</pre> + <p> + The Philistines occupied in force the plain of Jezreel and the pass which + leads from it into the lowlands of Bethshan: the Israelites abandoned the + villages which they had occupied in these districts, and the gap between + the Hebrews of the north and those of the centre grew wider. The remnants + of Saul’s army sought shelter on the eastern bank of the Jordan, but found + no leader to reorganise them. The reverse sustained by the Israelitish + champion seemed, moreover, to prove the futility of trying to make a stand + against the invader, and even the useless-ness of the monarchy itself: + why, they might have asked, burthen ourselves with a master, and patiently + bear with his exactions, if, when put to the test, he fails to discharge + the duties for the performance of which he was chosen? And yet the + advantages of a stable form of government had been so manifest during the + reign of Saul, that it never for a moment occurred to his former subjects + to revert to patriarchal institutions: the question which troubled them + was not whether they were to have a king, but rather who was to fill the + post. Saul had left a considerable number of descendants behind him.* From + these, Abner, the ablest of his captains, chose Ishbaal, and set him on + the throne to reign under his guidance.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We know that he had three sons by his wife Ahinoam— + Jonathan, Ishbaal, and Malchi-shua; and two daughters, Merab + and Michal (1 Sam. xiv. 49, 50, where “Ishvi” should be read + “Ishbaal”). Jonathan left at least one son, Meribbaal (1 + Chron. viii. 34, ix. 40, called Mephibosheth in 2 Sam. xxi. + 7), and Merab had five sons by Adriel (2 Sam. xxi. 8). One + of Saul’s concubines, Rizpah, daughter of Aiah, had borne + him two sons, Armoni and Meribbaal (2 Sam. xxi. 8, where the + name Meribbaal is changed into Mephibosheth); Abinadab, who + fell with him in the fight at Mount Gilboa (1 Sam. xxxi. 2), + whose mother’s name is not mentioned, was another son. + + ** Ishbaal was still a child when his father died: had he + been old enough to bear arms, he would have taken a part in + the battle of Gilboa with his brothers.. The expressions + used in the account of his elevation to the throne prove + that he was a minor (2 Sam. ii. 8, 9); the statement that he + was forty years old when he began to reign would seem, + therefore, to be an error (ii. 10). +</pre> + <p> + Gibeah was too close to the frontier to be a safe residence for a + sovereign whose position was still insecure; Abner therefore installed + Ishbaal at Mahanaim, in the heart of the country of Gilead. The house of + Jacob, including the tribe of Benjamin, acknowledged him as king, but + Judah held aloof. It had adopted the same policy at the beginning of the + previous reign, yet its earlier isolation had not prevented it from + afterwards throwing in its lot with the rest of the nation. But at that + time no leader had come forward from its own ranks who was worthy to be + reckoned among the mighty men of Israel; now, on the contrary, it had on + its frontier a bold and resolute leader of its own race. David lost no + time in stepping into the place of those whose loss he had bewailed. Their + sudden removal, while it left him without a peer among his own people, + exposed him to the suspicion and underground machinations of his foreign + protectors; he therefore quitted them and withdrew to Hebron, where his + fellow-countrymen hastened to proclaim him king.* From that time onwards + the tendency of the Hebrew race was to drift apart into two distinct + bodies; one of them, the house of Joseph, which called itself by the name + of Israel, took up its position in the north, on the banks of the Jordan; + the other, which is described as the house of Judah, in the south, between + the Dead Sea and the Shephelah. Abner endeavoured to suppress the rival + kingdom in its infancy: he brought Ishbaal to Gibeah and proposed to Joab, + who was in command of David’s army, that the conflict should be decided by + the somewhat novel expedient of pitting twelve of the house of Judah + against an equal number of the house of Benjamin. The champions of Judah + are said to have won the day, but the opposing forces did not abide by the + result, and the struggle still continued.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 2 Sam. ii. 1—11. Very probably Abner recognised the + Philistine suzerainty as David had done, for the sake of + peace; at any rate, we find no mention in Holy Writ of a war + between Ishbaal and the Philistines. + + ** 2 Sam. ii. 12-32, iii. 1. +</pre> + <p> + An intrigue in the harem furnished a solution of the difficulty. Saul had + raised one of his wives of the second rank, named Eizpah, to the post of + favourite. Abner became enamoured of her and took her. This was an insult + to the royal house, and amounted to an act of open usurpation: the wives + of a sovereign could not legally belong to any but his successor, and for + any one to treat them as Abner had treated Rizpah, was equivalent to his + declaring himself the equal, and in a sense the rival, of his master. + Ishbaal keenly resented his minister’s conduct, and openly insulted him. + Abner made terms with David, won the northern tribes, including that of + Benjamin, over to his side, and when what seemed a propitious moment had + arrived, made his way to Hebron with an escort of twenty men. He was + favourably received, and all kinds of promises were made him; but when he + was about to depart again in order to complete the negotiations with the + disaffected elders, Joab, returning from an expedition, led him aside into + a gateway and slew him. David gave him solemn burial, and composed a + lament on the occasion, of which four verses have come down to us: having + thus paid tribute to the virtues of the deceased general, he lost no time + in taking further precautions to secure his power. The unfortunate king + Ishbaal, deserted by every one, was assassinated by two of his officers as + he slept in the heat of the day, and his head was carried to Hebron: David + again poured forth lamentations, and ordered the traitors to be killed. + There was now no obstacle between him and the throne: the elders of the + people met him at Hebron, poured oil upon his head, and anointed him king + over all the provinces which had obeyed the rule of Saul in Gilead—Ephraim + and Benjamin as well as Judah.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 2 Sam. v. 1-3; in 1 Ghron. xi. 1-3, xii. 23-40, we find + further details beyond those given in the Book of Samuel; it + seems probable, however, that the northern tribes may not + have recognised David’s sovereignty at this time. +</pre> + <p> + As long as Ishbaal lived, and his dissensions with Judah assured their + supremacy, the Philistines were content to suspend hostilities: the news + of his death, and of the union effected between Israel and Judah, soon + roused them from this state of quiescence. As prince of the house of Caleb + and vassal of the lord of Grath, David had not been an object of any + serious apprehension to them; but in his new character, as master of the + dominions of Saul, David became at once a dangerous rival, whom they must + overthrow without delay, unless they were willing to risk being ere long + overthrown by him. They therefore made an attack on Bethlehem with the + choicest of their forces, and entrenched themselves there, with the + Canaanite city of Jebus as their base, so as to separate Judah entirely + from Benjamin, and cut off the little army quartered round Hebron from the + reinforcements which the central tribes would otherwise have sent to its + aid.* This move was carried out so quickly that David found himself + practically isolated from the rest of his kingdom, and had no course left + open but to shut himself up in Adullam, with his ordinary guard and the + Judsean levies.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The history of this war is given in 2 Sam. v. 17-25, where + the text shows signs of having been much condensed. It is + preceded by the account of the capture of Jerusalem, which + some critics would like to transfer to chap, vi., following + ver. 1 which leads up to it. The events which followed are + self-explanatory, if we assume, as I have done in the text, + that the Philistines wished to detach Judah from Israel: at + first (2 Sam. v. 17-21) David endeavours to release himself + and effect a juncture with Israel, as is proved by the + relative positions assigned to the two opposing armies, the + Philistines at Bethlehem, David in the cave of Adullam; + afterwards (2 Sam. v. 22-25) David has shaken himself free, + has rejoined Israel, and is carrying on the struggle between + Gibeah and Gezer. The incidents recounted in 2 Sam. xxi. 15- + 22, xxiii. 13-19, seem to refer almost exclusively to the + earlier part of the war, at the time when the Hebrews were + hemmed in in the neighbourhood of Adullam. + + ** The passage in 2 Sam. v. 17 simply states that David + “went down to the hold,” and gives no further details. This + expression, following as it does the account of the taking + of Jerusalem, would seem to refer to this town itself, and + Renan has thus interpreted it. It really refers to Adullam, + as is shown by the passage in 2 Sam. xxiii. 13-17. 1 2 Sam. + xxi. 15-17. +</pre> + <p> + The whole district round about is intersected by a network of winding + streams, and abounds in rocky gorges, where a few determined men could + successfully hold their ground against the onset of a much more numerous + body of troops. The caves afford, as we know, almost impregnable refuges: + David had often hidden himself in them in the days when he fled before + Saul, and now his soldiers profited by the knowledge he possessed of them + to elude the attacks of the Philistines. He began a sort of guerilla + warfare, in the conduct of which he seems to have been without a rival, + and harassed in endless skirmishes his more heavily equipped adversaries. + He did not spare himself, and freely risked his own life; but he was of + small stature and not very powerful, so that his spirit often outran his + strength. On one occasion, when he had advanced too far into the fray and + was weary with striking, he ran great peril of being killed by a gigantic + Philistine: with difficulty Abishai succeeded in rescuing him unharmed + from the dangerous position into which he had ventured, and for the future + he was not allowed to run such risks on the field of battle. On another + occasion, when lying in the cave of Adullam, he began to feel a longing + for the cool waters of Bethlehem, and asked who would go down and fetch + him a draught from the well by the gates of the town. Three of his mighty + men, Joshebbasshebeth, Eleazar, and Shammah, broke through the host of the + Philistines and succeeded in bringing it; but he refused to drink the few + drops they had brought, and poured them out as a libation to Jehovah, + saying, “Shall I drink the blood of men that went in jeopardy of their + lives?” * Duels between the bravest and stoutest champions of the two hosts + were of frequent occurrence. It was in an encounter of this kind that + Elhanan the Bethlehemite [or David] slew the giant Goliath at Gob. At + length David succeeded in breaking his way through the enemies’ lines in + the valley of Kephaîm, thus forcing open the road to the north. Here he + probably fell in with the Israelitish contingent, and, thus reinforced, + was at last in a position to give battle in the open: he was again + successful, and, routing his foes, pursued them from Gibeon to Gezer.** + None of his victories, however, was of a sufficiently decisive character + to bring the struggle to an end: it dragged on year after year, and when + at last it did terminate, there was no question on either side of + submission or of tribute:*** the Hebrews completely regained their + independence, but the Philistines do not seem to have lost any portion of + their domain, and apparently retained possession of all that they had + previously held. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 2 Sam. xxiii. 13-17; cf. 1 Ghron. xi. 15-19. Popular + tradition furnishes many incidents of a similar type; cf. + Alexander in the desert of Gedrosia, Godfrey de Bouillon in + Asia Minor, etc. + + ** The Hebrew text gives “from Geba [or Gibeah] to Gezer” + (2 Sam. v. 25); the Septuagint, “from Gibeon to Gezer.” This + latter reading [which is that of 1 Chron. xiv. 16.—Tr.] is + more in accordance with the geographical facts, and I have + therefore adopted it. Jahveh had shown by a continual + rustling in the leaves of the mulberry trees that He was on + David’s side. + + *** In 2 Sam. viii. 1 we are told that David humiliated the + Philistines, and took “the bridle of the mother city” out of + their hands, or, in other words, destroyed the supremacy + which they had exercised over Israel; he probably did no + more than this, and failed to secure any part of their + territory. The passage in 1 Chron. xviii. 1, which + attributes to him the conquest of Gath and its dependencies, + is probably an amplification of the somewhat obscure wording + employed in 2 Sam. viii. 1. +</pre> + <p> + But though they suffered no loss of territory, their position was in + reality much inferior to what it was before. Their control of the plain of + Jezreel was lost to them for ever, and with it the revenue which they had + levied from passing caravans: the Hebrews transferred to themselves this + right of their former masters, and were so much the richer at their + expense. To the five cities this was a more damaging blow than twenty + reverses would have been to Benjamin or Judah. The military spirit had not + died out among the Philistines, and they were still capable of any action + which did not require sustained effort; but lack of resources prevented + them from entering on a campaign of any length, and any chance they may at + one time have had of exercising a dominant influence in the affairs of + Southern Syria had passed away. Under the restraining hand of Egypt they + returned to the rank of a second-rate power, just strong enough to inspire + its neighbours with respect, but too weak to extend its territory by + annexing that of others. Though they might still, at times, give David + trouble by contesting at intervals the possession of some outlying + citadel, or by making an occasional raid on one of the districts which lay + close to the frontier, they were no longer a permanent menace to the + continued existence of his kingdom. + </p> + <p> + But was Judah strong enough to take their place, and set up in Southern + Syria a sovereign state, around which the whole fighting material of the + country might range itself with confidence? The incidents of the last war + had clearly shown the disadvantages of its isolated position in regard to + the bulk of the nation. The gap between Ekron and the Jordan, which + separated it from Ephraim and Manasseh, had, at all costs, to be filled + up, if a repetition of the manouvre which so nearly cost David his throne + at Adullam were to be avoided. It is true that the Gibeonites and their + allies acknowledged the sovereignty of Ephraim, and formed a sort of + connecting link between the tribes, but it was impossible to rely on their + fidelity so long as they were exposed to the attacks of the Jebusites in + their rear: as soon therefore as David found he had nothing more to fear + from the Philistines, he turned his attention to Jerusalem.* This city + stood on a dry and sterile limestone spur, separated on three sides from + the surrounding hills by two valleys of unequal length. That of the + Kedron, on the east, begins as a simple depression, but gradually becomes + deeper and narrower as it extends towards the south. About a mile and a + half from its commencement it is nothing more than a deep gorge, shut in + by precipitous rocks, which for some days after the winter rains is turned + into the bed of a torrent.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name Jerusalem occurs under the form Ursalîmmu, or + Urusalîm, in the Tel el-Amarna tablets. Sion was the name of + the citadel preserved by the Israelites after the capture of + the place, and applied by them to the part of the city which + contained the royal palace, and subsequently to the town + itself. + + ** The Kedron is called a nalial (2 Sam. xv. 23; 1 Kings ii. + 37; Jer. xxxi. 40), i.e. a torrent which runs dry during the + summer; in winter it was termed a brook. Excavations show + that the fall diminishes at the foot of the ancient walls, + and that the bottom of the valley has risen nearly twelve + yards. +</pre> + <p> + During the remainder of the year a number of springs, which well up at the + bottom of the valley, furnish an unfailing supply of water to the + inhabitants of Gibon,* Siloam,** and Eôgel.*** The valley widens out again + near En-Kôgel, and affords a channel to the Wady of the Children of + Hinnôm, which bounds the plateau on the west. The intermediate space has + for a long time been nothing more than an undulating plain, at present + covered by the houses of modern Jerusalem. In ancient times it was + traversed by a depression in the ground, since filled up, which ran almost + parallel with the Kedron, and joined it near the Pool of Siloam.**** The + ancient city of the Jebusites stood on the summit of the headland which + rises between these two valleys, the town of Jebus itself being at the + extremity, while the Millo lay farther to the north on the hill of Sion, + behind a ravine which ran down at right angles into the valley of the + Hedron. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Now, possibly, the “Fountain of the Virgin,” but its + identity is not certain. + + ** These are the springs which feed the group of reservoirs + now known as the Pool of Siloam. The name “Siloam” occurs + only in Neh. iii. 15, but is undoubtedly more ancient. + + *** En-Rôgel, the “Traveller’s Well,” is now called the + “Well of Job.” + + **** This valley, which is not mentioned by name in the Old + Testament, was called, in the time of Josephus, the + Tyropoon, or Cheesemakers’Quarter. Its true position, which + had been only suspected up to the middle of the present + century, was determined with certainty by means of the + excavations carried out by the English and Germans. The + bottom of the valley was found at a depth of from forty to + sixty feet below the present surface. +</pre> + <p> + An unfortified suburb had gradually grown up on the lower ground to the + west, and was connected by a stairway cut in the rock* with the upper + city. This latter was surrounded by ramparts with turrets, like those of + the Canaanitish citadels which we constantly find depicted on the Egyptian + monuments. Its natural advantages and efficient garrison had so far + enabled it to repel all the attacks of its enemies. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the Ophel of the Hebrew text. +</pre> + <p> + When David appeared with his troops, the inhabitants ridiculed his + presumption, and were good enough to warn him of the hopelessness of his + enterprise: a garrison composed of the halt and the blind, without an + able-bodied man amongst them, would, they declared, be able successfully + to resist him. The king, stung by their mockery, made a promise to his + “mighty men” that the first of them to scale the walls should be made + chief and captain of his host. We often find that impregnable cities owe + their downfall to negligence on the part of their defenders: these + concentrate their whole attention on the few vulnerable points, and give + but scanty care to those which are regarded as inaccessible.* Jerusalem + proved to be no exception to this rule; Joab carried it by a sudden + assault, and received as his reward the best part of the territory which + he had won by his valour.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Cf. the capture of Sardis by Cyrus (Herodotus) and by + Antiochus III. (Polybius), as also the taking of the Capitol + by the Gauls. + + ** The account of the capture of Jerusalem is given in 2 + Sam. v. 6-9, where the text is possibly corrupt, with + interpolated glosses, especially in ver. 8; David’s reply to + the mockery of the Jebusites is difficult to understand. 1 + Citron, xi. 4-8 gives a more correct text, but one less + complete in so far as the portions parallel with 2 Sam. v. + 6-9 are concerned; the details in regard to Joab are + undoubtedly historical, but we do not find them in the Book + of Samuel. +</pre> + <p> + In attacking Jerusalem, David’s first idea was probably to rid himself of + one of the more troublesome obstacles which served to separate one-half of + his people from the other; but once he had set foot in the place, he was + not slow to perceive its advantages, and determined to make it his + residence. Hebron had sufficed so long as his power extended over Caleb + and Judah only. Situated as it was in the heart of the mountains, and in + the wealthiest part of the province in which it stood, it seemed the + natural centre to which the Kenites and men of Judah must gravitate, and + the point at which they might most readily be moulded into a nation; it + was, however, too far to the south to offer a convenient rallying-point + for a ruler who wished to bring the Hebrew communities scattered about on + both banks of the Jordan under the sway of a common sceptre. Jerusalem, on + the other hand, was close to the crossing point of the roads which lead + from the Sinaitic desert into Syria, and from the Shephelah to the land of + Gilead; it commanded nearly the whole domain of Israel and the ring of + hostile races by which it was encircled. From this lofty eyrie, David, + with Judah behind him, could either swoop down upon Moab, whose mountains + shut him out from a view of the Dead Sea, or make a sudden descent on the + seaboard, by way of Bethhoron, at the least sign of disturbance among the + Philistines, or could push straight on across Mount Ephraim into Galilee. + Issachar, Naphtali, Asher, Dan, and Zebulun were, perhaps, a little too + far from the seat of government; but they were secondary tribes, incapable + of any independent action, who obeyed without repugnance, but also without + enthusiasm, the soldier-king able to protect them from external foes. The + future master of Israel would be he who maintained his hold on the + posterity of Judah and of Joseph, and David could not hope to find a more + suitable place than Jerusalem from which to watch over the two ruling + houses at one and the same time. + </p> + <p> + The lower part of the town he gave up to the original inhabitants,* the + upper he filled with Benjamites and men of Judah;** he built or restored a + royal palace on Mount Sion, in which he lived surrounded by his warriors + and his family.*** One thing only was lacking—a temple for his God. + Jerubbaal had had a sanctuary at Ophrah, and Saul had secured the services + of Ahijah the prophet of Shiloh: David was no longer satisfied with the + ephod which had been the channel of many wise counsels during his years of + adversity and his struggles against the Philistines. He longed for some + still more sacred object with which to identify the fortunes of his + people, and by which he might raise the newly gained prestige of his + capital. It so happened that the ark of the Lord, the ancient safeguard of + Ephraim, had been lying since the battle of Eben-ezer not far away, + without a fixed abode or regular worshippers.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Judges i. 21; cf. Zech. xi. 7, where Ekron in its + decadence is likened to the Jebusite vassal of Judah. + + ** Jerusalem is sometimes assigned to Benjamin (Judges i. + 21), sometimes to Judah (Josh. xv. 63). Judah alone is + right. + + *** 2 Sam. v. 9, and the parallel passage in 1 Chron. xi. 7, + 8. + + **** The account of the events which followed the battle of + Eben-ezer up to its arrival in the house of Abinadab, is + taken from the history of the ark, referred to on pp. 306, + 307, supra. It is given in 1 Sam. v., vi., vii. 1, where it + forms an exceedingly characteristic whole, composed, it may + be, of two separate versions thrown into one; the passage in + 1 Sam. vi. 15, where the Lévites receive the ark, is + supposed by some to be interpolated. +</pre> + <p> + The reason why it had not brought victory on that occasion, was that God’s + anger had been stirred at the misdeeds committed in His name by the sons + of Eli, and desired to punish His people; true, it had been preserved from + profanation, and the miracles which took place in its neighbourhood proved + that it was still the seat of a supernatural power. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0029" id="Cimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/346.jpg" alt="346.jpg Mouse of Metal " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher- +Gudin, from a +sketch published +by Schick and +Oldfield Thomas. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + At first the Philistines had, according to their custom, shut it up in the + temple of Dagon at Ashdod. On the morrow when the priests entered the + sanctuary, they found the statue of their god prostrate in front of it, + his fish-like body overthrown, and his head and hands scattered on the + floor;* at the same time a plague of malignant tumours broke out among the + people, and thousands of mice overran their houses. The inhabitants of + Ashdod made haste to transfer it on to Ekron: it thus went the round of + the five cities, its arrival being in each case accompanied by the same + disasters. The soothsayers, being consulted at the end of seven months, + ordered that solemn sacrifices should be offered up, and the ark restored + to its rightful worshippers, accompanied by expiatory offerings of five + golden mice and five golden tumours, one for each of the five repentant + cities.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The statue here referred to is evidently similar to those + of the Chaldæan gods and genii, in which Dagon is + represented as a man with his back and head enveloped in a + fish as in a cloak. + + ** In the Oustinoff collection at Jaffa, there is a roughly + shaped image of a mouse, cut out of a piece of white metal, + and perhaps obtained from the ruins of Gaza; it would seem + to be an ex-voto of the same kind as that referred to in the + Hebrew text, but it is of doubtful authenticity. +</pre> + <p> + The ark was placed on a new cart, and two milch cows with their calves + drew it, lowing all the way, without guidance from any man, to the field + of a certain Joshua at Bethshemesh. The inhabitants welcomed it with great + joy, but their curiosity overcame their reverence, and they looked within + the shrine. Jehovah, being angered thereat, smote seventy men of them, and + the warriors made haste to bring the ark to Kirjath-jearim, where it + remained for a long time, in the house of Abinadab on the hill, under + charge of his son Eleazar.* Kirjath-jearim is only about two leagues from + Jerusalem. David himself went thither, and setting “the ark of God upon a + new cart,” brought it away.* Two attendants, called Uzzah and Ahio, drove + the new cart, “and David and all Israel played before God with all their + might: even with songs, and with harps, and with psalteries, and with + timbrels, and with cymbals, and with trumpets.” An accident leading to + serious consequences brought the procession to a standstill; the oxen + stumbled, and their sacred burden threatened to fall: Uzzah, putting forth + his hand to hold the ark, was smitten by the Lord, “and there he died + before the Lord.” David was disturbed at this, feeling some insecurity in + dealing with a Deity who had thus seemed to punish one of His worshippers + for a well-meant and respectful act.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The text of 1 Sam. vi. 21, vii. 1, gives the reading + Kirjath-jearim, whereas the text of 2 Sam. vi. 2 has Baale- + Judah, which should be corrected to Baal-Judah. Baal-Judah, + or, in its abbreviated form, Baala, is another name for + Kirjath-jearim (Josh. xv. 9-11; cf. 1 Ghron. xiii. 6). + Similarly, we find the name Kirjath-Baal (Josh. xv. 60). + Kirjath-jearim is now Kharbet-el-Enab. + + ** The transport of the ark from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem + is related in 2 Sam. vi. and in 1 Ghron. xiii., xv., xvi. +</pre> + <p> + He “was afraid of the Lord that day,” and “would not remove the ark” to + Jerusalem, but left it for three months in the house of a Philistine, + Obed-Edom of Gath; but finding that its host, instead of experiencing any + evil, was blessed by the Lord, he carried out his original intention, and + brought the ark to Jerusalem. “David, girded with a linen ephod, danced + with all his might before the Lord,” and “all the house of Israel brought + up the ark of the Lord with shouting, and with the sound of the trumpet.” + When the ark had been placed in the tent that David had prepared for it, + he offered up burnt offerings and peace offerings, and at the end of the + festival there were dealt out to the people gifts of bread, cakes, and + wine (or flesh). There is inserted in the narrative* an account of the + conduct of Michal his wife, who looking out of the window and seeing the + king dancing and playing, despised him in her heart, and when David + returned to his house, congratulated him ironically—“How glorious + was the King of Israel to-day, who uncovered himself in the eyes of the + handmaids of his servants!” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Renan would consider this to have been inserted in the + time of Hezekiah. It appeared to him to answer “to the + antipathy of Hamutal and the ladies of the court to the + worship of Jahveh, and to that form of human respect which + restrained the people of the world from giving themselves up + to it.” + </pre> + <p> + David said in reply that he would rather be held in honour by the + handmaids of whom she had spoken than avoid the acts which covered him + with ridicule in her eyes; and the chronicler adds that “Michal the + daughter of Saul had no child unto the day of her death.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * [David’s reply shows (2 Sam. vi. 21, 22) that it was in + gratitude to Jehovah who had exalted him that he thus + humbled himself.—Tr.] +</pre> + <p> + The tent and the ark were assigned at this time to the care of two priests—Zadok, + son of Ahitub, and Abiathar, son of Ahimelech, who was a descendant of + Eli, and had never quitted David throughout his adventurous career.* It is + probable, too, that the ephod had not disappeared, and that it had its + place in the sanctuary; but it may have gradually fallen into neglect, and + may have ceased to be the vehicle of oracular responses as in earlier + years. The king was accustomed on important occasions to take part in the + sacred ceremonies, after the example of contemporary monarchs, and he had + beside him at this time a priest of standing to guide him in the religious + rites, and to fulfil for him duties similar to those which the chief + reader rendered to Pharaoh. The only one of these priests of David whose + name has come down to us was Ira the Jethrite, who accompanied his master + in his campaigns, and would seem to have been a soldier also, and one of + “the thirty.” These priestly officials seem, however, to have played but a + subordinate part, as history is almost silent about their acts.** While + David owed everything to the sword and trusted in it, he recognised at the + same time that he had obtained his crown from Jahveh; just as the + sovereigns of Thebes and Nineveh saw in Amon and Assur the source of their + own royal authority. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 2 Sam. viii. 17, xx. 25; cf. 1 Sam. xxi. 1, xxii. 20; 1 + Chron. xv. 11. + + ** 2 Sam. xx. 26, where he is called the Jairite, and not + the Ithrite, owing to an easily understood confusion of the + Hebrew letters. He figures in the list of the <i>Gibborim</i>, + “mighty men,” 2 Sam. xxiii. 38. +</pre> + <p> + He consulted the Lord directly when he wished for counsel, and accepted + the issue as a test whether his interpretation of the Divine will was + correct or erroneous. When once he had realised, at the time of the + capture of Jerusalem, that God had chosen him to be the champion of + Israel, he spared no labour to accomplish the task which the Divine favour + had assigned to him. He attacked one after the other the peoples who had + encroached upon his domain, Moab being the first to feel the force of his + arm. He extended his possessions at the expense of Gilead, and the fertile + provinces opposite Jericho fell to his sword. These territories were in + dangerous proximity to Jerusalem, and David doubtless realised the peril + of their independence. The struggle for their possession must have + continued for some time, but the details are not given, and we have only + the record of a few incidental exploits: we know, for instance, that the + captain of David’s guard, Benaiah, slew two Moabite notables in a battle.* + Moabite captives were treated with all the severity sanctioned by the laws + of war. They were laid on the ground in a line, and two-thirds of the + length of the row being measured off, all within it were pitilessly + massacred, the rest having their lives spared. Moab acknowledged its + defeat, and agreed to pay tribute: it had suffered so much that it + required several generations to recover.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 2 Sam. xxiii. 20-23: cf. 1 Chron. xi. 22-25. “Ariel,” who + is made the father of the two slain by Benaiah, may possibly + be the term in 11. 12, 17, 18 of the Inscription of Mesha + (Moabite Stone); but its meaning is obscure, and has + hitherto baffled all attempts to explain it. + + ** 2 Sam. viii. 2. +</pre> + <p> + Gilead had become detached from David’s domain on the south, while the + Ammonites were pressing it on the east, and the Ararnæans making + encroachments upon its pasture-lands on the north. Nahash, King of the + Ammonites, being dead, David, who had received help from him in his + struggle with Saul, sent messengers to offer congratulations to his son + Hanun on his accession. Hanun, supposing the messengers to be spies sent + to examine the defences of the city, “shaved off one-half of their beards, + and cut off their garments in the middle, even to their buttocks, and sent + them away.” This was the signal for war. The Ammonites, foreseeing that + David would endeavour to take a terrible vengeance for this insult to his + people, came to an understanding with their neighbours. The overthrow of + the Amorite chiefs had favoured the expansion of the Aramæans towards the + south. They had invaded all that region hitherto unconquered by Israel in + the valley of the Litany to the east of Jordan, and some half-dozen of + their petty states had appropriated among them the greater part of the + territories which were described in the sacred record as having belonged + previously to Jabin of Hazor and the kings of Bashan. The strongest of + these principalities—that which occupied the position of Qodshû in + the Bekâa, and had Zoba as its capital—was at this time under the + rule of Hadadezer, son of Behob. This warrior had conquered Damascus, + Maacah, and Geshur, was threatening the Canaanite town of Hamath, and was + preparing to set out to the Euphrates when the Ammonites sought his help + and protection. He came immediately to their succour. Joab, who was in + command of David’s army, left a portion of his troops at Babbath under his + brother Abishaî, and with the rest set out against the Syrians. He + overthrew them, and returned immediately afterwards. The Ammonites, + hearing of his victory, disbanded their army; but Joab had suffered such + serious losses, that he judged it wise to defer his attack upon them until + Zoba should be captured. David then took the field himself, crossed the + Jordan with all his reserves, attacked the Syrians at Helam, put them to + flight, killing Shobach, their general, and captured Damascus. Hadadezer + [Hadarezer] “made peace with Israel,” and Tou or Toi, the King of Hamath, + whom this victory had delivered, sent presents to David. This was the work + of a single campaign. The next year Joab invested Kabbath, and when it was + about to surrender he called the king to his camp, and conceded to him the + honour of receiving the submission of the city in person. The Ammonites + were treated with as much severity as their kinsmen of Moab. David “put + them under saws and harrows of iron, and under axes of iron, and made them + pass through the brick-kiln.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The war with the Aramaeans, described in 2 Sam. viii. 3- + 12, is similar to the account of the conflict with the + Ammonites in 2 Sam. x.-xii., but with more details. Both + documents are reproduced in 1 Chron. xviii. 3-11, and xix., + xx. 1-3. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0030" id="Cimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/353.jpg" alt="353.jpg the Hebrew Kingdom " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + This success brought others in its train. The Idumæans had taken advantage + of the employment of the Israelite army against the Aramæans to make raids + into Judah. Joab and Abishaî, despatched in haste to check them, met them + in the Valley of Salt to the south of the Dead Sea, and gave them battle: + their king perished in the fight, and his son Hadad with some of his + followers took flight into Egypt. Joab put to the sword all the + able-bodied combatants, and established garrisons at Petra, Elath, and + Eziongeber* on the Red Sea. David dedicated the spoils to the Lord, “who + gave victory to David wherever he went.” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Neither Elath nor Eziongeber are here mentioned, but 1 Kings + ix. 25-28 and 2 Chron. viii. 17, 18 prove that these places + had been occupied by David. For all that concerns Hadad, see + 1 Kings xi. 15-20. +</pre> + <p> + Southern Syria had found its master: were the Hebrews going to pursue + their success, and undertake in the central and northern regions a work of + conquest which had baffled the efforts of all their predecessors—Canaanites, + Amorites, and Hittites? The Assyrians, thrown back on the Tigris, were at + this time leading a sort of vegetative existence in obscurity; and, as for + Egypt, it would seem to have forgotten that it ever had possessions in + Asia. There was, therefore, nothing to be feared from foreign intervention + should the Hebrew be inclined to weld into a single state the nations + lying between the Euphrates and the Red Sea. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0031" id="Cimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/354.jpg" + alt="354.jpg the Site of Rabbath-amon, Seen from The West " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 377 of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> +</pre> + <p> + Unfortunately, the Israelites had not the necessary characteristics of a + conquering people. Their history from the time of their entry into Canaan + showed, it is true, that they were by no means incapable of enthusiasm and + solidarity: a leader with the needful energy and good fortune to inspire + them with confidence could rouse them from their self-satisfied indolence, + and band them together for a great effort. But such concentration of + purpose was ephemeral in its nature, and disappeared with the chief who + had brought it about. In his absence, or when the danger he had pointed + out was no longer imminent, they fell back instinctively into their usual + state of apathy and disorganisation. Their nomadic temperament, which two + centuries of a sedentary existence had not seriously modified, disposed + them to give way to tribal quarrels, to keep up hereditary vendettas, to + break out into sudden tumults, or to make pillaging expeditions into their + neighbours’ territories. Long wars, requiring the maintenance of a + permanent army, the continual levying of troops and taxes, and a prolonged + effort to keep what they had acquired, were repugnant to them. The kingdom + which David had founded owed its permanence to the strong will of its + originator, and its increase or even its maintenance depended upon the + absence of any internal disturbance or court intrigue, to counteract which + might make too serious a drain upon his energy. David had survived his + last victory sufficiently long to witness around him the evolution of + plots, and the multiplication of the usual miseries which sadden, in the + East, the last years of a long reign. It was a matter of custom as well as + policy that an exaltation in the position of a ruler should be accompanied + by a proportional increase in the number of his retinue and his wives. + David was no exception to this custom: to the two wives, Abigail and + Ahinoam, which he had while he was in exile at Ziklag, he now added Maacah + the Aramaean, daughter of the King of Geshur, Haggith, Abital, Bglah, and + several others.* During the siege of Babbath-Ammon he also committed + adultery with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite, and, placing her + husband in the forefront of the battle, brought about his death. Rebuked + by the prophet Nathan for this crime, he expressed his penitence, but he + continued at the same time to keep Bathsheba, by whom he had several + children.** There was considerable rivalry among the progeny of these + different unions, as the right of succession would appear not to have been + definitely settled. Of the family of Saul, moreover, there were still + several members in existence—the son which he had by Eizpah, the + children of his daughter Merab, Merib-baal, the lame offspring of + Jonathan,*** and Shimei****—all of whom had partisans among the + tribes, and whose pretensions might be pressed unexpectedly at a critical + moment. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ahinoam is mentioned in the following passages: 1 Sam. + xxv. 43, xxvii. 3, xxx. 5; 2 Sam. ii. 2, iii. 2; cf. also 1 + Chron. iii. 1; Maacah in 2 Sam. iii. 3; 1 Chron. iii. 2; + Haggith in 2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 Kings i. 5, 11, ii. 13; 1 Chron. + iii. 2; Abital in 2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 Chron. iii. 3; Eglah in 2 + Sam. iii. 5; 1 Chron. iii. 3. For the concubines, see 2 Sam. + v. 13, xv. 15, xvi. 21, 22; 1 Chron. iii. 9, xiv. 3. + + ** 2 Sam. xi., xii. 7-25. + + *** 2 Sam. ix., xvi. 1-4, xix. 25-30, where the name is + changed into Mephibosheth; the original name is given in 1 + Chron. viii. 34. + + **** Sam. xvi. 5-14, xix. 16-23; 1 Kings ii. 8, 9, 36-46. +</pre> + <p> + The eldest son of Ahinoam, Amnon, whose priority in age seemed likely to + secure for him the crown, had fallen in love with one of his half-sisters + named Tamar, the daughter of Maacah, and, instead of demanding her in + marriage, procured her attendance on him by a feigned illness, and forced + her to accede to his desires. His love was thereupon converted immediately + into hate, and, instead of marrying her, he had her expelled from his + house by his servants. With rent garments and ashes on her head, she fled + to her full-brother Absalom. David was very wroth, but he loved his + firstborn, and could not permit himself to punish him. Absalom kept his + anger to himself, but when two years had elapsed he invited Amnon to a + banquet, killed him, and fled to his grandfather Talmai, King of Geshur.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is to be noted that Tamar asked Amnon to marry her, and + that the sole reproach directed against the king’s eldest + son was that, after forcing her, he was unwilling to make + her his wife. Unions of brother and sister were probably as + legitimate among the Hebrews at this time as among the + Egyptians. +</pre> + <p> + His anger was now turned against the king for not having taken up the + cause of his sister, and he began to meditate his dethronement. Having + been recalled to Jerusalem at the instigation of Joab, “Absalom prepared + him chariots and horses, and fifty men to run before him,” thus affecting + the outward forms of royalty. Judah, dissatisfied at the favour shown by + David to the other tribes, soon came to recognise Absalom as their chief, + and some of the most intimate counsellors of the aged king began secretly + to take his part. When Absalom deemed things safe for action, he betook + himself to Hebron, under the pretence of a vow which he had made daring + his sojourn at Geshur. All Judah rallied around him, and the excitement at + Jerusalem was so great that David judged it prudent to retire, with his + Philistine and Cherethite guards, to the other side of the Jordan. + Absalom, in the mean while, took up his abode in Jerusalem, where, having + received the tacit adherence of the family of Saul and of a number of the + notables, he made himself king. To show that the rupture between him and + David was complete, he had tents erected on the top of the house, and + there, in view of the people, took possession of his father’s harem. + Success would have been assured to him if he had promptly sent troops + after the fugitives, but while he was spending his time in inactivity and + feasting, David collected together those who were faithful to him, and put + them under the command of Joab and Abishai. The king’s veterans were more + than a match for the undisciplined rabble which opposed them, and in the + action which followed at Mahanaim Absalom was defeated: in his flight + through the forest of Ephraim he was caught in a tree, and before he could + disentangle himself was pierced through the heart by Joab. + </p> + <p> + David, we read, wished his people to have mercy on his son, and he wept + bitterly. He spared on this occasion the family of Saul, pardoned the + tribe of Judah, and went back triumphantly into Jerusalem, which a few + days before had taken part in his humiliation. The tribes of the house of + Joseph had taken no side in the quarrel. They were ignorant alike of the + motives which set the tribe of Judah against their own hero, and of their + reasons for the zeal with which they again established him on the throne. + They sent delegates to inquire about this, who reproached Judah for acting + without their cognisance: “We have ten parts in the king, and we have also + more right in David than ye: why then did ye despise us, that our advice + should not be first had in bringing back our king?” Judah answered with + yet fiercer words; then Sheba, a chief of the Benjamites, losing patience, + blew a trumpet, and went off crying: “We have no portion in David, neither + have we inheritance in the son of Jesse: every man to his tents, O + Israel.” If these words had produced an echo among the central and + northern tribes, a schism would have been inevitable: some approved of + them, while others took no action, and since Judah showed no disposition + to put its military forces into movement, the king had once again to trust + to Joab and the Philistine guards to repress the sedition. Their + appearance on the scene disconcerted the rebels, and Sheba retreated to + the northern frontier without offering battle. Perhaps he reckoned on the + support of the Aramæans. He took shelter in the small stronghold of Abel + of Bethmaacah, where he defended himself for some time; but just when the + place was on the point of yielding, the inhabitants cut off Sheba’s head, + and threw it to Joab from the wall. His death brought the crisis to an + end, and peace reigned in Israel. Intrigues, however, began again more + persistently than ever over the inheritance which the two slain princes + had failed to obtain. The eldest son of the king was now Adonijah, son of + Haggith, but Bathsheba exercised an undisputed sway over her husband, and + had prepared him to recognise in Solomon her son the heir to the throne. + She had secured, too, as his adherents several persons of influence, + including Zadok, the prophet Nathan, and Benaiah, the captain of the + foreign guard. + </p> + <p> + Adonijah had on his side Abiathar the priest, Joab, and the people of + Jerusalem, who had been captivated by his beauty and his regal display. In + the midst of these rivalries the king was daily becoming weaker: he was + now very old, and although he was covered with wrappings he could not + maintain his animal heat. A young girl was sought out for him to give him + the needful warmth. Abishag, a Shunammite, was secured for the purpose, + but her beauty inspired Adonijah with such a violent passion that he + decided to bring matters to a crisis. He invited his brethren, with the + exception of Solomon, to a banquet in the gardens which belonged to him in + the south of Jerusalem, near the well of Eôgel. All his partisans were + present, and, inspired by the good cheer, began to cry, “God save King + Adonijah!” When Nathan informed Bathsheba of what was going on, she went + in unto the king, who was being attended on by Abishag, complained to him + of the weakness he was showing in regard to his eldest son, and besought + him to designate his heir officially. He collected together the soldiers, + and charged them to take the young man Solomon with royal pomp from the + hill of Sion to the source of the Gibôn: Nathan anointed his forehead with + the sacred oil, and in the sight of all the people brought him to the + palace, mounted on his father’s mule. The blare of the coronation trumpets + resounded in the ears of the conspirators, quickly followed by the tidings + that Solomon had been hailed king over the whole of Israel: they fled on + all sides, Adonijah taking refuge at the horns of the altar. David did not + long survive this event: shortly before his death he advised Solomon to + rid himself of all those who had opposed his accession to the throne. + Solomon did not hesitate to follow this counsel, and the beginning of his + reign was marked by a series of bloodthirsty executions. Adonijah was the + first to suffer. He had been unwise enough to ask the hand of Abishag in + marriage: this request was regarded as indicative of a hidden intention to + rebel, and furnished an excuse for his assassination. Abiathar, at whose + instigation Adonijah had acted, owed his escape from a similar fate to his + priestly character and past services: he was banished to his estate at + Anathoth, and Zadok became high priest in his stead. Joab, on learning the + fate of his accomplice, felt that he was a lost man, and vainly sought + sanctuary near the ark of the Lord; but Benaiah slew him there, and soon + after, Shimei, the last survivor of the race of Saul, was put to death on + some transparent pretext. This was the last act of the tragedy: + henceforward Solomon, freed from all those who bore him malice, was able + to devote his whole attention to the cares of government.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings i., ii. This is the close of the history of David, + and follows on from 2 Sam. xxiv. It would seem that Adonijah + was heir-apparent (1 Kings i. 5, 6), and that Solomon’s + accession was brought about by an intrigue, which owed its + success to the old king’s weakness (1 Kings i. 12, 13, 17, + 18, 30, 31). +</pre> + <p> + The change of rulers had led, as usual, to insurrections among the + tributary races: Damascus had revolted before the death of David, and had + not been recovered. Hadad returned from Egypt, and having gained adherents + in certain parts of Edom, resisted all attempts made to dislodge him.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It seems clear from the context that the revolt of + Damascus took place during David’s lifetime. It cannot, in + any case, have occurred at a later date than the beginning + of the reign of Solomon, for we are told that Rezôn, after + capturing the town, “was an adversary of Israel all the days + of Solomon” (1 Kings xi. 23-25). Hadad returned from Egypt + when “he had heard that David slept with his fathers, and + that Joab the captain of the host was dead” (1 Kings xi. 21, + 22, 25). +</pre> + <p> + As a soldier, Solomon was neither skilful nor fortunate: he even failed to + retain what his father had won for him. Though he continued to increase + his army, it was more with a view to consolidating his power over the + Bnê-Israel than for any aggressive action outside his borders. On the + other hand, he showed himself an excellent administrator, and did his + best, by various measures of general utility, to draw closer the ties + which bound the tribes to him and to each other. He repaired the citadels + with such means as he had at his disposal. He rebuilt the fortifications + of Megiddo, thus securing the control of the network of roads which + traversed Southern Syria. He remodelled the fortifications of Tamar, the + two Bethhorons, Baâlath, Hazor, and of many other towns which defended his + frontiers. Some of them he garrisoned with foot-soldiers, others with + horsemen and chariots. By thus distributing his military forces over the + whole country, he achieved a twofold object;* he provided, on the one + hand, additional security from foreign invasion, and on the other + diminished the risk of internal revolt. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings ix. 15, 17-19; cf. 2 Chron. viii. 4-6. The + parallel passage in 2 Chron. viii. 4, and the marginal + variant in the <i>Book of Kings</i>, give the reading Tadmor + Palmyra for Tamar, thus giving rise to the legends which + state that Solomon’s frontier extended to the Euphrates. The + Tamar here referred to is that mentioned in Ezeh. xlvii. 19, + xlviii. 28, as the southern boundary of Judah; it is perhaps + identical with the modern Kharbêt-Kurnub. +</pre> + <p> + The remnants of the old aboriginal clans, which had hitherto managed to + preserve their independence, mainly owing to the dissensions among the + Israelites, were at last absorbed into the tribes in whose territory they + had settled. A few still held out, and only gave way after long and + stubborn resistance: before he could triumph over Gezer, Solomon was + forced to humble himself before the Egyptian Pharaoh. He paid homage to + him, asked the hand of his daughter in marriage, and having obtained it, + persuaded him to come to his assistance: the Egyptian engineers placed + their skill at the service of the besiegers and soon brought the + recalcitrant city to reason, handing it over to Solomon in payment for his + submission.* The Canaanites were obliged to submit to the poll-tax and the + <i>corvée</i>: the men of the league of Gibeon were made hewers of wood + and drawers of water for the house of the Lord.** The Hebrews themselves + bore their share in the expenses of the State, and though less heavily + taxed than the Canaanites, were, nevertheless, compelled to contribute + considerable sums; Judah alone was exempt, probably because, being the + private domain of the sovereign, its revenues were already included in the + royal exchequer.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings ix. 16. The Pharaoh in question was probably one + of the Psiûkhânnît, the Psûsennos II. of Manetho. + + ** 1 Kings ix. 20, 21. The annexation of the Gibeonites and + their allies is placed at the time of the conquest in Josh. + ix. 3-27; it should be rather fixed at the date of the loss + of independence of the league, probably in the time of + Solomon. + + *** Stade thinks that Judah was not exempt, and that the + original document must have given thirteen districts. +</pre> + <p> + In order to facilitate the collection of the taxes, Solomon divided the + kingdom into twelve districts, each of which was placed in charge of a + collector; these regions did not coincide with the existing tribal + boundaries, but the extent of each was determined by the wealth of the + lands contained within it. While one district included the whole of Mount + Ephraim, another was limited to the stronghold of Mahanaim and its + suburbs. Mahanaim was at one time the capital of Israel, and had played an + important part in the life of David: it held the key to the regions beyond + Jordan, and its ruler was a person of such influence that it was not + considered prudent to leave him too well provided with funds. By thus + obliterating the old tribal boundaries, Solomon doubtless hoped to + destroy, or at any rate greatly weaken, that clannish spirit which showed + itself with such alarming violence at the time of the revolt of Sheba, and + to weld into a single homogeneous mass the various Hebrew and Canaanitish + elements of which the people of Israel were composed.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings iv. 7-19, where a list of the districts is given; + the fact that two of Solomon’s sons-in-law appear in it, + show that the document from which it is taken gave the staff + of collectors in office at the close of his reign. +</pre> + <p> + Each of these provinces was obliged, during one month in each year, to + provide for the wants of “the king and his household,” or, in other words, + the requirements of the central government. A large part of these + contributions went to supply the king’s table; the daily consumption at + the court was—thirty measures of fine flour, sixty measures of meal, + ten fat oxen, twenty oxen out of the pastures, a hundred sheep, besides + all kinds of game and fatted fowl: nor need we be surprised at these + figures, for in a country where, and at a time when money was unknown, the + king was obliged to supply food to all his dependents, the greater part of + their emoluments consisting of these payments in kind. The tax-collectors + had also to provide fodder for the horses reserved for military purposes: + there were forty thousand of these, and twelve thousand charioteers, and + barley and straw had to be forthcoming either in Jerusalem itself or in + one or other of the garrison towns amongst which they were distributed.* + The levying of tolls on caravans passing through the country completed the + king’s fiscal operations which were based on the systems prevailing in + neighbouring States, especially that of Egypt.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings iv. 26-28; the complementary passages in 1 Kings + x. 26 and 2 Chron. i. 14 give the number of chariots as 1400 + and of charioteers at 12,000. The numbers do not seem + excessive for a kingdom which embraced the whole south of + Palestine, when we reflect that, at the battle of Qodshû, + Northern Syria was able to put between 2500 and 3000 + chariots into the field against Ramses II. The Hebrew + chariots probably carried at least three men, like those of + the Hittites and Assyrians. + + ** 1 Kings x. 15, where mention is made of the amount which + the chapmen brought, and the traffic of the merchants + contains an allusion to these tolls. +</pre> + <p> + Solomon, like other Oriental sovereigns, reserved to himself the monopoly + of certain imported articles, such as yarn, chariots, and horses. Egyptian + yarn, perhaps the finest produced in ancient times, was in great request + among the dyers and embroiderers of Asia. Chariots, at once strong and + light, were important articles of commerce at a time when their use in + warfare was universal. As for horses, the cities of the Delta and Middle + Egypt possessed a celebrated strain of stallions, from which the Syrian + princes were accustomed to obtain their war-steeds.* Solomon decreed that + for the future he was to be the sole intermediary between the Asiatics and + the foreign countries supplying their requirements. His agents went down + at regular intervals to the banks of the Nile to lay in stock; the horses + and chariots, by the time they reached Jerusalem, cost him at the rate of + six hundred silver shekels for each chariot, and one hundred and fifty + shekels for each horse, but he sold them again at a profit to the Aramæan + and Hittite princes. In return he purchased from them Cilician stallions, + probably to sell again to the Egyptians, whose relaxing climate + necessitated a frequent introduction of new blood into their stables.** By + these and other methods of which we know nothing the yearly revenue of the + kingdom was largely increased: and though it only reached a total which + may seem insignificant in comparison with the enormous quantities of the + precious metals which passed through the hands of the Pharaohs of that + time, yet it must have seemed boundless wealth in the eyes of the + shepherds and husbandmen who formed the bulk of the Hebrew nation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The terms in which the text, 1 Kings x. 27-29 (cf. 2 + Citron, i. 16, 17), speaks of the trade in horses, show that + the traffic was already in existence when Solomon decided to + embark in it. + + ** 1 Kings x. 27-29; 2 Chron. i. 16, 17. Kuê, the name of + Lower Cilicia, was discovered in the Hebrew text by Pr. + Lenormant. Winckler, with mistaken reliance on the authority + of Erman, has denied that Egypt produced stud-horses at this + time, and wishes to identify the Mizraim of the Hebrew text + with Musri, a place near Mount Taurus, mentioned in the + Assyrian texts. +</pre> + <p> + In thus developing his resources and turning them to good account, Solomon + derived great assistance from the Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon, a race + whose services were always at the disposal of the masters of Southern + Syria. The continued success of the Hellenic colonists on the eastern + shores of the Mediterranean had compelled the Phoenicians to seek with + redoubled boldness and activity in the Western Mediterranean some sort of + compensation for the injury which their trade had thus suffered. They + increased and consolidated their dealings with Sicily, Africa, and Spain, + and established themselves throughout the whole of that misty region which + extended beyond the straits of Gibraltar on the European side, from the + mouth of the Guadalete to that of the Guadiana. This was the famous + Tarshish—the Oriental El Dorado. Here they had founded a number of + new towns, the most flourishing of which, Gadîr,* rose not far from the + mouths of the Betis, on a small islet separated from the mainland by a + narrow arm of the sea. In this city they constructed a temple to Melkarth, + arsenals, warehouses, and shipbuilding yards: it was the Tyre of the west, + and its merchant-vessels sailed to the south and to the north to trade + with the savage races of the African and European seaboard. On the coast + of Morocco they built Lixos, a town almost as large as Gadîr, and beyond + Lixos, thirty days’ sail southwards, a whole host of depots, reckoned + later on at three hundred. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I do not propose to discuss here the question of the + identity of the country of Tartessos with the Tarshish or + Tarsis mentioned in the Bible (1 Kings x. 22). +</pre> + <p> + By exploiting the materials to be obtained from these lands, such as gold, + silver, tin, lead, and copper, Tyre and Sidon were soon able to make good + the losses they had suffered from Greek privateersmen and marauding + Philistines. Towards the close of the reign of Saul over Israel, a certain + king Abîbaal had arisen in Tyre, and was succeeded by his son Hiram, at + the very moment when David was engaged in bringing the whole of Israel + into subjection. Hiram, guided by instinct or by tradition, at once + adopted a policy towards the rising dynasty which his ancestors had always + found successful in similar cases. He made friendly overtures to the + Hebrews, and constituted himself their broker and general provider: when + David was in want of wood for the house he was building at Jerusalem, + Hiram let him have the necessary quantity, and hired out to him workmen + and artists at a reasonable wage, to help him in turning his materials to + good account.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 2 Sam. v. 11; cf. the reference to the same incident in + 1 Kings v 1-3. +</pre> + <p> + The accession of Solomon was a piece of good luck for him. The new king, + born in the purple, did not share the simple and somewhat rustic tastes of + his father. He wanted palaces and gardens and a temple, which might rival, + even if only in a small way, the palaces and temples of Egypt and Chaldæa, + of which he had heard such glowing accounts: Hiram undertook to procure + these things for him at a moderate cost, and it was doubtless his + influence which led to those voyages to the countries which produced + precious metals, perfumes, rare animals, costly woods, and all those + foreign knicknacks with which Eastern monarchs of all ages loved to + surround themselves. The Phoenician sailors were well acquainted with the + bearings of Puanît, most of them having heard of this country when in + Egypt, a few perhaps having gone thither under the direction and by the + orders of Pharaoh: and Hiram took advantage of the access which the + Hebrews had gained to the shores of the Red Sea by the annexation of Edom, + to establish relations with these outlying districts without having to + pass the Egyptian customs. He lent to Solomon shipwrights and sailors, who + helped him to fit out a fleet at Eziôn-geber, and undertook a voyage of + discovery in company with a number of Hebrews, who were no doubt + despatched in the same capacity as the royal messengers sent with the + galleys of Hâtshopsîtû. It was a venture similar to those so frequently + undertaken by the Egyptian admirals in the palmy days of the Theban navy, + and of which we find so many curious pictures among the bas-reliefs at + Deîr el-Baharî. On their return, after a three years’ absence, they + reported that they had sailed to a country named Ophir, and produced in + support of their statement a freight well calculated to convince the most + sceptical, consisting as it did of four hundred and twenty talents of + gold. The success of this first venture encouraged Solomon to persevere in + such expeditions: he sent his fleet on several voyages to Ophir, and + procured from thence a rich harvest of gold and silver, wood and ivory, + apes and peacocks.* + </p> + <p> + * 1 Kings ix. 26-28, x. 11, 12; cf. 2 Citron, viii. 17, 18, ix. 10, 11, + 21. A whole library might be stocked with the various treatises which have + appeared on the situation of the country of Ophir: Arabia, Persia, India, + Java, and America have all been suggested. The mention of almug wood and + of peacocks, which may be of Indian origin, for a long time inclined the + scale in favour of India, but the discoveries of Mauch and Bent on the + Zimbabaye have drawn attention to the basin of the Zambesi and the ruins + found there. Dr. Peters, one of the best-known German explorers, is + inclined to agree with Mauch and Bent, in their theory as to the position + of the Ophir of the Bible. I am rather inclined to identify it with the + Egyptian Pûanît, on the Somali or Yemen seaboard. + </p> + <p> + Was the profit from these distant cruises so very considerable after all? + After they had ceased, memory may have thrown a fanciful glamour over + them, and magnified the treasures they had yielded to fabulous + proportions: we are told that Solomon would have no drinking vessels or + other utensils save those of pure gold, and that in his days “silver was + as stone,” so common had it become.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings x. 21, 27. In Chronicles the statement in the + <i>Book of Kings</i> is repeated in a still more emphatic manner, + since it is there stated that gold itself was “in Jerusalem + as stones” (2 Chron. i. 15). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0032" id="Cimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/370.jpg" alt="370.jpg Map of Tyre Subsequent to Hiram " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Doubtless Hiram took good care to obtain his fall share of the gains. The + Phoenician king began to find Tyre too restricted for him, the various + islets over which it was scattered affording too small a space to support + the multitudes which flocked thither. He therefore filled up the channels + which separated them; by means of embankments and fortified quays he + managed to reclaim from the sea a certain amount of land on the south; + after which he constructed two harbours—one on the north, called the + Sidonian; the other on the south, named the Egyptian. He was perhaps also + the originator of the long causeway, the lower courses of which still + serve as a breakwater, by which he transformed the projecting headland + between the island and the mainland into a well-sheltered harbour. + Finally, he set to work on a task like that which he had already helped + Solomon to accomplish: he built for himself a palace of cedar-wood, and + restored and beautified the temples of the gods, including the ancient + sanctuary of Melkarth, and that of Astarté. In his reign the greatness of + Phoenicia reached its zenith, just as that of the Hebrews culminated under + David. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0033" id="Cimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/371.jpg" + alt="371.jpg the Breakwater of The Egyptian Harbour at Tyre " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph published by the Duc de + Luynes. +</pre> + <p> + The most celebrated of Solomon’s works were to be seen at Jerusalem. As + David left it, the city was somewhat insignificant. The water from its + fountains had been amply sufficient for the wants of the little Jebusite + town; it was wholly inadequate to meet the requirements of the + growing-population of the capital of Judah. Solomon made better provision + for its distribution than there had been in the past, and then tapped a + new source of supply some distance away, in the direction of Bethlehem; it + is even said that he made the reservoirs for its storage which still bear + his name.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A somewhat ancient tradition attributes these works to + Solomon; no single fact confirms it, but the balance of + probability seems to indicate that he must have taken steps + to provide a water-supply for the new city. The channels and + reservoirs, of which traces are found at the present day, + probably occupy the same positions as those which preceded + them. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0034" id="Cimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/372.jpg" + alt="372.jpg One of Solomon’s Reservoirs Near Jerusalem " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by M. C. Alluaud of + Limoges. +</pre> + <p> + Meanwhile, Hiram had drawn up for him plans for a fortified residence, on + a scale commensurate with the thriving fortunes of his dynasty. The main + body was constructed of stone from the Judæan quarries, cut by masons from + Byblos, but it was inlaid with cedar to such an extent that one wing was + called “the house of the forest-of-Lebanon.” It contained everything that + was required for the comfort of an Eastern potentate—a harem, with + separate apartments for the favourites (one of which was probably + decorated in the Egyptian manner for the benefit of Pharaoh’s daughter);* + then there were reception-halls, to which the great men of the kingdom + were admitted; storehouses, and an arsenal. The king’s bodyguard possessed + five hundred shields “of beaten gold,” which were handed over by each + detachment, when the guard was relieved, to the one which took its place. + But this gorgeous edifice would not have been complete if the temple of + Jahveh had not arisen side by side with the abode of the temporal ruler of + the nation. No monarch in those days could regard his position as + unassailable until he had a sanctuary and a priesthood attached to his + religion, either in his own palace or not far away from it. David had + scarcely entered Jerusalem before he fixed upon the threshing-floor of + Araunah the Jebusite as a site for the temple, and built an altar there to + the Lord during a plague which threatened to decimate his people; but as + he did not carry the project any farther,** Solomon set himself to + complete the task which his father had merely sketched out. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings vii. 8, ix. 24; 2 Ghron. viii. 11. + + ** 2 Sam xxiv. 18-25, The threshing-floor of Araunah the + Jebusite is mentioned elsewhere as the site on which Solomon + built his temple (2 Ghron. iii. 1). +</pre> + <p> + The site was irregular in shape, and the surface did not naturally lend + itself to the purpose for which it was destined. His engineers, however, + put this right by constructing enormous piers for the foundations, which + they built up from the slopes of the mountain or from the bottom of the + valley as circumstances required: the space between this artificial casing + and the solid rock was filled up, and the whole mass formed a nearly + square platform, from which the temple buildings were to rise. Hiram + undertook to supply materials for the work. Solomon had written to him + that he should command “that they hew me cedar trees out of Lebanon; and + my servants shall be with thy servants; and I will give thee hire for thy + servants according to all that thou shalt say: for thou knowest that there + is not among us any that can skill to hew timber like unto the Zidonians.” + Hiram was delighted to carry out the wishes of his royal friend with + regard to the cedar and cypress woods. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0035" id="Cimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/374.jpg" + alt="374.jpg Some of the Stone Course Of Solomon’s Temple At Jerusalem " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + “My servants,” he answered, “shall bring them down from Lebanon unto the + sea: and I will make them into rafts to go by sea unto the place that thou + shalt appoint me, and will cause them to be broken up there, and thou + shalt receive them; and thou shalt accomplish my desire, in giving food + for my household.” The payment agreed on, which was in kind, consisted of + twenty thousand <i>kôr</i> of wheat, and twenty <i>kôr</i> of pure oil per + annum, for which Hiram was to send to Jerusalem not only the timber, but + architects, masons, and Gebalite carpenters (i.e. from Byblos), smelters, + sculptors, and overseers.* Solomon undertook to supply the necessary + labour, and for this purpose made a levy of men from all the tribes. The + number of these labourers was reckoned at thirty thousand, and they were + relieved regularly every three months; seventy thousand were occupied in + the transport of the materials, while eighty thousand cut the stones from + the quarry.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings v. 7—11 * cf. 2 Chron. ii. 3—16, where the + writer adds 20,000 <i>kôr</i> of barley, 20,000 “baths” of wine, + and the same quantity of oil. + + ** 1 Kings v. 13-18; of. 2 Chron. ii. 1, 2, 17, 18. +</pre> + <p> + It is possible that the numbers may have been somewhat exaggerated in + popular estimation, since the greatest Egyptian monuments never required + such formidable levies of workmen for their construction; we must + remember, however, that such an undertaking demanded a considerable + effort, as the Hebrews were quite unaccustomed to that kind of labour. The + front of the temple faced eastward; it was twenty cubits wide, sixty long, + and thirty high. The walls were of enormous squared stones, and the + ceilings and frames of the doors of carved cedar, plated with gold; it was + entered by a porch, between two columns of wrought bronze, which were + called Jachin and Boaz.* + </p> + <p> + * 1 Kings vii. 15-22; cf. 2 Chron. iv. 11-13. The names were probably + engraved each upon its respective column, and taken together formed an + inscription which could be interpreted in various ways. The most simple + interpretation is to recognise in them a kind of talismanic formula to + ensure the strength of the building, affirming “that it exists by the + strength” of God. + </p> + <p> + The interior contained only two chambers; the <i>hekal,</i> or holy place, + where were kept the altar of incense, the seven-branched candlestick, and + the table of shewbread; and the Holy of Holies—<i>debîr</i>—where + the ark of God rested beneath the wings of two cherubim of gilded wood. + Against the outer wall of the temple, and rising to half its height, were + rows of small apartments, three stories high, in which were kept the + treasures and vessels of the sanctuary. While the high priest was allowed + to enter the Holy of Holies only once a year, the holy place was + accessible at all times to the priests engaged in the services, and it was + there that the daily ceremonies of the temple-worship took place; there + stood also the altar of incense and the table of shewbread. The altar of + sacrifice stood on the platform in front of the entrance; it was a cube of + masonry with a parapet, and was approached by stone steps; it resembled, + probably, in general outline the monumental altars which stood in the + forecourts of the Egyptian temples and palaces. There stood by it, as was + also customary in Chaldæa, a “molten sea,” and some ten smaller lavers, in + which the Lévites washed the portions of the victims to be offered, + together with the basins, knives, flesh-hooks, spoons, shovels, and other + utensils required for the bloody sacrifice. A low wall surmounted by a + balustrade of cedar-wood separated this sacred enclosure from a court to + which the people were permitted to have free access. Both palace and + temple were probably designed in that pseudo-Egyptian style which the + Phoenicians were known to affect. The few Hebrew edifices of which remains + have come down to us, reveal a method of construction and decoration + common in Egypt; we have an example of this in the uprights of the doors + at Lachish, which terminate in an Egyptian gorge like that employed in the + naos of the Phonician temples. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0036" id="Cimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/377.jpg" alt="377.jpg an Upright of a Door at Lachish " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Paucher-Gudin, from the drawing by Petrie. +</pre> + <p> + The completion of the whole plan occupied thirteen years; at length both + palace and temple were finished in the XVIIth year of the king’s reign. + Solomon, however, did not wait for the completion of the work to dedicate + the sanctuary to God. As soon as the inner court was ready, which was in + his XIth year, he proceeded to transfer the ark to its new resting-place; + it was raised upon a cubical base, and the long staves by which it had + been carried were left in their rings, as was usual in the case of the + sacred barks of the Egyptian deities.* The God of Israel thus took up His + abode in the place in which He was henceforth to be honoured. The + sacrifices on the occasion of the dedication were innumerable, and + continued for fourteen days, in the presence of the representatives of all + Israel. The ornate ceremonial and worship which had long been lavished on + the deities of rival nations were now, for the first time, offered to the + God of Israel. The devout Hebrews who had come together from far and near + returned to their respective tribes filled with admiration,** and their + limited knowledge of art doubtless led them to consider their temple as + unique in the world; in fact, it presented nothing remarkable either in + proportion, arrangement, or in the variety and richness of its + ornamentation and furniture. Compared with the magnificent monuments of + Egypt and Chaldæa, the work of Solomon was what the Hebrew kingdom appears + to us among the empires of the ancient world—a little temple suited + to a little people. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings viii. 6-8, and 2 Ghron. v. 7-9. + + ** 1 Kings vi. 37, 38 states that the foundations were laid + in the IVth year of Solomon’s reign, in the month of Ziv, + and that the temple was completed in the month of Bui in the + XIth year; the work occupied seven years. 1 Kings vii. 1 + adds that the construction of the palace lasted thirteen + years; it went on for six years after the completion of the + temple. The account of the dedication (1 Kings viii.) + contains a long prayer by Solomon, part of which (vers. 14- + 66) is thought by certain critics to be of later date. They + contend that the original words of Solomon are confined to + vers. 12 and 13. +</pre> + <p> + The priests to whose care it was entrusted did not differ much from those + whom David had gathered about him at the outset of the monarchy. They in + no way formed an hereditary caste confined to the limits of a rigid + hierarchy; they admitted into their number—at least up to a certain + point—men of varied extraction, who were either drawn by their own + inclinations to the service of the altar, or had been dedicated to it by + their parents from childhood. He indeed was truly a priest “who said of + his father and mother, ‘I have not seen him;’ neither did he acknowledge + his brethren, nor knew he his own children.” He was content, after + renouncing these, to observe the law of God and keep His covenant, and to + teach Jacob His judgments and Israel His law; he put incense before the + Lord, and whole burnt offerings upon His altar.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Those are the expressions used in the Blessing of Moses + (Deut. xxxiii. 8-12); though this text is by some writers + placed as late as the VIIIth century B.C., yet the state of + things there represented would apply also to an earlier + date. The Hebrew priest, in short, had the same duties as a + large proportion of the priesthood in Chaldæ and Egypt. +</pre> + <p> + As in Egypt, the correct offering of the Jewish sacrifices was beset with + considerable difficulties, and the risk of marring their efficacy by the + slightest inadvertence necessitated the employment of men who were + thoroughly instructed in the divinely appointed practices and formulæ. The + victims had to be certified as perfect, while the offerers themselves had + to be ceremonially pure; and, indeed, those only who had been specially + trained were able to master the difficulties connected with the minutiae + of legal purity. The means by which the future was made known necessitated + the intervention of skilful interpreters of the Divine will. We know that + in Egypt the statues of the gods were supposed to answer the questions put + to them by movements of the head or arms, sometimes even by the living + voice; but the Hebrews do not appear to have been influenced by any such + recollections in the use of their sacred oracles. We are ignorant, + however, of the manner in which the ephod was consulted, and we know + merely that the art of interrogating the Divine will by it demanded a long + noviciate.* The benefits derived by those initiated into these mysteries + were such as to cause them to desire the privileges to be perpetuated to + their children. Gathered round the ancient sanctuaries were certain + families who, from father to son, were devoted to the performance of the + sacred rites, as, for instance, that of Eli at Shiloh, and that of + Jonathan-ben-Gershom at Dan, near the sources of the Jordan; but in + addition to these, the text mentions functionaries analogous to those + found among the Canaanites, diviners, seers—<i>roê</i>—who had + means of discovering that which was hidden from the vulgar, even to the + finding of lost objects, but whose powers sometimes rose to a higher level + when they were suddenly possessed by the prophetic spirit and enabled to + reveal coming events. Besides these, again, were the prophets—<i>nabî</i>**—who + lived either alone or in communities, and attained, by means of a strict + training, to a vision of the future. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An example of the consulting of the ephod will be found in + 1 Sam. xxx. 7, 8, where David desires to know if he shall + pursue the Amalekites. + + ** 1 Sam. ix. 9 is a gloss which identifies the <i>seer</i> of + former times with the prophet of the times of the monarchy. +</pre> + <p> + Their prophetic utterances were accompanied by music and singing, and the + exaltation of spirit which followed their exercises would at times spread + to the bystanders,—as is the case in the “zikr” of the Mahomedans of + to-day.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. x. 5-13, where we see Saul seized with the + prophetic spirit on meeting with a band of prophets + descending from the high place; cf. 2 Sam. vi. 13-16, 20-23, + for David dancing before the ark. +</pre> + <p> + The early kings, Saul and David, used to have recourse to individuals + belonging to all these three classes, but the prophets, owing to the + intermittent character of their inspiration and their ministry, could not + fill a regular office attached to the court. One of this class was raised + up by God from time to time to warn or guide His servants, and then sank + again into obscurity; the priests, on the contrary, were always at hand, + and their duties brought them into contact with the sovereign all the year + round. The god who was worshipped in the capital of the country and his + priesthood promptly acquired a predominant position in all Oriental + monarchies, and most of the other temples, together with the sacerdotal + bodies attached to them, usually fell into disrepute, leaving them + supreme. If Amon of Thebes became almost the sole god, and his priests the + possessors of all Egypt, it was because the accession of the XVIIIth + dynasty had made his pontiffs the almoners of the Pharaoh. Something of + the same sort took place in Israel; the priesthood at Jerusalem attached + to the temple built by the sovereign, being constantly about his person, + soon surpassed their brethren in other parts of the country both in + influence and possessions. Under David’s reign their head had been + Abiathar, son of Ahimelech, a descendant of Eli, but on Solomon’s + accession the primacy had been transferred to the line of Zadok. In this + alliance of the throne and the altar, it was natural at first that the + throne should reap the advantage. The king appears to have continued to be + a sort of high priest, and to have officiated at certain times and + occasions.* The priests kept the temple in order, and watched over the + cleanliness of its chambers and its vessels; they interrogated the Divine + will for the king according to the prescribed ceremonies, and offered + sacrifices on behalf of the monarch and his subjects; in short, they were + at first little more than chaplains to the king and his family. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Solomon officiated and preached at the consecration of the + temple (1 Kings viii.). The actual words appear to be of a + later date; but even if that be the case, it proves that, at + the time they were written, the king still possessed his + full sacerdotal powers. +</pre> + <p> + Solomon’s allegiance to the God of Israel did not lead him to proscribe + the worship of other gods; he allowed his foreign wives the exercise of + their various religions, and he raised an altar to Chemosh on the Mount of + Olives for one of them who was a Moabite. The political supremacy and + material advantages which all these establishments acquired for Judah + could not fail to rouse the jealousy of the other tribes. Ephraim + particularly looked on with ill-concealed anger at the prospect of the + hegemony becoming established in the hands of a tribe which could be + barely said to have existed before the time of David, and was to a + considerable extent of barbarous origin. Taxes, homage, the keeping up and + recruiting of garrisons, were all equally odious to this, as well as to + the other clans descended from Joseph; meanwhile their burdens did not + decrease. A new fortress had to be built at Jerusalem by order of the aged + king. One of the overseers appointed for this work—Jeroboam, the son + of Nebat—appears to have stirred up the popular discontent, and to + have hatched a revolutionary plot. Solomon, hearing of the conspiracy, + attempted to suppress it; Jeroboam was forewarned, and fled to Egypt, + where Pharaoh Sheshonq received him with honour, and gave him his wife’s + sister in marriage.* The peace of the nation had not been ostensibly + troubled, but the very fact that a pretender should have risen up in + opposition to the legitimate king augured ill for the future of the + dynasty. In reality, the edifice which David had raised with such + difficulty tottered on its foundations before the death of his successor; + the foreign vassals were either in a restless state or ready to throw off + their allegiance; money was scarce, and twenty Galilæan towns had been + perforce ceded to Hiram to pay the debts due to him for the building of + the temple;** murmurings were heard among the people, who desired an + easier life. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xi. 23-40, where the LXX. is fuller than the A. V. + + ** 1 Kings ix. 10-13; cf. 2 Cliron. viii. 1, 2, where the + fact seems to have been reversed, and Hiram is made the + donor of the twenty towns. +</pre> + <p> + In a future age, when priestly and prophetic influences had gained the + ascendant, amid the perils which assailed Jerusalem, and the miseries of + the exile, the Israelites, contrasting their humiliation with the glory of + the past, forgot the reproaches which their forefathers had addressed to + the house of David, and surrounded its memory with a halo of romance. + David again became the hero, and Solomon the saint and sage of his race; + the latter “spake three thousand proverbs; and his songs were a thousand + and five. And he spake of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even + unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall: he spake also of beasts, + and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of fishes.” We are told that God + favoured him with a special predilection, and appeared to him on three + separate occasions: once immediately after the death of David, to + encourage him by the promise of a prosperous reign, and the gift of wisdom + in governing; again after the dedication of the temple, to confirm him in + his pious intentions; and lastly to upbraid him for his idolatry, and to + predict the downfall of his house. Solomon is supposed to have had + continuous dealings with all the sovereigns of the Oriental world,* and a + Queen of Sheba is recorded as having come to bring him gifts from the + furthest corner of Arabia. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings iv. 34; on this passage are founded all the + legends dealing with the contests of wit and wisdom in which + Solomon was supposed to have entered with the kings of + neighbouring countries; traces of these are found in Dius, + in Menander, and in Eupolemus. +</pre> + <p> + His contemporaries, however, seem to have regarded him as a tyrant who + oppressed them with taxes, and whose death was unregretted.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I am inclined to place the date of Solomon’s death between + 935 and 930 B.C. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0037" id="Cimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/384.jpg">ENLARGE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="384.jpg King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba”" + src="images/384th.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="384-text (4K)" src="images/384-text.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + His son Rehoboam experienced no opposition in Jerusalem and Judah on + succeeding to the throne of his father; when, however, he repaired to + Shechem to receive the oath of allegiance from the northern and central + tribes, he found them unwilling to tender it except under certain + conditions; they would consent to obey him only on the promise of his + delivering them from the forced labour which had been imposed upon them by + his predecessors. Jeroboam, who had returned from his Egyptian exile on + the news of Solomon’s death, undertook to represent their grievances to + the new king. “Thy father made our yoke grievous: now therefore make thou + the grievous service of thy father, and his heavy yoke which he put upon + us, lighter, and we will serve thee.” Rehoboam demanded three days for the + consideration of his reply; he took counsel with the old advisers of the + late king, who exhorted him to comply with the petition, but the young men + who were his habitual companions urged him, on the contrary, to meet the + remonstrances of his subjects with threats of still harsher exactions. + Their advice was taken, and when Jeroboam again presented himself, + Rehoboam greeted him with raillery and threats. “My little finger is + thicker than my father’s loins. And now whereas my father did lade you + with a heavy yoke, I will add to your yoke: my father chastised you with + whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions.” This unwise answer did not + produce the intimidating effect which was desired; the cry of revolt, + which had already been raised in the earlier days of the monarchy, was + once more heard. “What portion have we in David? neither have we + inheritance in the son of Jesse: to your tents, O Israel: now see to thine + own house, David.” Rehoboam attempted to carry his threats into execution, + and sent the collectors of taxes among the rebels to enforce payment; but + one of them was stoned almost before his eyes, and the king himself had + barely time to regain his chariot and flee to Jerusalem to escape an + outburst of popular fury. The northern and central tribes immediately + offered the crown to Jeroboam, and the partisans of the son of Solomon + were reduced to those of his own tribe; Judah, Caleb, the few remaining + Simeonites, and some of the towns of Dan and Benjamin, which were too near + to Jerusalem to escape the influence of a great city, were all who threw + in their lot with him.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xii. 1—24; cf. 2 Chron. x., xi. 1-4. The text of + 1 Kings xii. 20 expressly says, “there was none that + followed the house of David but the tribe of Judah only;” + whereas the following verse, which some think to have been + added by another hand, adds that Rehoboam assembled 180,000 + men “which were warriors” from “the house of Judah and the + tribe of Benjamin.” + </pre> + <p> + Thus was accomplished the downfall of the House of David, and with it the + Hebrew kingdom which it had been at such pains to build up. When we + consider the character of the two kings who formed its sole dynasty, we + cannot refrain from thinking that it deserved a better fate. David and + Solomon exhibited that curious mixture of virtues and vices which + distinguished most of the great Semite princes. The former, a soldier of + fortune and an adventurous hero, represents the regular type of the + founder of a dynasty; crafty, cruel, ungrateful, and dissolute, but at the + same time brave, prudent, cautious, generous, and capable of enthusiasm, + clemency, and repentance; at once so lovable and so gentle that he was + able to inspire those about him with the firmest friendship and the most + absolute devotion. The latter was a religious though sensual monarch, fond + of display—the type of sovereign who usually succeeds to the head of + the family and enjoys the wealth which his predecessor had acquired, + displaying before all men the results of an accomplished work, and often + thereby endangering its stability. The real reason of their failure to + establish a durable monarchy was the fact that neither of them understood + the temperament of the people they were called upon to govern. The few + representations we possess of the Hebrews of this period depict them as + closely resembling the nations which inhabited Southern Syria at the time + of the Egyptian occupation. They belong to the type with which the + monuments have made us familiar; they are distinguished by an aquiline + nose, projecting cheek-bones, and curly hair and beard. They were + vigorous, hardy, and inured to fatigue, but though they lacked those + qualities of discipline and obedience which are the characteristics of + true warrior races, David had not hesitated to employ them in war; they + were neither sailors, builders, nor given to commerce and industries, and + yet Solomon built fleets, raised palaces and a temple, and undertook + maritime expeditions, and financial circumstances seemed for the moment to + be favourable. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0038" id="Cimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/387.jpg" alt="387.jpg a Jewish Captive " /> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph by Petrie. +</pre> + </div> + <p> + The onward progress of Assyria towards the Mediterranean had been arrested + by the Hittites, Egypt was in a condition of lethargy, the Aramæan + populations were fretting away their energies in internal dissensions; + David, having encountered no serious opposition after his victory over the + Philistines, had extended his conquests and increased the area of his + kingdom, and the interested assistance which Tyre afterwards gave to + Solomon enabled the latter to realise his dreams of luxury and royal + magnificence. But the kingdom which had been created by David and Solomom + rested solely on their individual efforts, and its continuance could be + ensured only by bequeathing it to descendants who had sufficient energy + and prudence to consolidate its weaker elements, and build up the + tottering materials which were constantly threatening to fall asunder. As + soon as the government had passed into the hands of the weakling Rehoboam, + who had at the outset departed from his predecessors’ policy, the + component parts of the kingdom, which had for a few years been, held + together, now became disintegrated without a shock, and as if by mutual + consent. The old order of things which existed in the time of the Judges + had passed away with the death of Saul. The advantages which ensued from a + monarchical regime were too apparent to permit of its being set aside, and + the tribes who had been bound together by nearly half a century of + obedience to a common master now resolved themselves, according to their + geographical positions, into two masses of unequal numbers and extent—Judah + in the south, together with the few clans who remained loyal to the kingly + house, and Israel in the north and the regions beyond Jordan, occupying + three-fourths of the territory which had belonged to David and Solomon. + </p> + <p> + Israel, in spite of its extent and population, did not enjoy the + predominant position which we might have expected at the beginning of its + independent existence. It had no political unity, no capital in which to + concentrate its resources, no temple, and no army; it represented the + material out of which a state could be formed rather than one already + constituted. It was subdivided into three groups, formerly independent of, + and almost strangers to each other, and between whom neither David nor + Solomon had been able to establish any bond which would enable them to + forget their former isolation. The centre group was composed of the House + of Joseph—Ephraim, Benjamin, and Manasseh—and comprised the + old fortresses of Perea, Mahanaim, Penuel, Succoth, and Eamoth, ranged in + a line running parallel with the Jordan. In the eastern group were the + semi-nomad tribes of Reuben and Gad, who still persisted in the pastoral + habits of their ancestors, and remained indifferent to the various + revolutions which had agitated their race for several generations. + Finally, in the northern group lay the smaller tribes of Asher, Naphtali, + Issachar, Zebulon, and Dan, hemmed in between the Phoenicians and the + Aramaeans of Zoba and Damascus. Each group had its own traditions, its own + interests often opposed to those of its neighbours, and its own peculiar + mode of life, which it had no intention of renouncing for any one else’s + benefit. The difficulty of keeping these groups together became at once + apparent. Shechem had been the first to revolt against Rehoboam; it was a + large and populous town, situated almost in the centre of the newly formed + state, and the seat of an ancient oracle, both of which advantages seemed + to single it out as the future capital. But its very importance, and the + memories of its former greatness under Jeruhhaal and Abimelech, were + against it. Built in the western territory belonging to Manasseh, the + eastern and northern clans would at once object to its being chosen, on + the ground that it would humiliate them before the House of Joseph, in the + same manner as the selection of Jerusalem had tended to make them + subservient to Judah. Jeroboam would have endangered his cause by fixing + on it as his capital, and he therefore soon quitted it to establish + himself at Tirzah. It is true that the latter town was also situated in + the mountains of Ephraim, but it was so obscure and insignificant a place + that it disarmed all jealousy; the new king therefore took up his + residence in it, since he was forced to fix on some royal abode, but it + never became for him what Jerusalem was to his rival, a capital at once + religious and military. He had his own sanctuary and priests at Tirzah, as + was but natural, but had he attempted to found a temple which would have + attracted the whole population to a common worship, he would have excited + jealousies which would have been fatal to his authority. On the other + hand, Solomon’s temple had in its short period of existence not yet + acquired such a prestige as to prevent Jeroboam’s drawing his people away + from it: which he determined to do from a fear that contact with Jerusalem + would endanger the allegiance of his subjects to his person and family. + Such concourses of worshippers, assembling at periodic intervals from all + parts of the country, soon degenerated into a kind of fair, in which + commercial as well as religious motives had their part. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0039" id="Cimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/391.jpg" alt="391.jpg the Mound and Plain of Bethel. " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph published by the Duc + de Luynes. +</pre> + <p> + These gatherings formed a source of revenue to the prince in whose capital + they were held, and financial as well as political considerations required + that periodical assemblies should be established in Israel similar to + those which attracted Judah to Jerusalem. Jeroboam adopted a plan which + while safeguarding the interests of his treasury, prevented his becoming + unpopular with his own subjects; as he was unable to have a temple for + himself alone, he chose two out of the most venerated ancient sanctuaries, + that of Dan for the northern tribes, and that of Bethel, on the Judæan + frontier, for the tribes of the east and centre. He made two calves of + gold, one for each place, and said to the people, “It is too much for you + to go up to Jerusalem; behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up + out of the land of Egypt.” He granted the sanctuaries certain appanages, + and established a priesthood answering to that which officiated in the + rival kingdom: “whosoever would he consecrated him, that there might be + priests of the high places.” * While Jeroboam thus endeavoured to + strengthen himself on the throne by adapting the monarchy to the + temperament of the tribes over which he ruled, Rehoboam took measures to + regain his lost ground and restore the unity which he himself had + destroyed. He recruited the army which had been somewhat neglected in the + latter years of his father, restored the walls of the cities which had + remained faithful to him, and fortified the places which constituted his + frontier defences against the Israelites.** His ambition was not as + foolish as we might be tempted to imagine. He had soldiers, charioteers, + generals, skilled in the art of war, well-filled storehouses, the remnant + of the wealth of Solomon, and, as a last resource, the gold of the temple + at Jerusalem. He ruled over the same extent of territory as that possessed + by David after the death of Saul, but the means at his disposal were + incontestably greater than those of his grandfather, and it is possible + that he might in the end have overcome Jeroboam, as David overcame + Ishbosheth, had not the intervention of Egypt disconcerted his plans, and, + by exhausting his material forces, struck a death-blow to all his hopes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xii. 25-32; chaps, xii. 33, xiii., xiv. 1-18 + contain, side by side with the narrative of facts, such as + the death of Jeroboam’s son, comments on the religious + conduct of the sovereign, which some regard as being of + later date. + + ** 1 Kings xii. 21-24; cf. 2 Ghron. xi. 1-17, where the list + of strongholds, wanting in the Boole of Kings, is given from + an ancient source. The writer affirms, in harmony with the + ideas of his time, “that the Lévites left their suburbs and + their possession, and came to Judah and Jerusalem; for + Jeroboam and his sons cast them off, that they should not + execute the Priest’s office unto the Lord.” + </pre> + <p> + The century and a half which had elapsed since the death of the last of + the Ramessides had, as far as we can ascertain, been troubled by civil + wars and revolutions.* + </p> + <p> + * I have mentioned above the uncertainty which still shrouds the XXth + dynasty. The following is the order in which I propose that its kings + should be placed:— + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0040" id="Cimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/393.jpg" alt="393.jpg Table of Kings " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The imperious Egypt of the Theban dynasties had passed away, but a new + Egypt had arisen, not without storm and struggle, in its place. As long as + the campaigns of the Pharaohs had been confined to the Nile valley and the + Oases, Thebes had been the natural centre of the kingdom; placed almost + exactly between the Mediterranean and the southern frontier, it had been + both the national arsenal and the treasure-house to which all foreign + wealth had found its way from the Persian Gulf to the Sahara, and from the + coasts of Asia Minor to the equatorial swamps. The cities of the Delta, + lying on the frontier of those peoples with whom Egypt now held but little + intercourse, possessed neither the authority nor the resources of Thebes; + even Memphis, to which the prestige of her ancient dynasties still clung, + occupied but a secondary place beside her rival. The invasion of the + shepherds, by making the Thebaid the refuge and last bulwark of the + Egyptian nation, increased its importance: in the critical times of the + struggle, Thebes was not merely the foremost city in the country, it + represented the country itself, and the heart of Egypt may be said to have + throbbed within its walls. The victories of Ahmosis, the expeditions of + Thûtmosis I. and Thûtmosis III., enlarged her horizon; her Pharaohs + crossed the isthmus of Suez, they conquered Syria, subdued the valleys of + the Euphrates and the Balîkh, and by so doing increased her wealth and her + splendour. Her streets witnessed during two centuries processions of + barbarian prisoners laden with the spoils of conquest. But with the advent + of the XIXth and XXth dynasties came anxious times; the peoples of Syria + and Libya, long kept in servitude, at length rebelled, and the long + distance between Karnak and Gaza soon began to be irksome to princes who + had to be constantly on the alert on the Canaanite frontier, and who found + it impossible to have their head-quarters six hundred miles from the scene + of hostilities. Hence it came about that Ramses II., Mînephtah, and Ramses + III. all took up their abode in the Delta during the greater part of their + active life; they restored its ancient towns and founded new ones, which + soon acquired considerable wealth by foreign commerce. The centre of + government of the empire, which, after the dissolution of the old Memphite + state, had been removed southwards to Thebes on account of the conquest of + Ethiopia and the encroachment of Theban civilization upon Nubia and the + Sudan, now gradually returned northwards, and passing over Heracleo-polis, + which had exercised a transitory supremacy, at length established itself + in the Delta. Tanis, Bubastis, Sais, Mondes, and Sebennytos all disputed + the honour of forming the royal residence, and all in turn during the + course of ages enjoyed the privilege without ever rising to the rank of + Thebes, or producing any sovereigns to be compared with those of her + triumphant dynasties. Tanis was, as we have seen, the first of these to + rule the whole of the Nile valley. Its prosperity had continued to + increase from the time that Ramses II. began to rebuild it; the remaining + inhabitants of Avaris, mingled with the natives of pure race and the + prisoners of war settled there, had furnished it with an active and + industrious population, which had considerably increased during the + peaceful reigns of the XXth dynasty. The surrounding country, drained and + cultivated by unremitting efforts, became one of the most fruitful parts + of the Delta; there was a large exportation of fish and corn, to which + were soon added the various products of its manufactories, such as linen + and woollen stuffs, ornaments, and objects in glass and in precious + metals.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The immense number of designs taken from aquatic plants, + as, for instance, the papyrus and the lotus, single or in + groups, as well as from fish and aquatic birds, which we + observe on objects of Phoenician goldsmiths’ work, leads me + to believe that the Tyrian and Sidonian artists borrowed + most of their models from the Delta, and doubtless from + Tanis, the most flourishing town of the Delta during the + centuries following the downfall of Thebes. +</pre> + <p> + These were embarked on Egyptian or Phoenician galleys, and were exchanged + in the ports of the Mediterranean for Syrian, Asiatic, or Ægean + commodities, which were then transmitted by the Egyptian merchants to the + countries of the East and to Northern Africa.* The port of Tanis was one + of the most secure and convenient which existed at that period. It was at + sufficient distance from the coast to be safe from the sudden attacks of + pirates,** and yet near enough to permit of its being reached from the + open by merchantmen in a few hours of easy navigation; the arms of the + Nile, and the canals which here flowed into the sea, were broad and deep, + and, so long as they were kept well dredged, would allow the + heaviest-laden vessel of large draught to make its way up them with ease. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It was from Tanis that the Egyptian vessel set out + carrying the messengers of Hrihor to Byblos. + + ** We may judge of the security afforded by such a position + by the account in Homer which Ulysses gives to Eumaios of + his pretended voyage to Egypt; the Greeks having + disembarked, and being scattered over the country, were + attacked by the Egyptians before they could capture a town + or carry their booty to the ships. +</pre> + <p> + The site of the town was not less advantageous for overland traffic. Tanis + was the first important station encountered by caravans after crossing the + frontier at Zalû, and it offered them a safe and convenient emporium for + the disposal of their goods in exchange for the riches of Egypt and the + Delta. The combination of so many advantageous features on one site tended + to the rapid development of both civic and individual wealth; in less than + three centuries after its rebuilding by Ramses II., Tanis had risen to a + position which enabled its sovereigns to claim even the obedience of + Thebes itself. + </p> + <p> + We know very little of the history of this Tanite dynasty; the monuments + have not revealed the names of all its kings, and much difficulty is + experienced in establishing the sequence of those already brought to + light.* + </p> + <p> + * The classification of the Tanite line has been complicated in the minds + of most Egyptologists by the tendency to ignore the existence of the + sacerdotal dynasty of high priests, to confuse with the Tanite Pharaohs + those of the high priests who bore the crown, and to identify in the lists + of Manetho (more or less corrected) the names they are in search of. A + fresh examination of the subject has led me to adopt provisionally the + following order for the series of Tanite kings:— + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0041" id="Cimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/397.jpg" alt="397.jpg Table of Kings " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + Their actual domain barely extended as far as Siut, but their suzerainty + was acknowledged by the Said as well as by all or part of Ethiopia, and + the Tanite Pharaohs maintained their authority with such vigour, that they + had it in their power on several occasions to expel the high priests of + Amon, and to restore, at least for a time, the unity of the empire. To + accomplish this, it would have been sufficient for them to have assumed + the priestly dignity at Thebes, and this was what no doubt took place at + times when a vacancy in the high priesthood occurred; but it was merely in + an interim, and the Tanite sovereigns always relinquished the office, + after a brief lapse of time, in favour of some member of the family of + Hrihor whose right of primogeniture entitled him to succeed to it.* It + indeed seemed as if custom and religious etiquette had made the two + offices of the pontificate and the royal dignity incompatible for one + individual to hold simultaneously. The priestly duties had become + marvellously complicated during the Theban hegemony, and the minute + observances which they entailed absorbed the whole life of those who + dedicated themselves to their performance.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is only true if the personage who entitles himself + once within a cartouche, “the Master of the two lands, First + Prophet of Amon, Psiûkhân-nît,” is really the Tanite king, + and not the high priest Psiûkhânnît. + + ** The first book of Diodorus contains a picture of the life + of the kings of Egypt, which, in common with much + information contained in the work, is taken from a lost book + of Hecataeus. The historical romance written by the latter + appears to have been composed from information taken from + Theban sources. The comparison of it with the inscribed + monuments and the ritual of the cultus of Amon proves that + the ideal description given in this work of the life of the + kings, merely reproduces the chief characteristics of the + lives of the Theban and Ethiopian high priests; hence the + greater part of the minute observances which we remark + therein apply to the latter only, and not to the Pharaohs + properly so called. +</pre> + <p> + They had daily to fulfil a multitude of rites, distributed over the + various hours in such a manner that it seemed impossible to find leisure + for any fresh occupation without encroaching on the time allotted to + absolute bodily needs. The high priest rose each morning at an appointed + hour; he had certain times for taking food, for recreation, for giving + audience, for dispensing justice, for attending to worldly affairs, and + for relaxation with his wives and children; at night he kept watch, or + rose at intervals to prepare for the various ceremonies which could only + be celebrated at sunrise. He was responsible for the superintendence of + the priests of Amon in the numberless festivals held in honour of the + gods, from which he could not absent himself except for some legitimate + reason. From all this it will be seen how impossible it was for a lay + king, like the sovereign ruling at Tanis, to submit to such restraints + beyond a certain point; his patience would soon have become exhausted, + want of practice would have led him to make slips or omissions, rendering + the rites null and void; and the temporal affairs of his kingdom—internal + administration, justice, finance, commerce, and war—made such + demands upon his time, that he was obliged as soon as possible to find a + substitute to fulfil his religious duties. The force of circumstances + therefore maintained the line of Theban high priests side by side with + their sovereigns, the Tanite kings. They were, it is true, dangerous + rivals, both on account of the wealth of their fief and of the immense + prestige which they enjoyed in Egypt, Ethiopia, and in all the nomes + devoted to the worship of Amon. They were allied to the elder branch of + the ramessides, and had thus inherited such near rights to the crown that + Smendes had not hesitated to concede to Hrihor the cartouches, the + preamble, and insignia of the Pharaoh, including the pschent and the iron + helmet inlaid with gold. This concession, however, had been made as a + personal favour, and extended only to the lifetime of Hrihor, without + holding good, as a matter of course, for his successors; his son Piônkhi + had to confine himself to the priestly titles,* and his grandson Paînotmû + enjoyed the kingly privileges only during part of his life, doubtless in + consequence of his marriage with a certain Mâkerî, probably daughter of + Psiûkhânnît L, the Tanite king. Mâkerî apparently died soon after, and the + discovery of her coffin in the hiding-place at Deîr el-Baharî reveals the + fact of her death in giving birth to a little daughter who did not survive + her, and who rests in the same coffin beside the mummy of her mother. None + of the successors of Paînotmû—Masahirti, Manakhpirrî, Paînotmû II., + Psiûkhânnît, Nsbindîdi—enjoyed a similar distinction, and if one of + them happened to surround his name with a cartouche, it was done + surreptitiously, without the authority of the sovereign.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The only monument of this prince as yet known gives him + merely the usual titles of the high priest, and the + inscriptions of his son Paînotmû I. style him “First Prophet + of Amon.” His name should probably be read Paîônûkhi or + Piônûkhi, rather than Pionkhi or Piânkhi. It is not unlikely + that some of the papyri published by Spiegelberg date from + his pontificate. + + ** Manakhpirrî often places his name in a square cartouche + which tends at times to become an oval, but this is the case + only on some pieces of stuff rolled round a mummy and on + some bricks concealed in the walls of el-Hibeh, Thebes, and + Gebeleîn. If the “Psiûkhânnît, High Priest of Amon,” who + once (to our knowledge) enclosed his name in a cartouche, is + really a high priest, and not a king, his case would be + analogous to that of Manakhpirrî. +</pre> + <p> + Paînotmû II. contented himself with drawing attention to his connection + with the reigning house, and styled himself “Royal Son of + Psiûkhânnît-Mîamon,” on account of his ancestress Mâkerî having been the + daughter of the Pharaoh Psiûkhânnît.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The example of the “royal sons of Ramses” explains the + variant which makes “Paînotmû, son of Manakhpirrî,” into + “Paînotmû, royal son of Psiûkhânnît-Mîamon.” + </pre> + <p> + The relationship of which he boasted was a distant one, but many of his + contemporaries who claimed to be of the line of Sesostris, and called + themselves “royal sons of Ramses,” traced their descent from a far more + remote ancestor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0042" id="Cimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/401.jpg" + alt="401.jpg the Mummies of Queen MÂkerÎ and Her Child " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch- + Bey. +</pre> + <p> + The death of one high priest, or the appointment of his successor, was + often the occasion of disturbances; the jealousies between his children by + the same or by different wives were as bitter as those which existed in + the palace of the Pharaohs, and the suzerain himself was obliged at times + to interfere in order to restore peace. It was owing to an intervention of + this kind that Manakhpirrî was called on to replace his brother Masahirti. + A section of the Theban population had revolted, but the rising had been + put down by the Tanite Siamon, and its leaders banished to the Oasis; + Manakhpirrî had thereupon been summoned to court and officially invested + with the pontificate in the XXVth year of the king’s reign. But on his + return to Karnak, the new high priest desired to heal old feuds, and at + once recalled the exiles.* Troubles and disorders appeared to beset the + Thebans, and, like the last of the Ramessides, they were engaged in a + perpetual struggle against robbers.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This appears in the <i>Maunier Stele</i> preserved for some + time in the “Maison Française” at Luxor, and now removed to + the Louvre. + + ** The series of high priests side by side with the + sovereigns of the XXIst dynasty may be provisionally + arranged as follows:— +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0043" id="Cimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/402.jpg" alt="402.jpg Table " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The town, deprived of its former influx of foreign spoil, became more and + more impoverished, and its population gradually dwindled. The necropolis + suffered increasingly from pillagers, and the burying-places of the kings + were felt to be in such danger, that the authorities, despairing of being + able to protect them, withdrew the mummies from their resting-places. The + bodies of Seti I., Ramses II., and Ramses III. were once more carried down + the valley, and, after various removals, were at length huddled together + for safety in the tomb of Amenôthes I. at Drah-abu’l-Neggah. + </p> + <p> + The Tanite Pharaohs seemed to have lacked neither courage nor good will. + The few monuments which they have left show that to some extent they + carried on the works begun by their predecessors. An unusually high + inundation had injured the temple at Karnak, the foundations had been + denuded by the water, and serious damage would have been done, had not the + work of reparation been immediately undertaken. Nsbindîdi reopened the + sandstone quarries between Erment and Grebeleîn, from which Seti I. had + obtained the building materials for the temple, and drew from thence what + was required for the repair of the edifice. Two of the descendants of + Nsbindîdi, Psiûkhânnît I. and Amenemôpît, remodelled the little temple + built by Kheops in honour of his daughter Honît-sonû, at the south-east + angle of his pyramid. Both Siamonmîamon and Psiûkhânnît I. have left + traces of their work at Memphis, and the latter inserted his cartouches on + two of the obelisks raised by Ramses at Heliopolis. But these were only + minor undertakings, and it is at Tanis that we must seek the most + characteristic examples of their activity. Here it was that Psiûkhânnît + rebuilt the brick ramparts which defended the city, and decorated several + of the halls of the great temple. The pylons of this sanctuary had been + merely begun by Sesostris: Siamon completed them, and added the sphinxes; + and the metal plaques and small objects which he concealed under the base + of one of the latter have been brought to light in the course of + excavations. The appropriation of the monuments of other kings, which we + have remarked under former dynasties, was also practised by the Tanites. + Siamon placed his inscriptions over those of the Kamessides, and + Psiûkhânnît engraved his name on the sphinxes and statues of Ame-nemhâît + III. as unscrupulously as Apôphis and the Hyksôs had done before him. The + Tanite sovereigns, however, were not at a loss for artists, and they had + revived, after the lapse of centuries, the traditions of the local school + which had flourished during the XIIth dynasty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0044" id="Cimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/404.jpg" alt="404.jpg the Two Niles of Tanis " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch- + Bey. +</pre> + <p> + One of the groups, executed by order of Psiûkhânnît, has escaped + destruction, and is now in the Gîzeh Museum. It represents two figures of + the Nile, marching gravely shoulder to shoulder, and carrying in front of + them tables of offerings, ornamented with fish and garnished with flowers. + The stone in which they are executed is of an extraordinary hardness, but + the sculptor has, notwithstanding, succeeded in carving and polishing it + with a skill which does credit to his proficiency in his craft. The + general effect of the figures is a little heavy, but the detail is + excellent, and the correctness of pose, precision in modelling, and + harmony of proportion are beyond criticism. The heads present a certain + element of strangeness. The artist evidently took as his model, as far as + type and style of head-dress are concerned, the monuments of Amenemhâît + III. which he saw around him; indeed, he probably copied one of them + feature for feature. He has reproduced the severity of expression, the + firm mouth, the projecting cheek-bones, the long hair and fan-shaped beard + of his model, but he has not been able to imitate the broad and powerful + treatment of the older artists; his method of execution has a certain + hardness and conventionality which we never see to the same extent in the + statues of the XIIth dynasty. The work is, however, an extremely + interesting one, and we are tempted to wish that many more such monuments + had been saved from the ruins of the city.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Mariette attributes this group to the Hyksôs; I have + already expressed the opinion that it dates from the XXIst + dynasty. +</pre> + <p> + The Pharaoh who dedicated it was a great builder, and, like most of his + predecessors with similar tastes, somewhat of a conqueror. The sovereigns + of the XXIst dynasty, though they never undertook any distant campaigns, + did not neglect to keep up a kind of suzerainty over the Philistine + Shephelah to which they still laid claim. The expedition which one of + them, probably Psiûkhânnît II., led against Gezer, the alliance with the + Hebrews and the marriage of a royal princess with Solomon, must all have + been regarded at the court of Tanis as a partial revival of the former + Egyptian rule in Syria. The kings were, however, obliged to rest content + with small results, for though their battalions were sufficiently numerous + and well disciplined to overcome the Canaanite chiefs, or even the + Israelite kingdom, it is to be doubted whether they were strong enough to + attack the troops of the Aramæan or Hittite princes, who had a highly + organised military system, modelled on that of Assyria. Egyptian arms and + tactics had not made much progress since the great campaigns of the Theban + conquerors; the military authorities still complacently trusted to their + chariots and their light troops of archers at a period when the whole + success of a campaign was decided by heavily armed infantry, and when + cavalry had already begun to change the issue of battles. The decadence of + the military spirit in Egypt had been particularly marked in all classes + under the later Ramessides, and the native militia, without exception, was + reduced to a mere rabble—courageous, it is true, and able to sell + their lives dearly when occasion demanded, rather than give way before the + enemy, but entirely lacking that enthusiasm and resolution which sweep all + obstacles before them. The chariotry had not degenerated in the same way, + thanks to the care with which the Pharaoh and his vassals kept up the + breeding of suitable horses in the training stables of the principal + towns. Egypt provided Solomon with draught-horses, and with strong yet + light chariots, which he sold with advantage to the sovereigns of the + Orontes and the Euphrates. But it was the mercenaries who constituted the + most active and effective section of the Pharaonic armies. These troops + formed the backbone on which all the other elements—chariots, + spearmen, and native archers—were dependent. Their spirited attack + carried the other troops with them, and by a tremendous onslaught on the + enemy at a decisive moment gave the commanding general some chance of + success against the better-equipped and better-organised battalions that + he would be sure to meet with on the plains of Asia. The Tanite kings + enrolled these mercenaries in large numbers: they entrusted them with the + garrisoning of the principal towns, and confirmed the privileges which + their chiefs had received from the Ramessides, but the results of such a + policy were not long in manifesting themselves, and this state of affairs + had been barely a century in existence before Egypt became a prey to the + barbarians. + </p> + <p> + It would perhaps be more correct to say that it had fallen a prey to the + Libyans only. The Asiatics and Europeans whom the Theban Pharaohs had + called in to fight for them had become merged in the bulk of the nation, + or had died out for lack of renewal. Semites abounded, it is true, in the + eastern nomes of the Delta, but their presence had no effect on the + military strength of the country. Some had settled in the towns and + villages, and were engaged in commerce or industry; these included + Phoenician, Canaanite, Edomite, and even Hebrew merchants and artisans, + who had been forced to flee from their own countries owing to political + disturbances.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Jeroboam (1 Kings xi. 40, xii. 2, 3) and Hadad (1 Kings + xi. 17-22) took refuge in this way at the court of Pharaoh. +</pre> + <p> + A certain proportion were descendants of the Hidjsôs, who had been + reinforced from time to time by settlements of prisoners captured in + battle; they had taken refuge in the marshes as in the times of Abmosis, + and there lived in a kind of semi-civilized independence, refusing to pay + taxes, boasting of having kept themselves from any alliances with the + inhabitants of the Nile valley, while their kinsmen of the older stock + betrayed the knowledge of their origin by such disparaging nicknames as + Pa-shmûrî, “the stranger,” or Pi-âtnû, “the Asiatic.” The Shardana, who + had constituted the body-guard of Ramses II., and whose commanders had, + under Ramses III., ranked with the great officers of the crown, had all + but disappeared. It had been found difficult to recruit them since the + dislodgment of the People of the Sea from the Delta and the Syrian + littoral, and their settlement in Italy and the fabulous islands of the + Mediterranean; the adventurers from Crete and the Ægean coasts now + preferred to serve under the Philistines, where they found those who were + akin to their own race, and from thence they passed on to the Hebrews, + where, under David and Solomon, they were gladly hired as mercenaries.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Carians or Cretans (Chercthites) formed part of David’s + body-guard (2 Sam viii. 18, xv. 18, xx. 23); one again meets + with these Carian or Cretan troops in Judah in the reign of + Athaliah (2 Kings xi. 4, 19). +</pre> + <p> + The Libyans had replaced the Shardana in all the offices they had filled + and in all the garrison towns they had occupied. The kingdom of Mâraîû and + Kapur had not survived the defeats which it had suffered from Mînephtah + and Ramses III., but the Mashaûasha who had founded it still kept an + active hegemony over their former subjects; hence it was that the + Egyptians became accustomed to look on all the Libyan tribes as branches + of the dominant race, and confounded all the immigrants from Libya under + the common name of Mashaûasha.* Egypt was thus slowly flooded by Libyans; + it was a gradual invasion, which succeeded by pacific means where brute + force had failed. A Berber population gradually took possession of the + country, occupying the eastern provinces of the Delta, filling its towns—Sais, + Damanhur, and Marea—making its way into the Fayum, the suburbs of + Heracleopolis, and penetrating as far south as Abydos; at the latter place + they were not found in such great numbers, but still considerable enough + to leave distinct traces.** The high priests of Amon seem to have been the + only personages who neglected to employ this ubiquitous race; but they + preferred to use the Nubian tribe of the Mâzaîû,*** who probably from the + XIIth dynasty onwards had constituted the police force of Thebes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ramses III. still distinguished between the Qahaka, the + Tihonû, and the Mashaûasha; the monuments of the XXIInd + dynasty only recognise the Mashaiiasha, whose name they + curtail to Ma. + + ** The presence in those regions of persons bearing Asiatic + names has been remarked, without drawing thence any proof + for the existence of Asiatic colonies in those regions. The + presence of Libyans at Abydos seems to be proved by the + discovery in that town of the little monument reproduced on + the next page, and of many objects in the same style, many + of which are in the Louvre or the British Museum. + + *** I have not discovered among the personal attendants of + the descendants of Hrihor any functionary bearing the title + of <i>Chief of the Mashaiuasha </i>; even those who bore it later + on, under the XXIInd dynasty, were always officers from + the north of Egypt. It seems almost certain that Thebes + always avoided having Libyan troops, and never received a + Mashaûasha settlement. +</pre> + <p> + These Libyan immigrants had adopted the arts of Egypt and the externals of + her civilization; they sculptured rude figures on the rocks and engraved + scenes on their stone vessels, in which they are represented fully armed,* + and taking part in some skirmish or attack, or even a chase in the desert. + The hunters are divided into two groups, each of which is preceded by a + different ensign—that of the West for the right wing of the troop, + and that of the East for the left wing. They carry the spear the + boomerang, the club, the double-curved bow, and the dart; a fox’s skin + depends from their belts over their thighs, and an ostrich’s feather waves + above their curly hair. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I attribute to the Libyans, whether mercenaries or tribes + hovering on the Egyptian frontier, the figures cut + everywhere on the rocks, which no one up till now has + reproduced or studied. To them I attribute also the tombs + which Mr. Petrie has so successfully explored, and in which + he finds the remains of a New Race which seems to have + conquered Egypt after the VIth dynasty: they appear to be of + different periods, but all belong to the Berber horsemen of + the desert and the outskirts of the Nile valley. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0045" id="Cimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/410.jpg" alt="410.jpg a Troop of Libyans Hunting " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the original in the Louvre. +</pre> + <p> + They never abandoned this special head-dress and manner of arming + themselves, and they can always be recognised on the monuments by the + plumes surmounting their forehead.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This design is generally thought to represent a piece of + cloth folded in two, and laid flat on the head; examination + of the monuments proves that it is the ostrich plume fixed + at the back of the head, and laid flat on the hair or wig. +</pre> + <p> + Their settlement on the banks of the Nile and intermarriage with the + Egyptians had no deteriorating effect on them, as had been the case with + the Shardana, and they preserved nearly all their national + characteristics. If here and there some of them became assimilated with + the natives, there was always a constant influx of new comers, full of + energy and vigour, who kept the race from becoming enfeebled. The + attractions of high pay and the prospect of a free-and-easy life drew them + to the service of the feudal lords. The Pharaoh entrusted their chiefs + with confidential offices about his person, and placed the royal princes + at their head. The position at length attained by these Mashaûasha was + analogous to that of the Oossasans at Babylon, and, indeed, was merely the + usual sequel of permitting a foreign militia to surround an Oriental + monarch; they became the masters of their sovereigns. Some of their + generals went so far as to attempt to use the soldiery to overturn the + native dynasty, and place themselves upon the throne; others sought to + make and unmake kings to suit their own taste. The earlier Tanite + sovereigns had hoped to strengthen their authority by trusting entirely to + the fidelity and gratitude of their guard; the later kings became mere + puppets in the hands of mercenaries. At length a Libyan family arose who, + while leaving the externals of power in the hands of the native + sovereigns, reserved to themselves the actual administration, and reduced + the kings to the condition of luxurious dependence enjoyed by the elder + branch of the Ramessides under the rule of the high priests of Amon. + </p> + <p> + There was at Bubastis, towards the middle or end of the XXth dynasty, a + Tihonû named Buîuwa-buîuwa. He was undoubtedly a soldier of fortune, + without either office or rank, but his descendants prospered and rose to + important positions among the Mashadasha chiefs: the fourth among these, + Sheshonq by name, married Mîhtinuôskhît, a princess of the royal line. His + son, Namarôti, managed to combine with his function of chief of the + Mashauasha several religious offices, and his grandson, also called + Sheshonq, had a still more brilliant career. We learn from the monuments + of the latter that, even before he had ascended the throne, he was + recognised as king and prince of princes, and had conferred on him the + command of all the Libyan troops. Officially he was the chief person in + the state after the sovereign, and had the privilege of holding personal + intercourse with the gods, Amonrâ included—a right which belonged + exclusively to the Pharaoh and the Theban high priest. The honours which + he bestowed upon his dead ancestors were of a remarkable character, and + included the institution of a liturgical office in connection with his + father Namarôti, a work which resembles in its sentiments the devotions of + Bamses II. to the memory of Seti. He succeeded in arranging a marriage + between his son Osorkon and a princess of the royal line, the daughter of + Psiûkhânnît II., by which alliance he secured the Tanite succession; he + obtained as a wife for his second son Aûpûti, the priestess of Amon, and + thus obtained an indirect influence over the Said and Nubia.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The date of the death of Paînotmû II. is fixed at the + XVIth year of his reign, according to the inscriptions in + the pit at Deîr el-Baharî. This would be the date of the + accession of Aûpûti’, if Aûpûti succeeded him directly, as I + am inclined to believe; but if Psiûkhânnît was his immediate + successor, and if Nsbindîdî succeeded Manakhpirri, we must + place the accession of Aûpûti some years later. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0046" id="Cimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/413.jpg" alt="413.jpg Nsitanibashiru " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by E. Brugsch-Bey. +</pre> + <p> + This priestess was probably a daughter or niece of Paînotmû II., but we + are unacquainted with her name. The princesses continued to play a + preponderating part in the transmission of power, and we may assume that + the lady in question was one of those whose names have come down to us—Nsikhonsû, + Nsitanî-bashîrû, or Isimkhobîû II., who brought with her as a dowry the + Bubastite fief. We are at a loss whether to place Aûpûti immediately after + Paînotmû, or between the ephemeral pontificates of a certain Psiûkhannît + and a certain Nsbindîdi. His succession imposed a very onerous duty upon + him. Thebes was going through the agonies of famine and misery, and no + police supervision in the world could secure the treasures stored up in + the tombs of a more prosperous age from the attacks of a famished people. + Arrests, trials, and punishments were ineffectual against the violation of + the sepulchres, and even the royal mummies—including those placed in + the chapel of Amenôthes I. by previous high priests—were not exempt + from outrage. The remains of the most glorious of the Pharaohs were + reclining in this chapel, forming a sort of solemn parliament: here was + Saqnunrî Tiuâqni, the last member of the XVIIth dynasty; here also were + the first of the XVIIIth—Ahmosis, Amenôthes I., and the three of the + name Thûtmosis, together with the favourites of their respective harems—Nofritari, + Ahhotpû II., Anhâpû, Honittimihû, and Sitkamosis; and, in addition, Ramses + I., Seti I., Ramses II. of the XIXth dynasty, Ramses III. and Ramses X. of + the XXth dynasty. The “Servants of the True Place” were accustomed to + celebrate at the appointed periods the necessary rites established in + their honour. Inspectors, appointed for the purpose by the government, + determined from time to time the identity of the royal mummies, and + examined into the condition of their wrappings and coffins: after each + inspection a report, giving the date and the name of the functionary + responsible for the examination, was inscribed on the linen or the lid + covering the bodies. The most of the mummies had suffered considerably + before they reached the refuge in which they were found. The bodies of + Sitamon and of the Princess Honittimihû had been completely destroyed, and + bundles of rags had been substituted for them, so arranged with pieces of + wood as to resemble human figures. Ramses I., Ramses II., and Thûtmosis + had been deprived of their original shells, and were found in extemporised + cases. Hrihor’s successors, who regarded these sovereigns as their + legitimate ancestors, had guarded them with watchful care, but Aûpûti, who + did not feel himself so closely related to these old-world Pharaohs, + considered, doubtless, this vigilance irksome, and determined to locate + the mummies in a spot where they would henceforward be secure from all + attack. A princess of the family of Manakhpirrî—Isimkhobiû, it would + appear—had prepared a tomb for herself in the rocky cliff which + bounds the amphitheatre of Deîr el-Baharî on the south. The position lent + itself readily to concealment. It consisted of a well some 130 feet deep, + with a passage running out of it at right angles for a distance of some + 200 feet and ending in a low, oblong, roughly cut chamber, lacking both + ornament and paintings. Paînotmû II. had been placed within this chamber + in the XVIth year of the reign of Psiûkhannît II., and several members of + his family had been placed beside him not long afterwards. Aûpûti soon + transferred thither the batch of mummies which, in the chapel of Amenôthes + I., had been awaiting a more definite sepulture; the coffins, with what + remained of their funerary furniture, were huddled together in disorder. + The chamber having been filled up to the roof, the remaining materials, + consisting of coffers, boxes of <i>Ushabti,</i> Canopic jars, garlands, + together with the belongings of priestly mummies, were arranged along the + passage; when the place was full, the entrance was walled up, the well + filled, and its opening so dexterously covered that it remained concealed + until-our own time. The accidental “sounding” of some pillaging Arabs + revealed the place as far back as 1872, but it was not until ten years + later (1881) that the Pharaohs once more saw the light. They are now + enthroned—who can say for how many years longer? —in the + chambers of the Gîzeh Museum. Egypt is truly a land of marvels! It has not + only, like Assyria and Chaldæa, Greece and Italy, preserved for us + monuments by which its historic past may be reconstructed, but it has + handed on to us the men themselves who set up the monuments and made the + history. Her great monarchs are not any longer mere names deprived of + appropriate forms, and floating colourless and shapeless in the + imagination of posterity: they may be weighed, touched, and measured; the + capacity of their brains may be gauged; the curve of their noses and the + cut of their mouths may be determined; we know if they were bald, or if + they suffered from some secret infirmity; and, as we are able to do in the + case of our contemporaries, we may publish their portraits taken first + hand in the photographic camera. Sheshonq, by assuming the control of the + Theban priesthood, did not on this account extend his sovereignty over + Egypt beyond its southern portion, and that part of Nubia which still + depended on it. Ethiopia remained probably outside his jurisdiction, and + constituted from this time forward an independent kingdom, under the rule + of dynasties which were, or claimed to be, descendants of Hrihor. The + oasis, on the other hand, and the Libyan provinces in the neighbourhood of + the Delta and the sea, rendered obedience to his officers, and furnished + him with troops which were recognised as among his best. Sheshonq found + himself at the death of Psiûkhânnît II., which took place about 940 B.C., + sole master of Egypt, with an effective army and well-replenished treasury + at his disposal. What better use could he make of his resources than + devote them to reasserting the traditional authority of his country over + Syria? The intestine quarrels of the only state of any importance in that + region furnished him with an opportunity of which he found it easy to take + advantage. Solomon in his eyes was merely a crowned vassal of Egypt, and + his appeal for aid to subdue Gezer, his marriage with a daughter of the + Egyptian royal house, the position he had assigned her over all his other + wives, and all that we know of the relations between Jerusalem and Tanis + at the time, seem to indicate that the Hebrews themselves acknowledged + some sort of dependency upon Egypt. They were not, however, on this + account free from suspicion in their suzerain’s eyes, who seized upon + every pretext that offered itself to cause them embarrassment. Hadad, and + Jeroboam afterwards, had been well received at the court of the Pharaoh, + and it was with Egyptian subsidies that these two rebels returned to their + country, the former in the lifetime of Solomon, and the latter after his + death. When Jeroboam saw that he was threatened by Rehoboam, he naturally + turned to his old protectors. Sheshonq had two problems before him. Should + he confirm by his intervention the division of the kingdom, which had + flourished in Kharû for now half a century, into two rival states, or + should he himself give way to the vulgar appetite for booty, and step in + for his own exclusive interest? He invaded Judæa four years after the + schism, and Jerusalem offered no resistance to him; Rehoboam ransomed his + capital by emptying the royal treasuries and temple, rendering up even the + golden shields which Solomon was accustomed to assign to his guards when + on duty about his person.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xiv. 25-28; cf. 2 Chron. xii. 1-10, where an + episode, not in the <i>Book of Kings</i>, is introduced. The + prophet Shemaiah played an important part in the + transaction. +</pre> + <p> + This expedition of the Pharaoh was neither dangerous nor protracted, but + it was more than two hundred years since so much riches from countries + beyond the isthmus had been brought into Egypt, and the king was + consequently regarded by the whole people of the Nile valley as a great + hero. Aûpûti took upon himself the task of recording the exploit on the + south wall of the temple of Amon at Karnak, not far from the spot where + Ramses II. had had engraved the incidents of his Syrian campaigns. His + architect was sent to Silsilis to procure the necessary sandstone to + repair the monument. He depicted upon it his father receiving at the hands + of Amon processions of Jewish prisoners, each one representing a captured + city. The list makes a brave show, and is remarkable for the number of the + names composing it: in comparison with those of Thûtmosis III., it is + disappointing, and one sees at a glance how inferior, even in its triumph, + the Egypt of the XXIInd dynasty was to that of the XVIIIth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0047" id="Cimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/419.jpg" + alt="419.jpg Amon Presenting to Sheshonq the List of The Cities Captured in Israel and Judah " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + It is no longer a question of Carchemish, or Qodshû, or Mitanni, or + Naharaim: Megiddo is the most northern point mentioned, and the localities + enumerated bring us more and more to the south—Eabbat, Taânach, + Hapharaîm, Mahanaîm,* Gibeon, Beth-horon, Ajalon, Jud-hammelek, Migdol, + Jerza, Shoko, and the villages of the Negeb. Each locality, in consequence + of the cataloguing of obscure towns, furnished enough material to cover + two, or even three of the crenellated cartouches in which the names of the + conquered peoples are enclosed, and Sheshonq had thus the puerile + satisfaction of parading before the eyes of his subjects a longer <i>cortege</i> + of defeated chiefs than that of his predecessor. His victorious career did + not last long: he died shortly after, and his son Osorkon was content to + assume at a distance authority over the Kharu.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The existence of the names of certain Israelite towns on + the list of. Sheshonq has somewhat astonished the majority + of the historians of Israel. Renan declared that the list + must “put aside the conjecture that Jeroboam had been the + instigator of the expedition, which would certainly have + been readily admissible, especially if any force were + attached to the Greek text of 1 Kings xii. 24, which makes + Jeroboam to have been a son-in-law of the King of Egypt;” + the same view had been already expressed by Stade; others + have thought that Sheshonq had conquered the country for his + ally Jeroboam. Sheshonq, in fact, was following the Egyptian + custom by which all countries and towns which paid tribute + to the Pharaoh, or who recognised his suzerainty, were made + to, or might, figure on his triumphal lists whether they had + been conquered or not: the presence of Megiddo or Mahanaim + on the lists does not prove that they were <i>conquered</i> by + Sheshonq, but that the prince to whom they owed allegiance + was a tributary to the King of Egypt. The name of Jud-ham- + melek, which occupies the twenty-ninth place on the list, + was for a long time translated as king or kingdom of Judah, + and passed for being a portrait of Rehoboam, which is + impossible. The Hebrew name was read by W. Max Millier Jad- + ham-meleh, the hand, the fort of the king. It appears to me + to be more easy to see in it Jud-liam-meleh and to associate + it with Jehudah, a town of the tribe of Dan, as Brugsch did + long ago. + + ** Champollion identified Osorkon I. with the Zerah, who, + according to 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15, xvi. 8, invaded Judah and + was defeated by Asa, but this has no historic value, for it + is clear that Osorkon never crossed the isthmus. +</pre> + <p> + It does not appear, however, that either the Philistines, or Judah, or + Israel, or any of the petty tribes which had momentarily gravitated around + David and Solomon, were disposed to dispute Osorkon’s claim, theoretic + rather than real as it was. The sword of the stranger had finished the + work which the intestine quarrel of the tribes had begun. If Rehoboam had + ever formed the project of welding together the disintegrated elements of + Israel, the taking of Jerusalem must have been a death-blow to his hopes. + His arsenals were empty, his treasury at low ebb, and the prestige + purchased by David’s victories was effaced by the humiliation of his own + defeat. The ease with which the edifice so laboriously constructed by the + heroes of Benjamin and Judah had been overturned at the first shock, was a + proof that the new possessors of Canaan were as little capable of barring + the way to Egypt in her old age, as their predecessors had been when she + was in her youth and vigour. The Philistines had had their day; it seemed + by no means improbable at one time that they were about to sweep + everything before them, from the Negeb to the Orontes, but their peculiar + position in the furthest angle of the country, and their numerical + weakness, prevented them from continuing their efforts for a prolonged + period, and they were at length obliged to renounce in favour of the + Hebrews their ambitious pretensions. The latter, who had been making + steady progress for some half a century, had been successful where the + Philistines had signally failed, and Southern Syria recognised their + supremacy for the space of two generations. We can only conjecture what + they might have done if a second David had led them into the valleys of + the Orontes and Euphrates. They were stronger in numbers than their + possible opponents, and their troops, strengthened by mercenary guards, + would have perhaps triumphed over the more skilled but fewer warriors + which the Amorite and Aramaean cities could throw into the field against + them. The pacific reign of Solomon, the schism among the tribes, and the + Egyptian invasion furnished evidence enough that they also were not + destined to realise that solidarity which alone could secure them against + the great Oriental empires when the day of attack came. + </p> + <p> + The two kingdoms were then enjoying an independent existence. Judah, in + spite of its smaller numbers and its recent disaster, was not far behind + the more extensive Israel in its resources. David, and afterwards Solomon, + had so kneaded together the various elements of which it was composed—Caleb, + Cain, Jerahmeel and the Judsean clans—that they had become a + homogeneous mass, grouped around the capital and its splendid sanctuary, + and actuated with feelings of profound admiration and strong fidelity for + the family which had made them what they were. Misfortune had not chilled + their zeal: they rallied round Rehoboam and his race with such a + persistency that they were enabled to maintain their ground when their + richer rivals had squandered their energies and fallen away before their + eyes. Jeroboam, indeed, and his successors had never obtained from their + people more than a precarious support and a lukewarm devotion: their + authority was continually coming into conflict with a tendency to + disintegration among the tribes, and they could only maintain their rule + by the constant employment of force. Jeroboam had collected together from + the garrisons scattered throughout the country the nucleus of an army, and + had stationed the strongest of these troops in his residence at Tirzah + when he did not require them for some expedition against Judah or the + Philistines. His successors followed his example in this respect, but this + military resource was only an ineffectual protection against the dangers + which beset them. The kings were literally at the mercy of their guard, + and their reign was entirely dependent on its loyalty or caprice: any + unscrupulous upstart might succeed in suborning his comrades, and the + stroke of a dagger might at any moment send the sovereign to join his + ancestors, while the successful rebel reigned in his stead.* The Egyptian + troops had no sooner set out on their homeward march, than the two + kingdoms began to display their respective characteristics. An implacable + and truceless war broke out between them. The frontier garrisons of the + two nations fought with each other from one year’s end to another—carrying + off each other’s cattle, massacring one another, burning each other’s + villages and leading their inhabitants into slavery.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Among nineteen kings of Israel, eight were assassinated + and were replaced by the captains of their guards—Nadab, + Elah, Zimri, Joram, Zachariah, Shallum, Pekahiah, and Pekah. + + ** This is what is meant by the Hebrew historians when they + say “there was war between Rehoboam and Jeroboam all the + days of his life” (1 Kings xv. 6; cf. 2 Ohron. xii. 15), and + “between Abijam and Jeroboam” (1 Kings xv. 7; 2 Ohron. xiii. + 2), and “between Asa and Baasha” (1 Kings xv. 16, 32) “all + their days.” + </pre> + <p> + From time to time, when the situation became intolerable, one of the kings + took the field in person, and began operations by attacking such of his + enemy’s strongholds as gave him the most trouble at the time. Ramah + acquired an unenviable reputation in the course of these early conflicts: + its position gave it command of the roads terminating in Jerusalem, and + when it fell into the hands of Israel, the Judæan capital was blockaded on + this side. The strife for its possession was always of a terrible + character, and the party which succeeded in establishing itself firmly + within it was deemed to have obtained a great success.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The campaign of Abijah at Mount Zemaraim (2 Chron. xiii. + 3-19), in which the foundation of the narrative and the + geographical details seem fully historical. See also the + campaign of Baasha against Ramah (1 Kings xv. 17-22; cf. 2 + Chron. xvi. 1-6). +</pre> + <p> + The encounter of the armies did not, however, seem to produce much more + serious results than those which followed the continual guerilla warfare + along the frontier: the conqueror had no sooner defeated his enemy than he + set to work to pillage the country in the vicinity, and, having + accomplished this, returned promptly to his headquarters with the booty. + Rehoboam, who had seen something of the magnificence of Solomon, tried to + perpetuate the tradition of it in his court, as far as his slender + revenues would permit him. He had eighteen women in his harem, among whom + figured some of his aunts and cousins. The titular queen was Maacah, who + was represented as a daughter of Absalom. She was devoted to the <i>asheras</i>, + and the king was not behind his father in his tolerance of strange gods; + the high places continued to be tolerated by him as sites of worship, and + even Jerusalem was not free from manifestations of such idolatry as was + associated with the old Canaanite religion. He reigned seventeen years, + and was interred in the city of David;* Abijam, the eldest son of Maacah, + succeeded him, and followed in his evil ways. Three years later Asa came + to the throne,** no opposition being raised to his accession. In Israel + matters did not go so smoothly. When Jeroboam, after a reign of twenty-two + years, was succeeded by his son Nadab, about the year 905 B.C., it was + soon evident that the instinct of loyalty to a particular dynasty had not + yet laid any firm hold on the ten tribes. The peace between the + Philistines and Israel was quite as unstable as that between Israel and + Judah: an endless guerilla warfare was waged on the frontier, Gibbethon + being made to play much the same part in this region as Ramah had done in + regard to Jerusalem. For the moment it was in the hands of the + Philistines, and in the second year of his reign Nadab had gone to lay + siege to it in force, when he was assassinated in his tent by one of his + captains, a certain Baasha, son of Ahijah, of the tribe of Issachar: the + soldiers proclaimed the assassin king, and the people found themselves + powerless to reject the nominee of the army.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xiv. 22-24; cf. 2 Chron. xi. 18-23, where the + details given in addition to those in the Booh of Kings seem + to be of undoubted authenticity. + + ** 1 Kings xv. 1-8; cf. 2 Chron. xiii. The Booh of Kings + describes his mother as Maacah, the daughter of Absalom (xv. + 10), which would seem to indicate that he was the brother + and not the son of Abijam. The uncertainty on this point is + of long standing, for the author of Chronicles makes + Abijam’s mother out in one place to be Micaiah, daughter of + Uriel of Gibcah (xiii. 2), and in another (xi. 20) Maacah, + daughter of Absalom. + + *** 1 Kings xv. 27-34. +</pre> + <p> + Baasha pressed forward resolutely his campaign against Judah. He seized + Eamah and fortified it;* and Asa, feeling his incapacity to dislodge him + unaided, sought to secure an ally. Egypt was too much occupied with its + own internal dissensions to be able to render any effectual help, but a + new power, which would profit quite as much as Judah by the overthrow of + Israel, was beginning to assert itself in the north. Damascus had, so far, + led an obscure and peaceful existence; it had given way before Egypt and + Chaldæa whenever the Egyptians or Chaldseans had appeared within striking + distance, but had refrained from taking any part in the disturbances by + which Syria was torn asunder. Having been occupied by the Amorites, it + threw its lot in with theirs, keeping, however, sedulously in the + background: while the princes of Qodshû waged war against the Pharaohs, + undismayed by frequent reverses, Damascus did not scruple to pay tribute + to Thûtmosis III. and his descendants, or to enter into friendly relations + with them. Meanwhile the Amorites had been overthrown, and Qodshû, ruined + by the Asiatic invasion, soon became little more than an obscure + third-rate town;** the Aramaeans made themselves masters of Damascus about + the XIIth century, and in their hands it continued to be, just as in the + preceding epochs, a town without ambitions and of no great renown. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xv. 17; cf. 2 Ghron. xvi. 1. + + ** Qodshû is only once mentioned in the Bible (2 Sam. xxiv. + 6), in which passage its name, misunderstood by the + Massoretic scribe, has been restored from the Septuagint + text. +</pre> + <p> + We have seen how the Aramæans, alarmed at the sudden rise of the Hebrew + dynasty, entered into a coalition against David with the Ammonite leaders: + Zoba aspired to the chief place among the nations of Central Syria, but + met with reverses, and its defeat delivered over to the Israelites its + revolted dependencies in the Haurân and its vicinity, such as Maacah, + Geshur, and even Damascus itself.* The supremacy was, however, shortlived; + immediately after the death of David, a chief named Rezôn undertook to + free them from the yoke of the stranger. He had begun his military career + under Hada-dezer, King of Zoba: when disaster overtook this leader and + released him from his allegiance, he collected an armed force and fought + for his own hand. A lucky stroke made him master of Damascus: he + proclaimed himself king there, harassed the Israelites with impunity + during the reign of Solomon, and took over the possessions of the kings of + Zoba in the valleys of the Litany and the Orontes.** The rupture between + the houses of Israel and Judah removed the only dangerous rival from his + path, and Damascus became the paramount power in Southern and Central + Palestine. While Judah and Israel wasted their strength in fratricidal + struggles, Tabrimmon, and after him Benhadad I., gradually extended their + territory in Coele-Syria;*** they conquered Hamath, and the desert valleys + which extend north-eastward in the direction of the Euphrates, and forced + a number of the Hittite kings to render them homage. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Cf. what is said in regard to these events on pp. 351, + 352, supra. + + ** 1 Kings xi. 23-25. The reading “Esron” in the Septuagint + (1 Kings xi. 23) indicates a form “Khezrôn,” by which it was + sought to replace the traditional reading “Rezôn.” + + *** Hezion, whom the Jewish writer intercalates before + Tabrimmon (1 Kings xv. 18), is probably a corruption of + Rezôn; Winckler, relying on the Septuagint variants Azin or + Azael (1 Kings xv. 18), proposes to alter Hezion into + Hazael, and inserts a certain Hazael I. in this place. + Tabrimmon is only mentioned in 1 Kings xv. 18, where he is + said to have been the father of Benhadad. +</pre> + <p> + They had concluded an alliance with Jeroboam as soon as he established his + separate kingdom, and maintained the treaty with his successors, Nadab and + Baasha. Asa collected all the gold and silver which was left in the temple + of Jerusalem and in his own palace, and sent it to Benhadad, saying, + “There is a league between me and thee, between thy father and my father: + behold, I have sent unto thee a present of silver and gold; go, break thy + league with Baasha, King of Israel, that he may depart from me.” It would + seem that Baasha, in his eagerness to complete the fortifications of + Ramah, had left his northern frontier undefended. Benhadad accepted the + proposal and presents of the King of Judah, invaded Galilee, seized the + cities of Ijôn, Dan, and Abel-beth-Maacah, which defended the upper + reaches of the Jordan and the Litany, the lowlands of Genesareth, and all + the land of Naphtali. Baasha hastily withdrew from Judah, made terms with + Benhadad, and settled down in Tirzah for the remainder of his reign;* Asa + demolished Eamah, and built the strongholds of Gebah and Mizpah from its + ruins.** Benhadad retained the territory he had acquired, and exercised a + nominal sovereignty over the two Hebrew kingdoms. Baasha, like Jeroboam, + failed to found a lasting dynasty; his son Blah met with the same fate at + the hands of Zimri which he himself had meted out to Nadab. As on the + former occasion, the army was encamped before Gibbethon, in the country of + the Philistines, when the tragedy took place. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xv. 21, xvi. 6. + + ** 1 Kings xv. 18-22; of. 2 Ghron. xvi. 2-6. +</pre> + <p> + Elah was at Tirzah, “drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza, which + was over the household;” Zimri, who was “captain of half his chariots,” + left his post at the front, and assassinated him as he lay intoxicated. + The whole family of Baasha perished in the subsequent confusion, but the + assassin only survived by seven days the date of his crime. When the + troops which he had left behind him in camp heard of what had occurred, + they refused to accept him as king, and, choosing Omri in his place, + marched against Tirzah. Zimri, finding it was impossible either to win + them over to his side or defeat them, set fire to the palace, and perished + in the flames. His death did not, however, restore peace to Israel; while + one-half of the tribes approved the choice of the army, the other flocked + to the standard of Tibni, son of Ginath. War raged between the two + factions for four years, and was only ended by the death—whether + natural or violent we do not know—of Tibni and his brother Joram.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xvi. 8-22; Joram is not mentioned in the + Massoretic text, but his name appears in the Septuagint. +</pre> + <p> + Two dynasties had thus arisen in Israel, and had been swept away by + revolutionary outbursts, while at Jerusalem the descendants of David + followed one another in unbroken succession. Asa outlived Nadab by eleven + years, and we hear nothing of his relations with the neighbouring states + during the latter part of his reign. We are merely told that his zeal in + the service of the Lord was greater than had been shown by any of his + predecessors. He threw down the idols, expelled their priests, and + persecuted all those who practised the ancient religions. His grandmother + Maacah “had made an abominable image for an asherah;” he cut it down, and + burnt it in the valley of the Kedron, and deposed her from the supremacy + in the royal household which she had held for three generations. He is, + therefore, the first of the kings to receive favourable mention from the + orthodox chroniclers of later times, and it is stated that he “did that + which was right in the eyes of the Lord, as did David his father.” * Omri + proved a warlike monarch, and his reign, though not a long one, was + signalised by a decisive crisis in the fortunes of Israel.** The northern + tribes had, so far, possessed no settled capital, Shechem, Penuel, and + Tirzah having served in turn as residences for the successors of Jeroboam + and Baasha. Latterly Tirzah had been accorded a preference over its + rivals; but Zimri had burnt the castle there, and the ease with which it + had been taken and retaken was not calculated to reassure the head of the + new dynasty. Omri turned his attention to a site lying a little to the + north-west of Shechem and Mount Ebal, and at that time partly covered by + the hamlet of Shomerôn or Shimrôn—our modern Samaria.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xv. 11; cf. 2 Ohron. xiv. 2. It is admitted, + however, though without any blame being attached to him, + that “the high places were not taken away” (1 Kings xv. 14; + cf. 2 Chron. xv. 17). + + ** The Hebrew writer gives the length of his reign as twelve + years (1 Kings xvi. 23). Several historians consider this + period too brief, and wish to extend it to twenty-four + years; I cannot, however, see that there is, so far, any + good reason for doubting the approximate accuracy of the + Bible figures. + + *** According to the tradition preserved in 1 Kings xvi. 24, + the name of the city comes from Shomer, the man from whom + Ahab bought the site. +</pre> + <p> + His choice was a wise and judicious one, as the rapid development of the + city soon proved. It lay on the brow of a rounded hill, which rose in the + centre of a wide and deep depression, and was connected by a narrow ridge + with the surrounding mountains. The valley round it is fertile and well + watered, and the mountains are cultivated up to their summits; throughout + the whole of Ephraim it would have been difficult to find a site which + could compare with it in strength or attractiveness. Omri surrounded his + city with substantial ramparts; he built a palace for himself, and a + temple in which was enthroned a golden calf similar to those at Dan and + Bethel.* A population drawn from other nations besides the Israelites + flocked into this well-defended stronghold, and Samaria soon came to be + for Israel what Jerusalem already was for Judah, an almost impregnable + fortress, in which the sovereign entrenched himself, and round which the + nation could rally in times of danger. His contemporaries fully realised + the importance of this move on Omri’s part; his name became inseparably + connected in their minds with that of Israel. Samaria and the house of + Joseph were for them, henceforth, the house of Omri, Bît-Omri, and the + name still clung to them long after Omri had died and his family had + become extinct.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Amos viii. 14, where the sin of Samaria, coupled as it is + with the life of the god of Dan and the way of Beersheba, + can, as Wellhausen points out, only refer to the image of + the calf worshipped at Samaria. + + ** Shalmaneser II. even goes so far as to describe Jehu, who + exterminated the family of Omri, as <i>Jaua ahal Khumri</i>, + “Jehu, son of Omri.” + </pre> + <p> + He gained the supremacy over Judah, and forced several of the + south-western provinces, which had been in a state of independence since + the days of Solomon, to acknowledge his rule; he conquered the country of + Medeba, vanquished Kamoshgad, King of Moab, and imposed on him a heavy + tribute in sheep and wool.* Against Benhadad in the north-west he was less + fortunate. He was forced to surrender to him several of the cities of + Gilead—among others Bamoth-gilead, which commanded the fords over + the Jabbok and Jordan.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Inscription of Meslia, 11. 5-7; cf. 2 Kings iii. 4. + + ** 1 Kings xx. 34. No names are given in the text, but + external evidence proves that they were cities of Persea, + and that Ramoth-gilead was one of them. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="Cimage-0048" id="Cimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/432.jpg" alt="432.jpg the Hill of Samaria " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from photograph No. 2G of the <i>Palestine + Exploration Fund.</i> +</pre> + <p> + He even set apart a special quarter in Samaria for the natives of + Damascus, where they could ply their trades and worship their gods without + interference. It was a kind of semi-vassalage, from which he was powerless + to free himself unaided: he realised this, and looked for help from + without; he asked and obtained the hand of Jezebel, daughter of Bthbaal, + King of the Sidonians, for Ahab, his heir. Hiram I., the friend of David, + had carried the greatness of Tyre to its highest point; after his death, + the same spirit of discord which divided the Hebrews made its appearance + in Phoenicia. The royal power was not easily maintained over this race of + artisans and sailors: Baalbazer, son of Hiram, reigned for six years, and + his successor, Abdastart, was killed in a riot after a still briefer + enjoyment of power. We know how strong was the influence exercised by + foster-mothers in the great families of the Bast; the four sons of + Abda-start’s nurse assassinated their foster-brother, and the eldest of + them usurped his crown. Supported by the motley crowd of slaves and + adventurers which filled the harbours of Phoenicia, they managed to cling + to power for twelve years. Their stupid and brutal methods of government + produced most disastrous results. A section of the aristocracy emigrated + to the colonies across the sea and incited them to rebellion; had this + state of things lasted for any time, the Tyrian empire would have been + doomed. A revolution led to the removal of the usurper and the restoration + of the former dynasty, but did not bring back to the unfortunate city the + tranquillity which it sorely needed. The three surviving sons of + Baalbezer, Methuastarfc, Astarym, and Phelles followed one another on the + throne in rapid succession, the last-named perishing by the hand of his + cousin Ethbaal, after a reign of eight months. So far, the Israelites had + not attempted to take advantage of these dissensions, but there was always + the danger lest one of their kings, less absorbed than his predecessors in + the struggle with Judah, might be tempted by the wealth of Phoenicia to + lay hands on it. Ethbaal, therefore, eagerly accepted the means of + averting this danger by an alliance with the new dynasty offered to him by + Omri.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xvi. 31, where the historian has Hebraicised the + Phonician name Ittobaal into “Ethbaal,” “Baal is with + him.” Izebel or Jezebel seems to be an abbreviated form of + some name like Baalezbel. +</pre> + <p> + The presence of a Phonician princess at Samaria seems to have had a + favourable effect on the city and its inhabitants. The tribes of Northern + and Central Palestine had, so far, resisted the march of material + civilization which, since the days of Solomon, had carried Judah along + with it; they adhered, as a matter of principle, to the rude and simple + customs of their ancestors. Jezebel, who from her cradle had been + accustomed to all the luxuries and refinements of the Phoenician court, + was by no means prepared to dispense with them in her adopted country. By + their contact with her, the Israelites—at any rate, the upper and + middle classes of them—acquired a certain degree of polish; the + royal office assumed a more dignified exterior, and approached more nearly + the splendours of the other Syrian monarchies, such as those of Damascus, + Hamath, Sidon, Tyre, and even Judah. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, the effect of this material progress was marred by a + religious difficulty. Jezebel had been brought up by her father, the high + priest of the Sidonian Astarte, as a rigid believer in his faith, and she + begged Ahab to permit her to celebrate openly the worship of her national + deities. Ere long the Tyrian Baal was installed at Samaria with his + asherah, and his votaries had their temples and sacred groves to worship + in: their priests and prophets sat at the king’s table. Ahab did not + reject the God of his ancestors in order to embrace the religion of his + wife—a reproach which was afterwards laid to his door; he remained + faithful to Him, and gave the children whom he had by Jezebel names + compounded with that of Jahveh, such as Ahaziah, Joram, and Athaliah.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xvi. 31-33. Ahaziah and Joram mean respectively + “whom Jahveh sustaineth,” and “Jahveh is exalted.” Athaliah + may possibly be derived from a Phoenician form, <i>Ailialith + or Athlifh,</i> into which the name of Jahveh does not enter. +</pre> + <p> + This was not the first instance of such tolerance in the history of the + Israelites: Solomon had granted a similar liberty of conscience to all his + foreign wives, and neither Rehoboam nor Abijam had opposed Maacah in her + devotion to the Canaanitish idols. But the times were changing, and the + altar of Baal could no longer be placed side by side with that of Jahveh + without arousing fierce anger and inexorable hatred. Scarce a hundred + years had elapsed since the rupture between the tribes, and already + one-half of the people were unable to understand how place could be found + in the breast of a true Israelite for any other god but Jahveh: Jahveh + alone was Lord, for none of the deities worshipped by foreign races under + human or animal shapes could compare with Him in might and holiness. From + this to the repudiation of all those practices associated with exotic + deities, such as the use of idols of wood or metal, the anointing of + isolated boulders or circles of rocks, the offering up of prisoners or of + the firstborn, was but a step: Asa had already furnished an example of + rigid devotion in Judah, and there were many in Israel who shared his + views and desired to imitate him. The opposition to what was regarded as + apostasy on the part of the king did not come from the official + priesthood; the sanctuaries at Dan, at Bethel, at Shiloh, and at Gilgal + were prosperous in spite of Jezebel, and this was enough for them. But the + influence of the prophets had increased marvellously since the rupture + between the kingdoms, and at the very beginning of his reign Ahab was + unwise enough to outrage their sense of justice by one of his violent + acts: in a transport of rage he had slain a certain Naboth, who had + refused to let him have his vineyard in order that he might enlarge the + grounds of the palace he was building for himself at Jezreel.* The + prophets, as in former times, were divided into schools, the head of each + being called its father, the members bearing the title of “the sons of the + prophets;” they dwelt in a sort of monastery, each having his own cell, + where they ate together, performed their devotional exercises or assembled + to listen to the exhortations of their chief prophets:** nor did their + sacred office prevent them from marrying.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Kings xxi., where the later tradition throws nearly all + the blame on Jezebel; whereas in the shorter account, in 2 + Kings ix. 25, 26, it is laid entirely on Ahab. + + ** In 1 Sam. xix. 20, a passage which seems to some to be a + later interpolation, mentions a “company of the prophets, + prophesying, and Samuel standing as head over them.” Cf. 2 + Kings vi. 1-7, where the narrative introduces a congregation + of prophets grouped round Elisha. + + *** 2 Kings iv. 1-7, where an account is given of the + miracle worked by Elisha on behalf of “a woman of the wives + of the sons of the prophets.” + </pre> + <p> + As a rule, they settled near one of the temples, and lived there on + excellent terms with the members of the regular priesthood. Accompanied by + musical instruments, they chanted the songs in which the poets of other + days extolled the mighty deeds of Jahveh, and obtained from this source + the incidents of the semi-religious accounts which they narrated + concerning the early history of the people; or, when the spirit moved + them, they went about through the land prophesying, either singly, or + accompanied by a disciple, or in bands.* The people thronged round them to + listen to their hymns or their stories of the heroic age: the great ones + of the land, even kings themselves, received visits from them, and endured + their reproaches or exhortations with mingled feelings of awe and terror. + A few of the prophets took the part of Ahab and Jezebel,** but the + majority declared against them, and of these, the most conspicuous, by his + forcibleness of speech and action, was Elijah. We do not know of what race + or family he came, nor even what he was:*** the incidents of his life + which have come down to us seem to be wrapped in a vague legendary + grandeur. He appears before Ahab, and tells him that for years to come no + rain or dew shall fall on the earth save by his command, and then takes + flight into the desert in order to escape the king’s anger. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * 1 Sam. x. 5, where a band of prophets is mentioned “coming + down from the high place with a psaltery, and a timbrel, and + a pipe, and a harp, before them, prophesying;” cf. ver. 10. + In 2 Kings ii. 3-5, bands of the “children of the prophets” + come out from Bethel and Jericho to ask Elisha if he knows + the fate which awaits Elijah on that very day. + + ** Cf. the anonymous prophet who encourages Ahab, in the + name of Jahveh, to surprise the camp of Benhadad before + Samaria (1 Kings xx. 13-15, 22-25, 28); and the prophet + Zedekiah, who gives advice contrary to that of his fellow- + prophet Micaiah in the council of war held by Ahab with + Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, before the attack on Ramobh- + gilead (1 Kings xxii. 11, 12, 24). + + *** The ethnical inscription, “Tishbite,” which we find + after his name (1 Kings xvii. 1, xxi. 17), is due to an + error on the part of the copyist. +</pre> + <p> + He is there ministered unto by ravens, which bring him bread and meat + every night and morning. When the spring from which he drinks dries up, he + goes to the house of a widow at Zarephath in the country of Sidon, and + there he lives with his hostess for twelve months on a barrel of meal and + a cruse of oil which never fail. The widow’s son dies suddenly: he prays + to Jahveh and restores him to life; then, still guided by an inspiration + from above, he again presents himself before the king. Ahab receives him + without resentment, assembles the prophets of Baal, brings them face to + face with Elijah on the top of Mount Carmel, and orders them to put an end + to the drought by which his kingdom is wasted. The Phoenicians erect an + altar and call upon their Baâlîm with loud cries, and gash their arms and + bodies with knives, yet cannot bring about the miracle expected of them. + Elijah, after mocking at their cries and contortions, at last addresses a + prayer to Jahveh, and fire comes down from heaven and consumes the + sacrifice in a moment; the people, convinced by the miracle, fall upon the + idolaters and massacre them, and the rain shortly afterwards falls in + torrents. After this triumph he is said to have fled once more for safety + to the desert, and there on Horeb to have had a divine vision. “And, + behold, the Lord passed by, and a great and strong wind rent the + mountains, and brake in pieces the rocks before the Lord; but the Lord was + not in the wind: and after the wind an earthquake; but the Lord was not in + the earthquake: and after the earthquake a fire; but the Lord was not in + the fire: and after the fire a still small voice. And it was so, when + Elijah heard it, that He wrapped his face in his mantle, and went out, and + stood in the entering in of the cave. And, behold, there came a voice unto + him, and said, ‘What doest thou here, Elijah?’” God then commanded him to + anoint Hazael as King of Syria, and Jehu, son of Nimshi, as King over + Israel, and Elisha, son of Shaphat, as prophet in his stead, “and him that + escapeth from the sword of Hazael shall Jehu slay: and him that escapeth + from the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay.” The sacred writings go on to + tell us that the prophet who had held such close converse with the Deity + was exempt from the ordinary laws of humanity, and was carried to heaven + in a chariot of fire. The account that has come down to us shows the + impression of awe left by Elijah on the spirit of his age.* + </p> + <p> + Ahab was one of the most warlike among the warrior-kings of Israel. He + ruled Moab with a strong hand,** kept Judah in subjection,*** and in his + conflict with Damascus experienced alternately victory and honourable + defeat. Hadadidri [Hadadezer], of whom the Hebrew historians make a second + Benhadad,**** had succeeded the conqueror of Baasha.^ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The story of Elijah is found in 1 Kings xvii.-xix., xxi. + 17-29, and 2 Kings i., ii. 1-14. + + ** Inscription of Mesha, 11. 7, 8. + + *** The subordination of Judah is nowhere explicitly + mentioned: it is inferred from the attitude adopted by + Jehoshaphat in presence of Ahab (1 Kings xxii. 1, et seq.). + + **** The Assyrian texts call this Dadidri, Adadidri, which + exactly corresponds to the Plebrew form Hadadezer. + + ^ The information in the Booh of Kings does not tell us at + what time during the reign of Ahab his first wars with + Hadadezer (Benhadad II.) and the siege of Samaria occurred. + The rapid success of Shalmaneser’s campaigns against + Damascus, between 854 and 839 B.C., does not allow us to + place these events after the invasion of Assyria. Ahab + appears, in 854, at the battle of Karkar, as the ally of + Benhadad, as I shall show later. +</pre> + <p> + The account of his campaigns in the Hebrew records has only reached us in + a seemingly condensed and distorted condition. Israel, strengthened by the + exploits of Omri, must have offered him a strenuous resistance, but we + know nothing of the causes, nor of the opening scenes of the drama. When + the curtain is lifted, the preliminary conflict is over, and the + Israelites, closely besieged in Samaria, have no alternative before them + but unconditional surrender. This was the first serious attack the city + had sustained, and its resistance spoke well for the military foresight of + its founder. In Benhadad’s train were thirty-two kings, and horses and + chariots innumerable, while his adversary could only oppose to them seven + thousand men. Ahab was willing to treat, but the conditions proposed were + so outrageous that he broke off the negotiations. We do not know how long + the blockade had lasted, when one day the garrison made a sortie in full + daylight, and fell upon the Syrian camp; the enemy were panic-stricken, + and Benhadad with difficulty escaped on horseback with a handful of men. + He resumed hostilities in the following year, but instead of engaging the + enemy in the hill-country of Ephraim, where his superior numbers brought + him no advantage, he deployed his lines on the plain of Jezreel, near the + town of Aphek. His servants had counselled him to change his tactics: “The + God of the Hebrews is a God of the hills, therefore they were stronger + than we; but let us fight against them in the plain, and surely we shall + be stronger than they.” The advice, however, proved futile, for he + sustained on the open plain a still more severe defeat than he had met + with in the mountains, and the Hebrew historians affirm that he was taken + prisoner during the pursuit. The power of Damascus was still formidable, + and the captivity of its king had done little to bring the war to an end; + Ahab, therefore, did not press his advantage, but received the Syrian + monarch “as a brother,” and set him at liberty after concluding with him + an offensive and defensive alliance. Israel at this time recovered + possession of some of the cities which had been lost under Baasha and + Omri, and the Israelites once more enjoyed the right to occupy a + particular quarter of Damascus. According to the Hebrew account, this was + the retaliation they took for their previous humiliations. It is further + stated, in relation to this event, that a certain man of the sons of the + prophets, speaking by the word of the Lord, bade one of his companions + smite him. Having received a wound, he disguised himself with a bandage + over his eyes, and placed himself in the king’s path, “and as the king + passed by, he cried unto the king: and he said, Thy servant went out into + the midst of the battle; and, behold, a man turned aside, and brought a + man unto me, and said, Keep this man: if by any means he be missing, then + shall thy life be for his life, or else thou shalt pay a talent of silver. + And as thy servant was busy here and there, he was gone. And the King of + Israel said unto him, So shall thy judgment be; thyself has decided it. + Then he hasted, and took the headband away from his eyes, and the King of + Israel discerned him that he was one of the prophets. And he said unto + him, Thus saith the Lord, Because thou hast let go out of thy hand the man + whom I had devoted to destruction, therefore thy life shall go for his + life, and thy people for his people. And the King of Israel went to his + house heavy and displeased, and came to Samaria.” This story was in + accordance with the popular feeling, and Ahab certainly ought not to have + paused till he had exterminated his enemy, could he have done so; but was + this actually in his power? + </p> + <p> + We have no reason to contest the leading facts in this account, or to + doubt that Benhadad suffered some reverses before Samaria; but we may + perhaps ask whether the check was as serious as we are led to believe, and + whether imagination and national vanity did not exaggerate its extent and + results. The fortresses of Persea which, according to the treaty, ought to + have been restored to Israel, remained in the hands of the people of + Damascus, and the loss of Ramoth-gilead continued to be a source of + vexation to such of the tribes of Gad and Reuben as followed the fortunes + of the house of Omri:* yet these places formed the most important part of + Benhadad’s ransom. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * “And the King of Israel said unto his servants, Know ye + that Ramoth-gilead is ours, and we be still, and take it not + out of the hand of the King of Syria?” + </pre> + <p> + The sole effect of Ahab’s success was to procure for him more lenient + treatment; he lost no territory, and perhaps gained a few towns, but he + had to sign conditions of peace which made him an acknowledged vassal to + the King of Syria.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * No document as yet proves directly that Ahab was vassal to + Benhadad II. The fact seems to follow clearly enough from + the account of the battle of Karkar against Shalmaneser II., + where the contingent of Ahab of Israel figures among those + of the kings who fought for Benhadad II. against the + Assyrians. +</pre> + <p> + Damascus still remained the foremost state of Syria, and, if we rightly + interpret the scanty information we possess, seemed in a fair way to bring + about that unification of the country which neither Hittites, Philistines, + nor Hebrews had been able to effect. Situated nearly equidistant from + Raphia and Carchemish, on the outskirts of the cultivated region, the city + was protected in the rear by the desert, which secured it from invasion on + the east and north-east; the dusty plains of the Haurân protected it on + the south, and the wooded cliffs of Anti-Lebanon on the west and + north-west. It was entrenched within these natural barriers as in a + fortress, whence the garrison was able to sally forth at will to attack in + force one or other of the surrounding nations: if the city were + victorious, its central position made it easy for its rulers to keep watch + over and preserve what they had won; if it suffered defeat, the + surrounding mountains and deserts formed natural lines of fortification + easy to defend against the pursuing foe, but very difficult for the latter + to force, and the delay presented by this obstacle gave the inhabitants + time to organise their reserves and bring fresh troops into the field. The + kings of Damascus at the outset brought under their suzerainty the + Aramaean principalities—Argob, Maacah, and Geshur, by which they + controlled the Haurân, and Zobah, which secured to them Coele-Syria from + Lake Huleh to the Bahr el-Kades. They had taken Upper Galilee from the + Hebrews, and subsequently Perasa, as far as the Jabbok, and held in check + Israel and the smaller states, Amnion and Moab, which followed in its + wake. They exacted tribute from Hamath, the Phoenician Arvad, the lower + valley of the Orontes, and from a portion of the Hittites, and demanded + contingents from their princes in time of war. Their power was still in + its infancy, and its elements were not firmly welded together, but the + surrounding peoples were in such a state of weakness and disunion that + they might be left out of account as formidable enemies. The only danger + that menaced the rising kingdom was the possibility that the two ancient + warlike nations, Egypt and Assyria, might shake off their torpor, and + reappearing on the scene of their former prowess might attack her before + she had consolidated her power by the annexation of Naharaim. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <img alt="444 (17K)" src="images/444.jpg" /> <br /> <br /> END OF + VOL. VI. <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, +Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 6 (of 12), by G. 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