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+<!DOCTYPE html
+   PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+   "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" >
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <title>
+      History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 5
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve">
+
+    body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify}
+    P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; }
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; }
+    hr  { width: 50%; text-align: center;}
+    .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; }
+    blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .mynote    {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;}
+    .toc       { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    .toc2      { margin-left: 20%;}
+    .figleft   {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;}
+    .figright  {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;}
+    div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; }
+    pre     { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;}
+
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+  </head>
+  <body>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12)
+
+Author: G. Maspero
+
+Editor: A.H. Sayce
+
+Translator: M.L. McClure
+
+Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17325]
+Last Updated: September 7, 2016
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALD�A ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Widger
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+    <p>
+      <br /> <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " />
+    </div>
+    <h1>
+      HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA
+    </h1>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of
+      Queen&rsquo;s College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at
+      the College of France
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford
+    </h3>
+    <h4>
+      Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt
+      Exploration Fund
+    </h4>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      Volume V.
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h3>
+      LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS
+    </h3>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" alt="Frontispiece " />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="frontis-text (6K)" src="images/frontis-text.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" alt="Titlepage " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="001 (109K)" src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="002 (70K)" src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY&mdash;(continued)
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>TH�TMOSIS III.: THE ORGANISATION OF THE SYRIAN PROVINCES&mdash;AMEN�THES
+      III.: THE WORSHIPPERS OF ATON�.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thutmosis III.: the talcing of Qodsh� in the 42nd year of his reign&mdash;The
+      tribute of the south&mdash;The triumph-song of Amon.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The constitution of the Egyptian empire&mdash;The Grown vassals and
+      their relations with the Pharaoh&mdash;The king&rsquo;s messengers&mdash;The
+      allied states&mdash;Royal presents and marriages; the status of foreigners
+      in the royal harem&mdash;Commerce with Asia, its resources and its risks;
+      protection granted to the national industries, and treaties of
+      extradition.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Amen�thes II, his campaigns in Syria and Nubia&mdash;Th�tmosis IV.; his
+      dream under the shadow of the Sphinx and his marriage&mdash;Amen�thes III.
+      and his peaceful reign&mdash;The great building works&mdash;The temples of
+      Nubia: Soleb and his sanctuary built by Amen�thes III, Gebel Barkal,
+      Elephantine&mdash;The beautifying of Thebes: the temple of Mat, the
+      temples of Amon at Luxor and at Karnak, the tomb of Amen�thes III, the
+      chapel and the colossi of Memnon.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The increasing importance of Anion and his priests: preference shown by
+      Amen�thes III. for the Heliopolitan gods, his marriage with Tii&mdash;The
+      influence of Tii over Amen�thes IV.: the decadence of Amon and of Thebes,
+      Aton� and Kh��tniaton�&mdash;Change of physiognomy in Kh�niaton, his
+      character, his government, his relations with Asia: the tombs of Tel
+      el-Amarna and the art of the period&mdash;Tutanlchamon, At: the return of
+      the Pharaohs to Thebes and the close of the XVIIIth dynasty.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <blockquote>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY&mdash;(continued)
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II&mdash;THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkC2HCH0001"> CHAPTER III&mdash;THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN
+        EMPIRE </a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <hr />
+      <p>
+        <br /> <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <br />
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Spines </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Cover </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Frontispiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Titlepage </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0005"> 006.jpg a Procession of Negroes </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0006"> 015.jpg a Syrian Town and Its Outskirts After
+        an Egyptian Army Had Passed Through It </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0007"> 030.jpg the Lotan� and The Goldsmiths&rsquo;work
+        Constituting Their Tribute </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0008"> 032b.jpg Painted Tablets in the Hall of Harps
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0009"> 034.jpg. The Bear and Elephant Brought As
+        Tribute in The Tomb of Rakhmiri </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0010"> 040.jpg the Mummy of Thutmosis Iii. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0011"> 041.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Th�tmosis Iii.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0012"> 044.jpg Amen�thes Ii., from the Statue at
+        Turin </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0013"> 046.jpg the Great Sphinx and The Chapel of
+        Thutmosis Iv. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0014"> 047.jpg the Simoom. Sphinx and Pyramids at
+        Gizeh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0015"> 050.jpg the Stele of The Sphinx Of Gizer </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0016"> 052.jpg Queen Mutem�au. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0017"> 052b.jpg Amenothes Iii. Colossal Head in the
+        British Museum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0018"> 052b-text.jpg </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0019"> 053.jpg Amenothes Iii. From the Tomb of
+        Khamhait </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0020"> 056.jpg Scarab of the Hunt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0021"> 058.jpg a Gang of Syrian Prisoners Making
+        Brick for The Temple of Amon </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0022"> 059.jpg One of the Rams Of Amen�thes Iii </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0023"> 062.jpg One of the Lions Of Gebel-barkal </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0024"> 065.jpg the Temple at Elephantine, As It Was
+        in 1799 </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0025"> 066.jpg the Great Court of The Temple Of
+        Luxor During The Inundation </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0026"> 067.jpg Part of the Avenue Of Rams, Between
+        The Temples Of Amon and Ma�t </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0027"> 069.jpg the Pylons of Th�tmosis Iii. And
+        Harmhab� At Kaknak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0028"> 070.jpg Sacred Lake Akd the Southern Part of
+        The Temple Of Karnak. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0029"> 073.jpg the Two Colossi of Memnon in The
+        Plain Of Thebes </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0030"> 076.jpg a Party of Tourists at the Foot Of
+        The Vocal Statue of Memnok </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0031"> 079.jpg Marriage Scarab�us </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0032"> 084.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0033"> 087.jpg the Decorated Pavement of The Palace
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0034"> 095.jpg the Mask of Kih�niaton� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0035"> 096.jpg Amen�thes Iv., from the Statuette in
+        The Louvre. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0036"> 097.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0037"> 098.jpg Kh�niaton� and his Wife Rewarding One
+        of The Great Officers of the Court </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0038"> 100.jpg the Door of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0039"> 103.jpg Interior of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0040"> 104.jpg Profile of Head Of Mummy (thebes
+        Tombs.) </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0041"> 106.jpg Two of the Daughters Of Kh�hi Aton�
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0042"> 111.jpg Sarcophagus of the Pharaoh A� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkimage-0043"> 114.jpg Tailpiece </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> 117.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> 123.jpg the First Pylon of Harmhab� at
+        Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> 127.jpg Amenothes IV. From a Fragment Used
+        Again By Harmhabi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> 128.jpg Harmhabi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> 129.jpg the Vaulted Passage of The Rock-tomb
+        at Gebel Silsileh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> 131.jpg the Triumph Of Harmhab� in The
+        Sanctuary of Gebel Silsileh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> 135.jpg Three Heads of Hittite Soldiers </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> 138.jpg a Hittite King. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> 140.jpg a Hittite Chariot With Its Three
+        Occupants </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> 146.jpg Map </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> 160.jpg Ramses I. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> 163.jpg the Return of The North Wall Of The
+        Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, Where Seti I. Represents Some Episodes in his
+        First Campaign </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> 166.jpg Representation of Seti I.
+        Vanquishing the Libyans And Asiatics on the Walls, Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> 168.jpg a Fortified Station on the Route
+        Between The Nile And the Red Sea. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> 169.jpg the Temple of Seti I. At Redesieh
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> 170.jpg Fragment of the Map Of The
+        Gold-mines </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> 171.jpg the Three Standing Columns of The
+        Temple Of Sesebi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> 173 an Avenue of One Of the Aisles Of The
+        Hypostyle Hall At Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> 174.jpg the Gratings of The Central
+        Colonnade in The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> 176.jpg One of the Colonnades Of The
+        Hypostyle Hall In The Temple of Seti I. At Abydos </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> 176b.jpg the Facade of The Temple Of Seti
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> 181.jpg the Temple of Qurnah </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> 184.jpg One of the Pillars Of The Tomb Of
+        Seti I. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> 187.jpg Ramses II. Puts the Negroes to
+        Flight </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> 193.jpg the Shardana Guard of Ramses II.
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> 195.jpg Two Hittite Spies Beaten by the
+        Egyptian Soldiers </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0031"> 196.jpg the Egyptian Camp and The Council of
+        War on The Morning of the Battle Of Qodsh� </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> 198.jpg the Garrison of Qodsh� Issuing Forth
+        to Help The Prince of Kh�ti. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> 214.jpg Kh�tusaru, Prince of Kh�ti, and his
+        Daughter </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> 218.jpg Phoenician Boats Landing at Thebes
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> 221.jpg the Projecting Columns of The Speos
+        Of Gerf-hosse�n </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0036"> 221.jpg the Caryatides of Gerf-hosse�n </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0037"> 224.jpg the Two Colossi of Abu Simbel to The
+        South Of The Doorway </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0038"> 225.jpg the Interior of The Speos Of Abu
+        Simbel </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0039"> 228.jpg the Face of The Rock at Abu Simgel
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0040"> 229.jpg Ramses Ii. Pierces a Libyan Chief
+        With his Lance </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0041"> 230.jpg Ramses Ii. Strikes a Group of
+        Prisoners </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0042"> 231.jpg the Fa�ade of The Little Speos Of
+        Hauthor at Abu Simbel </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0043"> 232.jpg Columns of Temple at Luxor </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0044"> 233.jpg the Chapel of Thutmosis III. And One
+        Of The Pylons of Ramses Ii. At Luxor </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0045"> 235.jpg the Colonnade of Seti I. And The
+        Three Colossal Statues of Ramses II. At Luxor </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0046"> 236.jpg Paintings of Chairs </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0047"> 237.jpg the Remains of The Colossal Statue
+        Of Ramses Ii. At the Ramesseum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0048"> 238.jpg the Ramesseum </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0049"> 240.jpg the Ruins of The Memnonium Of Ramses
+        Ii. At Abydos </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0050"> 242.jpg the Colossal Statue of Ramses II. At
+        Mitrahineh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0051"> 245.jpg the Chapel of The Apis Of Amek�thes
+        III. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0052"> 246.jpg Statue of Khamoisit </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0053"> 247.jpg Stele of the Nahr El-kelb </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0054"> 248.jpg the Bas-belief of Ninfi </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0055"> 249.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Ramses II
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0056"> 253.jpg a Libyan </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0057"> 260.jpg Statue of M�nephtah </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0058"> 263.jpg the Chapels of Ramses II. And
+        Minephtah At Sisileh </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0059"> 264.jpg Statue of Seti II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0060"> 265.jpg Seti II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0061"> 268.jpg Amenmesis </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkBimage-0062"> 281.jpg Table </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0005"> 287.jpg Page Image </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0006"> 289.jpg Nakht�s�t. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0007"> 299.jpg One of the Libyan Chiefs Vanquished
+        by Ramses Iii. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0008"> 300.jpg the Waggons of The Pulasati and
+        Their Confederates </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0009"> 301.jpg Pulasati </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0010"> 304.jpg a Sihagalasha Chief </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0011"> 307.jpg the Army Op Ramses III. On The
+        March, and The Lion-hunt </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0012"> 308.jpg the Defeat of The Peoples Of The Sea
+        </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0013"> 313.jpg the Captive Chiefs of Ramses Iii. At
+        Medinet-ihabu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0014"> 314.jpg Ramses III. Binds the Chiefs of The
+        Libyans </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0015"> 318.jpg the Prince of The Khati </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0016"> 320.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0017"> 321.jpg the Colossal Osirian Figures in The
+        First Court At Medinet-habu </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0018"> 322.jpg the First Pylon of The Temple </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0019"> 327.jpg the Mummy of Ramses III. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0020"> 331.jpg a Ramses of the Xxth Dynasty </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0021"> 334.jpg Map: Thebes in the Xxth Dynasty </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0022"> 345.jpg Pectoral of Ramses II. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0023"> 347.jpg the Ram-headed Sparrow-hawk in The
+        Louvre </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0024"> 348.jpg Decorated Armchair </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0025"> 349.jpg Egyptian Wig </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0026"> 350.jpg Page Image With Furniture </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0027"> 357.jpg the Cat and The Jackal Go off to The
+        Fields With Their Flocks Drawn by Faucher-gudin, from Lepsius. </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0028"> 358.jpg the Cat Before Its Judge </a>
+      </p>
+      <p class="toc">
+        <a href="#linkCimage-0029"> 359.jpg a Concert of Animals Devoted to
+        Music </a>
+      </p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="003 (139K)" src="images/003.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER I&mdash;THE EIGHTEENTH THEBAN DYNASTY&mdash;(continued)
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Thutmosis III.: the organisation of the Syrian provinces&mdash;Amenothes
+      III.: the royal worshippers of Aton�.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the year XXXIV. the Egyptians reappeared in Zahi. The people of
+      Anaugasa having revolted, two of their towns were taken, a third
+      surrendered, while the chiefs of the Lotan� hastened to meet their lord
+      with their usual tribute. Advantage was taken of the encampment being at
+      the foot of the Lebanon to procure wood for building purposes, such as
+      beams and planks, masts and yards for vessels, which were all shipped by
+      the Kef�tiu at Byblos for exportation to the Delta. This expedition was,
+      indeed, little more than a military march through the country. It would
+      appear that the Syrians soon accustomed themselves to the presence of the
+      Egyptians in their midst, and their obedience henceforward could be fairly
+      relied on. We are unable to ascertain what were the circumstances or the
+      intrigues which, in the year XXXV., led to a sudden outbreak among the
+      tribes settled on the Euphrates and the Orontes. The King of Mitanni
+      rallied round him the princes of Naharaim, and awaited the attack of the
+      Egyptians near Aruna. Th�tmosis displayed great personal courage, and the
+      victory was at once decisive. We find mention of only ten prisoners, one
+      hundred and eighty mares, and sixty chariots in the lists of the spoil.
+      Anaugasa again revolted, and was subdued afresh in the year XXXVIII.; the
+      Sha�s� rebelled in the year XXXIX., and the Lotan� or some of the tribes
+      connected with them two years later. The campaign of the year XLII. proved
+      more serious. Troubles had arisen in the neighbourhood of Arvad.
+      Th�tmosis, instead of following the usual caravan route, marched along the
+      coast-road by way of Phoenicia. He destroyed Arka in the Lebanon and the
+      surrounding strongholds, which were the haunts of robbers who lurked in
+      the mountains; then turning to the northeast, he took Tunipa and extorted
+      the usual tribute from the inhabitants of Naharaim. On the other hand, the
+      Prince of Qodsh�, trusting to the strength of his walled city, refused to
+      do homage to the Pharaoh, and a deadly struggle took place under the
+      ramparts, in which each side availed themselves of all the artifices which
+      the strategic warfare of the times allowed. On a day when the assailants
+      and besieged were about to come to close quarters, the Amorites let loose
+      a mare among the chariotry of Th�tmosis. The Egyptian horses threatened to
+      become unmanageable, and had begun to break through the ranks, when
+      Amenemhab�, an officer of the guard, leaped to the ground, and, running up
+      to the creature, disembowelled it with a thrust of his sword; this done,
+      he cut off its tail and presented it to the king. The besieged were
+      eventually obliged to shut themselves within their newly built walls,
+      hoping by this means to tire out the patience of their assailants; but a
+      picked body of men, led by the same brave Amenemhab� who had killed the
+      mare, succeeded in making a breach and forcing an entrance into the town.
+      Even the numerous successful campaigns we have mentioned, form but a part,
+      though indeed an important part, of the wars undertaken by Th�tmosis to
+      &ldquo;fix his frontiers in the ends of the earth.&rdquo; Scarcely a year elapsed
+      without the viceroy of Ethiopia having a conflict with one or other of the
+      tribes of the Upper Nile; little merit as he might gain in triumphing over
+      such foes, the spoil taken from them formed a considerable adjunct to the
+      treasure collected in Syria, while the tributes from the people of K�sh
+      and the Ua�a�� were paid with as great regularity as the taxes levied on
+      the Egyptians themselves. It comprised gold both from the mines and from
+      the rivers, feathers, oxen with curiously trained horns, giraffes, lions,
+      leopards, and slaves of all ages. The distant regions explored by
+      H�tshops�t� continued to pay a tribute at intervals. A fleet went to
+      P�an�t to fetch large cargoes of incense, and from time to time some Il�m
+      chief would feel himself honoured by having one of his daughters accepted
+      as an inmate of the harem of the great king. After the year XLII. we have
+      no further records of the reign, but there is no reason to suppose that
+      its closing years were less eventful or less prosperous than the earlier.
+      Th�tmosis III., when conscious of failing powers, may have delegated the
+      direction of his armies to his sons or to his generals, but it is also
+      quite possible that he kept the supreme command in his own hands to the
+      end of his days. Even when old age approached and threatened to abate his
+      vigour, he was upheld by the belief that his father Amon was ever at hand
+      to guide him with his counsel and assist him in battle. &ldquo;I give to thee,
+      declared the god, the rebels that they may fall beneath thy sandals, that
+      thou mayest crush the rebellious, for I grant to thee by decree the earth
+      in its length and breadth. The tribes of the West and those of the East
+      are under the place of thy countenance, and when thou goest up into all
+      the strange lands with a joyous heart, there is none who will withstand
+      Thy Majesty, for I am thy guide when thou treadest them underfoot. Thou
+      hast crossed the water of the great curve of Naharaim* in thy strength and
+      in thy power, and I have commanded thee to let them hear thy roaring which
+      shall enter their dens, I have deprived their nostrils of the breath of
+      life, I have granted to thee that thy deeds shall sink into their hearts,
+      that my uraeus which is upon thy head may burn them, that it may bring
+      prisoners in long files from the peoples of Qodi, that it may consume with
+      its flame those who are in the marshes,** that it may cut off the heads of
+      the Asiatics without one of them being able to escape from its clutch. I
+      grant to thee that thy conquests may embrace all lands, that the urseus
+      which shines upon my forehead may be thy vassal, so that in all the
+      compass of the heaven there may not be one to rise against thee, but that
+      the people may come bearing their tribute on their backs and bending
+      before Thy Majesty according to my behest; I ordain that all aggressors
+      arising in thy time shall fail before thee, their heart burning within
+      them, their limbs trembling!&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Euphrates, in the great curve described by it across
+     Naharaim, after issuing from the mountains of Cilicia.
+
+     ** The meaning is doubtful. The word signifies pools,
+     marshes, the provinces situated beyond Egyptian territory,
+     and consequently the distant parts of the world&mdash;those which
+     are nearest the ocean which encircles the earth, and which
+     was considered as fed by the stagnant waters of the
+     celestial Nile, just as the extremities of Egypt were
+     watered by those of the terrestrial Nile.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/006.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="006.jpg a Procession of Negroes " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;I.&mdash;I am come that I may grant unto thee to crush the great ones of
+      Zahi, I throw them under thy feet across their mountains,&mdash;I grant to
+      thee that they shall see Thy Majesty as a lord of shining splendour when
+      thou shinest before them in my likeness!
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;II.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those of the
+      country of Asia, to break the heads of the people of Lotan�,&mdash;I grant
+      thee that they may see Thy Majesty, clothed in thy panoply, when thou
+      seizest thy arms, in thy war-chariot.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;III.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of
+      the East, and invade those who dwell in the provinces of Ton�tir,&mdash;I
+      grant that they may see Thy Majesty as the comet which rains down the heat
+      of its flame and sheds its dew.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;IV.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the land of the
+      West, so that Kaf�ti and Cyprus shall be in fear of thee,&mdash;I grant
+      that they may see Thy Majesty like the young bull, stout of heart, armed
+      with horns which none may resist.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;V.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are in
+      their marshes, so that the countries of Mitanni may tremble for fear of
+      thee,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the crocodile, lord
+      of terrors, in the midst of the water, which none can approach.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;VI.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush those who are
+      in the isles, so that the people who live in the midst of the Very-Green
+      may be reached by thy roaring,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty
+      like an avenger who stands on the back of his victim.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;VII.&mdash;I am come, to grant that thou mayest crush the Tihonu, so that
+      the isles of the Utan�ti� may be in the power of thy souls,&mdash;I grant
+      that they may see Thy Majesty like a spell-weaving lion, and that thou
+      mayest make corpses of them in the midst of their own valleys.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;VIII.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the ends of
+      the earth, so that the circle which surrounds the ocean may be grasped in
+      thy fist,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty as the sparrow-hawk,
+      lord of the wing, who sees at a glance all that he desires.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;IX.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the peoples who
+      are in their &ldquo;duars,&rdquo; so that thou mayest bring the Hir�-sh��t� into
+      captivity,&mdash;I grant that they may see Thy Majesty like the jackal of
+      the south, lord of swiftness, the runner who prowls through the two lands.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;X.&mdash;I am come, to grant thee that thou mayest crush the nomads, so
+      that the Nubians as far as the land of Pid�t are in thy grasp,&mdash;I
+      grant that they may see Thy Majesty like unto thy two brothers Horus and
+      Sit, whose arms I have joined in order to establish thy power.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of the people associated with the Tihonu was read
+     at first Tanau, and identified with the Danai of the Greeks.
+     Chabas was inclined to read �tena, and Brugsch, �thent, more
+     correctly Utan�ti�, utan�ti, the people of Uatanit. The
+     juxtaposition of this name with that of the Libyans compels
+     us to look towards the west for the site of this people: may
+     we assign to them the Ionian Islands, or even those in the
+     western Mediterranean.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The poem became celebrated. When Seti I., two centuries later, commanded
+      the Poet Laureates of his court to celebrate his victories in verse, the
+      latter, despairing of producing anything better, borrowed the finest
+      strophes from this hymn to Th�tmosis IIL, merely changing the name of the
+      hero. The composition, unlike so many other triumphal inscriptions, is not
+      a mere piece of official rhetoric, in which the poverty of the subject is
+      concealed by a multitude of common-places whether historical or
+      mythological. Egypt indeed ruled the world, either directly or through her
+      vassals, and from the mountains of Abyssinia to those of Cilicia her
+      armies held the nations in awe with the threat of the Pharaoh.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The conqueror, as a rule, did not retain any part of their territory. He
+      confined himself to the appropriation of the revenue of certain domains
+      for the benefit of his gods.* Amon of Karnak thus became possessor of
+      seven Syrian towns which he owed to the generosity of the victorious
+      Pharaohs.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The seven towns which Amon possessed in Syria are
+     mentioned, in the time of Ramses III., in the list of the
+     domains and revenues of the god.
+
+     ** In the year XXIII., on his return from his first
+     campaign, Th�tmosis III. provided offerings, guaranteed from
+     the three towns Ana�gasa, In��m�, and H�rnikar�, for his
+     father Amonr�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Certain cities, like Tunipa, even begged for statues of Th�tmosis for
+      which they built a temple and instituted a cultus. Amon and his
+      fellow-gods too were adored there, side by side with the sovereign the
+      inhabitants had chosen to represent them here below.* These rites were at
+      once a sign of servitude, and a proof of gratitude for services rendered,
+      or privileges which had been confirmed. The princes of neighbouring
+      regions repaired annually to these temples to renew their oaths of
+      allegiance, and to bring their tributes &ldquo;before the face of the king.&rdquo;
+       Taking everything into account, the condition of the Pharaoh&rsquo;s subjects
+      might have been a pleasant one, had they been able to accept their lot
+      without any mental reservation. They retained their own laws, their
+      dynasties, and their frontiers, and paid a tax only in proportion to their
+      resources, while the hostages given were answerable for their obedience.
+      These hostages were as a rule taken by Th�tmosis from among the sons or
+      the brothers of the enemy&rsquo;s chief. They were carried to Thebes, where a
+      suitable establishment was assigned to them,** the younger members
+      receiving an education which practically made them Egyptians.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The statues of Th�tmosis III. and of the gods of Egypt
+     erected at Tunipa are mentioned in a letter from the
+     inhabitants of that town to Amen�thes III. Later, Ramses
+     II., speaking of the two towns in the country of the Kh�ti
+     in which were two statues of His Majesty, mentions Tunipa as
+     one of them.
+
+     ** The various titles of the lists of Th�tmosis III. at
+     Thebes show us &ldquo;the children of the Syrian chiefs conducted
+     as prisoners&rdquo; into the town of S�han�, which is elsewhere
+     mentioned as the depot, the prison of the temple of Anion.
+     W. Max Mullcr was the first to remark the historical value
+     of this indication, but without sufficiently insisting on
+     it; the name indicates, perhaps, as he says, a great prison,
+     but a prison like those where the princes of the family of
+     the Ottoman sultans were confined by the reigning monarch&mdash;
+     a palace usually provided with all the comforts of Oriental
+     life.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As soon as a vacancy occurred in the succession either in Syria or in
+      Ethiopia, the Pharaoh would choose from among the members of the family
+      whom he held in reserve, that prince on whose loyalty he could best count,
+      and placed him upon the throne.* The method of procedure was not always
+      successful, since these princes, whom one would have supposed from their
+      training to have been the least likely to have asserted themselves against
+      the man to whom they owed their elevation, often gave more trouble than
+      others. The sense of the supreme power of Egypt, which had been inculcated
+      in them during their exile, seemed to be weakened after their return to
+      their native country, and to give place to a sense of their own
+      importance. Their hearts misgave them as the time approached for them to
+      send their own children as pledges to their suzerain, and also when called
+      upon to transfer a considerable part of their revenue to his treasury.
+      They found, moreover, among their own cities and kinsfolk, those who were
+      adverse to the foreign yoke, and secretly urged their countrymen to
+      revolt, or else competitors for the throne who took advantage of the
+      popular discontent to pose as champions of national independence, and it
+      was difficult for the vassal prince to counteract the intrigues of these
+      adversaries without openly declaring himself hostile to his foreign
+      master.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Among the Tel el-Amarna tablets there is a letter of a
+     petty Syrian king, Adadnirari, whose father was enthroned
+     after a fashion in N�khassi by Th�tmosis III.
+
+     ** Thus, in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence, Zimrida,
+     governor of Sidon, gives information to Amen�thes III. on
+     the intrigues which the notables of the town were concocting
+     against Egyptian authority. Ribadd� relates in one of these
+     despatches that the notables of Byblos and the women of his
+     harem were urging him to revolt; later, a letter of Am�nir�
+     to the King of Egypt informs us that Ribadd� had been driven
+     from Byblos by his own brother.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A time quickly came when a vestige of fear alone constrained them to
+      conceal their wish for liberty; the most trivial incident then sufficed to
+      give them the necessary encouragement, and decided them to throw off the
+      mask, a repulse or the report of a repulse suffered by the Egyptians, the
+      news of a popular rising in some neighbouring state, the passing visit of
+      a Chald�an emissary who left behind him the hope of support and perhaps of
+      subsidies from Babylon, and the unexpected arrival of a troop of
+      mercenaries whose services might be hired for the occasion.* A rising of
+      this sort usually brought about the most disastrous results. The native
+      prince or the town itself could keep back the tribute and own allegiance
+      to no one during the few months required to convince Pharaoh of their
+      defection and to allow him to prepare the necessary means of vengeance;
+      the advent of the Egyptians followed, and the work of repression was
+      systematically set in hand. They destroyed the harvests, whether green or
+      ready for the sickle, they cut down the palms and olive trees, they tore
+      up the vines, seized on the flocks, dismantled the strongholds, and took
+      the inhabitants prisoners.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * B�rnab�riash, King of Babylon, speaks of Syrian agents who
+     had come to ask for support from his father, K�rigalz�, and
+     adds that the latter had counselled submission. In one of
+     the letters preserved in the British Museum, Az�r� defends
+     himself for having received an emissary of the King of the
+     Kh�ti.
+
+     ** Cf. the raiding, for instance, of the regions of Arvad
+     and of the Zahi by Th�tmosis III., described in the Annals,
+     11. 4, 5. We are still in possession of the threats which
+     the messenger Kh�ni made against the rebellious chief of a
+     province of the Zahi&mdash;possibly Aziru.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The rebellious prince had to deliver up his silver and gold, the contents
+      of his palace, even his children,* and when he had finally obtained peace
+      by means of endless sacrifices, he found himself a vassal as before, but
+      with an empty treasury, a wasted country, and a decimated people.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * See, in the accounts of the campaigns of Th�tmosis, the
+     record of the spoils, as well as the mention of the children
+     of the chiefs brought as prisoners into Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/015.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="015.jpg a Syrian Town and Its Outskirts After an Egyptian Army Had Passed Through It " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Gayet.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In spite of all this, some head-strong native princes never relinquished
+      the hope of freedom, and no sooner had they made good the breaches in
+      their walls as far as they were able, than they entered once more on this
+      unequal contest, though at the risk of bringing irreparable disaster on
+      their country. The majority of them, after one such struggle, resigned
+      themselves to the inevitable, and fulfilled their feudal obligations
+      regularly. They paid their fixed contribution, furnished rations and
+      stores to the army when passing through their territory, and informed the
+      ministers at Thebes of any intrigues among their neighbours.* Years
+      elapsed before they could so far forget the failure of their first attempt
+      to regain independence, as to venture to make a second, and expose
+      themselves to fresh reverses.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The administration of so vast an empire entailed but a small expenditure
+      on the Egyptians, and required the offices of merely a few
+      functionaries.** The garrisons which they kept up in foreign provinces
+      lived on the country, and were composed mainly of light troops, archers, a
+      certain proportion of heavy infantry, and a few minor detachments of
+      chariotry dispersed among the principal fortresses.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We find in the <i>Annals</i>, in addition to the enumeration of
+     the tributes, the mention of the foraging arrangements which
+     the chiefs were compelled to make for the army on its
+     passage. We find among the tablets letters from Aziru
+     denouncing the intrigues of the Kh�ti; letters also of
+     Ribaddu pointing out the misdeeds of Abdashirti, and other
+     communications of the same nature, which demonstrate the
+     supervision exercised by the petty Syrian princes over each
+     other.
+
+     ** Under Th�tmosis III. we have among others &ldquo;Mir,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Nasi
+     s�t� mih�t�t�,&rdquo; &ldquo;governors of the northern countries,&rdquo; the
+     Th�t�i who became afterwards a hero of romance. The
+     individuals who bore this title held a middle rank in the
+     Egyptian hierarchy.
+
+     *** The archers&mdash;<i>pid�tid, pid�ti, pid�te</i>&mdash;and the
+     chariotry quartered in Syria are often mentioned in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence. Steindorff has recognised the term
+     -dd� a��t�, meaning infantry, in the word �e�, �i�, of the
+     Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The officers in command had orders to interfere as little as possible in
+      local affairs, and to leave the natives to dispute or even to fight among
+      themselves unhindered, so long as their quarrels did not threaten the
+      security of the Pharaoh.* It was never part of the policy of Egypt to
+      insist on her foreign subjects keeping an unbroken peace among themselves.
+      If, theoretically, she did not recognise the right of private warfare, she
+      at all events tolerated its practice. It mattered little to her whether
+      some particular province passed out of the possession of a certain Eibadd�
+      into that of a certain Az�ru, or <i>vice versa</i>, so long as both
+      Eibadd� and Az�ru remained her faithful slaves. She never sought to
+      repress their incessant quarrelling until such time as it threatened to
+      take the form of an insurrection against her own power. Then alone did she
+      throw off her neutrality; taking the side of one or other of the
+      dissentients, she would grant him, as a pledge of help, ten, twenty,
+      thirty, or even more archers.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A half at least of the Tel el-Amarna correspondence treats
+     of provincial wars between the kings of towns and countries
+     subject to Egypt&mdash;wars of Abdashirti and his son Az�ru
+     against the cities of the Phoenician coast, wars of
+     Abdikhiba, or Abdi-Tabba, King of Jerusalem, against the
+     chiefs of the neighbouring cities.
+
+     ** Abimilki (Abisharri) demands on one occasion from the
+     King of Egypt ten men to defend Tyre, on another occasion
+     twenty; the town of Gula requisitioned thirty or forty to
+     guard it. Delattre thinks that these are rhetorical
+     expressions answering to a general word, just as if we
+     should say &ldquo;a handful of men&rdquo;; the difference of value in
+     the figures is to me a proof of their reality.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      No doubt the discipline and personal courage of these veterans exercised a
+      certain influence on the turn of events, but they were after all a mere
+      handful of men, and their individual action in the combat would scarcely
+      ever have been sufficient to decide the result; the actual importance of
+      their support, in spite of their numerical inferiority, lay in the moral
+      weight they brought to the side on which they fought, since they
+      represented the whole army of the Pharaoh which lay behind them, and their
+      presence in a camp always ensured final success. The vanquished party had
+      the right of appeal to the sovereign, through whom he might obtain a
+      mitigation of the lot which his successful adversary had prepared for him;
+      it was to the interest of Egypt to keep the balance of power as evenly as
+      possible between the various states which looked to her, and when she
+      prevented one or other of the princes from completely crushing his rivals,
+      she was minimising the danger which might soon arise from the vassal whom
+      she had allowed to extend his territory at the expense of others.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These relations gave rise to a perpetual exchange of letters and petitions
+      between the court of Thebes and the northern and southern provinces, in
+      which all the petty kings of Africa and Asia, of whatever colour or race,
+      set forth, either openly or covertly, their ambitions and their fears,
+      imploring a favour or begging for a subsidy, revealing the real or
+      suspected intrigues of their fellow-chiefs, and while loudly proclaiming
+      their own loyalty, denouncing the perfidy and the secret projects of their
+      neighbours. As the Ethiopian peoples did not, apparently, possess an
+      alphabet of their own, half of the correspondence which concerned them was
+      carried on in Egyptian, and written on papyrus. In Syria, however, where
+      Babylonian civilization maintained itself in spite of its conquest by
+      Th�tmosis, cuneiform writing was still employed, and tablets of dried
+      clay.* It had, therefore, been found necessary to establish in the
+      Pharaoh&rsquo;s palace a department for this service, in which the scribes
+      should be competent to decipher the Chald�an character. Dictionaries and
+      easy mythological texts had been procured for their instruction, by means
+      of which they had learned the meaning of words and the construction of
+      sentences. Having once mastered the mechanism of the syllabary, they set
+      to work to translate the despatches, marking on the back of each the date
+      and the place from whence it came, and if necessary making a draft of the
+      reply.** In these the Pharaoh does not appear, as a rule, to have insisted
+      on the endless titles which we find so lavishly used in his inscriptions,
+      but the shortened protocol employed shows that the theory of his divinity
+      was as fully acknowledged by strangers as it was by his own subjects. They
+      greet him as their sun, the god before whom they prostrate themselves
+      seven times seven, while they are his slaves, his dogs, and the dust
+      beneath his feet.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A discovery made by the fellah�n, in 1887, at Tel el-
+     Arnarna, in the rums of the palace of Kh�niaton, brought to
+     light a portion of the correspondence between Asiatic
+     monarchs, whether vassals or independent of Egypt, with the
+     officers of Amen�thes III. and IV., and with these Pharaohs
+     themselves.
+
+     ** Several of these registrations are still to be read on
+     the backs of the tablets at Berlin, London, and G�zeh.
+
+     ***The protocols of the letters of Abdashirti may be taken
+     as an example, or those of Abimilki to Pharaoh, sometimes
+     there is a development of the protocol which assumes
+     panegyrical features similar to those met with in Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The runners to whom these documents were entrusted, and who delivered them
+      with their own hand, were not, as a rule, persons of any consideration;
+      but for missions of grave importance &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s messengers&rdquo; were
+      employed, whose functions in time became extended to a remarkable degree.
+      Those who were restricted to a limited sphere of activity were called &ldquo;the
+      king&rsquo;s messengers for the regions of the south,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s messengers
+      for the regions of the north,&rdquo; according to their proficiency in the idiom
+      and customs of Africa or of Asia. Others were deemed capable of
+      undertaking missions wherever they might be required, and were, therefore,
+      designated by the bold title of &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s messengers for all lands.&rdquo; In
+      this case extended powers were conferred upon them, and they were
+      permitted to cut short the disputes between two cities in some province
+      they had to inspect, to excuse from tribute, to receive presents and
+      hostages, and even princesses destined for the harem of the Pharaoh, and
+      also to grant the support of troops to such as could give adequate reason
+      for seeking it.* Their tasks were always of a delicate and not
+      infrequently of a perilous nature, and constantly exposed them to the
+      danger of being robbed by highwaymen or maltreated by some insubordinate
+      vassal, at times even running the risk of mutilation or assassination by
+      the way.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Tel el-Amarna correspondence shows the messengers in
+     the time of Amen�thes III. and IV. as receiving tribute, as
+     bringing an army to the succour of a chief in difficulties,
+     as threatening with the anger of the Pharaoh the princes o�
+     doubtful loyalty, as giving to a faithful vassal compliments
+     and honours from his suzerain, as charged with the
+     conveyance of a gift of slaves, or of escorting a princess
+     to the harem of the Pharaoh.
+
+     ** A letter of Ribaddu, in the time of Amen�thes III.,
+     represents a royal messenger as blockaded in By bios by the
+     rebels.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were obliged to brave the dangers of the forests of Lebanon and of
+      the Taurus, the solitudes of Mesopotamia, the marshes of Chaldoa, the
+      voyages to P�an�t and Asia Minor. Some took their way towards Assyria and
+      Babylon, while others embarked at Tyre or Sidon for the islands of the
+      �gean Archipelago.* The endurance of all these officers, whether governors
+      or messengers, their courage, their tact, the ready wit they were obliged
+      to summon to help them out of the difficulties into which their calling
+      frequently brought them, all tended to enlist the public sympathy in their
+      favour.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We hear from the tablets of several messengers to Babylon,
+     and the Mitanni, Rasi, Mani, Khamassi. The royal messenger
+     Th�t�i, who governed the countries of the north, speaks of
+     having satisfied the heart of the king in &ldquo;the isles which
+     are in the midst of the sea.&rdquo; This was not, as some think, a
+     case of hyperbole, for the messengers could embark on
+     Phoenician vessels; they had a less distance to cover in
+     order to reach the �gean than the royal messenger of Queen
+     H�tshops�t� had before arriving at the country of the
+     Somalis and the &ldquo;Ladders of Incense.&rdquo;
+
+     ** The hero of the <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1, with whom
+     Chabas made us acquainted in his <i>Voyage d&rsquo;un �gyptien</i>, is
+     probably a type of the &ldquo;messenger&rdquo; or the time of Ramses
+     II.; in any case, his itinerary and adventures are natural
+     to a &ldquo;royal messenger&rdquo; compelled to traverse Syria alone.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Many of them achieved a reputation, and were made the heroes of popular
+      romance. More than three centuries after it was still related how one of
+      them, by name Th�t�i, had reduced and humbled Jaffa, whose chief had
+      refused to come to terms. Th�t�i set about his task by feigning to throw
+      off his allegiance to Th�tmosis III., and withdrew from the Egyptian
+      service, having first stolen the great magic wand of his lord; he then
+      invited the rebellious chief into his camp, under pretence of showing him
+      this formidable talisman, and killed him after they had drunk together.
+      The cunning envoy then packed five hundred of his soldiers into jars, and
+      caused them to be carried on the backs of asses before the gates of the
+      town, where he made the herald of the murdered prince proclaim that the
+      Egyptians had been defeated, and that the pack train which accompanied him
+      contained the spoil, among which was Th�t�i himself. The officer in charge
+      of the city gate was deceived by this harangue, the asses were admitted
+      within the walls, where the soldiers quitted their jars, massacred the
+      garrison, and made themselves masters of the town. The tale is, in the
+      main, the story of Ali Baba and the forty thieves.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The frontier was continually shifting, and Th�tmosis III., like Th�tmosis
+      I., vainly endeavoured to give it a fixed character by erecting stelas
+      along the banks of the Euphrates, at those points where he contended it
+      had run formerly. While Kharu and Phoenicia were completely in the hands
+      of the conqueror, his suzerainty became more uncertain as it extended
+      northwards in the direction of the Taurus. Beyond Qodsh�, it could only be
+      maintained by means of constant supervision, and in Naharaim its duration
+      was coextensive with the sojourn of the conqueror in the locality during
+      his campaign, for it vanished of itself as soon as he had set out on his
+      return to Africa. It will be thus seen that, on the continent of Asia,
+      Egypt possessed a nucleus of territories, so far securely under her rule
+      that they might be actually reckoned as provinces; beyond this immediate
+      domain there was a zone of waning influence, whose area varied with each
+      reign, and even under one king depended largely on the activity which he
+      personally displayed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This was always the case when the rulers of Egypt attempted to carry their
+      supremacy beyond the isthmus; whether under the Ptolemies or the native
+      kings, the distance to which her influence extended was always practically
+      the same, and the teaching of history enables us to note its limits on the
+      map with relative accuracy.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The development of the Egyptian navy enabled the Ptolemies
+     to exercise authority over the coasts of Asia Minor and of
+     Thrace, but this extension of their power beyond the
+     indicated limits only hastened the exhaustion of their
+     empire. This instance, like that of Mehemet Ali, thus
+     confirms the position taken up in the text.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The coast towns, which were in maritime communication with the ports of
+      the Delta, submitted to the Egyptian yoke more readily than those of the
+      interior. But this submission could not be reckoned on beyond Berytus, on
+      the banks of the Lykos, though occasionally it stretched a little further
+      north as far as Byblos and Arvad; even then it did not extend inland, and
+      the curve marking its limits traverses Coele-Syria from north-west to
+      south-east, terminating at Mount Hermon. Damascus, securely entrenched
+      behind Anti-Lebanon, almost always lay outside this limit. The rulers of
+      Egypt generally succeeded without much difficulty in keeping possession of
+      the countries lying to the south of this line; it demanded merely a slight
+      effort, and this could be furnished for several centuries without
+      encroaching seriously on the resources of the country, or endangering its
+      prosperity. When, however, some province ventured to break away from the
+      control of Egypt, the whole mechanism of the government was put into
+      operation to provide soldiers and the necessary means for an expedition.
+      Each stage of the advance beyond the frontier demanded a greater
+      expenditure of energy, which, with prolonged distances, would naturally
+      become exhausted. The expedition would scarcely have reached the Taurus or
+      the Euphrates, before the force of circumstances would bring about its
+      recall homewards, leaving but a slight bond of vassalage between the
+      recently subdued countries and the conqueror, which would speedily be cast
+      off or give place to relations dictated by interest or courtesy. Th�tmosis
+      III. had to submit to this sort of necessary law; a further extension of
+      territory had hardly been gained when his dominion began to shrink within
+      the frontiers that appeared to have been prescribed by nature for an
+      empire like that of Egypt. Khar� and Phoenicia proper paid him their
+      tithes with due regularity; the cities of the Amurru and of Zahi, of
+      Damascus, Qodsh�, Hamath, and even of Tunipa, lying on the outskirts of
+      these two subject nations, formed an ill-defined borderland, kept in a
+      state of perpetual disturbance by the secret intrigues or open rebellions
+      of the native princes. The kings of Alasia, Naharaim, and Mitanni
+      preserved their independence in spite of repeated reverses, and they
+      treated with the conqueror on equal terms.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The difference of tone between the letters of these kings
+     and those of the other princes, as well as the consequences
+     arising from it, has been clearly defined by Delattre.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The tone of their letters to the Pharaoh, the polite formulas with which
+      they addressed him, the special protocol which the Egyptian ministry had
+      drawn up for their reply, all differ widely from those which we see in the
+      despatches coming from commanders of garrisons or actual vassals. In the
+      former it is no longer a slave or a feudatory addressing his master and
+      awaiting his orders, but equals holding courteous communication with each
+      other, the brother of Alasia or of Mitanni with his brother of Egypt. They
+      inform him of their good health, and then, before entering on business,
+      they express their good wishes for himself, his wives, his sons, the lords
+      of his court, his brave soldiers, and for his horses. They were careful
+      never to forget that with a single word their correspondent could let
+      loose upon them a whirlwind of chariots and archers without number, but
+      the respect they felt for his formidable power never degenerated into a
+      fear which would humiliate them before him with their faces in the dust.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This interchange of diplomatic compliments was called for by a variety of
+      exigencies, such as incidents arising on the frontier, secret intrigues,
+      personal alliances, and questions of general politics. The kings of
+      Mesopotamia and of Northern Syria, even those of Assyria and Chald�a, who
+      were preserved by distance from the dangers of a direct invasion, were in
+      constant fear of an unexpected war, and heartily desired the downfall of
+      Egypt; they endeavoured meanwhile to occupy the Pharaoh so fully at home
+      that he had no leisure to attack them. Even if they did not venture to
+      give open encouragement to the disposition in his subjects to revolt, they
+      at least experienced no scruple in hiring emissaries who secretly fanned
+      the flame of discontent. The Pharaoh, aroused to indignation by such
+      plotting, reminded them of their former oaths and treaties. The king in
+      question would thereupon deny everything, would speak of his tried
+      friendship, and recall the fact that he had refused to help a rebel
+      against his beloved brother.* These protestations of innocence were
+      usually accompanied by presents, and produced a twofold effect. They
+      soothed the anger of the offended party, and suggested not only a
+      courteous answer, but the sending of still more valuable gifts. Oriental
+      etiquette, even in those early times, demanded that the present of a less
+      rich or powerful friend should place the recipient under the obligation of
+      sending back a gift of still greater worth. Every one, therefore, whether
+      great or little, was obliged to regulate his liberality according to the
+      estimation in which he held himself, or to the opinion which others formed
+      of him, and a personage of such opulence as the King of Egypt was
+      constrained by the laws of common civility to display an almost boundless
+      generosity: was he not free to work the mines of the Divine Land or the
+      diggings of the Upper Nile; and as for gold, &ldquo;was it not as the dust of
+      his country&rdquo;?**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * See the letter of Amen�thes III. to Kallimmasin of
+     Babylon, where the King of Egypt complains of the inimical
+     designs which the Babylonian messengers had planned against
+     him, and of the intrigues they had connected on their return
+     to their own country; see also the letter from Burnaburiash
+     to Amen�thes IV., in which he defends himself from the
+     accusation of having plotted against the King of Egypt at
+     any time, and recalls the circumstance that his father
+     Kurigalzu had refused to encourage the rebellion of one of
+     the Syrian tribes, subjects of Amen�thes III.
+
+     ** See the letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, to the
+     Pharaoh Amen�thes IV.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He would have desired nothing better than to exhibit such liberality, had
+      not the repeated calls on his purse at last constrained him to parsimony;
+      he would have been ruined, and Egypt with him, had he given all that was
+      expected of him. Except in a few extraordinary cases, the gifts sent never
+      realised the expectations of the recipients; for instance, when twenty or
+      thirty pounds of precious metal were looked for, the amount despatched
+      would be merely two or three. The indignation of these disappointed
+      beggars and their recriminations were then most amusing: &ldquo;From the time
+      when my father and thine entered into friendly relations, they loaded each
+      other with presents, and never waited to be asked to exchange amenities;*
+      and now my brother sends me two minas of gold as a gift! Send me abundance
+      of gold, as much as thy father sent, and even, for so it must be, more
+      than thy father.&rdquo; ** Pretexts were never wanting to give reasonable weight
+      to such demands: one correspondent had begun to build a temple or a palace
+      in one of his capitals,*** another was reserving his fairest daughter for
+      the Pharaoh, and he gave him to understand that anything he might receive
+      would help to complete the bride&rsquo;s trousseau.****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Burnaburiash complains that the king&rsquo;s messengers had only
+     brought him on one occasion two minas of gold, on another
+     occasion twenty minas; moreover, that the quality of the
+     metal was so bad that hardly five minas of pure gold could
+     be extracted from it.
+
+     ** Literally, &ldquo;and they would never make each other a fair
+     request.&rdquo; The meaning I propose is doubtful, but it appears
+     to be required by the context. The letter from which this
+     passage was taken is from Burnaburiash, King of Babylon, to
+     Amen�thes IV.
+
+     *** This is the pretext advanced by Burnaburiash in the
+     letter just cited.
+
+     **** This seems to have been the motive in a somewhat
+     embarrassing letter which Dushratta, King of Mitanni, wrote
+     to the Pharaoh Amen�thes III. on the occasion of his fixing
+     the dowry of his daughter.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The princesses thus sent from Babylon or Mitanni to the court of Thebes
+      enjoyed on their arrival a more honourable welcome, and were assigned a
+      more exalted rank than those who came from Khar� and Phoenicia. As a
+      matter of fact, they were not hostages given over to the conqueror to be
+      disposed of at will, but queens who were united in legal marriage to an
+      ally.* Once admitted to the Pharaoh&rsquo;s court, they retained their full
+      rights as his wife, as well as their own fortune and mode of life. Some
+      would bring to their betrothed chests of jewels, utensils, and stuffs, the
+      enumeration of which would cover both sides of a large tablet; others
+      would arrive escorted by several hundred slaves or matrons as personal
+      attendants.** A few of them preserved their original name,*** many assumed
+      an Egyptian designation,**** and so far adapted themselves to the
+      costumes, manners, and language of their adopted country, that they
+      dropped all intercourse with their native land, and became regular
+      Egyptians.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The daughter of the King of the Kh�ti, wife of Ramses IL,
+     was treated, as we see from the monuments, with as much
+     honour as would have been accorded to Egyptian princesses of
+     pure blood.
+
+     ** Gilukhipa, who was sent to Egypt to become the wife of
+     Amen�thes III., took with her a company of three hundred and
+     seventy women for her service. She was a daughter of
+     Sutarna, King of Mitanni, and is mentioned several times in
+     the Tel el-Amarna correspondence.
+
+     *** For example, Gilukhipa, whose name is transcribed
+     Kilag�pa in Egyptian, and another princess of Mitanni, niece
+     of Gilukhipa, called Tadu-kh�pa, daughter of Dushratta and
+     wife of Amen�thes IV.
+
+     **** The prince of the Kh�ti&rsquo;s daughter who married Ramses
+     II. is an example; we know her only by her Egyptian name
+     M��tnof�r�r�. The wife of Ramses III. added to the Egyptian
+     name of Isis her original name, Humazarati.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When, after several years, an ambassador arrived with greetings from their
+      father or brother, he would be puzzled by the changed appearance of these
+      ladies, and would almost doubt their identity: indeed, those only who had
+      been about them in childhood were in such cases able to recognise them.*
+      These princesses all adopted the gods of their husbands,** though without
+      necessarily renouncing their own. From time to time their parents would
+      send them, with much pomp, a statue of one of their national divinities&mdash;Ishtar,
+      for example&mdash;which, accompanied by native priests, would remain for
+      some months at the court.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This was the case with the daughter of Kallimmasin, King
+     of Babylon, married to Amen�thes III.; her father&rsquo;s
+     ambassador did not recognise her.
+
+     ** The daughter of the King of the Kh�ti, wife of Ramses
+     II., is represented in an attitude of worship before her
+     deified husband and two Egyptian gods.
+
+     *** Dushratta of Mitanni, sending a statue of Ishtar to his
+     daughter, wife of Amen�thes III., reminds her that the same
+     statue had already made the voyage to Egypt in the time of
+     his father Sutarna.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The children of these queens ranked next in order to those whose mothers
+      belonged to the solar race, but nothing prevented them marrying their
+      brothers or sisters of pure descent, and being eventually raised to the
+      throne. The members of their families who remained in Asia were naturally
+      proud of these bonds of close affinity with the Pharaoh, and they rarely
+      missed an opportunity of reminding him in their letters that they stood to
+      him in the relationship of brother-in-law, or one of his fathers-in-law;
+      their vanity stood them in good stead, since it afforded them another
+      claim on the favours which they were perpetually asking of him.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Dushratta of Mitanni never loses an opportunity of calling
+     Aoien�thes III., husband of his sister Gilukh�pa, and of one
+     of his daughters, &ldquo;akhiya,&rdquo; my brother, and &ldquo;khatani-ya,&rdquo; my
+     son-in-law.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These foreign wives had often to interfere in some of the contentions
+      which were bound to arise between two States whose subjects were in
+      constant intercourse with one another. Invasions or provincial wars may
+      have affected or even temporarily suspended the passage to and from of
+      caravans between the countries of the Tigris and those of the Nile; but as
+      soon as peace was re-established, even though it were the insecure peace
+      of those distant ages, the desert traffic was again resumed and carried on
+      with renewed vigour. The Egyptian traders who penetrated into regions
+      beyond the Euphrates, carried with them, and almost unconsciously
+      disseminated along the whole extent of their route, the numberless
+      products of Egyptian industry, hitherto but little known outside their own
+      country, and rendered expensive owing to the difficulty of transmission or
+      the greed of the merchants. The Syrians now saw for the first time in
+      great quantities, objects which had been known to them hitherto merely
+      through the few rare specimens which made their way across the frontier:
+      arms, stuffs, metal implements, household utensils&mdash;in fine, all the
+      objects which ministered to daily needs or to luxury. These were now
+      offered to them at reasonable prices, either by the hawkers who
+      accompanied the army or by the soldiers themselves, always ready, as
+      soldiers are, to part with their possessions in order to procure a few
+      extra pleasures in the intervals of fighting.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/030.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="030.jpg the Lotan� and The Goldsmiths&rsquo;work Constituting Their Tribute " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger. The scene
+     here reproduced occurs in most of the Theban tombs of the
+     XVIIII. dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, whole convoys of spoil were despatched to Egypt after
+      every successful campaign, and their contents were distributed in varying
+      proportions among all classes of society, from the militiaman belonging to
+      some feudal contingent, who received, as a reward of his valour, some
+      half-dozen necklaces or bracelets, to the great lord of ancient family or
+      the Crown Prince, who carried off waggon-loads of booty in their train.
+      These distributions must have stimulated a passion for all Syrian goods,
+      and as the spoil was insufficient to satisfy the increasing demands of the
+      consumer, the waning commerce which had been carried on from early times
+      was once more revived and extended, till every route, whether by land or
+      water, between Thebes, Memphis, and the Asiatic cities, was thronged by
+      those engaged in its pursuit. It would take too long to enumerate the
+      various objects of merchandise brought in almost daily to the marts on the
+      Nile by Phoenician vessels or the owners of caravans. They comprised
+      slaves destined for the workshop or the harem,* Hittite bulls and
+      stallions, horses from Singar, oxen from Alasia, rare and curious animals
+      such as elephants from N�i, and brown bears from the Lebanon,** smoked and
+      salted fish, live birds of many-coloured plumage, goldsmiths&rsquo;work*** and
+      precious stones, of which lapis-lazuli was the chief.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Syrian slaves are mentioned along with Ethiopian in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1, and there is mention in the Tel
+     el-Amarna correspondence of Hittite slaves whom Dushratta of
+     Mitanni brought to Amen�thes III., and of other presents of
+     the same kind made by the King of Alasia as a testimony of
+     his grateful homage.
+
+     ** The elephant and the bear are represented on the tomb of
+     liakhmir� among the articles of tribute brought into Egypt.
+
+     *** The <i>Annals of Thutmosis III</i>. make a record in each
+     campaign of the importation of gold and silver vases,
+     objects in lapis-lazuli and crystal, or of blocks of the
+     same materials; the Theban tombs of this period afford
+     examples of the vases and blocks brought by the Syrians. The
+     Tel el-Amarna letters also mention vessels of gold or blocks
+     of precious stone sent as presents or as objects of exchange
+     to the Pharaoh by the King of Babylon, by the King of
+     Mitanni, by the King of the Hittites, and by other princes.
+     The lapis-lazuli of Babylon, which probably came from
+     Persia, was that which was most prized by the Egyptians on
+     account of the golden sparks in it, which enhanced the blue
+     colour; this is, perhaps, the Uknu of the cuneiform
+     inscriptions, which has been read for a long time as
+     &ldquo;crystal.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/032b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="032b.jpg Painted Tablets in the Hall of Harps " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Wood for building or for ornamental work&mdash;pine,cypress, yew, cedar,
+      and oak,* musical instruments,** helmets, leathern jerkins covered with
+      metal scales, weapons of bronze and iron,*** chariots,**** dyed and
+      embroidered stuffs,^ perfumes,^^ dried cakes, oil, wines of Khar�,
+      liqueurs from Alasia, Kh�ti, Singar, Naharaim, Amurru, and beer from
+      Qodi.^^^
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Building and ornamental woods are often mentioned in the
+     inscriptions of Th�tmosis III. A scene at Karnak represents
+     Seti I. causing building-wood to be cut in the region of the
+     Lebanon. A letter of the King of Alasia speaks of
+     contributions of wood which several of his subjects had to
+     make to the King of Egypt.
+
+     ** Some stringed instruments of music, and two or three
+     kinds of flutes and flageolets, are designated in Egyptian
+     by names borrowed from some Semitic tongue&mdash;a fact which
+     proves that they were imported; the wooden framework of the
+     harp, decorated with sculptured heads of Astart�, figures
+     among the objects coming from Syria in the temple of the
+     Theban Anion.
+
+     *** Several names of arms borrowed from some Semitic dialect
+     have been noticed in the texts of this period. The objects
+     as well as the words must have been imported into Egypt,
+     e.g. the quiver, the sword and javelins used by the
+     charioteers. Cuirasses and leathern jerkins are mentioned in
+     the inscriptions of Th�tmosis III.
+
+     **** Chariots plated with gold and silver figure frequently
+     among the spoils of Th�tmosis III.: the Anastasi Papyrus,
+     No. 1, contains a detailed description of Syrian chariots&mdash;
+     Markab�ti&mdash;with a reference to the localities whore certain
+     parts of them were made;&mdash;the country of the Amurru, that of
+     A�pa, the town of Pahira. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     mentions very frequently chariots sent to the Pharaoh by the
+     King of Babylon, either as presents or to be sold in Egypt;
+     others sent by the King of Alasia and by the King of
+     Mitanni.
+
+     ^ Some linen, cotton, or woollen stuffs are mentioned in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 4, and elsewhere as coming from
+     Syria. The Egyptian love of white linen always prevented
+     their estimating highly the coloured and brocaded stuffs of
+     Asia; and one sees nowhere, in the representations, any
+     examples of stuffs of such origin, except on furniture or in
+     ships equipped with something of the kind in the form of
+     sails.
+
+     ^^ The perfumed oils of Syria are mentioned in a general way
+     in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1; the King of Alasia speaks
+     of essences which he is sending to Amen�thes III.; the King
+     of Mitanni refers to bottles of oil which he is forwarding
+     to Gilukh�pa and to Tii.
+
+     ^^^ A list of cakes of Syrian origin is found in the
+     <i>Anastasi Papyrus</i>, No. 1; also a reference to balsamic oils
+     from Naharaim, and to various oils which had arrived in the
+     ports of the Delta, to the wines of Syria, to palm wine and
+     various liqueurs manufactured in Alasia, in Singar, among
+     the Kh�ti, Amorites, and the people of. Tikhisa; finally, to
+     the beer of Qodi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/034.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="034.jpg. The Bear and Elephant Brought As Tribute in The Tomb of Rakhmiri " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph of Prisse
+     d&rsquo;Avennes&rsquo; sketch.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      On arriving at the frontier, whether by sea or by land, the majority of
+      these objects had to pay the custom dues which were rigorously collected
+      by the officers of the Pharaoh. This, no doubt, was a reprisal tariff,
+      since independent sovereigns, such as those of Mitanni, Assyria, and
+      Babylon, were accustomed to impose a similar duty on all the products of
+      Egypt. The latter, indeed, supplied more than she received, for many
+      articles which reached her in their raw condition were, by means of native
+      industry, worked up and exported as ornaments, vases, and highly decorated
+      weapons, which, in the course of international traffic, were dispersed to
+      all four corners of the earth. The merchants of Babylon and Assyria had
+      little to fear as long as they kept within the domains of their own
+      sovereign or in those of the Pharaoh; but no sooner did they venture
+      within the borders of those turbulent states which separated the two great
+      powers, than they were exposed to dangers at every turn. Safe-conducts
+      were of little use if they had not taken the additional precaution of
+      providing a strong escort and carefully guarding their caravan, for the
+      Sha�s� concealed in the depths of the Lebanon or the needy sheikhs of
+      Khar� could never resist the temptation to rob the passing traveller.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The scribe who in the reign of Ramses II. composed the
+     <i>Travels of an Egyptian</i>, speaks in several places of
+     marauding tribes and robbers, who infested the roads
+     followed by the hero. The Tel el-Amarna correspondence
+     contains a letter from the King of Alasia, who exculpates
+     himself from being implicated in the harsh treatment certain
+     Egyptians had received in passing through his territory; and
+     another letter in which the King of Babylon complains that
+     Chaldoan merchants had been robbed at Khinnatun, in Galilee,
+     by the Prince of Akku (Acre) and his accomplices: one of
+     them had his feet cut off, and the other was still a
+     prisoner in Akku, and Burnaburiash demands from Amen�thes
+     IV. the death of the guilty persons.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The victims complained to their king, who felt no hesitation in passing on
+      their woes to the sovereign under whose rule the pillagers were supposed
+      to live. He demanded their punishment, but his request was not always
+      granted, owing to the difficulties of finding out and seizing the
+      offenders. An indemnity, however, could be obtained which would nearly
+      compensate the merchants for the loss sustained. In many cases justice had
+      but little to do with the negotiations, in which self-interest was the
+      chief motive; but repeated refusals would have discouraged traders, and by
+      lessening the facilities of transit, have diminished the revenue which the
+      state drew from its foreign commerce.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The question became a more delicate one when it concerned the rights of
+      subjects residing out of their native country. Foreigners, as a rule, were
+      well received in Egypt; the whole country was open to them; they could
+      marry, they could acquire houses and lands, they enjoyed permission to
+      follow their own religion unhindered, they were eligible for public
+      honours, and more than one of the officers of the crown whose tombs we see
+      at Thebes were themselves Syrians, or born of Syrian parents on the banks
+      of the Nile.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In a letter from the King of Alasia, there is question of
+     a merchant who had died in Egypt. Among other monuments
+     proving the presence of Syrians about the Pharaoh, is the
+     stele of Ben-Azana, of the town of Zairabizana, surnamed
+     Ramses-Empir�: he was surrounded with Semites like himself.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Hence, those who settled in Egypt without any intention of returning to
+      their own country enjoyed all the advantages possessed by the natives,
+      whereas those who took up a merely temporary abode there were more limited
+      in their privileges. They were granted the permission to hold property in
+      the country, and also the right to buy and sell there, but they were not
+      allowed to transmit their possessions at will, and if by chance they died
+      on Egyptian soil, their goods lapsed as a forfeit to the crown. The heirs
+      remaining in the native country of the dead man, who were ruined by this
+      confiscation, sometimes petitioned the king to interfere in their favour
+      with a view of obtaining restitution. If the Pharaoh consented to waive
+      his right of forfeiture, and made over the confiscated objects or their
+      equivalent to the relatives of the deceased, it was solely by an act of
+      mercy, and as an example to foreign governments to treat Egyptians with a
+      like clemency should they chance to proffer a similar request.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * All this seems to result from a letter in which the King
+     of Alasia demands from Amen�thes III. the restitution of the
+     goods of one of his subjects who had died in Egypt; the tone
+     of the letter is that of one asking a favour, and on the
+     supposition that the King of Egypt had a right to keep the
+     property of a foreigner dying on his territory.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is also not improbable that the sovereigns themselves had a personal
+      interest in more than one commercial undertaking, and that they were the
+      partners, or, at any rate, interested in the enterprises, of many of their
+      subjects, so that any loss sustained by one of the latter would eventually
+      fall upon themselves. They had, in fact, reserved to themselves the
+      privilege of carrying on several lucrative industries, and of disposing of
+      the products to foreign buyers, either to those who purchased them out and
+      out, or else through the medium of agents, to whom they intrusted certain
+      quantities of the goods for warehousing. The King of Babylon, taking
+      advantage of the fashion which prompted the Egyptians to acquire objects
+      of Chald�an goldsmiths&rsquo; and cabinet-makers&rsquo; art, caused ingots of gold to
+      be sent to him by the Pharaoh, which he returned worked up into vases,
+      ornaments, household utensils, and plated chariots. He further fixed the
+      value of all such objects, and took a considerable commission for having
+      acted as intermediary in the transaction.* In Alasia, which was the land
+      of metals, the king appears to have held a monopoly of the bronze. Whether
+      he smelted it in the country, or received it from more distant regions
+      ready prepared, we cannot say, but he claimed and retained for himself the
+      payment for all that the Pharaoh deigned to order of him.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Letter of Burnaburiash to Amen�thes IV.
+
+     ** Letter from the King of Alasia to Amen�thes III., where,
+     whilst pretending to have nothing else in view than making a
+     present to his royal brother, he proposes to make an
+     exchange of some bronze for the products of Egypt,
+     especially for gold.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/040.jpg"
+       alt="040.jpg the Mummy of Thutmosis III. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph
+taken by Emil Brugsch-
+Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From such instances we can well understand the jealous, watch which these
+      sovereigns exercised, lest any individual connected with corporations of
+      workmen should leave the kingdom and establish himself in another country
+      without special permission. Any emigrant who opened a workshop and
+      initiated his new compatriots in the technique or professional secrets of
+      his craft, was regarded by the authorities as the most dangerous of all
+      evil-doers. By thus introducing his trade into a rival state, he deprived
+      his own people of a good customer, and thus rendered himself liable to the
+      penalties inflicted on those who were guilty of treason. His savings were
+      confiscated, his house razed to the ground, and his whole family&mdash;parents,
+      wives, and children&mdash;treated as partakers in his crime. As for
+      himself, if justice succeeded in overtaking him, he was punished with
+      death, or at least with mutilation, such as the loss of eyes and ears, or
+      amputation of the feet. This severity did not prevent the frequent
+      occurrence of such cases, and it was found necessary to deal with them by
+      the insertion of a special extradition clause in treaties of peace and
+      other alliances. The two contracting parties decided against conceding the
+      right of habitation to skilled workmen who should take refuge with either
+      party on the territory of the other, and they agreed to seize such workmen
+      forthwith, and mutually restore them, but under the express condition that
+      neither they nor any of their belongings should incur any penalty for the
+      desertion of their country. It would be curious to know if all the
+      arrangements agreed to by the kings of those times were sanctioned, as in
+      the above instance, by properly drawn up agreements. Certain expressions
+      occur in their correspondence which seem to prove that this was the case,
+      and that the relations between them, of which we can catch traces,
+      resulted not merely from a state of things which, according to their
+      ideas, did not necessitate any diplomatic sanction, but from conventions
+      agreed to after some war, or entered on without any previous struggle,
+      when there was no question at issue between the two states.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the King of the Kh�ti, the
+     only one which has come down to us, was a renewal of other
+     treaties effected one after the other between the fathers
+     and grandfathers of the two contracting sovereigns. Some of
+     the Tel el-Amarna letters probably refer to treaties of this
+     kind; e.g. that of Burnaburiash of Babylon, who says that
+     since the time of Kara�ndash there had been an exchange of
+     ambassadors and friendship between the sovereigns of Chaldoa
+     and of Egypt, and also that of Dushratta of Mitanni, who
+     reminds Queen T�i of the secret negotiations which had taken
+     place between him and Amen�thes III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When once the Syrian conquest had been effected, Egypt gave permanency to
+      its results by means of a series of international decrees, which
+      officially established the constitution of her empire, and brought about
+      her concerted action with the Asiatic powers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      She already occupied an important position among them, when Th�tmosis III.
+      died, on the last day of Phamenoth, in the IVth year of his reign.* He was
+      buried, probably, at De�r el-Bahar�, in the family tomb wherein the most
+      illustrious members of his house had been laid to rest since the time of
+      Th�tmosis I. His mummy was not securely hidden away, for towards the close
+      of the XXth dynasty it was torn out of the coffin by robbers, who stripped
+      it and rifled it of the jewels with which it was covered, injuring it in
+      their haste to carry away the spoil. It was subsequently re-interred, and
+      has remained undisturbed until the present day; but before re-burial some
+      renovation of the wrappings was necessary, and as portions of the body had
+      become loose, the restorers, in order to give the mummy the necessary
+      firmness, compressed it between four oar-shaped slips of wood, painted
+      white, and placed, three inside the wrappings and one outside, under the
+      bands which confined the winding-sheet.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Dr. Mahler has, with great precision, fixed the date of
+     the accession of Th�tmosis III, as the 20th of March, 1503,
+     and that of his death as the 14th of February, 1449 b.c. I
+     do not think that the data furnished to Dr. Mahler by
+     Brugsch will admit of such exact conclusions being drawn
+     from them, and I should fix the fifty-four years of the
+     reign of Th�tmosis III. in a less decided manner, between
+     1550 and 1490 b.c., allowing, as I have said before, for an
+     error of half a century more or less in the dates which go
+     back to the time of the second Theban empire.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/041.jpg"
+       alt="041.jpg Head of the Mummy Of Th�tmosis III. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Boudier,
+from a photograph
+lent by M. Gr�baut,
+taken by Emil
+Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Happily the face, which had been plastered over with pitch at the time of
+      embalming, did not suffer at all from this rough treatment, and appeared
+      intact when the protecting mask was removed. Its appearance does not
+      answer to our ideal of the conqueror. His statues, though not representing
+      him as a type of manly beauty, yet give him refined, intelligent features,
+      but a comparison with the mummy shows that the artists have idealised
+      their model. The forehead is abnormally low, the eyes deeply sunk, the jaw
+      heavy, the lips thick, and the cheek-bones extremely prominent; the whole
+      recalling the physiognomy of Th�tmosis II., though with a greater show of
+      energy. Th�tmosis III. is a fellah of the old stock, squat, thickset,
+      vulgar in character and expression, but not lacking in firmness and
+      vigour.* Amen�thes II., who succeeded him, must have closely resembled
+      him, if we may trust his official portraits. He was the son of a princess
+      of the blood, H�tshops�t� II., daughter of the great H�tshops�t�,** and
+      consequently he came into his inheritance with stronger claims to it than
+      any other Pharaoh since the time of Amen�thes I. Possibly his father may
+      have associated him with himself on the throne as soon as the young prince
+      attained his majority;*** at any rate, his accession aroused no
+      appreciable opposition in the country, and if any difficulties were made,
+      they must have come from outside.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+* The restored remains allow us to
+estimate the height at about 5 ft. 3 in.
+
+** His parentage is proved by the
+pictures preserved in the tomb of
+his foster-father, where he is
+represented in company with the
+<i>royal mother</i>, Mar�tr�
+H�tshops�t�.
+
+*** It is thus that Wiedemann
+explains his presence by the
+side of Th�tmosis III. on
+certain bas-reliefs in the
+temple of Amada.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is always a dangerous moment in the existence of a newly formed empire
+      when its founder having passed away, and the conquered people not having
+      yet become accustomed to a subject condition, they are called upon to
+      submit to a successor of whom they know little or nothing. It is always
+      problematical whether the new sovereign will display as great activity and
+      be as successful as the old one; whether he will be capable of turning to
+      good account the armies which his predecessor commanded with such skill,
+      and led so bravely against the enemy; whether, again, he will have
+      sufficient tact to estimate correctly the burden of taxation which each
+      province is capable of bearing, and to lighten it when there is a risk of
+      its becoming too heavy. If he does not show from the first that it is his
+      purpose to maintain his patrimony intact at all costs, or if his officers,
+      no longer controlled by a strong hand, betray any indecision in command,
+      his subjects will become unruly, and the change of monarch will soon
+      furnish a pretext for widespread rebellion. The beginning of the reign of
+      Amen�thes II. was marked by a revolt of the Libyans inhabiting the Theban
+      Oasis, but this rising was soon put down by that Amenemhab� who had so
+      distinguished himself under Th�tmosis.* Soon after, fresh troubles broke
+      out in different parts of Syria, in Galilee, in the country of the Amurru,
+      and among the peoples of Naharaim. The king&rsquo;s prompt action, however,
+      prevented their resulting in a general war.** He marched in person against
+      the malcontents, reduced the town of Shamshiaduma, fell upon the Lamnaniu,
+      and attacked their chief, slaying him with his own hand, and carrying off
+      numbers of captives.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Brugsch and Wiedemann place this expedition at the time
+     when Amen�thes IL was either hereditary prince or associated
+     with his father the inscription of Amenemhab� places it
+     explicitly after the death of Th�tmosis III., and this
+     evidence outweighs every other consideration until further
+     discoveries are made.
+
+     ** The campaigns of Amen�thes II. were related on a granite
+     stele, which was placed against the second of the southern
+     pylons at Karnak. The date of this monument is almost
+     certainly the year II.; there is strong evidence in favour
+     of this, if it is compared with the inscription of Amada,
+     where Amen�thes II. relates that in the year III. he
+     sacrificed the prisoners whom he had taken in the country of
+     Tikhisa.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/044.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="044.jpg Amen�thes Ii., from the Statue at Turin " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He crossed the Orontes on the 26th of Pachons, in the year II., and seeing
+      some mounted troops in the distance, rushed upon them and overthrew them;
+      they proved to be the advanced guard of the enemy&rsquo;s force, which he
+      encountered shortly afterwards and routed, collecting in the pursuit
+      considerable booty. He finally reached Naharaim, where he experienced in
+      the main but a feeble resistance. N�i surrendered without resistance on
+      the 10th of Epiphi, and its inhabitants, both men and women, with censers
+      in their hands, assembled on the walls and prostrated themselves before
+      the conqueror. At Aka�ti, where the partisans of the Egyptian government
+      had suffered persecution from a considerable section of the natives, order
+      was at once reestablished as soon as the king&rsquo;s approach was made known.
+      No doubt the rapidity of his marches and the vigour of his attacks, while
+      putting an end to the hostile attitude of the smaller vassal states, were
+      effectual in inducing the sovereigns of Alasia, of Mitanni,* and of the
+      Hittites to renew with Amen�thes the friendly relations which they had
+      established with his father.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Amen�thes II. mentions tribute from Mitanni on one of the
+     columns which he decorated at Karnak, in the Hall of the
+     Caryatides, close to the pillars finished by his
+     predecessors.
+
+     ** The cartouches on the pedestal of the throne of Amen�thes
+     IL, in the tomb of one of his officers at She�kh-Abd-el-
+     Q�rneh, represent&mdash;together with the inhabitants of the
+     Oasis, Libya, and Kush&mdash;the Kefati�, the people of Naharaim,
+     and the Upper Lotan�, that is to say, the entire dominion of
+     Th�tmosis III., besides the people of Man�s, probably
+     Mallos, in the Cilician plain.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This one campaign, which lasted three or four months, secured a lasting
+      peace in the north, but in the south a disturbance again broke out among
+      the Barbarians of the Upper Nile. Amen�thes suppressed it, and, in order
+      to prevent a repetition of it, was guilty of an act of cruel severity
+      quite in accordance with the manners of the time. He had taken prisoner
+      seven chiefs in the country of Tikhisa, and had brought them, chained, in
+      triumph to Thebes, on the forecastle of his ship. He sacrificed six of
+      them himself before Amon, and exposed their heads and hands on the fa�ade
+      of the temple of Karnak; the seventh was subjected to a similar fate at
+      Napata at the beginning of his third year, and thenceforth the she�khs of
+      Kush thought twice before defying the authority of the Pharaoh.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In an inscription in the temple of Amada, it is there said
+     that the king offered this sacrifice on his return from his
+     first expedition into Asia, and for this reason I have
+     connected the facts thus related with those known to us
+     through the stele of Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Amen�thes&rsquo;reign was a short one, lasting ten years at most, and the end of
+      it seems to have been darkened by the open or secret rivalries which the
+      question of the succession usually stirred up among the kings&rsquo; sons. The
+      king had daughters only by his marriage with one of his full sisters, who
+      like himself possessed all the rights of sovereignty; those of his sons
+      who did not die young were the children of princesses of inferior rank or
+      of concubines, and it was a subject of anxiety among these princes which
+      of them would be chosen to inherit the crown and be united in marriage
+      with the king&rsquo;s heiresses, Kh��t and M�tem�a�.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/046.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="046.jpg the Great Sphinx and The Chapel of Thutmosis Iv. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the photograph taken in 1887 by
+     �mil Brugsch-Bey
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/047.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="047.jpg the Simoom. Sphinx and Pyramids at Gizeh " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/052.jpg" alt="052.jpg Queen Mutem�au. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Daniel H�ron.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      One of his sons, named Th�tmosis, who resided at the &ldquo;White Wall,&rdquo; was in
+      the habit of betaking himself frequently to the Libyan desert to practise
+      with the javelin, or to pursue the hunt of lions and gazelles in his
+      chariot. On these occasions it was his pleasure to preserve the strictest
+      incognito, and he was accompanied by two discreet servants only. One day,
+      when chance had brought him into the neighbourhood of the Great Pyramid,
+      he lay down for his accustomed siesta in the shade cast by the Sphinx, the
+      miraculous image of Khopri the most powerful, the god to whom all men in
+      Memphis and the neighbouring towns raised adoring hands filled with
+      offerings. The gigantic statue was at that time more than half buried, and
+      its head alone was seen above the sand. As soon as the prince was asleep
+      it spoke gently to him, as a father to his son: &ldquo;Behold me, gaze on me, O
+      my son Th�tmosis, for I, thy father Harmakhis-Khopri-T�m�, grant thee
+      sovereignty over the two countries, in both the South and the North, and
+      thou shalt wear both the white and the red crown on the throne of Sib�,
+      the sovereign, possessing the earth in its length and breadth; the
+      flashing eye of the lord of all shall cause to rain on thee the
+      possessions of Egypt, vast tribute from all foreign countries, and a long
+      life for, many years as one chosen by the Sun, for my countenance is
+      thine, my heart is thine, no other than thyself is mine! Nor am I covered
+      by the sand of the mountain on which I rest, and have given thee this
+      prize that thou mayest do for me what my heart desires, for I know that
+      thou art my son, my defender; draw nigh, I am with thee, I am thy
+      well-beloved father.&rdquo; The prince understood that the god promised him the
+      kingdom on condition of his swearing to clear the sand from the statue. He
+      was, in fact, chosen to be the husband of the queens, and immediately
+      after his accession he fulfilled his oath; he removed the sand, built a
+      chapel between the paws, and erected against the breast of the statue a
+      stele of red granite, on which he related his adventure. His reign was as
+      short as that of Amen�thes, and his campaigns both in Asia and Ethiopia
+      were unimportant.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The latest date of his reign at present known is that of
+     the year VII., on the rocks of Konosso, and on a stele of
+     Sarb�t el-Kh�d�m. There is an allusion to his wars against
+     the Ethiopians in an inscription of Amada, and to his
+     campaigns against the peoples of the North and South on the
+     stele of Nofirha�t.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/050.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="050.jpg the Stele of The Sphinx Of Gizer " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by �mil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had succeeded to an empire so firmly established from Naharaim to
+      Kari,* that, apparently, no rebellion could disturb its peace. One of the
+      two heiress-princesses, K��t, the daughter, sister, and wife of a king,
+      had no living male offspring, but her companion M�tem�a� had at least one
+      son, named Amen�thes. In his case, again, the noble birth of the mother
+      atoned for the defects of the paternal origin. Moreover, according to
+      tradition, Amon-Ka himself had intervened to renew the blood of his
+      descendants: he appeared in the person of Th�tmosis IV., and under this
+      guise became the father of the heir of the Pharaohs.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The peoples of Naharaim and of Northern Syria are
+     represented bringing him tribute, in a tomb at She�kh-Abd-
+     el-Q�rneh. The inscription published by Mariette, speaks of
+     the first expedition of Th�tmosis IV. to the land of
+     [Naharai]na, and of the gifts which he lavished on this
+     occasion on the temple of Anion.
+
+     ** It was at first thought that M�tem�a� was an Ethiopian,
+     afterwards that she was a Syrian, who had changed her name
+     on arriving at the court of her husband. The manner in which
+     she is represented at Luxor, and in all the texts where she
+     figures, proves not only that she was of Egyptian race, but
+     that she was the daughter of Amen�thes II., and born of the
+     marriage of that prince with one of his sisters, who was
+     herself an hereditary princess.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Like Queen Ahmasis in the bas-reliefs of De�r el-Bahar�, M�tem�a� is shown
+      on those of Luxor in the arms of her divine lover, and subsequently
+      greeted by him with the title of mother; in another bas-relief we see the
+      queen led to her couch by the goddesses who preside over the birth of
+      children; her son Amen�thes, on coming into the world with his double, is
+      placed in the hands of the two Niles, to receive the nourishment and the
+      education meet for the children of the gods. He profited fully by them,
+      for he remained in power forty years, and his reign was one of the most
+      prosperous ever witnessed by Egypt during the Theban dynasties.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Amen�thes III. had spent but little of his time in war. He had undertaken
+      the usual raids in the South against the negroes and the tribes of the
+      Upper Nile. In his fifth year, a general defection of the sheikhs obliged
+      him to invade the province of Abha�t, near Semneh, which he devastated at
+      the head of the troops collected by Mari-ifi mos�, the Prince of K�sh; the
+      punishment was salutary, the booty considerable, and a lengthy peace was
+      re-established. The object of his rare expeditions into Naharaim was not
+      so much to add new provinces to his empire, as to prevent disturbances in
+      the old ones. The kings of Alasia, of the Kh�ti, of Mitanni, of Singar,*
+      of Assyria, and of Babylon did not dare to provoke so powerful a
+      neighbour.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Amen�thes entitles himself on a scarab�us &ldquo;he who takes
+     prisoner the country of Singar;&rdquo; no other document has yet
+     been discovered to show whether this is hyperbole, or
+     whether he really reached this distant region.
+
+     ** The lists of the time of Amen�thes III. contain the names
+     of Phoenicia, Naharaim, Singar, Qodshu, Tunipa, Patina,
+     Carchomish, and Assur; that is to say, of all the subject or
+     allied nations mentioned in the correspondence of Tel el-
+     Amarna. Certain episodes of these expeditions had been
+     engraved on the exterior face of the pylon constructed by
+     the king for the temple of Amon at Karnak; at the present
+     time they are concealed by the wall at the lower end of the
+     Hypostyle Hall. The tribute of the Lotan� was represented on
+     the tomb of H�i, at She�kh-Abd-el-Q�rneh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/052b.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="047b Amenothes III. Colossal Head in the British Museum"
+       src="images/047b.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/052b-text.jpg" width="100%" alt="052b-text.jpg " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The remembrance of the victories of Th�tmosis III. was still fresh in
+      their memories, and, even had their hands been free, would have made them
+      cautious in dealing with his great-grandson; but they were incessantly
+      engaged in internecine quarrels, and had recourse to Pharaoh merely to
+      enlist his support, or at any rate make sure of his neutrality, and
+      prevent him from joining their adversaries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/053.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="053.jpg Amenothes Iii. From the Tomb of Khamhait " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Daniel H�ron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Whatever might have been the nature of their private sentiments, they
+      professed to be anxious to maintain, for their mutual interests, the
+      relations with Egypt entered on half a century before, and as the surest
+      method of attaining their object was by a good marriage, they would each
+      seek an Egyptian wife for himself, or would offer Amen�thes a princess of
+      one of their own royal families. The Egyptian king was, however, firm in
+      refusing to bestow a princess of the solar blood even on the most powerful
+      of the foreign kings; his pride rebelled at the thought that she might one
+      day be consigned to a place among the inferior wives or concubines, but he
+      gladly accepted, and even sought for wives for himself, from among the
+      Syrian and Chald�an princesses. Kallimmasin of Babylon gave Amen�thes
+      first his sister, and when age had deprived this princess of her beauty,
+      then his daughter Irtabi in marriage.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Letter from Amen�thes III. to Kallimmasin, concerning a
+     sister of the latter, who was married to the King of Egypt,
+     but of whom there are no further records remaining at
+     Babylon, and also one of his daughters whom Amen�thes had
+     demanded in marriage; and letters from Kallimmasin,
+     consenting to bestow his daughter Irtabi on the Pharaoh, and
+     proposing to give to Amenothes whichever one he might choose
+     of the daughters of his house.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Sutarna of Mitanni had in the same way given the Pharaoh his daughter
+      Gilukh�pa; indeed, most of the kings of that period had one or two
+      relations in the harem at Thebes. This connexion usually proved a support
+      to Asiatic sovereigns, such alliances being a safeguard against the
+      rivalries of their brothers or cousins. At times, however, they were the
+      means of exposing them to serious dangers. When Sutarna died he was
+      succeeded by his son Dushratta, but a numerous party put forward another
+      prince, named Artassumara, who was probably Gilukh�pa&rsquo;s brother, on the
+      mother&rsquo;s side;* a Hittite king of the name of Pirkhi espoused the cause of
+      the pretender, and a civil war broke out.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Her exact relationship is not explicitly expressed, but is
+     implied in the facts, for there seems no reason why
+     Gilukh�pa should have taken the part of one brother rather
+     than another, unless Artassumara had been nearer to her than
+     Dushratta; that is to say, her brother on the mother&rsquo;s side
+     as well as on the father&rsquo;s.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Dushratta was victorious, and caused his brother to be strangled, but was
+      not without anxiety as to the consequences which might follow this
+      execution should Gilukh�pa desire to avenge the victim, and to this end
+      stir up the anger of the suzerain against him. Dushratta, therefore, wrote
+      a humble epistle, showing that he had received provocation, and that he
+      had found it necessary to strike a decisive blow to save his own life; the
+      tablet was accompanied by various presents to the royal pair, comprising
+      horses, slaves, jewels, and perfumes. Gilukh�pa, however, bore Dushratta
+      no ill-will, and the latter&rsquo;s anxieties were allayed. The so-called
+      expeditions of Amen�thes to the Syrian provinces must constantly have been
+      merely visits of inspection, during which amusements, and especially the
+      chase, occupied nearly as important a place as war and politics. Amen�thes
+      III. took to heart that pre-eminently royal duty of ridding the country of
+      wild beasts, and fulfilled it more conscientiously than any of his
+      predecessors. He had killed 112 lions during the first ten years of his
+      reign, and as it was an exploit of which he was remarkably proud, he
+      perpetuated the memory of it in a special inscription, which he caused to
+      be engraved on numbers of large scarabs of fine green enamel. Egypt
+      prospered under his peaceful government, and if the king made no great
+      efforts to extend her frontiers, he spared no pains to enrich the country
+      by developing industry and agriculture, and also endeavoured to perfect
+      the military organisation which had rendered the conquest of the East so
+      easy a matter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A census, undertaken by his minister Amen�thes, the son of H�pi, ensured a
+      more correct assessment of the taxes, and a regular scheme of recruiting
+      for the army.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/056.jpg" alt="056.jpg Scarab of the Hunt " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the photograph
+published in Mariette.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Whole tribes of slaves were brought into the country by means of the
+      border raids which were always taking place, and their opportune arrival
+      helped to fill up the vacancies which repeated wars had caused among the
+      rural and urban population; such a strong impetus to agriculture was also
+      given by this importation, that when, towards the middle of the reign, the
+      minister Kh�mh��fc presented the tax-gathers at court, he was able to
+      boast that he had stored in the State granaries a larger quantity of corn
+      than had been gathered in for thirty years. The traffic carried on between
+      Asia and the Delta by means of both Egyptian and foreign ships was
+      controlled by customhouses erected at the mouths of the Nile, the coast
+      being protected by cruising vessels against the attacks of pirates. The
+      fortresses of the isthmus and of the Libyan border, having been restored
+      or rebuilt, constituted a check on the turbulence of the nomad tribes,
+      while garrisons posted at intervals at the entrance to the Wadys leading
+      to the desert restrained the plunderers scattered between the Nile and the
+      Red Sea, and between the chain of Oases and the unexplored regions of the
+      Sahara.* Egypt was at once the most powerful as well as the most
+      prosperous kingdom in the world, being able to command more labour and
+      more precious metals for the embellishment of her towns and the
+      construction of her monuments than any other.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+* All this information is gathered
+from the inscription on the statue
+of Amen�thes, the son of H�pi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Public works had been carried on briskly under Th�tmosis III. and his
+      successors. The taste for building, thwarted at first by the necessity of
+      financial reforms, and then by that of defraying the heavy expenses
+      incurred through the expulsion of the Hyks�s and the earlier foreign wars,
+      had free scope as soon as spoil from the Syrian victories began to pour in
+      year by year. While the treasure seized from the enemy provided the money,
+      the majority of the prisoners were used as workmen, so that temples,
+      palaces, and citadels began to rise as if by magic from one end of the
+      valley to the other.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * For this use of prisoners of war, cf. the picture from the
+     tomb of Rakhmir� on p. 58 of the present work, in which most
+     of the earlier Egyptologists believed they recognised the
+     Hebrews, condemned by Pharaoh to build the cities of Ramses
+     and Pithom in the Delta.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nubia, divided into provinces, formed merely an extension of the ancient
+      feudal Egypt&mdash;at any rate as far as the neighbourhood of the Tacazzeh&mdash;though
+      the Egyptian religion had here assumed a peculiar character.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/058.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="058.jpg a Gang of Syrian Prisoners Making Brick for The Temple of Amon " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the chromolithograph in Lepsius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The conquest of Nubia having been almost entirely the work of the Theban
+      dynasties, the Theban triad, Amon, Ma�t, and Mont�, and their immediate
+      followers were paramount in this region, while in the north, in witness of
+      the ancient Elephantinite colonisation, we find Khn�m� of the cataract
+      being worshipped, in connexion with Did�n, father of the indigenous
+      Nubians. The worship of Amon had been the means of introducing that of E�
+      and of Horus, and Osiris as lord of the dead, while Phtah, Sokh�t, At�m�,
+      and the Memphite and Heliopolitan gods were worshipped only in isolated
+      parts of the province. A being, however, of less exalted rank shared with
+      the lords of heaven the favour of the people. This was the Pharaoh, who as
+      the son of Amon was foreordained to receive divine honours, sometimes
+      figuring, as at Bohani, as the third member of a triad, at other times as
+      head of the Ennead. �sirtasen III. had had his chapels at Semneh and at
+      K�mmeh, they were restored by Th�tmosis III., who claimed a share of the
+      worship offered in them, and whose son, Amen�thes II., also assumed the
+      symbols and functions of divinity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/059.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="059.jpg One of the Rams Of Amen�thes III " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Mons. de Mertens.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Amen�thes I. was venerated in the province of Kari, and Amen�thes III.,
+      when founding the fortress H��t-Kh�mm��t* in the neighbourhood of a Nubian
+      village, on a spot now known as Soleb, built a temple there, of which he
+      himself was the protecting genius.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name signifies literally &ldquo;the Citadel of Kh�mm��t,&rdquo;
+      and it is formed, as Lepsius recognised from the first, from
+     the name of the Sparrow-hawk Kh�mm��t, &ldquo;Mait rising as
+     Goddess,&rdquo; which Amen�thes had assumed on his accession.
+
+     ** Lepsius recognised the nature of the divinity worshipped
+     in this temple; the deified statue of the king, &ldquo;his living
+     statue on earth,&rdquo; which represented the god of the temple,
+     is there named &ldquo;Nibm��r�, lord of Nubia.&rdquo; Th�tmosis III. had
+     already worked at Soleb.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The edifice was of considerable size, and the columns and walls remaining
+      reveal an art as perfect as that shown in the best monuments at Thebes. It
+      was approached by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes, while colossal statues
+      of lions and hawks, the sacred animals of the district, adorned the
+      building. The sovereign condescended to preside in person at its
+      dedication on one of his journeys to the southern part of his empire, and
+      the mutilated pictures still visible on the fa�ade show the order and
+      detail of the ceremony observed on this occasion. The king, with the crown
+      upon his head, stood before the centre gate, accompanied by the queen and
+      his minister Amen�thes, the son of H�pi, who was better acquainted than
+      any other man of his time with the mysteries of the ritual.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * On Amen�thes, the son of H�pi, see p. 56 of the present
+     volume; it will be seen in the following chapter, in
+     connection with the Egyptian accounts of the Exodus, what
+     tradition made of him.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king then struck the door twelve times with his mace of white stone,
+      and when the approach to the first hall was opened, he repeated the
+      operation at the threshold of the sanctuary previous to entering and
+      placing his statue there. He deposited it on the painted and gilded wooden
+      platform on which the gods were exhibited on feast-days, and enthroned
+      beside it the other images which were thenceforth to constitute the local
+      Ennead, after which he kindled the sacred fire before them. The queen,
+      with the priests and nobles, all bearing torches, then passed through the
+      halls, stopping from time to time to perform acts of purification, or to
+      recite formulas to dispel evil spirits and pernicious influences; finally,
+      a triumphal procession was formed, and the whole <i>cortege</i> returned
+      to the palace, where a banquet brought the day&rsquo;s festivities to a close.*
+      It was Amen�thes III. himself, or rather one of his statues animated by
+      his double, who occupied the chief place in the new building. Indeed,
+      wherever we come across a temple in Nubia dedicated to a king, we find the
+      homage of the inhabitants always offered to the image of the founder,
+      which spoke to them in oracles. All the southern part of the country
+      beyond the second cataract is full of traces of Amen�thes, and the
+      evidence of the veneration shown to him would lead us to conclude that he
+      played an important part in the organisation of the country. Sedeinga
+      possessed a small temple under the patronage of his wife T�i. The ruins of
+      a sanctuary which he dedicated to Anion, the Sun-god, have been discovered
+      at Gebel-Barkal; Amen�thes seems to have been the first to perceive the
+      advantages offered by the site, and to have endeavoured to transform the
+      barbarian village of Napata into a large Egyptian city. Some of the
+      monuments with which he adorned Soleb were transported, in later times, to
+      Gebel-Barkal, among them some rams and lions of rare beauty. They lie at
+      rest with their paws crossed, the head erect, and their expression
+      suggesting both power and repose.** As we descend the Nile, traces of the
+      work of this king are less frequent, and their place is taken by those of
+      his predecessors, as at Sai, at Semneh, at Wady Haifa, at Amada, at Ibr�m,
+      and at Dakkeh. Distant traces of Amen�thes again appear in the
+      neighbourhood of the first cataract, and in the island of Elephantine,
+      which he endeavoured to restore to its ancient splendour.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thus the small temple of Sarrah, to the north of Wady
+     Haifa, is dedicated to &ldquo;the living statue of Ramses II. in
+     the land of Nubia,&rdquo; a statue to which his Majesty gave the
+     name of &ldquo;Usirm�r� Zosir-Sh�fi.&rdquo;
+
+     ** One of the rams was removed from Gebel-Barkal by Lepsius,
+     and is now in the Berlin Museum, as well as the pedestal of
+     one of the hawks. Prisse has shown that these two monuments
+     originally adorned the temple of Soleb, and that they were
+     afterwards transported to Napata by an Ethiopian king, who
+     engraved his name on the pedestal of one of them.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/062.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="062.jpg One of the Lions Of Gebel-barkal " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from one of the two lions of Gebel-
+     Barkal in the British Museum
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two of the small buildings which he there dedicated to Khn�m�, the local
+      god, were still in existence at the beginning of the present century. That
+      least damaged, on the south side of the island, consisted of a single
+      chamber nearly forty feet in length. The sandstone walls, terminating in a
+      curved cornice, rested on a hollow substructure raised rather more than
+      six feet above the ground, and surrounded by a breast-high parapet. A
+      portico ran round the building, having seven square pillars on each of its
+      two sides, while at each end stood two columns having lotus-shaped
+      capitals; a flight of ten or twelve steps between two walls of the same
+      height as the basement, projected in front, and afforded access to the
+      cella. The two columns of the fa�ade were further apart than those at the
+      opposite end of the building, and showed a glimpse of a richly decorated
+      door, while a second door opened under the peristyle at the further
+      extremity. The walls were covered with the half-brutish profile of the
+      good Khn�m�, and those of his two companions, An�k�t and Sat�t, the
+      spirits of stormy waters. The treatment of these figures was broad and
+      simple, the style free, light, and graceful, the colouring soft; and the
+      harmonious beauty of the whole is unsurpassed by anything at Thebes
+      itself. It was, in fact, a kind of oratory, built on a scale to suit the
+      capacities of a decaying town, but the design was so delicately conceived
+      in its miniature proportions that nothing more graceful can be imagined.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Amen�thes II. erected some small obelisks at Elephantine,
+     one of which is at present in England. The two buildings of
+     Amen�thes III. at Elephantine were still in existence at the
+     beginning of the present century. They have been described
+     and drawn by French scholars; between 1822 and 1825 they
+     were destroyed, and the materials used for building barracks
+     and magazines at Syene.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ancient Egypt and its feudal cities, Ombos, Edf�,* Nekhab�t, Esneh,**
+      Medam�t,*** Coptos,**** Denderah, Abydos, Memphis,^ and Heliopolis,
+      profited largely by the generosity of the Pharaohs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The works undertaken by Th�tmosis III. in the temple of
+     Edf� are mentioned in an inscription of the Ptolemaic
+     period; some portions are still to be seen among the ruins
+     of the town.
+
+     ** An inscription of the Roman period attributes the
+     rebuilding of the great temple of Esneh to Th�tmosis III.
+     Gr�baut discovered some fragments of it in the quay of the
+     modern town.
+
+     *** Amen�thes II. appears to have built the existing temple.
+
+     **** The temple of H�thor was built by Th�tmosis III. Some
+     fragments found in the Ptolemaic masonry bear the cartouche
+     of Th�tmosis IV.
+
+     ^ Amen�thes II. certainly carried on works at Memphis, for
+     he opened a new quarry at T�rah, in the year IV. Amen�thes
+     III. also worked limestone quarries, and built at Saqq�rah
+     the earliest chapels of the Serapeum which are at present
+     known to us.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Since the close of the XIIth dynasty these cities had depended entirely on
+      their own resources, and their public buildings were either in ruins, or
+      quite inadequate to the needs of the population, but now gold from Syria
+      and K�sh furnished them with the means of restoration. The Delta itself
+      shared in this architectural revival, but it had suffered too severely
+      under the struggle between the Theban kings and the Shepherds to recover
+      itself as quickly as the remainder of the country. All effort was
+      concentrated on those of its nomes which lay on the Eastern frontier, or
+      which were crossed by the Pharaohs in their journeys into Asia, such as
+      the Bubastite and Athribite nomes; the rest remained sunk in their ancient
+      torpor.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * Mariette and E. de Roug�, attribute this torpor, at least as far as
+      Tanis is concerned, to the aversion felt by the Pharaohs of Egyptian blood
+      for the Hyks�s capital, and for the provinces where the invaders had
+      formerly established themselves in large numbers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Beyond the Red Sea the mines were actively worked, and even the oases of
+      the Libyan desert took part in the national revival, and buildings rose in
+      their midst of a size proportionate to their slender revenues. Thebes
+      naturally came in for the largest share of the spoils of war. Although her
+      kings had become the rulers of the world, they had not, like the Pharaohs
+      of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties, forsaken her for some more illustrious
+      city: here they had their ordinary residence as well as their seat of
+      government, hither they returned after each campaign to celebrate their
+      victory, and hither they sent the prisoners and the spoil which they had
+      reserved for their own royal use. In the course of one or two generations
+      Thebes had spread in every direction, and had enclosed within her circuit
+      the neighbouring villages of Ash�r�, the fief of Maiit, and Ap�t-r�s�fc,
+      the southern Thebes, which lay at the confluence of the Nile with one of
+      the largest of the canals which watered the plain. The monuments in these
+      two new quarters of the town were unworthy of the city of which they now
+      formed part, and Amen�thes III. consequently bestowed much pains on
+      improving them. He entirely rebuilt the sanctuary of Ma�t, enlarged the
+      sacred lake, and collected within one of the courts of the temple several
+      hundred statues in black granite of the Memphite divinity, the
+      lioness-headed Sokh�t, whom he identified with his Theban goddess. The
+      statues were crowded together so closely that they were in actual contact
+      with each other in places, and must have presented something of the
+      appearance of a regiment drawn up in battle array. The succeeding Pharaohs
+      soon came to look upon this temple as a kind of storehouse, whence they
+      might provide themselves with ready-made figures to decorate their
+      buildings either at Thebes or in other royal cities. About a hundred of
+      them, however, still remain, most of them without feet, arms, or head;
+      some over-turned on the ground, others considerably out of the
+      perpendicular, from the earth having given way beneath them, and a small
+      number only still perfect and in situ.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/065.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="065.jpg the Temple at Elephantine, As It Was in 1799 " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the <i>Description de l&rsquo;Egypte,
+     Ant</i>., vol. i p. 35. A good restoration of it, made from
+     the statements in the <i>Description</i>, is to be found in
+     Pekrot-Cuipiez, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;Art dans l&rsquo;Antiquit�</i>, vol.
+     i. pp. 402, 403.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/066.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="066.jpg the Great Court of The Temple Of Luxor During The Inundation " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/067.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="067.jpg Part of the Avenue Of Rams, Between The Temples Of Amon and Ma�t " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At Luxor Amen�thes demolished the small temple with which the sovereigns
+      of the XIIth and XIIIth dynasties had been satisfied, and replaced it by a
+      structure which is still one of the finest yet remaining of the times of
+      the Pharaohs. The naos rose sheer above the waters of the Nile, indeed its
+      cornices projected over the river, and a staircase at the south side
+      allowed the priests and devotees to embark directly from the rear of the
+      building. The sanctuary was a single chamber, with an opening on its side,
+      but so completely shut out from the daylight by the long dark hall at
+      whose extremity it was placed as to be in perpetual obscurity. It was
+      flanked by narrow, dimly lightly chambers, and was approached through a
+      pronaos with four rows of columns, a vast court surrounded with porticoes
+      occupying the foreground. At the present time the thick walls which
+      enclosed the entire building are nearly level with the ground, half the
+      ceilings have crumbled away, air and light penetrate into every nook, and
+      during the inundation the water flowing into the courts, transformed them
+      until recently into lakes, whither the flocks and herds of the village
+      resorted in the heat of the day to bathe or quench their thirst. Pictures
+      of mysterious events never meant for the public gaze now display their
+      secrets in the light of the sun, and reveal to the eyes of the profane the
+      supernatural events which preceded the birth of the king. On the northern
+      side an avenue of sphinxes and crio-sphinxes led to the gates of old
+      Thebes. At present most of these creatures are buried under the ruins of
+      the modern town, or covered by the earth which overlies the ancient road;
+      but a few are still visible, broken and shapeless from barbarous usage,
+      and hardly retaining any traces of the inscriptions in which Amen�thes
+      claimed them boastingly as his work.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/069.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="069.jpg the Pylons of Th�tmosis Iii. And Harmhab� At Kaknak " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Triumphal processions passing along this route from Luxor to Karnak would
+      at length reach the great court before the temple of Amon, or, by turning
+      a little to the right after passing the temple of Ma�t, would arrive in
+      front of the southern fa�ade, near the two gilded obelisks whose splendour
+      once rejoiced the heart of the famous H�tshops�t�. Th�tmosis III. was also
+      determined on his part to spare no expense to make the temple of his god
+      of proportions suitable to the patron of so vast an empire. Not only did
+      he complete those portions which his predecessors had merely sketched out,
+      but on the south side towards Ash�r� he also built a long row of pylons,
+      now half ruined, on which he engraved, according to custom, the list of
+      nations and cities which he had subdued in Asia and Africa. To the east of
+      the temple he rebuilt some ancient structures, the largest of which served
+      as a halting-place for processions, and he enclosed the whole with a stone
+      rampart. The outline of the sacred lake, on which the mystic boats were
+      launched on the nights of festivals, was also made more symmetrical, and
+      its margin edged with masonry.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0028" id="linkimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/070.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="070.jpg Sacred Lake Akd the Southern Part of The Temple Of Karnak. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boucher, from a photograph by Boato: the building
+     near the centre of the picture is the covered walk
+     constructed by Th�tmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      By these alterations the harmonious proportion between the main buildings
+      and the fa�ade had been destroyed, and the exterior wall was now too wide
+      for the pylon at the entrance. Amen�thes III. remedied this defect by
+      erecting in front a fourth pylon, which was loftier, larger, and in all
+      respects more worthy to stand before the enlarged temple. Its walls were
+      partially covered with battle-scenes, which informed all beholders of the
+      glory of the conqueror.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Portions of the military bas-reliefs which covered the
+     exterior face of the pylon are still to be seen through the
+     gaps in the wall at the end of the great Hall of Pillars
+     built by Seti I. and Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Progress had been no less marked on the left bank of the river. As long as
+      Thebes had been merely a small provincial town, its cemeteries had covered
+      but a moderate area, including the sandy plain and low mounds opposite
+      Karnak and the valley of De�r el-Bahar� beyond; but now that the city had
+      more than doubled its extent, the space required for the dead was
+      proportionately greater. The tombs of private persons began to spread
+      towards the south, and soon reached the slopes of the Assass�f, the hill
+      of Sheikh-Abd-el-Qurnah and the district of Q�rnet-M�rra�&mdash;in fact,
+      all that part which the people of the country called the &ldquo;Brow&rdquo; of Thebes.
+      On the borders of the cultivated land a row of chapels and mastabas with
+      pyramidal roofs sheltered the remains of the princes and princesses of the
+      royal family. The Pharaohs themselves were buried either separately under
+      their respective brick pyramids or in groups in a temple, as was the case
+      with the first three Th�tmosis and H�tshops�t� at De�r el-Bahar�.
+      Amen�thes II. and Th�tmosis IV. could doubtless have found room in this
+      crowded necropolis,* although the space was becoming limited, but the
+      pride of the Pharaohs began to rebel against this promiscuous burial side
+      by side with their subjects. Amen�thes III. sought for a site, therefore,
+      where he would have ample room to display his magnificence, far from the
+      vulgar crowd, and found what he desired at the farther end of the valley
+      which opens out behind the village of Qurnah. Here, an hour&rsquo;s journey from
+      the bank of the Nile, he cut for himself a magnificent rock-tomb with
+      galleries, halls, and deep pits, the walls being decorated with
+      representations of the Voyage of the Sun through the regions which he
+      traverses during the twelve hours of his nocturnal course.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The generally received opinion is that these sovereigns of
+     the XVIIIth dynasty were buried in the Bib�n el-Mol�k, but I
+     have made several examinations of this valley, and cannot
+     think that this was the case. On the contrary, the scattered
+     notices in the fragments of papyrus preserved at Turin seem
+     to me to indicate that Amen�thes II. and Th�tmosis IV. must
+     have been buried in the neighbourhood of the Assass�f or of
+     De�r el-Bahar�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A sarcophagus of red granite received his mummy, and <i>Ushabti&rsquo;s</i> of
+      extraordinary dimensions and admirable workmanship mounted guard around
+      him, so as to release him from the corv�e in the fields of Ial�. The
+      chapel usually attached to such tombs is not to be found in the
+      neighbourhood. As the road to the funeral valley was a difficult one, and
+      as it would be unreasonable to condemn an entire priesthood to live in
+      solitude, the king decided to separate the component parts which had
+      hitherto been united in every tomb since the Memphite period, and to place
+      the vault for the mummy and the passages leading to it some distance away
+      in the mountains, while the necessary buildings for the cultus of the
+      statue and the accommodation of the priests were transferred to the plain,
+      and were built at the southern extremity of the lands which were at that
+      time held by private persons. The divine character of Amen�thes, ascribed
+      to him on account of his solar origin and the co-operation of Amon-R� at
+      his birth, was, owing to this separation of the funerary constituents,
+      brought into further prominence. When once the body which he had animated
+      while on earth was removed and hidden from sight, the people soon became
+      accustomed to think only of his Double enthroned in the recesses of the
+      sanctuary: seeing him receive there the same honours as the gods
+      themselves, they came naturally to regard him as a deity himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0029" id="linkimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/073.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="073.jpg the Two Colossi of Memnon in The Plain Of Thebes " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. The
+     &ldquo;Vocal Statue of Memon&rdquo; is that on the right-hand side of
+     the illustration.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The arrangement of his temple differed in no way from those in which Amon,
+      Ma�t, and Mont� were worshipped, while it surpassed in size and splendour
+      most of the sanctuaries dedicated to the patron gods of the chief towns of
+      the nomes. It contained, moreover, colossal statues, objects which are
+      never found associated with the heavenly gods. Several of these figures
+      have been broken to pieces, and only a few scattered fragments of them
+      remain, but two of them still maintain their positions on each side of the
+      entrance, with their faces towards the east. They are each formed of a
+      single block of red breccia from Syen�,* and are fifty-three feet high,
+      but the more northerly one was shattered in the earthquake which completed
+      the ruin of Thebes in the year 27 B.C. The upper part toppled over with
+      the shock, and was dashed to pieces on the floor of the court, while the
+      lower half remained in its place. Soon after the disaster it began to be
+      rumoured that sounds like those produced by the breaking of a harp-string
+      proceeded from the pedestal at sunrise, whereupon travellers flocked to
+      witness the miracle, and legend soon began to take possession of the giant
+      who spoke in this marvellous way. In vain did the Egyptians of the
+      neighbourhood declare that the statue represented the Pharaoh Amen�thes;
+      the Greeks refused to believe them, and forthwith recognised in the
+      colossus an image of Memnon the Ethiopian, son of Tithonus and Aurora,
+      slain by their own Achilles beneath the walls of Troy&mdash;maintaining
+      that the music heard every morning was the clear and harmonious voice of
+      the hero saluting his mother.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is often asserted that they are made of rose granite,
+     but Jollois and Devilliers describe them as being of &ldquo;a
+     species of sandstone breccia, composed of a mass of agate
+     flint, conglomerated together by a remarkably hard cement.
+     This material, being very dense and of a heterogeneous
+     composition, presents to the sculptor perhaps greater
+     difficulties than even granite.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      Towards the middle of the second century of our era, Hadrian undertook a
+      journey to Upper Egypt, and heard the wonderful song; sixty years later,
+      Septimus Severus restored the statue by the employment of courses of
+      stones, which were so arranged as to form a rough representation of a
+      human head and shoulders. His piety, however, was not rewarded as he
+      expected, for Memnon became silent, and his oracle fell into oblivion. The
+      temple no longer exists, and a few ridges alone mark the spot where it
+      rose; but the two colossi remain at their post, in the same condition in
+      which they were left by the Roman C�sar: the features are quite
+      obliterated, and the legs and the supporting female figures on either side
+      are scored all over with Greek and Latin inscriptions expressing the
+      appreciation of ancient tourists. Although the statues tower high above
+      the fields of corn and <i>bers�m</i> which surround them, our first view
+      of them, owing to the scale of proportion observed in their construction,
+      so different from that to which we are accustomed, gives us the impression
+      that they are smaller than they really are, and it is only when we stand
+      close to one of them and notice the insignificant appearance of the crowd
+      of sightseers clustered on its pedestal that we realize the immensity of
+      the colossi.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The descendants of Ahmosis had by their energy won for Thebes not only the
+      supremacy over the peoples of Egypt and of the known world, but had also
+      secured for the Theban deities pre-eminence over all their rivals. The
+      booty collected both in Syria and Ethiopia went to enrich the god Amon as
+      much as it did the kings themselves; every victory brought him the tenth
+      part of the spoil gathered on the field of battle, of the tribute levied
+      on vassals, and of the prisoners taken as slaves. When Th�tmosis IIL,
+      after having reduced Megiddo, organised a systematic plundering of the
+      surrounding country, it was for the benefit of Amon-E� that he reaped the
+      fields and sent their harvest into Egypt; if during his journeys he
+      collected useful plants or rare animals, it was that he might dispose of
+      them in the groves or gardens of Amon as well as in his own, and he never
+      retained for his personal use the whole of what he won by arms, but always
+      reserved some portion for the sacred treasury.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0030" id="linkimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/076.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="076.jpg a Party of Tourists at the Foot Of The Vocal Statue of Memnok " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His successors acted in a similar manner, and in the reigns of Amen�thes
+      II., Th�t-mosis IV., and Amen�thes III., the patrimony of the Theban
+      priesthood continued to increase. The Pharaohs, perpetually called upon as
+      they were to recompense one or other of their servants, were never able to
+      retain for long their share of the spoils of war. Gold and silver, lands,
+      jewels, and slaves passed as quickly out of their hands as they had fallen
+      into them, and although then fortune was continually having additions made
+      to it in every fresh campaign, yet the increase was rarely in proportion
+      to the trouble expended. The god, on the contrary, received what he got
+      for all time, and gave back nothing in return: fresh accumulations of
+      precious metals were continually being added to his store, his meadows
+      were enriched by the addition of vineyards, and with his palm forests he
+      combined fish-ponds full of fish; he added farms and villages to those he
+      already possessed, and each reign saw the list of his possessions
+      increase. He had his own labourers, his own tradespeople, his own
+      fishermen, soldiers, and scribes, and, presiding over all these, a learned
+      hierarchy of divines, priests, and prophets, who administered everything.
+      This immense domain, which was a kind of State within the State, was ruled
+      over by a single high priest, chosen by the sovereign from among the
+      prophets. He was the irresponsible head of it, and his spiritual ambition
+      had increased step by step with the extension of his material resources.
+      As the human Pharaoh showed himself entitled to homage from the lords of
+      the earth, the priests came at length to the conclusion that Amon had a
+      right to the allegiance of the lords of heaven, and that he was the
+      Supreme Being, in respect of whom the others were of little or no account,
+      and as he was the only god who was everywhere victorious, he came at
+      length to be regarded by them as the only god in existence. It was
+      impossible that the kings could see this rapid development of sacerdotal
+      power without anxiety, and with all their devotion to the patron of their
+      city, solicitude for their own authority compelled them to seek elsewhere
+      for another divinity, whose influence might in some degree counterbalance
+      that of Amon. The only one who could vie with him at Thebes, either for
+      the antiquity of his worship or for the rank which he occupied in the
+      public esteem, was the Sun-lord of Heliopolis, head of the first Ennead.
+      Th�tmosis IV. owed his crown to him, and &lsquo;displayed his gratitude in
+      clearing away the sand from the Sphinx, in which the spirit of Harmakhis
+      was considered to dwell; and Amen�thes III., although claiming to be the
+      son of Amon himself, inherited the disposition shown by Th�tmosis in
+      favour of the Heliopolitan religions, but instead of attaching himself to
+      the forms most venerated by theologians, he bestowed his affection on a
+      more popular deity&mdash;Aton�, the fiery disk. He may have been
+      influenced in his choice by private reasons. Like his predecessors, he had
+      taken, while still very young, wives from among his own family, but
+      neither these reasonable ties, nor his numerous diplomatic alliances with
+      foreign princesses, were enough for him. From the very beginning of his
+      reign he had loved a maiden who was not of the blood of the Pharaohs, T�i,
+      the daughter of I��a and his wife T��a.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * For the last thirty years Queen T�i has been the subject of many
+      hypotheses and of much confusion. The scarabasi engraved under Amen�thes
+      III. say explicitly that she was the daughter of two personages, I��a and
+      T��a, but these names are not accompanied by any of the signs which are
+      characteristic of foreign names, and were considered Egyptian by
+      contemporaries. Hincks was the first who seems to have believed her to be
+      a Syrian; he compares her father&rsquo;s name with that of Levi, and attributes
+      the religious revolution which followed to the influence of her foreign
+      education. This theory has continued to predominate; some prefer a Libyan
+      origin to the Asiatic one, and latterly there has been an attempt to
+      recognise in T�i one of the princesses of Mitanni mentioned in the
+      correspondence of Tel el-Amarna. As long ago as 1877, I showed that T�i
+      was an Egyptian of middle rank, probably of Heliopolitan origin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Connexions of this kind had been frequently formed by his ancestors, but
+      the Egyptian women of inferior rank whom they had brought into their
+      harems had always remained in the background, and if the sons of these
+      concubines were ever fortunate enough to come to the throne, it was in
+      default of heirs of pure blood. Amen�thes III. married T�i, gave her for
+      her dowry the town of Z�l� in Lower Egypt, and raised her to the position
+      of queen, in spite of her low extraction. She busied herself in the
+      affairs of State, took precedence of the princesses of the solar family,
+      and appeared at her husband&rsquo;s side in public ceremonies, and was so
+      figured on the monuments. If, as there is reason to believe, she was born
+      near Heliopolis, it is easy to understand how her influence may have led
+      Amen�thes to pay special honour to a Heliopolitan divinity. He had built,
+      at an early period of his reign, a sanctuary to Aton� at Memphis, and in
+      the Xth year he constructed for him a chapel at Thebes itself,* to the
+      south of the last pylon of �h�tmosis III., and endowed this deity with
+      property at the expense of Anion.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This temple seems to have been raised on the site of the
+     building which is usually attributed to Amen�thes II. and
+     Amen�thes III. The blocks bearing the name of Amen�thes II.
+     had been used previously, like most of those which bear the
+     cartouches of Amen�thes III. The temple of Aton�, which was
+     demolished by Harmhab� or one of the Ramses, was
+     subsequently rebuilt with the remains of earlier edifices,
+     and dedicated to Amon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had several sons;* but the one who succeeded him, and who, like him,
+      was named Amen�thes, was the most paradoxical of all the Egyptian
+      sovereigns of ancient times.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of them, Th�tmosis, was high priest of Phtah, and we
+     possess several monuments erected by him in the temple of
+     Memphis; another, T�tonkhamon, subsequently became king. He
+     also had several daughters by T�i&mdash;S�tamon.
+
+     ** The absence of any cartouches of Amen�thes IV. or his
+     successors in the table of Abydos prevented Champollion and
+     Rosellini from classifying these sovereigns with any
+     precision. Nestor L&rsquo;h�te tried to recognise in the first of
+     them, whom he called <i>Bakhen-Balchnan</i>, a king belonging to
+     the very ancient dynasties, perhaps the Hyks�s Apakhnan, but
+     Lepsius and Hincks showed that he must be placed between
+     Amen�thes III. and Harmhab�, that he was first called
+     Amen�thes like his father, but that he afterwards took the
+     name of Baknaten, which is now read Kh�naten or Kh�niaton.
+     His singular aspect made it difficult to decide at first
+     whether a man or a woman was represented. Mariette, while
+     pronouncing him to be a man, thought that he had perhaps
+     been taken prisoner in the Sudan and mutilated, which would
+     have explained his effeminate appearance, almost like that
+     of an eunuch. Recent attempts have been made to prove that
+     Amen�thes IV. and Kh�niaton were two distinct persons, or
+     that Kh�niaton was a queen; but they have hitherto been
+     rejected by Egyptologists.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He made up for the inferiority of his birth on account of the plebeian
+      origin of his mother T��,* by his marriage with Nofr�t�ti, a princess of
+      the pure solar race.** T�i, long accustomed to the management of affairs,
+      exerted her influence over him even more than she had done over her
+      husband. Without officially assuming the rank, she certainly for several
+      years possessed the power, of regent, and gave a definite Oriental impress
+      to her son&rsquo;s religious policy. No outward changes were made at first;
+      Amen�thes, although showing his preference for Heliopolis by inscribing in
+      his protocol the title of prophet of Harmakhis, which he may, however,
+      have borne before his accession, maintained his residence at Thebes, as
+      his father had done before him, continued to sacrifice to the Theban
+      divinities, and to follow the ancient paths and the conventional
+      practices.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The filiation of Amen�thes IV. and T�i has given rise to
+     more than one controversy. The Egyptian texts do not define
+     it explicitly, and the title borne by T�i has been
+     considered by some to prove that Amen�thes IV. was her son,
+     and by others that she was the mother of Queen Nofr�t�ti.
+     The Tel el-Amarna correspondence solves the question,
+     however, as it gives a letter from Dushratta to Kh�niaton,
+     in which T�i is called &ldquo;thy mother.&rdquo;
+
+     ** Nofr�t�ti, the wife of Amen�thes IV., like all the
+     princesses of that time, has been supposed to be of Syrian
+     origin, and to have changed her name on her arrival in
+     Egypt. The place which she holds beside her husband is the
+     same as that which belongs to legitimate queens, like
+     Nofritari, Ahmosis, and H�tshops�t�, and the example of
+     these princesses is enough to show us what was her real
+     position; she was most probably a daughter of one of the
+     princesses of the solar blood, perhaps of one of the sisters
+     of Amen�thes III., and Amen�thes IV. married her so as to
+     obtain through her the rights which were wanting to him
+     through his mother T�i.
+
+     *** The tomb of Ramses, governor of Thebes and priest of
+     M��t, shows us in one part of it the king, still faithful to
+     his name of Amen�thes, paying homage to the god Amon, lord
+     of Karnak, while everywhere else the worship of Aton�
+     predominates. The cartouches on the tomb of Pari, read by
+     Bouriant Akhop�r�r�, and by Scheil more correctly
+     Nofirkhop�r�r�, seem to me to represent a transitional form
+     of the protocol of Amen�thes IV., and not the name of a new
+     Pharaoh; the inscription in which they are to be found bears
+     the date of his third year.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0031" id="linkimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/079.jpg" alt="079.jpg Marriage Scarab�us " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph of the
+scarabaeus preserved at
+G�zeh.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He either built a temple to the Theban god, or enlarged the one which his
+      father had constructed at Karnak, and even opened new quarries at Syene
+      and Silsileh for providing granite and sandstone for the adornment of this
+      monument. His devotion to the invincible Disk, however, soon began to
+      assert itself, and rendered more and more irksome to him the religious
+      observances which he had constrained himself to follow. There was nothing
+      and no one to hinder him from giving free course to his inclinations, and
+      the nobles and priests were too well trained in obedience to venture to
+      censure anything he might do, even were it to result in putting the whole
+      population into motion, from Elephantine to the sea-coast, to prepare for
+      the intruded deity a dwelling which should eclipse in magnificence the
+      splendour of the great temple. A few of those around him had become
+      converted of their own accord to his favourite worship, but these formed a
+      very small minority. Thebes had belonged to Amon so long that the king
+      could never hope to bring it to regard Aton� as anything but a being of
+      inferior rank. Each city belonged to some god, to whom was attributed its
+      origin, its development, and its prosperity, and whom it could not forsake
+      without renouncing its very existence. If Thebes became separated from
+      Amon it would be Thebes no longer, and of this Amen�thes was so well aware
+      that he never attempted to induce it to renounce its patron. His residence
+      among surroundings which he detested at length became so intolerable, that
+      he resolved to leave the place and create a new capital elsewhere. The
+      choice of a new abode would have presented no difficulty to him had he
+      been able to make up his mind to relegate Aton� to the second rank of
+      divinities; Memphis, Heracleopolis, Si�t, Khm�n�, and, in fact, all the
+      towns of the valley would have deemed themselves fortunate in securing the
+      inheritance of their rival, but not one of them would be false to its
+      convictions or accept the degradation of its own divine founder, whether
+      Phtah, Harshaf�t�, Anubis, or Thot. A newly promoted god demanded a new
+      city; Amen�thes, therefore, made selection of a broad plain extending on
+      the right bank of the Nile, in the eastern part of the Hermopolitan nome,
+      to which he removed with all his court about the fourth or fifth year of
+      his reign.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The last date with the name of Amen�thes is that of the
+     year V., on a papyrus from the Payilm; elsewhere we find
+     from the year VI. the name of Kh�niaton, by the side of
+     monuments with the cartouche of Amen�thes; we may conclude
+     from this that the foundation of the town dates from the
+     year IV. or V. at the latest, when the prince, having
+     renounced the worship of Amon, left Thebes that he might be
+     able to celebrate freely that of Aton�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He found here several obscure villages without any historical or religious
+      traditions, and but thinly populated; Amen�thes chose one of them, the
+      Et-Tel of the present day, and built there a palace for himself and a
+      temple for his god. The temple, like that of E� at Heliopolis, was named
+      <i>Ha�t-Banbon�</i>, the Mansion of the Obelisk. It covered an immense
+      area, of which the sanctuary, however, occupied an inconsiderable part; it
+      was flanked by brick storehouses, and the whole was surrounded by a thick
+      wall. The remains show that the temple was built of white limestone, of
+      fine quality, but that it was almost devoid of ornament, for there was no
+      time to cover it with the usual decorations.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The opinion of Brugsch, that the arrangement of the
+     various parts differed from that of other temples, and was
+     the effect of foreign influence, has not been borne out by
+     the excavations of Prof. P�trie, the little which he has
+     brought to light being entirely of Egyptian character. The
+     temple is represented on the tomb of the high priest Mariri.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0032" id="linkimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/084.jpg" width="100%" alt="084.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The palace was built of brick; it was approached by a colossal gateway,
+      and contained vast halls, interspersed with small apartments for the
+      accommodation of the household, and storehouses for the necessary
+      provisions, besides gardens which had been hastily planted with rare
+      shrubs and sycamores. Fragments of furniture and of the roughest of the
+      utensils contained in the different chambers are still unearthed from
+      among the heaps of rubbish, and the cellars especially are full of
+      potsherds and cracked jars, on which we can still see written an
+      indication of the reign and the year when the wine they once contained was
+      made. Altars of massive masonry rose in the midst of the courts, on which
+      the king or one of his ministers heaped offerings and burnt incense
+      morning, noon, and evening, in honour of the three decisive moments in the
+      life of Aton�.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Naville discovered at De�r el-Bahar� a similar altar,
+     nearly intact. No other example was before known in any of
+     the ruined towns or temples, and no one had any idea of the
+     dimensions to which these altars, attained.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A few painted and gilded columns supported the roofs of the principal
+      apartments in which the Pharaoh held his audiences, but elsewhere the
+      walls and pillars were coated with cream-coloured stucco or whitewash, on
+      which scenes of private life were depicted in colours. The pavement, like
+      the walls, was also decorated. In one of the halls which seems to have
+      belonged to the harem, there is still to be seen distinctly the picture of
+      a rectangular piece of water containing fish and lotus-flowers in full
+      bloom; the edge is adorned with water-plants and flowering shrubs, among
+      which birds fly and calves graze and gambol; on the right and left were
+      depicted rows of stands laden with fruit, while at each end of the room
+      were seen the grinning faces of a gang of negro and Syrian prisoners,
+      separated from each other by gigantic arches. The tone of colouring is
+      bright and cheerful, and the animals are treated with great freedom and
+      facility. The Pharaoh, had collected about him several of the best artists
+      then to be found at Thebes, placing them under the direction of Ba�ki, the
+      chief of the corporation of sculptors,* and probably others subsequently
+      joined these from provincial studios.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ba�ki belonged to a family of artists, and his father Mani
+     had filled before him the post of chief of the sculptors.
+     The part played by these personages was first defined by
+     Brugsch, with perhaps some exaggeration of their artistic
+     merit and originality of talent.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Work for them was not lacking, for houses had to be built for all the
+      courtiers and government officials who had been obliged to follow the
+      king, and in a few years a large town had sprung up, which was called
+      Kh��taton�, or the &ldquo;Horizon of the Disk.&rdquo; It was built on a regular plan,
+      with straight streets and open spaces, and divided into two separate
+      quarters, interspersed with orchards and shady trellises. Workmen soon
+      began to flock to the new city&mdash;metal-founders, glass-founders,
+      weavers; in fine, all who followed any trade indispensable to the luxury
+      of a capital. The king appropriated a territory for it from the ancient
+      nome of the Hare, thus compelling the god Thot to contribute to the
+      fortune of Aton�; he fixed its limits by means of stel� placed in the
+      mountains, from Gebel-T�nah to Deshl��t on the west, and from Sheikh-Said
+      to El-Hauata on the eastern bank;* it was a new nome improvised for the
+      divine <i>parvenu</i>.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We know at present of fourteen of these stel�. A certain
+     number must still remain to be discovered on both banks of
+     the Nile.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0033" id="linkimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/087.jpg"
+       alt="087.jpg the Decorated Pavement of The Palace" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Aton� was one of the forms of the Sun, and perhaps the most material one
+      of all those devised by the Egyptians. He was defined as &ldquo;the good god who
+      rejoices in truth, the lord of the solar course, the lord of the disk, the
+      lord of heaven, the lord of earth, the living disk which lights up the two
+      worlds, the living Harmakhis who rises on the horizon bearing his name of
+      Sh�, which is disk, the eternal infuser of life.&rdquo; His priests exercised
+      the same functions as those of Heliopolis, and his high priest was called
+      &ldquo;O�rima�,&rdquo; like the high priest of R� in Aun�. This functionary was a
+      certain Marirl, upon whom the king showered his favours, and he was for
+      some time the chief authority in the State after the Pharaoh himself.
+      Aton� was represented sometimes by the ordinary figure of Horus,*
+      sometimes by the solar disk, but a disk whose rays were prolonged towards
+      the earth, like so many arms ready to lay hold with their little hands of
+      the offerings of the faithful, or to distribute to mortals the <i>crux
+      ansata</i>, the symbol of life. The other gods, except Amon, were sharers
+      with humanity in his benefits. Aton� proscribed him, and tolerated him
+      only at Thebes; he required, moreover, that the name of Amon should be
+      effaced wherever it occurred, but he respected R� and Horus and Harmakhis&mdash;all,
+      in fact, but Amon: he was content with being regarded as their king, and
+      he strove rather to become their chief than their destroyer.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It was probably this form of Horus which had, in the
+     temple at Thebes, the statue called &ldquo;the red image of Aton�
+     in Paatoml.&rdquo;
+
+     ** Prisse d&rsquo;Avennes has found at Karnak, on fragments of the
+     temple, the names of other divinities than Aton� worshipped
+     by Kh�niaton�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His nature, moreover, had nothing in it of the mysterious or ambiguous; he
+      was the glorious torch which gave light to humanity, and which was seen
+      every day to flame in the heavens without ever losing its brilliance or
+      becoming weaker. When he hides himself &ldquo;the world rests in darkness, like
+      those dead who lie in their rock-tombs, with their heads swathed, their
+      nostrils stuffed up, their eyes sightless, and whose whole property might
+      be stolen from them, even that which they have under their head, without
+      their knowing it; the lion issues from his lair, the serpent roams ready
+      to bite, it is as obscure as in a dark room, the earth is silent whilst he
+      who creates everything dwells in his horizon.&rdquo; He has hardly arisen when
+      &ldquo;Egypt becomes festal, one awakens, one rises on one&rsquo;s feet; when thou
+      hast caused men to clothe themselves, they adore thee with outstretched
+      hands, and the whole earth attends to its work, the animals betake
+      themselves to their herbage, trees and green crops abound, birds fly to
+      their marshy thickets with wings outstretched in adoration of thy double,
+      the cattle skip, all the birds which were in their nests shake themselves
+      when thou risest for them; the boats come and go, for every way is open at
+      thy appearance, the fish of the river leap before thee as soon as thy rays
+      descend upon the ocean.&rdquo; It is not without reason that all living things
+      thus rejoice at his advent; all of them owe their existence to him, for
+      &ldquo;he creates the female germ, he gives virility to men, and furnishes life
+      to the infant in its mother&rsquo;s womb; he calms and stills its weeping, he
+      nourishes it in the maternal womb, giving forth the breathings which
+      animate all that he creates, and when the infant escapes from the womb on
+      the day of its birth, thou openest his mouth for speech, and thou
+      satisfiest his necessities. When the chick is in the egg, a cackle in a
+      stone, thou givest to it air while within to keep it alive; when thou hast
+      caused it to be developed in the egg to the point of being able to break
+      it, it goes forth proclaiming its existence by its cackling, and walks on
+      its feet from the moment of its leaving the egg.&rdquo; Aton� presides over the
+      universe and arranges within it the lot of human beings, both Egyptians
+      and foreigners. The celestial Nile springs up in Hades far away in the
+      north; he makes its current run down to earth, and spreads its waters over
+      the fields during the inundation in order to nourish his creatures. He
+      rules the seasons, winter and summer; he constructed the far-off sky in
+      order to display himself therein, and to look down upon his works below.
+      From the moment that he reveals himself there, &ldquo;cities, towns, tribes,
+      routes, rivers&mdash;all eyes are lifted to him, for he is the disk of the
+      day upon the earth.&rdquo; * The sanctuary in which he is invoked contains only
+      his divine shadow;** for he himself never leaves the firmament.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These extracts are taken from the hymns of Tel el-Amarna.
+
+     ** In one of the tombs at Tel el-Amarna the king is depicted
+     leading his mother T�i to the temple of Aton� in order to
+     see &ldquo;the Shadow of R�,&rdquo; and it was thought with some reason
+     that &ldquo;the Shadow of R�&rdquo; was one of the names of the temple.
+     I think that this designation applied also to the statue or
+     symbol of the god; the <i>shadow</i> of a god was attached to the
+     statue in the same manner as the &ldquo;double,&rdquo; and transformed
+     it into an animated body.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His worship assumes none of the severe and gloomy forms of the Theban
+      cults: songs resound therein, and hymns accompanied by the harp or flute;
+      bread, cakes, vegetables, fruits, and flowers are associated with his
+      rites, and only on very rare occasions one of those bloody sacrifices in
+      which the other gods delight. The king made himself supreme pontiff of
+      Atonu, and took precedence of the high priest. He himself celebrated the
+      rites at the altar of the god, and we see him there standing erect, his
+      hands outstretched, offering incense and invoking blessings from on high.*
+      Like the Caliph Hakim of a later age, he formed a school to propagate his
+      new doctrines, and preached them before his courtiers: if they wished to
+      please him, they had to accept his teaching, and show that they had
+      profited by it. The renunciation of the traditional religious observances
+      of the solar house involved also the rejection of such personal names as
+      implied an ardent devotion to the banished god; in place of Amen�thes, &ldquo;he
+      to whom Amon is united,&rdquo; the king assumed after a time the name of
+      Kh�niaton�, &ldquo;the Glory of the Disk,&rdquo; and all the members of his family, as
+      well as his adherents at court, whose appellations involved the name of
+      the same god, soon followed his example. The proscription of Amon extended
+      to inscriptions, so that while his name or figure, wherever either could
+      be got at, was chiselled out, the vulture, the emblem of M�t, which
+      expressed the idea of mother, was also avoided.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The altar on which the king stands upright is one of those
+     cubes of masonry of which Naville discovered such a fine
+     example in the temple of H�tshops�t� at De�r el-Bahar�.
+
+     ** We find, however, some instances where the draughtsman,
+     either from custom or design, had used the vulture to
+     express the word mailt, &ldquo;the mother,&rdquo; without troubling
+     himself to think whether it answered to the name of the
+     goddess.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king would have nothing about him to suggest to eye or ear the
+      remembrance of the gods or doctrines of Thebes. It would consequently have
+      been fatal to them and their pretensions to the primacy of Egypt if the
+      reign of the young king had continued as long as might naturally have been
+      expected. After having been for nearly two centuries almost the national
+      head of Africa, Amon was degraded by a single blow to the secondary rank
+      and languishing existence in which he had lived before the expulsion of
+      the Hyks�s. He had surrendered his sceptre as king of heaven and earth,
+      not to any of his rivals who in old times had enjoyed the highest rank,
+      but to an individual of a lower order, a sort of demigod, while he himself
+      had thus become merely a local deity, confined to the corner of the Said
+      in which he had had his origin. There was not even left to him the
+      peaceful possession of this restricted domain, for he was obliged to act
+      as host to the enemy who had deposed him: the temple of Aton� was erected
+      at the door of his own sanctuary, and without leaving their courts the
+      priests of Amon could hear at the hours of worship the chants intoned by
+      hundreds of heretics in the temple of the Disk. Amon&rsquo;s priests saw,
+      moreover, the royal gifts flowing into other treasuries, and the gold of
+      Syria and Ethiopia no longer came into their hands. Should they stifle
+      their complaints, and bow to this insulting oppression, or should they
+      raise a protest against the action which had condemned them to obscurity
+      and a restricted existence? If they had given indications of resistance,
+      they would have been obliged to submit to prompt repression, but we see no
+      sign of this. The bulk of the people&mdash;clerical as well as lay&mdash;accepted
+      the deposition with complacency, and the nobles hastened to offer their
+      adherence to that which afterwards became the official confession of faith
+      of the Lord King.* The lord of Thebes itself, a certain Ramses, bowed his
+      head to the new cult, and the bas-reliefs of his tomb display to our eyes
+      the proofs of his apostasy: on the right-hand side Amon is the only
+      subject of his devotion, while on the left he declares himself an adherent
+      of Aton�. Religious formularies, divine appellations, the representations
+      of the costume, expression, and demeanour of the figures are at issue with
+      each other in the scenes on the two sides of the door, and if we were to
+      trust to appearances only, one would think that the two pictures belonged
+      to two separate reigns, and were concerned with two individuals strangers
+      to each other.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The political character of this reaction against the
+     growing power of the high priests and the town of Amon was
+     pointed out for the first time by Masporo in 1878. Ed. Meyer
+     and Tiele blond with the political idea a monotheistic
+     conception which does not seem to me to be fully justified,
+     at least at present, by anything in the materials we
+     possess.
+
+     ** His tomb was discovered in 1878 by Villiers-Stuart.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The rupture between the past and the present was so complete, in fact,
+      that the sovereign was obliged to change, if not his face and expression,
+      at least the mode in which they were represented.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0034" id="linkimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/095.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="095.jpg the Mask of Kih�niaton� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie. Petrie
+     thinks that the monument discovered by him, which is of fine
+     plaster, is a cast of the dead king, executed possibly to
+     enable the sculptors to make <i>Ushabtu</i>, &ldquo;Respondents,&rdquo; for
+     him.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0035" id="linkimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/096.jpg"
+       alt="096.jpg Amen�thes Iv., from the Statuette in The Louvre. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a drawing by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The name and personality of an Egyptian were so closely allied that
+      interference with one implied interference with the other. Kh�niaton�
+      could not continue to be such as he was when Amen�thes, and, in fact,
+      their respective portraits differ from each other to that degree that
+      there is some doubt at moments as to their identity. Amen�thes is hardly
+      to be distinguished from his father: he has the same regular and somewhat
+      heavy features, the same idealised body and conventional shape as those
+      which we find in the orthodox Pharaohs. Kh�niaton� affects a long and
+      narrow head, conical at the top, with a retreating forehead, a large
+      aquiline and pointed nose, a small mouth, an enormous chin projecting in
+      front, the whole being supported by a long, thin neck.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      His shoulders are narrow, with little display of muscle, but his breasts
+      are so full, his abdomen so prominent, and his hips so large, that one
+      would think they belonged to a woman. Etiquette required the attendants
+      upon the king, and those who aspired to his favour, to be portrayed in the
+      bas-reliefs of temples or tombs in all points, both as regards face and
+      demeanour, like the king himself. Hence it is that the majority of his
+      contemporaries, after having borne the likeness of Amen�thes, came to
+      adopt, without a break, that of Kh�niaton�. The scenes at Tel el-Amarna
+      contain, therefore, nothing but angular profiles, pointed skulls, ample
+      breasts, flowing figures, and swelling stomachs. The outline of these is
+      one that lends itself readily to caricature, and the artists have
+      exaggerated the various details with the intention, it may be, of
+      rendering the representations grotesque. There was nothing ridiculous,
+      however, in the king, their model, and several of his statues attribute to
+      him a languid, almost valetudinarian grace, which is by no means lacking
+      in dignity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0036" id="linkimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/097.jpg" width="100%" alt="097.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was a good and affectionate man, and was passionately fond of his wife,
+      Nofr�t�ti, associating her with himself in his sovereign acts. If he set
+      out to visit the temple, she followed him in a chariot; if he was about to
+      reward one of his faithful subjects, she stood beside him and helped to
+      distribute the golden necklaces. She joined him in his prayers to the
+      Solar Disk; she ministered to him in domestic life, when, having broken
+      away from the worries of his public duties, he sought relaxation in his
+      harem; and their union was so tender, that we find her on one occasion, at
+      least, seated in a coaxing attitude on her husband&rsquo;s knees&mdash;a unique
+      instance of such affection among all the representations on the monuments
+      of Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0037" id="linkimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/098.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="098.jpg Kh�niaton� and his Wife Rewarding One of The Great Officers of the Court " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They had six daughters, whom they brought up to live with them on terms of
+      the closest intimacy: they accompanied their father and mother everywhere,
+      and are exhibited as playing around the throne while their parents are
+      engaged in performing the duties of their office. The gentleness and
+      gaiety of the king were reflected in the life of his subjects: all the
+      scenes which they have left us consist entirely of processions,
+      cavalcades, banquets, and entertainments. Kh�niaton� was prodigal in the
+      gifts of gold and the eulogies which he bestowed on Marir�, the chief
+      priest: the people dance around him while he is receiving from the king
+      the just recompense of his activity. When H��a, who came back from Syria
+      in the XIIth year of the king&rsquo;s reign, brought solemnly before him the
+      tribute he had collected, the king, borne in his jolting palanquin on the
+      shoulders of his officers, proceeded to the temple to return thanks to his
+      god, to the accompaniment of chants and the waving of the great fans. When
+      the divine father A� had married the governess of one of the king&rsquo;s
+      daughters, the whole city gave itself up to enjoyment, and wine flowed
+      freely during the wedding feast. Notwithstanding the frequent festivals,
+      the king found time to watch jealously over the ordinary progress of
+      government and foreign affairs. The architects, too, were not allowed to
+      stand idle, and without taking into account the repairs of existing
+      buildings, had plenty to do in constructing edifices in honour of Aton� in
+      the principal towns of the Nile valley, at Memphis, Heliopolis,
+      Hermopolis, Hermonthis, and in the Fay�m. The provinces in Ethiopia
+      remained practically in the same condition as in the time of Amen�thes
+      III.;* K�sh was pacified, notwithstanding the raids which the tribes of
+      the desert were accustomed to make from time to time, only to receive on
+      each occasion rigorous chastisement from the king&rsquo;s viceroy.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name and the figure of Kh�niaton� are met with on the
+     gate of the temple of Soleb, and he received in his
+     XIIth year the tributes of K�sh, as well as those of Syria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sudden degradation of Amon had not brought about any coldness between
+      the Pharaoh and his princely allies in Asia. The aged Amen�thes had,
+      towards the end of his reign, asked the hand of Dushratta&rsquo;s daughter in
+      marriage, and the Mitannian king, highly flattered by the request, saw his
+      opportunity and took advantage of it in the interest of his treasury. He
+      discussed the amount of the dowry, demanded a considerable sum of gold,
+      and when the affair had been finally arranged to his satisfaction, he
+      despatched the princess to the banks of the Nile. On her arrival she found
+      her affianced husband was dead, or, at all events, dying. Amen�thes IV.,
+      however, stepped into his father&rsquo;s place, and inherited his bride with his
+      crown.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0038" id="linkimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/100.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="100.jpg the Door of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The new king&rsquo;s relations with other foreign princes were no less friendly;
+      the chief of the Kh�ti (Hittites) complimented him on his accession, the
+      King of Alasia wrote to him to express his earnest desire for a
+      continuance of peace between the two states. Burnaburiash of Babylon had,
+      it is true, hoped to obtain an Egyptian princess in marriage for his son,
+      and being disappointed, had endeavoured to pick a quarrel over the value
+      of the presents which had been sent him, together with the notice of the
+      accession of the new sovereign. But his kingdom lay too far away to make
+      his ill-will of much consequence, and his complaints passed unheeded. In
+      Coele-Syria and Phoenicia the situation remained unchanged. The vassal
+      cities were in a perpetual state of disturbance, though not more so than
+      in the past. Az�ru, son of Abdashirti, chief of the country of the
+      Amorites, had always, even during the lifetime of Amen�thes III., been the
+      most turbulent of vassals. The smaller states of the Orontes and of the
+      coast about Arvad had been laid waste by his repeated incursions and
+      troubled by his intrigues. He had taken and pillaged twenty towns, among
+      which were Simyra, Sini, Irqata, and Qodsh�, and he was already
+      threatening Byblos, Berytus, and Sidon. It was useless to complain of him,
+      for he always managed to exculpate himself to the royal messengers. Kha�,
+      D�d�, Amenema�p�t had in turn all pronounced him innocent. Pharaoh
+      himself, after citing him to appear in Egypt to give an explanation of his
+      conduct, had allowed himself to be won over by his fair speaking, and had
+      dismissed him uncondemned. Other princes, who lacked his cleverness and
+      power, tried to imitate him, and from north to south the whole of Syria
+      could only be compared to some great arena, in which fighting was
+      continually carried on between one tribe or town and another&mdash;Tyre
+      against Sidon, Sidon against Byblos, Jerusalem against Lachish. All of
+      them appealed to Kh�niaton�, and endeavoured to enlist him on their side.
+      Their despatches arrived by scores, and the perusal of them at the present
+      day would lead us to imagine that Egypt had all but lost her supremacy.
+      The Egyptian ministers, however, were entirely unmoved by them, and
+      continued to refuse material support to any of the numerous rivals, except
+      in a few rare cases, where a too prolonged indifference would have
+      provoked an open revolt in some part of the country.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Kh�niaton� died young, about the XVIIIth year of his reign.* He was buried
+      in the depths of a ravine in the mountain-side to the east of the town,
+      and his tomb remained unknown till within the last few years. Although one
+      of his daughters who died before her father had been interred there, the
+      place seems to have been entirely unprepared for the reception of the
+      king&rsquo;s body. The funeral chamber and the passages are scarcely even
+      rough-hewn, and the reception halls show a mere commencement of
+      decoration.** The other tombs of the locality are divided into two groups,
+      separated by the ravine reserved for the burying-place of the royal house.
+      The noble families possessed each their own tomb on the slopes of the
+      hillside; the common people were laid to rest in pits lower down, almost
+      on the level of the plain. The cutting and decoration of all these tombs
+      had been entrusted to a company of contractors, who had executed them
+      according to two or three stereotyped plans, without any variation, except
+      in size. Nearly all the walls are bare, or present but few inscriptions;
+      those tombs only are completed whose occupants died before the Pharaoh.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The length of Kh�niaton�&rsquo;s reign was fixed by Griffith
+     with almost absolute certainty by means of the dates written
+     in ink on the jars of wine and preserves found in the ruins
+     of the palace.
+
+     ** The tomb has been found, as I anticipated, in the ravine
+     which separates the northern after the southern group of
+     burying-places. The Arabs opened it in 1891, and Gr�baut has
+     since completely excavated it. The scenes depicted in it are
+     connected with the death and funeral of the Princess
+     M�q�taton�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0039" id="linkimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/103.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="103.jpg Interior of a Tomb at Tel El-amarna " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, after a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The fa�ades of the tombs are cut in the rock, and contain, for the most
+      part, but one door, the jambs of which are covered on both sides by
+      several lines of hieroglyphs; and it is just possible to distinguish
+      traces of the adoration of the radiant Disk on the lintels, together with
+      the cartouches containing the names of the king and god. The chapel is a
+      large rectangular chamber, from one end of which opens the inclined
+      passage leading to the coffin. The roof is sometimes supported by columns,
+      having capitals decorated with designs of flowers or of geese hung from
+      the abacus by their feet with their heads turned upwards.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The religious teaching at Tel el-Amarna presents no difference in the main
+      from that which prevailed in other parts of Egypt.* The Double of Osiris
+      was supposed to reside in the tomb, or else to take wing to heaven and
+      embark with Aton�, as elsewhere he would embark with E�. The same funerary
+      furniture is needed for the deceased as in other local cults&mdash;ornaments
+      of vitreous paste, amulets, and <i>Ushabtiu</i>, or &ldquo;Respondents,&rdquo; to
+      labour for the dead man in the fields of Ial�. Those of Kh�niaton� were,
+      like those of Amen�thes III., actual statuettes in granite of admirable
+      workmanship. The dead who reached the divine abode, retained the same rank
+      in life that they had possessed here below, and in order to ensure the
+      enjoyment of it, they related, or caused to be depicted in their tombs,
+      the events of their earthly career.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The peculiar treatment of the two extremities of the sign
+     for the sky, which surmounts the great scene on the tomb of
+     Ahmosis, shows that there had been no change in the ideas
+     concerning the two horizons or the divine tree found in
+     them: the aspirations for the soul of Marir�, the high
+     priest of Aton�, or for that of the sculptor Ba�k�, are the
+     same as those usually found, and the formula on the funerary
+     stelae differs only in the name of the god from that on the
+     ordinary stelae of the same kind.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A citizen of Kh��taton� would naturally represent the manners and customs
+      of his native town, and this would account for the local colouring of the
+      scenes in which we see him taking part.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      They bear no resemblance to the traditional pictures of the buildings and
+      gardens of Thebes with which we are familiar; we have instead the palaces,
+      colonnades, and pylons of the rising city, its courts planted with
+      sycomores, its treasuries, and its storehouses. The sun&rsquo;s disk hovers
+      above and darts its prehensile rays over every object; its hands present
+      the <i>crux ansata</i> to the nostrils of the various members of the
+      family, they touch caressingly the queen and her daughters, they handle
+      the offerings of bread and cakes, they extend even into the government
+      warehouses to pilfer or to bless. Throughout all these scenes Kh�niaton�
+      and the ladies of his harem seem to be ubiquitous: here he visits one of
+      the officers, there he repairs to the temple for the dedication of its
+      sanctuary. His chariot, followed at a little distance by that of the
+      princesses, makes its way peaceably through the streets. The police of the
+      city and the soldiers of the guard, whether Egyptians or foreigners, run
+      before him and clear a path among the crowd, the high priest Marir� stands
+      at the gate to receive him, and the ceremony is brought to a close by a
+      distribution of gold necklaces or rings, while the populace dance with
+      delight before the sovereign. Meantime the slaves have cooked the repast,
+      the dancers and musicians within their chambers have rehearsed for the
+      evening&rsquo;s festival, and the inmates of the house carry on animated
+      dialogues during their meal. The style and the technique of these
+      wall-paintings differ in no way from those in the necropolis of the
+      preceding period, and there can be no doubt that the artists who decorated
+      these monuments were trained in the schools of Thebes. Their drawing is
+      often very refined, and there is great freedom in their composition; the
+      perspective of some of the bas-reliefs almost comes up to our own, and the
+      movement of animated crowds is indicated with perfect accuracy. It is,
+      however, not safe to conclude from these examples that the artists who
+      executed them would have developed Egyptian art in a new direction, had
+      not subsequent events caused a reaction against the worship of Aton� and
+      his followers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0040" id="linkimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/104.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="104.jpg Profile of Head Of Mummy (thebes Tombs.) " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0041" id="linkimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/106.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="106.jpg Two of the Daughters Of Kh�hi Aton� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Although the tombs in which they worked differ from the generality of
+      Egyptian burying-places, their originality does not arise from any effort,
+      either conscious or otherwise, to break through the ordinary routine of
+      the art of the time; it is rather the result of the extraordinary
+      appearance of the sovereign whose features they were called on to portray,
+      and the novelty of several of the subjects which they had to treat. That
+      artist among them who first gave concrete form to the ideas circulated by
+      the priests of Aton�, and drew the model cartoons, evidently possessed a
+      master-hand, and was endowed with undeniable originality and power. No
+      other Egyptian draughtsman ever expressed a child&rsquo;s grace as he did, and
+      the portraits which he sketched of the daughters of Kh�niaton� playing
+      undressed at their mother&rsquo;s side, are examples of a reserved and delicate
+      grace. But these models, when once composed and finished even to the
+      smallest details, were entrusted for execution to workmen of mediocre
+      powers, who were recruited not only from Thebes, but from the neighbouring
+      cities of Hermopolis and Si�t. These estimable people, with a praiseworthy
+      patience, traced bit by bit the cartoons confided to them, omitting or
+      adding individuals or groups according to the extent of the wall-space
+      they had to cover, or to the number of relatives and servants whom the
+      proprietor of the tomb desired should share in his future happiness. The
+      style of these draughtsmen betrays the influence of the second-rate
+      schools in which they had learned their craft, and the clumsiness of their
+      work would often repel us, were it not that the interest of the episodes
+      portrayed redeems it in the eyes of the Egyptologist.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Kh�niaton� left no son to succeed him; two of his sons-in-law successively
+      occupied the throne&mdash;S�aker�, who had married his eldest daughter
+      Mar�taton�, and T�tankhamon, the husband of Ankhnasaton. The first had
+      been associated in the sovereignty by his father-in-law;* he showed
+      himself a zealous partisan of the &ldquo;Disk,&rdquo; and he continued to reside in
+      the new capital during the few years of his sole reign.** The second
+      son-in-law was a son of Amen�thes III., probably by a concubine. He
+      returned to the religion of Amon, and his wife, abjuring the creed of her
+      father, changed her name from Ankhnasaton to that of Ankhnasamon. Her
+      husband abandoned Kh�itaton�*** at the end of two or three years, and
+      after his departure the town fell into decadence as quickly as it had
+      arisen. The streets were unfrequented, the palaces and temples stood
+      empty, the tombs remained unfinished and unoccupied, and its patron god
+      returned to his former state, and was relegated to the third or fourth
+      rank in the Egyptian Pantheon.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * He and his wife are represented by the side of Kh�niaton�,
+     with the protocol and the attributes of royalty. P�trie
+     assigns to this double reign those minor objects on which
+     the king&rsquo;s prenomen Ankhkhop�r�ri is followed by the epithet
+     beloved of U�nir�, which formed part of the name of
+     Kh�niaton�.
+
+     ** P�trie thinks, on the testimony of the lists of Manetho,
+     which give twelve years to Akenkheres, daughter of Horos,
+     that S�aker� reigned twelve years, and only two or three
+     years as sole monarch without his father-in-law. I think
+     these two or three years a probable maximum length of his
+     reign, whatever may be the value we should here assign to
+     the lists of Manetho.
+
+     *** P�trie, judging from the number of minor objects which
+     he has found in his excavations at Tel el-Amarna, believes
+     that he can fix the length of T�tankhamon&rsquo;s sojourn at
+     Kh��taton� at six years, and that of his whole reign at nine
+     years.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The town struggled for a short time against its adverse fate, which was no
+      doubt retarded owing to the various industries founded in it by
+      Kh�niaton�, the manufactories of enamel and coloured glass requiring the
+      presence of many workmen; but the latter emigrated ere long to Thebes or
+      the neighbouring city of Hermopolis, and the &ldquo;Horizon of Aton�&rdquo;
+       disappeared from the list of nomes, leaving of what might have been the
+      capital of the Egyptian empire, merely a mound of crumbling bricks with
+      two or three fellah�n villages scattered on the eastern bank of the Nile.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * P�trie thinks that the temples and palaces were
+     systematically destroyed by Harmhab�, and the ruins used by
+     him in the buildings which he erected at different places in
+     Egypt. But there is no need for this theory: the beauty of
+     the limestone which Kh�niaton� had used sufficiently
+     accounts for the rapid disappearance of the deserted
+     edifices.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thebes, whose influence and population had meanwhile never lessened,
+      resumed her supremacy undisturbed. If, out of respect for the past,
+      T�tankhamon continued the decoration of the temple of Aton� at Karnak, he
+      placed in every other locality the name and figure of Amon; a little
+      stucco spread over the parts which had been mutilated, enabled the
+      outlines to be restored to their original purity, and the alteration was
+      rendered invisible by a few coats of colour. T�tankhamon was succeeded by
+      the divine father A�, whom Kh�niaton� had assigned as husband to one of
+      his relatives named T�i, so called after the widow of Amen�thes III. A�
+      laboured no less diligently than his predecessor to keep up the traditions
+      which had been temporarily interrupted. He had been a faithful worshipper
+      of the Disk, and had given orders for the construction of two funerary
+      chapels for himself in the mountain-side above Tel el-Amarna, the
+      paintings in which indicate a complete adherence to the faith of the
+      reigning king. But on becoming Pharaoh, he was proportionally zealous in
+      his submission to the gods of Thebes, and in order to mark more fully his
+      return to the ancient belief, he chose for his royal burying-place a site
+      close to that in which rested the body of Amen�thes III.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The first tomb seems to have been dug before his marriage,
+     at the time when he had no definite ambitions; the second
+     was prepared for him and his wife T�i.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His sarcophagus, a large oblong of carved rose granite, still lies open
+      and broken on the spot.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0042" id="linkimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/110.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="111.jpg Sarcophagus of the Pharaoh A� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after the drawing of Prisse d&rsquo;Avenues.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Figures of goddesses stand at the four angles and extend their winged arms
+      along its sides, as if to embrace the mummy of the sovereign. T�tankhamon
+      and A� were obeyed from one end of Egypt to the other, from Napata to the
+      shores of the Mediterranean. The peoples of Syria raised no disturbances
+      during their reigns, and paid their accustomed tribute regularly;* if
+      their rule was short, it was at least happy. It would appear, however,
+      that after their deaths, troubles arose in the state. The lists of Manetho
+      give two or three princes&mdash;R�th�tis, Khebres, and Akherres&mdash;whose
+      names are not found on the monuments.** It is possible that we ought not
+      to regard them as historical personages, but merely as heroes of popular
+      romance, of the same type as those introduced so freely into the history
+      of the preceding dynasties by the chroniclers of the Saite and Greek
+      periods. They were, perhaps, merely short-lived pretenders who were
+      overthrown one by the other before either had succeeded in establishing
+      himself on the seat of Horus. Be that as it may, the XVIIIth dynasty drew
+      to its close amid strife and quarreling, without our being able to
+      discover the cause of its overthrow, or the name of the last of its
+      sovereigns.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * T�tankhamon receives the tribute of the K�shites as well
+     as that of the Syrians; A� is represented at Shata�i in
+     Nubia as accompanied by Pa��r�, the prince of K�sh.
+
+     ** Wiedemann has collected six royal names which, with much
+     hesitation, he places about this time.
+
+     *** The list of kings who make up the XVIIIth dynasty can be
+     established with certainty, with the exception of the order
+     of the three last sovereigns who succeed Kh�niaton�. It is
+     here given in its authentic form, as the monuments have
+     permitted us to reconstruct it, and in its Greek form as it
+     is found in the lists of Manetho:
+</pre>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="table (55K)" src="images/table.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Manetho&rsquo;s list, as we have it, is a very ill-made extract,
+     wherein the official kings are mixed up with the legitimate
+     queens, as well as, at least towards the end, with persons
+     of doubtful authenticity. Several kings, between Kh�niaton�
+     and Harmhabi, are sometimes added at the end of the list;
+     some of these I think, belonged to previous dynasties, e.g.
+     Teti to the VIth, R�hotp� to the XVIIth; several are heroes
+     of romance, as Mernebphtah or Merkhopirphtah, while the
+     names of the others are either variants from the cartouche
+     names of known princes, or else are nicknames, such as was
+     Ses�, Sest�r� for Ramses II. Dr. Mahler believes that he can
+     fix, within a few days, the date of the kings of whom the
+     list is composed, from Ahmosis I. to A�. I hold to the
+     approximate date which I have given in vol. iv. p. 153 of
+     this History, and I give the years 1600 to 1350 as the
+     period of the dynasty, with a possible error of about fifty
+     years, more or less.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Scarcely half a century had elapsed between the moment when the XVIII&rsquo;s
+      dynasty reached the height of its power under Amen�thes III. and that of
+      its downfall. It is impossible to introduce with impunity changes of any
+      kind into the constitution or working of so complicated a machine as an
+      empire founded on conquest. When the parts of the mechanism have been once
+      put together and set in motion, and have become accustomed to work
+      harmoniously at a proper pace, interference with it must not be attempted
+      except to replace such parts as are broken or worn out, by others exactly
+      like them. To make alterations while the machine is in motion, or to
+      introduce new combinations, however ingenious, into any part of the
+      original plan, might produce an accident or a breakage of the gearing when
+      perhaps it would be least expected. When the devout Kh�niaton� exchanged
+      one city and one god for another, he thought that he was merely
+      transposing equivalents, and that the safety of the commonwealth was not
+      concerned in the operation. Whether it was Amon or Atonu who presided over
+      the destinies of his people, or whether Thebes or Tel el-Amarna were the
+      centre of impulse, was, in his opinion, merely a question of internal
+      arrangement which could not affect the economy of the whole. But events
+      soon showed that he was mistaken in his calculations. It is probable that
+      if, on the expulsion of the Hyks�s, the earlier princes of the dynasty had
+      attempted an alteration in the national religion, or had moved the capital
+      to any other city they might select, the remainder of the kingdom would
+      not have been affected by the change. But after several centuries of
+      faithful adherence to Amon in his city of Thebes, the governing power
+      would find it no easy matter to accomplish such a resolution. During three
+      centuries the dynasty had become wedded to the city and to its patron
+      deity, and the locality had become so closely associated with the dynasty,
+      that any blow aimed at the god could not fail to destroy the dynasty with
+      it; indeed, had the experiment of Kh�niaton� been prolonged beyond a few
+      years, it might have entailed the ruin of the whole country. All who came
+      into contact with Egypt, or were under her rule, whether Asiatics or
+      Africans, were quick to detect any change in her administration, and to
+      remark a falling away from the traditional systems of the times of
+      Th�tmosis III. and Amenothes II. The successors of the heretic king had
+      the sense to perceive at once the first symptoms of disorder, and to
+      refrain from persevering in his errors; but however quick they were to
+      undo his work, they could not foresee its serious consequences. His
+      immediate followers were powerless to maintain their dynasty, and their
+      posterity had to make way for a family who had not incurred the hatred of
+      Amon, or rather that of his priests. If those who followed them were able
+      by their tact and energy to set Egypt on her feet again, they were at the
+      same time unable to restore her former prosperity or her boundless
+      confidence in herself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkimage-0043" id="linkimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/114.jpg" width="100%" alt="114.jpg Tailpiece " />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="115 (135K)" src="images/115.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="116 (69K)" src="images/116.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>THE XIth DYNASTY: HARMHAB�&mdash;THE HITTITE EMPIRE IN SYRIA AND IN
+      ASIA MINOR&mdash;SETI I. AND RAMSES II.&mdash;THE PEOPLE OF THE SEA:
+      M�NEPHTAH AND THE ISRAELITE EXODUS.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The birth and antecedents of Harmhab�, his youth, his enthronement&mdash;The
+      final triumph of Amon and his priests&mdash;Harmhab� infuses order into
+      the government: his wars against the Ethiopians and Asiatics&mdash;The
+      Kh�ti, their civilization, religion; their political and military
+      constitution; the extension of their empire towards the north&mdash;The
+      countries and populations of Asia Minor; commercial routes between the
+      Euphrates and the �gean Sea&mdash;The treaty concluded between Harmhab�
+      and Sapalulu.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Ramses I. and the uncertainties as to his origin&mdash;Seti I. and the
+      campaign against Syria in the 1st year of his reign; the re-establishment
+      of the Egyptian empire&mdash;Working of the gold-mines at Eta�&mdash;The
+      monuments constructed by Seti I. in Nubia, at Karnak, Luxor, and Abydos&mdash;The
+      valley of the kings and tomb of Seti I. at Thebes.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Ramses II., his infancy, his association in the Government, his d�but
+      in Ethiopia: he builds a residence in the Delta&mdash;His campaign against
+      the Kh�ti in the 5th year of his reign&mdash;The talcing of Qodshu, the
+      victory of Ramses II. and the truce established with Kh�tusaru: the poem
+      of Penta��r�t&mdash;His treaty with the Kh�ti in the 21st year of his
+      reign: the balance of power in Syria: the marriage of Ramses II. with a
+      Hittite princess&mdash;Public works: the Speos at Abu-Simbel; Luxor,
+      Karnak, the Eamesseum, the monuments in the Delta&mdash;The regency of
+      Khamo�s�t and M�nephtah, the legend of Sesostris, the coffin and mummy of
+      Ramses II.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Minephtah&mdash;The kingdom of Libya, the people of the sea&mdash;The
+      first invasion of Libya: the Egyptian victory at Piri�; the triumph of
+      Minephtah&mdash;Seti II., Amenmeses, Siphtah-Minephtah&mdash;The foreign
+      captives in Egypt; the Exodus of the Hebrews and their march to Sinai&mdash;An
+      Egyptian romance of the Exodus: Amenophis, son of Pa-apis.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/117.jpg" width="100%" alt="117.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER II&mdash;THE REACTION AGAINST EGYPT
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The XIXth dynasty: Harmhab�&mdash;The Hittite empire in Syria and in
+      Asia Minor&mdash;Seti I. and Ramses II.&mdash;The people of the sea:
+      Minephtah and the Israelite Exodus.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      While none of these ephemeral Pharaohs left behind them a, either
+      legitimate or illegitimate, son there was no lack of princesses, any of
+      which, having on her accession to the throne to choose a consort after her
+      own heart, might thus become the founder of a new dynasty. By such a
+      chance alliance Harmhab�, who was himself descended from Th�tmosis III.,
+      was raised to the kingly office.* His mother, M�tnozm�t, was of the royal
+      line, and one of the most beautiful statues in the G�zeh Museum probably
+      represents her. The body is mutilated, but the head is charming in its
+      intelligent and animated expression, in its full eyes and somewhat large,
+      but finely modelled, mouth. The material of the statue is a finegrained
+      limestone, and its milky whiteness tends to soften the malign character of
+      her look and smile. It is possible that M�tnozm�t was the daughter of
+      Amen�thes III. by his marriage with one of his sisters: it was from her,
+      at any rate, and not from his great-grandfather, that Harmhab� derived his
+      indisputable claims to royalty.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A fragment of an inscription at Karnak calls Th�tmosis
+     III. &ldquo;the father of his fathers.&rdquo; Champollion called him
+     Hornemnob, Rosellini, H�r-hemheb, H�r-em-hbai, and both
+     identified him with the H�ros of Manetho, hence the custom
+     among Egyptologists for a long time to designate him by the
+     name Horus. D�v�ria was the first to show that the name
+     corresponded with the Armais of the lists of Manetho, and,
+     in fact, Armais is the Greek transcription of the group
+     Harmhab� in the bilingual texts of the Ptolemaic period.
+
+     ** M�tnozm�t was at first considered the daughter and
+     successor of Harmhab�, or his wife. Birch showed that the
+     monuments did not confirm these hypotheses, and he was
+     inclined to think that she was Harmhab�&rsquo;s mother. As far as
+     I can see for the present, it is the only solution which
+     agrees with the evidence on the principal monument which has
+     made known her existence.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was born, probably, in the last years of Amen�thes, when T�i was the
+      exclusive favourite of the sovereign; but it was alleged later on, when
+      Harmhab� had emerged from obscurity, that Amon, destining him for the
+      throne, had condescended to become his father by M�tnozm�t&mdash;a
+      customary procedure with the god when his race on earth threatened to
+      become debased.* It was he who had rocked the newly born infant to sleep,
+      and, while Harsiesis was strengthening his limbs with protective amulets,
+      had spread over the child&rsquo;s skin the freshness and brilliance which are
+      the peculiar privilege of the immortals. While still in the nursery, the
+      great and the insignificant alike prostrated themselves before Harmhab�,
+      making him liberal offerings. Every one recognised in him, even when still
+      a lad and incapable of reflection, the carriage and complexion of a god,
+      and Horus of Cynopolis was accustomed to follow his steps, knowing that
+      the time of his advancement was near. After having called the attention of
+      the Egyptians to Harmhab�, Amon was anxious, in fact, to hasten the coming
+      of the day when he might confer upon him supreme rank, and for this
+      purpose inclined the heart of the reigning Pharaoh towards him. A�
+      proclaimed him his heir over the whole land.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * All that we know of the youth of Harmhab� is contained in
+     the texts on a group preserved in the Turin Museum, and
+     pointed out by Champollion, translated and published
+     subsequently by Birch and by Brugsch. The first lines of the
+     inscription seem to me to contain an account of the union of
+     Amon with the queen, analogous to those at De�r el-Bahar�
+     treating of the birth of H�tshops�t�, and to those at Luxor
+     bearing upon Amen�thes III. (cf. vol. iv. pp. 342, 343; and
+     p. 51 of the present volume), and to prove for certain that
+     Harmhab�&rsquo;s mother was a princess of the royal line by right.
+
+     ** The king is not named in the inscription. It cannot have
+     been Amen�thes IV., for an individual of the importance of
+     Harmhab�, living alongside this king, would at least have
+     had a tomb begun for him at. Tel el-Amarna. We may hesitate
+     between A� and T�tankhamon; but the inscription seems to say
+     definitely that Harmhab� succeeded directly to the king
+     under whom he had held important offices for many years, and
+     this compels us to fix upon A�, who, as we have said at p.
+     108, et seq., of the present volume, was, to all
+     appearances, the last of the so-called heretical sovereigns.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He never gave cause for any dissatisfaction when called to court, and when
+      he was asked questions by the monarch he replied always in fit terms, in
+      such words as were calculated to produce serenity, and thus gained for
+      himself a reputation as the incarnation of wisdom, all his plans and
+      intentions appearing to have been conceived by Thot the Ibis himself. For
+      many years he held a place of confidence with the sovereign. The nobles,
+      from the moment he appeared at the gate of the palace, bowed their backs
+      before him; the barbaric chiefs from the north or south stretched out
+      their arms as soon as they approached him, and gave him the adoration they
+      would bestow upon a god. His favourite residence was Memphis, his
+      preference for it arising from his having possibly been born there, or
+      from its having been assigned to him for his abode. Here he constructed
+      for himself a magnificent tomb, the bas-reliefs of which exhibit him as
+      already king, with the sceptre in his hand and the uraaus on his brow,
+      while the adjoining cartouche does not as yet contain his name.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This part of the account is based upon, a study of a
+     certain number of texts and representations all coming from
+     Harmhab�&rsquo;s tomb at Saqq�rah, and now scattered among the
+     various museums&mdash;at G�zeh, Leyden, London, and Alexandria.
+     Birch was the first to assign those monuments to the Pharaoh
+     Harmhab�, supposing at the same time that he had been
+     dethroned by Ramses I., and had lived at Memphis in an
+     intermediate position between that of a prince and that of a
+     private individual; this opinion was adopted by Ed. Meyer,
+     rejected by Wiedemann and by myself. After full examination,
+     I think the Harmhab� of the tomb at Saqq�rah and the Pharaoh
+     Harmhab� are one and the same person; Harmhab�, sufficiently
+     high placed to warrant his wearing the uraius, but not high
+     enough to have his name inscribed in a cartouche, must have
+     had his tomb constructed at Saqq�rah, as A� and possibly
+     Ramses I. had theirs built for them at Tel el-Amarna.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was the mighty of the mighty, the great among the great, the general of
+      generals, the messenger who ran to convey orders to the people of Asia and
+      Ethiopia, the indispensable companion in council or on the field of
+      battle,* at the time when Horus of Cynopolis resolved to seat him upon his
+      eternal throne. A� no longer occupied it. Horus took Harmhab� with him to
+      Thebes, escorted him thither amid expressions of general joy, and led him
+      to Amon in order that the god might bestow upon him the right to reign.
+      The reception took place in the temple of Luxor, which served as a kind of
+      private chapel for the descendants of Amen�thes. Amon rejoiced to see
+      Harmhab�, the heir of the two worlds; he took him with him to the royal
+      palace, introduced him into the apartments of his august daughter,
+      M�tnozm�t; then, after she had recognised her child and had pressed him to
+      her bosom, all the gods broke out into acclamations, and their cries
+      ascended up to heaven.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fragments of the tomb preserved at Leyden show him
+     leading to the Pharaoh Asiatics and Ethiopians, burthened
+     with tribute. The expressions and titles given above are
+     borrowed from the fragments at G�zeh.
+
+     ** Owing to a gap, the text cannot be accurately translated
+     at this point. The reading can be made out that Amon &ldquo;betook
+     himself to the palace, placing the prince before him, as far
+     as the sanctuary of his (Amon&rsquo;s) daughter, the very
+     august...; she poured water on his hands, she embraced the
+     beauties (of the prince), she placed herself before him.&rdquo; It
+     will be seen that the name of the daughter of Amon is
+     wanting, and Birch thought that a terrestrial princess whom
+     Harmhab� had married was in question, Miifcnozm�t, according
+     to Brugsch. If the reference is not to a goddess, who along
+     with Amon took part in the ceremonies, but to M�tnozm�t, we
+     must come to the conclusion that she, as heir and queen by
+     birth, must have ceded her rights by some ritual to her son
+     before he could be crowned.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;Behold, Amon arrives with his son before him, at the palace, in order to
+      put upon his head the diadem, and to prolong the length of his life! We
+      install him, therefore, in his office, we give to him the insignia of E�,
+      we pray Amon for him whom he has brought as our protector: may he as king
+      have the festivals of E� and the years of Horus; may he accomplish his
+      good pleasure in Thebes, in Heliopolis, in Memphis, and may he add to the
+      veneration with which these cities are invested.&rdquo; And they immediately
+      decided that the new Pharaoh should be called Horus-sturdy-bull, mighty in
+      wise projects, lord of the Vulture and of the very marvellous Urseus in
+      Thebes, the conquering Horus who takes pleasure in the truth, and who
+      maintains the two lands, the lord of the south and north, Sozir Khop�r�r�
+      chosen of E�, the offspring of the Sun, Harmhab� M�am�n, giver of life.
+      The <i>cortege</i> came afterwards to the palace, the king walking before
+      Amon: there the god embraced his son, placed the diadems upon his head,
+      delivered to him the rule of the whole world, over foreign populations as
+      well as those of Egypt, inasmuch as he possessed this power as the
+      sovereign of the universe.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This is the customary subject of the records of enthronement. Pharaoh is
+      the son of a god, chosen by his father, from among all those who might
+      have a claim to it, to occupy for a time the throne of Horus; and as he
+      became king only by a divine decree, he had publicly to express, at the
+      moment of his elevation, his debt of gratitude to, and his boundless
+      respect for, the deity, who had made him what he was. In this case,
+      however, the protocol embodied something more than the traditional
+      formality, and its hackneyed phrases borrowed a special meaning from the
+      circumstances of the moment. Amon, who had been insulted and proscribed by
+      Kh�niaton�, had not fully recovered his prestige under the rule of the
+      immediate successors of his enemy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/123.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="123.jpg the First Pylon of Harmhab� at Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They had restored to him his privileges and his worship, they had become
+      reconciled to him, and avowed themselves his faithful ones, but all this
+      was as much an act of political necessity as a matter of religion: they
+      still continued to tolerate, if not to favour, the rival doctrinal system,
+      and the temple of the hateful Disk still dishonoured by its vicinity the
+      sanctuary of Karnak. Harmhab�, on the other hand, was devoted to Amon, who
+      had moulded him in embryo, and had trained him from his birth to worship
+      none but him. Harmhab�&rsquo;s triumph marked the end of the evil days, and
+      inaugurated a new era, in which Amon saw himself again master of Thebes
+      and of the world. Immediately after his enthronement Harmhab� rivalled the
+      first Amen-�thes in his zeal for the interests of his divine father: he
+      overturned the obelisks of Aton� and the building before which they stood;
+      then, that no trace of them might remain, he worked up the stones into the
+      masonry of two pylons, which he set up upon the site, to the south of the
+      gates of Th�tmosis III. They remained concealed in the new fabric for
+      centuries, but in the year 27 B.C. a great earthquake brought them
+      abruptly to light. We find everywhere among the ruins, at the foot of the
+      dislocated gates, or at the bases of the headless colossal figures, heaps
+      of blocks detached from the structure, on which can be made out remnants
+      of prayers addressed to the Disk, scenes of worship, and cartouches of
+      Amen�fches IV., A�, and T�tankhamon. The work begun by Harmhab� at Thebes
+      was continued with unabated zeal through the length of the whole
+      river-valley. &ldquo;He restored the sanctuaries from the marshes of Ath� even
+      to Nubia; he repaired their sculptures so that they were better than
+      before, not to speak of the fine things he did in them, rejoicing the eyes
+      of R�. That which he had found injured he put into its original condition,
+      erecting a hundred statues, carefully formed of valuable stone, for every
+      one which was lacking. He inspected the ruined towns of the gods in the
+      land, and made them such as they had been in the time of the first Ennead,
+      and he allotted to them estates and offerings for every day, as well as a
+      set of sacred vessels entirely of gold and silver; he settled priests in
+      them, bookmen, carefully chosen soldiers, and assigned to them fields,
+      cattle, all the necessary material to make prayers to R� every morning.&rdquo;
+       These measures were inspired by consideration for the ancient deities; but
+      he added to them others, which tended to secure the welfare of the people
+      and the stability of the government. Up to this time the officials and the
+      Egyptian soldiers had displayed a tendency to oppress the fellah�n,
+      without taking into consideration the injury to the treasury occasioned by
+      their rapacity. Constant supervision was the only means of restraining
+      them, for even the best-served Pharaohs, Th�tmosis, and Amen�thes III.
+      themselves, were obliged to have frequent recourse to the rigour of the
+      law to keep the scandalous depredations of the officials within bounds.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Harmhab� refers to the edicts of Th�tmosis III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/126.jpg"
+       alt="127.jpg Amenothes Iv. From a Fragment Used Again By Harmhabi " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a sketch by
+Prisse d&rsquo;Avennes.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The religious disputes of the preceding years, in enfeebling the authority
+      of the central power, had given a free hand to these oppressors. The
+      scribes and tax-collectors were accustomed to exact contributions for the
+      public service from the ships, whether laden or not, of those who were in
+      a small way of business, and once they had laid their hands upon them,
+      they did not readily let them go. The poor fellow falling into their
+      clutches lost his cargo, and he was at his wits&rsquo; end to know how to
+      deliver at the royal storehouses the various wares with which he
+      calculated to pay his taxes. No sooner had the Court arrived at some place
+      than the servants scoured the neighbourhood, confiscating the land
+      produce, and seizing upon slaves, under pretence that they were acting for
+      the king, while they had only their personal ends in view. Soldiers
+      appropriated all the hides of animals with the object, doubtless, of
+      making from them leather jackets and helmets, or of duplicating their
+      shields, with the result that when the treasury made its claim for
+      leather, none was to be found. It was hardly possible, moreover, to bring
+      the culprits to justice, for the chief men of the towns and villages, the
+      prophets, and all those who ought to have looked after the interests of
+      the taxpayer, took money from the criminals for protecting them from
+      justice, and compelled the innocent victims also to purchase their
+      protection. Harmhab�, who was continually looking for opportunities to put
+      down injustice and to punish deceit, at length decided to pro-mulgate a
+      very severe edict against the magistrates and the double-dealing
+      officials: any of them who was found to have neglected his duty was to
+      have his nose cut off, and was to be sent into perpetual exile to Zalu, on
+      the eastern frontier. His commands, faithfully carried out, soon produced
+      a salutary effect, and as he would on no account relax the severity of the
+      sentence, exactions were no longer heard of, to the advantage of the
+      revenue of the State. On the last day of each month the gates of his
+      palace were open to every one.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Any one on giving his name to the guard could enter the court of honour,
+      where he would find food in abundance to satisfy his hunger while he was
+      awaiting an audience. The king all the while was seated in the sight of
+      all at the tribune, whence he would throw among his faithful friends
+      necklaces and bracelets of gold: he inquired into complaints one after
+      another, heard every case, announced his judgments in brief words, and
+      dismissed his subjects, who went away proud and happy at having had their
+      affairs dealt with by the sovereign himself.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * All these details are taken from a stele discovered in
+     1882. The text is so mutilated that it is impossible to give
+     a literal rendering of it in all its parts, but the sense is
+     sufficiently clear to warrant our rilling up the whole with
+     considerable certainty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/128.jpg" alt="128.jpg Harmhabi " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a Autograph by
+Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The portraits of Harmhab� which have come down to us give us the
+      impression of a character at once energetic and agreeable. The most
+      beautiful of these is little more than a fragment broken off a black
+      granite statue. Its mournful expression is not pleasing to the spectator,
+      and at the first view alienates his sympathy. The face, which is still
+      youthful, breathes an air of melancholy, an expression which is somewhat
+      rare among the Pharaohs of the best period: the thin and straight nose is
+      well set on the face, the elongated eyes have somewhat heavy lids; the
+      large, fleshy lips, slightly contracted at the corners of the mouth, are
+      cut with a sharpness that gives them singular vigour, and the firm and
+      finely modelled chin loses little of its form from the false beard
+      depending from it. Every detail is treated with such freedom that one
+      would think the sculptor must have had some soft material to work upon,
+      rather than a rock almost hard enough to defy the chisel; the command over
+      it is so complete that the difficulty of the work is forgotten in the
+      perfection of the result. The dreamy expression of his face, however, did
+      not prevent Harmhab� from displaying beyond Egypt, as within it, singular
+      activity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Although Egypt had never given up its claims to dominion over the whole
+      river-valley, as far as the plains of Sennar, yet since the time of
+      Amen�thes III. no sovereign had condescended, it would I appear, to
+      conduct in person the expeditions directed against the tribes of! the
+      Upper Nile. Harmhab� was anxious to revive the custom which imposed upon
+      the Pharaohs the obligation to make their first essay in arms in Ethiopia,
+      as Horus, son of Isis, had done of yore, and he seized the pretext of the
+      occurrence of certain raids there to lead a body of troops himself into
+      the heart of the negro country.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/129.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="129.jpg the Vaulted Passage of The Rock-tomb at Gebel Silsileh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had just ordered at this time the construction of the two southern
+      pylons at Karnak, and there was great activity in the quarries of
+      Silsileh. A commemorative chapel also was in course of excavation here in
+      the sandstone rock, and he had dedicated it to his father, Amon-Ba of
+      Thebes, coupling with him the local divinities, Hap� the Nile, and Sobk�
+      the patron of Ombos. The sanctuary is excavated somewhat deeply into the
+      hillside, and the dark rooms within it are decorated with the usual scenes
+      of worship, but the vaulted approach to them displays upon its western
+      wall the victory of the king. We see here a figure receiving from Amon the
+      assurance of a long and happy life, and another letting fly his arrows at
+      a host of fleeing enemies; Ethiopians raise their heads to him in
+      suppliant gesture; soldiers march past with their captives; above one of
+      the doors we see twelve military leaders marching and carrying the king
+      aloft upon their shoulders, while a group of priests and nobles salute
+      him, offering incense.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The significance of the monument was pointed out first by
+     Champollion. The series of races conquered was represented
+     at Karnak on the internal face of one of the pylons built by
+     Harmhabi; it appears to have been &ldquo;usurped&rdquo; by Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At this period Egyptian ships were ploughing the Red Sea, and their
+      captains were renewing official relations with P�an�t. Somali chiefs were
+      paying visits to the palace, as in the time of Th�tmosis III. The wars of
+      Amon had, in fact, begun again. The god, having suffered neglect for half
+      a century, had a greater need than ever of gold and silver to fill his
+      coffers; he required masons for his buildings, slaves and cattle for his
+      farms, perfumed essences and incense for his daily rites. His resources
+      had gradually become exhausted, and his treasury would soon be empty if he
+      did not employ the usual means to replenish it. He incited Harmhabi to
+      proceed against the countries from which, in olden times he had enriched
+      himself&mdash;to the south in the first place, and then, having decreed
+      victory there, and having naturally taken for himself the greater part of
+      the spoils, he turned his attention to Asia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/131.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="131.jpg the Triumph Op Harmhab� in The Sanctuary of Gebel Silsileh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Daniel Heron.
+     The black spots are due to the torches of the fellah�n of
+     the neighbourhood who have visited the rock tomb in bygone
+     years.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the latter campaign the Egyptian troops took once more the route
+      through Coele-Syria, and if the expedition experienced here more
+      difficulties than on the banks of the Upper Nile, it was, nevertheless,
+      brought to an equally triumphant conclusion. Those of their adversaries
+      who had offered an obstinate resistance were transported into other lands,
+      and the rebel cities were either razed to the ground or given to the
+      flames: the inhabitants having taken refuge in the mountains, where they
+      were in danger of perishing from hunger, made supplications for peace,
+      which was granted to them on the usual conditions of doing homage and
+      paying tribute.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These details are taken from the fragment of an
+     inscription now in the museum at Vienna; Bergmann, and also
+     Erman, think that we have in this text the indication of an
+     immigration into Egypt of a tribe of the Mon�tiu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We do not exactly know how far he penetrated into the country; the list of
+      the towns and nations over which he boasts of having triumphed contains,
+      along with names unknown to us, some already famous or soon to become so&mdash;Arvad,
+      Pibukhu, the Kh�ti, and possibly Alasia. The Haui-Nibu themselves must
+      have felt the effects of the campaign, for several of their chiefs
+      associated, doubtless, with the Phoenicians, presented themselves before
+      the Pharaoh at Thebes. Egypt was maintaining, therefore, its ascendency,
+      or at least appearing to maintain it in those regions where the kings of
+      the XVIIIth dynasty had ruled after the campaigns of Th�tmosis I.,
+      Th�tmosis III., and Amenothes II. Its influence, nevertheless, was not so
+      undisputed as in former days; not that the Egyptian soldiers were less
+      valiant, but owing to the fact that another power had risen up alongside
+      them whose armies were strong enough to encounter them on the field of
+      battle and to obtain a victory over them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Beyond Naharaim, in the deep recesses of the Amanus and Taurus, there had
+      lived, for no one knows how many centuries, the rude and warlike tribes of
+      the Kh�ti, related not so, much to the Semites of the Syrian plain as to
+      the populations of doubtful race and language who occupied the upper
+      basins of the Halys and Euphrates.* The Chald�an conquest had barely
+      touched them; the Egyptian campaign had not more effect, and Th�tmosis
+      III. himself, after having crossed their frontiers and sacked several of
+      their towns, made no serious pretence to reckon them among his subjects.
+      Their chiefs were accustomed, like their neighbours, to use, for
+      correspondence with other countries, the cuneiform mode of writing; they
+      had among them, therefore, for this purpose, a host of scribes,
+      interpreters, and official registrars of events, such as we find to have
+      accompanied the sovereigns of Assyria and Babylon.** These chiefs were
+      accustomed to send from time to time a present to the Pharaoh, which the
+      latter was pleased to regard as a tribute,*** or they would offer,
+      perhaps, one of their daughters in marriage to the king at Thebes, and
+      after the marriage show themselves anxious to maintain good faith with
+      their son-in-law.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Hal�vy asserts that the Kh�ti were Semites, and bases his
+     assertion on materials of the Assyrian period. Th�s Kh�ti,
+     absorbed in Syria by the Semites, with whom they were
+     blended, appear to have been by origin a non-Semitic people.
+
+     ** A letter from the King of the Kh�ti to the Pharaoh
+     Amenothes IV. is written in cuneiform writing and in a
+     Semitic language. It has been thought that other documents,
+     drawn up in a non-Semitic language and coming from Mitanni
+     and Arzapi, contain a dialect of the Hittite speech or that
+     language itself. A &ldquo;writer of books,&rdquo; attached to the person
+     of the Hittite King Khatusaru, is named amongst the dead
+     found on the field of battle at Qodsh�.
+
+     *** It is thus perhaps we must understand the mention of
+     tribute from the Kh�ti in the <i>Annals of Th�tmosis III.</i>, 1.
+     26, in the year XXXIII., also in the year XL. One of the Tel
+     el-Amarna letters refers to presents of this kind, which the
+     King of Kh�ti addresses to Amen�thes IV. to celebrate his
+     enthronement, and to ask him to maintain with himself the
+     traditional good relations of their two families.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They had, moreover, commercial relations with Egypt, and furnished it with
+      cattle, chariots, and those splendid Cappadocian horses whose breed was
+      celebrated down to the Greek period.* They were already, indeed, people of
+      consideration; their territory was so extensive that the contemporaries of
+      Thutmosis III. called them the Greater Kh�ti; and the epithet &ldquo;vile,&rdquo;
+       which the chancellors of the Pharaohs added to their name, only shows by
+      its virulence the impression which they had produced upon the mind of
+      their adversaries.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The horses of the Kh�ti were called <i>abar�</i>, strong,
+     vigorous, as also their bulls. The King of Alasia, while
+     offering to Amen�thes III. a profitable speculation, advises
+     him to have nothing to do with the King of the Kh�ti or with
+     the King of Sangar, and thus furnishes proof that the
+     Egyptians held constant commercial relations with the Kh�ti.
+
+     ** M. de Roug� suggested that Kh�ti &ldquo;the Little&rdquo; was the
+     name of the Hittites of Hebron. The expression, &ldquo;Kh�ti the
+     Great,&rdquo; has been compared with that of Khanirabbat, &ldquo;Khani
+     the Great,&rdquo; which in the Assyrian texts would seem to
+     designate a part of Cappadocia, in which the province of
+     Miliddi occurs, and the identification of the two has found
+     an ardent defender in W. Max Millier. Until further light is
+     thrown upon it, the most probable reading of the word is not
+     Khani-<i>ra</i>bat, but Khani-<i>gal</i>bat. The name Khani-Galbat is
+     possibly preserved in Julbat, which the Arab geographers
+     applied in the Middle Ages to a province situated in Lesser
+     Armenia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their type of face distinguishes them clearly from the nations
+      conterminous with them on the south. The Egyptian draughtsmen represented
+      them as squat and short in stature, though vigorous, strong-limbed, and
+      with broad and full shoulders in youth, but as inclined frequently to
+      obesity in old age. The head is long and heavy, the forehead flattened,
+      the chin moderate in size, the nose prominent, the eyebrows and cheeks
+      projecting, the eyes small, oblique, and deep-set, the mouth fleshy, and
+      usually framed in by two deep wrinkles; the flesh colour is a yellowish or
+      reddish white, but clearer than that of the Phoenicians or the Amurru.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/135.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="135.jpg Three Heads of Hittite Soldiers " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their ordinary costume consisted, sometimes of a shirt with short sleeves,
+      sometimes of a sort of loin-cloth, more or less ample according to the
+      rank of the individual wearing it, and bound round the waist by a belt. To
+      these they added a scanty mantle, red or blue, fringed like that of the
+      Chald�ans, which they passed over the left shoulder and brought back under
+      the right, so as to leave the latter exposed. They wore shoes with thick
+      soles, turning up distinctly at the toes,* and they encased their hands in
+      gloves, reaching halfway up the arm.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This characteristic is found on the majority of the
+     monuments which the peoples of Asia Minor have left to us,
+     and it is one of the most striking indications of the
+     northern origin of the Kh�ti. The Egyptian artists and
+     modern draughtsmen have often neglected it, and the majority
+     of them have represented the Kh�ti without shoes.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They shaved off both moustache and beard, but gave free growth to their
+      hair, which they divided into two or three locks, and allowed to fall upon
+      their backs and breasts. The king&rsquo;s head-dress, which was distinctive of
+      royalty, was a tall pointed hat, resembling to some extent the white crown
+      of the Pharaohs. The dress of the people, taken all together, was of
+      better and thicker material than that of the Syrians or Egyptians. The
+      mountains and elevated plateaus which they inhabited were subject to
+      extraordinary vicissitudes of heat and cold. If the summer burnt up
+      everything, the winter reigned here with an extreme rigour, and dragged on
+      for months: clothing and footgear had to be seen to, if the snow and the
+      icy winds of December were to be resisted. The character of their towns,
+      and the domestic life of their nobles and the common people, can only be
+      guessed at. Some, at least, of the peasants must have sheltered themselves
+      in villages half underground, similar to those which are still to be found
+      in this region. The town-folk and the nobles had adopted for the most part
+      the Chald�an or Egyptian manners and customs in use among the Semites of
+      Syria. As to their religion, they reverenced a number of secondary deities
+      who had their abode in the tempest, in the clouds, the sea, the rivers,
+      the springs, the mountains, and the forests. Above this crowd there were
+      several sovereign divinities of the thunder or the air, sun-gods and
+      moon-gods, of which the chief was called Kh�ti, and was considered to be
+      the father of the nation. They ascribed to all their deities a warlike and
+      savage character. The Egyptians pictured some of them as a kind of R�,*
+      others as representing Sit, or rather S�tkh�, that patron of the Hyks�s
+      which was identified by them with Sit: every town had its tutelary heroes,
+      of whom they were accustomed to speak as if of its S�tkh�&mdash;S�tkh� of
+      Paliqa, S�tkh� of Khissapa, S�tkh� of Sarsu, S�tkh� of Salpina. The
+      goddesses in their eyes also became Astart�s, and this one fact suggests
+      that these deities were, like their Phoenician and Canaanite sisters, of a
+      double nature&mdash;in one aspect chaste, fierce, and warlike, and in
+      another lascivious and pacific. One god was called Mauru, another Targu,
+      others Qaui and Khepa.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Cilician inscriptions of the Gr�co-Roman period reveal
+     the existence in this region of a god, Rho, Rhos. Did this
+     god exist among the Kh�ti, and did the similarity of the
+     pronunciation of it to that of the god R� suggest to the
+     Egyptians the existence of a similar god among these people,
+     or did they simply translate into their language the name of
+     the Hittite god representing the sun?
+
+     ** The names Mauru and Qaui are deduced from the forms
+     Maurusaru and Qauisaru, which were borne by the Kh�ti: Qaui
+     was probably the eponymous hero of the Qui people, as Kh�ti
+     was of the Kh�ti. Tarku and Tisubu appear to me to be
+     contained in the names Targanunasa, Targazatas, and
+     Tartisubu; Tisubu is probably the T�ssupas mentioned in the
+     letter from Dushratta written in Mitannian, and identical
+     with the Tushupu of another letter from the same king, and
+     in a despatch from Tarkondaraush. Targu, Targa, Targanu,
+     resemble the god Tarkhu, which is known to us from the
+     proper names of these regions preserved in attributes
+     covered by each of these divine names, and as to the forms
+     with which they were invested.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/138.jpg" alt="138.jpg a Hittite King. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-
+Gudin, from a
+picture in Lepsius.
+Khatusaru, King of
+the Kh�ti,who was
+for thirty years
+a contemporary
+of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Tishubu, the Ramm�n of the Assyrians, was doubtless lord of the tempest
+      and of the atmosphere; Shausbe answered to Shala and to Ishtar the queen
+      of love;* but we are frequently in ignorance as to the Assyrian and Greek
+      inscriptions. Kheba, Khepa, Kh�pa, is said to be a denomination of Ramm�n;
+      we find it in the names of the princesses Tadu-kh�pa, Gilu-kh�pa,
+      Puu-kh�pa.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The majority of them, both male and female, were of gigantic stature, and
+      were arrayed in the vesture of earthly kings and queens: they brandished
+      their arms, displayed the insignia of their authority, such as a flower or
+      bunch of grapes, and while receiving the offerings of the people were
+      seated on a chair before an altar, or stood each on the animal
+      representing him&mdash;such as a lion, a stag, or wild goat. The temples
+      of their towns have disappeared, but they could never have been, it would
+      seem, either-large or magnificent: the favourite places of worship were
+      the tops of mountains, in the vicinity of springs, or the depths of
+      mysterious grottoes, where the deity revealed himself to his priests, and
+      received the faithful at the solemn festivals celebrated several times a
+      year.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The association of Tushupu, Tessupas, Tisubu, with Ramm�nu
+     is made out from an Assyrian tablet published by Bezold: it
+     was reserved for Say ce and Jensen to determine the nature
+     of the god. Shausbe has been identified with Ishtar or Shala
+     by Jensen.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We know as little about their political organisation as about their
+      religion.* We may believe, however, that it was feudal in character, and
+      that every clan had its hereditary chief and its proper gods: the clans
+      collectively rendered obedience to a common king, whose effective
+      authority depended upon his character and age.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The religious cities and the festivals of the Greek epoch
+     are described by Strabo; these festivals were very ancient,
+     and their institution, if not the method of celebrating
+     them, may go back to the time of the Hittite empire.
+
+     ** The description of the battle of Qodsh� in the time of
+     Ramses II. shows us the King of the Kh�ti surrounded by his
+     vassals. The evidence of the existence of a similar feudal
+     organisation from the time of the XVIIIth dynasty is
+     furnished by a letter of Dushratta, King of Mitanni, where
+     he relates to Amen�thes IV. the revolt of his brother
+     Artassumara, and speaks of the help which one of the
+     neighbouring chiefs, Pirkhi, and all the Kh�ti had given to
+     the rebel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The various contingents which the sovereign could collect together and
+      lead would, if he were an incapable general, be of little avail against
+      the well-officered and veteran troops of Egypt. Still they were not to be
+      despised, and contained the elements of an excellent army, superior both
+      in quality and quantity to any which Syria had ever been able to put into
+      the field. The infantry consisted of a limited number of archers or
+      slingers. They had usually neither shield nor cuirass, but merely, in the
+      way of protective armour, a padded head-dress, ornamented with a tuft. The
+      bulk of the army carried short lances and broad-bladed choppers, or more
+      generally, short thin-handled swords with flat two-edged blades, very
+      broad at the base and terminating in a point.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/140.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="140.jpg a Hittite Chariot With Its Three Occupants " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their mode of attack was in close phalanxes, whose shock must have been
+      hard to bear, for the soldiers forming them were in part at least
+      recruited from among the strong and hardy mountaineers of the Taurus. The
+      chariotry comprised the nobles and the <i>�lite</i> of the army, but it
+      was differently constituted from that of the Egyptians, and employed other
+      tactics.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Hittite chariots were heavier, and the framework, instead of being a
+      mere skeleton, was pannelled on the sides, the contour at the top being
+      sometimes quite square, at other times rudely curved. It was bound
+      together in the front by two disks of metal, and strengthened by strips of
+      copper or bronze, which were sometimes plated with silver or gold. There
+      were no quiver-cases as in Egyptian chariots, for the Hittite charioteers
+      rarely resorted to the bow and arrow. The occupants of a chariot were
+      three in number&mdash;the driver; the shield-bearer, whose office it was
+      to protect his companions by means of a shield, sometimes of a round form,
+      with a segment taken out on each side, and sometimes square; and finally,
+      the warrior, with his sword and lance. The Hittite princes whom fortune
+      had brought into relations with Th�tmos�s III. and Amen�thes II. were not
+      able to avail themselves properly of the latent forces around them. It was
+      owing probably to the feebleness of their character or to the turbulence
+      of their barons that we must ascribe the poor part they played in the
+      revolutions of the Eastern world at this time. The establishment of a
+      strong military power on their southern frontier was certain, moreover, to
+      be anything but pleasing to them; if they preferred not to risk everything
+      by entering into a great struggle with the invaders, they could, without
+      compromising themselves too much, harass them with sudden attacks, and
+      intrigue in an underhand way against them to their own profit. Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      generals were accustomed to punish, one after the other, these bands of
+      invading tribes, and the sculptors duly recorded their names on a pylon at
+      Thebes among those of the conquered nations, but these disasters had
+      little effect in restraining the Hittites. They continued, in spite of
+      them, to march southward, and the letters from the Egyptian governors
+      record their progress year after year. They had a hand in all the plots
+      which were being hatched among the Syrians, and all the disaffected who
+      wished to be free from foreign oppression&mdash;such as Abdashirti and his
+      son Az�ru&mdash;addressed themselves to them for help in the way of
+      chariots and men.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Az�ru defends himself in one of his letters against the
+     accusation of having received four messengers from the King
+     of the Kh�ti, while he refused to receive those from Egypt.
+     The complicity of Aziru with the Kh�ti is denounced in an
+     appeal from the inhabitants of Tunipa. In a mutilated
+     letter, an unknown person calls attention to the
+     negotiations which a petty-Syrian prince had entered into
+     with the King of the Kh�ti.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Even inthe time of Amen�fches III. they had endeavoured to reap profit
+      from the discords of Mitanni, and had asserted their supremacy over it.
+      Dushratta, however, was able to defeat one of their chiefs. Repulsed on
+      this side, they fell back upon that part of Naharaim lying between the
+      Euphrates and Orontes, and made themselves masters of one town after
+      another in spite of the despairing appeals of the conquered to the Theban
+      king. From the accession of Kh�niaton�, they set to work to annex the
+      countries of Nukhassi, N�i, Tunipa, and Zinzauru: they looked with
+      covetous eyes upon Phoenicia, and were already menacing Coele-Syria. The
+      religious confusion in Egypt under T�tankhamon and A� left them a free
+      field for their ambitions, and when Harmhab� ventured to cross to the east
+      of the isthmus, he found them definitely installed in the region
+      stretching from the Mediterranean and the Lebanon to the Euphrates. Their
+      then reigning prince, Sapalulu, appeared to have been the founder of a new
+      dynasty: he united the forces of the country in a solid body, and was
+      within a little of making a single state out of all Northern Syria.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * Sapalulu has the same name as that wo meet with later on in the country
+      of Patin, in the time of Salmanasar III., viz. Sapalulme. It is known to
+      us only from a treaty with the Kh�ti, which makes him coeval with Ramses
+      I.: it was with him probably that Harmhab� had to deal in his Syrian
+      campaigns. The limit of his empire towards the south is gathered in a
+      measure from what we know of the wars of Seti I. with the Kh�ti.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All Naharaim had submitted to him: Zahi, Alasia, and the Amurru had passed
+      under his government from that of the Pharaohs; Carchemish, Tunipa, N�i,
+      Hamath, figured among his royal cities, and Qodsh� was the defence of his
+      southern frontier. His progress towards the east was not less
+      considerable. Mitanni, Arzapi, and the principalities of the Euphrates as
+      far as the Balikh, possibly even to the Khabur,* paid him homage: beyond
+      this, Assyria and Chald�a barred his way. Here, as on his other frontiers,
+      fortune brought him face to face with the most formidable powers of the
+      Asiatic world.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The text of the poem of Penta��r�t mentions, among the
+     countries confederate with the Kh�ti, all Naharaim; that is
+     to say, the country on either side of the Euphrates,
+     embracing Mitanni and the principalities named in the Amarna
+     correspondence, and in addition some provinces whose sites
+     have not yet been discovered, but which may be placed
+     without much risk of error to the north of the Taurus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The latter prince was obliged to capture Qodsh�, and to conquer the people
+      of the Lebanon. Had he sufficient forces at his disposal to triumph over
+      them, or only enough to hold his ground? Both hypotheses could have been
+      answered in the affirmative if each one of these great powers, confiding
+      in its own resources, had attacked him separately. The Amorites, the
+      people of Zahi, Alasia, and Naharaim, together with recruits from Hittite
+      tribes, would then have put him in a position to resist, and even to carry
+      off victory with a high hand in the final struggle. But an alliance
+      between Assyria or Babylon and Thebes was always possible. There had been
+      such things before, in the time of Thut-mosis IV. and in that of Amen�thes
+      III., but they were lukewarm agreements, and their effect was not much to
+      boast of, for the two parties to the covenant had then no common enemy to
+      deal with, and their mutual interests were not, therefore, bound up with
+      their united action. The circumstances were very different now. The rapid
+      growth of a nascent kingdom, the restless spirit of its people, its
+      trespasses on domains in which the older powers had been accustomed to
+      hold the upper hand,&mdash;did not all this tend to transform the
+      convention, more commercial than military, with which up to this time they
+      had been content, into an offensive and defensive treaty? If they decided
+      to act in concert, how could Sapalulu or his successors, seeing that he
+      was obliged to defend himself on two frontiers at the same moment, muster
+      sufficient resources to withstand the double assault? The Hittites, as we
+      know them more especially from the hieroglyphic inscriptions, might be
+      regarded as the lords only of Northern Syria, and their power be measured
+      merely by the extent of territory which they occupied to the south of the
+      Taurus and on the two banks of the Middle Euphrates. But this does not by
+      any means represent the real facts. This was but the half of their empire;
+      the rest extended to the westward and northward, beyond the mountains into
+      that region, known afterwards as Asia Minor, in which Egyptian tradition
+      had from ancient times confused some twenty nations under the common vague
+      epithet of Ha��-n�b�. Official language still employed it as a convenient
+      and comprehensive term, but the voyages of the Phoenicians and the travels
+      of the &ldquo;Royal Messengers,&rdquo; as well as, probably, the maritime commerce of
+      the merchants of the Delta, had taught the scribes for more than a century
+      and a half to make distinctions among these nations which they had
+      previously summed up in one. The Lufeu* were to be found there, as well as
+      the Danauna,** the Shardana,*** and others besides, who lay behind one
+      another on the coast. Of the second line of populations behind the region
+      of the coast tribes, we have up to the present no means of knowing
+      anything with certainty. Asia Minor, furthermore, is divided into two
+      regions, so distinctly separated by nature as well as by races that one
+      would be almost inclined to regard them as two countries foreign to each
+      other.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Luku, Luka, are mentioned in the Amarna correspondence
+     under the form Lukki as pirates and highway robbers. The
+     identity of these people with the Lycians I hold as well
+     established.
+
+     ** The Danauna are mentioned along with the Luku in the
+     Amarna correspondence. The termination, <i>-auna, -ana</i> of
+     this word appears to be the ending in -aon found in Asiatic
+     names like Lyka�n by the side of Lykos, Kata�n by the side
+     of K�tis and Kat-patuka; while the form of the name Danaos
+     is preserved in Greek legend, Dana�n is found only on
+     Oriental monuments. The Danauna came &ldquo;from their islands,&rdquo;
+      that is to say, from the coasts of Asia Minor, or from
+     Greece, the term not being pressed too literally, as the
+     Egyptians were inclined to call all distant lands situated
+     to the north beyond the Mediterranean Sea &ldquo;islands.&rdquo;
+
+     *** E. de Roug� and Chabas were inclined to identify the
+     Shardana with the Sardes and the island of Sardinia. Unger
+     made them out to be the Khartanoi of Libya, and was followed
+     by Brugsch. W. Max M�ller revived the hypotheses of De Roug�
+     and Chabas, and saw in them bands from the Italian island. I
+     am still persuaded, as I was twenty-five years ago, that
+     they were Asiatics&mdash;the M�onian tribe which gave its name
+     to Sardis. The Serdani or Shardana are mentioned as serving
+     in the Egyptian Army in the Tel el-Amarna tablets.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In its centre it consists of a well-defined undulating plain, having a
+      gentle slope towards the Black Sea, and of the shape of a kind of convex
+      trapezium, clearly bounded towards the north by the highlands of Pontus,
+      and on the south by the tortuous chain of the Taurus. A line of low hills
+      fringes the country on the west, from the Olympus of Mysia to the Taurus
+      of Pisidia. Towards the east it is bounded by broken chains of mountains
+      of unequal height, to which the name Anti-Taurus is not very appropriately
+      applied. An immense volcanic cone, Mount Argseus, looks down from a height
+      of some 13,000 feet over the wide isthmus which connects the country with
+      the lands of the Euphrates. This volcano is now extinct, but it still
+      preserved in old days something of its languishing energy, throwing out
+      flames at intervals above the sacred forests which clothed its slopes. The
+      rivers having their sources in the region just described, have not all
+      succeeded in piercing the obstacles which separate them from the sea, but
+      the Pyramus and the Sarus find their way into the Mediterranean and the
+      Iris, Halys and Sangarios into the Euxine. The others flow into the
+      lowlands, forming meres, marshes, and lakes of fluctuating extent. The
+      largest of these lakes, called Tatta, is salt, and its superficial extent
+      varies with the season. In brief, the plateau of this region is nothing
+      but an extension of the highlands of Central Asia, and has the same
+      vegetation, fauna, and climate, the same extremes of temperature, the same
+      aridity, and the same wretched and poverty-stricken character as the
+      latter. The maritime portions are of an entirely different aspect.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/146.jpg" width="100%" alt="146.jpg Map " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The western coast which stretches into the �gean is furrowed by deep
+      valleys, opening out as they reach the sea, and the rivers&mdash;the
+      Caicus, the Hermos, the Cayster, and Meander&mdash;which flow through them
+      are effective makers of soil, bringing down with them, as they do, a
+      continual supply of alluvium, which, deposited at their mouths, causes the
+      land to encroach there upon the sea. The littoral is penetrated here and
+      there by deep creeks, and is fringed with beautiful islands&mdash;Lesbos,
+      Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes&mdash;of which the majority are near enough to
+      the continent to act as defences of the seaboard, and to guard the mouths
+      of the rivers, while they are far enough away to be secure from the
+      effects of any violent disturbances which might arise in the mainland. The
+      Cyclades, distributed in two lines, are scattered, as it were, at hazard
+      between Asia and Europe, like great blocks which have fallen around the
+      piers of a broken bridge. The passage from one to the other is an easy
+      matter, and owing to them, the sea rather serves to bring together the two
+      continents than to divide them. Two groups of heights, imperfectly
+      connected with the central plateau, tower above the �gean slope&mdash;wooded
+      Ida on the north, veiled in cloud, rich in the flocks and herds upon its
+      sides, and in the metals within its bosom; and on the south, the volcanic
+      bastions of Lycia, where tradition was wont to place the fire-breathing
+      Chimaera. A rocky and irregularly broken coast stretches to the west of
+      Lycia, in a line almost parallel with the Taurus, through which, at
+      intervals, torrents leaping from the heights make their way into the sea.
+      At the extreme eastern point of the coast, almost at the angle where the
+      Cilician littoral meets that of Syria, the Pyramus and the Sarus have
+      brought down between them sufficient material to form an alluvial plain,
+      which the classical geographers designated by the name of the Level
+      Cilicia, to distinguish it from the rough region of the interior, Gilicia
+      Trachea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The populations dwelling in this peninsula belong to very varied races. On
+      the south and south-west certain Semites had found an abode&mdash;the
+      mysterious inhabitants of Solyma, and especially the Phoenicians in their
+      scattered trading-stations. On the north-east, beside the Kh�ti,
+      distributed throughout the valleys of the Anti-Taurus, between the
+      Euphrates and Mount Argseus, there were tribes allied to the Kh�ti*&mdash;possibly
+      at this time the Tabal and the Mushk�&mdash;and, on the shores of the
+      Black Sea, those workers in metal, which, following the Greeks, we may
+      call, for want of a better designation, the Chalybes.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A certain number of these tribes or of their towns are to
+     be found in the list contained in the treaty of Ramses II.
+     with the Kh�ti.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We are at a loss to know the distribution of tribes in the centre and in
+      the north-west, but the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, we may rest assured,
+      never formed an ethnographical frontier. The continents on either side of
+      them appear at this point to form the banks of a river, or the two slopes
+      of a single valley, whose bottom lies buried beneath the waters. The
+      barbarians of the Balkans had forced their way across at several points.
+      Dardanians were to be encountered in the neighbourhood of Mount Ida, as
+      well as on the banks of the Axios, from early times, and the Kebrenes of
+      Macedonia had colonised a district of the Troad near Ilion, while the
+      great nation of the Mysians had issued, like them, from the European
+      populations of the Hebrus and the Strymon. The hero Dardanos, according to
+      legend, had at first founded, under the auspices of the Idasan Zeus, the
+      town of Dardania; and afterwards a portion of his progeny followed the
+      course of the Scamander, and entrenched themselves upon a precipitous
+      hill, from the top of which they could look far and wide over the plain
+      and sea. The most ancient Ilion, at first a village, abandoned on more
+      than one occasion in the course of centuries, was rebuilt and transformed,
+      earlier than the XVth century before Christ, into an important citadel,
+      the capital of a warlike and prosperous kingdom. The ruins on the spot
+      prove the existence of a primitive civilization analogous to that of the
+      islands of the Archipelago before the arrival of the Phoenician
+      navigators. We find that among both, at the outset, flint and bone, clay,
+      baked and unbaked, formed the only materials for their utensils and
+      furniture; metals were afterwards introduced, and we can trace their
+      progressive employment to the gradual exclusion of the older implements.
+      These ancient Trojans used copper, and we encounter only rarely a kind of
+      bronze, in which the proportion of tin was too slight to give the
+      requisite hardness to the alloy, and we find still fewer examples of iron
+      and lead. They were fairly adroit workers in silver, electrum, and
+      especially in gold. The amulets, cups, necklaces, and jewellery discovered
+      in their tombs or in the ruins of their houses, are sometimes of a not
+      ungraceful form. Their pottery was made by hand, and was not painted or
+      varnished, but they often gave to it a fine lustre by means of a
+      stone-polisher. Other peoples of uncertain origin, but who had attained a
+      civilization as advanced as that of the Trojans, were the Maeonians, the
+      Leleges, and the Carians who had their abode to the south of Troy and of
+      the Mysians. The Maeonians held sway in the fertile valleys of the Hermos,
+      Cayster, and Maaander. They were divided into several branches, such as
+      the Lydians, the Tyrseni, the Torrhebi, and the Shardana, but their most
+      ancient traditions looked back with pride to a flourishing state to which,
+      as they alleged, they had all belonged long ago on the slopes of Mount
+      Sipylos, between the valley of the Hermos and the Gulf of Smyrna. The
+      traditional capital of this kingdom was Magnesia, the most ancient of
+      cities, the residence of Tantalus, the father of Niobe and the Pelopidae.
+      The Leleges rise up before us from many points at the same time, but
+      always connected with the most ancient memories of Greece and Asia. The
+      majority of the strongholds on the Trojan coast belonged to them&mdash;such
+      as Antandros and Gargara&mdash;and Pedasos on the Satniois boasted of
+      having been one of their colonies, while several other towns of the same
+      name, but very distant from each other, enable us to form some idea of the
+      extent of their migrations.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * According to the scholiast on Nicander, the word &ldquo;Pedasos&rdquo;
+      signified &ldquo;mountain,&rdquo; probably in the language of the
+     Leleges. We know up to the present of four Pedasi, or
+     Pedasa: the first in Messenia, which later on took the name
+     of Meth�ne; the second in the Troad, on the banks of the
+     Satniois; the third in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus; and the
+     fourth in Caria.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In the time of Strabo, ruined tombs and deserted sites of cities were
+      shown in Caria which the natives regarded as Lelegia&mdash;that is, abode
+      of the Leleges. The Carians were dominant in the southern angle of the
+      peninsula and in the �gean Islands; and the Lycians lay next them on the
+      east, and were sometimes confounded with them. One of the most powerful
+      tribes of the Carians, the Tremilse, were in the eyes of the Greeks hardly
+      to be separated from the mountainous district which they knew as Lycia
+      proper; while other tribes extended as far as the Halys. A district of the
+      Troad, to the south of Mount Ida, was called Lycia, and there was a
+      Lycaonia on both sides of the Middle Taurus; while Attica had its Lycia,
+      and Crete its Lycians. These three nations&mdash;the Lycians, Carians, and
+      Leleges&mdash;were so entangled together from their origin, that no one
+      would venture now to trace the lines of demarcation between them, and we
+      are often obliged to apply to them collectively what can be appropriately
+      ascribed to only one.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      How far the Hittite power extended in the first years of its expansion we
+      have now hardly the means of knowing. It would appear that it took within
+      its scope, on the south-west, the Cilician plain, and the undulating
+      region bordering on it&mdash;that of Qodi: the prince of the latter
+      district, if not his vassal, was at least the colleague of the King of the
+      Kh�ti, and he acted in concert with him in peace as well as in war.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The country of Qidi, Qadi, Qodi, has been connected by
+     Chabas with Galilee, and Brugsch adopted the identification.
+     W. Max M�ller identified it with Phoenicia. I think the
+     name served to designate the Cilician coast and plain from
+     the mouth of the Orontes, and the country which was known in
+     the Gr�co-Roman period by the name K�tis and Kataonia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It embraced also the upper basin of the Pyramos and its affluents, as well
+      as the regions situated between the Euphrates and the Halys, but its
+      frontier in this direction was continually fluctuating, and our researches
+      fail to follow it. It is somewhat probable that it extended considerably
+      towards the west and north-west in the direction of the �gean Sea. The
+      forests and escarpments of Lycaonia, and the desolate steppes of the
+      central plateau, have always presented a barrier difficult to surmount by
+      any invader from the east. If the Kh�ti at that period attacked it in
+      front, or by a flank movement, the assault must rather have been of the
+      nature of a hurried reconnaissance, or of a raid, than of a methodically
+      conducted campaign.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The idea of a Hittite empire extending over almost all
+     Asia Minor was advanced by Sayce.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They must have preferred to obtain possession of the valleys of the
+      Thermodon and the Iris, which were rich in mineral wealth, and from which
+      they could have secured an inexhaustible revenue. The extraction and
+      working of metals in this region had attracted thither from time
+      immemorial merchants from neighbouring and distant countries&mdash;at
+      first from the south to supply the needs of Syria, Chald�a, and Egypt,
+      then from the west for the necessities of the countries on the �gean. The
+      roads, which, starting from the archipelago on the one hand, or the
+      Euphrates on the other, met at this point, fell naturally into one, and
+      thus formed a continuous route, along which the caravans of commerce, as
+      well as warlike expeditions, might henceforward pass. Starting from the
+      cultivated regions of M�onia, the road proceeded up the valley of the
+      Hermos from west to east; then, scaling the heights of the central plateau
+      and taking a direction more and more to the north-east, it reached the
+      fords of the Halys. Crossing this river twice&mdash;for the first time at
+      a point about two-thirds the length of its course, and for the second at a
+      short distance from its source&mdash;it made an abrupt turn towards the
+      Taurus, and joined, at Melitene, the routes leading to the Upper Tigris,
+      to Nisibis, to Singara, and to Old Assur, and connecting further down
+      beyond the mountainous region, under the walls of Carchemish, with the
+      roads which led to the Nile and to the river-side cities on the Persian
+      Gulf.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The very early existence of this road, which partly
+     coincides with the royal route of the Persian Achemenids,
+     was proved by Kiepert.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There were other and shorter routes, if we think only of the number of
+      miles, from the Hermos in Pisidia or Lycaonia, across the central steppe
+      and through the Cilician Gates, to the meeting of the ways at Carchemish;
+      but they led through wretched regions, without industries, almost without
+      tillage, and inhospitable alike to man and beast, and they were ventured
+      on only by those who aimed at trafficking among the populations who lived
+      in their neighbourhood. The Kh�ti, from the time even when they were
+      enclosed among the fastnesses of the Taurus, had within their control the
+      most important section of the great land route which served to maintain
+      regular relations between the ancient kingdoms of the east and the rising
+      states of the �gean, and whosoever would pass through their country had to
+      pay them toll. The conquest of Naharaim, in giving them control of a new
+      section, placed almost at their discretion the whole traffic between
+      Chald�a and Egypt. From the time of Th�tmosis III. caravans employed in
+      this traffic accomplished the greater part of their journey in territories
+      depending upon Babylon, Assyria, or Memphis, and enjoyed thus a relative
+      security; the terror of the Pharaoh protected the travellers even when
+      they were no longer in his domains, and he saved them from the flagrant
+      exactions made upon them by princes who called themselves his brothers, or
+      were actually his vassals. But the time had now come when merchants had to
+      encounter, between Qodshu and the banks of the Khabur, a sovereign owing
+      no allegiance to any one, and who would tolerate no foreign interference
+      in his territory. From the outbreak of hostilities with the Kh�ti, Egypt
+      could communicate with the cities of the Lower Euphrates only by the Wadys
+      of the Arabian Desert, which were always dangerous and difficult for large
+      convoys; and its commercial relations with Chald�a were practically
+      brought thus to a standstill, and, as a consequence, the manufactures
+      which fed this trade being reduced to a limited production, the fiscal
+      receipts arising from it experienced a sensible diminution. When peace was
+      restored, matters fell again into their old groove, with certain
+      reservations to the Kh�ti of some common privileges: Egypt, which had
+      formerly possessed these to her own advantage, now bore the burden of
+      them, and the indirect tribute which she paid in this manner to her rivals
+      furnished them with arms to fight her in case she should endeavour to free
+      herself from the imposition. All the semi-barbaric peoples of the
+      peninsula of Asia Minor were of an adventurous and warlike temperament.
+      They were always willing to set out on an expedition, under the leadership
+      of some chief of noble family or renowned for valour; sometimes by sea in
+      their light craft, which would bring them unexpectedly to the nearest
+      point of the Syrian coast, sometimes by land in companies of foot-soldiers
+      and charioteers. They were frequently fortunate enough to secure plenty of
+      booty, and return with it to their homes safe and sound; but as frequently
+      they would meet with reverses by falling into some ambuscade: in such a
+      case their conqueror would not put them to the sword or sell them as
+      slaves, but would promptly incorporate them into his army, thus making his
+      captives into his soldiers. The King of the Kh�ti was able to make use of
+      them without difficulty, for his empire was conterminous on the west and
+      north with some of their native lands, and he had often whole regiments of
+      them in his army&mdash;Mysians, Lycians, people of Augar�t,* of Ilion,**
+      and of Pedasos.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The country of Augar�t, Ugar�t, is mentioned on several
+     occasions in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence. The name has
+     been wrongly associated with Caria; it has been placed by W.
+     Max Miiller well within Naharaim, to the east of the
+     Orontes, between Khalyb�n (Aleppo) and Apamoea, the writer
+     confusing it with Akaiti, named in the campaign of Amen�thes
+     II. I am not sure about the site, but its association in the
+     Amarna letters with Gugu and Khanigalbat inclines me to
+     place it beyond the northern slopes of the Taurus, possibly
+     on the banks of the Halys or of the Upper Euphrates.
+
+     ** The name of this people was read Ei�na by Champollion,
+     who identified it with the Ionians; this reading and
+     identification were adopted by Lenormant and by W. Max
+     M�ller. Chabas hesitates between Ei�na and Mai�na, Ionia and
+     Moonia and Brugsch read it Malunna. The reading Iri�na,
+     Ili�na, seems to me the only possible one, and the
+     identification with Ilion as well.
+
+     *** Owing to its association with the Dardanians, Mysians,
+     and Ilion, I think it answers to the Pedasos on the Satniois
+     near Troy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The revenue of the provinces taken from Egypt, and the products of his
+      tolls, furnished him with abundance of means for obtaining recruits from
+      among them.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All these things contributed to make the power of the Kh�ti so
+      considerable, that Harmhab�, when he had once tested it, judged it prudent
+      not to join issues with them. He concluded with Sapalulu a treaty of peace
+      and friendship, which, leaving the two powers in possession respectively
+      of the territory each then occupied, gave legal sanction to the extension
+      of the sphere of the Kh�ti at the expense of Egypt.** Syria continued to
+      consist of two almost equal parts, stretching from Byblos to the sources
+      of the Jordan and Damascus: the northern portion, formerly tributary to
+      Egypt, became a Hittite possession; while the southern, consisting of
+      Phoenicia and Canaan,*** which the Pharaoh had held for a long time with a
+      more effective authority, and had more fully occupied, was retained for
+      Egypt.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * E. de Roug� and the Egyptologists who followed him thought
+     at first that the troops designated in the Egyptian texts as
+     Lycians, Mysians, Dardanians, were the national armies of
+     these nations, each one commanded by its king, who had
+     hastened from Asia Minor to succour their ally the King of
+     the Kh�ti. I now think that those were bands of adventurers,
+     consisting of soldiers belonging to these nations, who came
+     to put themselves at the service of civilized monarchs, as
+     the Oarians, Ionians, and the Greeks of various cities did
+     later on: the individuals whom the texts mention as their
+     princes were not the kings of these nations, but the warrior
+     chiefs to which each band gave obedience.
+
+     ** It is not certain that Harmhab� was the Pharaoh with whom
+     Sapalulu entered into treaty, and it might be insisted with
+     some reason that Ramses I. was the party to it on the side
+     of Egypt; but this hypothesis is rendered less probable by
+     the fact of the extremely short reign of the latter Pharaoh.
+     I am inclined to think, as W. Max Miiller has supposed, that
+     the passage in the <i>Treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of
+     the Kh�ti,</i> which speaks of a treaty concluded with
+     Sapalulu, looks back to the time of Ramses II.&lsquo;s
+     predecessor, Harmhab�.
+
+     *** This follows from the situation of the two empires, as
+     indicated in the account of the campaign of Seti I. in his
+     first year. The king, after having defeated the nomads of
+     the Arabian desert, passed on without further fighting into
+     the country of the Am�rr� and the regions of the Lebanon,
+     which fact seems to imply the submission of Khar�. W. Max
+     Miiller was the first to* discern clearly this part of the
+     history of Egyptian conquest; he appears, however, to have
+     circumscribed somewhat too strictly the dominion of Harmhab�
+     in assigning Carmel as its limit. The list of the nations of
+     the north who yielded, or are alleged to have yielded,
+     submission to Harmhab�, were traced on the first pylon of
+     this monarch at Karnak, and on its adjoining walls. Among
+     others, the names of the Kh�ti and of Arvad are to be read
+     there.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This could have been but a provisional arrangement: if Thebes had not
+      altogether renounced the hope of repossessing some day the lost conquests
+      of Th�tmosis III., the Kh�ti, drawn by the same instinct which had urged
+      them to cross their frontiers towards the south, were not likely to be
+      content with less than the expulsion of the Egyptians from Syria, and the
+      absorption of the whole country into the Hittite dominion. Peace was
+      maintained during Harmhab�&rsquo;s lifetime. We know nothing of Egyptian affairs
+      during the last years of his reign. His rule may have come to an end owing
+      to some court intrigue, or he may have had no male heir to follow him.*
+      Ramses, who succeeded him, did not belong to the royal line, or was only
+      remotely connected with it.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It would appear, from an Ostracon in the British Museum,
+     that the year XXI. follows after the year VII. of Harmhab�&rsquo;s
+     reign; it is possible that the year XXI. may belong to one
+     of Harmhab�&rsquo;s successors, Seti I. or Ramses II., for
+     example.
+
+     ** The efforts to connect Ramses I. with a family of Semitic
+     origin, possibly the Shepherd-kings themselves, have not
+     been successful. Everything goes to prove that the Ramses
+     family was, and considered itself to be, of Egyptian origin.
+     Brugsch and Ed. Meyer were inclined to see in Ramses I. a
+     younger brother of Harmhab�. This hypothesis has nothing
+     either for Or against it up to the present.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was already an old man when he ascended the throne, and we ought
+      perhaps to identify him with one or other of the Ramses who flourished
+      under the last Pharaohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, perhaps the one who
+      governed Thebes under Kh�niaton�, or another, who began but never finished
+      his tomb in the hillside above Tel el-Amarna, in the burying-place of the
+      worshippers of the Disk.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/160.jpg" alt="160.jpg Ramses I. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a sketch in Rosellini.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had held important offices under Harmhab�,* and had obtained in
+      marriage for his son Seti the hand of Tu�a, who, of all the royal family,
+      possessed the strongest rights to the crown.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This Tel el-Amarna Ramses is, perhaps, identical with the
+     Theban one: he may have followed his master to his new
+     capital, and have had a tomb dug for himself there, which he
+     subsequently abandoned, on the death of Kh�niaton�, in order
+     to return to Thebes with T�tankhamon and A�.
+
+     ** The fact that the marriage was celebrated under the
+     auspices of Harmhab�, and that, consequently, Ramses must
+     have occupied an important position at the court of that
+     prince, is proved by the appearance of Ramses II., son of
+     Tu�a, as early as the first year of Seti, among the ranks of
+     the combatants in the war carried on by that prince against
+     the Tihon�; even granting that he was then ten years old, we
+     are forced to admit that he must have been born before his
+     grandfather came to the throne. There is in the Vatican a
+     statue of Tu�a; other statues have been discovered at San.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses reigned only six or seven years, and associated Seti with himself
+      in the government from his second year. He undertook a short military
+      expedition into Ethiopia, and perhaps a raid into Syria; and we find
+      remains of his monuments in Nubia, at Bohani near Wady Haifa, and at
+      Thebes, in the temple of Amon.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * He began the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak; E. de Roug�
+     thinks that the idea of building this was first conceived
+     under the XVIIIth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He displayed little activity, his advanced age preventing him from
+      entering on any serious undertaking: but his accession nevertheless marks
+      an important date in the history of Egypt. Although Harmhab� was distantly
+      connected with the line of the Ahmessides, it is difficult at the present
+      day to know what position to assign him in the Pharaonic lists: while some
+      regard him as the last of the XVIIIth dynasty, others prefer to place him
+      at the head of the XIXth. No such hesitation, however, exists with regard
+      to Ramses I., who was undoubtedly the founder of a new family. The old
+      familiar names of Th�tmosis and Amen�thes henceforward disappear from the
+      royal lists, and are replaced by others, such as Seti, M�nephtah, and,
+      especially, Ramses, which now figure in them for the first time. The
+      princes who bore these names showed themselves worthy successors of those
+      who had raised Egypt to the zenith of her power; like them they were
+      successful on the battle-field, and like them they devoted the best of the
+      spoil to building innumerable monuments. No sooner had Seti celebrated his
+      father&rsquo;s obsequies, than he assembled his army and set out for war.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It would appear that Southern Syria was then in open revolt. &ldquo;Word had
+      been brought to His Majesty: &lsquo;The vile Sha�s� have plotted rebellion; the
+      chiefs of their tribes, assembled in one place on the confines of Khar�,
+      have been smitten with blindness and with the spirit of violence; every
+      one cutteth his neighbour&rsquo;s throat.&rdquo; * It was imperative to send succour to
+      the few tribes who remained faithful, to prevent them from succumbing to
+      the repeated attacks of the insurgents. Seti crossed the frontier at Zalu,
+      but instead of pursuing his way along the coast, he marched due east in
+      order to attack the Sha�s� in the very heart of the desert. The road ran
+      through wide wadys, tolerably well supplied with water, and the length of
+      the stages necessarily depended on the distances between the wells. This
+      route was one frequented in early times, and its security was ensured by a
+      number of fortresses and isolated towers built along it, such as &ldquo;The
+      House of the Lion &ldquo;&mdash;<i>ta ait pa ma�</i>&mdash;near the pool of the
+      same name, the Migdol of the springs of Huz�na, the fortress of Uaz�t, the
+      Tower of the Brave, and the Migdol of Seti at the pools of Absakaba. The
+      Bedaw�n, disconcerted by the rapidity of this movement, offered no serious
+      resistance. Their flocks were carried off, their trees cut down, their
+      harvests destroyed, and they surrendered their strongholds at discretion.
+      Pushing on from one halting-place to another, the conqueror soon reached
+      Babb�ti, and finally Pakan�na.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The pictures of this campaign and the inscriptions which
+     explain them were engraved by Seti I., on the outside of the
+     north wall of the great hypostyle hall at Karnak.
+
+     ** The site of Pakan�na has, with much probability, been
+     fixed at El-Ken�n or Khurbet-Kan�an, to the south of Hebron.
+     Brugsch had previously taken this name to indicate the
+     country of Canaan, but Chabas rightly contested this view.
+     W. Max Millier took up the matter afresh: he perceived that
+     we have here an allusion to the first town encountered by
+     Seti I. in the country of Canaan to the south-west of
+     Raphia, the name of which is not mentioned by the Egyptian
+     sculptor; it seems to me that this name should be Pakan�na,
+     and that the town bore the same name as the country.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The latter town occupied a splendid position on the slope of a rocky hill,
+      close to a small lake, and defended the approaches to the vale of Hebron.
+      It surrendered at the first attack, and by its fall the Egyptians became
+      possessed of one of the richest provinces in the southern part of Khar�.
+      This result having been achieved, Seti took the caravan road to his left,
+      on the further side of Gaza, and pushed forward at full speed towards the
+      Hittite frontier.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/163.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="163.jpg the Return of The North Wall Of The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, Where Seti I. Represents Some Episodes in his First Campaign " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph, by �mil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was probably unprotected by any troops, and the Hittite king was absent
+      in some other part of his empire. Seti pillaged the Amurru, seized Ianu�mu
+      and Qodsh� by a sudden attack, marched in an oblique direction towards the
+      Mediterranean, forcing the inhabitants of the Lebanon to cut timber from
+      their mountains for the additions which he was premeditating in the temple
+      of the Theban Amon, and finally returned by the coast road, receiving, as
+      he passed through their territory, the homage of the Phoenicians. His
+      entry into Egypt was celebrated by solemn festivities. The nobles,
+      priests, and princes of both south and north hastened to meet him at the
+      bridge of Zal�, and welcomed, with their chants, both the king and the
+      troops of captives whom he was bringing back for the service of his father
+      Amon at Karnak. The delight of his subjects was but natural, since for
+      many years the Egyptians bad not witnessed such a triumph, and they no
+      doubt believed that the prosperous era of Th�tmosis III. was about to
+      return, and that the wealth of Naharaim would once more flow into Thebes
+      as of old. Their illusion was short-lived, for this initial victory was
+      followed by no other. Maurusaru, King of the Kh�ti, and subsequently his
+      son Mautallu, withstood the Pharaoh with such resolution that he was
+      forced to treat with them. A new alliance was concluded on the same
+      conditions as the old one, and the boundaries of the two kingdoms remained
+      the same as under Harmhab�, a proof that neither sovereign had gained any
+      advantage over his rival. Hence the campaign did not in any way restore
+      Egyptian supremacy, as had been hoped at the moment; it merely served to
+      strengthen her authority in those provinces which the Kh�ti had failed to
+      take from Egypt. The Phoenicians of Tyre and Sidon had too many commercial
+      interests on the banks of the Nile to dream of breaking the slender tie
+      which held them to the Pharaoh, since independence, or submission to
+      another sovereign, might have ruined their trade. The Khar� and the
+      Bedaw�n, vanquished wherever they had ventured to oppose the Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      troops, were less than ever capable of throwing off the Egyptian yoke.
+      Syria fell back into its former state. The local princes once more resumed
+      their intrigues and quarrels, varied at intervals by appeals to their
+      suzerain for justice or succour. The &ldquo;Royal Messengers&rdquo; appeared from time
+      to time with their escorts of archers and chariots to claim tribute, levy
+      taxes, to make peace between quarrelsome vassals, or, if the case required
+      it, to supersede some insubordinate chief by a governor of undoubted
+      loyalty; in fine, the entire administration of the empire was a
+      continuation of that of the preceding century. The peoples of K�sh
+      meanwhile had remained quiet during the campaign in Syria, and on the
+      western frontier the Tihon� had suffered so severe a defeat that they were
+      not likely to recover from it for some time.* The bands of pirates,
+      Shardana and others, who infested the Delta, were hunted down, and the
+      prisoners taken from among them were incorporated into the royal guard.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This war is represented at Karnak, and Ramses II. figures
+     there among the children of Seti I.
+
+     ** We gather this from passages in the inscriptions from the
+     year V. onwards, in which Ramses II. boasts that he has a
+     number of Shardana prisoners in his guard; Rouge was,
+     perhaps, mistaken in magnifying these piratical raids into a
+     war of invasion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/166.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="166.jpg Representation of Seti I. Vanquishing the Libyans And Asiatics on the Walls, Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Ernil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Seti, however, does not appear to have had a confirmed taste for war. He
+      showed energy when occasion required it, and he knew how to lead his
+      soldiers, as the expedition of his first year amply proved; but when the
+      necessity was over, he remained on the defensive, and made no further
+      attempt at conquest. By his own choice he was &ldquo;the jackal who prowls about
+      the country to protect it,&rdquo; rather than &ldquo;the wizard lion marauding abroad
+      by hidden paths,&rdquo; * and Egypt enjoyed a profound peace in consequence of
+      his ceaseless vigilance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These phrases are taken direct from the inscriptions of
+     Seti I.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A peaceful policy of this kind did not, of course, produce the amount of
+      spoil and the endless relays of captives which had enabled his
+      predecessors to raise temples and live in great luxury without
+      overburdening their subjects with taxes. Seti was, therefore, the more
+      anxious to do all in his power to develop the internal wealth of the
+      country. The mining colonies of the Sinaitic Peninsula had never ceased
+      working since operations had been resumed there under H�tshops�t� and
+      Th�tmosis III., but the output had lessened during the troubles under the
+      heretic kings. Seti sent inspectors thither, and endeavoured to stimulate
+      the workmen to their former activity, but apparently with no great
+      success. We are not able to ascertain if he continued the revival of trade
+      with P�an�t inaugurated by Harmhab�; but at any rate he concentrated his
+      attention on the regions bordering the Red Sea and the gold-mines which
+      they contained. Those of Btba�, which had been worked as early as the
+      XIIth dynasty, did not yield as much as they had done formerly; not that
+      they were exhausted, but owing to the lack of water in their neighbourhood
+      and along the routes leading to them, they were nearly deserted. It was
+      well known that they contained great wealth, but operations could not be
+      carried on, as the workmen were in danger of dying of thirst. Seti
+      despatched engineers to the spot to explore the surrounding wadys, to
+      clear the ancient cisterns or cut others, and to establish victualling
+      stations at regular intervals for the use of merchants supplying the gangs
+      of miners with commodities. These stations generally consisted of square
+      or rectangular enclosures, built of stones without mortar, and capable of
+      resisting a prolonged attack. The entrance was by a narrow doorway of
+      stone slabs, and in the interior were a few huts and one or two reservoirs
+      for catching rain or storing the water of neighbouring springs. Sometimes
+      a chapel was built close at hand, consecrated to the divinities of the
+      desert, or to their compeers, M�n� of Coptos, Horus, Maut, or Isis. One of
+      these, founded by Seti, still exists near the modern town of Redesieh, at
+      the entrance to one of the valleys which furrow this gold region.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/168.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="168.jpg a Fortified Station on the Route Between The Nile And the Red Sea. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by M. de Bock
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is built against, and partly excavated in, a wall of rock, the face of
+      which has been roughly squared, and it is entered through a four-columned
+      portico, giving access to two dark chambers, whose walls are covered with
+      scenes of adoration and a lengthy inscription. In this latter the
+      sovereign relates how, in the IXth year of his reign, he was moved to
+      inspect the roads of the desert; he completed the work in honour of
+      Amon-R�, of Phtah of Memphis, and of Harmakhis, and he states that
+      travellers were at a loss to express their gratitude and thanks for what
+      he had done. &ldquo;They repeated from mouth to mouth: &lsquo;May Amon give him an
+      endless existence, and may he prolong for him the length of eternity! O ye
+      gods of fountains, attribute to him your life, for he has rendered back to
+      us accessible roads, and he has opened that which was closed to us.
+      Henceforth we can take our way in peace, and reach our destination alive;
+      now that the difficult paths are open and the road has become good, gold
+      can be brought back, as our lord and master has commanded.&rsquo;&rdquo; Plans were
+      drawn on papyrus of the configuration of the district, of the beds of
+      precious metal, and of the position of the stations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/169.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="169.jpg the Temple of Seti I. At Redesieh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Gol�nischeff.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One of these plans has come down to us, in which the districts are
+      coloured bright red, the mountains dull ochre, the roads dotted over with
+      footmarks to show the direction to be taken, while the superscriptions
+      give the local names, and inform us that the map represents the Bukhni
+      mountain and a fortress and stele of Seti. The whole thing is executed in
+      a rough and naive manner, with an almost childish minuteness which
+      provokes a smile; we should, however, not despise it, for it is the oldest
+      map in the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/170.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="170.jpg Fragment of the Map Of The Gold-mines " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Facsimile by Faucher-Gudin of coloured chalk-drawing by Chabas.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The gold extracted from these regions, together with that brought from
+      Ethiopia, and, better still, the regular payment of taxes and custom-house
+      duties, went to make up for the lack of foreign spoil all the more
+      opportunely, for, although the sovereign did not share the military
+      enthusiasm of Th�tmosis III., he had inherited from him the passion for
+      expensive temple-building.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/171.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="171.jpg the Three Standing Columns of The Temple Of Sesebi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He did not neglect Nubia in this respect, but repaired several of the
+      monuments at which the XVIIIth dynasty had worked&mdash;among others,
+      Kalabsheh, Dakkeh, and Amada, besides founding a temple at Sesebi, of
+      which three columns are still standing.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * In Lepsius&rsquo;s time there were still four columns standing;
+     Insinger shows us only three.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The outline of these columns is not graceful, and the decoration of them
+      is very poor, for art degenerated rapidly in these distant provinces of
+      the empire, and only succeeded in maintaining its vigour and spirit in the
+      immediate neighbourhood of the Pharaoh, as at Abydos, Memphis, and above
+      all at Thebes. Seti&rsquo;s predecessor Ramses, desirous of obliterating all
+      traces of the misfortunes lately brought about by the changes effected by
+      the heretic kings, had contemplated building at Karnak, in front of the
+      pylon of Amen�thes III., an enormous hall for the ceremonies connected
+      with the cult of Amon, where the immense numbers of priests and
+      worshippers at festival times could be accommodated without inconvenience.
+      It devolved on Seti to carry out what had been merely an ambitious dream
+      of his father&rsquo;s.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The great hypostyle hall was cleared and the columns were
+     strengthened in the winter of 1895-6, as far, at least, as
+     it was possible to carry out the work of restoration without
+     imperilling the stability of the whole.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We long to know who was the architect possessed of such confidence in his
+      powers that he ventured to design, and was able to carry out, this almost
+      superhuman undertaking. His name would be held up to almost universal
+      admiration beside those of the greatest masters that we are familiar with,
+      for no one in Greece or Italy has left us any work which surpasses it, or
+      which with such simple means could produce a similar impression of
+      boldness and immensity. It is almost impossible to convey by words to
+      those who have not seen it, the impression which it makes on the
+      spectator. Failing description, the dimensions speak for themselves. The
+      hall measures one hundred and sixty-two feet in length, by three hundred
+      and twenty-five in breadth. A row of twelve columns, the largest ever
+      placed inside a building, runs up the centre, having capitals in the form
+      of inverted bells.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/173.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="173 an Avenue of One Of the Aisles Of The Hypostyle Hall At Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One hundred and twenty-two columns with lotiform capitals fill the aisles,
+      in rows of nine each. The roof of the central bay is seventy-four feet
+      above the ground, and the cornice of the two towers rises sixty-three feet
+      higher. The building was dimly lighted from the roof of the central
+      colonnade by means of stone gratings, through which the air and the sun&rsquo;s
+      rays entered sparingly. The daylight, as it penetrated into the hall, was
+      rendered more and more obscure by the rows of columns; indeed, at the
+      further end a perpetual twilight must have reigned, pierced by narrow
+      shafts of light falling from the ventilation holes which were placed at
+      intervals in the roof.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/174.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="174.jpg the Gratings of The Central Colonnade in The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato. In the
+     background, on the right, may be seen a column which for
+     several centuries has been retained in a half-fallen
+     position by the weight of its architrave.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole building now lies open to the sky, and the sunshine which floods
+      it, pitilessly reveals the mutilations which it has suffered in the course
+      of ages; but the general effect, though less mysterious, is none the less
+      overwhelming. It is the only monument in which the first <i>coup d&rsquo;oil</i>
+      surpasses the expectations of the spectator instead of disappointing him.
+      The size is immense, and we realise its immensity the more fully as we
+      search our memory in vain to find anything with which to compare it. Seti
+      may have entertained the project of building a <i>replica</i> of this hall
+      in Southern Thebes. Amen�thes III. had left his temple at Luxor
+      unfinished. The sanctuary and its surrounding buildings were used for
+      purposes of worship, but the court of the customary pylon was wanting, and
+      merely a thin wall concealed the mysteries from the sight of the vulgar.
+      Seti resolved to extend the building in a northerly direction, without
+      interfering with the thin screen which had satisfied his predecessors.
+      Starting from the entrance in this wall, he planned an avenue of giant
+      columns rivalling those of Karnak, which he destined to become the central
+      colonnade of a hypostyle hall as vast as that of the sister temple. Either
+      money or time was lacking to carry out his intention. He died before the
+      aisles on either side were even begun. At Abydos, however, he was more
+      successful. We do not know the reason of Seti&rsquo;s particular affection for
+      this town; it is possible that his family held some fief there, or it may
+      be that he desired to show the peculiar estimation in which he held its
+      local god, and intended, by the homage that he lavished on him, to cause
+      the fact to be forgotten that he bore the name of Sit the accursed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/176.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="176.jpg One of the Colonnades Of The Hypostyle Hall In The Temple of Seti I. At Abydos " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The king selected a favourable site for his temple to the south of the
+      town, on the slope of a sandhill bordering the canal, and he marked out in
+      the hardened soil a ground plan of considerable originality. The building
+      was approached through two pylons, the remains of which are now hidden
+      under the houses of Aarabat el-Madfuneh.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/176b.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="176b.jpg the Facade of The Temple Of Seti " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A fairly large courtyard, bordered by two crumbling walls, lies between
+      the second pylon and the temple fa�ade, which was composed of a portico
+      resting on square pillars. Passing between these, we reach two halls
+      supported by-columns of graceful outline, beyond which are eight chapels
+      arranged in a line, side by side, in front of two chambers built in to the
+      hillside, and destined for the reception of Osiris. The holy of holies in
+      ordinary temples is surrounded by chambers of lesser importance, but here
+      it is concealed behind them. The building-material mainly employed here
+      was the white limestone of T�rah, but of a most beautiful quality, which
+      lent itself to the execution of bas-reliefs of great delicacy, perhaps the
+      finest in ancient Egypt. The artists who carved and painted them belonged
+      to the Theban school, and while their subjects betray a remarkable
+      similarity to those of the monuments dedicated by Amen�thes III., the
+      execution surpasses them in freedom and perfection of modelling; we can,
+      in fact, trace in them the influence of the artists who furnished the
+      drawings for the scenes at Tel el-Amarna. They have represented the gods
+      and goddesses with the same type of profile as that of the king&mdash;a
+      type of face of much purity and gentleness, with its aquiline nose, its
+      decided mouth, almond-shaped eyes, and melancholy smile. When the
+      decoration of the temple was completed, Seti regarded the building as too
+      small for its divine inmate, and accordingly added to it a new wing, which
+      he built along the whole length of the southern wall; but he was unable to
+      finish it completely. Several parts of it are lined with religious
+      representations, but in others the subjects have been merely sketched out
+      in black ink with corrections in red, while elsewhere the walls are bare,
+      except for a few inscriptions, scribbled over them after an interval of
+      twenty centuries by the monks who turned the temple chambers into a
+      convent. This new wing was connected with the second hypostyle hall of the
+      original building by a passage, on one of the walls of which is a list of
+      seventy-five royal names, representing the ancestors of the sovereign
+      traced back to Mini. The whole temple must be regarded as a vast funerary
+      chapel, and no one who has studied the religion of Egypt can entertain a
+      doubt as to its purpose. Abydos was the place where the dead assembled
+      before passing into the other world. It was here, at the mouth of the
+      &ldquo;Cleft,&rdquo; that they received the provisions and offerings of their
+      relatives and friends who remained on this earth. As the dead flocked
+      hither from all quarters of the world, they collected round the tomb of
+      Osiris, and there waited till the moment came to embark on the Boat of the
+      Sun. Seti did not wish his soul to associate with those of the common
+      crowd of his vassals, and prepared this temple for himself, as a separate
+      resting-place, close to the mouth of Hades. After having dwelt within it
+      for a short time subsequent to his funeral, his soul could repair thither
+      whenever it desired, certain of always finding within it the incense and
+      the nourishment of which it stood in need.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thebes possessed this king&rsquo;s actual tomb. The chapel was at Qurnah, a
+      little to the north of the group of pyramids in which the Pharaohs of the
+      XIth dynasty lay side by side with those of the XIIIth and XVIIth. Ramses
+      had begun to build it, and Seti continued the work, dedicating it to the
+      cult of his father and of himself. Its pylon has altogether disappeared,
+      but the fa�ade with lotus-bud columns is nearly perfect, together with
+      several of the chambers in front of the sanctuary. The decoration is as
+      carefully carried out and the execution as delicate as that in the work at
+      Abydos; we are tempted to believe from one or two examples of it that the
+      same hands have worked at both buildings.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/181.jpg" width="100%" alt="181.jpg the Temple of Qurnah " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The rock-cut tomb is some distance away up in the mountain, but not in the
+      same ravine as that in which Amen�thes III., A�, and probably T�tankhamon
+      and Harmhab�, are buried.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are, in fact, close to those of A� and Amen�thes
+     III., three other tombs, two at least of which have been
+     decorated with paintings, now completely obliterated, and
+     which may have served as the burying-places of T�tankhamon
+     and Harmhab�: the earlier Egyptologists believed them to
+     have been dug by the first kings of the XVIIIth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There then existed, behind the rock amphitheatre of De�r el-Bahar�, a kind
+      of enclosed basin, which could be reached from the plain only by dangerous
+      paths above the temple of H�tshops�t�. This basin is divided into two
+      parts, one of which runs in a south-easterly direction, while the other
+      trends to the south-west, and is subdivided into minor branches. To the
+      east rises a barren peak, the outline of which is not unlike that of the
+      step-pyramid of Saqq�ra, reproduced on a colossal scale. No spot could be
+      more appropriate to serve as a cemetery for a family of kings. The
+      difficulty of reaching it and of conveying thither the heavy accessories
+      and of providing for the endless processions of the Pharaonic funerals,
+      prevented any attempt being made to cut tombs in it during the Ancient and
+      Middle Empires. About the beginning of the XIXth dynasty, however, some
+      engineers, in search of suitable burial sites, at length noticed that this
+      basin was only separated from the wady issuing to the north of Qurnah by a
+      rocky barrier barely five hundred cubits in width. This presented no
+      formidable obstacle to such skilful engineers as the Egyptians. They cut a
+      trench into the living rock some fifty or sixty cubits in depth, at the
+      bottom of which they tunnelled a narrow passage giving access to the
+      valley.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * French scholars recognised from the beginning of this
+     century that the passage in question had been made by human
+     agency. I attribute the execution of this work to Ramses I.,
+     as I believe Harmhab� to have been buried in the eastern
+     valley, near Amen�thes III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is not known whether this herculean work was accomplished during the
+      reign of Harnhab� or in that of Ramses I. The latter was the first of the
+      Pharaohs to honour the spot by his presence. His tomb is simple, almost
+      coarse in its workmanship, and comprises a gentle inclined passage, a
+      vault and a sarcophagus of rough stone. That of Seti, on the contrary, is
+      a veritable palace, extending to a distance of 325 feet into the
+      mountain-side. It is entered by a wide and lofty door, which opens on to a
+      staircase of twenty-seven steps, leading to an inclined corridor; other
+      staircases of shallow steps follow with their landings; then come
+      successively a hypostyle hall, and, at the extreme end, a vaulted chamber,
+      all of which are decorated with mysterious scenes and covered with
+      inscriptions. This is, however, but the first storey, containing the
+      antechambers of the dead, but not their living-rooms. A passage and steps,
+      concealed under a slab to the left of the hall, lead to the real vault,
+      which held the mummy and its funerary furniture. As we penetrate further
+      and further by the light of torches into this subterranean abode, we see
+      that the walls are covered with pictures and formulae, setting forth the
+      voyages of the soul through the twelve hours of the night, its trials, its
+      judgment, its reception by the departed, and its apotheosis&mdash;all
+      depicted on the rock with the same perfection as that which characterises
+      the bas-reliefs on the finest slabs of T�rah stone at Qurnah and Abydos. A
+      gallery leading out of the last of these chambers extends a few feet
+      further and then stops abruptly; the engineers had contemplated the
+      excavation of a third storey to the tomb, when the death of their master
+      obliged them to suspend their task. The king&rsquo;s sarcophagus consists of a
+      block of alabaster, hollowed out, polished, and carved with figures and
+      hieroglyphs, with all the minuteness which we associate with the cutting
+      of a gem.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/184.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="184.jpg One of the Pillars Of The Tomb Of Seti I. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger, taken in
+     1884.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It contained a wooden coffin, shaped to the human figure and painted
+      white, the features picked out in black, and enamel eyes inserted in a
+      mounting of bronze. The mummy is that of a thin elderly man, well
+      preserved; the face was covered by a mask made of linen smeared with
+      pitch, but when this was raised by means of a chisel, the fine kingly head
+      was exposed to view. It was a masterpiece of the art of the embalmer, and
+      the expression of the face was that of one who had only a few hours
+      previously breathed his last. Death had slightly drawn the nostrils and
+      contracted the lips, the pressure of the bandages had flattened the nose a
+      little, and the skin was darkened by the pitch; but a calm and gentle
+      smile still played over the mouth, and the half-opened eyelids allowed a
+      glimpse to be seen from under their lashes of an apparently moist and
+      glistening line,&mdash;the reflection from the white porcelain eyes let in
+      to the orbit at the time of burial.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Seti had had several children by his wife Tu�a, and the eldest had already
+      reached manhood when his father ascended the throne, for he had
+      accompanied him on his Syrian campaign. The young prince died, however,
+      soon after his return, and his right to the crown devolved on his younger
+      brother, who, like his grandfather, bore the name of Ramses. The prince
+      was still very young,* but Seti did not on that account delay enthroning
+      with great pomp this son who had a better right to the throne than
+      himself.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The history of the youth and the accession of Ramses II.
+     is known to us from the narrative given by himself in the
+     temple of Seti I. at Abydos. The bulk of the narrative is
+     confirmed by the evidence of the Kub�n inscription,
+     especially as to the extreme youth of Ramses at the time
+     when he was first associated with the crown.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;From the time that I was in the egg,&rdquo; Ramses writes later on, &ldquo;the great
+      ones sniffed the earth before me; when I attained to the rank of eldest
+      son and heir upon the throne of Sib�, I dealt with affairs, I commanded as
+      chief the foot-soldiers and the chariots. My father having appeared before
+      the people, when I was but a very little boy in his arms, said to me: &lsquo;I
+      shall have him crowned king, that I may see him in all his splendour while
+      I am still on this earth!&rsquo; The nobles of the court having drawn near to
+      place the pschent upon my head: &lsquo;Place the diadem upon his forehead!&rsquo; said
+      he.&rdquo; As Ramses increased in years, Seti delighted to confer upon him, one
+      after the other, the principal attributes of power; &ldquo;while he was still
+      upon this earth, regulating everything in the land, defending its
+      frontiers, and watching over the welfare of its inhabitants, he cried:
+      &lsquo;Let him reign!&rsquo; because of the love he had for me.&rdquo; Seti also chose for
+      him wives, beautiful &ldquo;as are those of his palace,&rdquo; and he gave him in
+      marriage his sisters Nofr�tari II. M�m�t and Is�tnofr�t, who, like Ramses
+      himself, had claims to the throne. Ramses was allowed to attend the State
+      councils at the age of ten; he commanded armies, and he administered
+      justice under the direction of his father and his viziers. Seti, however,
+      although making use of his son&rsquo;s youth and activity, did not in any sense
+      retire in his favour; if he permitted Ramses to adopt the insignia of
+      royalty&mdash;the cartouches, the pschent, the bulbous-shaped helmet, and
+      the various sceptres&mdash;he still remained to the day of his death the
+      principal State official, and he reckoned all the years of this dual
+      sovereignty as those of his sole reign.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Brugsoh is wrong in reckoning the reign of Ramses II. from
+     the time of his association in the crown; the great
+     inscription of Abydos, which has been translated by Brugsch
+     himself, dates events which immediately followed the death
+     of Seti I. as belonging to the first year of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses repulsed the incursions of the Tihon�, and put to the sword such of
+      their hordes as had ventured to invade Egyptian territory. He exercised
+      the functions of viceroy of Ethiopia, and had on several occasions to
+      chastise the pillaging negroes. We see him at Be�t-Wally and at Abu Simbel
+      charging them in his chariot: in vain they flee in confusion before him;
+      their flight, however swift, cannot save them from captivity and
+      destruction.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/187.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="187.jpg Ramses Ii. Puts the Negroes to Flight " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was engaged in Ethiopia when the death of Seti recalled him to Thebes.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We do not know how long Seti I. reigned; the last date is
+     that of his IXth year at Redesieh and at Aswan, and that of
+     the year XXVII. sometimes attributed to him belongs to one
+     of the later Ramessides. I had at first supposed his reign
+     to have been a long one, merely on the evidence afforded by
+     Manetho&rsquo;s lists, but the presence of Ramses II. as a
+     stripling, in the campaign of Seti&rsquo;s 1st year, forces us to
+     limit its duration to fifteen or twenty years at most,
+     possibly to only twelve or fifteen.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He at once returned to the capital, celebrated the king&rsquo;s funeral
+      obsequies with suitable pomp, and after keeping the festival of Amon, set
+      out for the north in order to make his authority felt in that part of his
+      domains. He stopped on his way at Abydos to give the necessary orders for
+      completing the decoration of the principal chambers of the resting-place
+      built by his father, and chose a site some 320 feet to the north-west of
+      it for a similar Memnonium for himself. He granted cultivated fields and
+      meadows in the Thinite name for the maintenance of these two mausolea,
+      founded a college of priests and soothsayers in connexion with them, for
+      which he provided endowments, and also assigned them considerable fiefs in
+      all parts of the valley of the Nile. The Delta next occupied his
+      attention. The increasing importance of the Syrian provinces in the eyes
+      of Egypt, the growth of the Hittite monarchy, and the migrations of the
+      peoples of the Mediterranean, had obliged the last princes of the
+      preceding dynasty to reside more frequently at Memphis than Amen�thes I.
+      or Th�tmosis III. had done. Amen�thes III. had set to work to restore
+      certain cities which had been abandoned since the days of the Shepherds,
+      and Bubastis, Athribis, and perhaps Tanis, had, thanks to his efforts,
+      revived from their decayed condition. The Pharaohs, indeed, felt that at
+      Thebes they were too far removed from the battle-fields of Asia; distance
+      made it difficult for them to counteract the intrigues in which their
+      vassals in Khar� and the lords of Naharaim were perpetually implicated,
+      and a revolt which might have been easily anticipated or crushed had they
+      been advised of it within a few days, gained time to increase and extend
+      during the interval occupied by the couriers in travelling to and from the
+      capital. Ramses felt the importance of possessing a town close to the
+      Isthmus where he could reside in security, and he therefore built close to
+      Zal�, in a fertile and healthy locality, a stronghold to which he gave his
+      own name,* and of which the poets of the time have left us an enthusiastic
+      description. &ldquo;It extends,&rdquo; they say, &ldquo;between Zahi and Egypt&mdash;and is
+      filled with provisions and victuals.&mdash;It resembles Hermonthis,&mdash;it
+      is strong like Memphis,&mdash;and the sun rises&mdash;and sets in it&mdash;so
+      that men quit their villages and establish themselves in its territory.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;The
+      dwellers on the coasts bring conger eels and fish in homage,&mdash;they
+      pay it the tribute of their marshes.&mdash;The inhabitants don their
+      festal garments every day,&mdash;perfumed oil is on their heads and new
+      wigs;&mdash;they stand at their doors, their hands full of bunches of
+      flowers,&mdash;green branches from the village of Pih�thor,&mdash;garlands
+      of Pah�r�,&mdash;on the day when Pharaoh makes his entry.&mdash;Joy then
+      reigns and spreads, and nothing can stay it,&mdash;O Usirmar�-sotp�nir�,
+      thou who art Mont� in the two lands,&mdash;Ramses-M�am�n, the god.&rdquo; The
+      town acted as an advance post, from whence the king could keep watch
+      against all intriguing adversaries,&mdash;whether on the banks of the
+      Orontes or the coast of the Mediterranean.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An allusion to the foundation of this residence occurs in
+     an inscription at Abu Simbel, dated in his XXVth year.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nothing appeared for the moment to threaten the peace of the empire. The
+      Asiatic vassals had raised no disturbance on hearing of the king&rsquo;s
+      accession, and Mautallu continued to observe the conditions of the treaty
+      which he had signed with Seti. Two military expeditions undertaken beyond
+      the isthmus in the IInd and IVth years of the new sovereign were
+      accomplished almost without fighting. He repressed by the way the
+      marauding Sha�s�, and on reaching the Nahr el-Kelb, which then formed the
+      northern frontier of his empire, he inscribed at the turn of the road, on
+      the rocks which overhang the mouth of the river, two triumphal stel� in
+      which he related his successes.* Towards the end of his IVth year a
+      rebellion broke out among the Kh�ti, which caused a rupture of relations
+      between the two kingdoms and led to some irregular fighting. Kh�tusaru, a
+      younger brother of Maurusaru, murdered the latter and made himself king in
+      his stead.** It is not certain whether the Egyptians took up arms against
+      him, or whether he judged it wise to oppose them in order to divert the
+      attention of his subjects from his crime.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The stel� are all in a very bad condition; in the last of
+     them the date is no longer legible.
+
+     ** In the <i>Treaty of Harrises II. with the Prince of Kh�ti</i>,
+     the writer is content to use a discreet euphemism, and
+     states that Mautallu succumbed &ldquo;to his destiny.&rdquo; The name of
+     the Prince of the Kh�ti is found later on under the form
+     Khatusharu, in that of a chief defeated by Tiglath-pileser
+     I. in the country of Kummukh, though this name has generally
+     been read Khatukhi.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      At all events, he convoked his Syrian vassals and collected his
+      mercenaries; the whole of Naharaim, Khalupu, Carchemish, and Arvad sent
+      their quota, while bands of Dardanians, Mysians, Trojans, and Lycians,
+      together with the people of Pedasos and Girgasha,* furnished further
+      contingents, drawn from an area extending from the most distant coasts of
+      the Mediterranean to the mountains of Cilicia. Ramses, informed of the
+      enemy&rsquo;s movement by his generals and the governors of places on the
+      frontier, resolved to anticipate the attack. He assembled an army almost
+      as incongruous in its component elements as that of his adversary: besides
+      Egyptians of unmixed race, divided into four corps bearing the names of
+      Amon, Phtah, Harmakhis and S�tkh�, it contained Ethiopian auxiliaries,
+      Libyans, Mazaiu, and Shardana.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this nation is written Karkisha, Kalkisha, or
+     Kashkisha, by one of those changes of <i>sh</i> into <i>r-l</i> which
+     occur so frequently in Assyro-Chald�an before a dental; the
+     two different spellings seem to show that the writers of the
+     inscriptions bearing on this war had before them a list of
+     the allies of Kh�tusaru, written in cuneiform characters. If
+     we may identify the nation with the Kashki or Kashku of the
+     Assyrian texts, the ancestors of the people of Colchis of
+     classical times, the termination <i>-isha</i> of the Egyptian
+     word would be the inflexion <i>-ash</i> or <i>-ush</i> of the Eastern-
+     Asiatic tongues which we find in so many race-names, e.g.
+     Adaush, Saradaush, Ammaush. Rouge and Brugsch identified
+     them with the Girgashites of the Bible. Brugsch, adopting
+     the spelling Kashki, endeavoured to connect them with
+     Casiotis; later on he identified them with the people of
+     Gergis in Troas. Ramsay recognises in them the Kisldsos of
+     Cilicia.
+
+     ** In the account of the campaign the Shardana only are
+     mentioned; but we learn from a list in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus
+     I</i>, that the army of Ramses II. included, in ordinary
+     circumstances, in addition to the Shardana, a contingent of
+     Mashauasha, Kahaka, and other Libyan and negro mercenaries.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      When preparations were completed, the force crossed the canal at Zal�, on
+      the 9th of Payni in his Vth year, marched rapidly across Canaan till they
+      reached the valley of the Lit�ny, along which they took their way, and
+      then followed up that of the Orontes. They encamped for a few days at
+      Shabtuna, to the south-west of Qodsh�,* in the midst of the Amorite
+      country, sending out scouts and endeavouring to discover the position of
+      the enemy, of whose movements they possessed but vague information.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Shabtuna had been placed on the Nahr es-Sebta, on the site
+     now occupied by Kalaat el-Hosn, a conjecture approved by
+     Mariette; it was more probably a town situated in the plain,
+     to the south of Bahr el-Kades, a little to the south-west of
+     Tell Keby Mindoh which represents Qodsh�, and close to some
+     forests which at that time covered the slopes of Lebanon,
+     and, extending as they did to the bottom of the valley,
+     concealed the position of the Kh�ti from the Egyptians.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Kh�tusaru lay concealed in the wooded valleys of the Lebanon; he was kept
+      well posted by his spies, and only waited an opportunity to take the
+      field; as an occasion did not immediately present itself, he had recourse
+      to a ruse with which the generals of the time were familiar. Ramses, at
+      length uneasy at not falling in with the enemy, advanced to the south of
+      Shabtuna, where he endeavoured to obtain information from two Bedaw�n.
+      &ldquo;Our brethren,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;who are the chiefs of the tribes united under
+      the vile Prince of Kh�ti, send us to give information to your Majesty: We
+      desire to serve the Pharaoh. We are deserting the vile Prince of the
+      Kh�ti; he is close to Khalupu (Aleppo), to the north of the city of
+      Tunipa, whither he has rapidly retired from fear of the Pharaoh.&rdquo; This
+      story had every appearance of probability; and the distance&mdash;Khalupu
+      was at least forty leagues away&mdash;explained why the reconnoitring
+      parties of the Egyptians had not fallen in with any of the enemy. The
+      Pharaoh, with this information, could not decide whether to lay siege to
+      Qodsh� and wait until the Hittites were forced to succour the town, or to
+      push on towards the Euphrates and there seek the engagement which his
+      adversary seemed anxious to avoid.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/193.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="193.jpg the Shardana Guard of Ramses Ii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He chose the latter of the two alternatives. He sent forward the legions
+      of Anion, Phr�, Phtah, and Sutkhu, which constituted the main body of his
+      troops, and prepared to follow them with his household chariotry. At the
+      very moment when this division was being effected, the Hittites, who had
+      been represented by the spies as being far distant, were secretly massing
+      their forces to the north-east of Qodshu, ready to make an attack upon the
+      Pharaoh&rsquo;s flank as soon as he should set out on his march towards Khalupu.
+      The enemy had considerable forces at their disposal, and on the day of the
+      engagement they placed 18,000 to 20,000 picked soldiers in the field.*
+      Besides a well-disciplined infantry, they possessed 2500 to 3000 chariots,
+      containing, as was the Asiatic custom, three men in each.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * An army corps is reckoned as containing 9000 men on the
+     wall scenes at Luxor, and 8000 at the Eamesseum; the 3000
+     chariots were manned by 9000 men. In allowing four to five
+     thousand men for the rest of the soldiers engaged, we are
+     not likely to be far wrong, and shall thus obtain the modest
+     total mentioned in the text, contrary to the opinion current
+     among historians.
+
+     * The mercenaries are included in these figures, as is shown
+     by the reckoning of the Lycian, Dardanian, and Pedasian
+     chiefs who were in command of the chariots during the
+     charges against Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptian camp was not entirely broken up, when the scouts brought in
+      two spies whom they had seized&mdash;Asiatics in long blue robes arranged
+      diagonally over one shoulder, leaving the other bare. The king, who was
+      seated on his throne delivering his final commands, ordered them to be
+      beaten till the truth should be extracted from them. They at last
+      confessed that they had been despatched to watch the departure of the
+      Egyptians, and admitted that the enemy was concealed in ambush behind the
+      town. Ramses hastily called a council of war and laid the situation before
+      his generals, not without severely reprimanding them for the bad
+      organisation of the intelligence department. The officers excused
+      themselves as best they could, and threw the blame on the provincial
+      governors, who had not been able to discover what was going on. The king
+      cut short these useless recriminations, sent swift messengers to recall
+      the divisions which had started early that morning, and gave orders that
+      all those remaining in camp should hold themselves in readiness to attack.
+      The council were still deliberating when news was brought that the
+      Hittites were in sight.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/195.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="195.jpg Two Hittite Spies Beaten by the Egyptian Soldiers " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the picture in the temple at
+     Abu Simbel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their first onslaught was so violent that they threw down one side of the
+      camp wall, and penetrated into the enclosure. Ramses charged them at the
+      head of his household troops. Eight times he engaged the chariotry which
+      threatened to surround him, and each time he broke their ranks. Once he
+      found himself alone with Manna, his shield-bearer, in the midst of a knot
+      of warriors who were bent on his destruction, and he escaped solely by his
+      coolness and bravery. The tame lion which accompanied him on his
+      expeditions did terrible work by his side, and felled many an Asiatic with
+      his teeth and claws.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The lion is represented and named in the battle-scenes at
+     Abu Simbel, at Dorr, and at Luxor, where we see it in camp
+     on the eve of the battle, with its two front paws tied, and
+     its keeper threatening it.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0031" id="linkBimage-0031">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/196.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="196.jpg the Egyptian Camp and The Council of War on The Morning of the Battle Of Qodsh� " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato of the west
+     front of the Eamesseum.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The soldiers, fired by the king&rsquo;s example, stood their ground resolutely
+      during the long hours of the afternoon; at length, as night was drawing
+      on, the legions of Phr� and S�tkh�, who had hastily retraced their steps,
+      arrived on the scene of action. A large body of Kh�fci, who were hemmed in
+      in that part of the camp which they had taken in the morning, were at once
+      killed or made prisoners, not a man of them escaping. Kh�tusaru,
+      disconcerted by this sudden reinforcement of the enemy, beat a retreat,
+      and nightfall suspended the struggle. It was recommenced at dawn the
+      following morning with unabated fury, and terminated in the rout of the
+      confederates. Garbatusa, the shield-bearer of the Hittite prince, the
+      generals in command of his infantry and chariotry, and Khalupsaru, the
+      &ldquo;writer of books,&rdquo; fell during the action. The chariots, driven back to
+      the Orontes, rushed into the river in the hope of fording it, but in so
+      doing many lives were lost. Mazra�ma, the Prince of Kh�ti&rsquo;s brother,
+      reached the opposite bank in safety, but the Chief of Tonisa was drowned,
+      and the lord of Khalupu was dragged out of the water more dead than alive,
+      and had to be held head downwards to disgorge the water he had swallowed
+      before he could be restored to consciousness.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/198.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="198.jpg the Garrison of Qodsh� Issuing Forth to Help The Prince of Kh�ti. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by B�n�dite.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Kh�tusaru himself was on the point of perishing, when the troops which had
+      been shut up in Qodsh�, together with the inhabitants, made a general
+      sortie; the Egyptians were for a moment held in check, and the fugitives
+      meanwhile were able to enter the town. Either there was insufficient
+      provision for so many mouths, or the enemy had lost all heart from the
+      disaster; at any rate, further resistance appeared useless. The next
+      morning Kh�tusaru sent to propose a truce or peace to the victorious
+      Pharaoh. The Egyptians had probably suffered at least as much as their
+      adversaries, and perhaps regarded the eventuality of a siege with no small
+      distaste; Ramses, therefore, accepted the offers made to him and prepared
+      to return to Egypt. The fame of his exploits had gone before him, and he
+      himself was not a little proud of the energy he had displayed on the day
+      of battle. His predecessors had always shown themselves to be skilful
+      generals and brave soldiers, but none of them had ever before borne, or
+      all but borne, single-handed the brunt of an attack. Ramses loaded his
+      shield-bearer Manna with rewards for having stood by him in the hour of
+      danger, and ordered abundant provender and sumptuous harness for the good
+      horses&mdash;&ldquo;Strength-in-Thebaid&rdquo; and &ldquo;N�r�t the satisfied&rdquo;&mdash;who had
+      drawn his chariot.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A gold ring in the Louvre bears in relief on its bezel two
+     little horses; which are probably &ldquo;Strength-in-Thebaid&rdquo;and
+     &ldquo;N�r�t satisfied.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      He determined that the most characteristic episodes of the campaign&mdash;the
+      beating of the spies, the surprise of the camp, the king&rsquo;s repeated
+      charges, the arrival of his veterans, the flight of the Syrians, and the
+      surrender of Qodsh�&mdash;should be represented on the walls and pylons of
+      the temples. A poem in rhymed strophes in every case accompanies these
+      records of his glory, whether at Luxor, at the Eamesseum, at the Memnonium
+      of Abydos, or in the heart of Nubia at Abu Simbel. The author of the poem
+      must have been present during the campaign, or must have had the account
+      of it from the lips of his sovereign, for his work bears no traces of the
+      coldness of official reports, and a warlike strain runs through it from
+      one end to the other, so as still to invest it with life after a lapse of
+      more than thirty centuries.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The author is unknown: Penta�r, or rather Penta��r�t, to
+     whom E. de Roug� attributed the poem, is merely the
+     transcriber of the copy we possess on papyrus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      But little pains are bestowed on the introduction, and the poet does not
+      give free vent to his enthusiasm until the moment when he describes his
+      hero, left almost alone, charging the enemy in the sight of his followers.
+      The Pharaoh was surrounded by two thousand five hundred chariots, and his
+      retreat was cut off by the warriors of the &ldquo;perverse&rdquo; Kh�ti and of the
+      other nations who accompanied them&mdash;the peoples of Arvad, Mysia, and
+      Pedasos; each of their chariots contained three men, and the ranks were so
+      serried that they formed but one dense mass. &ldquo;No other prince was with me,
+      no general officers, no one in command of the archers or chariots. My
+      foot-soldiers deserted me, my charioteers fled before the foe, and not one
+      of them stood firm beside me to fight against them.&rdquo; Then said His
+      Majesty: &ldquo;Who art thou, then, my father Amon? A father who forgets his
+      son? Or have I committed aught against thee? Have I not marched and halted
+      according to thy command? When he does not violate thy orders, the lord of
+      Egypt is indeed great, and he overthrows the barbarians in his path! What
+      are these Asiatics to thy heart? Amon will humiliate those who know not
+      the god. Have I not consecrated innumerable offerings to thee? Filling thy
+      holy dwelling-place with my prisoners, I build thee a temple for millions
+      of years, I lavish all my goods on thy storehouses, I offer thee the whole
+      world to enrich thy domains.... A miserable fate indeed awaits him who
+      sets himself against thy will, but happy is he who finds favour with thee
+      by deeds done for thee with a loving heart. I invoke thee, O my father
+      Amon! Here am I in the midst of people so numerous that it cannot be known
+      who are the nations joined together against me, and I am alone among them,
+      none other is with me. My many soldiers have forsaken me, none of my
+      charioteers looked towards me when I called them, not one of them heard my
+      voice when I cried to them. But I find that Amon is more to me than a
+      million soldiers, than a hundred thousand charioteers, than a myriad of
+      brothers or young sons, joined all together, for the number of men is as
+      nothing, Amon is greater than all of them. Each time I have accomplished
+      these things, Amon, by the counsel of thy mouth, as I do not transgress
+      thy orders, I rendered thee glory even to the ends of the earth.&rdquo; So calm
+      an invocation in the thick of the battle would appear misplaced in the
+      mouth of an ordinary man, but Pharaoh was a god, and the son of a god, and
+      his actions and speeches cannot be measured by the same standard as that
+      of a common mortal. He was possessed by the religious spirit in the hour
+      of danger, and while his body continued to fight, his soul took wing to
+      the throne of Amon. He contemplates the lord of heaven face to face,
+      reminds him of the benefits which he had received from him, and summons
+      him to his aid with an imperiousness which betrays the sense of his own
+      divine origin. The expected help was not delayed. &ldquo;While the voice
+      resounds in Hermonthis, Amon arises at my behest, he stretches out his
+      hand to me, and I cry out with joy when he hails me from behind: &lsquo;Face to
+      face with thee, face to face with thee, Ramses Miamun, I am with thee! It
+      is I, thy father! My hand is with thee, and I am worth more to thee than
+      hundreds of thousands. I am the strong one who loves valour; I have beheld
+      in thee a courageous heart, and my heart is satisfied; my will is about to
+      be accomplished!&rsquo; I am like Mont�; from the right I shoot with the dart,
+      from the left I seize the enemy. I am like Baal in his hour, before them;
+      I have encountered two thousand five hundred chariots, and as soon as I am
+      in their midst, they are overthrown before my mares. Not one of all these
+      people has found a hand wherewith to fight; their hearts sink within their
+      breasts, fear paralyses their limbs; they know not how to throw their
+      darts, they have no strength to hold their lances. I precipitate them into
+      the water like as the crocodile plunges therein; they are prostrate face
+      to the earth, one upon the other, and I slay in the midst of them, for I
+      have willed that not one should look behind him, nor that one should
+      return; he who falls rises not again.&rdquo; This sudden descent of the god has,
+      even at the present day, an effect upon the reader, prepared though he is
+      by his education to consider it as a literary artifice; but on the
+      Egyptian, brought up to regard Amon with boundless reverence, its
+      influence was irresistible. The Prince of the Kh�ti, repulsed at the very
+      moment when he was certain of victory, &ldquo;recoiled with terror. He sends
+      against the enemy the various chiefs, followed by their chariots and
+      skilled warriors,&mdash;the chiefs of Arvad, Lycia, and Ilion, the leaders
+      of the Lycians and Dardanians, the lords of Carchemish, of the
+      Girgashites, and of Khalupu; these allies of the Kh�ti, all together,
+      comprised three thousand chariots.&rdquo; Their efforts, however, were in vain.
+      &ldquo;I fell upon them like Mont�, my hand devoured them in the space of a
+      moment, in the midst of them I hewed down and slew. They said one to
+      another: &lsquo;This is no man who is amongst us; it is S�tkh� the great
+      warrior, it is Baal incarnate! These are not human actions which he
+      accomplishes: alone, by himself, he repulses hundreds of thousands,
+      without leaders or men. Up, let us flee before him, let us seek to save
+      our lives, and let us breathe again!&rsquo;&rdquo; When at last, towards evening, the
+      army again rallies round the king, and finds the enemy completely
+      defeated, the men hang their heads with mingled shame and admiration as
+      the Pharaoh reproaches them: &ldquo;What will the whole earth say when it is
+      known that you left me alone, and without any to succour me? that not a
+      prince, not a charioteer, not a captain of archers, was found to place his
+      hand in mine? I fought, I repulsed millions of people by myself alone.
+      &lsquo;Victory-in-Thebes&rsquo; and &lsquo;N�r�t satisfied&rsquo; were my glorious horses; it was
+      they that I found under my hand when I was alone in the midst of the
+      quaking foe. I myself will cause them to take their food before me, each
+      day, when I shall be in my palace, for I was with them when I was in the
+      midst of the enemy, along with the Prince Manna my shield-bearer, and with
+      the officers of my house who accompanied me, and who are my witnesses for
+      the combat; these are those whom I was with. I have returned after a
+      victorious struggle, and I have smitten with my sword the assembled
+      multitudes.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      The ordeal was a terrible one for the Kh�ti; but when the first moment of
+      defeat was over, they again took courage and resumed the campaign. This
+      single effort had not exhausted their resources, and they rapidly filled
+      up the gaps which had been made in their ranks. The plains of Naharaim and
+      the mountains of Cilicia supplied them with fresh chariots and
+      foot-soldiers in the place of those they had lost, and bands of
+      mercenaries were furnished from the table-lands of Asia Minor, so that
+      when Ramses II. reappeared in Syria, he found himself confronted by a
+      completely fresh army. Kh�tusaru, having profited by experience, did not
+      again attempt a general engagement, but contented himself with disputing
+      step by step the upper valleys of the Litany and Orontes. Meantime his
+      emissaries spread themselves over Phoenicia and Khar�, sowing the seeds of
+      rebellion, often only too successfully. In the king&rsquo;s VIIIth year there
+      was a general rising in Galilee, and its towns&mdash;Galaput in the
+      hill-country of B�t-Aniti, Merorn, Shalama, Dapur, and Anama�m*&mdash;had
+      to be reduced one after another.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Episodes from this war are represented at Karnak. The list
+     of the towns taken, now much mutilated, comprised twenty-
+     four names, which proves the importance of the revolt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Dapur was the hardest to carry. It crowned the top of a rocky eminence,
+      and was protected by a double wall, which followed the irregularities of
+      the hillside. It formed a rallying-point for a large force, which had to
+      be overcome in the open country before the investment of the town could be
+      attempted. The siege was at last brought to a conclusion, after a series
+      of skirmishes, and the town taken by scaling, four Egyptian princes having
+      been employed in conducting the attack. In the Pharaoh&rsquo;s IXth year a
+      revolt broke out on the Egyptian frontier, in the Shephelah, and the king
+      placed himself at the head of his troops to crush it. Ascalon, in which
+      the peasantry and their families had found, as they hoped, a safe refuge,
+      opened its gates to the Pharaoh, and its fall brought about the submission
+      of several neighbouring places. This, it appears, was the first time since
+      the beginning of the conquests in Syria that the inhabitants of these
+      regions attempted to take up arms, and we may well ask what could have
+      induced them thus to renounce their ancient loyalty. Their defection
+      reduced Egypt for the moment almost to her natural frontiers. Peace had
+      scarcely been resumed when war again broke out with fresh violence in
+      Coele-Syria, and one year it reached even to Naharaim, and raged around
+      Tunipa as in the days of Th�tmosis III. &ldquo;Pharaoh assembled his
+      foot-soldiers and chariots, and he commanded his foot-soldiers and his
+      chariots to attack the perverse Kh�ti who were in the neighbourhood of
+      Tunipa, and he put on his armour and mounted his chariot, and he waged
+      battle against the town of the perverse Kh�ti at the head of his
+      foot-soldiers and his chariots, covered with his armour;&rdquo; the fortress,
+      however, did not yield till the second attack. Ramses carried his arms
+      still further afield, and with such results, that, to judge merely from
+      the triumphal lists engraved on the walls of the temple of Karnak, the
+      inhabitants on the banks of the Euphrates, those in Carchemish, Mitanni,
+      Singar, Assyria, and Mannus found themselves once more at the mercy of the
+      Egyptian battalions. These victories, however brilliant, were not
+      decisive; if after any one of them the princes of Assyria and Singar may
+      have sent presents to the Pharaoh, the Hittites, on the other hand, did
+      not consider themselves beaten, and it was only after fifteen campaigns
+      that they were at length sufficiently subdued to propose a treaty. At
+      last, in the Egyptian king&rsquo;s XXIst year, on the 21st of the month Tybi,
+      when the Pharaoh, then residing in his good town of Anakh�t�, was
+      returning from the temple where he had been offering prayers to his father
+      Amon-E�, to Harmakhis of Heliopolis, to Phtah, and to S�tkh� the valiant
+      son of N��t, Eamses, one of the &ldquo;messengers&rdquo; who filled the office of
+      lieutenant for the king in Asia, arrived at the palace and presented to
+      him Tartisubu, who was authorised to make peace with Egypt in the name of
+      Kh�tusaru.* Tartisubu carried in his hand a tablet of silver, on which his
+      master had prescribed the conditions which appeared to him just and
+      equitable. A short preamble recalling the alliances made between the
+      ancestors of both parties, was followed by a declaration of friendship,
+      and a reciprocal obligation to avoid in future all grounds of hostility.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The treaty of Ramses II. with the Prince of the Kh�ti was
+     sculptured at Karnak.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Not only was a perpetual truce declared between both peoples, but they
+      agreed to help each other at the first demand. &ldquo;Should some enemy march
+      against the countries subject to the great King of Egypt, and should he
+      send to the great Prince of the Kh�ti, saying: &lsquo;Come, bring me forces
+      against them,&rsquo; the great Prince of the Kh�ti shall do as he is asked by
+      the great King of Egypt, and the great Prince of the Kh�ti shall destroy
+      his enemies. And if the great Prince of the Kh�ti shall prefer not to come
+      himself, he shall send his archers and his chariots to the great King of
+      Egypt to destroy his enemies.&rdquo; A similar clause ensured aid in return from
+      Ramses to Kh�tusaru, &ldquo;his brother,&rdquo; while two articles couched in
+      identical terms made provision against the possibility of any town or
+      tribe dependent on either of the two sovereigns withdrawing its allegiance
+      and placing it in the hands of the other party. In this case the Egyptians
+      as well as the Hittites engaged not to receive, or at least not to accept,
+      such offers, but to refer them at once to the legitimate lord. The whole
+      treaty was placed under the guarantee of the gods both, of Egypt and of
+      the Kh�ti, whose names were given at length: &ldquo;Whoever shall fail to
+      observe the stipulations, let the thousand gods of Kh�ti and the thousand
+      gods of Egypt strike his house, his land, and his servants. But he who
+      shall observe the stipulations engraved on the tablet of silver, whether
+      he belong to the Hittite people or whether he belong to the people of
+      Egypt, as he has not neglected them, may the thousand gods of Kh�ti and
+      the thousand gods of Egypt give him health, and grant that he may prosper,
+      himself, the people of his house, and also his land and his servants.&rdquo; The
+      treaty itself ends by a description of the plaque of silver on which it
+      was engraved. It was, in fact, a facsimile in metal of one of those clay
+      tablets on which the Chald�ans inscribed their contracts. The preliminary
+      articles occupied the upper part in closely written lines of cuneiform
+      characters, while in the middle, in a space left free for the purpose, was
+      the impress of two seals, that of the Prince of the Kh�ti and of his wife
+      P��kh�pa. Kh�tusaru was represented on them as standing upright in the
+      arms of S�tkh�, while around the two figures ran the inscription, &ldquo;Seal of
+      S�tkh�, the sovereign of heaven.&rdquo; P��kh�pa leaned on the breast of a god,
+      the patron of her native town of Aranna in Qaauadana, and the legend
+      stated that this was the seal of the Sun of the town of �ranna, the regent
+      of the earth. The text of the treaty was continued beneath, and probably
+      extended to the other side of the tablet. The original draft had
+      terminated after the description of the seals, but, to satisfy the
+      Pharaoh, certain additional articles were appended for the protection of
+      the commerce and industry of the two countries, for the prevention of the
+      emigration of artisans, and for ensuring that steps taken against them
+      should be more effectual and less cruel. Any criminal attempting to evade
+      the laws of his country, and taking refuge in that of the other party to
+      the agreement, was to be expelled without delay and consigned to the
+      officers of his lord; any fugitive not a criminal, any subject carried off
+      or detained by force, any able artisan quitting either territory to take
+      up permanent residence in the other, was to be conducted to the frontier,
+      but his act of folly was not to expose him to judicial condemnation. &ldquo;He
+      who shall thus act, his fault shall not be brought up against him; his
+      house shall not be touched, nor his wife, nor his children; he shall not
+      have his throat cut, nor shall his eyes be touched, nor his mouth, nor his
+      feet; no criminal accusation shall be made against him.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      This treaty is the most ancient of all those of which the text has come
+      down to us; its principal conditions were&mdash;perfect equality and
+      reciprocity between the contracting sovereigns, an offensive and defensive
+      alliance, and the extradition of criminals and refugees. The original was
+      drawn up in Chald�an script by the scribes of Kh�tusaru, probably on the
+      model of former conventions between the Pharaohs and the Asiatic courts,
+      and to this the Egyptian ministers had added a few clauses relative to the
+      pardon of emigrants delivered up by one or other of the contracting
+      parties. When, therefore, Tartisubu arrived in the city of Eamses, the
+      acceptance of the treaty was merely a matter of form, and peace was
+      virtually concluded. It did not confer on the conqueror the advantages
+      which we might have expected from his successful campaigns: it enjoined,
+      on the contrary, the definite renunciation of those countries, Mitanni,
+      Naharaim, Alasia, and Amurru, over which Th�tmosis III. and his immediate
+      successors had formerly exercised an effective sovereignty. Sixteen years
+      of victories had left matters in the same state as they were after the
+      expedition of Harmhab�, and, like his predecessor, Ramses was able to
+      retain merely those Asiatic provinces which were within the immediate
+      influence of Egypt, such as the Phoenician coast proper, Khar�, Persea
+      beyond Jordan, the oases of the Arabian desert, and the peninsula of
+      Sinai.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The <i>Anastasi Papyrus I</i>. mentions a place called <i>Zaru of
+     Sesostris</i>, in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, in a part of
+     Syria which was not in Egyptian territory: the frontier in
+     this locality must have passed between Arvad and Byblos on
+     the coast, and between Qodsh� and Hazor from Merom inland.
+     Egyptian rule on the other side of the Jordan seems to be
+     proved by the monument discovered a few years ago in the
+     Haur�n, and known under the name of the &ldquo;Stone of Job&rdquo; by
+     the Bedaw�n of the neighbourhood.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This apparently unsatisfactory result, after such supreme efforts, was,
+      however, upon closer examination, not so disappointing. For more than half
+      a century at least, since the Hittite kingdom had been developed and
+      established under the impulse given to it by Sapalulu, everything had been
+      in its favour. The campaign of Seti had opposed merely a passing obstacle
+      to its expansion, and had not succeeded in discouraging its ambitions, for
+      its rulers still nursed the hope of being able one day to conquer Syria as
+      far as the isthmus. The check received at Qodsh�, the abortive attempts to
+      foment rebellion in Galilee and the Shephelah, the obstinate persistence
+      with which Ramses and his army returned year after year to the attack, the
+      presence of the enemy at Tunipa, on the banks of the Euphrates, and in the
+      provinces then forming the very centre of the Hittite kingdom&mdash;in
+      short, all the incidents of this long struggle&mdash;at length convinced
+      Kh�tusaru that he was powerless to extend his rule in this direction at
+      the expense of Egypt. Moreover, we have no knowledge of the events which
+      occupied him on the other frontiers of his kingdom, where he may have been
+      engaged at the same time in a conflict with Assyria, or in repelling an
+      incursion of the tribes on the Black Sea. The treaty with Pharaoh, if made
+      in good faith and likely to be lasting, would protect the southern
+      extremities of his kingdom, and allow of his removing the main body of his
+      forces to the north and east in case of attack from either of these
+      quarters. The security which such an alliance would ensure made it,
+      therefore, worth his while to sue for peace, even if the Egyptians should
+      construe his overtures as an acknowledgment of exhausted supplies or of
+      inferiority of strength. Ramses doubtless took it as such, and openly
+      displayed on the walls at Karnak and in the Eamesseum a copy of the treaty
+      so flattering to his pride, but the indomitable resistance which he had
+      encountered had doubtless given rise to reflections resembling those of
+      Kh�tusaru, and he had come to realise that it was his own interest not to
+      lightly forego the good will of the Kh�ti. Egypt had neighbours in Africa
+      who were troublesome though not dangerous: the Timih�, the Tihonu, the
+      Mash�asha, the negroes of K�sh and of P�an�t, might be a continual source
+      of annoyance and disturbance, even though they were incapable of
+      disturbing her supremacy. The coast of the Delta, it is true, was exposed
+      to the piracy of northern nations, but up to that time this had been
+      merely a local trouble, easy to meet if not to obviate altogether. The
+      only real danger was on the Asiatic side, arising from empires of ancient
+      constitution like Chald�a, or from hordes who, arriving at irregular
+      intervals from the north, and carrying all before them, threatened, after
+      the example of the Hyks�s, to enter the Delta. The Hittite kingdom acted
+      as a kind of buffer between the Nile valley and these nations, both
+      civilized and barbarous; it was a strongly armed force on the route of the
+      invaders, and would henceforth serve as a protecting barrier, through
+      which if the enemy were able to pass it would only be with his strength
+      broken or weakened by a previous encounter. The sovereigns loyally
+      observed the peace which they had sworn to each other, and in his XXXIVth
+      year the marriage of Ramses with the eldest daughter of Kh�tusaru
+      strengthened their friendly relations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/214.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="214.jpg Kh�tusaru, Prince of Kh�ti, and his Daughter " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plate in Lepsius; the triad
+     worshipped by Kh�tusaru and his daughter is composed of
+     Ramses II., seated between Amon-R� and Phtah-Tot�nen.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Pharaoh was not a little proud of this union, and he has left us a naive
+      record of the manner in which it came about. The inscription is engraved
+      on the face of the rock at Abu Simbel in Nubia; and Ramses begins by
+      boasting, in a heroic strain, of his own energy and exploits, of the fear
+      with which his victories inspired the whole world, and of the anxiety of
+      the Syrian kinglets to fulfil his least wishes. The Prince of the Kh�ti
+      had sent him sumptuous presents at every opportunity, and, not knowing how
+      further to make himself agreeable to the Pharaoh, had finally addressed
+      the great lords of his court, and reminded them how their country had
+      formerly been ruined by war, how their master S�tkh� had taken part
+      against them, and how they had been delivered from their ills by the
+      clemency of the Sun of Egypt. &ldquo;Let us therefore take our goods, and
+      placing my eldest daughter at the head of them, let us repair to the
+      domains of the great god, so that the King Sesostris may recognise us.&rdquo; He
+      accordingly did as he had proposed, and the embassy set out with gold and
+      silver, valuable horses, and an escort of soldiers, together with cattle
+      and provisions to supply them with food by the way. When they reached the
+      borders of Kh�ru, the governor wrote immediately to the Pharaoh as
+      follows: &ldquo;Here is the Prince of the Kh�ti, who brings his eldest daughter
+      with a number of presents of every kind; and now this princess and the
+      chief of the country of the Kh�ti, after having crossed many mountains and
+      undertaken a difficult journey from distant parts, have arrived at the
+      frontiers of His Majesty. May we be instructed how we ought to act with
+      regard to them.&rdquo; The king was then in residence at Ramses. When the news
+      reached him, he officially expressed his great joy at the event, since it
+      was a thing unheard of in the annals of the country that so powerful a
+      prince should go to such personal inconvenience in order to marry his
+      daughter to an ally. The Pharaoh, therefore, despatched his nobles and an
+      army to receive them, but he was careful to conceal the anxiety which he
+      felt all the while, and, according to custom, took counsel of his patron
+      god S�tkh�: &ldquo;Who are these people who come with a message at this time to
+      the country of Zahi?&rdquo; The oracle, however, reassured him as to their
+      intentions, and he thereupon hastened to prepare for their proper
+      reception. The embassy made a triumphal entry into the city, the princess
+      at its head, escorted by the Egyptian troops told off for the purpose,
+      together with the foot-soldiers and charioteers of the Kh�ti, comprising
+      the flower of their army and militia. A solemn festival was held in their
+      honour, in which food and drink were served without stint, and was
+      concluded by the celebration of the marriage in the presence of the
+      Egyptian lords and of the princes of the whole earth.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fact of the marriage is known to us by the decree of
+     Phtah Tot�nen at Abu Simbel in the XXXVth year of the king&rsquo;s
+     reign. The account of it in the text is taken from the stele
+     at Abu Simbel. The last lines are so mutilated that I have
+     been obliged to paraphrase them. The stele of the Princess
+     of Bakhtan has preserved the romantic version of this
+     marriage, such as was current about the Saite period. The
+     King of the Kh�ti must have taken advantage of the
+     expedition which the Pharaoh made into Asia to send him
+     presents by an embassy, at the head of which he placed his
+     eldest daughter: the princess found favour with Ramses, who
+     married her.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses, unwilling to relegate a princess of such noble birth to the
+      companionship of his ordinary concubines, granted her the title of queen,
+      as if she were of solar blood, and with the cartouche gave her the new
+      name of �irima�nof�rur�&mdash;&ldquo;She who sees the beauties of the Sun.&rdquo; She
+      figures henceforth in the ceremonies and on the monuments in the place
+      usually occupied by women of Egyptian race only, and these unusual honours
+      may have compensated, in the eyes of the young princess, for the
+      disproportion in age between herself and a veteran more than sixty years
+      old. The friendly relations between the two courts became so intimate that
+      the Pharaoh invited his father-in-law to visit him in his own country.
+      &ldquo;The great Prince of Kh�ti informed the Prince of Qodi: &lsquo;Prepare thyself
+      that we may go down into Egypt. The word of the king has gone forth, let
+      us obey Sesostris. He gives the breath of life to those who love him;
+      hence all the earth loves him, and Kh�ti forms but one with him.&rsquo;&rdquo; They
+      were received with pomp at Ramses-Anakh�t�, and perhaps at Thebes. It was
+      with a mixture of joy and astonishment that Egypt beheld her bitterest foe
+      become her most faithful ally, &ldquo;and the men of Qim�t having but one heart
+      with the chiefs of the Kh�ti, a thing which had not happened since the
+      ages of Pa.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      The half-century following the conclusion of this alliance was a period of
+      world-wide prosperity. Syria was once more able to breathe freely, her
+      commerce being under the combined protection of the two powers who shared
+      her territory. Not only caravans, but isolated travellers, were able to
+      pass through the country from north to south without incurring any risks
+      beyond those occasioned by an untrustworthy guide or a few highwaymen. It
+      became in time a common task in the schools of Thebes to describe the
+      typical Syrian tour of some soldier or functionary, and we still possess
+      one of these imaginative stories in which the scribe takes his hero from
+      Qodsh� across the Lebanon to Byblos, Berytus, Tyre, and Sidon, &ldquo;the fish&rdquo;
+       of which latter place &ldquo;are more numerous than the grains of sand;&rdquo; he then
+      makes him cross Galilee and the forest of oaks to Jaffa, climb the
+      mountains of the Dead Sea, and following the maritime route by Raphia,
+      reach Pelusium. The Egyptian galleys thronged the Phoenician ports, while
+      those of Phoenicia visited Egypt. The latter drew so little water that
+      they had no difficulty in coming up the Nile, and the paintings in one of
+      the tombs represent them at the moment of their reaching Thebes. The hull
+      of these vessels was similar to that of the Nile boats, but the bow and
+      stern were terminated by structures which rose at right angles, and
+      respectively gave support to a sort of small platform. Upon this the pilot
+      maintained his position by one of those wondrous feats of equilibrium of
+      which the Orientals were masters.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/218.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="218.jpg Phoenician Boats Landing at Thebes " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph published by Daressy.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      An open rail ran round the sides of the vessel, so as to prevent goods
+      stowed upon the deck from falling into the sea when the vessel lurched.
+      Voyages to P�an�t were undertaken more frequently in quest of incense and
+      precious metals. The working of the mines of Akiti had been the source of
+      considerable outlay at the beginning of the reign. The measures taken by
+      Seti to render the approaches to them practicable at all seasons had not
+      produced the desired results; as far back as the IIIrd year of Ramses the
+      overseers of the south had been forced to acknowledge that the managers of
+      the convoys could no longer use any of the cisterns which had been hewn
+      and built at such great expense. &ldquo;Half of them die of thirst, together
+      with their asses, for they have no means of carrying a sufficient number
+      of skins of water to last during the journey there and back.&rdquo; The friends
+      and officers whose advice had been called in, did not doubt for a moment
+      that the king would be willing to complete the work which his father had
+      merely initiated. &ldquo;If thou sayest to the water, &lsquo;Come upon the mountain,&rsquo;
+      the heavenly waters will spring out at the word of thy mouth, for thou art
+      R� incarnate, Khopri visibly created, thou art the living image of thy
+      father T�m�, the Heliopolitan.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;If thou thyself sayest to thy
+      father the Nile, father of the gods,&rdquo; added the Viceroy of Ethiopia,
+      &ldquo;&lsquo;Raise the water up to the mountain,&rsquo; he will do all that thou hast said,
+      for so it has been with all thy projects which have been accomplished in
+      our presence, of which the like has never been heard, even in the songs of
+      the poets.&rdquo; The cisterns and wells were thereupon put into such a
+      condition that the transport of gold was rendered easy for years to come.
+      The war with the Kh�ti had not suspended building and other works of
+      public utility; and now, owing to the establishment of peace, the
+      sovereign was able to devote himself entirely to them. He deepened the
+      canal at Zal�; he repaired the walls and the fortified places which
+      protected the frontier on the side of the Sinaitic Peninsula, and he built
+      or enlarged the strongholds along the Nile at those points most frequently
+      threatened by the incursions of nomad tribes. Ramses was the royal builder
+      <i>par excellence</i>, and we may say without fear of contradiction that,
+      from the second cataract to the mouths of the Nile, there is scarcely an
+      edifice on whose ruins we do not find his name. In Nubia, where the desert
+      approaches close to the Nile, he confined himself to cutting in the solid
+      rock the monuments which, for want of space, he could not build in the
+      open. The idea of the cave-temple must have occurred very early to the
+      Egyptians; they were accustomed to house their dead in the mountain-side,
+      why then should they not house their gods in the same manner? The oldest
+      forms of speos, those near to Beni-Hasan, at De�r el-Bahar�, at Bl-Kab,
+      and at Gebel Silsileh, however, do not date further back than the time of
+      the XVIIIth dynasty. All the forms of architectural plan observed in
+      isolated temples were utilised by Ramses and applied to rock-cut buildings
+      with more or less modification, according to the nature of the stratum in
+      which he had to work. Where space permitted, a part only of the temple was
+      cut in the rock, and the approaches to it were built in the open air with
+      blocks brought to the spot, so that the completed speos became only in
+      part a grotto&mdash;a hemi-speos of varied construction. It was in this
+      manner that the architects of Ramses arranged the court and pylon at
+      Be�t-Wally, the hypostyle hall, rectangular court and pylon at
+      Gerf-Hosse�n, and the avenue of sphinxes at Wady es-Sebuah, where the
+      entrance to the avenue was guarded by two statues overlooking the river.
+      The pylon at Gerf-Hosse�n has been demolished, and merely a few traces of
+      the foundations appear here and there above the soil, but a portion of the
+      portico which surrounded the court is still standing, together with its
+      massive architraves and statues, which stand with their backs against the
+      pillars.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/221.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="221.jpg the Projecting Columns of The Speos Of Gerf-hosse�n " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The sanctuary itself comprised an antechamber, supported by two columns
+      and flanked by two oblong recesses; this led into the Holy of Holies,
+      which was a narrow niche with a low ceiling, placed between two lateral
+      chapels. A hall, nearly square in shape, connected these mysterious
+      chambers with the propyl�a, which were open to the sky and faced with
+      Osiride caryatides.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0036" id="linkBimage-0036">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/221.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="221.jpg the Caryatides of Gerf-hosse�n " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel H�ron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These appear to keep rigid and solemn watch over the approaches to the
+      tabernacle, and their faces, half hidden in the shadow, still present such
+      a stern appearance that the semi-barbaric Nubians of the neighbouring
+      villages believe them to be possessed by implacable genii. They are
+      supposed to move from their places during the hours of night, and the fire
+      which flashes from their eyes destroys or fascinates whoever is rash
+      enough to watch them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Other kings before Ramses had constructed buildings in these spots, and
+      their memory would naturally become associated with his in the future; he
+      wished, therefore, to find a site where he would be without a rival, and
+      to this end he transformed the cliff at Abu Simbel into a monument of his
+      greatness. The rocks here project into the Nile and form a gigantic
+      conical promontory, the face of which was covered with triumphal stel�, on
+      which the sailors or troops going up or down the river could spell out as
+      they passed the praises of the king and his exploits. A few feet of shore
+      on the northern side, covered with dry and knotty bushes, affords in
+      winter a landing-place for tourists. At the spot where the beach ends near
+      the point of the promontory, sit four colossi, with their feet nearly
+      touching the water, their backs leaning against a sloping wall of rock,
+      which takes the likeness of a pylon. A band of hieroglyphs runs above
+      their heads underneath the usual cornice, over which again is a row of
+      crouching cynocephali looking straight before them, their hands resting
+      upon their knees, and above this line of sacred images rises the steep and
+      naked rock. One of the colossi is broken, and the bust of the statue,
+      which must have been detached by some great shock, has fallen to the
+      ground; the others rise to the height of 63 feet, and appear to look
+      across the Nile as if watching the wadys leading to the gold-mines.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0037" id="linkBimage-0037">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/224.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="224.jpg the Two Colossi of Abu Simbel to The South Of The Doorway " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Insinger and
+     Daniel H�ron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The pschent crown surmounts their foreheads, and the two ends of the
+      head-dress fall behind their ears; their features are of a noble type,
+      calm and serious; the nose slightly aquiline, the under lip projecting
+      above a square, but rather heavy, chin. Of such a type we may picture
+      Ramses, after the conclusion of the peace with the Kh�ti, in the full
+      vigour of his manhood and at the height of his power.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0038" id="linkBimage-0038">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/225.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="225.jpg the Interior of The Speos Of Abu Simbel " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger and Daniel
+     H�ron.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The doorway of the temple is in the centre of the fa�ade, and rises nearly
+      to a level with the elbows of the colossi; above the lintel, and facing
+      the river, stands a figure of the god R�, represented with a human body
+      and the head of a sparrow-hawk, while two images of the king in profile,
+      one on each side of the god, offer him a figure of Truth. The first hall,
+      130 feet long by 58 feet broad, takes the place of the court surrounded by
+      a colonnade which in other temples usually follows the pylon. Her eight
+      Osiride figures, standing against as many square pillars, appear to
+      support the weight of the superincumbent rock. Their profile catches the
+      light as it enters through the open doorway, and in the early morning,
+      when the rising sun casts a ruddy ray over their features, their faces
+      become marvellously life-like. We are almost tempted to think that a smile
+      plays over their lips as the first beams touch them. The remaining
+      chambers consist of a hypostyle hall nearly square in shape, the sanctuary
+      itself being between two smaller apartments, and of eight subterranean
+      chambers excavated at a lower level than the rest of the temple. The whole
+      measures 178 feet from the threshold to the far end of the Holy of Holies.
+      The walls are covered with bas-reliefs in which the Pharaoh has vividly
+      depicted the wars which he carried on in the four corners of his kingdom;
+      here we see raids against the negroes, there the war with the Kh�ti, and
+      further on an encounter with some Libyan tribe. Ramses, flushed by the
+      heat of victory, is seen attacking two Timihu chiefs: one has already
+      fallen to the ground and is being trodden underfoot; the other, after
+      vainly letting fly his arrows, is about to perish from a blow of the
+      conqueror.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0039" id="linkBimage-0039">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/226.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="227.jpg the Face of The Rock at Abu Simgel " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His knees give way beneath him, his head falls heavily backwards, and the
+      features are contracted in his death-agony. Pharaoh with his left hand has
+      seized him by the arm, while with his right he points his lance against
+      his enemy&rsquo;s breast, and is about to pierce him through the heart. As a
+      rule, this type of bas-relief is executed with a conventional grace which
+      leaves the spectator unmoved, and free to consider the scene merely from
+      its historical point of view, forgetful of the artist.
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="227 (69K)" src="images/227.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkBimage-0040" id="linkBimage-0040">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/229.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="229.jpg Ramses II. Pierces a Libyan Chief With his Lance " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Mons. do Bock.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      An examination of most of the other wall-decorations of the speos will
+      furnish several examples of this type: we see Ramses with a suitable
+      gesture brandishing his weapon above a group of prisoners, and the
+      composition furnishes us with a fair example of official sculpture,
+      correct, conventional, but devoid of interest. Here, on the contrary, the
+      drawing is so full of energy that it carries the imagination hack to the
+      time and scene of those far-off battles.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0041" id="linkBimage-0041">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/230.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="230.jpg Ramses Ii. Strikes a Group of Prisoners " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Insinger.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The indistinct light in which it is seen helps the illusion, and we almost
+      forget that it is a picture we are beholding, and not the action itself as
+      it took place some three thousand years ago. A small speos, situated at
+      some hundred feet further north, is decorated with standing colossi of
+      smaller size, four of which represent Ramses, and two of them his wife,
+      Isit Nofr�tari. This speos possesses neither peristyle nor crypt, and the
+      chapels are placed at the two extremities of the transverse passage,
+      instead of being in a parallel line with the sanctuary; on the other hand,
+      the hypostyle hall rests on six pillars with Hathor-headed capitals of
+      fine proportions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0042" id="linkBimage-0042">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/231.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="231.jpg the Fa�ade of The Little Speos Of Hauthor at Abu Simbel " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the plates in Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A third excavated grotto of modest dimensions served as an accessory
+      chamber to the two others. An inexhaustible stream of yellow sand poured
+      over the great temple from the summit of the cliff, and partially covered
+      it every year. No sooner were the efforts to remove it relaxed, than it
+      spreads into the chambers, concealing the feet of the colossi, and slowly
+      creeping upwards to their knees, breasts, and necks; at the beginning of
+      this century they were entirely hidden. In spite of all that was done to
+      divert it, it ceaselessly reappeared, and in a few summers regained all
+      the ground which had been previously cleared. It would seem as if the
+      desert, powerless to destroy the work of the conqueror, was seeking
+      nevertheless to hide it from the admiration of posterity.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The English engineers have succeeded in barring out the
+     sand, and have prevented it from pouring over the cliff any
+     more.&mdash;Ed.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Seti had worked indefatigably at Thebes, but the shortness of his reign
+      prevented him from completing the buildings he had begun there. There
+      existed everywhere, at Luxor, at Karnak, and on the left bank of the Nile,
+      the remains of his unfinished works; sanctuaries partially roofed in,
+      porticoes incomplete, columns raised to merely half their height, halls as
+      yet imperfect with blank walls, here and there covered with only the
+      outlines in red and black ink of their future bas-reliefs, and statues
+      hardly blocked out, or awaiting the final touch of the polisher.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the description which Ramses gave of the condition
+     in which he found the Memnonium of Abydos. An examination of
+     the inscriptions existing in the Theban temples which Seti
+     I. had constructed, shows that it must have applied also to
+     the appearance of certain portions of Qurneh, Luxor, and
+     Karnak in the time of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Ramses took up the work where his father had relinquished it. At Luxor
+      there was not enough space to give to the hypostyle hall the extension
+      which the original plans proposed, and the great colonnade has an
+      unfinished appearance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0043" id="linkBimage-0043">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/232.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="232.jpg Columns of Temple at Luxor " />
+    </div>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="232-text (5K)" src="images/232-text.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Nile, in one of its capricious floods, had carried away the land upon
+      which the architects had intended to erect the side aisles; and if they
+      wished to add to the existing structure a great court and a pylon, without
+      which no temple was considered complete, it was necessary to turn the axis
+      of the building towards the east.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0044" id="linkBimage-0044">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/233.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="233.jpg the Chapel of Thutmosis Iii. And One Of The Pylons of Ramses Ii. At Luxor " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      In their operations the architects came upon a beautiful little edifice of
+      rose granite, which had been either erected or restored by Th�tmosis III.
+      at a time when the town was an independent municipality and was only
+      beginning to extend its suburban dwellings to meet those of Karnak. They
+      took care to make no change in this structure, but set to work to
+      incorporate it into their final plans. It still stands at the north-west
+      corner of the court, and the elegance of its somewhat slender little
+      columns contrasts happily with the heaviness of the structure to which it
+      is attached. A portion of its portico is hidden by the brickwork of the
+      mosque of Abu&rsquo;l Haggag: the part brought to light in the course of the
+      excavations contains between each row of columns a colossal statue of
+      Ramses II. We are accustomed to hear on all sides of the degeneracy of the
+      sculptor&rsquo;s art at this time, and of its having fallen into irreparable
+      neglect. Nothing can be further from the truth than this sweeping
+      statement. There are doubtless many statues and bas-reliefs of this epoch
+      which shock us by their crudity and ugliness, but these owed their origin
+      for the most part to provincial workshops which had been at all times of
+      mediocre repute, and where the artists did not receive orders enough to
+      enable them to correct by practice the defects of their education. We find
+      but few productions of the Theban school exhibiting bad technique, and if
+      we had only this one monument of Luxor from which to form our opinion of
+      its merits, it would be sufficient to prove that the sculptors of Ramses
+      II. were not a whit behind those of Harmham or Seti I. Adroitness in
+      cutting the granite or hard sandstone had in no wise been lost, and the
+      same may be said of the skill in bringing out the contour and life-like
+      action of the figure, and of the art of infusing into the features and
+      demeanour of the Pharaoh something of the superhuman majesty with which
+      the Egyptian people were accustomed to invest their monarchs. If the
+      statues of Ramses II. in the portico are not perfect models of sculpture,
+      they have many good points, and their bold treatment makes them
+      effectively decorative.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0045" id="linkBimage-0045">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/235.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="235.jpg the Colonnade of Seti I. And The Three Colossal Statues of Ramses Ii. At Luxor " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Eight other statues of Ramses are arranged along the base of the fa�ade,
+      and two obelisks&mdash;one of which has been at Paris for half a century*&mdash;stood
+      on either side of the entrance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The colonnade and the little temple of Th�tmosis III. were
+     concealed under the houses of the village; they were first
+     brought to light in the excavations of 1884-86.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The whole structure lacks unity, and there is nothing corresponding to it
+      in this respect anywhere else in Egypt. The northern half does not join on
+      to the southern, but seems to belong to quite a distinct structure, or the
+      two parts might be regarded as having once formed a single edifice which
+      had become divided by an accident, which the architect had endeavoured to
+      unite together again by a line of columns running between two walls. The
+      masonry of the hypostyle hall at Karnak was squared and dressed, but the
+      walls had been left undecorated, as was also the case with the majority of
+      the shafts of the columns and the surface of the architraves. Ramses
+      covered the whole with a series of sculptured and painted scenes which had
+      a rich ornamental effect; he then decorated the pylon, and inscribed on
+      the outer wall to the south the list of cities which he had captured. The
+      temple of Amon then assumed the aspect which it preserved henceforward for
+      centuries. The Ramessides and their successors occupied themselves in
+      filling it with furniture, and in taking steps for the repair of any
+      damage that might accrue to the hall or pillars; they had their cartouches
+      or inscriptions placed in vacant spaces, but they did not dare to modify
+      its arrangement. It was reserved for the Ethiopian and Greek Pharaohs, in
+      presence of the hypostyle and pylon of the XIXth dynasty, to conceive of
+      others on a still vaster scale.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0046" id="linkBimage-0046">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/236b.jpg" width="100%" alt="236b.jpg Paintings of Chairs " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Ramses, having completed the funerary chapel of Seti at Qurneh upon the
+      left bank of the river, then began to think of preparing the edifice
+      destined for the cult of his &ldquo;double&rdquo;&mdash;that Eamesseum whose majestic
+      ruins still stand at a short distance to the north of the giants of
+      Amen�thes. Did these colossal statues stimulate his spirit of emulation to
+      do something yet more marvellous? He erected here, at any rate, a still
+      more colossal figure. The earthquake which shattered Memnon brought it to
+      the ground, and fragments of it still strew the soil where they fell some
+      nineteen centuries ago. There are so many of them that the spectator would
+      think himself in the middle of a granite quarry.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The ear measures 3 feet 4 inches in length; the
+          statue is 58 feet high from the top of the head to the
+          sole of the foot, and the weight of the whole has been
+          estimated at over a thousand tons.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0047" id="linkBimage-0047">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/237.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="237.jpg the Remains of The Colossal Statue Of Ramses Ii. At the Ramesseum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The portions forming the breast, arms, and thighs are in detached pieces,
+      but they are still recognisable where they lie close to each other. The
+      head has lost nothing of its characteristic expression, and its
+      proportions are so enormous, that a man could sleep crouched up in the
+      hollow of one of its ears as if on a sofa. Behind the court overlooked by
+      this colossal statue lay a second court, surrounded by a row of square
+      pillars, each having a figure of Osiris attached to it. The god is
+      represented as a mummy, the swathings throwing the body and limbs into
+      relief.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0048" id="linkBimage-0048">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/238.jpg" width="100%" alt="238.jpg the Ramesseum " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato; the great
+     blocks in the foreground are the fragments of the colossal
+     statue of Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      His hands are freed from the bandages and are crossed on the breast, and
+      hold respectively the flail and crook; the smiling face is surmounted by
+      an enormous head-dress. The sanctuary with the buildings attached to it
+      has perished, but enormous brick structures extend round the ruins,
+      forming an enclosure of storehouses. Here the priests of the &ldquo;double&rdquo; were
+      accustomed to dwell with their wives and slaves, and here they stored up
+      the products of their domains&mdash;meat, vegetables, corn, fowls dried or
+      preserved in fat, and wines procured from all the vineyards of Egypt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These were merely the principal monuments put up by Ramses II. at Thebes
+      during the sixty-seven years of his rule. There would be no end to the
+      enumeration of his works if we were to mention all the other edifices
+      which he constructed in the necropolis or among the dwellings of the
+      living, all those which he restored, or those which he merely repaired or
+      inscribed with his cartouches. These are often cut over the name of the
+      original founder, and his usurpations of monuments are so numerous that he
+      might be justly accused of having striven to blot out the memory of his
+      predecessors, and of claiming for himself the entire work of the whole
+      line of Pharaohs. It would seem as if, in his opinion, the glory of Egypt
+      began with him, or at least with his father, and that no victorious
+      campaigns had been ever heard of before those which he conducted against
+      the Libyans and the Hittites.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The battle of Qodsh�, with its attendant episodes&mdash;the flogging of
+      the spies, the assault upon the camp, the charge of the chariots, the
+      flight of the Syrians&mdash;is the favourite subject of his inscriptions;
+      and the poem of Penta��r�t adds to the bas-reliefs a description worthy of
+      the acts represented. This epic reappears everywhere, in Nubia and in the
+      Said, at Abu Simbel, at Be�t-Wally, at Derr, at Luxor, at Karnak, and on
+      the Eamesseum, and the same battle-scenes, with the same accompanying
+      texts, reappear in the Memnonium, whose half-ruined walls still crown the
+      necropolis of Abydos.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0049" id="linkBimage-0049">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/240.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="240.jpg the Ruins of The Memnonium Of Ramses Ii. At Abydos " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had decided upon the erection of this latter monument at the very
+      beginning of his reign, and the artisans who had worked at the similar
+      structure of Seti I. were employed to cover its walls with admirable
+      bas-reliefs. Ramses also laid claim to have his own resting-place at &ldquo;the
+      Cleft;&rdquo; in this privilege he associated all the Pharaohs, from whom he
+      imagined himself to be descended, and the same list of their names, which
+      we find engraved in the chapel of his father, appears on his building
+      also. Some ruins, lying beyond Abydos, are too formless to do more than
+      indicate the site of some of his structures. He enlarged the temple of
+      Harshaf�t� and that of Osiris at Heracleopolis, and, to accomplish these
+      works the more promptly, his workmen had recourse for material to the
+      royal towns of the IVth and XIIth dynasties; the pyramids of Usirtasen II.
+      and Snofr�i at Med�m suffered accordingly the loss of the best part of
+      their covering. He finished the mausoleum at Memphis, and dedicated the
+      statue which Seti had merely blocked out; he then set to work to fill the
+      city with buildings of his own device&mdash;granite and sandstone chambers
+      to the east of the Sacred Lake,* monumental gateways to the south,** and
+      before one of them a fine colossal figure in granite.*** It lay not long
+      ago at the bottom of a hole among the palm trees, and was covered by the
+      inundation every year; it has now been so raised as to be safe from the
+      waters. Ramses could hardly infuse new life into all the provinces which
+      had been devastated years before by the Shepherd-kings; but
+      Heliopolis,**** Bubastes, Athribis, Pat�m�, Mendis, Tell Moqdam, and all
+      the cities of the eastern corner of the Delta, constitute a museum of his
+      monuments, every object within them testifying to his activity.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Partly excavated and published by Mariette, and partly by
+     M. de Morgan. This is probably the temple mentioned in the
+     <i>Great Inscription of Abu Simbel</i>.
+
+     ** These are probably those mentioned by Herodotus, when he
+     says that Sesostris constructed a propylon in the temple of
+     Hephaistos.
+
+     *** This is Abu-1-h�l of the Arabs.
+
+     **** Ruins of the temple of R� bear the cartouche of Ramses
+     II. &ldquo;Cleopatra&rsquo;s Needle,&rdquo; transported to Alexandria by one
+     of the Ptolemies, had been set up by Ramses at Heliopolis;
+     it is probably one of the four obelisks which the
+     traditional Sesostris is said to have erected in that city,
+     according to Pliny.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He colonised these towns with his prisoners, rebuilt them, and set to work
+      to rouse them from the torpor into which they had fallen after their
+      capture by Ahmosis. He made a third capital of Tanis, which rivalled both
+      Memphis and Thebes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0050" id="linkBimage-0050">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/242.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="242.jpg the Colossal Statue of Ramses Ii. At Mitrahineh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph brought back by
+     B�n�dite.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Before this it had been little more than a deserted ruin: he cleared out
+      the <i>d�bris</i>, brought a population to the place; rebuilt the temple,
+      enlarging it by aisles which extended its area threefold; and here he
+      enthroned, along with the local divinities, a triad, in which Amonr� and
+      S�tkh� sat side by side with his own deified &ldquo;double.&rdquo; The ruined walls,
+      the overturned stel�, the obelisks recumbent in the dust, and the statues
+      of his usurped predecessors, all bear his name. His colossal figure of
+      statuary sandstone, in a sitting attitude like that at the Eamesseum,
+      projected from the chief court, and seemed to look down upon the confused
+      ruin of his works.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The fragments of the colossus were employed in the Gr�co-
+     Roman period as building material, and used in the masonry
+     of a boundary wall.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We do not know how many wives he had in his harem, but one of the lists of
+      his children which has come down to us enumerates, although mutilated at
+      the end, one hundred and eleven sons, while of his daughters we know of
+      fifty-five.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The list of Abydos enumerates thirty-three of his sons and
+     thirty-two of his daughters, that of Wady-Sebua one hundred
+     and eleven of his sons and fifty-one of his daughters; both
+     lists are mutilated. The remaining lists for the most part
+     record only some of the children living at the time they
+     were drawn up, at Derr, at the Eamesseum, and at Abu Simbel.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0051" id="linkBimage-0051">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/245.jpg"
+       alt="245.jpg the Chapel of The Apis Of Amek�thes Iii. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a sketch by Mariette.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The majority of these were the offspring of mere concubines or foreign
+      princesses, and possessed but a secondary rank in comparison with himself;
+      but by his union with his sisters Nofr�tari Mar�tm�t and Is�tnofr�t, he
+      had at least half a dozen sons and daughters who might aspire to the
+      throne. Death robbed him of several of these before an opportunity was
+      open to them to succeed him, and among them Amenhikhopsh�f, Amenhiunamif,
+      and Ramses, who had distinguished themselves in the campaign against the
+      Kh�ti; and some of his daughters&mdash;Bitan�ti, Mar�tamon, Nib�tta�i&mdash;by
+      becoming his wives lost their right to the throne. About the XXXth year of
+      his reign, when he was close upon sixty, he began to think of an
+      associate, and his choice rested on the eldest surviving son of his queen
+      Is�tnofr�t, who was called Kh�mo�s�t. This prince was born before the
+      succession of his father, and had exhibited distinguished bravery under
+      the walls of Qodshu and at Ascalon. When he was still very young he had
+      been invested with the office of high priest of the Memphite Phtah, and
+      thus had secured to him the revenues of the possessions of the god, which
+      were the largest in all Egypt after those of the Theban Anion. He had a
+      great reputation for his knowledge of abstruse theological questions and
+      of the science of magic&mdash;a later age attributing to him the
+      composition of several books on magic giving directions for the invocation
+      of spirits belonging to this world and the world beyond. He became the
+      hero also of fantastic romances, in which it was related of him how, in
+      consequence of his having stolen from the mummy of an old wizard the books
+      of Thot, he became the victim of possession by a sort of lascivious and
+      sanguinary ghoul. Ramses relieved himself of the cares of state by handing
+      over to Kh�mo�s�fc the government of the country, without, however,
+      conferring upon him the titles and insignia of royalty. The chief concern
+      of Kh�mo�s�t was to secure the scrupulous observance of the divine laws.
+      He celebrated at Silsilis the festivals of the inundation; he presided at
+      the commemoration of his father&rsquo;s apotheosis, and at the funeral rites of
+      the Apis who died in the XXXth year of the king&rsquo;s reign. Before his time
+      each sacred bull had its separate tomb in a quarter of the Memphite
+      Necropolis known to the Greeks as the Serapeion. The tomb was a small
+      cone-roofed building erected on a square base, and containing only one
+      chamber. Kh�mo�s�t substituted for this a rock-tomb similar to those used
+      by ordinary individuals. He had a tunnel cut in the solid rock to a depth
+      of about a hundred yards, and on either side of this a chamber was
+      prepared for each Apis on its death, the masons closing up the wall after
+      the installation of the mummy. His regency had lasted for nearly a quarter
+      of a century, when, the burden of government becoming too much for him, he
+      was succeeded in the LVth year of Ramses by his younger brother M�nephtah,
+      who was like himself a son of Is�tnofr�t.* M�nephtah acted, during the
+      first twelve years of his rule, for his father, who, having now almost
+      attained the age of a hundred, passed peacefully away at Thebes in the
+      LXVIII year of his reign, full of days and sated with glory.** He became
+      the subject of legend almost before he had closed his eyes upon the world.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * M�nephtah was in the order of birth the thirteenth son of
+     Ramses II.
+
+     ** A passage on a stele of Ramses IV. formally attributes to
+     him a reign of sixty-seven years. I procured at Koptos a
+     stele of his year LXVI.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He had obtained brilliant successes during his life, and the scenes
+      describing them were depicted in scores of places. Popular fancy believed
+      everything which he had related of himself, and added to this all that it
+      knew of other kings, thus making him the Pharaoh of Pharaohs&mdash;the
+      embodiment of all preceding monarchs. Legend preferred to recall him by
+      the name Ses�s�, Ses�st�r�&mdash;a designation which had been applied to
+      him by his contemporaries, and he thus became better known to moderns as
+      Sesostris than by his proper name Ramses M�am�n.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This designation, which is met with at Medinet-Habu and in
+     the Anmtasi Papyrus I., was shown by E. de Roug� to refer to
+     Ramses II.; the various readings Ses�, Ses�s�, Ses�st�r�,
+     explain the different forms Sesosis, Sesoosis, Sesostris.
+     Wiedemann saw in this name the mention of a king of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty not yet classified.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      According to tradition, he was at first sent to Ethiopia with a fleet of
+      four hundred ships, by which he succeeded in conquering the coasts of the
+      Red Sea as far as the Indus. In later times several stel� in the cinnamon
+      country were ascribed to him. He is credited after this with having led
+      into the east a great army, with which he conquered Syria, Media, Persia,
+      Bactriana, and India as far as the ocean; and with having on his return
+      journey through the deserts of Scythia reached the Don [Tanais], where, on
+      the shore of the Masotic Sea, he left a number of his soldiers, whose
+      descendants afterwards peopled Colchis. It was even alleged that he had
+      ventured into Europe, but that the lack of provisions and the inclemency
+      of the climate had prevented him from advancing further than Thrace.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0052" id="linkBimage-0052">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/246.jpg" alt="246.jpg Statue of Khamoisit " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a statue in the
+British Museum.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He returned to Egypt after an absence of nine years, and after having set
+      up on his homeward journey statues and stel� everywhere in commemoration
+      of his victories. Herodotus asserts that he himself had seen several of
+      these monuments in his travels in Syria and Ionia. Some of these are of
+      genuine Egyptian manufacture, and are to be attributed to our Ramses; they
+      are to be found near Tyre, and on the banks of the Nahr el-Kelb, where
+      they mark the frontier to which his empire extended in this direction.
+      Others have but little resemblance to Egyptian monuments, and were really
+      the work of the Asiatic peoples among whom they were found. The two
+      figures referred to long ago by Herodotus, which have been discovered near
+      Ninfi between Sardis and Smyrna, are instances of the latter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0053" id="linkBimage-0053">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/247.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="247.jpg Stele of the Nahr El-kelb " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+     from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The shoes of the figures are turned up at the toe, and the head-dress has
+      more resemblance to the high hats of the people of Asia Minor than to the
+      double crown of Egypt, while the lower garment is striped horizontally in
+      place of vertically. The inscription, moreover, is in an Asiatic form of
+      writing, and has nothing Egyptian about it. Ramses II. in his youth was
+      the handsomest man of his time. He was tall and straight; his figure was
+      well moulded&mdash;the shoulders broad, the arms full and vigorous, the
+      legs muscular; the face was oval, with a firm and smiling mouth, a thin
+      aquiline nose, and large open eyes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0054" id="linkBimage-0054">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/248.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="248.jpg the Bas-belief of Ninfi " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0055" id="linkBimage-0055">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/249.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="249.jpg the Coffin and Mummy of Ramses Ii " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken from the mummy
+     itself, by Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      There may be seen below the cartouche the lines of the official report of
+      inspection written during the XXIst dynasty. Old age and death did not
+      succeed in marring the face sufficiently to disfigure it. The coffin
+      containing his body is not the same as that in which his children placed
+      him on the day of his obsequies; it is another substituted for it by one
+      of the Ramessides, and the mask upon it has but a distant resemblance to
+      the face of the victorious Pharaoh. The mummy is thin, much shrunken, and
+      light; the bones are brittle, and the muscles atrophied, as one would
+      expect in the case of a man who had attained the age of a hundred; but the
+      figure is still tall and of perfect proportions.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      * Even after the coalescence of the vertebrae and the shrinkage produced
+      by mummification, the body of Ramses II. still measures over 5 feet 8
+      inches.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The head, which is bald on the top, is somewhat long, and small in
+      relation to the bulk of the body; there is but little hair on the
+      forehead, but at the back of the head it is thick, and in smooth stiff
+      locks, still preserving its white colour beneath the yellow balsams of his
+      last toilet. The forehead is low, the supra-orbital ridges accentuated,
+      the eyebrows thick, the eyes small and set close to the nose, the temples
+      hollow, the cheek-bones prominent; the ears, finely moulded, stand out
+      from the head, and are pierced, like those of a woman, for the usual
+      ornaments pendant from the lobe. A strong jaw and square chin, together,
+      with a large thick-lipped mouth, which reveals through the black paste
+      within it a few much-worn but sound teeth, make up the features of the
+      mummied king. His moustache and beard, which were closely shaven in his
+      lifetime, had grown somewhat in his last sickness or after his death; the
+      coarse and thick hairs in them, white like those of the head and eyebrows,
+      attain a length of two or three millimetres. The skin shows an ochreous
+      yellow colour under the black bituminous plaster. The mask of the mummy,
+      in fact, gives a fair idea of that of the living king; the somewhat
+      unintelligent expression, slightly brutish perhaps, but haughty and firm
+      of purpose, displays itself with an air of royal majesty beneath the
+      sombre materials used by the embalmer. The disappearance of the old hero
+      did not produce many changes in the position of affairs in Egypt:
+      M�nephtah from this time forth possessed as Pharaoh the power which he had
+      previously wielded as regent. He was now no longer young. Born somewhere
+      about the beginning of the reign of Ramses II., he was now sixty, possibly
+      seventy, years old; thus an old man succeeded another old man at a moment
+      when Egypt must have needed more than ever an active and vigorous ruler.
+      The danger to the country did not on this occasion rise from the side of
+      Asia, for the relations of the Pharaoh with his Kharu subjects continued
+      friendly, and, during a famine which desolated Syria,* he sent wheat to
+      his Hittite allies.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A document preserved in the <i>Anastasi Papyrus III.</i> shows
+     how regular the relations with Syria had become. It is the
+     journal of a custom-house officer, or of a scribe placed at
+     one of the frontier posts, who notes from day to day the
+     letters, messengers, officers, and troops which passed from
+     the 15th to the 25th of Pachons, in the IIIrd year of the
+     reign.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The nations, however, to the north and east, in Libya and in the
+      Mediterranean islands, had for some time past been in a restless
+      condition, which boded little good to the empires of the old world. The
+      Tirnih�, some of them tributaries from the XIIth, and others from the
+      first years of the XVIIIth dynasty, had always been troublesome, but never
+      really dangerous neighbours. From time to time it was necessary to send
+      light troops against them, who, sailing along the coast or following the
+      caravan routes, would enter their territory, force them from their
+      retreats, destroy their palm groves, carry off their cattle, and place
+      garrisons in the principal oases&mdash;even in S�wah itself. For more than
+      a century, however, it would seem that more active and numerically
+      stronger populations had entered upon the stage. A current of invasion,
+      having its origin in the region of the Atlas, or possibly even in Europe,
+      was setting towards the Nile, forcing before it the scattered tribes of
+      the Sudan. Who were these invaders? Were they connected with the race
+      which had planted its dolmens over the plains of the Maghreb? Whatever the
+      answer to this question may be, we know that a certain number of Berber
+      tribes*&mdash;the Lab� and Masha�asha&mdash;who had occupied a middle
+      position between Egypt and the people behind them, and who had only
+      irregular communications with the Nile valley, were now pushed to the
+      front and forced to descend upon it.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The nationality of these tribes is evidenced by the names
+     of their chiefs, which recall exactly those of the
+     Numidians&mdash;Massyla, Massinissa, Massiva.
+
+     ** The Lab�, La�b�, Lob�, are mentioned for the first time
+     under Ramses II.; these are the Libyans of classical
+     geographers. The Masha�asha answer to the Maxycs of
+     Herodotus; they furnished mercenaries to the armies of
+     Ramses II.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were men tall of stature and large of limb, with fair skins, light
+      hair, and blue eyes; everything, in fact, indicating their northern
+      origin. They took pleasure in tattooing the skin, just as the Tuaregs and
+      Kabyles are now accustomed to do, and some, if not all, of them practised
+      circumcision, like a portion of the Egyptians and Semites. In the
+      arrangement of the hair, a curl fell upon the shoulder, while the
+      remainder was arranged in small frizzled locks. Their chiefs and braves
+      wore on their heads two flowering plumes. A loin-cloth, a wild-beast&rsquo;s
+      skin thrown over the back, a mantle, or rather a covering of woollen or
+      dyed cloth, fringed and ornamented with many-coloured needlework, falling
+      from the left shoulder with no attachment in front, so as to leave the
+      body unimpeded in walking,&mdash;these constituted the ordinary costume of
+      the people. Their arms were similar to those of the Egyptians, consisting
+      of the lance, the mace, the iron or copper dagger, the boomerang, the bow
+      and arrow, and the sling.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0056" id="linkBimage-0056">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/253.jpg" width="100%" alt="253.jpg a Libyan " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They also employed horses and chariots. Their bravery made them a foe not
+      to be despised, in spite of their ignorance of tactics and their want of
+      discipline. When they were afterwards formed into regiments and conducted
+      by experienced generals, they became the best auxiliary troops which Egypt
+      could boast of. The Lab� from this time forward were the most energetic of
+      the tribes, and their chiefs prided themselves upon possessing the
+      leadership over all the other clans in this region of the world.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This was the case in the wars of M�nephtah and Ramses
+     III., in which the Lab� and their kings took the command of
+     the confederate armies assembled against Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Lab� might very well have gained the mastery over the other
+      inhabitants of the desert at this period, who had become enfeebled by the
+      frequent defeats which they had sustained at the hands of the Egyptians.
+      At the moment when M�nephtah ascended the throne, their king, M�ra��, son
+      of Didi, ruled over the immense territory lying between the Fay�m and the
+      two Syrtes: the Timihu, the Kahaka, and the Masha�asha rendered him the
+      same obedience as his own people. A revolution had thus occurred in Africa
+      similar to that which had taken place a century previously in Naharaim,
+      when Sapalulu founded the Hittite empire. A great kingdom rose into being
+      where no state capable of disturbing Egyptian control had existed before.
+      The danger was serious. The Hittites, separated from the Nile by the whole
+      breadth of Kharu, could not directly threaten any of the Egyptian cities;
+      but the Libyans, lords of the desert, were in contact with the Delta, and
+      could in a few days fall upon any point in the valley they chose.
+      M�nephtah, therefore, hastened to resist the assault of the westerns, as
+      his father had formerly done that of the easterns, and, strange as it may
+      seem, he found among the troops of his new enemies some of the adversaries
+      with whom the Egyptians had fought under the walls of Qodsh� sixty years
+      before. The Shardana, Lycians, and others, having left the coasts of the
+      Delta and the Phoenician seaports owing to the vigilant watch kept by the
+      Egyptians over their waters, had betaken themselves to the Libyan
+      littoral, where they met with a favourable reception. Whether they had
+      settled in some places, and formed there those colonies of which a Greek
+      tradition of a recent age speaks, we cannot say. They certainly followed
+      the occupation of mercenary soldiers, and many of them hired out their
+      services to the native princes, while others were enrolled among the
+      troops of the King of the Kh�ti or of the Pharaoh himself. M�ra�� brought
+      with him Ach�ans, Shardana, T�rsha, Shagalasha,* and Lycians in
+      considerable numbers when he resolved to begin the strife.** This was not
+      one of those conventional little wars which aimed at nothing further than
+      the imposition of the payment of a tribute upon the conquered, or the
+      conquest of one of their provinces. M�ra�� had nothing less in view than
+      the transport of his whole people into the Nile valley, to settle
+      permanently there as the Hyks�s had done before him.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Shakalasha, Shagalasha, identified with the Sicilians
+     by E. de Roug�, were a people of Asia Minor whose position
+     there is approximately indicated by the site of the town
+     Sagalassos, named after them.
+
+     ** The <i>Inscription of M�nephtah</i> distinguishes the Libyans
+     of M�ra�� from &ldquo;the people of the Sea.&rdquo;
+ </pre>
+    <p>
+      He set out on his march towards the end of the IVth year of the Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      reign, or the beginning of his Vth, surrounded by the elite of his troops,
+      &ldquo;the first choice from among all the soldiers and all the heroes in each
+      land.&rdquo; The announcement of their approach spread terror among the
+      Egyptians. The peace which they had enjoyed for fifty years had cooled
+      their warlike ardour, and the machinery of their military organisation had
+      become somewhat rusty. The standing army had almost melted away; the
+      regiments of archers and charioteers were no longer effective, and the
+      neglected fortresses were not strong enough to protect the frontier. As a
+      consequence, the oases of Farafrah and of the Natron lakes fell into the
+      hands of the enemy at the first attack, and the eastern provinces of the
+      Delta became the possession of the invader before any steps could be taken
+      for their defence. Memphis, which realised the imminent danger, broke out
+      into open murmurs against the negligent rulers who had given no heed to
+      the country&rsquo;s ramparts, and had allowed the garrisons of its fortresses to
+      dwindle away. Fortunately Syria remained quiet. The Kh�ti, in return for
+      the aid afforded them by M�nephtah during the famine, observed a friendly
+      attitude, and the Pharaoh was thus enabled to withdraw the troops from his
+      Asiatic provinces. He could with perfect security take the necessary
+      measures for ensuring &ldquo;Heliopolis, the city of T�m�,&rdquo; against surprise,
+      &ldquo;for arming Memphis, the citadel of Phtah-Tonen, and for restoring all
+      things which were in disorder: he fortified Pibal�s�t, in the
+      neighbourhood of the Shakana canal, on a branch of that of Heliopolis,&rdquo;
+       and he rapidly concentrated his forces behind these quickly organised
+      lines.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Chabas would identify Pibal�s�t with Bubastis; I agree
+     with Brugsch in placing it at Belbe�s.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      M�ra��, however, continued to advance; in the early months of the summer
+      he had crossed the Canopic branch of the Nile, and was now about to encamp
+      not far from the town of Pirici. When the king heard of this &ldquo;he became
+      furious against them as a lion that fascinates its victim; he called his
+      officers together and addressed them: &lsquo;I am about to make you hear the
+      words of your master, and to teach you this: I am the sovereign shepherd
+      who feeds you; I pass my days in seeking out that which is useful for you:
+      I am your father; is there among you a father like me who makes his
+      children live? You are trembling like geese, you do not know what is good
+      to do: no one gives an answer to the enemy, and our desolated land is
+      abandoned to the incursions of all nations. The barbarians harass the
+      frontier, rebels violate it every day, every one robs it, enemies
+      devastate our seaports, they penetrate into the fields of Egypt; if there
+      is an arm of a river they halt there, they stay for days, for months; they
+      come as numerous as reptiles, and no one is able to sweep them back, these
+      wretches who love death and hate life, whose hearts meditate the
+      consummation of our ruin. Behold, they arrive with their chief; they pass
+      their time on the land which they attack in filling their stomachs every
+      day; this is the reason why they come to the land of Egypt, to seek their
+      sustenance, and their intention is to install themselves there; mine is to
+      catch them like fish upon their bellies. Their chief is a dog, a poor
+      devil, a madman; he shall never sit down again in his place.&rsquo;&rdquo; He then
+      announced that on the 14th of Epiphi he would himself conduct the troops
+      against the enemy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These were brave words, but we may fancy the figure that this king of more
+      than sixty years of age would have presented in a chariot in the middle of
+      the fray, and his competence to lead an effective charge against the
+      enemy. On the other hand, his absence in such a critical position of
+      affairs would have endangered the <i>morale</i> of his soldiers and
+      possibly compromised the issue of the battle. A dream settled the whole
+      question.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ed. Meyer sees in this nothing but a customary rhetorical
+     expression, and thinks that the god spoke in order to
+     encourage the king to defend himself vigorously.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      While M�nephtah was asleep one night, he saw a gigantic figure of Phtah
+      standing before him, and forbidding him to advance. &ldquo;&lsquo;Stay,&rsquo; cried the god
+      to him, while handing him the curved khopesh: &lsquo;put away discouragement
+      from thee!&rsquo; His Majesty said to him: &lsquo;But what am I to do then?&rsquo; And Phtah
+      answered him: &lsquo;Despatch thy infantry, and send before it numerous chariots
+      to the confines of the territory of Piri�.&rsquo;&rdquo;**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This name was read Pa-ari by E. de Roug�, Pa-ali by Lauth,
+     and was transcribed Pa-ari-shop by Brugsch, who identified
+     with Prosopitis. The orthography of the text at Athribis
+     shows that we ought to read Piri, Pir�, Piri�; possibly the
+     name is identical with that of lar� which is mentioned in
+     the Pyramid-texts.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Pharaoh obeyed the command, and did not stir from his position. M�ra��
+      had, in the mean time, arranged his attack for the 1st of Epiphi, at the
+      rising of the sun: it did not take place, however, until the 3rd. &ldquo;The
+      archers of His Majesty made havoc of the barbarians for six hours; they
+      were cut off by the edge of the sword.&rdquo; When M�ra�� saw the carnage, &ldquo;he
+      was afraid, his heart failed him; he betook himself to flight as fast as
+      his feet could bear him to save his life, so successfully that his bow and
+      arrows remained behind him in his precipitation, as well as everything
+      else he had upon him.&rdquo; His treasure, his arms, his wife, together with the
+      cattle which he had brought with him for his use, became the prey of the
+      conqueror; &ldquo;he tore out the feathers from his head-dress, and took flight
+      with such of those wretched Libyans as escaped the massacre, but the
+      officers who had the care of His Majesty&rsquo;s team of horses followed in
+      their steps&rdquo; and put most of them to the sword. M�ra�� succeeded, however,
+      in escaping in the darkness, and regained his own country without water or
+      provisions, and almost without escort. The conquering troops returned to
+      the camp laden with booty, and driving before them asses carrying, as
+      bloody tokens of victory, quantities of hands and phalli cut from the dead
+      bodies of the slain. The bodies of six generals and of 6359 Libyan
+      soldiers were found upon the field of battle, together with 222
+      Shagalasha, 724 Tursha, and some hundreds of Shardana and Ach�ans: several
+      thousands of prisoners passed in procession before the Pharaoh, and were
+      distributed among such of his soldiers as had distinguished themselves.
+      These numbers show the gravity of the danger from which Egypt had escaped:
+      the announcement of the victory filled the country with enthusiasm, all
+      the more sincere because of the reality of the panic which had preceded
+      it. The fellah�n, intoxicated with joy, addressed each other: &ldquo;&lsquo;Come, and
+      let us go a long distance on the road, for there is now no fear in the
+      hearts of men.&lsquo;The fortified posts may at last be left; the citadels are
+      now open; messengers stand at the foot of the walls and wait in the shade
+      for the guard to awake after their siesta, to give them entrance. The
+      military police sleep on their accustomed rounds, and the people of the
+      marshes once more drive their herds to pasture without fear of raids, for
+      there are no longer marauders near at hand to cross the river; the cry of
+      the sentinels is heard no more in the night: &lsquo;Halt, thou that comest, thou
+      that comest under a name which is not thine own&mdash;sheer off!&rsquo; and men
+      no longer exclaim on the following morning: &lsquo;Such or such a thing has been
+      stolen;&rsquo; but the towns fall once more into their usual daily routine, and
+      he who works in the hope of the harvest, will nourish himself upon that
+      which he shall have reaped.&rdquo; The return from Memphis to Thebes was a
+      triumphal march.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0057" id="linkBimage-0057">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/260.jpg" alt="260.jpg Statue of M�nephtah " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by D�v�ria.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;He is very strong, Binr� M�nephtah,&rdquo; sang the court poets, &ldquo;very wise are
+      his projects&mdash;his words have as beneficial effect as those of Thot&mdash;everything
+      which he does is completed to the end.&mdash;When he is like a guide at
+      the head of his armies&mdash;his voice penetrates the fortress walls.&mdash;Very
+      friendly to those who bow their backs&mdash;before M�amun&mdash;his
+      valiant soldiers spare him who humbles himself&mdash;before his courage
+      and before his strength;&mdash;they fall upon the Libyans&mdash;they
+      consume the Syrian;&mdash;the Shardana whom thou hast brought back by thy
+      sword&mdash;make prisoners of their own tribes.&mdash;Very happy thy
+      return to Thebes&mdash;victorious! Thy chariot is drawn by hand&mdash;the
+      conquered chiefs march backwards before thee&mdash;whilst thou leadest
+      them to thy venerable father&mdash;Amon, husband of his mother.&rdquo; And the
+      poets amuse themselves with summoning M�ra�� to appear in Egypt, pursued
+      as he was by his own people and obliged to hide himself from them. &ldquo;He is
+      nothing any longer but a beaten man, and has become a proverb among the
+      Lab�, and his chiefs repeat to themselves: &lsquo;Nothing of the kind has
+      occurred since the time of R�.&rsquo; The old men say each one to his children:
+      &lsquo;Misfortune to the Lab�! it is all over with them! No one can any longer
+      pass peacefully across the country; but the power of going out of our land
+      has been taken from us in a single day, and the Tihonu have been withered
+      up in a single year; S�tkh� has ceased to be their chief, and he
+      devastates their &ldquo;duars;&rdquo; there is nothing left but to conceal one&rsquo;s self,
+      and one feels nowhere secure except in a fortress.&rsquo;&rdquo; The news of the
+      victory was carried throughout Asia, and served to discourage the
+      tendencies to revolt which were beginning to make themselves manifest
+      there. &ldquo;The chiefs gave there their salutations of peace, and none among
+      the nomads raised his head after the crushing defeat of the Libyans; Kh�ti
+      is at peace, Canaan is a prisoner as far as the disaffected are concerned,
+      the inhabitant of Ascalon is led away, Gezer is carried into captivity,
+      Ianu�m�m is brought to nothing, the Isra�l� are destroyed and have no
+      longer seed, Kharu is like a widow of the land of Egypt.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This passage is taken from a stele discovered by Petrie in
+     1896, on the site of the Amenophium at Thebes. The mention
+     of the Isra�l� immediately calls to mind the place-names
+     Yushaph-�lu, Yakob-�lu, on lists of Th�tmosis III. which
+     have been compared with the names Jacob and Joseph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      M�nephtah ought to have followed up his opportunity to the end, but he had
+      no such intention, and his inaction gave M�ra�� time to breathe. Perhaps
+      the effort which he had made had exhausted his resources, perhaps old age
+      prevented him from prosecuting his success; he was content, in any case,
+      to station bodies of pickets on the frontier, and to fortify a few new
+      positions to the east of the Delta. The Libyan kingdom was now in the same
+      position as that in which the Hittite had been after the campaign of Seti
+      I.: its power had been checked for the moment, but it remained intact on
+      the Egyptian frontier, awaiting its opportunity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      M�nephtah lived for some time after this memorable year* and the number of
+      monuments which belong to this period show that he reigned in peace. We
+      can see that he carried out works in the same places as his father before
+      him; at Tanis as well as Thebes, in Nubia as well as in the Delta. He
+      worked the sandstone quarries for his building materials, and continued
+      the custom of celebrating the feasts of the inundation at Silsileh. One at
+      least of the stelae which he set up on the occasion of these feasts is
+      really a chapel, with its architraves and columns, and still, excites the
+      admiration of the traveller on account both of its form and of its
+      picturesque appearance.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The last known year of his reign is the year VIII. The
+     lists of Manetho assign to him a reign of from twenty to
+     forty years; Brugsch makes it out to have been thirty-four
+     years, from 1300 to 1266 B.C., which is evidently too much,
+     but we may attribute to him without risk of serious error a
+     reign of about twenty years.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The last years of his life were troubled by the intrigues of princes who
+      aspired to the throne, and by the ambition of the ministers to whom he was
+      obliged to delegate his authority.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0058" id="linkBimage-0058">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/263.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="263.jpg the Chapels of Ramses Ii. And Minephtah At Sisileh " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      One of the latter, a man of Semite origin, named Ben-Azana, of Zor-bisana,
+      who had assumed the appellation of his first patron, ramses�pirnir�,
+      appears to have acted for him as regent. M�nephtah was succeeded,
+      apparently, by one of his sons, called Seti, after his great-grandfather.*
+      Seti II. had doubtless reached middle age at the time of his accession,
+      but his portraits represent him, nevertheless, with the face and figure of
+      a young man.** The expression in these is gentle, refined, haughty, and
+      somewhat melancholic. MU It is the type of Seti I. and Ramses II., but
+      enfeebled and, as it were, saddened. An inscription of his second year
+      attributes to him victories in Asia,*** but others of the same period
+      indicate the existence of disturbances similar to those which had troubled
+      the last years of his father.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * E. de Roug� introduced Amenmeses and Siphtah between
+     M�nephtah and Seti II., and I had up to the present followed
+     his example; I have come back to the position of Chabas,
+     making Seti II. the immediate successor of M�nephtah, which
+     is also the view of Brugsch, Wiedemann, and Ed. Meyer. The
+     succession as it is now given does not seem to me to be free
+     from difficulties; the solution generally adopted has only
+     the merit of being preferable to that of E. de Roug�, which
+     I previously supported.
+
+     ** The last date known of his reign is the year II. which is
+     found at Silsilis; Chabas was, nevertheless, of the opinion
+     that he reigned a considerable time.
+
+     *** The expressions employed in this document do not vary
+     much from the usual protocol of all kings of this period.
+     The triumphal chant of Seti II. preserved in the <i>Anastasi
+     Papyrus IV</i>. is a copy of the triumphal chant of M�nephtah,
+     which is in the same Papyrus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0059" id="linkBimage-0059">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/264.jpg" width="100%" alt="264.jpg Statue of Seti Ii. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      These were occasioned by a certain Aiari, who was high priest of Phtah,
+      and who had usurped titles belonged ordinarily to the Pharaoh or his
+      eldest son, in the house of Sib�, &ldquo;heir and hereditary prince of the two
+      lands.&rdquo; Seti died, it would seem, without having had time to finish his
+      tomb. We do not know whether he left any legitimate children, but two
+      sovereigns succeeded him who were not directly connected with him, but
+      were probably the grandsons of the Amenmesis and the Siphtah, whom we meet
+      with among the children of Ramses. The first of these was also called
+      Amenmesis,* and he held sway for several years over the whole of Egypt,
+      and over its foreign possessions.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Graffiti of this sovereign have been found at the second
+     cataract. Certain expressions have induced E. de Roug� to
+     believe that he, as well as Siphtah, came originally from
+     Khib�t in the Aphroditopolite nome. This was an allusion, as
+     Chabas had seen, to the myth of Horus, similar to that
+     relating to Th�tmosis III., and which we more usually meet
+     with in the cases of those kings who were not marked out
+     from their birth onwards for the throne.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0060" id="linkBimage-0060">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/265.jpg" width="100%" alt="265.jpg Seti II. " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by �mil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The second, who was named Siphtah-M�nephtah, ascended &ldquo;the throne of his
+      father&rdquo; thanks to the devotion of his minister Ba�,* but in a greater
+      degree to his marriage with a certain princess called Tausir�t. He
+      maintained himself in this position for at least six years, during which
+      he made an expedition into Ethiopia, and received in audience at Thebes
+      messengers from all foreign nations. He kept up so zealously the
+      appearance of universal dominion, that to judge from his inscriptions he
+      must have been the equal of the most powerful of his predecessors at
+      Thebes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Egypt, nevertheless, was proceeding at a quick pace towards its downfall.
+      No sooner had this monarch disappeared than it began to break up.** There
+      were no doubt many claimants for the crown, but none of them succeeded in
+      disposing of the claims of his rivals, and anarchy reigned supreme from
+      one end of the Nile valley to the other. The land of Q�m�t began to drift
+      away, and the people within it had no longer a sovereign, and this, too,
+      for many years, until other times came; for &ldquo;the land of Q�m�t was in the
+      hands of the princes ruling over the nomes, and they put each other to
+      death, both great and small.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Ba� has left two inscriptions behind him, one at Silsilis
+     and the other at Seh�l, and the titles he assumes on both
+     monuments show the position he occupied at the Theban court
+     during the reign of Siphtah-M�nephtah. Chabas thought that
+     Ba� had succeeded in maintaining his rights to the crown
+     against the claims of Amenmesis.
+
+     ** The little that we know about this period of anarchy has
+     been obtained from the <i>Harris Papyrus</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Other times came afterwards, during years of nothingness, in which Arisu,
+      a Syrian,* was chief among them, and the whole country paid tribute before
+      him; every one plotted with his neighbour to steal the goods of others,
+      and it was the same with regard to the gods as with regard to men,
+      offerings were no longer made in the temples.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of this individual was deciphered by Chabas;
+     Lauth, and after him Krall, were inclined to read it as Ket,
+     Ketesh, in order to identify it with the Ketes of Diodorus
+     Siculus. A form of the name Arisai in the Bible may be its
+     original, or that of Arish which is found in Phoenician,
+     especially Punic, inscriptions.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This was in truth the revenge of the feudal system upon Pharaoh. The
+      barons, kept in check by Ahmosis and Amen�thes I., restricted by the
+      successors of these sovereigns to the position of simple officers of the
+      king, profited by the general laxity to recover as many as possible of
+      their ancient privileges. For half a century and more, fortune had given
+      them as masters only aged princes, not capable of maintaining continuous
+      vigilance and firmness. The invasions of the peoples of the sea, the
+      rivalry of the claimants to the throne, and the intrigues of ministers
+      had, one after the other, served to break the bonds which fettered them,
+      and in one generation they were able to regain that liberty of action of
+      which they had been deprived for centuries. To this state of things Egypt
+      had been drifting from the earliest times. Unity could be maintained only
+      by a continuous effort, and once this became relaxed, the ties which bound
+      the whole country together were soon broken. There was another danger
+      threatening the country beside that arising from the weakening of the
+      hands of the sovereign, and the turbulence of the barons. For some three
+      centuries the Theban Pharaohs were accustomed to bring into the country
+      after each victorious campaign many thousands of captives. The number of
+      foreigners around them had, therefore, increased in a striking manner. The
+      majority of these strangers either died without issue, or their posterity
+      became assimilated to the indigenous inhabitants. In many places, however,
+      they had accumulated in such proportions that they were able to retain
+      among themselves the remembrance of their origin, their religion, and
+      their customs, and with these the natural desire to leave the country of
+      their exile for their former fatherland. As long as a strict watch was
+      kept over them they remained peaceful subjects, but as soon as this
+      vigilance was relaxed rebellion was likely to break out, especially
+      amongst those who worked in the quarries. Traditions of the Greek period
+      contain certain romantic episodes in the history of these captives. Some
+      Babylonian prisoners brought back by Sesostris, these traditions tell us,
+      unable to endure any longer the fatiguing work to which they were
+      condemned, broke out into open revolt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0061" id="linkBimage-0061">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/268.jpg" alt="268.jpg Amenmesis " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+after a picture in
+Rosellini.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They made themselves masters of a position almost opposite Memphis, and
+      commanding the river, and held their ground there with such obstinacy that
+      it was found necessary to give up to them the province which they
+      occupied: they built here a town, which they afterwards called Babylon. A
+      similar legend attributes the building of the neighbouring village of
+      Tro�� to captives from Troy.*
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The scattered barbarian tribes of the Delta, whether Hebrews or the
+      remnant of the ��yks�s, had endured there a miserable lot ever since the
+      accession of the Ramessides. The rebuilding of the cities which had been
+      destroyed there during the wars with the Hyks�s had restricted the extent
+      of territory on which they could pasture their herds. Ramses II. treated
+      them as slaves of the treasury,** and the Hebrews were not long under his
+      rule before they began to look back with regret on the time of the
+      monarchs &ldquo;who knew Joseph.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name Babylon comes probably from <i>Banbonu, Barbonu,
+     Babonu</i>&mdash;a term which, under the form <i>H�t-Banbonu,</i> served
+     to designate a quarter of Heliopolis, or rather a suburban
+     village of that city. Troja was, as we have seen, the
+     ancient city of Tro��, now T�rah, celebrated for its
+     quarries of fine limestone. The narratives collected by the
+     historians whom Diodorus consulted were products of the
+     Saite period, and intended to explain to Greeks the
+     existence on Egyptian territory of names recalling those of
+     Babylon in Chald�a and of Homeric Troy.
+
+     ** A very ancient tradition identifies Ramses II. with the
+     Pharaoh &ldquo;who knew not Joseph&rdquo; (<i>Exod.</i> i. 8). Recent
+     excavations showing that the great works in the east of the
+     Delta began under this king, or under Seti II. at the
+     earliest, confirm in a general way the accuracy of the
+     traditional view: I have, therefore, accepted it in part,
+     and placed the Exodus after the death of Ramses II. Other
+     authorities place it further back, and Lieblein in 1863 was
+     inclined to put it under Amen�thes III.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their
+      burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.
+      But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And
+      they were &ldquo;grieved because of the children of Israel.&rdquo; * A secondary
+      version of the same narrative gives a more detailed account of their
+      condition: &ldquo;They made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar and
+      in brick, and in all manner of service in the field.&rdquo; ** The unfortunate
+      slaves awaited only an opportunity to escape from the cruelty of their
+      persecutors.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod</i>. i. 11, 12. Excavations made by Naville have
+     brought to light near Tel el-Maskhutah the ruins of one of
+     the towns which the Hebrews of the Alexandrine period
+     identified with the cities constructed by their ancestors in
+     Egypt: the town excavated by Naville is Pit�m�, and
+     consequently the Pithom of the Biblical account, and at the
+     same time also the Succoth of Exod. xii. 37, xiii. 20, the
+     first station of the Bn�-Israel after leaving Ramses.
+
+     ** <i>Exod,</i> i. 13, 14.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The national traditions of the Hebrews inform us that the king, in
+      displeasure at seeing them increase so mightily notwithstanding his
+      repression, commanded the midwives to strangle henceforward their male
+      children at their birth. A woman of the house of Levi, after having
+      concealed her infant for three months, put him in an ark of bulrushes and
+      consigned him to the Nile, at a place where the daughter of Pharaoh was
+      accustomed to bathe. The princess on perceiving the child had compassion
+      on him, adopted him, called him Moses&mdash;saved from the waters&mdash;and
+      had him instructed in all the knowledge of the Egyptians. Moses had
+      already attained forty years of age, when he one day encountered an
+      Egyptian smiting a Hebrew, and slew him in his anger, shortly afterwards
+      fleeing into the land of Midian. Here he found an asylum, and Jethro the
+      priest gave him one of his daughters in marriage. After forty years of
+      exile, God, appearing to him in a burning bush, sent him to deliver His
+      people. The old Pharaoh was dead, but Moses and his brother Aaron betook
+      themselves to the court of the new Pharaoh, and demanded from him
+      permission for the Hebrews to sacrifice in the desert of Arabia. They
+      obtained it, as we know, only after the infliction of the ten plagues, and
+      after the firstborn of the Egyptians had been stricken.* The emigrants
+      started from Ramses; as they were pursued by a body of troops, the Sea
+      parted its waters to give them passage over the dry ground, and closing up
+      afterwards on the Egyptian hosts, overwhelmed them to a man. Thereupon
+      Moses and the children of Israel sang this song unto Jahveh, saying:
+      &ldquo;Jahveh is my strength and song&mdash;and He has become my salvation.&mdash;This
+      is my God, and I will praise Him,&mdash;my father&rsquo;s God, and I will exalt
+      Him.&mdash;The Lord is a man of war,&mdash;and Jahveh is His name.&mdash;Pharaoh&rsquo;s
+      chariots and his hosts hath He cast into the sea, &mdash;and his chosen
+      captains are sunk in the sea of weeds.&mdash;The deeps cover them&mdash;they
+      went down into the depths like a stone.... The enemy said: &lsquo;I will pursue,
+      I will overtake&mdash;I will divide the spoil&mdash;my lust shall be
+      satiated upon them&mdash;I will draw my sword&mdash;my hand shall destroy
+      them.&rsquo;&mdash;Thou didst blow with Thy wind&mdash;the sea covered them&mdash;they
+      sank as lead in the mighty waters.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> ii.-xiii. I have limited myself here to a summary
+     of the Biblical narrative, without entering into a criticism
+     of the text, which I leave to others.
+
+     ** <i>Exod.</i> xv. 1-10 (R.V.)
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From this narrative we see that the Hebrews, or at least those of them who
+      dwelt in the Delta, made their escape from their oppressors, and took
+      refuge in the solitudes of Arabia. According to the opinion of accredited
+      historians, this Exodus took place in the reign of M�nephtah, and the
+      evidence of the triumphal inscription, lately discovered by Prof. Petrie,
+      seems to confirm this view, in relating that the people of Isra�l� were
+      destroyed, and had no longer a seed. The context indicates pretty clearly
+      that these ill-treated Isra�l� were then somewhere south of Syria,
+      possibly in the neighbourhood of Ascalon and Glezer. If it is the Biblical
+      Israelites who are here mentioned for the first time on an Egyptian
+      monument, one might suppose that they had just quitted the land of slavery
+      to begin their wanderings through the desert. Although the peoples of the
+      sea and the Libyans did not succeed in reaching their settlements in the
+      land of Goshen, the Israelites must have profited both by the disorder
+      into which the Egyptians were thrown by the invaders, and by the
+      consequent withdrawal to Memphis of the troops previously stationed on the
+      east of the Delta, to break away from their servitude and cross the
+      frontier. If, on the other hand, the Isra�l� of M�nephtah are regarded as
+      a tribe still dwelling among the mountains of Canaan, while the greater
+      part of the race had emigrated to the banks of the Nile, there is no need
+      to seek long after M�nephtah for a date suiting the circumstances of the
+      Exodus. The years following the reign of Seti II. offer favourable
+      conditions for such a dangerous enterprise: the break-up of the monarchy,
+      the discords of the barons, the revolts among the captives, and the
+      supremacy of a Semite over the other chiefs, must have minimised the risk.
+      We can readily understand how, in the midst of national disorders, a tribe
+      of foreigners weary of its lot might escape from its settlements and
+      betake itself towards Asia without meeting with strenous opposition from
+      the Pharaoh, who would naturally be too much preoccupied with his own
+      pressing necessities to trouble himself much over the escape of a band of
+      serfs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Having crossed the Red Sea, the Israelites pursued their course to the
+      north-east on the usual road leading into Syria, and then turning towards
+      the south, at length arrived at Sinai. It was a moment when the nations of
+      Asia were stirring. To proceed straight to Canaan by the beaten track
+      would have been to run the risk of encountering their moving hordes, or of
+      jostling against the Egyptian troops, who still garrisoned the strongholds
+      of the She-phelah. The fugitives had, therefore, to shun the great
+      military roads if they were to avoid coming into murderous conflict with
+      the barbarians, or running into the teeth of Pharaoh&rsquo;s pursuing army. The
+      desert offered an appropriate asylum to people of nomadic inclinations
+      like themselves; they betook themselves to it as if by instinct, and spent
+      there a wandering life for several generations.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This explanation of the wanderings of the Israelites has
+     been doubted by most historians: it has a cogency, once we
+     admit the reality of the sojourn in Egypt and the Exodus.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The traditions collected in their sacred books described at length their
+      marches and their halting-places, the great sufferings they endured, and
+      the striking miracles which God performed on their behalf.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The itinerary of the Hebrew people through the desert
+     contains a very small number of names which were not
+     actually in use. They represent possibly either the stations
+     at which the caravans of the merchants put up, or the
+     localities where the Bedawin and their herds were accustomed
+     to sojourn. The majority of them cannot be identified, but
+     enough can still be made out to give us a general idea of
+     the march of the emigrants.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Moses conducted them through all these experiences, continually troubled
+      by their murmurings and seditions, but always ready to help them out of
+      the difficulties into which they were led, on every occasion, by their
+      want of faith. He taught them, under God&rsquo;s direction, how to correct the
+      bitterness of brackish waters by applying to them the wood of a certain
+      tree.* When they began to look back with regret to the &ldquo;flesh-pots of
+      Egypt&rdquo; and the abundance of food there, another signal miracle was
+      performed for them. &ldquo;At even the quails came up and covered the camp, and
+      in the morning the dew lay round about the host; and when the dew that lay
+      was gone up, behold, upon the face of the wilderness there lay a small
+      round thing, as small as the hoar frost on the ground. And when the
+      children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, &lsquo;What is it? &lsquo;for
+      they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them, &lsquo;It is the bread
+      which the Lord hath given you to eat.&rsquo;&rdquo;**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xv. 23-25. The station Marah, &ldquo;the bitter waters,&rdquo;
+      is identified by modern tradition with Ain Howarah. There is
+     a similar way of rendering waters potable still in use among
+     the Bedawin of these regions.
+
+     ** <i>Exod.</i> xvi. 13-15.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;And the house of Israel called the name thereof &lsquo;manna: &lsquo;and it was like
+      coriander seed, white; and the taste of it was like wafers made with
+      honey.&rdquo; * &ldquo;And the children of Israel did eat the manna forty years, until
+      they came to a land inhabited; they did eat the manna until they came unto
+      the borders of the land of Canaan.&rdquo; ** Further on, at Eephidim, the water
+      failed: Moses struck the rocks at Horeb, and a spring gushed out.*** The
+      Amalekites, in the meantime, began to oppose their passage; and one might
+      naturally doubt the power of a rabble of slaves, unaccustomed to war, to
+      break through such an obstacle. Joshua was made their general, &ldquo;and Moses,
+      Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the hill: and it came to pass, when
+      Moses held up his hand, that Israel prevailed, and when he let down his
+      hand, Amalek prevailed. But Moses&rsquo; hands were heavy; and they took a
+      stone, and put it under him, and he sat thereon; and Aaron and Hur stayed
+      up his hands, the one on the one side, and the other on the other side,
+      and his hands were steady until the going down of the sun. And Joshua
+      discomfited Amalek and his people with the edge of the sword.&rdquo; ****
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xvi. 31. Prom early times the manna of the Hebrews
+     had been identified with the mann-es-sama, &ldquo;the gift of
+     heaven,&rdquo; of the Arabs, which exudes in small quantities from
+     the leaves of the tamarisk after being pricked by insects:
+     the question, however, is still under discussion whether
+     another species of vegetable manna may not be meant.
+
+     ** <i>Exod.</i> xvi. 35.
+
+     *** <i>Exod.</i> xvii. 1-7. There is a general agreement as to
+     the identification of Rephidim with the Wady Pe�r�n, the
+     village of Pharan of the Gr�co-Roman geographers.
+
+     **** Exod. xvii. 8-13.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Three months after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt they
+      encamped at the foot of Sinai, and &ldquo;the Lord called unto Moses out of the
+      mountain, saying, &lsquo;Thus shalt thou say to the house of Jacob, and tell the
+      children of Israel: Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I
+      bare you on eagles&rsquo; wings, and brought you unto Myself. Now therefore, if
+      ye will obey My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then ye shall be a
+      peculiar treasure unto Me from among all peoples: for all the earth is
+      Mine: and ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation.&rsquo;
+      The people answered together and said, &lsquo;All that the Lord hath spoken we
+      will do.&rsquo; And the Lord said unto Moses, &lsquo;Lo, I come unto thee in a thick
+      cloud, that the people may hear when I speak with thee, and may also
+      believe thee for ever.&rsquo;&rdquo; &ldquo;On the third day, when it was morning, there
+      were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the
+      voice of a trumpet exceeding loud; and all the people that were in the
+      camp trembled. And Moses brought forth the people out of the camp to meet
+      God; and they stood at the nether part of the mountain. And Mount Sinai
+      was altogether on smoke, because the Lord descended upon it in fire: and
+      the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mount
+      quaked greatly. And when the voice of the trumpet waxed louder and louder,
+      Moses spake, and God answered him by a voice.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xix. 3-6, 9, 16-19.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Then followed the giving of the supreme law, the conditions of the
+      covenant which the Lord Himself deigned to promulgate directly to His
+      people. It was engraved on two tables of stone, and contained, in ten
+      concise statements, the commandments which the Creator of the Universe
+      imposed upon the people of His choice.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;I. I am Jahveh, which brought thee out of the land of Egypt. Thou shalt
+      have none other gods before Me.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      II. Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, etc.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      III. Thou shalt not take the name of Jahveh thy God in vain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      IV. Remember the sabbath day to keep it holy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      V. Honour thy father and thy mother.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VI. Thou shalt do no murder.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VII. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      VIII. Thou shalt not steal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      IX. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      X. Thou shalt not covet.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * We have two forms of the Decalogue&mdash;one in <i>Exod.</i> xx. 2-
+     17, and the other in <i>Deut.</i> v. 6-18.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;And all the people saw the thunderings, and the lightnings, and the voice
+      of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the people saw it, they
+      trembled, and stood afar off. And they said unto Moses, &lsquo;Speak thou with
+      us, and we will hear: but let not God speak with us, lest we die.&rsquo;&rdquo;* God
+      gave His commandments to Moses in instalments as the circumstances
+      required them: on one occasion the rites of sacrifice, the details of the
+      sacerdotal vestments, the mode of consecrating the priests, the
+      composition of the oil and the incense for the altar; later on, the
+      observance of the three annual festivals, and the orders as to absolute
+      rest on the seventh day, as to the distinctions between clean and unclean
+      animals, as to drink, as to the purification of women, and lawful and
+      unlawful marriages.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>Exod.</i> xx. 18, 19.
+
+     ** This legislation and the history of the circumstances on
+     which it was promulgated are contained in four of the books
+     of the Pentateuch, viz. <i>Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
+     Deuteronomy</i>. Any one of the numerous text-books published
+     in Germany will be found to contain an analysis of these
+     books, and the prevalent opinions as to the date of the
+     documents which it [the Hexateuch] contains. I confine
+     myself here and afterwards only to such results as may fitly
+     be used in a general history.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The people waited from week to week until Jahveh had completed the
+      revelation of His commands, and in their impatience broke the new law more
+      than once. On one occasion, when &ldquo;Moses delayed to come out of the mount,&rdquo;
+       they believed themselves abandoned by heaven, and obliged Aaron, the high
+      priest, to make for them a golden calf, before which they offered burnt
+      offerings. The sojourn of the people at the foot of Sinai lasted eleven
+      months. At the end of this period they set out once more on their slow
+      marches to the Promised Land, guided during the day by a cloud, and during
+      the night by a pillar of fire, which moved before them. This is a general
+      summary of what we find in the sacred writings.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Israelites, when they set out from Egypt, were not yet a nation. They
+      were but a confused horde, flying with their herds from their pursuers;
+      with no resources, badly armed, and unfit to sustain the attack of regular
+      troops. After leaving Sinai, they wandered for some time among the
+      solitudes of Arabia Petraea in search of some uninhabited country where
+      they could fix their tents, and at length settled on the borders of
+      Idumaea, in the mountainous region surrounding Kadesh-Barnea.* Kadesh had
+      from ancient times a reputation for sanctity among the Bedawin of the
+      neighbourhood: it rejoiced in the possession of a wonderful well&mdash;the
+      Well of Judgment&mdash;to which visits were made for the purpose of
+      worship, and for obtaining the &ldquo;judgment&rdquo; of God. The country is a poor
+      one, arid and burnt up, but it contains wells which never fail, and wadys
+      suitable for the culture of wheat and for the rearing of cattle. The tribe
+      which became possessed of a region in which there was a perennial supply
+      of water was fortunate indeed, and a fragment of the psalmody of Israel at
+      the time of their sojourn here still echoes in a measure the transports of
+      joy which the people gave way to at the discovery of a new spring: &ldquo;Spring
+      up, O well; sing ye unto it: the well which the princes digged, which the
+      nobles of the people delved with the sceptre and with their staves.&rdquo; **
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The site of Kadesh-Barnea appears to have been fixed with
+     certainty at Ain-Qadis by C. Trumbull.
+
+     ** <i>Numb.</i> xxi. 17, 18. The context makes it certain that
+     this song was sung at Beer, beyond the Arnon, in the land of
+     Moab. It has long been recognised that it had a special
+     reference, and that it refers to an incident in the
+     wanderings of the people through the desert.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The wanderers took possession of this region after some successful brushes
+      with the enemy, and settled there, without being further troubled by their
+      neighbours or by their former masters. The Egyptians, indeed, absorbed in
+      their civil discords, or in wars with foreign nations, soon forgot their
+      escaped slaves, and never troubled themselves for centuries over what had
+      become of the poor wretches, until in the reign of the Ptolemies, when
+      they had learned from the Bible something of the people of God, they began
+      to seek in their own annals for traces of their sojourn in Egypt and of
+      their departure from the country. A new version of the Exodus was the
+      result, in which Hebrew tradition was clumsily blended with the materials
+      of a semi-historical romance, of which Amen�thes III. was the hero. His
+      minister and namesake, Amen�thes, son of H�p�, left ineffaceable
+      impressions on the minds of the inhabitants of Thebes: he not only erected
+      the colossal figures in the Amenophium, but he constructed the chapel at
+      De�r el-Medineh, which was afterwards restored in Ptolemaic times, and
+      where he continued to be worshipped as long as the Egyptian religion
+      lasted. Profound knowledge of the mysteries of magic were attributed to
+      him, as in later times to Prince Kh�mo�s�t, son of Ramses II. On this
+      subject he wrote certain works which maintained their reputation for more
+      than a thousand years after his death,* and all that was known about him
+      marked him out for the important part he came to play in those romantic
+      stories so popular among the Egyptians.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of these books, which is mentioned in several
+     religious texts, is preserved in the <i>Louvre Papyrus</i>.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Pharaoh in whose good graces he lived had a desire, we are informed,
+      to behold the gods, after the example of his ancestor Horus. The son of
+      H�p�, or Pa-Apis, informed him that he could not succeed in his design
+      until he had expelled from the country all the lepers and unclean persons
+      who contaminated it. Acting on this information, he brought together all
+      those who suffered from physical defects, and confined them, to the number
+      of eighty thousand, in the quarries of T�rah. There were priests among
+      them, and the gods became wrathful at the treatment to which their
+      servants were exposed; the soothsayer, therefore, fearing the divine
+      anger, predicted that certain people would shortly arise who, forming an
+      alliance with the Unclean, would, together with them, hold sway in Egypt
+      for thirteen years. He then committed suicide, but the king nevertheless
+      had compassion on the outcasts, and granted to them, for their exclusive
+      use, the town of Avaris, which had been deserted since the time of
+      Ahmosis. The outcasts formed themselves into a nation under the rule of a
+      Heliopolitan priest called Osarsyph, or Moses, who gave them laws,
+      mobilised them, and joined his forces with the descendants of the
+      Shepherds at Jerusalem. The Pharaoh Amen�phis, taken by surprise at this
+      revolt, and remembering the words of his minister Amen�thes, took flight
+      into Ethiopia. The shepherds, in league with the Unclean, burned the
+      towns, sacked the temples, and broke in pieces the statues of the gods:
+      they forced the Egyptian priests to slaughter even their sacred animals,
+      to cut them up and cook them for their foes, who ate them derisively in
+      their accustomed feasts. Amen�phis returned from Ethiopia, together with
+      his son Ramses, at the end of thirteen years, defeated the enemy, driving
+      them back into Syria, where the remainder of them became later on the
+      Jewish nation.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * A list of the Pharaohs after A�, as far as it is possible
+     to make them out, is here given:
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkBimage-0062" id="linkBimage-0062">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/281.jpg" width="100%" alt="281.jpg Table " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This is but a romance, in which a very little history is mingled with a
+      great deal of fable: the scribes as well as the people were acquainted
+      with the fact that Egypt had been in danger of dissolution at the time
+      when the Hebrews left the banks of the Nile, but they were ignorant of the
+      details, of the precise date and of the name of the reigning Pharaoh. A
+      certain similarity in sound suggested to them the idea of assimilating the
+      prince whom the Chroniclers called Menepthes or Amenepthes with
+      Amen-�thes, i.e. Amenophis III.; and they gave to the Pharaoh of the XIXth
+      dynasty the minister who had served under a king of the XVIIIth: they
+      metamorphosed at the same time the Hebrews into lepers allied with the
+      Shepherds. From this strange combination there resulted a narrative which
+      at once fell in with the tastes of the lovers of the marvellous, and was a
+      sufficient substitute for the truth which had long since been forgotten.
+      As in the case of the Egyptians of the Greek period, we can see only
+      through a fog what took place after the deaths of M�nephtah and Seti II.
+      We know only for certain that the chiefs of the nomes were in perpetual
+      strife with each other, and that a foreign power was dominant in the
+      country as in the time of Ap�phis. The days of the empire would have
+      Harmhab� himself belonged to the XVIIIth dynasty, for he modelled the form
+      of his cartouches on those of the Ahmesside Pharaohs: the XIXth dynasty
+      began only, in all probability, with Ramses I., but the course of the
+      history has compelled me to separate Harmhab� from his predecessors. Not
+      knowing the length of the reigns, we cannot determine the total duration
+      of the dynasty: we shall not, however, be far wrong in assigning to it a
+      length of 130 years or thereabouts, i.e. from 1350 to somewhere near 1220
+      B.C. been numbered if a deliverer had not promptly made his appearance.
+      The direct line of Ramses II. was extinct, but his innumerable sons by
+      innumerable concubines had left a posterity out of which some at least
+      might have the requisite ability and zeal, if not to save the empire, at
+      least to lengthen its duration, and once more give to Thebes days of
+      glorious prosperity. Egypt had set out some five centuries before this for
+      the conquest of the world, and fortune had at first smiled upon her
+      enterprise. Th�tmosis I., Th�tmosis III., and the several Pharaohs bearing
+      the name of Amen�thes had marched with their armies from the upper waters
+      of the Nile to the banks of the Euphrates, and no power had been able to
+      withstand them. New nations, however, soon rose up to oppose her, and the
+      Hittites in Asia and the Libyans of the Sudan together curbed her
+      ambition. Neither the triumphs of Ramses II. nor the victory of M�nephtah
+      had been able to restore her prestige, or the lands of which her rivals
+      had robbed her beyond her ancient frontier. Now her own territory itself
+      was threatened, and her own well-being was in question; she was compelled
+      to consider, not how to rule other tribes, great or small, but how to keep
+      her own possessions intact and independent: in short, her very existence
+      was at stake.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2H_4_0001" id="linkC2H_4_0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img alt="285 (96K)" src="images/285.jpg" width="100%" />
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <i>THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE</i>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>RAMSES III.&mdash;THE THEBAN CITY UNDER THE RAMESSIDES&mdash;MANNERS
+      AND CUSTOMS.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Naltht�s�t and Ramses III.: the decline of the military spirit in Egypt&mdash;The
+      reorganisation of the army and fleet by Ramses&mdash;The second Libyan
+      invasion&mdash;The Asiatic peoples, the Pulasati, the Zakleala, and the
+      Tyrseni: their incursions into Syria and their defeat&mdash;The campaign
+      of the year XL and the fall of the Libyan kingdom&mdash;Cruising on the
+      Red Sea&mdash;The buildings at Medinet-Hab�&mdash;The conspiracy of
+      Penta��r�t&mdash;The mummy of Ramses III.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The sons and immediate successors of Ramses III.&mdash;Thebes and the
+      Egyptian population: the transformation of the people and of the great
+      lords: the feudal system from being military becomes religious&mdash;The
+      wealth of precious metals, jewellery, furniture, costume&mdash;Literary
+      education, and the influence of the Semitic language on the Egyptian:
+      romantic stories, the historical novel, fables, caricatures and satires,
+      collections of maxims and moral dialogues, love-poems.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkC2HCH0001" id="linkC2HCH0001">
+      <!--  H2 anchor --> </a> <a name="linkCimage-0005" id="linkCimage-0005">
+      <!-- IMG --></a><br />
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/287.jpg" width="100%" alt="287.jpg Page Image " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+    <h2>
+      CHAPTER III&mdash;THE CLOSE OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Ramses III.&mdash;The Theban city under the Ramessides&mdash;Manners
+      and customs.</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As in a former crisis, Egypt once more owed her salvation to a scion of
+      the old Theban race. A descendant of Seti I. or Ramses II., named
+      Nakht�s�t, rallied round him the forces of the southern nomes, and
+      succeeded, though not without difficulty, in dispossessing the Syrian
+      Aris�. &ldquo;When he arose, he was like S�tkh�, providing for all the
+      necessities of the country which, for feebleness, could not stand, killing
+      the rebels which were in the Delta, purifying the great throne of Egypt;
+      he was regent of the two lands in the place of T�m�, setting himself to
+      reorganise that which had been overthrown, to such good purpose, that each
+      one recognised as brethren those who had been separated from him as by a
+      wall for so long a time, strengthening the temples by pious gifts, so that
+      the traditional rites could be celebrated at the divine cycles.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The exact relationship between Nakht�s�t and Ramses II. is
+     not known; he was probably the grandson or great-grandson of
+     that sovereign, though Ed. Meyer thinks he was perhaps the
+     son of Seti II. The name should be read either Nakh�ts�t,
+     with the singular of the first word composing it, or
+     Nakh�t�s�t, Nakht�s�t, with the plural, as in the analogous
+     name of the king of the XXXth dynasty, Nectanebo.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0006" id="linkCimage-0006">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/289.jpg" alt="289.jpg Nakht�s�t. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many were the difficulties that he had to encounter before he could
+      restore to his country that peace and wealth which she had enjoyed under
+      the long reign of Sesostris. It seems probable that his advancing years
+      made him feel unequal to the task, or that he desired to guard against the
+      possibility of disturbances in the event of his sudden death; at all
+      events, he associated with himself on the throne his eldest son Ramses&mdash;not,
+      however, as a Pharaoh who had full rights to the crown, like the
+      coadjutors of the Amenemh��ts and Usirtasens, but as a prince invested
+      with extraordinary powers, after the example of the sons of the Pharaohs
+      Th�tmosis and Seti I. Ramses recalls with pride, towards the close of his
+      life, how his father &ldquo;had promoted him to the dignity of heir-presumptive
+      to the throne of Sib�,&rdquo; and how he had been acclaimed as &ldquo;the supreme head
+      of Qim�t for the administration of the whole earth united together.&rdquo; * This
+      constituted the rise of a new dynasty on the ruins of the old&mdash;the
+      last, however, which was able to retain the supremacy of Egypt over the
+      Oriental world. We are unable to ascertain how long this double reign
+      lasted.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The only certain monument that we as yet possess of this
+     double reign is a large stele cut on the rock behind
+     Medinet-Hab�.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nakht�s�t, fully occupied by enemies within the country, had no leisure
+      either to build or to restore any monuments;* on his death, as no tomb had
+      been prepared for him, his mummy was buried in that of the usurper Siphtah
+      and the Queen Tausir�t.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Wiedemann attributes to him the construction of one of the
+     doors of the temple of M�t at Karnak; it would appear that
+     there is a confusion in his notes between the prenomen of
+     this sovereign and that of Seti II., who actually did
+     decorate one of the doorways of that temple. Nakh�s�t must
+     have also worked on the temple of Phtah at Memphis. His
+     cartouche is met with on a statue originally dedicated by a
+     Pharaoh of the XIIth dynasty, discovered at Tell-Neb�sheh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He was soon forgotten, and but few traces of his services survived him;
+      his name was subsequently removed from the official list of the kings,
+      while others not so deserving as he&mdash;as, for instance,
+      Siphtah-Minephtah and Amenmesis&mdash;were honourably inscribed in it. The
+      memory of his son overshadowed his own, and the series of the legitimate
+      kings who formed the XXth dynasty did not include him. Ramses III. took
+      for his hero his namesake, Ramses the Great, and endeavoured to rival him
+      in everything. This spirit of imitation was at times the means of leading
+      him to commit somewhat puerile acts, as, for example, when he copied
+      certain triumphal inscriptions word for word, merely changing the dates
+      and the cartouches,* or when he assumed the prenomen of Usirm�r�, and
+      distributed among his male children the names and dignities of the sons of
+      Sesostris. We see, moreover, at his court another high priest of Phtah at
+      Memphis bearing the name of Kh�mo�s�t, and Mar�t�m�, another supreme
+      pontiff of R� in Heliopolis. However, this ambition to resemble his
+      ancestor at once instigated him to noble deeds, and gave him the necessary
+      determination to accomplish them.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Thus the great decree of Phtah-Tot�nen, carved by Ramses
+     II. in the year XXXV. on the rocks of Abu Simbel, was copied
+     by Ramses III. at Medinet-Hab� in the year XII.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He began by restoring order in the administration of affairs; &ldquo;he
+      established truth, crushed error, purified the temple from all crime,&rdquo; and
+      made his authority felt not only in the length and breadth of the Nile
+      valley, but in what was still left of the Asiatic provinces. The
+      disturbances of the preceding years had weakened the prestige of Amon-R�,
+      and the king&rsquo;s supremacy would have been seriously endangered, had any one
+      arisen in Syria of sufficient energy to take advantage of the existing
+      state of affairs. But since the death of Kh�tusaru, the power of the Kh�ti
+      had considerably declined, and they retained their position merely through
+      their former prestige; they were in as much need of peace, or even more
+      so, than the Egyptians, for the same discords which had harassed the
+      reigns of Seti II. and his successors had doubtless brought trouble to
+      their own sovereigns. They had made no serious efforts to extend their
+      dominion over any of those countries which had been the objects of the
+      cupidity of their forefathers, while the peoples of Kharu and Phoenicia,
+      thrown back on their own resources, had not ventured to take up arms
+      against the Pharaoh. The yoke lay lightly upon them, and in no way
+      hampered their internal liberty; they governed as they liked, they
+      exchanged one prince or chief for another, they waged petty wars as of
+      old, without, as a rule, exposing themselves to interference from the
+      Egyptian troops occupying the country, or from the &ldquo;royal messengers.&rdquo;
+       These vassal provinces had probably ceased to pay tribute, or had done so
+      irregularly, during the years of anarchy following the death of Siphtah,
+      but they had taken no concerted action, nor attempted any revolt, so that
+      when Ramses III. ascended the throne he was spared the trouble of
+      reconquering them. He had merely to claim allegiance to have it at once
+      rendered him&mdash;an allegiance which included the populations in the
+      neighbourhood of Qodsh� and on the banks of the Nahr el-Kelb. The empire,
+      which had threatened to fall to pieces amid the civil wars, and which
+      would indeed have succumbed had they continued a few years longer, again
+      revived now that an energetic prince had been found to resume the
+      direction of affairs, and to weld together those elements which had been
+      on the point of disintegration.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      One state alone appeared to regret the revival of the Imperial power; this
+      was the kingdom of Libya. It had continued to increase in size since the
+      days of M�nephtah, and its population had been swelled by the annexation
+      of several strange tribes inhabiting the vast area of the Sahara. One of
+      these, the Masha�asha, acquired the ascendency among these desert races
+      owing to their numbers and valour, and together with the other tribes&mdash;the
+      Sabati, the Kaiakasha, the Sha��, the Hasa, the Bikana, and the Qahaka*&mdash;formed
+      a confederacy, which now threatened Egypt on the west. This federation was
+      conducted by Didi, Mashakn�, and M�ra��, all children of that M�ra�� who
+      had led the first Libyan invasion, and also by Zamar� and Za�tmar�, two
+      princes of less important tribes.** Their combined forces had attacked
+      Egypt for the second time during the years of anarchy, and had gained
+      possession one after another of all the towns in the west of the Delta,
+      from the neighbourhood of Memphis to the town of Qarb�na: the Canopic
+      branch of the Nile now formed the limit of their dominion, and they often
+      crossed it to devastate the central provinces.***
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This enumeration is furnished by the summary of the
+     campaigns of Ramses III. in <i>The Great Harris Papyrus</i>. The
+     Sabati of this text are probably identical with the people
+     of the Sapudiu or Spudi (Asbytse), mentioned on one of the
+     pylons of Medinet-Hab�.
+
+     ** The relationship is nowhere stated, but it is thought to
+     be probable from the names of Didi and M�ra��, repeated in
+     both series of inscriptions.
+
+     *** The town of Qarb�na has been identified with the Canopus
+     of the Greeks, and also with the modern Korbani; and the
+     district of Gautu, which adjoined it, with the territory of
+     the modern town of Edk�. Spiegel-berg throws doubt on the
+     identification of Qarbu or Qarb�na, with Canopus. R�villout
+     prefers to connect Qarb�na with Heracleopolis Parva in Lower
+     Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Nakht�s�ti had been unable to drive them out, and Ramses had not ventured
+      on the task immediately after his accession. The military institutions of
+      the country had become totally disorganised after the death of M�nephtah,
+      and that part of the community responsible for furnishing the army with
+      recruits had been so weakened by the late troubles, that they were in a
+      worse condition than before the first Libyan invasion. The losses they had
+      suffered since Egypt began its foreign conquests had not been repaired by
+      the introduction of fresh elements, and the hope of spoil was now
+      insufficient to induce members of the upper classes to enter the army.
+      There was no difficulty in filling the ranks from the fellah�n, but the
+      middle class and the aristocracy, accustomed to ease and wealth, no longer
+      came forward in large numbers, and disdained the military profession. It
+      was the fashion in the schools to contrast the calling of a scribe with
+      that of a foot-soldier or a charioteer, and to make as merry over the
+      discomforts of a military occupation as it had formerly been the fashion
+      to extol its glory and profitableness. These scholastic exercises
+      represented the future officer dragged as a child to the barracks, &ldquo;the
+      side-lock over his ear.&mdash;He is beaten and his sides are covered with
+      scars,&mdash;he is beaten and his two eyebrows are marked with wounds,&mdash;he
+      is beaten and his head is broken by a badly aimed blow; he is stretched on
+      the ground&rdquo; for the slightest fault, &ldquo;and blows fall on him as on a
+      papyrus,&mdash;and he is broken by the stick.&rdquo; His education finished, he
+      is sent away to a distance, to Syria or Ethiopia, and fresh troubles
+      overtake him. &ldquo;His victuals and his supply of water are about his neck
+      like the burden of an ass,&mdash;and his neck and throat suffer like those
+      of an ass,&mdash;so that the joints of his spine are broken.&mdash;He
+      drinks putrid water, keeping perpetual guard the while.&rdquo; His fatigues soon
+      tell upon his health and vigour: &ldquo;Should he reach the enemy,&mdash;he is
+      like a bird which trembles.&mdash;Should he return to Egypt,&mdash;he is
+      like a piece of old worm-eaten wood.&mdash;He is sick and must lie down,
+      he is carried on an ass,&mdash;while thieves steal his linen,&mdash;and
+      his slaves escape.&rdquo; The charioteer is not spared either. He, doubtless,
+      has a moment of vain-glory and of flattered vanity when he receives,
+      according to regulations, a new chariot and two horses, with which he
+      drives at a gallop before his parents and his fellow-villagers; but once
+      having joined his regiment, he is perhaps worse off than the foot-soldier.
+      &ldquo;He is thrown to the ground among thorns:&mdash;a scorpion wounds him in
+      the foot, and his heel is pierced by its sting.&mdash;When his kit is
+      examined,&mdash;his misery is at its height.&rdquo; No sooner has the fact been
+      notified that his arms are in a bad condition, or that some article has
+      disappeared, than &ldquo;he is stretched on the ground&mdash;and overpowered
+      with blows from a stick.&rdquo; This decline of the warlike spirit in all
+      classes of society had entailed serious modifications in the organisation
+      of both army and navy. The native element no longer predominated in most
+      battalions and on the majority of vessels, as it had done under the
+      XVIIIth dynasty; it still furnished those formidable companies of archers&mdash;the
+      terror of both Africans and Asiatics&mdash;and also the most important
+      part, if not the whole, of the chariotry, but the main body of the
+      infantry was composed almost exclusively of mercenaries, particularly of
+      the Shardana and the Qahaka. Ramses began his reforms by rebuilding the
+      fleet, which, in a country like Egypt, was always an artificial creation,
+      liable to fall into decay, unless a strong and persistent effort were made
+      to keep it in an efficient condition. Shipbuilding had made considerable
+      progress in the last few centuries, perhaps from the impulse received
+      through Phoenicia, and the vessels turned out of the dockyards were far
+      superior to those constructed under H�tshops�t�. The general outlines of
+      the hull remained the same, but the stem and stern were finer, and not so
+      high out of the water; the bow ended, moreover, in a lion&rsquo;s head of metal,
+      which rose above the cut-water. A wooden structure running between the
+      forecastle and quarter-deck protected the rowers during the fight, their
+      heads alone being exposed. The mast had only one curved yard, to which the
+      sail was fastened; this was run up from the deck by halyards when the
+      sailors wanted to make sail, and thus differed from the Egyptian
+      arrangement, where the sail was fastened to a fixed upper yard. At least
+      half of the crews consisted of Libyan prisoners, who were branded with a
+      hot iron like cattle, to prevent desertion; the remaining half was drawn
+      from the Syrian or Asiatic coast, or else were natives of Egypt. In order
+      to bring the army into better condition, Ramses revived the system of
+      classes, which empowered him to compel all Egyptians of unmixed race to
+      take personal service, while he hired mercenaries from Libya, Phoenicia,
+      Asia Minor, and wherever he could get them, and divided them into regular
+      regiments, according to their extraction and the arms that they bore. In
+      the field, the archers always headed the column, to meet the advance of
+      the foe with their arrows; they were followed by the Egyptian lancers&mdash;the
+      Shardana and the Tyrseni with their short spears and heavy bronze swords&mdash;while
+      a corps of veterans, armed with heavy maces, brought up the rear.* In an
+      engagement, these various troops formed three lines of infantry disposed
+      one behind the other&mdash;the light brigade in front to engage the
+      adversary, the swordsmen and lancers who were to come into close quarters
+      with the foe, and the mace-bearers in reserve, ready to advance on any
+      threatened point, or to await the critical moment when their intervention
+      would decide the victory: as in the times of Th�tmosis and Ramses II. the
+      chariotry covered the two wings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This is the order of march represented during the Syrian
+     campaign, as gathered from the arrangement observed in the
+     pictures at Medinet-Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It was well for Ramses that on ascending the throne he had devoted himself
+      to the task of recruiting the Egyptian army, and of personally and
+      carefully superintending the instruction and equipment of his men; for it
+      was thanks to these precautions that, when the confederated Libyans
+      attacked the country about the Vth year of his reign, he was enabled to
+      repulse them with complete success. &ldquo;Didi, Mashakn�, Mara��, together with
+      Zamar� and Za�tmar�, had strongly urged them to attack Egypt and to carry
+      fire before them from one end of it to the other.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Their warriors
+      confided to each other in their counsels, and their hearts were full: &lsquo;We
+      will be drunk!&rsquo; and their princes said within their breasts: &lsquo;We will fill
+      our hearts with violence!&rsquo; But their plans were overthrown, thwarted,
+      broken against the heart of the god, and the prayer of their chief, which
+      their lips repeated, was not granted by the god.&rdquo; They met the Egyptians
+      at a place called &ldquo;Kamsis�-Khasfi-Timih�&rdquo; (&ldquo;Ramses repulses the Timih�&rdquo;),
+      but their attack was broken by the latter, who were ably led and displayed
+      considerable valour. &ldquo;They bleated like goats surprised by a bull who
+      stamps its foot, who pushes forward its horn and shakes the mountains,
+      charging whoever seeks to annoy it.&rdquo; They fled afar, howling with fear,
+      and many of them, in endeavouring to escape their pursuers, perished in
+      the canals. &ldquo;It is,&rdquo; said they, &ldquo;the breaking of our spines which
+      threatens us in the land of Egypt, and its lord destroys our souls for
+      ever and ever. Woe be upon them! for they have seen their dances changed
+      into carnage, Sokh�t is behind them, fear weighs upon them. We march no
+      longer upon roads where we can walk, but we run across fields, all the
+      fields! And their soldiers did not even need to measure arms with us in
+      the struggle! Pharaoh alone was our destruction, a fire against us every
+      time that he willed it, and no sooner did we approach than the flame
+      curled round us, and no water could quench it on us.&rdquo; The victory was a
+      brilliant one; the victors counted 12,535 of the enemy killed,* and many
+      more who surrendered at discretion. The latter were formed into a brigade,
+      and were distributed throughout the valley of the Nile in military
+      settlements. They submitted to their fate with that resignation which we
+      know to have been a characteristic of the vanquished at that date.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The number of the dead is calculated from that of the
+     hands and phalli brought in by the soldiers after the
+     victory, the heaps of which are represented at Medinet-Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0007" id="linkCimage-0007">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/299.jpg"
+       alt="299.jpg One of the Libyan Chiefs Vanquished by Ramses Iii. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from Champollion.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They regarded their defeat as a judgment from God against which there was
+      no appeal; when their fate had been once pronounced, nothing remained to
+      the condemned except to submit to it humbly, and to accommodate themselves
+      to the master to whom they were now bound by a decree from on high. The
+      prisoners of one day became on the next the devoted soldiers of the prince
+      against whom they had formerly fought resolutely, and they were employed
+      against their own tribes, their employers having no fear of their
+      deserting to the other side during the engagement. They were lodged in the
+      barracks at Thebes, or in the provinces under the feudal lords and
+      governors of the Pharaoh, and were encouraged to retain their savage
+      customs and warlike spirit. They intermarried either with the fellah�n or
+      with women of their own tribes, and were reinforced at intervals by fresh
+      prisoners or volunteers. Drafted principally into the Delta and the cities
+      of Middle Egypt, they thus ended by constituting a semi-foreign
+      population, destined by nature and training to the calling of arms, and
+      forming a sort of warrior caste, differing widely from the militia of
+      former times, and known for many generations by their national name of
+      Masha�asha. As early as the XIIth dynasty, the Pharaohs had, in a similar
+      way, imported the Maza�� from Nubia, and had used them as a military
+      police; Ramses III. now resolved to naturalise the Libyans for much the
+      same purpose. His victory did not bear the immediate fruits that we might
+      have expected from his own account of it; the memory of the exploits of
+      Ramses II. haunted him, and, stimulated by the example of his ancestor at
+      Qodsh�, he doubtless desired to have the sole credit of the victory over
+      the Libyans. He certainly did overcome their kings, and arrested their
+      invasion; we may go so far as to allow that he wrested from them the
+      provinces which they had occupied on the left bank of the Canopic branch,
+      from Marea to the Natron Lakes, but he did not conquer them, and their
+      power still remained as formidable as ever. He had gained a respite at the
+      point of the sword, but he had not delivered Egypt from their future
+      attacks.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He might perhaps have been tempted to follow up his success and assume the
+      offensive, had not affairs in Asia at this juncture demanded the whole of
+      his attention. The movement of great masses of European tribes in a
+      southerly and easterly direction was beginning to be felt by the
+      inhabitants of the Balkans, who were forced to set out in a double stream
+      of emigration&mdash;one crossing the Bosphorus and the Propontis towards
+      the centre of Asia Minor, while the other made for what was later known as
+      Greece Proper, by way of the passes over Olympus and Pindus. The nations
+      who had hitherto inhabited these regions, now found themselves thrust
+      forward by the pressure of invading hordes, and were constrained to move
+      towards the south and east by every avenue which presented itself. It was
+      probably the irruption of the Phrygians into the high table-land which
+      gave rise to the general exodus of these various nations&mdash;the
+      Pulasati, the Zakkala, the Shagalasha, the Danauna, and the Uashasha&mdash;some
+      of whom had already made their way into Syria and taken part in campaigns
+      there, while others had as yet never measured strength with the Egyptians.
+      The main body of these migrating tribes chose the overland route, keeping
+      within easy distance of the coast, from Pamphylia as far as the confines
+      of Naharaim.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0008" id="linkCimage-0008">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/300.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="300.jpg the Waggons of The Pulasati and Their Confederates " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Champollion.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were accompanied by their families, who must have been mercilessly
+      jolted in the ox-drawn square waggons with solid wheels in which they
+      travelled. The body of the vehicle was built either of roughly squared
+      planks, or else of something resembling wicker-work. The round axletree
+      was kept in its place by means of a rude pin, and four oxen were harnessed
+      abreast to the whole structure. The children wore no clothes, and had, for
+      the most part, their hair tied into a tuft on the top of their heads; the
+      women affected a closely fitting cap, and were wrapped in large blue or
+      red garments drawn close to the body.* The men&rsquo;s attire varied according
+      to the tribe to which they belonged. The Pulasati undoubtedly held the
+      chief place; they were both soldiers and sailors, and we must recognise in
+      them the foremost of those tribes known to the Greeks of classical times
+      as the Oarians, who infested the coasts of Asia Minor as well as those of
+      Greece and the �gean islands.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These details are taken from the battle-scenes at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+
+     ** The Pulasati have been connected with the Philistines by
+     Champollion, and subsequently by the early English
+     Egyptologists, who thought they recognised in them the
+     inhabitants of the Shephelah. Chabas was the first to
+     identify them with the Pelasgi; Unger and Brugsch prefer to
+     attribute to them a Libyan origin, but the latter finally
+     returns to the Pelasgic and Philistine hypothesis. They were
+     without doubt the Philistines, but in their migratory state,
+     before they settled on the coast of Palestine.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0009" id="linkCimage-0009">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/301.jpg" alt="301.jpg Pulasati " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Crete was at this time the seat of a maritime empire, whose chiefs were
+      perpetually cruising the seas and harassing the civilized states of the
+      Eastern Mediterranean. These sea-rovers had grown wealthy through piracy,
+      and contact with the merchants of Syria and Egypt had awakened in them a
+      taste for a certain luxury and refinement, of which we find no traces in
+      the remains of their civilization anterior to this period. Some of the
+      symbols in the inscriptions found on their monuments recall certain of the
+      Egyptian characters, while others present an original aspect and seem to
+      be of �gean origin. We find in them, arranged in juxtaposition, signs
+      representing flowers, birds, fish, quadrupeds of various kinds, members of
+      the human body, and boats and household implements. From the little which
+      is known of this script we are inclined to derive it from a similar source
+      to that which has furnished those we meet with in several parts of Asia
+      Minor and Northern Syria. It would appear that in ancient times, somewhere
+      in the centre of the Peninsula&mdash;but under what influence or during
+      what period we know not&mdash;a syllabary was developed, of which
+      varieties were handed on from tribe to tribe, spreading on the one side to
+      the Hittites, Cilicians, and the peoples on the borders of Syria and
+      Egypt, and on the other to the Trojans, to the people of the Cyclades, and
+      into Crete and Greece. It is easy to distinguish the Pulasati by the felt
+      helmet which they wore fastened under the chin by two straps and
+      surmounted by a crest of feathers. The upper part of their bodies was
+      covered by bands of leather or some thick material, below which hung a
+      simple loin-cloth, while their feet were bare or shod with short sandals.
+      They carried each a round buckler with two handles, and the stout bronze
+      sword common to the northern races, suspended by a cross belt passing over
+      the left shoulder, and were further armed with two daggers and two
+      javelins. They hurled the latter from a short distance while attacking,
+      and then drawing their sword or daggers, fell upon the enemy; we find
+      among them a few chariots of the Hittite type, each manned by a driver and
+      two fighting men. The Tyrseni appear to have been the most numerous after
+      the Pulasati, next to whom came the Zakkala. The latter are thought to
+      have been a branch of the Siculo-Pelasgi whom Greek tradition represents
+      as scattered at this period among the Cyclades and along the coast of the
+      Hellespont;* they wore a casque surmounted with plumes like that of the
+      Pulasati. The Tyrseni may be distinguished by their feathered head-dress,
+      but the Shaga-lasha affected a long ample woollen cap falling on the neck
+      behind, an article of apparel which is still worn by the sailors of the
+      Archipelago; otherwise they were equipped in much the same manner as their
+      allies. The other members of the confederation, the Shardana, the Danauna,
+      and the Nashasha, each furnished an inconsiderable contingent, and, taken
+      all together, formed but a small item of the united force.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The Zakkara, or Zakkala, have been identified with the
+     Teucrians by Lauth, Chabas, and Fr. Lenormant, with the
+     Zygritse of Libya by linger and Brugsch, who subsequently
+     returned to the Teucrian hypothesis; W. Max Millier regards
+     them as an Asiatic nation probably of the Lydian family. The
+     identification with the Siculo-Pelasgi of the �gean Sea was
+     proposed by Maspero.
+
+     ** The form of the word shows that it is of Asiatic origin,
+     Uasasos, Uassos, which refers us to Caria or Lycia.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their fleet sailed along the coast and kept within sight of the force on
+      land. The squadrons depicted on the monuments are without doubt those of
+      the two peoples, the Pulasati and Zakkala. Their ships resembled in many
+      respects those of Egypt, except in the fact that they had no cut-water.
+      The bow and stern rose up straight like the neck of a goose or swan; two
+      structures for fighting purposes were erected above the dock, while a rail
+      running round the sides of the vessel protected the bodies of the rowers.
+      An upper yard curved in shape hung from the single mast, which terminated
+      in a top for the look-out during a battle. The upper yard was not made to
+      lower, and the top-men managed the sail in the same manner as the Egyptian
+      sailors. The resemblance between this fleet and that of Ramses is easily
+      explained. The dwellers on the �gean, owing to the knowledge they had
+      acquired of the Phoenician galleys, which were accustomed to cruise
+      annually in their waters, became experts in shipbuilding.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0010" id="linkCimage-0010">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/304.jpg" width="100%" alt="304.jpg a Sihagalasha Chief " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They copied the lines of the Phoenician craft, imitated the rigging, and
+      learned to manoeuvre their vessels so well, both on ordinary occasions and
+      in a battle, that they could now oppose to the skilled eastern navigators
+      ships as well fitted out and commanded by captains as experienced as those
+      of Egypt or Asia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There had been a general movement among all these peoples at the very time
+      when Ramses was repelling the attack of the Libyans; &ldquo;the isles had
+      quivered, and had vomited forth their people at once.&rdquo; *
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This campaign is mentioned in the inscription of Medinet-
+     Habu. We find some information about the war in the <i>Great
+     Harris Papyrus</i>, also in the inscription of Medinet-Habu
+     which describes the campaign of the year V., and in other
+     shorter texts of the same temple.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      They were subjected to one of those irresistible impulses such as had
+      driven the Shepherds into Egypt; or again, in later times, had carried
+      away the Cimmerians and the Scyths to the pillage of Asia Minor: &ldquo;no
+      country could hold out against their arms, neither Kh�ti, nor Qodi, nor
+      Carchemish, nor Arvad, nor Alasia, without being brought to nothing.&rdquo; The
+      ancient kingdoms of Sapalulu and Kh�tusaru, already tottering, crumbled to
+      pieces under the shock, and were broken up into their primitive elements.
+      The barbarians, unable to carry the towns by assault, and too impatient to
+      resort to a lengthened siege, spread over the valley of the Orontes,
+      burning and devastating the country everywhere. Having reached the
+      frontiers of the empire, in the country of the Amorites, they came to a
+      halt, and constructing an entrenched camp, installed within it their women
+      and the booty they had acquired. Some of their predatory bands, having
+      ravaged the Bek�a, ended by attacking the subjects of the Pharaoh himself,
+      and their chiefs dreamed of an invasion of Egypt. Ramses, informed of
+      their design by the despatches of his officers and vassals, resolved to
+      prevent its accomplishment. He summoned his troops together, both
+      indigenous and mercenary, in his own person looked after their armament
+      and commissariat, and in the VIIIth year of his reign crossed the frontier
+      near Zalu. He advanced by forced marches to meet the enemy, whom he
+      encountered somewhere in Southern Syria, on the borders of the Shephelah,*
+      and after a stubbornly contested campaign obtained the victory. He carried
+      off from the field, in addition to the treasures of the confederate
+      tribes, some of the chariots which had been used for the transport of
+      their families. The survivors made their way hastily to the north-west, in
+      the direction of the sea, in order to receive the support of their navy,
+      but the king followed them step by step.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * No site is given for these battles. E. de Roug� placed the
+     theatre of war in Syria, and his opinion was accepted by
+     Brugsch. Chabas referred it to the mouth of the Nile near
+     Pelusium, and his authority has prevailed up to the present.
+     The remarks of W. Max M�ller have brought me back to the
+     opinion of the earlier Egyptologists; but I differ from him
+     in looking for the locality further south, and not to the
+     mouth of Nahr el-Kelb as the site of the naval battle. It
+     seems to me that the fact that the Zakkala were prisoners at
+     Dor, and the Pulasati in the Shephelah, is enough to assign
+     the campaign to the regions I have mentioned in the text.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It is recorded that he occupied himself with lion-hunting <i>en route</i>
+      after the example of the victors of the XVIIIth dynasty, and that he
+      killed three of these animals in the long grass on one occasion on the
+      banks of some river. He rejoined his ships, probably at Jaffa, and made
+      straight for the enemy. The latter were encamped on the level shore, at
+      the head of a bay wide enough to offer to their ships a commodious space
+      for naval evolutions&mdash;possibly the mouth of the Belos, in the
+      neighbourhood of Magad�l. The king drove their foot-soldiers into the
+      water at the same moment that his admirals attacked the combined fleet of
+      the Pulasati and Zakkala.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0011" id="linkCimage-0011">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/307.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="307.jpg the Army Op Ramses Iii. On The March, and The Lion-hunt " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Some of the �gean galleys were capsized and sank when the Egyptian vessels
+      rammed them with their sharp stems, and the crews, in endeavouring to
+      escape to land by swimming, were picked off by the arrows of the archers
+      of the guard who were commanded by Ramses and his sons; they perished in
+      the waves, or only escaped through the compassion of the victors. &ldquo;I had
+      fortified,&rdquo; said the Pharaoh, &ldquo;my frontier at Zahi; I had drawn up before
+      these people my generals, my provincial governors, the vassal princes, and
+      the best of my soldiers. The mouths of the river seemed to be a mighty
+      rampart of galleys, barques, and vessels of all kinds, equipped from the
+      bow to the stern with valiant armed men. The infantry, the flower of
+      Egypt, were as lions roaring on the mountains; the charioteers, selected
+      from among the most rapid warriors, had for their captains only officers
+      confident in themselves; the horses quivered in all their limbs, and were
+      burning to trample the nations underfoot. As for me, I was like the
+      warlike Mont�: I stood up before them and they saw the vigour of my arms.
+      I, King Ramses, I was as a hero who is conscious of his valour, and who
+      stretches his hands over the people in the day of battle. Those who have
+      violated my frontier will never more garner harvests from this earth: the
+      period of their soul has been fixed for ever. My forces were drawn up
+      before them on the &lsquo;Very Green,&rsquo; a devouring flame approached them at the
+      river mouth, annihilation embraced them on every side. Those who were on
+      the strand I laid low on the seashore, slaughtered like victims of the
+      butcher. I made their vessels to capsize, and their riches fell into the
+      sea.&rdquo; Those who had not fallen in the fight were caught, as it were, in
+      the cast of a net. A rapid cruiser of the fleet carried the Egyptian
+      standard along the coast as far as the regions of the Orontes and Saros.
+      The land troops, on the other hand, following on the heels of the defeated
+      enemy, pushed through Coele-Syria, and in their first burst of zeal
+      succeeded in reaching the plains of the Euphrates. A century had elapsed
+      since a Pharaoh had planted his standard in this region, and the country
+      must have seemed as novel to the soldiers of Ramses III. as to those of
+      his predecessor Th�tmosis.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0012" id="linkCimage-0012">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/308.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="308.jpg the Defeat of The Peoples Of The Sea " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Kh�ti were still its masters; and all enfeebled as they were by the
+      ravages of the invading barbarians, were nevertheless not slow in
+      preparing to resist their ancient enemies. The majority of the citadels
+      shut their gates in the face of Ramses, who, wishing to lose no time, did
+      not attempt to besiege them: he treated their territory with the usual
+      severity, devastating their open towns, destroying their harvests,
+      breaking down their fruit trees, and cutting away their forests. He was
+      able, moreover, without arresting his march, to carry by assault several
+      of their fortified towns, Alaza among the number, the destruction of which
+      is represented in the scenes of his victories. The spoils were
+      considerable, and came very opportunely to reward the soldiers or to
+      provide funds for the erection of monuments. The last battalion of troops,
+      however, had hardly recrossed the isthmus when Lotan� became again its own
+      master, and Egyptian rule was once more limited to its traditional
+      provinces of Khar� and Phoenicia. The King of the Kh�ti appears among the
+      prisoners whom the Pharaoh is represented as bringing to his father Amon;
+      Carchemish, Tunipa, Khalabu, Katna, Pabukhu, Arvad, Mitanni, Mannus, Asi,
+      and a score of other famous towns of this period appear in the list of the
+      subjugated nations, recalling the triumphs of Th�tmosis III. and Amenothes
+      II. Ramses did not allow himself to be deceived into thinking that his
+      success was final. He accepted the protestations of obedience which were
+      spontaneously offered him, but he undertook no further expedition of
+      importance either to restrain or to provoke his enemies: the restricted
+      rule which satisfied his exemplar Ramses II. ought, he thought, to be
+      sufficient for his own ambition.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Egypt breathed freely once more on the announcement of the victory;
+      henceforward she was &ldquo;as a bed without anguish.&rdquo; &ldquo;Let each woman now go to
+      and fro according to her will,&rdquo; cried the sovereign, in describing the
+      campaign, &ldquo;her ornaments upon her, and directing her steps to any place
+      she likes!&rdquo; And in order to provide still further guarantees of public
+      security, he converted his Asiatic captives, as he previously had his
+      African prisoners, into a bulwark against the barbarians, and a safeguard
+      of the frontier. The war must, doubtless, have decimated Southern Syria;
+      and he planted along its coast what remained of the defeated tribes&mdash;the
+      Philistines in the Shephelah, and the Zakkala on the borders of the great
+      oak forest stretching from Oarmel to Dor.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * It is in this region that we find henceforward the Hebrews
+     in contact with the Philistines: at the end of the XXIst
+     Egyptian dynasty a scribe makes Dor a town of the Zakkala.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Watch-towers were erected for the supervision of this region, and for
+      rallying-points in case of internal revolts or attacks from without. One
+      of these, the Migdol of Ramses III., was erected, not far from the scene
+      of the decisive battle, on the spot where the spoils had been divided.
+      This living barrier, so to speak, stood between the Nile valley and the
+      dangers which threatened it from Asia, and it was not long before its
+      value was put to the proof. The Libyans, who had been saved from
+      destruction by the diversion created in their favour on the eastern side
+      of the empire, having now recovered their courage, set about collecting
+      their hordes together for a fresh invasion. They returned to the attack in
+      the XIth year of Ramses, under the leadership of Kapur, a prince of the
+      Mashauasha.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The second campaign against the Libyans is known to us
+     from the inscriptions of the year XI. at Medinet-Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0013" id="linkCimage-0013">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/313.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="313.jpg the Captive Chiefs of Ramses Iii. At Medinet-ihabu " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. The first
+     prisoner on the left is the Prince of the Kh�ti (cf. the cut
+     on p. 318 of the present work), the second is the Prince of
+     the Am�uru [Amoritos], the third the Prince of the Zakkala,
+     the fourth that of the Shardana, the fifth that of the
+     Shakalasha (see the cut on p. 304 of this work), and the
+     sixth that of the Tursha [Tyrseni].
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Their soul had said to them for the second time that &ldquo;they would end their
+      lives in the nomes of Egypt, that they would till its valleys and its
+      plains as their own land.&rdquo; The issue did not correspond with their
+      intentions. &ldquo;Death fell upon them within Egypt, for they had hastened with
+      their feet to the furnace which consumes corruption, under the fire of the
+      valour of the king who rages like Baal from the heights of heaven. All his
+      limbs are invested with victorious strength; with his right hand he lays
+      hold of the multitudes, his left extends to those who are against him,
+      like a cloud of arrows directed upon them to destroy them, and his sword
+      cuts like that of Mont�. Kapur, who had come to demand homage, blind with
+      fear, threw down his arms, and his troops did the same. He sent up to
+      heaven a suppliant cry, and his son [Mashashalu] arrested his foot and his
+      hand; for, behold, there rises beside him the god who knows what he has in
+      his heart: His Majesty falls upon their heads as a mountain of granite and
+      crushes them, the earth drinks up their blood as if it had been water...;
+      their army was slaughtered, slaughtered their soldiers,&rdquo; near a fortress
+      situated on the borders of the desert called the &ldquo;Castle of
+      Usirmar�-Miamon.&rdquo; They were seized, &ldquo;they were stricken, their arms bound,
+      like geese piled up in the bottom of a boat, under the feet of His
+      Majesty.&rdquo; * The fugitives were pursued at the sword&rsquo;s point from the <i>Castle
+      of Usirmar�-Miamon</i> to the <i>Castle of the Sands</i>, a distance of
+      over thirty miles.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The name of the son of Kapur, Mashashalu, Masesyla, which
+     is wanting in this inscription, is supplied from a parallel
+     inscription.
+
+     * The Castle of Usirmar�-Miamon was &ldquo;on the mountain of the
+     horn of the world,&rdquo; which induces me to believe that we must
+     seek its site on the borders of the Libyan desert. The royal
+     title entering into its name being liable to change with
+     every reign, it is possible that we have an earlier
+     reference to this stronghold in a mutilated passage of the
+     Athribis Stele, which relates to the campaigns of M�nephtah;
+     it must have commanded one of the most frequented routes
+     leading to the oasis of Amon.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0014" id="linkCimage-0014">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/314.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="314.jpg Ramses Iii. Binds the Chiefs of The Libyans " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     From a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Two thousand and seventy-five Libyans were left upon the ground that day,
+      two thousand and fifty-two perished in other engagements, while two
+      thousand and thirty-two, both male and female, were made prisoners. These
+      were almost irreparable losses for a people of necessarily small numbers,
+      and if we add the number of those who had succumbed in the disaster of six
+      years before, we can readily realise how discouraged the invaders must
+      have been, and how little likely they were to try the fortune of war once
+      more. Their power dwindled and vanished almost as quickly as it had
+      arisen; the provisional cohesion given to their forces by a few ambitious
+      chiefs broke up after their repeated defeats, and the rudiments of an
+      empire which had struck terror into the Pharaohs, resolved itself into its
+      primitive elements, a number of tribes scattered over the desert. They
+      were driven back beyond the Libyan mountains; fortresses* guarded the
+      routes they had previously followed, and they were obliged henceforward to
+      renounce any hope of an invasion <i>en masse</i>, and to content
+      themselves with a few raiding expeditions into the fertile plain of the
+      Delta, where they had formerly found a transitory halting-place.
+      Counter-raids organised by the local troops or by the mercenaries who
+      garrisoned the principal towns in the neighbourhood of Memphis&mdash;Hermopolis
+      and Thinisl&mdash;inflicted punishment upon them when they became too
+      audacious. Their tribes, henceforward, as far as Egypt was concerned,
+      formed a kind of reserve from which the Pharaoh could raise soldiers every
+      year, and draw sufficient materials to bring his army up to fighting
+      strength when internal revolt or an invasion from without called for
+      military activity.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * <i>The Great Harris Papyrus</i> speaks of fortifications
+     erected in the towns of Anh�ri-Sh�, possibly Thinis, and of
+     Thot, possibly Hermopolis, in order to repel the tribes of
+     the Tihonu who were ceaselessly harassing the frontier.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0015" id="linkCimage-0015">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/318.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="318.jpg the Prince of The Khati " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken at Medinet-
+     Habu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The campaign of the XIth year brought to an end the great military
+      expeditions of Ramses III. Henceforward he never took the lead in any more
+      serious military enterprise than that of repressing the Bedawin of Se�r
+      for acts of brigandage,* or the Ethiopians for some similar reason. He
+      confined his attention to the maintenance of commercial and industrial
+      relations with manufacturing countries, and with the markets of Asia and
+      Africa. He strengthened the garrisons of Sinai, and encouraged the working
+      of the ancient mines in that region. He sent a colony of quarry-men and of
+      smelters to the land of Atika, in order to work the veins of silver which
+      were alleged to exist there.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     *The S��r� of the Egyptian texts have been identified with
+     the Bedawin of Se�r.
+
+     ** This is the Gebel-Ataka of our day. All this district is
+     imperfectly explored, but we know that it contains mines and
+     quarries some of which were worked as late as in the time of
+     the Mameluk Sultans.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      He launched a fleet on the Red Sea, and sent it to the countries of
+      fragrant spices. &ldquo;The captains of the sailors were there, together with
+      the chiefs of the <i>corv�e</i> and accountants, to provide provision&rdquo; for
+      the people of the Divine Lands &ldquo;from the innumerable products of Egypt;
+      and these products were counted by myriads. Sailing through the great sea
+      of Qodi, they arrived at P��ntt without mishap, and there collected
+      cargoes for their galleys and ships, consisting of all the unknown marvels
+      of Ton�tir, as well as considerable quantities of the perfumes of P��t�n,
+      which they stowed on board by tens of thousands without number. The sons
+      of the princes of Ton�tir came themselves into Q�mit with their tributes.
+      They reached the region of Coptos safe and sound, and disembarked there in
+      peace with their riches.&rdquo; It was somewhere about Sau and Tuau that the
+      merchants and royal officers landed, following the example of the
+      expeditions of the XIIth and XVIIIth dynasties. Here they organised
+      caravans of asses and slaves, which taking the shortest route across the
+      mountain&mdash;that of the valley of Rahan�&mdash;carried the precious
+      commodities to Coptos, whence they were transferred to boats and
+      distributed along the river. The erection of public buildings, which had
+      been interrupted since the time of M�nephtah, began again with renewed
+      activity. The captives in the recent victories furnished the requisite
+      labour, while the mines, the voyages to the Somali coast, and the tributes
+      of vassals provided the necessary money. Syria was not lost sight of in
+      this resumption of peaceful occupations. The overthrow of the Kh�ti
+      secured Egyptian rule in this region, and promised a long tranquillity
+      within its borders. One temple at least was erected in the country&mdash;that
+      of Pa-kan�na&mdash;where the princes of Kharu were to assemble to offer
+      worship to the Pharaoh, and to pay each one his quota of the general
+      tribute. The Pulasati were employed to protect the caravan routes, and a
+      vast reservoir was erected near A�na to provide a store of water for the
+      irrigation of the neighbouring country. The Delta absorbed the greater
+      part of the royal subsidies; it had suffered so much from the Libyan
+      incursions, that the majority of the towns within it had fallen into a
+      condition as miserable as that in which they were at the time of the
+      expulsion of the Shepherds. Heliopolis, Bubastis, Thmuis, Am�, and Tanis
+      still preserved some remains of the buildings which had already been
+      erected in them by Ramses; he constructed also, at the place at present
+      called Tel el-Yah�d�yeh, a royal palace of limestone, granite, and
+      alabaster, of which the type is unique amongst all the structures hitherto
+      discovered. Its walls and columns were not ornamented with the usual
+      sculptures incised in stone, but the whole of the decorations&mdash;scenes
+      as well as inscriptions&mdash;consisted of plaques of enamelled
+      terra-cotta set in cement. The forms of men and animals and the lines of
+      hieroglyphs, standing out in slight relief from a glazed and warm-coloured
+      background, constitute an immense mosaic-work of many hues. The few
+      remains of the work show great purity of design and an extraordinary
+      delicacy of tone.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0016" id="linkCimage-0016">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/320.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="320.jpg Signs, Arms and Instruments " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All the knowledge of the Egyptian painters, and all the technical skill of
+      their artificers in ceramic, must have been employed to compose such
+      harmoniously balanced decorations, with their free handling of line and
+      colour, and their thousands of rosettes, squares, stars, and buttons of
+      varicoloured pastes.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This temple has been known since the beginning of the
+     nineteenth century, and the Louvre is in possession of some
+     fragments from it which came from Salt&rsquo;s collection; it was
+     rediscovered in 1870, and some portions of it were
+     transferred by Mariette to the Boulaq Museum. The remainder
+     was destroyed by the fellah�n, at the instigation of the
+     enlightened amateurs of Cairo, and fragments of it have
+     passed into various private collections. The decoration has
+     been attributed to Chaldoan influence, but it is a work
+     purely Egyptian, both in style and in technique.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0017" id="linkCimage-0017">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/321.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="321.jpg the Colossal Osirian Figures in The First Court At Medinet-habu " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Beato.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The difficulties to overcome were so appalling, that when the marvellous
+      work was once accomplished, no subsequent attempt was made to construct a
+      second like it: all the remaining structures of Ramses III., whether at
+      Memphis, in the neighbourhood of Abydos, or at Karnak, were in the
+      conventional style of the Pharaohs. He determined, nevertheless, to give
+      to the exterior of the Memnonium, which he built near Medinet-Habu for the
+      worship of himself, the proportions and appearance of an Asiatic &ldquo;Migdol,&rdquo;
+       influenced probably by his remembrance of similar structures which he had
+      seen during his Syrian campaign. The chapel itself is of the ordinary
+      type, with its gigantic pylons, its courts surrounded by columns&mdash;each
+      supporting a colossal Osirian statue&mdash;its hypostyle hall, and its
+      mysterious cells for the deposit of spoils taken from the peoples of the
+      sea and the cities of Asia. His tomb was concealed at a distant spot in
+      the Biban-el-Moluk, and we see depicted on its walls the same scenes that
+      we find in the last resting-place of Seti I. or Ramses II., and in
+      addition to them, in a series of supplementary chambers, the arms of the
+      sovereign, his standards, his treasure, his kitchen, and the preparation
+      of offerings which were to be made to him. His sarcophagus, cut out of an
+      enormous block of granite, was brought for sale to Europe at the beginning
+      of this century, and Cambridge obtained possession of its cover, while the
+      Louvre secured the receptacle itself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These were years of profound tranquillity. The Pharaoh intended that
+      absolute order should reign throughout his realm, and that justice should
+      be dispensed impartially within it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0018" id="linkCimage-0018">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/322.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="322.jpg the First Pylon of The Temple " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      There were to be no more exactions, no more crying iniquities: whoever was
+      discovered oppressing the people, no matter whether he were court official
+      or feudal lord&mdash;was instantly deprived of his functions, and replaced
+      by an administrator of tried integrity. Ramses boasts, moreover, in an
+      idyllic manner, of having planted trees everywhere, and of having built
+      arbours wherein the people might sit in the shade in the open air; while
+      women might go to and fro where they would in security, no one daring to
+      insult them on the way. The Shardanian and Libyan mercenaries were
+      restricted to the castles which they garrisoned, and were subjected to
+      such a severe discipline that no one had any cause of complaint against
+      these armed barbarians settled in the heart of Egypt. &ldquo;I have,&rdquo; continues
+      the king, &ldquo;lifted up every miserable one out of his misfortune, I have
+      granted life to him, I have saved him from the mighty who were oppressing
+      him, and have secured rest for every one in his own town.&rdquo; The details of
+      the description are exaggerated, but the general import of it is true.
+      Egypt had recovered the peace and prosperity of which it had been deprived
+      for at least half a century, that is, since the death of M�nephtah. The
+      king, however, was not in such a happy condition as his people, and court
+      intrigues embittered the later years of his life. One of his sons, whose
+      name is unknown to us, but who is designated in the official records by
+      the nickname of Penta��r�t, formed a conspiracy against him. His mother,
+      T�i, who was a woman of secondary rank, took it into her head to secure
+      the crown for him, to the detriment of the children of Queen Is�t. An
+      extensive plot was hatched in which scribes, officers of the guard,
+      priests, and officials in high place, both natives and foreigners, were
+      involved. A resort to the supernatural was at first attempted, and the
+      superintendent of the Herds, a certain Panh�iba�n�, who was deeply versed
+      in magic, undertook to cast a spell upon the Pharaoh, if he could only
+      procure certain conjuring books of which he was not possessed. These were
+      found to be in the royal library. He managed to introduce himself under
+      cover of the night into the harem, where he manufactured certain waxen
+      figures, of which some were to excite the hate of his wives against their
+      husband, while others would cause him to waste away and finally perish. A
+      traitor betrayed several of the conspirators, who, being subjected to the
+      torture, informed upon others, and these at length brought the matter home
+      to Penta��r�t and his immediate accomplices. All were brought before a
+      commission of twelve members, summoned expressly to try the case, and the
+      result was the condemnation and execution of six women and some forty men.
+      The extreme penalty of the Egyptian code was reserved for Penta��r�t, and
+      for the most culpable,&mdash;&ldquo;they died of themselves,&rdquo; and the meaning of
+      this phrase is indicated, I believe, by the appearance of one of the
+      mummies disinterred at De�r el-Bahar�.* The coffin in which it was placed
+      was very plain, painted white and without inscription; the customary
+      removal of entrails had not been effected, but the body was covered with a
+      thick layer of natron, which was applied even to the skin itself and
+      secured by wrappings.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The translations by D�v�ria, Lepage-Renouf, and Erman
+     agree in making it a case of judicial suicide: there was
+     left to the condemned a choice of his mode of death, in
+     order to avoid the scandal of a public execution. It is also
+     possible to make it a condemnation to death in person, which
+     did not allow of the substitution of a proxy willing, for a
+     payment to his family, to undergo death in place of the
+     condemned; but, unfortunately, no other text is to be found
+     supporting the existence of such a practice in Egypt.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It makes one&rsquo;s flesh creep to look at it: the hands and feet are tied by
+      strong bands, and are curled up as if under an intolerable pain; the
+      abdomen is drawn up, the stomach projects like a ball, the chest is
+      contracted, the head is thrown back, the face is contorted in a hideous
+      grimace, the retracted lips expose the teeth, and the mouth is open as if
+      to give utterance to a last despairing cry. The conviction is borne in
+      upon us that the man was invested while still alive with the wrappings of
+      the dead. Is this the mummy of Penta��r�t, or of some other prince as
+      culpable as he was, and condemned to this frightful punishment? In order
+      to prevent the recurrence of such wicked plots, Pharaoh resolved to share
+      his throne with that one of his sons who had most right to it. In the
+      XXXIInd year of his reign he called together his military and civil
+      chiefs, the generals of the foreign mercenaries, the Shardana, the
+      priests, and the nobles of the court, and presented to them, according to
+      custom, his heir-designate, who was also called Ramses. He placed the
+      double crown upon his brow, and seated him beside himself upon the throne
+      of Horus. This was an occasion for the Pharaoh to bring to remembrance all
+      the great exploits he had performed during his reign&mdash;his triumphs
+      over the Libyans and over the peoples of the sea, and the riches he had
+      lavished upon the gods: at the end of the enumeration he exhorted those
+      who were present to observe the same fidelity towards the son which they
+      had observed towards the father, and to serve the new sovereign as
+      valiantly as they had served himself.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0019" id="linkCimage-0019">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/327.jpg"
+       alt="327.jpg the Mummy of Ramses III. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-
+Gudin, from a,
+photograph by
+Emil Brugsch-Bey.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The joint reign lasted for only four years. Ramses III. was not much over
+      sixty years of age when he died. He was still vigorous and muscular, but
+      he had become stout and heavy. The fatty matter of the body having been
+      dissolved by the natron in the process of embalming, the skin distended
+      during life has gathered up into enormous loose folds, especially about
+      the nape of the neck, under the chin, on the hips, and at the
+      articulations of the limbs. The closely shaven head and cheeks present no
+      trace of hair or beard. The forehead, although neither broad nor high, is
+      better proportioned than that of Ramses II.; the supra-orbital ridges are
+      less accentuated than his, the cheek-bones not so prominent, the nose not
+      so arched, and the chin and jaw less massive. The eyes were perhaps
+      larger, but no opinion can be offered on this point, for the eyelids have
+      been cut away, and the cleared-out cavities have been filled with rags.
+      The ears do not stand out so far from the head as those of Ramses II., but
+      they have been pierced for ear-rings. The mouth, large by nature, has been
+      still further widened in the process of embalming, owing to the
+      awkwardness of the operator, who has cut into the cheeks at the side. The
+      thin lips allow the white and regular teeth to be seen; the first molar on
+      the right has been either broken in half, or has worn away more rapidly
+      than the rest. Ramses III. seems, on the whole, to have been a sort of
+      reduced copy, a little more delicate in make, of Ramses II.; his face
+      shows more subtlety of expression and intelligence, though less nobility
+      than that of the latter, while his figure is not so upright, his shoulders
+      not so broad, and his general muscular vigour less. What has been said of
+      his personality may be extended to his reign; it was evidently and
+      designedly an imitation of the reign of Ramses IL, but fell short of its
+      model owing to the insufficiency of his resources in men and money. If
+      Ramses III. did not succeed in becoming one of the most powerful of the
+      Theban Pharaohs, it was not for lack of energy or ability; the depressed
+      condition of Egypt at the time limited the success of his endeavours and
+      caused them to fall short of his intentions. The work accomplished by him
+      was not on this account less glorious. At his accession Egypt was in a
+      wretched state, invaded on the west, threatened by a flood of barbarians
+      on the east, without an army or a fleet, and with no resources in the
+      treasury. In fifteen years he had disposed of his inconvenient neighbours,
+      organised an army, constructed a fleet, re-established his authority
+      abroad, and settled the administration at home on so firm a basis, that
+      the country owed the peace which it enjoyed for several centuries to the
+      institutions and prestige which he had given it. His associate in the
+      government, Ramses IV., barely survived him. Then followed a series of <i>rois
+      fain�ants</i> bearing the name of Ramses, but in an order not yet clearly
+      determined. It is generally assumed that Ramses V., brother of Ramses
+      III., succeeded Ramses IV. by supplanting his nephews&mdash;who, however,
+      appear to have soon re-established their claim to the throne, and to have
+      followed each other in rapid succession as Ramses VI., Ramses VIL, Ramses
+      VIII., and Marit�m�.* Others endeavour to make out that Ramses V. was the
+      son of Ramses IV., and that the prince called Ramses VI. never succeeded
+      to the throne at all. At any rate, his son, who is styled Ramses VIL, but
+      who is asserted by some to have been a son of Ramses III., is considered
+      to have succeeded Ramses V., and to have become the ancestor from whom the
+      later Ramessides traced their descent.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The order of the Ramessides was first made out by
+     Champollion the younger and by Rosellini. Bunsen and Lepsius
+     reckon in it thirteen kings; E. de Roug� puts the number at
+     fifteen or sixteen; Maspero makes the number to be twelve,
+     which was reduced still further by Setho. Erman thinks that
+     Ramses IX. and Ramses X. were also possibly sons of Ramses
+     III.; he consequently declines to recognise King Marit�m� as
+     a son of that sovereign, as Brugsch would make out.
+
+     * The monuments of these later Ramessides are so rare and so
+     doubtful that I cannot yet see my way to a solution of the
+     questions which they raise.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0020" id="linkCimage-0020">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/331.jpg"
+       alt="331.jpg a Ramses of the Xxth Dynasty " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from a photograph by
+Emil Brugsch- Bey.
+This is the Ramses VI.
+of the series now
+generally adopted.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The short reigns of these Pharaohs were marked by no events which would
+      cast lustre on their names; one might say that they had nothing else to do
+      than to enjoy peacefully the riches accumulated by their forefather.
+      Ramses IV. was anxious to profit by the commercial relations which had
+      been again established between Egypt and Puan�t, and, in order to
+      facilitate the transit between Coptos and Kosseir, founded a station, and
+      a temple dedicated to Isis, in the mountain of Bakhni; by this route, we
+      learn, more than eight thousand men had passed under the auspices of the
+      high priest of Amon, Nakh-t�-ramses. This is the only undertaking of
+      public utility which we can attribute to any of these kings. As we see
+      them in their statues and portraits, they are heavy and squat and without
+      refinement, with protruding eyes, thick lips, flattened and commonplace
+      noses, round and expressionless faces. Their work was confined to the
+      engraving of their cartouches on the blank spaces of the temples at Karnak
+      and Medinet-Habu, and the addition of a few stones to the buildings at
+      Memphis, Abydos, and Heliopolis. Whatever energy and means they possessed
+      were expended on the construction of their magnificent tombs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These may still be seen in the Biban el-Moluk, and no visitor can refrain
+      from admiring them for their magnitude and decoration. As to funerary
+      chapels, owing to the shortness of the reigns of these kings, there was
+      not time to construct them, and they therefore made up for this want by
+      appropriating the chapel of their father, which was at Medinet-Habu, and
+      it was here consequently that their worship was maintained. The last of
+      the sons of Ramses III. was succeeded by another and equally ephemeral
+      Ramses; after whom came Ramses X. and Ramses XI., who re-established the
+      tradition of more lasting reigns. There was now no need of expeditions
+      against Kharu or Libya, for these enfeebled countries no longer disputed,
+      from the force of custom, the authority of Egypt. From time to time an
+      embassy from these countries would arrive at Thebes, bringing presents,
+      which were pompously recorded as representing so much tribute.* If it is
+      true that a people which has no history is happy, then Egypt ought to be
+      reckoned as more fortunate under the feebler descendants of Ramses III.
+      than it had ever been under the most famous Pharaohs.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The mention of a tribute, for instance, in the time of
+     Ramses IV. from the Lotanu.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Thebes continued to be the favourite royal residence. Here in its temple
+      the kings were crowned, and in its palaces they passed the greater part of
+      their lives, and here in its valley of sepulchres they were laid to rest
+      when their reigns and lives were ended. The small city of the beginning of
+      the XVIIIth dynasty had long encroached upon the plain, and was now
+      transformed into an immense town, with magnificent monuments, and a motley
+      population, having absorbed in its extension the villages of Ashir�,* and
+      Madit, and even the southern Ap�t, which we now call Luxor. But their
+      walls could still be seen, rising up in the middle of modern
+      constructions, a memorial of the heroic ages, when the power of the Theban
+      princes was trembling in the balance, and when conflicts with the
+      neighbouring barons or with the legitimate king were on the point of
+      breaking out at every moment.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The village of Ashir� was situated to the south of the
+     temple of Karnak, close to the temple of M�t. Its ruins,
+     containing the statues of Sokh�t collected by Amen�thes III.,
+     extend around the remains marked X in Mariette&rsquo;s plan.
+
+     * These are the walls which are generally regarded as
+     marking the sacred enclosure of the temples: an examination
+     of the ruins of Thebes shows us that, during the XXth and
+     XXIst dynasties, brick-built houses lay against these walls
+     both on the inner and outer sides, so that they must have
+     been half hidden by buildings, as are the ancient walls of
+     Paris at the present day.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The inhabitants of Ap�t retained their walls, which coincided almost
+      exactly with the boundary of Ns�ttau�, the great sanctuary of Amon; Ashir�
+      sheltered behind its ramparts the temple of M�t, while Ap�t-r�s�t
+      clustered around a building consecrated by Amen�thes III. to his divine
+      father, the lord of Thebes. Within the boundary walls of Thebes extended
+      whole suburbs, more or less densely populated and prosperous, through
+      which ran avenues of sphinxes connecting together the three chief boroughs
+      of which the sovereign city was composed. On every side might have been
+      seen the same collections of low grey huts, separated from each other by
+      some muddy pool where the cattle were wont to drink and the women to draw
+      water; long streets lined with high houses, irregularly shaped open
+      spaces, bazaars, gardens, courtyards, and shabby-looking palaces which,
+      while presenting a plain and unadorned exterior, contained within them the
+      refinements of luxury and the comforts of wealth. The population did not
+      exceed a hundred thousand souls,* reckoning a large proportion of
+      foreigners attracted hither by commerce or held as slaves.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Letronne, after having shown that we have no authentic
+     ancient document giving us the population, fixes it at
+     200,000 souls. My estimate, which is, if anything,
+     exaggerated, is based on the comparison of the area of
+     ancient Thebes and that of such modern towns as Shit, Girgeh
+     and Qina, whose populations are known for the last fifty
+     years from the census.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0021" id="linkCimage-0021">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/334.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="334.jpg Map: Thebes in the Xxth Dynasty " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The court of the Pharaoh drew to the city numerous provincials, who,
+      coming thither to seek their fortune, took up their abode there, planting
+      in the capital of Southern Egypt types from the north and the centre of
+      the country, as well as from Nubia and the Oases; such a continuous
+      infusion of foreign material into the ancient Theban stock gave rise to
+      families of a highly mixed character, in which all the various races of
+      Egypt were blended in the most capricious fashion. In every twenty
+      officers, and in the same number of ordinary officials, about half would
+      be either Syrians, or recently naturalised Nubians, or the descendants of
+      both, and among the citizens such names as Pakhari the Syrian, Palamnan�
+      the native of the Lebanon, Pinahs� the negro, Palasia� the Alasian,
+      preserved the indications of foreign origin.* A similar mixture of races
+      was found in other cities, and Memphis, Bubastis, Tanis, and Si�t must
+      have presented as striking an aspect in this respect as Thebes.** At
+      Memphis there were regular colonies of Phoenician, Canaanite, and Amorite
+      merchants sufficiently prosperous to have temples there to their national
+      gods, and influential enough to gain adherents to their religion from the
+      indigenous inhabitants. They worshipped Baal, An�ti. Baal-Zaphuna, and
+      Ashtoreth, side by side with Phtah, Nof�rt�m�, and Sokhit,*** and this
+      condition of things at Memphis was possibly paralleled elsewhere&mdash;as
+      at Tanis and Bubastis.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Among the forty-three individuals compromised in the
+     conspiracy against Ramses III. whose names have been
+     examined by D�v�ria, nine are foreigners, chiefly Semites,
+     and were so recognised by the Egyptians themselves&mdash;Adiram,
+     Balmahara, Garapusa, lun�ni the Libyan, Paiarisalama,
+     possibly the Jerusalemite, Nanaiu, possibly the Ninevite,
+     Palulca the Lycian, Qadendena, and Uarana or Naramu.
+
+     ** An examination of the stel� of Abydos shows the extent of
+     foreign influence in this city in the middle of the
+     XVIIIth dynasty.
+
+     *** These gods are mentioned in the preamble of a letter
+     written on the <i>verso</i> of the <i>Sallier Papyrus</i>. From the
+     mode in which they are introduced we may rightly infer that
+     they had, like the Egyptian gods who are mentioned with
+     them, their chapels at Memphis. A place in Memphis is called
+     &ldquo;the district called the district of the Kh�ti�&rdquo; is an
+     inscription of the IIIth year of A�, and shows that Hittites
+     were there by the side of Canaanites.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This blending of races was probably not so extensive in the country
+      districts, except in places where mercenaries were employed as garrisons;
+      but Sudanese or Hittite slaves, brought back by the soldiers of the ranks,
+      had introduced Ethiopian and Asiatic elements into many a family of the
+      fellah�n.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * One of the letters in the Great Bologna Papyrus treats of
+     a Syrian slave, employed as a cultivator at Hermopolis, who
+     had run away from his master.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      We have only to examine in any of our museums the statues of the Memphite
+      and Theban periods respectively, to see the contrast between the
+      individuals represented in them as far as regards stature and appearance.
+      Some members of the courts of the Ramessides stand out as genuine Semites
+      notwithstanding the disguise of their Egyptian names; and in the times of
+      Kheops and �sirtasen they would have been regarded as barbarians. Many of
+      them exhibit on their faces a blending of the distinctive features of one
+      or other of the predominant Oriental races of the time. Additional
+      evidence of a mixture of races is forthcoming when we examine with an
+      unbiased mind the mummies of the period, and the complexity of the new
+      elements introduced among the people by the political movements of the
+      later centuries is thus strongly confirmed. The new-comers had all been
+      absorbed and assimilated by the country, but the generations which arose
+      from this continual cross-breeding, while representing externally the
+      Egyptians of older epochs, in manners, language, and religion, were at
+      bottom something different, and the difference became the more accentuated
+      as the foreign elements increased. The people were thus gradually divested
+      of the character which had distinguished them before the conquest of
+      Syria; the dispositions and defects imported from without counteracted to
+      such an extent their own native dispositions and defects that all marks of
+      individuality were effaced and nullified. The race tended to become more
+      and more what it long continued to be afterwards,&mdash;a lifeless and
+      inert mass, without individual energy&mdash;endowed, it is true, with
+      patience, endurance, cheerfulness of temperament, and good nature, but
+      with little power of self-government, and thus forced to submit to foreign
+      masters who made use of it and oppressed it without pity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The upper classes had degenerated as much as the masses. The feudal nobles
+      who had expelled the Shepherds, and carried the frontiers of the empire to
+      the banks of the Euphrates, seemed to have expended their energies in the
+      effort, and to have almost ceased to exist. As long as Egypt was
+      restricted to the Nile valley, there was no such disproportion between the
+      power of the Pharaoh and that of his feudatories as to prevent the latter
+      from maintaining their privileges beside, and, when occasion arose, even
+      against the monarch. The conquest of Asia, while it compelled them either
+      to take up arms themselves or to send their troops to a distance,
+      accustomed them and their soldiers to a passive obedience. The maintenance
+      of a strict discipline in the army was the first condition of successful
+      campaigning at great distances from the mother country and in the midst of
+      hostile people, and the unquestioning respect which they had to pay to the
+      orders of their general prepared them for abject submission to the will of
+      their sovereign. To their bravery, moveover, they owed not only money and
+      slaves, but also necklaces and bracelets of honour, and distinctions and
+      offices in the Pharaonic administration. The king, in addition, neglected
+      no opportunity for securing their devotion to himself. He gave to them in
+      marriage his sisters, his daughters, his cousins, and any of the
+      princesses whom he was not compelled by law to make his own wives. He
+      selected from their harems nursing-mothers for his own sons, and this
+      choice established between him and them a foster relationship, which was
+      as binding among the Egyptians and other Oriental peoples as one of blood.
+      It was not even necessary for the establishment of this relation that the
+      foster-mother&rsquo;s connexion with the Pharaoh&rsquo;s son should be durable or even
+      effective: the woman had only to offer her breast to the child for a
+      moment, and this symbol was quite enough to make her his nurse&mdash;his
+      true <i>mon��t</i>. This fictitious fosterage was carried so far, that it
+      was even made use of in the case of youths and persons of mature age. When
+      an Egyptian woman wished to adopt an adult, the law prescribed that she
+      should offer him the breast, and from that moment he became her son. A
+      similar ceremony was prescribed in the case of men who wished to assume
+      the quality of male nurse&mdash;<i>mon��</i>&mdash;or even, indeed, of
+      female nurse&mdash;<i>mon��t</i>&mdash;like that of their wives; according
+      to which they were to place, it would seem, the end of one of their
+      fingers in the mouth of the child.* Once this affinity was established,
+      the fidelity of these feudal lords was established beyond question; and
+      their official duties to the sovereign were not considered as accomplished
+      when they had fulfilled their military obligations, for they continued to
+      serve him in the palace as they had served him on the field. Wherever the
+      necessities of the government called them&mdash;at Memphis, at Ramses, or
+      elsewhere&mdash;they assembled around the Pharaoh; like him they had their
+      palaces at Thebes, and when they died they were anxious to be buried there
+      beside him.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * These symbolical modes of adoption were first pointed out
+     by Maspero. Legend has given examples of them: as, for
+     instance, where Isis fosters the child of Malkander, King of
+     Byblos, by inserting the tip of her finger in its mouth.
+
+     ** The tomb of a prince of Tob��, the lesser Aphroditopolis,
+     was discovered at Thebes by Maspero. The rock-out tombs of
+     two Thinite princes were noted in the same necropolis. These
+     two were of the time of Th�tmosis III. I have remarked in
+     tombs not yet made public the mention of princes of El-Kab,
+     who played an important part about the person of the
+     Pharaohs down to the beginning of the XXth dynasty.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Many of the old houses had become extinct, while others, owing to
+      marriages, were absorbed into the royal family; the fiefs conceded to the
+      relations or favourites of the Pharaoh continued to exist, indeed, as of
+      old, but the ancient distrustful and turbulent feudality had given place
+      to an aristocracy of courtiers, who lived oftener in attendance on the
+      monarch than on their own estates, and whose authority continued to
+      diminish to the profit of the absolute rule of the king. There would be
+      nothing astonishing in the &ldquo;count&rdquo; becoming nothing more than a governor,
+      hereditary or otherwise, in Thebes itself; he could hardly be anything
+      higher in the capital of the empire.* But the same restriction of
+      authority was evidenced in all the provinces: the recruiting of soldiers,
+      the receipt of taxes, most of the offices associated with the civil or
+      military administration, became more and more affairs of the State, and
+      passed from the hands of the feudal lord into those of the functionaries
+      of the Crown. The few barons who still lived on their estates, while they
+      were thus dispossessed of the greater part of their prerogatives, obtained
+      some compensation, on the other hand, on the side of religion. From early
+      times they had been by birth the heads of the local cults, and their
+      protocol had contained, together with those titles which justified their
+      possession of the temporalities of the nome, others which attributed to
+      them spiritual supremacy. The sacred character with which they were
+      invested became more and more prominent in proportion as their political
+      influence became curtailed, and we find scions of the old warlike families
+      or representatives of a new lineage at Thinis, at Akhm�m,** in the nome of
+      Baal�, at Hier�conpolis,*** at El-Kab,**** and in every place where we
+      have information from the monuments as to their position, bestowing more
+      concern upon their sacerdotal than on their other duties.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * Rakhmir� and his son Manakhpirsonb� were both &ldquo;counts &ldquo;of
+     Thebes under Th�tmosis III., and there is nothing to show
+     that there was any other person among them invested with the
+     same functions and belonging to a different family.
+
+     ** For example, the tomb of Anh�rim�s�, high priest of
+     Anhuri-Sh� and prince of Thinis, under M�nephtah, where the
+     sacerdotal character is almost exclusively prominent. The
+     same is the case with the tombs of the princes of Akhm�m in
+     the time of Kh�niaton� and his successors: the few still
+     existing in 1884-5 have not been published. The stel�
+     belonging to them are at Paris and Berlin.
+
+     *** Horim�s�, Prince of Hier�conpolis under Th�tmosis III.,
+     is, above everything else, a prophet of the local Horus.
+
+     **** The princes of El-Kab during the XIXth and XXth
+     dynasties were, before everything, priests of Nekhabit, as
+     appears from an examination of their tombs, which, lying in
+     a side valley, far away from the tomb of Pihir�, are rarely
+     visited.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This transfiguration of the functions of the barons, which had been
+      completed under the XIXth and XXth dynasties, corresponded with a more
+      general movement by which the Pharaohs themselves were driven to
+      accentuate their official position as high priests, and to assign to their
+      sons sacerdotal functions in relation to the principal deities. This
+      rekindling of religious fervour would not, doubtless, have restrained
+      military zeal in case of war;* but if it did not tend to suppress entirely
+      individual bravery, it discouraged the taste for arms and for the bold
+      adventures which had characterised the old feudality.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The sons of Ramses II., Kh�mo�s�t and Mar�t�m�, were bravo
+     warriors in spite of their being high priests of Phtah at
+     Memphis, and of R� at Heliopolis.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The duties of sacrificing, of offering prayer, of celebrating the sacred
+      rites according to the prescribed forms, and rendering due homage to the
+      gods in the manner they demanded, were of such an exactingly scrupulous
+      and complex character that the Pharaohs and the lords of earlier times had
+      to assign them to men specially fitted for, and appointed to, the task;
+      now that they had assumed these absorbing functions themselves, they were
+      obliged to delegate to others an increasingly greater proportion of their
+      civil and military duties. Thus, while the king and his great vassals were
+      devoutly occupying themselves in matters of worship and theology, generals
+      by profession were relieving them of the care of commanding their armies;
+      and as these individuals were frequently the chiefs of Ethiopian, Asiatic,
+      and especially of Libyan bands, military authority, and, with it,
+      predominant influence in the State were quickly passing into the hands of
+      the barbarians. A sort of aristocracy of veterans, notably of Shardana or
+      Mashauasha, entirely devoted to arms, grew up and increased gradually side
+      by side with the ancient noble families, now by preference devoted to the
+      priesthood.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This military aristocracy was fully developed in the XXIst
+     and XXIInd dynasties, but it began to take shape after
+     Ramses III. had planted the Shardana and Qahaka in certain
+     towns as garrisons.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The barons, whether of ancient or modern lineage, were possessed of
+      immense wealth, especially those of priestly families. The tribute and
+      spoil of Asia and Africa, when once it had reached Egypt, hardly ever left
+      it: they were distributed among the population in proportion to the
+      position occupied by the recipients in the social scale. The commanders of
+      the troops, the attendants on the king, the administrators of the palace
+      and temples, absorbed the greater part, but the distribution was carried
+      down to the private soldier and his relations in town or country, who
+      received some of the crumbs. When we remember for a moment the four
+      centuries and more during which Egypt had been reaping the fruits of her
+      foreign conquest, we cannot think without amazement of the quantities of
+      gold and other precious metals which must have been brought in divers
+      forms into the valley of the Nile.* Every fresh expedition made additions
+      to these riches, and one is at a loss to know whence in the intervals
+      between two defeats the conquered could procure so much wealth, and why
+      the sources were never exhausted nor became impoverished. This flow of
+      metals had an influence upon commercial transactions, for although trade
+      was still mainly carried on by barter, the mode of operation was becoming
+      changed appreciably. In exchanging commodities, frequent use was now made
+      of rings and ingots of a certain prescribed weight in <i>tabon�</i>; and
+      it became more and more the custom to pay for goods by a certain number of
+      <i>tabon�</i> of gold, silver, or copper, rather than by other
+      commodities: it was the practice even to note down in invoices or in the
+      official receipts, alongside the products or manufactured articles with
+      which payments were made, the value of the same in weighed metal.**
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The quantity of gold in ingots or rings, mentioned in the
+     <i>Annals of Tkutmosis III.</i>, represents altogether a weight
+     of nearly a ton and a quarter, or in value some �140,000 of
+     our money. And this is far from being the whole of the metal
+     obtained from the enemy, for a large portion of the
+     inscription has disappeared, and the unrecorded amount might
+     be taken, without much risk of error, at as much as that of
+     which we have evidence&mdash;say, some two and a half tons,
+     which Th�tmosis had received or brought back between the
+     years XXIII. and XLII. of his reign&mdash;an estimation rather
+     under than over the reality. These figures, moreover, take
+     no account of the vessels and statues, or of the furniture
+     and arms plated with gold. Silver was not received in such
+     large quantities, but it was of great value, and the like
+     may be said of copper and lead.
+
+     * The facts justifying this position were observed and put
+     together for the first time by Chabas: a translation is
+     given in his memoir of a register of the XXth or XXIst
+     dynasty, which gives the price of butcher&rsquo;s meat, both in
+     gold and silver, at this date. Fresh examples have been
+     since collected by Spiegelberg, who has succeeded in drawing
+     up a kind of tariff for the period between the XVIIIth and
+     XXth dynasties.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This custom, although not yet widely extended, placed at the disposal of
+      trade enormous masses of metal, which were preserved in the form of ingots
+      or bricks, except the portion which went to the manufacture of rings,
+      jewellery, or valuable vessels.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are depicted on the monuments bags or heaps of gold
+     dust, ingots in the shape of bricks, rings, and vases,
+     arranged alongside each other.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The general prosperity encouraged a passion for goldsmith&rsquo;s work, and the
+      use of bracelets, necklaces, and chains became common among classes of the
+      people who were not previously accustomed to wear them. There was
+      henceforward no scribe or merchant, however poor he might be, who had not
+      his seal made of gold or silver, or at any rate of copper gilt. The stone
+      was sometimes fixed, but frequently arranged so as to turn round on a
+      pivot; while among people of superior rank it had some emblem or device
+      upon it, such as a scorpion, a sparrow-hawk, a lion, or a cynocephalous
+      monkey. Chains occupied the same position among the ornaments of Egyptian
+      women as rings among men; they were indispensable decorations. Examples of
+      silver chains are known of some five feet in length, while others do not
+      exceed two to three inches. There are specimens in gold of all sizes,
+      single, double, and triple, with large or small links, some thick and
+      heavy, while others are as slight and flexible as the finest Venetian
+      lace. The poorest peasant woman, alike with the lady of the court, could
+      boast of the possession of a chain, and she must have been in dire poverty
+      who had not some other ornament in her jewel-case. The jewellery of Queen
+      �hhotp� shows to what degree of excellence the work of the Egyptian
+      goldsmiths had attained at the time of the expulsion of the Nyks�s: they
+      had not only preserved the good traditions of the best workmen of the
+      XIIth dynasty, but they had perfected the technical details, and had
+      learned to combine form and colour with a greater skill. The pectorals of
+      Prince Kh�mo�s�t and the Lord Psaru,now in the Louvre, but which were
+      originally placed in the tomb of the Apis in the time of Ramses II., are
+      splendid examples.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0022" id="linkCimage-0022">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:35%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/345.jpg"
+       alt="345.jpg Pectoral of Ramses II. " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from the jewel in the
+Louvre.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The most common form of these represents in miniature the front of a
+      temple with a moulded or flat border, surmounted by a curved cornice. In
+      one of them, which was doubtless a present from the king himself, the
+      cartouche, containing the first name of the Pharaoh-Usirmari, appears just
+      below the frieze, and serves as a centre for the design within the frame.
+      The wings of the ram-headed sparrow-hawk, the emblem of Amonr�, are so
+      displayed as to support it, while a large urseus and a vulture beneath
+      embracing both the sparrow-hawk and the cartouche with outspread wings
+      give the idea of divine protection. Two <i>did�</i>, each of them filling
+      one of the lower corners, symbolise duration. The framework of the design
+      is made up of divisions marked out in gold, and filled either with
+      coloured enamels or pieces of polished stone. The general effect is one of
+      elegance, refinement, and harmony, the three principal elements of the
+      design becoming enlarged from the top downwards in a deftly adjusted
+      gradation. The dead-gold of the cartouche in the upper centre is set off
+      below by the brightly variegated and slightly undulating band of colours
+      of the sparrow-hawk, while the urseus and vulture, associated together
+      with one pair of wings, envelope the upper portions in a half-circle of
+      enamels, of which the shades pass from red through green to a dull blue,
+      with a freedom of handling and a skill in the manipulation of colour which
+      do honour to the artist. It was not his fault if there is still an element
+      of stiffness in the appearance of the pectoral as a whole, for the form
+      which religious tradition had imposed upon the jewel was so rigid that no
+      artifice could completely get over this defect. It is a type which arose
+      out of the same mental concepts as had given birth to Egyptian
+      architecture and sculpture&mdash;monumental in character, and appearing
+      often as if designed for colossal rather than ordinary beings. The
+      dimensions, too overpowering for the decoration of normal men or women,
+      would find an appropriate place only on the breasts of gigantic statues:
+      the enormous size of the stone figures to which alone they are adapted
+      would relieve them, and show them in their proper proportions. The artists
+      of the second Theban empire tried all they could, however, to get rid of
+      the square framework in which the sacred bird is enclosed, and we find
+      examples among the pectorals in the Louvre of the sparrow-hawk only with
+      curved wings, or of the ram-headed hawk with the wings extended; but in
+      both of them there is displayed the same brilliancy, the same purity of
+      line, as in the square-shaped jewels, while the design, freed from the
+      trammels of the hampering enamelled frame, takes on a more graceful form,
+      and becomes more suitable for personal decoration.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0023" id="linkCimage-0023">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/347.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="347.jpg the Ram-headed Sparrow-hawk in The Louvre " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a jewel in the Louvre.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0024" id="linkCimage-0024">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/348.jpg" alt="348.jpg Decorated Armchair " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-Gudin,
+from one of these
+objects in the
+tomb of Ramses III.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0025" id="linkCimage-0025">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <img width="100%" src="images/349.jpg" alt="349.jpg Egyptian Wig " />
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+Drawn by Faucher-
+Gudin, from a
+photograph by
+M. de Mertens.
+</pre>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The ram&rsquo;s head in the second case excels in the beauty of its workmanship
+      anything to be found elsewhere in the museums of Europe or Egypt. It is of
+      the finest gold, but its value does not depend upon the precious material:
+      the ancient engraver knew how to model it with a bold and free hand, and
+      he has managed to invest it with as much dignity as if he had been carving
+      his subject in heroic size out of a block of granite or limestone. It is
+      not an example of pure industrial art, but of an art for which a
+      designation is lacking. Other examples, although more carefully executed
+      and of more costly materials, do not approach it in value: such, for
+      instance, are the earrings of Ramses XII. at G�zeh, which are made up of
+      an ostentatious combination of disks, filigree-work, chains, beads, and
+      hanging figures of the urseus.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To get an idea of the character of the plate on the royal sideboards, we
+      must have recourse to the sculptures in the temples, or to the paintings
+      on the tombs: the engraved gold or silver centrepieces, dishes, bowls,
+      cups, and amphoras, if valued by weight only, were too precious to escape
+      the avarice of the impoverished generations which followed the era of
+      Theban prosperity. In the fabrication of these we can trace foreign
+      influences, but not to the extent of a predominance over native art: even
+      if the subject to be dealt with by the artist happened to be a Phoenician
+      god or an Asiatic prisoner, he was not content with slavishly copying his
+      model; he translated it and interpreted it, so as to give it an Egyptian
+      character.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The household furniture was in keeping with these precious objects. Beds
+      and armchairs in valuable woods, inlaid with ivory, carved, gilt, painted
+      in subdued and bright colours, upholstered with mattresses and cushions of
+      many-hued Asiatic stuffs, or of home-made materials, fashioned after
+      Chald�an patterns, were in use among the well-to-do, while people of
+      moderate means had to be content with old-fashioned furniture of the
+      ancient regime.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Theban dwelling-house was indeed more sumptuously furnished than the
+      earliest Memphite, but we find the same general arrangements in both,
+      which provided, in addition to quarters for the masters, a similar number
+      of rooms intended for the slaves, for granaries, storehouses, and stables.
+      While the outward decoration of life was subject to change, the inward
+      element remained unaltered. Costume was a more complex matter than in
+      former times: the dresses and lower garments were more gauffered, had more
+      embroidery and stripes; the wigs were larger and longer, and rose up in
+      capricious arrangements of curls and plaits.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The use of the chariot had now become a matter of daily custom, and the
+      number of domestics, already formidable, was increased by fresh additions
+      in the shape of coachmen, grooms, and <i>saises</i>, who ran before their
+      master to clear a way for the horses through the crowded streets of the
+      city.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The pictures at Tel el-Amarna exhibit the king, queen, and
+     princesses driving in their chariots with escorts of
+     soldiers and runners. We often find in the tomb-paintings
+     the chariot and coachman of some dignitary, waiting while
+     their master inspects a field or a workshop, or while he is
+     making a visit to the palace for some reward.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      As material, existence became more complex, intellectual life partook of
+      the same movement, and, without deviating much from the lines prescribed
+      for it by the learned and the scribes of the Memphite age, literature had
+      become in the mean time larger, more complicated, more exacting, and more
+      difficult to grapple with and to master. It had its classical authors,
+      whose writings were committed to memory and taught in the schools. These
+      were truly masterpieces, for if some felt that they understood and enjoyed
+      them, others found them almost beyond their comprehension, and complained
+      bitterly of their obscurity. The later writers followed them pretty
+      closely, in taking pains, on the one hand to express fresh ideas in the
+      forms consecrated by approved and ancient usage, or when they failed to
+      find adequate vehicles to convey new thoughts, resorting in their lack of
+      imagination to the foreigner for the requisite expressions. The necessity
+      of knowing at least superficially, something of the dialect and writings
+      of Asia compelled the Egyptian scribes to study to some degree the
+      literature of Phonecia and of Chald�a.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0026" id="linkCimage-0026">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/350.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="350.jpg Page Image With Furniture " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from photographs of the objects in
+     the Museums of Berlin and G�zeh.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      From these sources they had borrowed certain formulae and incantation,
+      medical recipes, and devout legends, in which the deities of Assyria and
+      especially Astart� played the chief part. They appropriated in this manner
+      a certain number of words and phrases with which they were accustomed to
+      interlard their discourses and writings. They thought it polite to call a
+      door no longer by the word <i>ro</i>, but the term <i>tira</i>, and to
+      accompany themselves no longer with the harp <i>bordt</i>, but with the
+      same instrument under its new name <i>kinn�r</i>, and to make the <i>sal�m</i>
+      in saluting the sovereign in place of crying before him, <i>aa�</i>. They
+      were thorough-going Semiticisers; but one is less offended by their
+      affectation when one considers that the number of captives in the country,
+      and the intermarriages with Canaanite women, had familiarised a portion of
+      the community from childhood with the sounds and ideas of the languages
+      from which the scribes were accustomed to borrow unblushingly. This
+      artifice, if it served to infuse an appearance of originality into their
+      writings, had no influence upon their method of composition. Their
+      poetical ideal remained what it had been in the time of their ancestors,
+      but seeing that we are now unable to determine the characteristic cadence
+      of sentences or the mental attitude which marked each generation of
+      literary men, it is often difficult for us to find out the qualities in
+      their writings which gave them popularity. A complete library of one of
+      the learned in the Ramesside period must have contained a strange mixture
+      of works, embracing, in addition to books of devotion, which were
+      indispensable to those who were solicitous about their souls,* collections
+      of hymns, romances, war and love songs, moral and philosophical treatises,
+      letters, and legal documents.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * There are found in the rubrics of many religious books,
+     for example that dealing with the unseen world, promises of
+     health and prosperity to the soul which, &ldquo;while still on
+     earth,&rdquo; had read and learned them. A similar formula appears
+     at the end of several important chapters of the <i>Book of the
+     Dead.</i>
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      It would have been similar in character to the literary-possessions of an
+      Egyptian of the Memphite period,* but the language in which it was written
+      would not have been so stiff and dry, but would have flowed more easily,
+      and been more sustained and better balanced.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The composition of these libraries may be gathered from
+     the collections of papyri which have turned up from time to
+     time, and have been sold by the Arabs to Europeans buyers;
+     e.g. the Sallier Collection, the Anastasi Collections, and
+     that of Harris. They have found their way eventually into
+     the British Museum or the Museum at Leyden, and have been
+     published in the <i>Select Papyri</i> of the former, or in the
+     <i>Monuments �gyptiens</i> of the latter.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The great odes to the deities which we find in the Theban <i>papyri</i>
+      are better fitted, perhaps, than the profane compositions of the period,
+      to give us an idea of the advance which Egyptian genius had made in the
+      width and richness of its modes of expression, while still maintaining
+      almost the same dead-level of idea which had characterised it from the
+      outset. Among these, one dedicated to Harmakhis, the sovereign sun, is no
+      longer restricted to a bare enumeration of the acts and virtues of the
+      &ldquo;Disk,&rdquo; but ventures to treat of his daily course and his final triumphs
+      in terms which might have been used in describing the victorious campaigns
+      or the apotheosis of a Pharaoh. It begins with his awakening, at the
+      moment when he has torn himself away from the embraces of night. Standing
+      upright in the cabin of the divine bark, &ldquo;the fair boat of millions of
+      years,&rdquo; with the coils of the serpent Mihni around him, he glides in
+      silence on the eternal current of the celestial waters, guided and
+      protected by those battalions of secondary deities with whose odd forms
+      the monuments have made us familiar. &ldquo;Heaven is in delight, the earth is
+      in joy, gods and men are making festival, to render glory to
+      Phr�-Harmakhis, when they see him arise in his bark, having overturned his
+      enemies in his own time!&rdquo; They accompany him from hour to hour, they fight
+      the good fight with him against Apopi, they shout aloud as he inflicts
+      each fresh wound upon the monster: they do not even abandon him when the
+      west has swallowed him up in its darkness.* Some parts of the hymn remind
+      us, in the definiteness of the imagery and in the abundance of detail, of
+      a portion of the poem of Penta��r�t, or one of those inscriptions of
+      Ramses III. wherein he celebrates the defeat of hordes of Asiatics or
+      Libyans.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The remains of Egyptian romantic literature have been
+     collected and translated into French by Maspero, and
+     subsequently into English by Flinders Petrie.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The Egyptians took a delight in listening to stories. They preferred tales
+      which dealt with the marvellous and excited their imagination, introducing
+      speaking animals, gods in disguise, ghosts and magic. One of them tells of
+      a king who was distressed because he had no heir, and had no sooner
+      obtained the favour he desired from the gods, than the Seven Hathors, the
+      mistresses of Fate, destroyed his happiness by predicting that the child
+      would meet with his death by a serpent, a dog, or a crocodile. Efforts
+      were made to provide against such a fatality by shutting him up in a
+      tower; but no sooner had he grown to man&rsquo;s estate, than he procured
+      himself a dog, went off to wander through the world, and married the
+      daughter of the Prince of Naharaim. His fate meets him first under the
+      form of a serpent, which is killed by his wife; he is next assailed by a
+      crocodile, and the dog kills the crocodile, but as the oracles must be
+      fulfilled, the brute turns and despatches his master without further
+      consideration. Another story describes two brothers, An�p� and Biti�, who
+      live happily together on their farm till the wife of the elder falls in
+      love with the younger, and on his repulsing her advances, she accuses him
+      to her husband of having offered her violence. The virtue of the younger
+      brother would not have availed him much, had not his animals warned him of
+      danger, and had not Phr�-Harmakhis surrounded him at the critical moment
+      with a stream teeming with crocodiles. He mutilates himself to prove his
+      innocence, and announces that henceforth he will lead a mysterious
+      existence far from mankind; he will retire to the Valley of the Acacia,
+      place his heart on the topmost flower of the tree, and no one will be able
+      with impunity to steal it from him. The gods, however, who frequent this
+      earth take pity on his loneliness, and create for him a wife of such
+      beauty that the Nile falls in love with her, and steals a lock of her
+      hair, which is carried by its waters down into Egypt. Pharaoh finds the
+      lock, and, intoxicated by its scent, commands his people to go in quest of
+      the owner. Having discovered the lady, Pharaoh marries her, and
+      ascertaining from her who she is, he sends men to cut down the Acacia, but
+      no sooner has the flower touched the earth, than Biti� droops and dies.
+      The elder brother is made immediately acquainted with the fact by means of
+      various prodigies. The wine poured out to him becomes troubled, his beer
+      leaves a deposit. He seizes his shoes and staff and sets out to find the
+      heart.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      After a search of seven years he discovers it, and reviving it in a vase
+      of water, he puts it into the mouth of the corpse, which at once returns
+      to life. Biti�, from this moment, seeks only to be revenged. He changes
+      himself into the bull Apis, and, on being led to court, he reproaches the
+      queen with the crime she has committed against him. The queen causes his
+      throat to be cut; two drops of his blood fall in front of the gate of the
+      palace, and produce in the night two splendid &ldquo;Persea&rdquo; trees, which renew
+      the accusation in a loud voice. The queen has them cut down, but a chip
+      from one of them flies into her mouth, and ere long she gives birth to a
+      child who is none other than a reincarnation of Biti�. When the child
+      succeeds to the Pharaoh, he assembles his council, reveals himself to
+      them, and punishes with death her who was first his wife and subsequently
+      his mother. The hero moves throughout the tale without exhibiting any
+      surprise at the strange incidents in which he takes part, and, as a matter
+      of fact, they did not seriously outrage the probabilities of contemporary
+      life. In every town sorcerers could be found who knew how to transform
+      themselves into animals or raise the dead to life: we have seen how the
+      accomplices of Penta��r�t had recourse to spells in order to gain
+      admission to the royal palace when they desired to rid themselves of
+      Ramses III. The most extravagant romances differed from real life merely
+      in collecting within a dozen pages more miracles than were customarily
+      supposed to take place in the same number of years; it was merely the
+      multiplicity of events, and not the events themselves, that gave to the
+      narrative its romantic and improbable character. The rank of the heroes
+      alone raised the tale out of the region of ordinary life; they are always
+      the sons of kings, Syrian princes, or Pharaohs; sometimes we come across a
+      vague and undefined Pharaoh, who figures under the title of P�r����i or
+      Pr��ti, but more often it is a well-known and illustrious Pharaoh who is
+      mentioned by name. It is related how, one day, Kheops, suffering from <i>ennui</i>
+      within his palace, assembled his sons in the hope of learning from them
+      something which he did not already know. They described to him one after
+      another the prodigies performed by celebrated magicians under Kanibri and
+      Snofr�i; and at length Mykerinos assured him that there was a certain
+      Didi, living then not far from Me�dum, who was capable of repeating all
+      the marvels done by former wizards. Most of the Egyptian sovereigns were,
+      in the same way, subjects of more or less wonderful legends&mdash;Sesostris,
+      Amen�thes III., Th�fcmosis III., Amenemh��t I., Kh�ti, Sah�r�, Usirkaf,
+      and Kaki�. These stories were put into literary shape by the learned,
+      recited by public story-tellers, and received by the people as authentic
+      history; they finally filtered into the writings of the chroniclers, who,
+      in introducing them into the annals, filled up with their extraordinary
+      details the lacun� of authentic tradition. Sometimes the narrative assumed
+      a briefer form, and became an apologue. In one of them the members of the
+      body were supposed to have combined against the head, and disputed its
+      supremacy before a jury; the parties all pleaded their cause in turn, and
+      judgment was given in due form.*
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * This version of the <i>Fable of the Members and the Stomach</i>
+     was discovered upon a schoolboy&rsquo;s tablet at Turin.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      Animals also had their place in this universal comedy. The passions or the
+      weaknesses of humanity were attributed to them, and the narrator makes the
+      lion, rat, or jackal to utter sentiments from which he draws some short
+      practical moral. La Fontaine had predecessors on the banks of the Nile of
+      whose existence he little dreamed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0027" id="linkCimage-0027">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/357.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="357.jpg the Cat and The Jackal Go off to The Fields With Their Flocks Drawn by Faucher-gudin, from Lepsius. " />
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As La Fontaine found an illustrator in Granville, so, too, in Egypt the
+      draughtsman brought his reed to the aid of the fabulist, and by his
+      cleverly executed sketches gave greater point to the sarcasm of story than
+      mere words could have conveyed. Where the author had briefly mentioned
+      that the jackal and the cat had cunningly forced their services on the
+      animals whom they wished to devour at their leisure, the artist would
+      depict the jackal and the cat equipped as peasants, with wallets on their
+      backs, and sticks over their shoulders, marching behind a troup of
+      gazelles or a flock of fat geese: it was easy to foretell the fate of
+      their unfortunate charges. Elsewhere it is an ox who brings up before his
+      master a cat who has cheated him, and his proverbial stupidity would
+      incline us to think that he will end by being punished himself for the
+      misdeeds of which he had accused the other. Puss&rsquo;s sly and artful
+      expression, the ass-headed and important-looking judge, with the wand and
+      costume of a high and mighty dignitary, give pungency to the story, and
+      recall the daily scenes at the judgment-seat of the lord of Thebes. In
+      another place we see a donkey, a lion, a crocodile, and a monkey giving an
+      instrumental and vocal concert.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0028" id="linkCimage-0028">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/358.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="358.jpg the Cat Before Its Judge " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      A lion and a gazelle play a game of chess. A cat of fashion, with a flower
+      in her hair, has a disagreement with a goose: they have come to blows, and
+      the excitable puss, who fears she will come off worst in the struggle,
+      falls backwards in a fright. The draughtsmen having once found vent for
+      their satire, stopped at nothing, and even royalty itself did not escape
+      their attacks. While the writers of the day made fun of the military
+      calling, both in prose and verse, the caricaturists parodied the combats
+      and triumphal scenes of the Ramses or Thutmosis of the day depicted on the
+      walls of the pylons. The Pharaoh of all the rats, perched upon a chariot
+      drawn by dogs, bravely charges an army of cats; standing in the heroic
+      attitude of a conqueror, he pierces them with his darts, while his horses
+      tread the fallen underfoot; his legions meanwhile in advance of him attack
+      a fort defended by tomcats, with the same ardour that the Egyptian
+      battalions would display in assaulting a Syrian stronghold.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <a name="linkCimage-0029" id="linkCimage-0029">
+      <!-- IMG --></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+      <img src="images/359.jpg" width="100%"
+       alt="359.jpg a Concert of Animals Devoted to Music " />
+    </div>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Lepsius.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      This treatment of ethics did not prevent the Egyptian writers from giving
+      way to their natural inclinations, and composing large volumes on this
+      subject after the manner of Kaq�mni or Phtahhotp�. One of their books, in
+      which the aged Ani inscribes his Instructions to his son, Khonshotp�, is
+      compiled in the form of a dialogue, and contains the usual commonplaces
+      upon virtue, temperance, piety, the respect due to parents from children,
+      or to the great ones of this world from their inferiors. The language in
+      which it is written is ingenious, picturesque, and at times eloquent; the
+      work explains much that is obscure in Egyptian life, and upon which the
+      monuments have thrown no light. &ldquo;Beware of the woman who goes out
+      surreptitiously in her town, do not follow her or any like her, do not
+      expose thyself to the experience of what it costs a man to face an Ocean
+      of which the bounds are unknown.* The wife whose husband is far from home
+      sends thee letters, and invites thee to come to her daily when she has no
+      witnesses; if she succeeds in entangling thee in her net, it is a crime
+      which is punishable by death as soon as it is known, even if no wicked act
+      has taken place, for men will commit every sort of crime when under this
+      temptation alone.&rdquo;
+     </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * I have been obliged to paraphrase the sentence
+     considerably to render it intelligible to the modern reader.
+     The Egyptian text says briefly: &ldquo;Do not know the man who
+     braves the water of the Ocean whose bounds are unknown.&ldquo;<i>To
+     know the man</i> means here <i>know the state of the man</i> who
+     does an action.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      &ldquo;Be not quarrelsome in breweries, for fear that thou mayest be denounced
+      forthwith for words which have proceeded from thy mouth, and of having
+      spoken that of which thou art no longer conscious. Thou fallest, thy
+      members helpless, and no one holds out a hand to thee, but thy
+      boon-companions around thee say: &lsquo;Away with the drunkard!&rsquo; Thou art wanted
+      for some business, and thou art found rolling on the ground like an
+      infant.&rdquo; In speaking of what a man owes to his mother, Ani waxes eloquent:
+      &ldquo;When she bore thee as all have to bear, she had in thee a heavy burden
+      without being able to call on thee to share it. When thou wert born, after
+      thy months were fulfilled, she placed herself under a yoke in earnest, her
+      breast was in thy mouth for three years; in spite of the increasing
+      dirtiness of thy habits, her heart felt no disgust, and she never said:
+      &lsquo;What is that I do here?&rsquo; When thou didst go to school to be instructed in
+      writing, she followed thee every day with bread and beer from thy house.
+      Now thou art a full-grown man, thou hast taken a wife, thou hast provided
+      thyself with a house; bear always in mind the pains of thy birth and the
+      care for thy education that thy mother lavished on thee, that her anger
+      may not rise up against thee, and that she lift not her hands to God, for
+      he will hear her complaint!&rdquo; The whole of the book does not rise to this
+      level, but we find in it several maxims which appear to be popular
+      proverbs, as for instance: &ldquo;He who hates idleness will come without being
+      called;&rdquo; &ldquo;A good walker comes to his journey&rsquo;s end without needing to
+      hasten;&rdquo; or, &ldquo;The ox which goes at the head of the flock and leads the
+      others to pasture is but an animal like his fellows.&rdquo; Towards the end, the
+      son Khonshotp�, weary of such a lengthy exhortation to wisdom, interrupts
+      his father roughly: &ldquo;Do not everlastingly speak of thy merits, I have
+      heard enough of thy deeds;&rdquo; whereupon Ani resignedly restrains himself
+      from further speech, and a final parable gives us the motive of his
+      resignation: &ldquo;This is the likeness of the man who knows the strength of
+      his arm. The nursling who is in the arms of his mother cares only for
+      being suckled; but no sooner has he found his mouth than he cries: &lsquo;Give
+      me bread!&rsquo;&rdquo;
+     </p>
+    <p>
+      It is, perhaps, difficult for us to imagine an Egyptian in love repeating
+      madrigals to his mistress,* for we cannot easily realise that the hard and
+      blackened bodies we see in our museums have once been men and women loving
+      and beloved in their own day.
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+     * The remains of Egyptian amatory literature have been
+     collected, translated, and commentated on by Maspero. They
+     have been preserved in two papyri, one of which is at Turin,
+     the other in the British Museum. The first of these appears
+     to be a sort of dialogue in which the trees of a garden
+     boast one after another of the beauty of a woman, and
+     discourse of the love-scenes which took place under their
+     shadow.
+</pre>
+    <p>
+      The feeling which they entertained one for another had none of the
+      reticence or delicacy of our love: they went straight to the point, and
+      the language in which, they expressed themselves is sometimes too coarse
+      for our taste. The manners and customs of daily life among the Egyptians
+      tended to blunt in them the feelings of modesty and refinement to which
+      our civilization has accustomed us. Their children went about without
+      clothes, or, at any rate, wore none until the age of puberty. Owing to the
+      climate, both men and women left the upper part of the body more or less
+      uncovered, or wore fabrics of a transparent nature. In the towns, the
+      servants who moved about their masters or his guests had merely a narrow
+      loin-cloth tied round their hips; while in the country, the peasants
+      dispensed with even this covering, and the women tucked up their garments
+      when at work so as to move more freely. The religious teaching and the
+      ceremonies connected with their worship drew the attention of the faithful
+      to the unveiled human form of their gods, and the hieroglyphs themselves
+      contained pictures which shock our sense of propriety. Hence it came about
+      that the young girl who was demanded in marriage had no idea, like the
+      maiden of to-day, of the vague delights of an ideal union. The physical
+      side was impressed upon her mind, and she was well aware of the full
+      meaning of her consent. Her lover, separated from her by her disapproving
+      parents, thus expresses the grief which overwhelms him: &ldquo;I desire to lie
+      down in my chamber,&mdash;for I am sick on thy account,&mdash;and the
+      neighbours come to visit me.&mdash;Ah! if my sister but came with them,&mdash;she
+      would show the physicians what ailed me,&mdash;for she knows my sickness!&rdquo;
+       Even while he thus complains, he sees her in his imagination, and his
+      spirit visits the places she frequents: &ldquo;The villa of my sister,&mdash;(a
+      pool is before the house),&mdash;the door opens suddenly,&mdash;and my
+      sister passes out in wrath.&mdash;Ah! why am I not the porter,&mdash;that
+      she might give me her orders!&mdash;I should at least hear her voice, even
+      were she angry,&mdash;and I, like a little boy, full of fear before her!&rdquo;
+       Meantime the young girl sighs in vain for &ldquo;her brother, the beloved of her
+      heart,&rdquo; and all that charmed her before has now ceased to please her. &ldquo;I
+      went to prepare my snare, my cage and the covert for my trap&mdash;for all
+      the birds of Pu�n�t alight upon Egypt, redolent with perfume;&mdash;he who
+      flies foremost of the flock is attracted by my worm, bringing odours from
+      Pu�n�t,&mdash;its claws full of incense.&mdash;But my heart is with thee,
+      and desires that we should trap them together,&mdash;I with thee, alone,
+      and that thou shouldest be able to hear the sad cry of my perfumed bird,&mdash;there
+      near to me, close to me, I will make ready my trap,&mdash;O my beautiful
+      friend, thou who goest to the field of the well-beloved!&rdquo; The latter,
+      however, is slow to appear, the day passes away, the evening comes on:
+      &ldquo;The cry of the goose resounds&mdash;which is caught by the worm-bait,&mdash;but
+      thy love removes me far from the bird, and I am unable to deliver myself
+      from it; I will carry off my net, and what shall I say to my mother,&mdash;when
+      I shall have returned to her?&mdash;Every day I come back laden with
+      spoil,&mdash;but to-day I have not been able to set my trap,&mdash;for thy
+      love makes me its prisoner!&rdquo; &ldquo;The goose flies away, alights,&mdash;it has
+      greeted the barns with its cry;&mdash;the flock of birds increases on the
+      river, but I leave them alone and think only of thy love,&mdash;for my
+      heart is bound to thy heart&mdash;and I cannot tear myself away from thy
+      beauty.&rdquo; Her mother probably gave her a scolding, but she hardly minds it,
+      and in the retirement of her chamber never wearies of thinking of her
+      brother, and of passionately crying for him: &ldquo;O my beautiful friend! I
+      yearn to be with thee as thy wife&mdash;and that thou shouldest go whither
+      thou wishest with thine arm upon my arm,&mdash;for then I will repeat to
+      my heart, which is in thy breast, my supplications.&mdash;If my great
+      brother does not come to-night,&mdash;I am as those who lie in the tomb&mdash;for
+      thou, art thou not health and life,&mdash;he who transfers the joys of thy
+      health to my heart which seeks thee?&rdquo; The hours pass away and he does not
+      come, and already &ldquo;the voice of the turtle-dove speaks,&mdash;it says:
+      &lsquo;Behold, the dawn is here, alas! what is to become of me?&rsquo; Thou, thou art
+      the bird, thou callest me,&mdash;and I find my brother in his chamber,&mdash;and
+      my heart is rejoiced to see him!&mdash;I will never go away again, my hand
+      will remain in thy hand,&mdash;and when I wander forth, I will go with
+      thee into the most beautiful places,&mdash;happy in that he makes me the
+      foremost of women&mdash;and that he does not break my heart.&rdquo; We should
+      like to quote the whole of it, but the text is mutilated, and we are
+      unable to fill in the blanks. It is, nevertheless, one of those products
+      of the Egyptian mind which it would have been easy for us to appreciate
+      from beginning to end, without effort and almost without explanation. The
+      passion in it finds expression in such sincere and simple language as to
+      render rhetorical ornament needless, and one can trace in it, therefore,
+      nothing of the artificial colouring which would limit it to a particular
+      place or time. It translates a universal sentiment into the common
+      language of humanity, and the hieroglyphic groups need only to be put into
+      the corresponding words of any modern tongue to bring home to the reader
+      their full force and intensity. We might compare it with those popular
+      songs which are now being collected in our provinces before the peasantry
+      have forgotten them altogether: the artlessness of some of the
+      expressions, the boldness of the imagery, the awkwardness and somewhat
+      abrupt character of some of the passages, communicate to both that wild
+      charm which we miss in the most perfect specimens of our modern
+      love-poets.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      END OF VOL. V. <br /> <br />
+    </p>
+<pre xml:space="preserve">
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chald�a, Syria,
+Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 5 (of 12), by G. Maspero
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALD�A ***
+
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